iv
v 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .............................................................................................................................. 1

CHAPTER 1 − THE VISION ......................................................................................................................... 3

The Cohesive Strategy Planning Process ................................................................................................ 4

Building the National Strategy .................................................................................................................. 5

CHAPTER 2 – NATIONAL AND REGIONAL CHARACTERIZATION........................................................ 9

Regional Characterization ........................................................................................................................ 9

National Characterization .......................................................................................................................14

Landscape Classes ................................................................................................................................14

Community Clusters ...............................................................................................................................18

Intersecting Landscape Classes and Community Clusters ....................................................................21

CHAPTER 3 – NATIONAL CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES........................................................23

Vegetation and Fuels..............................................................................................................................26

Homes, Communities, and Values at Risk .............................................................................................38

Human-caused Ignitions .........................................................................................................................43

Effective and Efficient Wildfire Response...............................................................................................47

CHAPTER 4 – THE NATIONAL STRATEGY ............................................................................................55

Risk Tradeoffs.........................................................................................................................................55

National Guidance ..................................................................................................................................57

National Priorities....................................................................................................................................59

CHAPTER 5 – IMPLEMENTATION ...........................................................................................................67

Strategic Alignment................................................................................................................................. 67

Communication and Collaborative Engagement ....................................................................................68

Programmatic Alignment ........................................................................................................................70

Conclusion ..............................................................................................................................................73

Appendix A: Acknowledgements – Committees, Councils, and Work Groups................................. 75

Appendix B: Cohesive Strategy Achievements, Resources and References ...................................83

Appendix C: Barriers and Success Factors..........................................................................................87

Appendix D: Glossary..............................................................................................................................91

Appendix E: Acronyms............................................................................................................................92
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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1. Vision, national goals, and national challenges.......................................................................... 6

Figure 2.1. Classification tree used to subdivide counties based on variables relevant to the topic of 

landscape classification...............................................................................................................15

Figure 2.2. Map of the geographical distribution of the 11 landscape classes across the conterminous 

United States. ..............................................................................................................................16

Figure 2.3. Visual summarization of the characteristic features of 11 landscape classes with respect to 

eight variables of interest. ...........................................................................................................17

Figure 2.4. Visual summarization of the characteristic features of eight community clusters with respect to 

six variables of interest................................................................................................................19

Figure 2.5. Spatial distribution of community clusters ................................................................................20

Figure 3.1. A simple conceptual model of wildfire ......................................................................................24

Figure 3.2. Historical fire regime group values in areas currently dominated by natural vegetation ..........28

Figure 3.3. Spatial distribution of the three management options suggested for maintaining or increasing 

the use of prescribed fire.............................................................................................................32

Figure 3.4. Spatial pattern of counties where options for managing wildfires for resource objectives and 

ecological purposes might prove useful ......................................................................................34

Figure 3.5. Spatial distribution of counties where mechanical, biological, or other non-fire treatments 

might be useful ............................................................................................................................36

Figure 3.6. Spatial distribution of counties where mechanical treatments of forested areas might be used 

as a precursor to expanded wildland fire use..............................................................................37

Figure 3.7. Bar chart showing the relative area burned, proportion of structures lost, and proportion of 

buildings involved for each of the eight community clusters. Data from 2002 to 2011. ..............40

Figure 3.8. Counties across the Nation where homes and other structures have been involved in wildfires, 

suggesting greater emphasis on actions by individual property owners.....................................41

Figure 3.9. Counties where community-level planning is most essential ...................................................41

Figure 3.10. Counties with higher than average rates of home construction and WUI growth where 

building ordinances might have a more positive effect on reducing home losses ......................42

Figure 3.11. Smoothed time trace of wildfire incidents reported and attributed to different causes 

throughout the United States, 2002 through 2011 ......................................................................43

Figure 3.12. Smoothed time trace of area burned from incidents attributed to different causes throughout 

the United States, 2002 through 2011.........................................................................................44

Figure 3.13. Spatial distribution of counties differentially affected by either high or low numbers of 

accidental ignitions and high or low area burned by accidental ignitions....................................45

Figure 3.14. Spatial distribution of counties differentially affected by either high or low numbers of 

incendiary ignitions and high or low area burned by incendiary ignitions. ..................................46

Figure 3.15. Relative frequency of occurrence of fires of concern during the period 2002 to 2011 ...........49

Figure 3.16. The relative risk of experiencing a wildfire..............................................................................50

Figure 3.17. Spatial pattern of counties where the numbers of structures lost per area burned is high 

relative to the area burned, vice versa, and where both indices are high...................................51

Figure 3.18. Spatial pattern of the intersection of counties with higher than normal numbers of buildings 

involved per incident with the relative numbers of accidental human ignitions...........................52

Figure 4.1. Three hypothetical scenarios for temporal trends in risk nationwide........................................56

Figure 4.2. Generalized relationship between the three national goals and the development of national 

priorities .......................................................................................................................................60

Figure 4.3. National priorities for broad-scale fuels management ..............................................................61

Figure 4.4. National priorities for community planning and coordination....................................................62

Figure 4.5. National priorities for managing human-caused ignitions.........................................................63
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Figure 4.6. Intersection of the large, long-duration wildfire potential with the opportunities map for 

managing wildfires for resource objectives .................................................................................64

Figure 5.1. Primary conservation partners in each county based on area managed by each entity..........71

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1.The number of counties within the conterminous 48 states that fall within each combination of 

community cluster and resiliency class .......................................................................................21

Table 3.1. High-priority barriers and critical success factors ......................................................................25

Table 3.2. Fire regime groups and descriptions..........................................................................................27

Table 3.3. Summary of management options .............................................................................................54

1

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

In the past two decades, a rapid escalation of extreme wildfire behavior, accompanied by significant 

increases in risk to responders and citizens, home and property losses, costs, and threats to communities 

and landscapes have been observed. In the Federal Land Assistance, Management, and Enhancement 

Act of 2009 (FLAME Act), Congress mandated the development of a national cohesive wildland fire 

management strategy to comprehensively address wildland fire management across all lands in the 

United States. Shortly after enactment of the FLAME Act, a 

three-phased, intergovernmental planning and analysis 

process involving stakeholders and the public was initiated 

and is commonly referred to as the Cohesive Strategy effort. 

The culmination of three-phases of planning and analysis is 

this National Strategy and a companion National Action Plan.

The National Strategy is the result of a collaborative effort by 

Federal, state, local, and tribal governments and nongovernmental partners and public stakeholders, in 

conjunction with scientific data analysis.

Achieving the national goals requires that the Nation address 

the broad challenges of: managing vegetation and fuels; 

protecting homes, communities, and other values at risk; 

managing human-caused ignitions; and effectively and 

efficiently responding to wildfire. The National Strategy 

describes how the Nation can focus future efforts in making strategic investments to reduce the severe 

effects of wildfire on areas of high risk. Multiple opportunities are available to meet today’s wildland fire 

challenges. No one-size-fits-all approach exists to address the challenges facing the Nation. Adopting any 

option involves spatial and temporal tradeoffs. Reducing long-term risk requires prioritization of 

investment and use of resources, acceptance of increased short-term risk, and greater collective 

investment. Management options allow policy and decision-makers to understand where each option is 

more likely to reduce risk. The National Strategy is not prescriptive in deciding which options to apply 

locally or regionally.

The National Strategy includes a set of guidelines intended to provide basic direction when planning 

activities. Broadly defined to address national challenges, these guidelines can be tailored to meet local 

and regional needs. Meeting the challenges requires priorities. Safe and effective response to wildfires is 

the highest priority of the National Strategy, and includes enhancing wildfire response preparedness with 

an emphasis on both structural protection and wildfire prevention to maximize the effectiveness of initial 

response. The second priority is vegetation and fuels management, and is perhaps the most challenging 

issue. General guidance in this area includes designing and prioritizing fuel treatments; strategically 

placing fuel treatments; increasing use of wildland fire for meeting resource objectives; and continuing 

and expanding the use of all methods to improve the resiliency of our forests and rangelands. The third 

priority involves engaging homeowners and communities in taking proactive action prior to wildfires. The 

fourth priority includes emphasizing programs and activities, tailored to meet identified local needs, which 

seek to prevent human-caused ignitions.

Cohesive Strategy vision for 

the next century:

To safely and effectively 

extinguish fire, when needed; 

use fire where allowable; 

manage our natural resources; 

and as a Nation, live with 

wildland fire.
2

Beyond general guidelines, the National Strategy also prioritizes where activities will be emphasized from 

a national perspective—based on the premise that planned actions have a greater likelihood of being

most effective and efficient in areas where conditions contributing to the issue are most severe. Four 

national maps provide the prioritized locations across the Nation for each of the national challenges. The 

maps are centered on geographic areas to be 

considered for broad-scale fuels management; 

programs related to homes, communities, and values at 

risk; actions for managing human-caused ignitions; and 

areas of focus for effective and efficient wildfire 

response. The intent of the fourth map is to suggest

areas where greater flexibility in the management of 

large wildfires might be effective.

The National Strategy sets broad, strategic, and 

national-level direction as a foundation for implementing

actions and activities across the Nation. Three components, intended to be conducted concurrently, are 

necessary for implementing the National Strategy:

• strategic alignment, where all parties agree to the same goals, principles, and strategic course of 

action; 

• collaborative engagement, which includes governance, shared information and resources, 

communications, and monitoring and accountability; and 

• programmatic alignment, where individual agency or organization objectives are explicitly supportive 

of the national cohesive strategy goals.

The Cohesive Strategy effort, including this National Strategy and the many other milestones achieved

over the last 3 years, collectively establishes a national vision for wildland fire management, defines three 

national goals, describes the wildland fire challenges, identifies opportunities to reduce wildfire risks, and 

establishes national priorities focused on achieving the national goals. These achievements form the 

foundation for achieving the vision for the future of wildland fire management. The release of the National 

Strategy and the companion National Action Plan will complete the effort to develop a Cohesive Strategy 

as initiated in 2010. The National Strategy—though significant and foundational—represents a new 

starting point rather than an ending point as implementation toward the vision begins.

Georgia wildfires 2007. Photo credit: National Interagency Fire Center Archive, Bugwood.org

Cohesive Strategy goals:

• Restore and maintain landscapes

• Fire-adapted communities

• Wildfire response
3 

CHAPTER 1 − THE VISION

In 2009, Congress passed the Federal Land Assistance, Management, and Enhancement Act (FLAME 

Act), which directs the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the Department of the Interior (DOI) to 

develop a national cohesive wildland fire management strategy to comprehensively address wildland fire 

management across all lands in the United States. Under the direction of the intergovernmental Wildland 

Fire Leadership Council (WFLC), the National Cohesive Wildland Fire Management Strategy effort 

(Cohesive Strategy) was initiated in 2010 through a three-phased approach to planning, risk analysis, and 

collaboration by Federal, state, local and tribal governments and non-governmental partners and public 

stakeholders. The phased approach allowed systematic and thorough engagement by stakeholders 

throughout the effort. Each phase included milestones that serve as the building blocks for subsequent 

steps. This report, The National Strategy, The Final Phase in the Development of the National 

Cohesive Wildland Fire Management Strategy (National Strategy), and the companion National Action 

Plan culminate the third phase of the Cohesive Strategy effort. 

The National Strategy recognizes and accepts fire as a natural process necessary for the maintenance of 

many ecosystems, and strives to reduce conflicts between fire-prone landscapes and people. By 

simultaneously considering the role of fire in the landscape, the ability of humans to plan for and adapt to 

living with fire, and the need to be prepared to respond to fire when it occurs, the Cohesive Strategy takes 

a holistic approach to the future of wildland fire management.

The Wildland Fire Leadership Council (WFLC) adopted the following vision for the next century:

To safely and effectively extinguish fire, when needed; use fire where allowable; manage 

our natural resources; and as a Nation, live with wildland fire. 

The primary, national goals identified as necessary to achieving the vision are: 

Restore and maintain landscapes: Landscapes across all jurisdictions are resilient to firerelated disturbances in accordance with management objectives.

Fire-adapted communities: Human populations and infrastructure can withstand a wildfire 

without loss of life and property.

Wildfire response: All jurisdictions participate in making and implementing safe, effective, 

efficient risk-based wildfire management decisions.

Early in the planning process, stakeholders collaboratively established the following guiding principles 

and core values for wildland fire management to guide fire and land management activities:

• Reducing risk to firefighters and the public is the first priority in every fire management activity. 

• Sound risk management is the foundation for all management activities.

• Actively manage the land to make it more resilient to disturbance, in accordance with management 

objectives. 

• Improve and sustain both community and individual responsibilities to prepare for, respond to, and 

recover from wildfire through capacity-building activities.

• Rigorous wildfire prevention programs are supported across all jurisdictions.
4 

• Wildland fire, as an essential ecological process and natural change agent, may be incorporated into 

the planning process and wildfire response.

• Fire management decisions are based on the best available science, knowledge, and experience, 

and used to evaluate risk versus gain.

• Local, state, tribal, and Federal agencies support one another with wildfire response, including 

engagement in collaborative planning and the decisionmaking processes that take into account all 

lands and recognize the interdependence and statutory responsibilities among jurisdictions.

• Where land and resource management objectives differ, prudent and safe actions must be taken 

through collaborative fire planning and suppression response to keep unwanted wildfires from 

spreading to adjacent jurisdictions. 

• Safe aggressive initial attack is often the best suppression strategy to keep unwanted wildfires small 

and costs down. 

• Fire management programs and activities are economically viable and commensurate with values to 

be protected, land and resource management objectives, and social and environmental quality 

considerations.

The challenges for fire management are formidable and growing more complex. Accepting the vision, 

national goals, guiding principles and core values as the foundation, the National Strategy provides the 

strategic direction necessary to address the significant, long-standing challenges to managing the evergrowing wildland fire risks facing the Nation. To combat escalating risks posed by wildfire, thorough 

understanding of resource needs and opportunities by all is required. Additionally, the efficient and 

effective allocation and use of finite resources is essential. Continued collaboration among stakeholders 

remains a key to success. 

In conjunction with the National Action Plan, the National Strategy culminates the Cohesive Strategy 

planning phases and more than three years of collaborative effort to improve the Nation’s ability to 

prepare for, respond to, and recover from the inevitable occurrence of wildfire.

The Cohesive Strategy Planning Process 

The Cohesive Strategy effort is defined by three phases, with the third and final phase being the 

completion of this National Strategy and a National Action Plan. Phase I involved establishing the vision 

statement, national goals, and the guiding principles referenced above. The National Science and 

Analysis Team (NSAT) also was formed and charged with assembling the scientific information needed to 

inform deliberations. 

A constant theme within the Cohesive Strategy planning efforts is the importance of risk as a central 

defining issue. As the Phase I report (p. 13) notes, 

Risk is an inescapable component of living with wildfire. Whether one uses risk in the 

conventional sense of “something bad may happen” or a more precise definition such as the 

expected loss from an uncertain future event(s), the basic elements of uncertainty and loss are 

there. Following this basic reasoning, one can view the Cohesive Strategy as a classic problem 

of risk management. That is, effective management requires understanding the nature of 

wildfire and its contributing factors, recognizing the consequences—good and bad—of fire, 

addressing uncertainty, and crafting plans that reduce the chances of catastrophic losses. Real-
5 

world constraints on funding, available resources, and administrative flexibility further require 

consideration of economic efficiency and practicality.

Phase I participants adopted comparative risk assessment as a framework for subsequent planning 

efforts.

In Phase II, the focus shifted to understanding regional and local wildland fire management challenges 

and opportunities. Three Regional Strategy Committees (RSC) were created: Northeast, Southeast, and 

West. Each comprises a diverse group of stakeholders including wildland fire management agencies and 

organizations, land managers, and policy-making officials representing multiple levels of government, and 

interests from non-governmental organizations. The RSCs were tasked with clarifying regional goals and 

objectives and identifying regional challenges and opportunities for improved land and fire management.

The regional planning and analysis products completed in Phase II formed the basis for the regional risk 

analyses and action plans developed in Phase III. 

Phase III was undertaken in stages. The first stage involved descriptive analyses of regional issues 

contributing to risk. The NSAT worked with the regions individually to bring together data describing the 

wildland fire situation in each region. This information was used by the regions to develop Regional Risk 

Analysis Reports that characterize each region and outline regional recommendations for achieving the 

three Cohesive Strategy goals. This work was further refined in Regional Action Plans, which describe 

actions and tasks to implement the recommendations. 

The second stage of Phase III involved the development of the National Strategy through a sciencebased, intergovernmental planning and analysis process. The analytical basis for the National Strategy 

comes from information originally assembled and used within the regional analyses, which has been 

reanalyzed from a national perspective along with supplemental national information. The results of 

Phase III include the National Strategy and a companion National Action Plan, which provides a 

framework for implementation of the National Strategy. This concludes the three-phased Cohesive 

Strategy planning effort and begins implementation activities.

Building the National Strategy

The National Strategy is designed to find a balance encapsulated in the vision, identify strategic 

opportunities that respond to national challenges, and establish national priorities for achieving the 

national vision and goals of the Cohesive Strategy. Its development builds on each preceding phase of 

the Cohesive Strategy effort and continues the emphasis on stakeholder engagement.

Specifically, the vision, national goals, and national and regional challenges formed the foundation for the 

approach to developing the National Strategy. The relationship between the vision, national goals, and 

national challenges is illustrated in figure 1.1. 
6 

Figure 1.1. Vision, national goals, and national challenges

The development of the National Strategy was supported by a structured scientific analysis1. The analysis 

processed over 100 different data sources to thoroughly examine wildland fire issues across the Nation

and understand the differences and similarities among locations. This analysis allowed insights and 

recommendations coming forward from the regional analyses to be recast from a national perspective. 

The net result is greater consistency and specificity in understanding national challenges, their underlying 

causes, and the management opportunities available to address them. Thus, the National Strategy 

explicitly links potential actions or opportunities to locations—a key element not found in prior milestones 

from the Cohesive Strategy effort.

The iterative and collaborative process used to develop the National Strategy is generalized through the 

following eight steps:

1. Reaffirm the Vision and National Goals

The vision and national goals were established in Phase I. The National Strategy identifies 

opportunities and priority actions that collectively advance the goals.

2. Understand National and Regional Conditions and Context

Considerable variation exists across the Nation in terms of the ecological and socioeconomic 

conditions that interact and influence wildland fire. Understanding both differences and similarities is 

essential to crafting a national strategy that can address the breadth of issues facing the Nation. 

 

1 The Cohesive Strategy data and tools library includes a number of resources based on the analysis completed as 

well as the published science report, Wildland Fire in America: The Scientific Basis for the National Cohesive 

Wildland Fire Strategy (refer to http://www.forestsandrangelands.gov/strategy/thestrategy.shtml).
7 

3. Understand National Challenges

Many different issues and challenges were identified through various forums. Most can be 

categorized and understood within a smaller set of four general classes: vegetation and fuels; homes, 

communities, and other values at risk; human-caused ignitions; and effective and efficient wildfire 

response.

4. Identify and Analyze National Opportunities

Opportunities for affecting risk vary considerably across the Nation, depending on local conditions 

and the character or magnitude of multiple factors. Each national challenge presents its own special 

opportunities, which are revealed through formal analysis.

5. Prioritization of Opportunities

Prioritization involves looking at potential actions thematically and in a broader context. The concept 

of a national priority for thematic actions follows the premise that concerted actions are most likely to 

be efficient or effective in areas where conditions contributing to an issue are most acute.

6. Understand Implications and Tradeoffs

Hard choices have to be made in deciding how to allocate available resources. Investments made in 

one location or program area may preclude investments in other areas, signifying distributional 

tradeoffs. Similarly, choices made today may limit choices that can be made in the future, requiring 

temporal tradeoffs. 

7. Define the National Strategy

The National Strategy consists of two primary elements: general guidelines for choosing among and 

implementing management options, and four national priority maps that illustrate national priorities 

and suggest areas of greatest need or opportunity.

8. Implementation

The National Strategy informs subsequent implementation actions and activities at all scales.

Implementation is a necessary commitment if the goals and vision for the future of wildland fire 

management are to be realized.

Chapter 1 Summary 

The National Strategy sets broad, strategic, and national-level direction as a foundation for implementing 

actions and activities across the Nation. The National Strategy is informed by regional and national 

analyses, including in-depth risk-based analysis of wildland fire issues and the interrelationships among 

biophysical and socio-economic drivers. Intergovernmental governance groups and public forums used 

structured analytical processes to explore and evaluate management options, to determine risk reduction 

opportunities, and ultimately, to inform the direction in this National Strategy.

9 

CHAPTER 2 – NATIONAL AND REGIONAL

CHARACTERIZATION

The United States is vast and beautiful, with diverse, sweeping landscapes and abundant local cultures, 

customs, and traditions. If you were to pick any 10 counties at random and ask residents to describe their 

local environments and communities, their answers would undoubtedly contain a rich tapestry of 

descriptions. It is then possible to analyze those descriptions by parsing them into elements that differ

and those that are similar. Characteristics that differ among locations could be counted as contributing to 

overall diversity. In contrast, similar elements could be counted as contributing to a shared national 

identity. Both similarities and differences are essential to comprehensively describe the national 

character.

This same story holds true with respect to wildland fire. Ask fire management specialists from different 

locations to describe their circumstances and it is quickly evident that there are both unique differences 

and shared concerns. Both the differences and similarities are essential elements of the national picture 

of wildland fire, and they must be thoroughly understood and addressed to have a truly comprehensive 

and cohesive national strategy.

Recognizing similarities and differences is not enough, however, if the intent is to effect change by 

judiciously applying management resources and effort. Understanding the underlying relationships among 

biophysical landscapes, the people that live there, and wildland fire is also essential. Characterizing and 

mapping conditions across the Nation—and recognizing the relationships in play—helps establish a 

context for determining where strategic opportunities lie, as well as where barriers to implementation 

exist. 

Regional Characterization 

In Phase III, the three RSCs worked with practitioners and the National Science and Analysis Team 

(NSAT) to describe the wildfire situation in each region using biophysical and socioeconomic data. This 

chapter begins with a brief synopsis of the regional understanding of wildland fire in each of the three 

regions

Northeast Regional Context 

Diverse ecosystems comprise the Northeast Region. From prairie to pine, hardwoods to boreal forests,

and coastal wetlands to mountains, the region displays the full range of fire regimes. Some of the most 

critically endangered ecosystems include grasslands, savannas, and pine barrens. The vast majority of 

land is in private ownership. Land uses and ownership patterns are complex, with many small holdings, 

and a diverse range of owner objectives. Public lands are often isolated among other land uses, including 

private and industrial forests and agricultural lands. Many public lands are managed for multiple uses.

The Northeast can be described in risk management terms as having a large number of small, mostly 

human-caused, wildfires with a low occurrence of large wildfires. But fires present a high risk to life and 

property when they do occur. The larger fires tend to occur in areas containing more contiguous and 
10

undeveloped forested tracts of land. Many wildland fires can be fast moving, but they are often contained 

within a single day. Most wildfires are human-caused; accidental fires and arson are the primary causes 

of fires in the region. During the 5-year period from 2008 through 2012, the Northeast averaged 

21,083 reported wildfires per year, which burned an average of 135,591 acres each year (National 

Interagency Coordination Center 2013).

Natural events increase the risk of wildfire. Wind, ice, disease, and insects can create large areas of 

downed timber and increased fuels, leading to exacerbated wildfire conditions. All ecosystems can 

experience short- and long-term wildfire hazards if these event fuels remain in place. Removal of event 

fuels before a wildfire is crucial as population continues to grow in forested areas, with homes and 

infrastructure near wildland fuels. These event fuels may also represent an economic opportunity to 

supply forest product needs, ranging from biomass to higher valued products.

Downed timber after the 1999 blowdown in the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness. This area burned in 

the Ham Lake Fire of May 2007. Photo credit: Eli Sagor, University of Minnesota, Bugwood.org.

Wildland fire management responsibilities are characterized by a patchwork of jurisdictions and 

ownership, and often more than one agency may be involved in managing wildland fire incidents. 

Firefighter and public safety is of utmost concern at every level. Wildland fire management is the result of 

collaboration, partnerships, and cooperation among states (interstate forest fire compacts), Federal fire 

management agencies (e.g., U.S. Forest Service (USFS), Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), National Park 

Service (NPS), U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), tribal governments, and many local fire 

departments). Federal agencies are responsible for fire management activities on Federal lands. State

and local fire protection agencies are responsible for protection of non-Federal lands. As landowners, 

Federal agencies have flexibility to address land management considerations in their fire management 

activities. However, state and local statutes and regulations generally mandate suppression of all 

wildfires. Maintaining, improving the efficiency and effectiveness, or in some cases, increasing the 

capacity of local fire departments to respond to wildfires is vital to augment state, Federal, and tribal 

response needs. Most of the fire community is also vital to all hazard response in the Northeast. Effective 

integration of wildfire response training into all-hazard response training is critical to maintain local 

response capability in the Northeast.
11

A high percentage of wildfires in the region involve homes and infrastructure. With the heavy population 

and large proportion of landscape in the wildland-urban interface (WUI) intermix, even small wildfires 

threaten structures, increasing the risk and complexity for firefighters. A proactive, collaborative approach 

to identifying risks in the WUI, combined with developing Community Wildfire Protection Plans (CWPPs), 

reducing hazardous fuels, treating event fuels, and educating the public in the context of managing fuels 

across a multi-jurisdictional, fragmented landscape will prepare communities for wildfire. Wildland fire 

managers in the Northeast believe that focusing on preventing unwanted fires and increasing 

homeowner-shared responsibility will reduce firefighter risk and decrease the need for firefighting 

responses.

Southeast Regional Context 

Thirteen states comprise the Southeast Region, stretching from the Atlantic seaboard west through 

Texas, including Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, with nearly 90 percent of the land base privately 

held. The Southeast has many diverse fire-dependent ecosystems including but not limited to: the Florida 

Everglades, coastal pine forests, Appalachian montane forests, and the grasslands of Texas. The 

Southeast wildfire problem is characterized by a year-round fire season, highly fragmented land 

ownership, an expansive WUI throughout much of the South and high population growth in WUI areas, 

high fuel loading, and a high number of unplanned ignitions. The majority of unplanned ignitions in the 

Southeast are human-caused. For the 5-year period from 2008 through 2012, the Southeast averaged

38,582 wildfires each year, burning an average of 1,733,496 acres per year (National Interagency 

Coordination Center, 2013).

Wildland fire is a key process in southern ecosystems to maintain resiliency, ecosystem health, wildlife 

habitat, and ecosystem services, such as timber products and stable carbon storage. With the long 

growing season, Southeast forest ecosystems have a frequent fire return interval. Prescribed burning is a 

common practice to prevent the buildup of excessive fuel loads and manage for other benefits, such as 

wildlife habitat. In the past, the southeastern fire and land management community has relied on cultural 

and historical acceptance of land management activities, including prescribed fire, to implement

appropriate management activities. New residents, however, are often unfamiliar with the use of fire as a 

valuable management tool. This population and an accompanying significant urbanized demographic 

shift, along with other factors, are creating new challenges for the fire management community.

The Southeast is experiencing rapid urbanization, leading to the development of many dense human 

communities located in landscapes that require frequent burning for hazardous fuel reduction and 

ecosystem maintenance. As the extent of the WUI increases, so does the potential for impacts from 

prescribed burning and wildfires. The mosaic of urban and wildlands compounds issues related to smoke, 

emissions release, liability, and the acceptance of fire by the general public. New residents need to be 

educated with respect to wildland fire, the use of prescribed burning, and effective land management of 

their own property to reduce wildland fire risk. 

The diverse ecosystems, land management goals, and landscapes across the Southeast mean that a 

single solution will not work for everyone. Additionally, with nearly 90 percent of southeastern land owned 

privately, decisions cannot be made at the state or regional level for the vast majority of landholdings. 

Landscape management requires a focus on collaboration between government and non-government 

agencies, individuals, and other interests. 
12

Fire Learning Network (FLN) sponsored prescribed fire learning exchange near Victoria, Texas, in 2009. 

Photo credit: Wendy Fulks, The Nature Conservancy.

Western Regional Context

The Western Region’s diverse landscapes stretch from the great plains of Nebraska and Kansas to the 

Rocky Mountains to the Pacific coast and beyond, from the deserts of Arizona and New Mexico to the 

arctic tundra of Alaska, and include Hawaii and the Pacific Island territories. A variety of factors challenge 

wildland fire managers in the West including: steep terrain, access limitations, changing climate 

conditions, and invasive species. Many parts of the West are experiencing extended drought for more 

than a decade. Drought is one stressor that leads to increased wildfire threats. A stressed system or 

forest is more susceptible to infestations of insects, pathogens, and disease, which can kill vegetation. In

some areas of the West these stressors have left millions of acres of dead, standing trees. From 2008

through 2012, the West averaged 23,091 reported wildfires each year, burning an annual average of 

4,666,030 acres per year (National Interagency Coordination Center 2013). 

A century of widespread fire exclusion and changes in active forest management have resulted in a 

buildup of surface fuels and the overstocking of forests with trees and ladder fuels. Conversely, some 

non-forested areas have experienced an increase in fire frequency contributing to increases in invasive 

species, which have further altered fire regimes and led to other ecosystem impacts. Large areas of 

western grasslands and fire-adapted forests are in need of restoration. The forest and rangeland health 

problems in the West are widespread and increasing, affecting wildlife habitat, water quality and quantity 

and long-term soil productivity, while providing conditions for uncharacteristically large, severe, and costly 

wildfires, with increasing threats to human life and property. Residents suffer from smoke in the air 

through much of the summer, can contribute to health effects such as emphysema and heart disease. 

These environmental conditions, along with the effects of an expanding WUI underlie four broad areas of 

risk: risk to firefighters and civilian safety, ecological risks, social risks, and economic risks.

Large blocks of publicly owned land characterize the West. Public lands comprise more than half the total 

land area. Fires that start on public lands and move onto private land, threatening communities, are a 
13

major problem in the West. This is compounded by the finite amount of fire protection resources. Vast 

expanses of the West have less than 1 fire station per 100 square miles. This leads to extended response 

times in rural areas—areas often characterized by Federal ownership, steep slopes, beetle-killed trees, 

and poor road access.

Western stakeholders identified protecting the “middle ground,” areas between communities and the more 

distant wildlands, as an important regional value. While the western stakeholders express concern over 

community protection, the additional desire is to protect the middle ground areas from extreme wildfire 

events. The West needs large landscape-scale changes in vegetative structure and fuel loadings to 

significantly alter wildfire behavior, reduce wildfire losses, ensure firefighter and public safety, and 

improve landscape resiliency. Active management of public and private land holdings is needed, including 

harvesting and thinning operations to reduce hazardous fuels in and around communities and in the 

middle ground. 

The community on the left was protected from the 2012 Waldo Canyon Fire in Colorado, by the area of 

reduced fuels in the middle ground−between the subdivision and the wildlands. Photo credit: Kari Greer, 

National Interagency Fire Center.

Wildland fire managers in the West envision expanding work to speed up the development of fire-adapted 

communities and to link them into a sub-regional communication and learning network. Fire adaptation is 

viewed as a continuum, with communities moving toward fire adaptation through concerted collaborative 

effort including: CWPPs, FirewiseTM communities, fuels treatments, the Ready, Set, GoTM program, and 

many more activities at the community level. Fire adaptation is a continuous process that requires annual 

renewal of efforts to be prepared and to keep fuels at reduced levels. Communities need technical and 

financial support to continue to move closer to a fire-adapted status.
14

National Characterization 

The preceding discussion of regional conditions highlights the considerable variation that exists 

throughout the Nation, as well as many of the shared issues. Indeed, every state, county, management 

unit, or community can claim its own unique fire regime, history, and special circumstances. Such 

differences are important when planning at the local level, but may overwhelm a national analysis 

designed to inform a national strategy that addresses all lands. On the other hand, generalities are useful 

only to a certain extent; at some point, a location’s specifics must be fully considered. One of the 

challenges of a national analysis is finding an adequate balance between generalization and specification 

that highlights important differences while also recognizing commonalities.

Data spanning a broad spectrum of environmental, socioeconomic, and fire-related statistics were 

assembled to support development of the Cohesive Strategy. These data were summarized and 

consolidated to the county level to provide a comparable unit of analysis across data sets. Where 

appropriate, they also have been normalized to allow equitable comparisons across counties of different 

sizes. That is, some variables are expressed on a unit area (e.g., fires per square mile) or per capita 

basis. This allows data from multiple sources and of various forms to be used to discern relationships 

among driving factors and influential variables. It also allows creation of national maps that highlight many 

of the intra- and inter-regional or state similarities and differences. 

Because the Cohesive Strategy planning effort relies on existing data sources, limitations inherent in 

those data naturally constrain the scope and extent of the national analysis. One of the more important 

limitations is that several of the more influential data sets are restricted to the 48 conterminous states and 

exclude Alaska, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and other territories. Thus, the national characterization and 

subsequent analyses that depend on it are similarly restricted. Options for extending the analysis to the 

excluded states and territories are being explored.

Even county-level metrics pose challenges to completing a national analysis. There are 3,109 counties in 

the conterminous United States and each has its own unique story. This analysis is not directed at telling 

those unique stories, but rather highlights the pattern of similarities and differences found among the 

counties and uses those common attributes to develop a manageable set of narratives that can be linked 

to nationwide management options. To that end, grouping counties along two principal themes of 

landscape character and risk to communities provides a serviceable classification system. Counties are 

grouped together based upon their similarities with respect to key variables that are relevant to the 

principal themes. Two different techniques were used to better match the nature of the themes and 

patterns within the data. 

Landscape Classes 

The first national goal of the Cohesive Strategy is to restore and maintain resilient landscapes.

Landscape resiliency has been defined in various ways, but at its core are sustainability and resistance to 

and recovery from disturbance. Given that landscapes are complex intersections of natural, built, and 

human components, simple definitions or measures of landscape resiliency have limited utility. A more 

useful approach is to recognize that discussions about sustaining values and resiliency are contextual, 

that is, they vary from location to location and depend upon a host of local considerations, including both 

ecological and human dimensions. 
15

The classification system designed and used here divides counties into landscape classes where similar 

conversations about land management objectives and resiliency might occur, using county-level 

attributes. Counties were assigned to different landscape classes using a classification tree. A 

classification tree begins with all counties in a single group and then progressively divides them into more 

similar subgroups based on key variables. Each junction in the classification tree involves a dichotomous 

division based on a single variable. The classification tree used the relative urban landcover within a 

county, the modal fire regime,

2 geographical region, area forested, area of public lands, and various 

measures of fire occurrence to assign counties to one of 11 classes labeled A through K (figure 2.1). 

Figure 2.1. Classification tree used to subdivide counties based on variables relevant to the topic of 

landscape classification

The classes tend to have strong geographical associations due to the influence of regional similarities in 

landcover and fire regimes (figure 2.2); a notable exception is the urban class (Class A), which follows the 

national pattern of population density and urban development. 

 

2 Historical fire regimes refer to the characteristic frequency and severity of wildfires prior to European settlement. 

Further discussion of fire regime can be found in Chapter 3.
16

Figure 2.2. Map of the geographical distribution of the 11 landscape classes across the conterminous United 

States. 

The nature of each class is revealed by looking at both the variables used in the classification tree and 

the broader range of descriptive variables for each county. Figure 2.3 provides an abbreviated label for 

each class as well as some simple comparison graphics for looking at the distributions of eight selected 

variables within each class. For example, landscape class D characterizes agricultural and grassland 

areas that are relatively devoid of forested areas or Federal ownership, historically experienced very high 

levels of natural fire, and generally fall in the lower half (moderate) of the national range with respect to 

the four other variables. Using this and other information, one can develop an informative, general 

narrative that applies to the counties within each class.

Class labels are provided in figure 2.3
17

Figure 2.3. Visual summarization of the characteristic features of 11 landscape classes with respect to eight 

variables of interest.

Furthermore, the landscape class narratives help point to possible management options or policies that 

would advance the goal of landscape resiliency within each class, recognizing that each class could 

connote a unique interpretation of “landscape resiliency” that is specific to the conditions found therein. 

Thus, landscape classes are used to promote a context-specific discussion of management options that 

matches actions and activities to landscapes. More complete landscape class narratives and data 

descriptions are available online through the Cohesive Strategy data and tools library (refer 

to http://www.forestsandrangelands.gov/strategy/thestrategy.shtml).

Conclusion: Counties have been classified using a relatively small set of variables into various 

“landscape classes” that share common attributes. Examining multiple variables reveals both 

similarities and differences among counties relative to the theme of landscape resiliency.

Note: Scores of low to very high are established relative to the national distribution 

of values for each variable.
18

Community Clusters

The second national goal of the Cohesive Strategy is promoting fire-adapted communities. The wildfire 

risk to communities and values can be viewed as the intersection of three principal elements: wildfire 

occurrence and extent, homes and communities, and social and economic resources. The first simply 

captures the magnitude of the hazard posed by wildfire. The second and third reflect the principal values 

at stake. The values threatened include buildings, homes, infrastructure, public and firefighter safety, 

public health, and many of the benefits that communities derive from the landscapes around them. 

Quantifying all of the values that could be threatened by wildfire across the Nation is impractical. The 

number and distribution of homes located within the WUI is often used as a surrogate for many of the 

tangible values at risk, a convention followed here. Homes do not capture all of the values that are 

affected by wildfire, but it also recognized that losing a home is a catastrophic loss for the individual(s) 

affected. The number of homes lost in a wildfire is often equated by the public with the magnitude of the 

overall damage, even though other values are clearly impacted.

The capacity of a community to prepare for, respond to, and recover from a wildfire event is also a critical 

concern. There is an emerging literature on the concept of social vulnerability to catastrophic events. 

Researchers have generally looked at a combination of demographic and economic information to assess 

the vulnerability of individuals, families, and communities. Survey data on family incomes, education, and 

indicators of household stress were used to suggest relative vulnerability, while also considering metrics 

of economic activity within each county. 

A statistical technique known as cluster analysis was used to group counties. Variables reflective of the 

amount of area in WUI and density of homes within it, demographic measures of household stress and 

economic advantage, and measures of area burned by wildfires and ignition density were used in the 

cluster analysis. Cluster analysis was used because it provided a cleaner separation of counties when 

considering all variables simultaneously, as opposed to sequentially as in a classification tree. 

The result of the cluster analysis is a set of eight “community clusters” that are simply numbered 1 to 8 in 

no particular order. Simple labels were assigned based upon the distribution of key variables within each 

community cluster (figure 2.4). 
19

Figure 2.4. Visual summarization of the characteristic features of eight community clusters with respect to 

six variables of interest.

Note: Scores of low to very high are established relative to the national distribution 

of values for each variable.
20

All community cluster types can be found in each of the three geographic regions, albeit in decidedly 

different proportions (figure 2.5). 

Figure 2.5. Spatial distribution of community clusters 

Geographical affinity of several clusters is apparent, but is not as strong as with the resiliency classes. 

This result highlights the fact that there are counties with similar fire histories, WUI patterns, and 

socioeconomic attributes scattered throughout the Country. Community clusters were used to develop 

narratives that in turn are used in the discussion of policy options below, complementing the landscape 

classes (refer to the online Cohesive Strategy data and tools library for complete description of the 

community cluster narratives).

Conclusion: Counties have been grouped using a relatively small set of variables into various 

“community clusters” that share common attributes. Examining multiple variables reveals both 

similarities and differences in community wildfire risk among counties.
21

Intersecting Landscape Classes and Community Clusters 

The most vexing problems in wildland fire management cannot be solved by looking solely at landscape 

conditions, nor is a community perspective adequate by itself. A combination of the two sheds light on the 

most difficult issues. Placing the community clusters in juxtaposition with the landscape classes creates a 

combination class that provides greater environmental context to the community clusters, while 

simultaneously enhancing the socioeconomic dimensions of the landscape classes.

The intersection of the community clusters with the landscape resiliency classes and the number of 

counties in each combination class is shown in 

table 2.1. Blank spaces in the table indicate that no counties fell within the intersection. The table 

indicates the number of counties, not the spatial extent covered by each combination class; differences in 

county size across the country affect the distribution of area. 

Table 2.1.The number of counties within the conterminous 48 states that fall within each combination of 

community cluster and resiliency class

Landscape 

Classes

Community Clusters Grand

Total

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

A 8 3 31 30 71 4 129 194 470

B 68 5 6 78 1 6 56 220

C 15 5 6 12 9 7 54

D 56 38 29 2 265 5 14 409

E 22 76 7 3 28 22 1 159

F 2 32 6 8 12 7 1 68

G 18 24 28 12 4 8 20 17 131

H 29 8 189 8 30 54 42 99 459

I 62 18 145 7 207 24 60 192 715

J 69 24 38 7 4 8 150

K 40 135 13 15 16 17 38 274

Grand Total 280 318 606 133 717 154 305 596 3,109

Note: Combinations highlighted in green show strong positive association between classes and clusters.

An interesting observation from this table is that almost all of the possible combinations are represented 

by one or more counties. This spread across combinations reflects the considerable diversity found 

across the United States. It also highlights the challenges that arise when trying to make generalizations.

Fortunately, the total number of combinations (79) is manageable, and there are distinct patterns that 

suggest common narratives. 

Although a landscape class may be distributed across all community clusters (or vice versa), they are not 

independent. That is, there are distinct patterns of association or spatial correlations between the two 

such that various combinations occur more frequently than they would by chance alone, while others 

occur less frequently. Combinations where the observed frequency is twice or more the expected 

frequency are highlighted in green in 
22

table 2.1. For example, landscape class A, which represents a landscape dominated by human 

development, is strongly associated with community clusters 7 and 8, which are primarily urban and 

suburban communities, respectively. Similarly, landscape class D has a strong association with 

community cluster 5, both of which are often associated with counties dominated by agricultural 

development. The association between classes and clusters reflects both the human footprint on 

landscapes, and conversely how biophysical landscapes have influenced human development. Many of 

the unique attributes of each combination are described in online references (see Appendix C).

It is reasonable to ask whether the combination of landscape and communities is sufficient to cover all the 

complexities and issues that are involved in wildland fire. For example, can we distinguish between areas 

with different levels of response capacity, the complexities of mixed land ownership, and overlapping 

jurisdictional responsibilities? Many of these issues were examined, and consideration was given to 

whether an additional classification system(s) might be necessary. In general, the two-dimensional 

system proved adequate for addressing the issues at hand. Those few issues that exhibit geographical 

patterns that cannot be explained with the combination classes can be examined using other means.

Conclusion: The combination of landscape resiliency classes and community clusters provides 

a powerful mechanism to discern and relate both the environmental and socioeconomic 

dimensions of the landscape simultaneously. 

Chapter 2 Summary 

Wildland fire in the United States involves multiple, complex issues that exhibit considerable variation 

across the country, as well as remarkable similarities. Understanding both the differences and similarities 

is necessary to develop a cohesive national strategy. Previous efforts within the Cohesive Strategy have 

documented many of the issues from a regional perspective, which allows interregional comparisons, but 

falls short of providing a national perspective needed to develop a national strategy.

Comprehensive data sets from multiple sources were combined through a rigorous analytical 

classification process to group counties along two central themes: landscape features and community 

risk. This combination classification system provides a useful mechanism for developing common 

narratives for subsets of counties, irrespective of regional boundaries. These common narratives facilitate 

development of national management direction that recognizes and is tailored to more specific local 

conditions. The combination of landscape classes and community clusters is used to explore 

management opportunities and suggest national priorities, as described in following chapters.
23

CHAPTER 3 – NATIONAL CHALLENGES

AND OPPORTUNITIES

Wildland fire encompasses numerous interacting and complex social, ecological, and physical factors. 

Throughout each phase of the Cohesive Strategy effort, simple conceptual models have been used to 

illustrate how management actions interact with the physical and human-built environment, events, and 

processes to influence the risk associated with wildland fire. For example, consider the hypothetical case 

of a single wildfire. Whether a wildfire ignites and how extensively and intensively it burns depends on the 

interactions of five factors: a source of ignition, available fuels, topography, weather, and suppression 

response. By itself, the wildfire is simply an event. It can be described by its location, intensity, duration, 

extent, or other characteristics, but it has no normative value—it is neither good nor bad. However, the

consequences, both negative and positive, matter. For example, wildfire is considered to be ‘bad’ or even 

catastrophic, whenever homes and other structures are involved; economically valuable timber is lost;

critical wildlife habitat is degraded; or other values are lost depending on the location, extent, and 

intensity of the wildfire. In contrast, wildfire can also be ‘good’ and have positive effects, particularly 

environmental, such as creating an environment for fire-dependent or fire-tolerant plant and animal 

species to flourish; burning plant litter to limit the intensity of future wildfires; or destroying harmful 

pathogens. Many plant and animal communities have come to depend on wildfire of many different 

intensities to renew and reinvigorate them, processes that have been interrupted for a century or more 

following the onset of organized wildfire suppression.

Pagami Creek Fire in Minnesota, 2011. The fire spread from the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness and 

grew to over 92,000 acres. Photo credit: Kari Greer.
24

The conceptual model is completed by adding consequences (value changes) and management options 

available that might directly affect factors contributing to risk (figure 3.1). For example, a fire prevention 

program could lessen the probability of human-caused ignitions. Similarly, a fuels treatment program 

might change fire behavior and make it less damaging or easier to suppress. A third option might be to 

consider adding firefighting capacity to the local community or management unit so that wildfires are 

contained before they grow large and damaging. Finally, the likelihood of a wildfire damaging homes or 

other structures can be reduced by treating the immediate area around the home or near other highly 

valued resources. 

Figure 3.1. A simple conceptual model of wildfire 

The conceptual model of a single wildfire can also be viewed as a caricature of larger wildland fire 

challenges. Nationally, five basic factors determine when, where, and how intensely wildfires burn: 

climate, topography, vegetation, ignitions, and suppression. Of these, two are realistically beyond the 

influence of wildland fire managers—climate and topography—but cannot be ignored. Management 

directly influences the remaining three, but they rarely are as straightforward as the conceptual model 

might suggest. Similarly, mitigating consequences by reducing exposure is often difficult in practice.

Understanding the national implications of various policies and actions requires more sophisticated and 

nuanced exploration of key pathways by which actions lead to desired outcomes. 

Note: Model includes five principal contributing factors (blue circles), 

consequences, and four management options (grey boxes) designed to either 

change wildfire extent and intensity, or to alter risk by changing the degree of 

exposure experienced by valued elements of the landscape.
25

In the following sections, the analysis and discussion is organized around four national challenges that 

basically follow the key pathways suggested in the conceptual model above. These include:

• Vegetation and Fuels; 

• Homes, Communities, and other Values at Risk; 

• Human-caused Ignitions; and 

• Effective and Efficient Wildfire Response.

The variation across the Nation in landscapes and community structure described in Chapter 2 suggests 

that no two counties are likely to experience identical challenges or respond the same to management 

options. For example, some areas will respond positively to fuel treatments, while other areas will be 

more sensitive to greater emphasis on prevention programs. This implies that there are no one-size-fitsall solutions or prescriptions for reducing overall risk. The same can be said of the challenges, where 

some issues are more or less important, depending upon the circumstances of each region or county.

Most of the potential actions previously identified by the RSCs address these four national challenges. 

Administrative actions that focus primarily on improving overall efficiency by sharing information, 

personnel, and resources form a fifth class of overarching challenges affecting wildland fire management.

Representatives of the three RSCs also identified specific national priority barriers and critical success 

factors for improved landscape resiliency, fire-adapted communities, and improved fire response. These 

barriers or critical success factors align with five general classes of national challenges (table 3.1), 

consistent with the simple conceptual model (refer to Appendix C for additional detail on the barriers and 

success factors).

Table 3.1. High-priority barriers and critical success factors 

Understanding how investment choices might play out differently across the Nation is critical to being able 

to plan an efficient and effective national strategy. In the following sections, each of the four national 

challenges are examined. In this analysis, the focus is shifted from what the Nation wants to achieve—

national goals—to what challenges must be overcome and actions taken toward those goals. 

Vegetation & 

Fuels

Fuels 

Management on 

Private Land

Fuels 

Management on 

Federal Land

FEMA Grant 

Programs

Homes, 

Communities, 

& Values 

Growth 

Management, 

Land

Development, & 

Zoning

Communities at 

Risk Assistance

Human-Caused 

Ignitions

Enforceable Fire 

Prevention 

State/Local 

Ordinances

Wildfire 

Response

National 

Qualification 

Standards

Investment in 

Firefighting 

Workforce

Administrative 

Efficiency

Policy & Process 

Complexities for 

Sharing 

Resources

Data to Support 

Fire 

Management 

Decisions

Intergovernment

al Wildland Fire 

Governance
26

The analysis seeks to answer three principal questions: (1) Why is this a national issue or challenge? 

(2) How does the issue vary across the Nation? (3) Where are the greatest opportunities for positively 

addressing these challenges and mitigating risks?

The remainder of this chapter focuses on answering these questions. First, each national challenge is 

described individually and from an analytical standpoint. Next, opportunities are described through a 

series of associated management options (refer to Table 3.3 for a complete description of all 

management options presented). A map for each management option displays the spatial distribution of 

opportunities nationally as well as a brief conclusion related to the management option. Lastly, a 

summary of all four thematic challenges and opportunities is presented. The options and opportunities 

inform national and spatially explicit priorities described in Chapter 4, The National Strategy. Options and 

opportunities presented herein are additional useful information to inform land use plans, policies, 

ordinances, and other applicable guidance, which govern decisions made at national, regional, state, and 

local scales.

Vegetation and Fuels

Wildland fire from both natural and human causes has played a prominent role in shaping the landscapes 

of North America for millennia. There is an extensive collection of literature on the ecological role of fire in 

North American ecosystems and widespread understanding of the historical role that human settlement 

patterns have had in changing the frequency, extent, and location of fire. One universally accepted point 

is that nearly all of the natural vegetation communities across North America historically burned—many 

quite frequently. The intensity with which they burned was a function of both the biophysical environment 

(climate, topography, and vegetation) and the frequency of ignition, both natural and human-caused.

In general, more frequent burning is associated with less intense or severe wildfires. Conversely, 

infrequent burning generally leads to higher severity fires that consume much of the aboveground live and 

dead vegetation—the principal fuels in a wildfire. This pattern arises naturally from the accumulation of 

fuels between events, absent of any other disturbance or activity that reduces it. Ecologists use the 

concept of fire regime and fire regime groups (FRG) to characterize the relationship between fire 

frequency and fire severity and their ecological implications (table 3.2, from Barrett and others [2013]3

). 

Of note is the relatively high frequency of fires in FRGs I and II, which average 35 years or less between 

fire events and include many of the fire-adapted forest and rangeland types in the United States. Nearly 

half of the current undeveloped natural vegetation within the conterminous 48 states falls within lands that 

historically supported FRGs I and II (figure 3.2), totaling about 1.1 million square miles. If we presume that 

this area previously experienced a fire return interval of 35 years (the upper-bound), then a lower-bound 

estimate of roughly 31,000 square miles (over 20 million acres) would have burned on average each year 

within these two FRG areas alone. Such estimates provide a sense of perspective when compared to the 

annual acres burned in the recent decade, 2002 through 2011. The best estimate of annual area burned 

in counties dominated by FRGs I and II within the conterminous 48 states is roughly 7,800 square miles, 

or 1/4 of the historical lower bound for this area. Another way of stating this is that the average time 

between wildfires has more than quadrupled across a significant portion of our Nation. 

 

3 Barrett, S.; D. Havlina; J. Jones; W. Hann; C. Frame; D. Hamilton; K. Schon; T. Demeo; L. Hutter; and J. Menakis. 

2010. Interagency Fire Regime Condition Class Guidebook. Version 3.0 [Homepage of the Interagency Fire Regime 

Condition Class website, USDA Forest Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, and The Nature Conservancy]. 

[Online], Available: http://www.frcc.gov/.
27

Increasing the time interval between fires means that many fires occurring today are of higher severity 

than they were historically. Substantive shifts in vegetation away from fire-adapted species are also 

occurring. Changes in fire return intervals are not limited to just FRGs I and II. A previous analysis 

suggested increased fire return intervals throughout the United States except for some areas of the 

Southwest and Great Basin, where invasive grasses have contributed to reduced fire intervals and 

radically changed vegetative structure and composition. A second significant observation is that many of 

the large fires that occur today disproportionately occur in areas that historically were FRGs IV and V. 

These include many areas where the natural fire regime is relatively infrequent, high-severity fires—the 

most difficult and expensive to control or extinguish.

Table 3.2. Fire regime groups and descriptions

Group Frequency Severity Severity description

I 0 to 35 years Low / mixed

Generally low-severity fires replacing less than 

25 percent of the dominant overstory vegetation; can 

include mixed-severity fires that replace up to 

75 percent of the overstory

II 0 to 35 years Replacement High-severity fires replacing greater than 75 percent of 

the dominant overstory vegetation

III 35 to 200 years Mixed / low Generally mixed-severity; can also include low-severity 

fires 

IV 35 to 200 years Replacement High-severity fires

V 200+ years Replacement / 

any severity

Generally replacement severity; can include any 

severity type in this frequency range

Source: Barrett and others (2010)

The issue is not as severe in areas under active prescribed fire regimes, including southeastern pine 

forests and some western forests and grasslands. For example, a recent survey reported 7.9 million acres 

of prescribed fire activity for silvicultural purposes in 2011, 6.5 million acres of which occurred in the 

Southeast.4 There also are areas within larger national parks, scattered wildlife preserves, and 

designated wilderness areas nationwide where natural fire regimes have been successfully reintroduced 

and maintained for decades.

Understanding these broad-scale changes in fire regimes is essential to crafting an effective national 

strategy that includes cost effective and targeted fuels treatments. Fire regimes are intrinsically and 

fundamentally connected to fuel accumulation, vegetation composition, and subsequent fire behavior 

when wildfires inevitably occur. More extreme fire conditions can be expected in areas where the time 

between fires has been extended, unless fuels have been reduced by other means. Human development 

and suppression can postpone wildfires, but not exclude them, except in unusual circumstances.

 

4 Melvin, Mark A. 2012. 2012 National Prescribed Fire Use Survey Report. Technical Report 01-12. Coalition of 

Prescribed Fire Councils, Inc. 19 p. Available at http://www.prescribedfire.net
28

Figure 3.2. Historical fire regime group values in areas currently dominated by natural vegetation

Moreover, the confluence of climate factors and the fuel accumulations that result from sustained, 

vigorous suppression in some locations make exclusion increasingly difficult. The basic biophysical 

environment remains conducive to wildfire and is unlikely to change in a way that would mitigate wildfire 

occurrence.5 Fuels do not simply disappear in the absence of wildfire in fire-adapted ecosystems. Either 

they accumulate and wait for the next fire to occur, slowly decompose, or some form of active fuels 

management such as prescribed fire or mechanical treatment is required. Conversely, in those 

ecosystems where fires have become more frequent, fuels management may be required to protect 

remaining unburned areas or to alter species composition or structure.

Historical perspective provides a benchmark for areas where returning natural vegetation to nearhistorical or desired conditions is a primary objective. However, a fundamental challenge in wildland fire 

management is that restoring historical conditions is neither practical nor desirable in several locations. 

The degree to which wildfires or fuels management can be tolerated within a given landscape depends 

upon community values and land management objectives. 

Where fuels cannot be managed to match historical levels, then adjustments must be made within human 

communities to accommodate a new normal in fire occurrence and extent. For forested systems, this 

likely means a progressive transition from historical FRG I or III to a new FRG IV and less frequent, 

 

5 Some northern hardwood forests may be the exception to this general rule. As human burning has decreased, 

compositional and structural changes within these forests have caused them to become more fire-resistant so they 

burn less frequently and less intensely.
29

higher-intensity fires. Higher-intensity fires lead to higher suppression difficulty, increased risks to 

firefighter and public safety, and more severe social or ecological damage when they occur. Changes in 

rangeland and shrubland systems also can lead to increased, more continuous fire extent, often with 

greatly increased rates of spread, which also increase suppression difficulty and risk to firefighters. 

Additionally, changes in fire frequency can lead to an undesirable mix of new species that move into 

these systems (e.g., invasive grasses such as cheatgrass or encroachment by woody species such as 

juniper). 

Opportunities Discussion 

The primary purpose of hazardous fuels management is to reduce the extent, intensity, and severity of 

wildfire if and when it encounters a treatment area during the lifespan of the treatments.

6 To be effective, 

fuel treatments must reduce fireline intensities under the conditions most likely to result in harm. That is, 

they have to work across a range of weather conditions likely to occur during a wildfire. Depending on the 

ecosystem, reduced extent, intensity, and severity can have beneficial ecological effects. For example, 

wildfires burning less intensely may mimic historical fire effects more closely, helping to restore or 

enhance native, fire-adapted vegetation. In addition, less severe fires damage or kill fewer economically 

valuable trees and exhibit less soil erosion following fires. Strategically placed fuel treatments can have 

broader landscape effects that extend beyond the perimeter of the area physically treated, either through 

affecting fire behavior directly or by facilitating ecologically sensitive containment strategies. Such 

treatments can affect the spatial distribution of fires, leading to more desirable vegetation composition 

and structure, which reduces the potential for invasive species and can help preserve structure that is 

currently limited on the landscape (i.e., sagebrush). 

Reduced intensity also means that suppression efforts are more likely to be effective and can be 

conducted more safely in areas where wildfires are unwanted or threaten communities. Fuel treatments 

near homes and communities also are an effective, proactive way of reducing the likelihood of structure 

ignition and enhancing the safety of firefighters and the public. 

The three primary means of managing fuels are prescribed fire, managing wildfire for ecological purposes 

and resource objectives, and non-fire treatments involving mechanical, biological, or chemical methods. 

Treatments can occur in isolation or in combination, depending on management objectives and resource 

availability. 

 

6 Here, vegetation treatments for the primary purpose of reducing hazard are distinguished from treatments that 

reduce vegetative fuels as a secondary benefit. For example, prescribed fire can be used for the primary benefit of 

promoting desirable vegetation in areas devoid of significant wildfire hazard (e.g., native rice fields). Many 

agricultural, silvicultural, and habitat enhancement practices have secondary fuels benefits, but are not conducted for 

that primary reason.
30

Untreated forest area after the 2011 Wallow Fire near 

Alpine, Arizona. Photo credit: Kari Greer.

Treated forest area along the same road near Alpine, 

Arizona, after the Wallow Fire. Photo credit: Kari 

Greer.

Management Option: Prescribed Fire

Prescribed fire is one of the more effective and cost-efficient means of managing vegetation for multiple 

purposes, including hazard reduction, ecosystem restoration or maintenance, silviculture, and others. In 

general, prescribed fire is an effective tool in areas with fire-adapted or fire-dependent vegetation that has 

evolved with fire. Prescribed fire is also used to a lesser extent as site preparation in rangelands (i.e., 

preparation for chemical application for eradicating invasive species) or post-harvest clean-up in forested 

systems. 

Prescribed fire carries inherent risk, as fires can escape the prescribed perimeter or produce hazardous 

smoke if not managed correctly. Prescribed fire also varies widely in cost because of terrain, weather, and 

the spatial pattern of fuels, meaning that its application is not always economically feasible. Implementing 

and maintaining a prescribed fire regime, therefore, requires properly trained personnel, adequate 

resources, and the willingness on the part of the landowners and nearby communities to accept the costs 

and potential disadvantages of prescribed fire in exchange for the potential benefits.

Broad areas of the country have the potential for prescribed fire use based on their natural fire regime, 

vegetation, and level of human development. National maps of potential for prescribed fire use were 

developed in both forested and non-forested systems based on vegetation, historical fire regime, and land 

cover. These maps provide a baseline from which further opportunities for use were explored. Emphasis 

is on broad-scale application of prescribed fire, focusing on counties where a significant portion of each 

county has the potential for prescribed fire use. Specific local concerns such as smoke management, 

cost, or environmental issues that might limit or constrain prescribed fire use were not considered. 

Conversely, local issues that might call for prescribed fire use on a more limited basis were not analyzed.
31

Prescribed fire use in longleaf pine forest to reduce fuels in South Carolina. Photo credit USDA Forest 

Service Southern Research Station Archive.

One management opportunity for prescribed fire use is to maintain or expand its application in areas 

where it currently is used (Prescribed Fire A, figure 3.3). Fire management specialists in these areas have 

the necessary training and experience to implement a prescribed fire program and the history of use 

suggests community acceptance and tolerance. The analysis of probable areas of prescribed fire use 

based on remotely sensed data and other reports indicate that many counties throughout the Southeast 

and scattered counties in the Northeast and West are substantively using prescribed fire. This option 

would build on that experience and expand its use where economically feasible and socially acceptable.

A second opportunity is to expand into areas with prescribed fire potential, yet evidence of current, 

widespread application is lacking (Prescribed Fire B, figure 3.3). These include many areas in the West 

as well as counties in the central Appalachians. Implementing prescribed fire regimes in these regions 

likely will require additional training and resources, as well as outreach and coordination with the 

communities that are most likely to be affected. Environmental challenges to meeting land management 

objectives, especially in rangeland systems with invasive species (e.g., cheatgrass) or critical wildlife 

habitat, will have to be addressed appropriately and may constrain opportunities, as will the economic 

costs of introducing prescribed fire in areas under stress.

The third opportunity (Prescribed Fire C, figure 3.3) includes counties that have areas with potential for 

prescribed fire, but perhaps not to the extent as in counties displayed in Figures 3.3 as Prescribed Fire 

options A or B. As an example, these include counties where a smaller proportion of the total county area 

is suitable for prescribed fire, but it generally occurs in remote areas in large contiguous blocks. These 

include Western counties with areas of low road density and where more than 25 percent of the total 

county area is suitable for prescribed fire. Remoteness presents the advantage of possibly fewer conflicts 

with human communities, but the disadvantage of potentially higher application costs and difficulty of 

control.
32

Figure 3.3. Prescribed Fire. Spatial distribution of the three management options suggested for maintaining 

or increasing the use of prescribed fire 

Conclusion: Prescribed fire is a useful tool with potential for widespread increased application. 

Three possible options are identified, which collectively total approximately 55 percent of the 

land area of the conterminous 48 states. Considerations for application of prescribed fire and 

public acceptance of the use of prescribed fire as a tool vary nationally. Prescribed fire has 

inherent risks, such as the potential to human health and safety, which must be considered at 

the local level and may limit application.

Management Option: Managing Wildfire for Resource Objectives

Managing wildfire for resource objectives and ecological purposes refers to a strategic choice to use 

unplanned ignitions to achieve resource management objectives. Federal fire policies traditionally 

restricted use to Federal wilderness areas, national parks, or other remote areas under specific conditions 

or circumstances. These restrictions were intended to reduce risk and avoid potentially negative impacts 

or consequences to lands of other ownership. Guidance issued in 2009 regarding implementation of 

Federal fire policy ensures consistency among agencies and has led to expanded application of this 

method to manage wildland fuels. In contrast, most state and local jurisdictions are statutorily constrained 

to provide full wildfire suppression due to values at risk, human-caused fires, and protection of private 

lands. Like prescribed fire, allowing wildfires to burn for the purposes of ecosystem restoration or hazard 

reduction has inherent risk. These risks must be balanced with the potential benefits on an individual 

incident basis, which requires both pre-incident planning at the landscape scale and sophisticated 

incident management. 
33

Firefighters used canoes and seaplanes to fight the Pagami Creek Fire in Minnesota’s Boundary Waters 

Canoe Area Wilderness in 2011. Photo credit: Kari Greer.

Opportunities for managing wildfire for resource objectives were identified by first looking at those areas 

where prescribed fire was deemed suitable. Counties where managing wildfire for multiple benefits in 

forested landscapes seems plausible (Wildfire for Resource Benefit A, figure 3.4) are identified separately 

from those counties dominated by non-forest vegetation where this tactic might also be applied (Wildfire 

for Resource Benefit B, figure 3.4). Both management options for wildfire for resource benefit in forested 

landscapes (A) and non-forested landscapes (B) are associated with rural areas with few roads, low 

numbers of ignitions (mostly natural), moderate flame intensities, and large contiguous blocks of natural 

vegetation. The forested areas have a high percentage of Federal ownership (primarily USFS, Bureau of 

Land Management (BLM), or NPS) and a mix of FRGs I, II, and IV. Non-forested areas include counties 

with low Federal ownership and FRGs II and IV. In some areas, management constraints will limit 

opportunities for managing wildfire. For example, sage grouse conservation efforts focused on preserving 

critical habits from wildfire is a significant constraint in many areas and warrants special consideration. 

A third set of counties was highlighted where the landscape characteristics suggest potential ecological 

benefits from managing wildfire for resource objectives, but the community attributes suggest a higher 

potential for conflicts (Wildfire for Resource Benefit C, figure 3.4). Community concerns could lead to 

greater restrictions and control on incident management objectives.
34

Figure 3.4. Wildfire for Resource Benefits. Spatial pattern of counties where options for managing wildfires 

for resource objectives and ecological purposes might prove useful

Conclusion: Managing wildfire for resource objectives and ecological purposes is a useful tool 

for managing fire-adapted ecosystems and achieving fire-resilient landscapes, but has limited 

potential for broad application throughout the Nation because of its inherent risk and state 

statutory constraints.

Management Option: Fuel Treatments Using Mechanical, Biological, or Other Non-fire Methods

A variety of methods that do not directly involve fire often are used to change vegetation composition and 

structure and alter fuels to reduce hazard. These include product utilization along with various mechanical 

thinning and debris disposal techniques. Non-mechanical methods can involve livestock grazing to 

reduce fine fuels in rangeland systems, or using herbicides to eradicate or suppress unwanted

vegetation. These methods can be used wherever they are economically viable, especially where using 

fire as a management tool is undesirable or carries high risks. One advantage of such methods is that 

they often can be applied with a greater level of control over the location, timing, and desired outcome of 

the treatment. Mechanical treatments are particularly suited for fuels management following natural 

disturbances such as severe storms, intense droughts, or insect outbreaks that radically change forest 

structure. These aptly named “event fuels” can quickly create hazardous conditions in areas that 

otherwise seemed relatively benign. 
35

An added advantage of mechanical treatments in forested ecosystems is the potential to use the removed 

woody material for other purposes. Forest thinning might result in excess stocking being utilized as 

sawlogs, wood chips, or specialty products made from small-diameter trees. If markets exist for the 

byproducts of the treatment, then there is a greater chance of treatments being economically viable.

Commercial timber harvest, as a viable fuels management option, has substantial potential to both offset 

economic costs and enhance effectiveness in many areas. Sustainable forest management for 

commercial timber or pulpwood can provide greater access, enhance other resource values, enhance 

control over both wildfire and prescribed fire, and reduce wildfire threat. To be effective in meeting fuel 

reduction and forest management goals, treatments must address slash and debris disposal without 

exacerbating spread of invasive species. Long-term interests of landowners and the strength of local 

markets will most likely determine the success of offsetting treatment costs. Mechanical treatments also 

are not wholly adequate surrogates for fire in terms of ecological effects, limiting their suitability in various 

situations.

Timber harvesting as part of a fuels management project on the Deschutes Collaborative Forest Project in 

Oregon. Photo credit: Deschutes National Forest, Sisters Ranger District.

Opportunities for using active timber markets to offset costs of mechanical fuels treatments in forests 

were identified by using data about timber jobs, mill production, and forested area available for 

mechanical treatment (Non-fire Fuels Treatments A, figure 3.5). These counties occur throughout the 

Northeast and Southeast, within the Pacific Northwest, and are scattered in the interior West. 
36

A second opportunity includes non-forested counties where combinations of mechanical (mowing), 

chemical herbicide use, or biological control (grazing) appear feasible (Non-fire Fuels Treatments B,

figure 3.5). These include the range and grasslands systems where frequent—even annual—control of 

vegetation might be advantageous or where it is desirable to alter vegetation composition and structure 

and limit fire extent. Economic costs and benefits will vary locally and depend on treatment type. For 

example, grazing rights or leases might be managed in ways that promote fuels management at reduced 

costs.

A third opportunity includes counties where mechanical treatment in forests offers considerable benefit, 

but where evidence of economic value or markets to support such activities is weak (Non-fire Fuels 

Treatments C, figure 3.5). These include major areas of the intermountain West, central Texas and 

Oklahoma, and scattered counties throughout the Southeast, Northeast, and Pacific Coast.

Figure 3.5. Non-fire Fuel Treatments. Spatial distribution of counties where mechanical, biological, or other 

non-fire treatments might be useful 
37

A variant on the theme of non-fire fuel treatments highlights areas where economically sustainable 

mechanical treatment could be used as a precursor to, and combined with, safer and more expanded use 

of wildland fire. The intent is to use mechanical treatments strategically to reduce the risks from wildland 

fire use across a broader landscape. For example, mechanical treatments in pine plantations that are 

located between communities and wildland areas might facilitate prescribed fire use or allow greater 

response flexibility in the wildlands. Essentially, this involves an intersection of the management options 

for both prescribed fire (Figure 3.3) and non-fire fuels treatments supported by active timber industry 

(Non-Fire Fuels A, Figure 3.5). The net result is the management option for non-fire fuels treatments as 

an economic precursor to managed fire (figure 3.6), which includes many southeastern counties, the 

Pacific Northwest, and scattered interior counties. 

Figure 3.6. Non-fire Fuel Treatments Preceding Managed Fire. Spatial distribution of counties where 

mechanical treatments of forested areas might be used as a precursor to expanded wildland fire use 

Conclusion: Fuel treatments involving mechanical, biological, or chemical methods offer many 

advantages in terms of greater control over the outcome and reduced risk of unintended 

consequences. The disadvantage is usually higher economic cost, which in some cases can be 

offset by active economic markets for the byproducts of the treatment.
38

Homes, Communities, and Values at Risk 

The aforementioned changes in fire regime are just one component of the overall historical changes in 

wildland fire that have occurred across the United States. Much has been written about the growth of the 

WUI and the concomitant risks from wildfire and challenges that it brings. There are several recent and 

accessible summaries of this literature, including Stein and others’ (2013) report, Wildfire, wildlands, and 

people: Understanding and preparing for wildfire in the wildland-urban interface—a Forests on the Edge 

report7 and references therein. Many of the data sets referenced by Stein and others (2013) are 

incorporated in the analyses described in Chapter 2 and below. 

Opportunities Discussion

As described in Chapter 2, the motivation underlying the development of the community clusters is the 

recognition that risk to communities arises from the intersection of multiple factors, including the 

frequency and extent of wildfires, the distribution and density of homes within the WUI, and components 

of social vulnerability. These factors must be considered in total when identifying opportunities and 

designing management options for reducing risk to homes, communities, and other important values.

Many programs that strive to reduce losses to homes and communities from wildfires focus on the 

immediate vicinity of the home or the surrounding community. Research suggests that the public also is 

increasingly concerned with the overall environmental health of the land, with fire representing one 

influencing and important factor. Reducing the likelihood that a wildfire burning in adjoining vegetation will 

ignite homes or other structures is one of the more effective avenues to reducing losses. Individual 

homeowners can take many actions, but others require concerted effort at the community level to be 

effective. Similarly, community efforts without commensurate attention by local home and business 

owners are unlikely to succeed. Therefore, actions by property owners to reduce the ignitability of homes 

and other structures are prudent wherever structures are near flammable vegetation. Data on the 

incidence of buildings involved in outdoor fires suggest that essentially all communities would benefit from 

more attention by property owners. Beyond that first step, there are areas of higher risk where additional 

emphasis on home or community efforts might be placed.

 

7 Stein, S.M., J. Menakis, M.A. Carr, S.J. Comas, S.I. Stewart, H. Cleveland, L. Bramwell, and V.C. Radeloff. 2013. 

Wildfire, wildlands, and people: understanding and preparing for wildfire in the wildland-urban interface—a Forests on 

the Edge report. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-299. Fort Collins, CO. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

Rocky Mountain Research Station. 36 p.
39

This home was lost because it had not proactively 

reduced risks posed by wildfire through homeowner 

action and hazardous fuels reduction before the 

Wallow Fire in Arizona, in 2011. Photo credit: Kari 

Greer.

This home was saved because it was located in a 

thinned area which provided safety to firefighters 

who burned the ground fuels around it as the 

Wallow Fire approached. Photo credit: Kari Greer.

Recent patterns of structures lost or buildings involved in incidents help identify areas of possible 

prioritization. Figure 3.7 presents a series of bar charts that show the relative area burned, proportion of 

structures lost, and proportion of buildings involved for each of the eight community clusters from 2002

through 2011. Here, the number of structures lost comes from an interagency reporting system that is 

primarily used to record larger incidents, while the count of buildings involved comes from the National 

Fire Incident Reporting System (NFIRS), which generally reports on more local incidents. The chart is 

scaled such that each set of bars sums to 100 percent. One can readily observe that the largest 

proportion of area burned and many of the structures lost occur in community cluster 2, while much of the 

area burned and the largest proportion of structures lost occur in community cluster 4. Thus, community 

clusters 2 and 4 are obvious candidates for greater focus on both community-level planning and individual 

structure protection. Community cluster 3 has the highest area burned among clusters common in the 

East and sizable numbers of structures involved. Community cluster 6 shares many of the same attributes 

with clusters 2 and 4 where it occurs in the West, and is similar to community cluster 3 in the East.

Additional information on the configuration of the WUI in these four clusters reinforces the need for 

community-level planning, given that fires threatening homes often originate beyond the perimeter of the 

community itself.
40

Figure 3.7. Bar chart showing the relative area burned, proportion of structures lost, and proportion of 

buildings involved for each of the eight community clusters. Data from 2002 to 2011. 

Management Option: Home and Community Action 

Community clusters 7 and 8 are distinguished by very high numbers of buildings involved and structures 

lost relative to the area burned. This suggests that they would benefit by focusing on protecting individual 

homes and actions by individual property owners. Looking more broadly, the density of structures lost or 

buildings involved in wildfires highlights opportunities across the United States where homes are affected 

by wildfire and would substantively benefit from greater individual home protection efforts (Home Defense 

Action, figure 3.8). Community clusters 2, 3, 4, and 6 include counties where community planning and 

coordinated action in combination with individual actions by property owners should be highly encouraged 

(Home and Community Defense Action, figure 3.9).
41

Figure 3.8. Focus on Home Defensive Actions. Counties across the Nation where homes and other structures 

have been involved in wildfires, suggesting greater emphasis on actions by individual property owners 

Figure 3.9. Focus on Combination of Home and Community Actions. Counties where community-level 

planning is most essential

Note: Based on the fact that the threat from wildfires often comes from outside the 

boundaries of the community. Developed areas are displayed in shades of red 

for context.
42

Management Option: Building Codes

One approach to making homes and other buildings more resistant to ignition is to focus on building 

materials and construction standards. Such standards engage individual property owners and enhance 

the effectiveness of community-wide actions. Building standards and adjustments in infrastructure are 

more easily applied to new construction and development than to existing development, and communities 

can be designed or managed in ways that enhance response effectiveness or mitigate risk. Changes in 

building codes are more likely to be effective when targeted at areas of new construction in high-hazard 

areas, and consequently counties with increasing WUI area or increasing WUI home density growth—the 

latter being more closely aligned with increasing home construction overall—suggest opportunities where 

such efforts are most likely to have a significant effect. Because municipal and non-municipal areas tend 

to exhibit varying levels of ability to implement building standards, these are mapped separately (Building 

Codes A and B, figure 3.10).

Figure 3.10. Building Codes. Counties with higher than average rates of home construction and WUI growth 

where building ordinances might have a more positive effect on reducing home losses

Conclusion: Protecting homes from ignition by wildfire is a practical step that is applicable 

anywhere homes can be found adjacent to natural vegetation. Similarly, coordinated action at 

the community level is universally advantageous, but essential when wildfires originate outside 

the community perimeter and threaten all residents collectively. New construction offers riskmitigation opportunities that may not be available elsewhere.
43

Human-caused Ignitions

The historical fire regimes discussed previously are a function of the underlying biophysical environment, 

natural ignitions, and burning patterns of Native Americans prior to European settlement for hunting, 

gathering, and agricultural purposes. Present day regimes are also strongly affected by the biophysical 

influences of vegetation, climate, and natural ignitions, but the human footprint and its effect on fire 

regimes is radically different than before. For simplicity, one can broadly divide wildland fire into two 

principal regimes—natural and human-driven. In the natural regime, fire occurrence and extent is 

primarily driven by environmental variables including vegetation and weather, and natural ignition sources 

(primarily lightning). The human-driven regime reflects the primary influence of human-caused ignitions 

and the influence of suppression activities. Much like historical fire regimes, the present-day effects of 

humans and nature cannot be spatially disaggregated cleanly. That is, both operate within the same 

geographical landscape. At any particular point on a landscape (or point in time), one or the other may be 

dominant but not exclusive. The implications of the differences between human and natural causes are 

clearly important to the concept of designing management options to affect ignitions.

The difference between the natural and human-driven regimes can be illustrated by looking at seasonal 

patterns of wildfire occurrence and the area burned by fires of different causes. Figure 3.11 depicts the biweekly pattern of fire occurrence attributed to three different causes: accidental, incendiary, and natural, 

compiled from a combination of Federal, state, and local data sets. The most commonly reported causes 

are accidental, which include debris burning, fireworks, equipment, campfires, and others. Incendiary fires 

include malicious arson events or other incidents where fires were set intentionally using incendiary 

devices. Figure 3.11 also indicates the close agreement in time between accidental and incendiary 

ignitions. In contrast, natural ignitions have a very strong and consistent seasonal pattern that rises in the 

spring, peaks in the summer, and declines in the fall. The seasonal pattern in area burned as a result of 

these different causes displays an interesting periodicity in which the area burned due to natural ignitions 

exceeds that from other causes through late spring and summer (figure 3.12). 

Figure 3.11. Smoothed time trace of wildfire incidents reported and attributed to different causes throughout 

the United States, 2002 through 2011
44

Figure 3.12. Smoothed time trace of area burned from incidents attributed to different causes throughout the 

United States, 2002 through 2011

Opportunities Discussion

Clearly, human ignitions are the predominant cause of wildfires throughout the United States. In the 

conterminous 48 states, more reported incidents began with human-caused ignitions than from natural 

ignitions in 98 percent of the counties. The area burned from these human-caused fires exceeds that from 

natural ignitions in 94 percent of the counties. Only in more remote counties of the West is the pattern 

reversed.

Smokey Bear and a fire danger sign in Georgia remind the public to be careful with fire to reduce ignitions. 

Photo credit: National Interagency Fire Center Archive. Bugwood.org.
45

Programs that target the prevention of human-caused ignitions have the potential to substantively affect 

wildfire occurrence and extent in essentially every county. There is a need to support fire prevention 

educational efforts as well as to develop adequate and enforceable state and local ordinances related to 

wildfire prevention. Examples of the latter include burn permitting systems and enhanced law 

enforcement efforts focused on fire. There is clear evidence that small investments in fire prevention help 

reduce the high cost of fire suppression, as well as associated wildfire damages. Such programs are most 

effective when they focus on the underlying causes of these human-caused ignitions in each location, and 

tailor the prevention programs to specific causal factors and community dynamics.

Management Option: Reduce Accidental Ignitions

The first option highlights counties where the intent or focus would be to substantively reduce the number 

of accidental ignitions (Reduce Human-caused Ignitions, figure 3.13). Counties were divided into two 

classes based on ignitions: those with either higher or lower than normal numbers of human-caused 

incidents (the median is used to define “normal”). Similarly, counties were split based on the area burned 

by human-caused ignitions relative to the national median. Combinations of these two divisions were 

used to create a four-color map of the Nation. Counties falling into the high-high combination are found 

predominantly in the southeastern and south-central states and in the far West. The Northeast has a high 

percentage of the high-ignition-density, low-area-burned counties, while the interior West displays the 

bulk of the low-ignition-density, high-area-burned counties.

Figure 3.13. Reduce Accidental Ignitions. Spatial distribution of counties differentially affected by either high 

or low numbers of accidental ignitions and high or low area burned by accidental ignitions
46

Management Option: Reduce Intentional Ignitions

The second option similarly focuses on areas experiencing higher than normal incendiary ignitions or the 

area burned by such fires (Reduce Human-caused Incendiary Ignitions, figure 3.14). There is more 

congruence between ignition density and area burned with incendiary fires than with accidental fires.

Thus, large portions of the East and more populated counties of the West exhibit a combination of both 

high incendiary ignitions and high area burned.

The NSAT assembled data sets that include a broad set of community metrics and more detailed causal 

information that can be explored to target specific causal factors within the various community contexts.

For example, debris burning is one of the principal causes of accidental fires; its occurrence varies 

considerably among community clusters.

Figure 3.14. Reduce Intentional Ignitions. Spatial distribution of counties differentially affected by either high 

or low numbers of incendiary ignitions and high or low area burned by incendiary ignitions.

Conclusion: Human-caused ignitions, whether accidental or incendiary, are a universal 

problem that affects much of the United States. Targeting regions or counties with higher-thannormal levels of activity could prove productive, especially if targeted at specific causes. 
47

Effective and Efficient Wildfire Response 

The United States benefits from an extensive and sophisticated wildland fire response organization 

composed of thousands of separate local, state, tribal, and Federal entities. Each organization has 

specific responsibilities for responding first to wildfires occurring within their jurisdiction (initial response). 

They also coordinate and share resources and responsibilities as fires become larger and exceed the 

local response capacity, requiring a more extended suppression response. Fortunately, local response 

capacity is generally adequate for controlling or extinguishing most wildfires, though escalating risks due 

to changing conditions in and around communities may impact response effectiveness in the future. Such

preparedness does not come cheap; Federal suppression response expenditures alone in 2005 to 2012 

exceeded on average $1.5 billion dollars per year.

The relatively small percentage of fires that escape initial response are vitally important, as they account 

for a disproportionate percentage of the area burned, damage to homes and communities, and injuries 

and fatalities. For example, a summary of available data shows that the top 3 percent of fires in terms of 

individual fire sizes account for over 90 percent of the total area burned nationwide from 2002 to 2011.

Another way of viewing this is that if an additional 1 percent of the fires in the United States were to reach 

the size of the current top 3 percent, the total area burned would increase by 30 percent. Relatively few 

large fires also account for a major portion of total suppression costs nationwide, and the variation in 

large fires from year-to-year results in significant swings in total suppression expenditures. This variability 

creates major challenges from both a planning and funding perspective.

An effective and safe collective response organization is essential. Response is the last line of defense 

and action, coming after fires have started and there is little recourse. As with any large, complex 

endeavor, there are opportunities to increase efficiency (i.e., use resources to maximum advantage). 

Finding ways to contain large wildfires more efficiently is an ongoing and continuous struggle and an area 

of active research. Possible solutions generally include combinations of resources, organizational or 

administrative adjustments, and tactics. An additional avenue to improving efficiency is to match response 

efforts with other management options. For example, response personnel will find it easier to protect 

homes and communities when those same homeowners have proactively reduced hazards around their 

homes and prepared for wildfires.

Coordinated response is a complex nationwide issue. Multiple institutional arrangements have been 

negotiated and developed across the country to meet the challenge of delivering the appropriate 

resources and personnel required on each incident. The RSCs and others examined various ways of 

improving coordination within their regions and have suggested actions for improvement. Implementing 

these recommendations will require working through the details among the various national, regional, and 

local governance organizations. Analyzing the full implications of these varied recommendations is 

beyond the scope of this report. Several of the data sets that the NSAT accumulated could be useful 

within forthcoming regional and local discussions of these issues. At the national level, it is possible to 

highlight patterns that suggest areas of greater concern, or alternatively where a combination of response 

with other policy options might play out differentially.
48

State resources responding to the 2007 Georgia wildfires. Photo credit: Ken Masten, Georgia Forestry 

Commission, Bugwood.org

Opportunities Discussion

Because large wildfires cause significant challenges, it is important to know where large, long-duration 

wildfires are likely to occur and plan accordingly. Normative terms like “large” and “long-duration” are 

context-dependent. For example, a large fire in the intermountain West may imply thousands of acres, 

whereas a fire exceeding a few hundred acres in New England would be unusually large. Identifying a 

national standard that reflects these nuances is difficult. For analysis purposes, we defined an index of 

fires of concern (FOC) as being greater than 1 square mile in extent and at least two weeks in duration 

(from report to containment). The two standards work in tandem. Larger western fires tend to be 

constrained by duration; fires lasting more than two weeks are generally much larger than 1 square mile. 

In the eastern United States, the size constraint ensures that long-duration fires are of consequential size. 

The 10-year record of events (2002 through 2011) shows higher frequencies of FOC in drier western 

counties, coastal areas of the Southeast, the southern Appalachians, and the upper Midwest (figure 

3.15).
49

Figure 3.15. Relative frequency of occurrence of fires of concern during the period 2002 to 2011

Management Option: Prepare for Large, Long-Duration Wildfire

Realistically, 10 years is too brief an interval to precisely estimate the chance of a relatively rare event. A

more inclusive estimate of where these larger, longer-duration fires might occur in the future is obtained 

by extrapolating the 10-year sample to all combinations of resiliency classes and community clusters.

8

The resulting map indicates that much of the West, Southeast, and mid-Atlantic regions display areas of 

relatively higher probability for fires of concern, as well as scattered counties of the upper Midwest 

(Prepare for Large, Long Duration Wildfire, figure 3.16). In these areas, preparing for large, long-duration

wildfires is presented as a national response opportunity and management option.

 8 Extrapolation requires treating the entire area within a combination class as a single sample unit rather than 

analyzing individual counties. Highly urban areas (Landscape Class A) are precluded from extrapolation due to high 

intraclass variation. 

Note: Values are expressed in terms of the number of events in 

a 10-year period per 100 square miles.
50

Figure 3.16. Prepare for Large, Long-Duration Wildfire. The relative risk of experiencing a wildfire

Management Option: Protect Structures and Target Landscape Fuels

A second opportunity related to larger fires focuses on the relationship between area burned (as reported 

in Federal and state records) and structures lost (as reported in the nationwide ICS-209 incident reporting 

system). An index of the rate at which structures are lost relative to the area burned was created and 

compared to the area burned itself. A four-color map reflecting the intersection of those two indices 

reveals an interesting pattern (Protect Structures and Target Landscape Fuels, figure 3.17). The 

combination of high rates of structure loss with low area burned is dominant in the Central Plains and 

Eastern regions. Prioritizing response resources towards structure protection in these areas seems 

prudent. Conversely, the Intermountain West exhibits most of the area with high rates of area burned, but 

relatively lower rates of structures lost per unit area burned. The opportunity to employ greater flexibility in 

the tactics used in suppressing and containing fires in this region might be explored. Greater flexibility 

could lead to enhanced ecological benefits, reduced overall suppression costs, and perhaps less direct 

risk to firefighters.

Note: A fire of concern is greater than 1 square mile in extent and 

requires two weeks or more to contain
51

Figure 3.17. Protect Structures and Target Landscape Fuels. Spatial pattern of counties where the numbers 

of structures lost per area burned is high relative to the area burned, vice versa, and where both indices are 

high

Counties exhibiting a combination of both high area burned and high structure loss rates are few in 

number, but highlight some of the most problematic counties in the Nation from a response perspective. 

Management efforts to simultaneously emphasize structure protection in combination with efforts to 

reduce fire size through either increased response capacity or pre-fire fuels management seem 

warranted.

Aircraft applying slurry to try to protect a subdivision built in the wildland-urban interface of Colorado 

Springs, Colorado, from the approaching 2013 Black Forest Fire. Photo credit: U.S. Army photo by Sgt. 

Jonathan C. Thibaut
52

Management Option: Protect Structures and Target Ignition Prevention

The final response opportunity is most relevant to initial response, which often is the responsibility of a 

local fire department or agency. Data from NFIRS were examined and indices computed of the numbers 

of buildings involved per incident and the relative frequency of reported accidental human-caused 

ignitions. The intersection of higher-than-normal values for these variables indicates that the number of 

buildings involved per reported incidents is one of the few variables lacking a strong geographical pattern. 

In contrast, the relative frequency of accidental ignitions tends to be higher in the East and more populous 

areas of the West. The intersection of these two variables has an interesting pattern that illustrates the 

widespread extent of the challenges in managing wildfire risk and offers a guide to matching structure 

protection with prevention efforts (Protect Structures and Target Ignition Prevention, figure 3.18). 

Reducing human-caused ignitions should result in a commensurate reduction in the workload of local 

response organizations and considerably less risk to structures throughout much of the East and 

populous Western counties. Throughout much of the remainder of the country, it is expected that 

buildings frequently will be involved in local incidents, even if the overall number of responses is relatively 

low.

Figure 3.18. Protect Structures and Target Ignition Prevention. Spatial pattern of the intersection of counties 

with higher than normal numbers of buildings involved per incident with the relative numbers of accidental 

human ignitions

Conclusion: Initial and extended responses are complex and difficult to analyze, particularly at 

a national scale. Examining data on area burned, structures lost, and patterns of accidental 

ignitions provides a backdrop for understanding some of the response challenges facing local, 

state, tribal, and Federal fire departments and agencies.
53

Chapter 3 Summary 

This chapter began with a simple conceptual model of wildland fire that highlights the five factors most 

responsible for determining the occurrence, extent, and intensity of wildfires; demonstrates how risk 

ultimately depends on exposure; and suggests strategic actions that contribute to reducing risk. The 

ensuing analysis and discussion clearly demonstrates, however, that the pathways between actions, 

causes, and consequences are not straightforward, but involve numerous complexities and nuances. 

Four national challenges were identified:

• Vegetation and Fuels. The slow but steady accumulation of vegetation in areas that historically 

burned at frequent intervals exacerbates fuel conditions and inevitably leads to higher intensity fires 

that are more damaging, more costly, and threaten the safety and security of both the public and 

firefighters.

• Homes, Communities, and other Values at Risk. Many homes and communities are at risk simply 

because of their proximity to, or juxtaposition with, flammable natural vegetation in environments 

conducive to wildland fire. Similarly, other key values including infrastructure and ecological services 

are increasingly threatened by uncharacteristic wildfires.

• Human-caused Ignitions. Human-caused ignitions are a universal problem that account for the 

majority of reported wildfires throughout the Nation. The prevalence of human-caused ignitions 

requires an ever-present response organization in most locations.

• Effective and Efficient Wildfire Response. The United States uses a highly capable and effective 

multi-jurisdictional response capacity that quickly suppresses the vast majority of wildfires. Large or 

long-duration wildfires pose major challenges to response because of their inherent costs—both 

economically and ecologically—and the threats they pose to health and safety.

Fire regimes inevitably will change due to changing climatic conditions, population expansion and 

accelerated human development, impacts from invasive species, changes in resource utilization (food, 

fuel, and fiber), and other agents of landscape change. All are potentially important; all remain uncertain; 

all are active areas of research. Predictions of future conditions remain speculative, but the changes will 

likely exacerbate the challenges of managing wildland fire, not diminish them. Current conditions provide 

the best predictor of the immediate future until greater clarity is achieved. Our collective ability to meet 

tomorrow’s challenges will depend greatly on how well we meet today’s challenges.

Multiple opportunities for meeting today’s challenges were explored using the empirical data assembled 

and analyzed by the NSAT. These opportunities are displayed as a series of options, summarized in 

table 3.3. The insights gained by exploring each option are used along with the understanding of national 

differences described in Chapter 2 as the foundation for a national strategy.
54

Table 3.3. Summary of management options 

National Goals National 

Challenges Management Options*

Restore and 

Maintain 

Landscapes

Fire-adapted 

Communities

Respond to 

Wildfires

Vegetation and 

Fuels

Prescribed Fire: Expand or maintain in areas of current use (figure 3.3)

Prescribed Fire: Expand into areas of limited current use (figure 3.3)

Prescribed Fire: Utilize on a limited basis (figure 3.3)

Manage wildfires for resource objectives: In forested systems (figure 3.4)

Manage wildfires for resource objectives: In non-forested systems (figure 3.4)

Manage wildfires for resource objectives: In areas where increased awareness 

of community risk is necessary. (figure 3.4)

Non-fire Treatments: Supported by forest products industry (figure 3.5) 

Non-fire Fuels Treatments: In non-forest areas (figure 3.5)

Non-fire Fuels Treatment: In areas with limited economic markets (figure 3.5)

Fuels Treatments as a precursor to prescribed fire or managed wildfire (figure 

3.6)

Homes, 

Communities, & 

Values At Risk

Focus on home defensive actions (figure 3.8)

Focus on combination of home and community actions (figure 3.9)

Adjust building and construction codes, municipal areas (figure 3.10)

Adjust building and construction codes, non-municipal areas (figure 3.10)

Human-caused 

Ignitions

Reduce accidental human-caused ignitions (figure 3.13)

Reduce human-caused incendiary ignitions (e.g., arson) (figure 3.14)

Effective and 

Efficient Wildfire 

Response

Prepare for large, long-duration wildfires (figure 3.16)

Protect structures and target landscape fuels (figure 3.17)

Protect structures and target prevention of ignitions (figure 3.18)

*As related to addressing national challenges and in support of the three Cohesive Strategy goals. The three national 

goals are both related and interdependent upon each other, making management options supportive of achieving progress 

in all three goal areas but to varying degrees.
55

CHAPTER 4 – THE NATIONAL STRATEGY 

The first phase of the Cohesive Strategy began with the vision statement, “Safely and effectively 

extinguish fire, when needed; use fire where allowable; manage our natural resources; and as a Nation, 

live with wildland fire.” From there, three national goals and a set of guiding principles and core values 

were established. Since then, efforts have been progressively moving from goals and principles to 

actions. Success within the Cohesive Strategy requires finding balance. This balance is encapsulated 

within the vision statement. Finding acceptable balance is not a scientific optimization problem, but a 

sociopolitical exercise which science can advise. 

The options explored in Chapter 3 suggest opportunities where management actions can be employed 

and leveraged to explicitly advance the national goals of the Cohesive Strategy. The options were 

intentionally crafted such that they are not mutually exclusive. That is, choosing to emphasize one option 

does not preclude implementing other options as well, even in the same location. Indeed, implementing 

multiple options is likely to have a synergistic or mutually reinforcing positive effect. 

Having a set of options available to choose from is important, but it is not yet a strategy. In these times of 

limited fiscal resources, hard choices have to be made. Every choice involves a question of value, and 

unfortunately, not everything is a win-win solution. Choices made at a national or regional level to 

emphasize one option or set of activities over another invariably affect all constituencies differentially. The 

hardest part of defining a national strategy is deciding who does what, when, and where. Although many 

details will be worked through in collaborative exercises at multiple scales, the blueprint for those 

deliberations and commitments comes from national-level spatial and temporal prioritization.

This chapter seeks to explicitly define those national priorities using the information assembled and 

described in preceding chapters.

Risk Tradeoffs 

One unavoidable tenet of risk management is that choices made today affect all future options. For 

example, management choices made in the past have disrupted historical fire regimes, such that wildfires 

today are of much different character, magnitude, and extent than those that burned centuries ago. The 

net result is that vegetative fuels on much of the landscape exceed historical levels, continue to 

accumulate, and are likely to contribute to larger, higher-intensity fires. As a Nation, we must either 

accept and prepare for that eventuality or take active steps to reduce fuels. Fuel reductions carry their 

own risks, however, whether it comes from fire use or unintended collateral effects on other ecological or 

social values. Thus, all choices inherently involve trading one set of values for another.

The temporal nature of tradeoffs can be visualized as a series of curves reflecting various assumptions 

related to the level of risk or expected losses over time under different national policy scenarios (figure 

4.1). Line A in Figure 4.1 represents the risk trajectory expected under a continuation of current policies 

and investments. This scenario assumes that fuel loads are accumulating in much of the landscape, 

expansion of the WUI continues, and climatic changes, invasive species, and other environmental factors 

are likely to contribute to worsening risk. More importantly, the incremental change in risk over time 

escalates at an increased rate. This leads to an ever-increasing slope much like the common compound 

interest curves in finance. 
56

An alternative scenario is to return to near-historical levels of wildland fire. This scenario would 

aggressively address the fuels problem—leading to reduced long-term risk—but also quickly escalate 

overall risks beyond what is likely to be acceptable in many communities (Line B). The increase in risk

seen here comes from much greater prescribed fire use and expansive use of unplanned ignitions for 

resource benefits. 

A more ideal solution is a trajectory that marginally increases risk in the short term, but begins paying 

long-term benefits relatively quickly and keeps risks at manageable levels (Line C). This trajectory is 

consistent with the Cohesive Strategy goals of restoring and maintaining fire-resilient landscapes, 

creating fire-adapted communities, and safely and effectively responding to wildfire. The temporal nature 

of the curve helps conceptualize a national strategy that addresses risk in the immediate and short term 

as well as the longer-term future. The exact trajectory cannot be fully known. Each area of the country will 

follow a unique path, but there will be a point at which the level of fuel treatment is adequate to temper 

fire behavior to manageable, non-destructive levels. Simultaneously, the investments and priority actions 

undertaken within and near communities will increasingly reduce losses to homes and communities. The 

potential rise in risk in the near term is related to the risk associated with expanding the use of fire as a 

tool to manage fuels. This scenario also assumes that response is commensurate with local needs and 

works in tandem with other programs and activities.

Figure 4.1. Three hypothetical scenarios for temporal trends in risk nationwide

Time

Risk

A

B

C

(A) Continuation of current policies and actions

(B) Return to historical levels of wildland fire 

(C) A mix of prudent policies and actions that effectively 

reduce long-term risk 
57

Attaining the national risk trajectory described above and characterized by Line C will not be simple or 

easy. Three key assumptions or premises underlie meaningful reductions in risk:

1. Prioritization of investment and use of resources. Reducing risk significantly will require that 

existing resources are used more efficiently. From a national perspective, this may require 

reallocation of resources across agencies, geographical areas, or program areas.

2. Acceptance of increased short-term risk. Significantly reducing fuels across broad landscapes 

will require expanded use of wildland fire to achieve management objectives. Using fire as a tool 

carries inherent risks that must be considered in the short-term to achieve the longer-term 

benefits.

3. Greater collective investment. Even with greater efficiency and acceptance of short-term risk, 

current levels of investment may be inadequate to achieve the levels of risk reduction desired. All 

who have a stake in the outcome, from individual property owners to the Federal, state, tribal, and 

local governments, must share the costs and level of effort necessary to redeem responsibilities 

for reducing risks posed by wildfire.

The wide variation in conditions and circumstances across the country makes it impractical to identify 

specific actions that are best suited to each and every location. Nevertheless, the analysis of landscape 

classes and community clusters in Chapter 2 can be combined with management opportunities explored 

in Chapter 3 to suggest potential national priorities for increased emphasis. 

In the following sections, the general principles for the National Strategy are outlined and the four national 

challenges are revisited to create spatial prioritization maps for the Nation. 

National Guidance

The first element of this National Strategy is a set of heuristics or rules of thumb to provide basic 

guidance when planning activities. Such heuristics are meant to be broadly applicable and generally 

accurate, but not rigidly enforced when local circumstances suggest more prudent courses of action. 

The first rule is that safe and effective response to wildfires must be the highest priority of the National 

Strategy. Placing priority on protecting the safety and health of the public and firefighters implies the need 

for, and assumption of, a safe and effective response organization. This presumes that immediate threats 

are the most important—and wildfires are an immediate threat throughout the country. Improving 

preparedness can take many forms. Although resources such as equipment and personnel improve the 

ability to respond, improved coordination, communication, and training are important components of 

intergovernmental preparedness and should be included regional or national strategy. Large wildfires that 

threaten entire communities are relatively rare, yet their impact on public perception and the reality that 

large fires near communities can have catastrophic consequences requires special attention.

General guidance regarding response includes:

• Enhance wildfire response preparedness in areas more likely to experience large, long-duration 

wildfires that are unwanted or threaten communities and homes. 

• Enhance wildfire response preparedness in areas experiencing high rates of structure loss per area 

burned.
58

• At the community level, emphasize both structure protection and wildfire prevention to enhance the 

effectiveness of initial response. 

It would be shortsighted to assume that a safe and effective response to fire is the only priority. Indeed, 

one could argue that the suppression challenges today are symptomatic of more fundamental underlying 

issues. The current trajectory of increasing risk cannot be headed off by simply adding more 

preparedness and suppression resources. 

The gradual accumulation of wildland fuels is perhaps the most difficult and challenging issue to address. 

An analogy can be made to walking up the down escalator. One has to be moving just to stay in place; 

the only way to move up is to move faster than the escalator is moving down. Despite current investments 

in priority areas being treated through fuels management or burned in wildfires, some landscapes are 

accumulating fuels at a rate faster than can be managed. Broad-scale efforts to reduce fuels across the 

landscape can be expensive and time-consuming and require strategic coordination regardless of which 

type of fuels management activity is implemented. Prescribed fire and managing wildfire for resource 

objectives have the greatest potential for treating large areas at lower cost than mechanical treatments, 

but use of fire entails greater inherent risk that must be addressed at a local level. Mechanical, biological, 

or chemical treatments play an important role wherever they are economically feasible. Success in 

collectively investing in managing fuels nationally with measurable results in the short- and long-term will 

not be achieved overnight.

General guidance regarding vegetation and fuels management include:

• Where wildfires are unwanted or threaten communities and homes, design and prioritize fuel 

treatments (prescribed fire, and mechanical, biological and chemical treatments) to reduce fire 

intensity, structure ignition, and wildfire extent. 

• Where feasible, implement strategically placed fuel treatments to interrupt fire spread across 

landscapes. 

• Continue and expand the use of prescribed fire to meet landscape objectives, improve ecological 

conditions, and reduce the potential for high-intensity wildfires.

• Where allowed and feasible, manage wildfire for resource objectives and ecological purposes to 

restore and maintain fire-adapted ecosystems and achieve fire-resilient landscapes.

• Use and expand fuel treatments involving mechanical, biological, or chemical methods where 

economically feasible and sustainable, and where they align with landowner objectives.

Activities that focus on individual homes or structures and community-level protection are important 

components of the National Strategy. Efforts that engage communities in taking proactive action before

wildfires need public support, work in conjunction with other actions, enhance management flexibility in 

response, and are not necessarily expensive. General guidance regarding homes and communities 

include:

• Promote community and homeowner involvement in planning and implementing actions to mitigate 

the risk posed by wildfire to communities and homes situated near or adjacent to natural vegetation.

• Emphasize proactive wildfire risk mitigation actions, such as CWPPs and other methods of 

comprehensive community planning, where new development and expansion into natural vegetation 

is occurring.

• Pursue municipal, county, and state building and zoning codes and ordinances that mitigate fire risk 

to protect life and property from wildfire. 
59

• Ensure that wildfire mitigation strategies consider protection of community infrastructure and values, 

for example, municipal watersheds, cultural assets, viewsheds, parks, and transportation and utility 

corridors.

Finally, actions that focus on preventing human-caused ignitions are universally prudent. Human-caused 

ignitions are a widespread issue that is relatively inexpensive to affect, especially when prevention 

programs are carefully targeted. General guidance regarding prevention efforts can be summarized as:

• Emphasize programs and activities that prevent human-caused ignitions, whether accidental or 

incendiary, where these ignitions, combined with high levels of area burned, suggest the greatest 

need. Programs should be tailored to meet identified local needs.

The North Lake Tahoe Fire Protection District, a member of the Fire-Adapted Communities Learning Network, 

uses block parties to bring neighbors together for an afternoon of fire education in Incline Village, Nevada. 

Photo credit: North Lake Tahoe Fire Protection District.

National Priorities 

The second element of this National Strategy involves prioritizing which activities will be emphasized 

where, from a national perspective. The vision and national goals are reaffirmed in Chapter 1. 

Four national challenges emerge through an understanding of regional and national issues, as described 

in Chapter 2. The opportunities explored in Chapter 3 suggest a broad range of actions that could 

advance the national goals and highlights areas where specific actions are likely to be most effective.

Prioritization involves stepping back and looking at potential actions thematically and in a broader context. 

The concept of a national priority for thematic actions follows the premise that concerted actions are most 

likely to be efficient or effective in areas where conditions contributing to an issue are most acute. When 

implemented, the national priorities support progress toward each of the three national goals. 
60

Figure 4.2 illustrates the basic relationship between national goals, challenges, options, spatially 

prioritized opportunities, and national priorities. 

Figure 4.2. Generalized relationship between the three national goals and the development of national 

priorities. 
61

The attributes of counties falling within each combination of community clusters and landscape classes 

were considered relative to the four national challenges. The match between county characteristics and 

thematic actions were then used to suggest relative priorities from a national perspective. The general 

process was to identify a subset of landscape classes or community clusters that were associated with 

higher or more troublesome levels of the variables of interest. The intersection of these identified classes 

and clusters created a high-priority combination class. Second-tier sets of clusters or classes were also 

identified and used similarly to indicate combination classes that would receive second- or third-level 

priorities.

Vegetation and Fuels

National prioritization of areas for broad-scale fuels management (as distinct from hazard reduction in 

proximity to structures) suggests a primary emphasis in the West and Southeast (figure 4.3). These 

included counties with the highest level of wildfire, fire-adapted native vegetation, and communities 

concentrated within a broader wildland landscape. Each location would use the mix of options most 

suitable for local conditions, as described in the options of Prescribed Fire, Managing Fire for Resource 

Benefit, Non-Fire Treatments, and Fuels Treatments as a Precusor to Managed Wildfire.

Figure 4.3. National priorities for broad-scale fuels management 

Note: When using a mix of options best suited for local conditions
62

Homes, Communities, and Values at Risk

Candidate counties for national prioritization of community and individual homeowner action would 

include those described above under management options for Home Defense Action and Home and 

Community Action, tempered by features of each landscape class (figure 4.4). The management option of 

developing building codes where ordinances will have a positive effect on reducing home loss was 

likewise considered. Counties characterized by higher-than-average annual area burned, structures lost, 

and homes exposed within the WUI (especially in the West, South, and Southeast) were assigned the 

highest priority for community action.

Figure 4.4. National priorities for community planning and coordination 

Note: As suggested by county attributes
63

Managing Human-caused Ignitions

The available data on human-caused ignitions and their consequences identifies counties where humancaused ignitions dominate and lead to above-average area burned or buildings impacted by wildfires.

These data suggest a prioritization that would target many eastern counties and populous western 

counties (figure 4.5).

Figure 4.5. National priorities for managing human-caused ignitions

Effective and Efficient Wildfire Response

From a national perspective, the primary challenges regarding suppression response are centered on 

issues surrounding large, long-duration wildfires. This is certainly not to discount or say that local 

response issues are unimportant. Indeed, all wildfires begin as local response events. It also is a 

misnomer to talk about priorities whenever large wildfires are concerned. In truth, all large wildfires are 

high-priority wherever they occur because of their unparalleled potential for harm. Conversely, large 

wildfires also have considerable potential for ecological benefits because of the extensive areas that they 

affect. Thus, an ideal national prioritization map would show where large wildfires are likely to occur, 

where they are likely to have negative overall social or ecological effects, and where they would likely 

produce positive resource benefits. Such a map would be extremely useful for prepositioning of response 

resources, planning containment or suppression tactics, and even planning for post-fire rehabilitation.

Unfortunately, creating such a map using the relatively coarse scale of counties as mapping units is 

fraught with difficulty. Many of the positive or negative effects of wildfire depend on small-scale, sitespecific conditions on the ground and local weather conditions under which the fire occurs. It’s common 

for areas to experience negative effects under extreme conditions, for example, but positive effects under 
64

low or moderate intensity fire. Sophisticated modeling exercises have been used elsewhere to address 

this complexity using higher resolution data, but introduce their own analytical shortcomings. Generally 

speaking, one can obtain a more precise analytical solution using higher resolution data, but there is no 

guarantee that the answer will be more accurate.

A relatively simple first approximation to the ideal map can be obtained by overlaying the map of large 

wildfire potential (Large Long Duration Wildfire, figure 3.16) with the opportunities map for managing 

wildfires for resource objectives (figure 3.4). To simplify interpretation, large wildfire potential was divided 

into three categories and overlain with the wildfires for resource objectives map. The composite five-color 

map (figure 4.6) shows areas with relatively low likelihood of experiencing large fires (white areas on 

map), areas with moderate likelihood of large wildfires combined with beneficial use potential (light 

yellow), and areas with high likelihood of large wildfires combined with beneficial use potential (gold).

Figure 4.6. Intersection of the large, long-duration wildfire potential with the opportunities map for managing 

wildfires for resource objectives 

The purpose of figure 4.6 is not to dictate the response or resource management objectives for all large 

or long-duration wildfires in these counties. All wildfires have to be managed in the specific context and 

locations in which they occur to ensure environmental issues and local conditions are addressed. Rather, 

the intent is to suggest that there are significant areas where greater flexibility in the management of large 

wildfires might be used.
65

Conversely, there are broad areas where the resource benefits from large or long-duration wildfires are 

likely outweighed by other concerns. One key to being able to use greater flexibility is the ability to 

anticipate or quickly assess the risk posed from an individual event. Ironically, the current suppression 

capacity in some areas is inversely proportional to the likelihood of a wildfire creating positive ecological 

benefits. That is, organizations as a whole are most effective at controlling wildfires that are likely to be 

beneficial, and least able to contain those wildfires that are likely to be most damaging. The net result is 

that we may be extinguishing many fires with the greatest potential for good. Enhanced, rapid risk 

assessment tools that help inform incident response decisions could be highly beneficial in this context.

Chapter 4 Summary 

There are two primary elements to the National Strategy: a set of general guidelines for choosing among 

and implementing management actions and a set of four national priority maps. The spatial prioritization 

maps work in tandem with the opportunity maps presented in Chapter 3. Management options were 

mapped in an attempt to show where they would be most reasonable or potentially effective and generally 

were developed independent of each other. The prioritization maps reflect a higher level of aggregation in 

that multiple management options can be employed in the same location for similar purposes. Both sets 

of maps are intended to highlight opportunities and priorities, not to exclude the use of any management 

option from other locations. 

Similarly, the purpose in developing the classification systems for counties that underlies the prioritization 

maps was to create a common set of narratives that would be broadly applicable, not to identify individual 

counties for a particular prescription. Therefore, if errors in data or interpretation erroneously led to a 

misclassification of a county, it is anticipated that more localized planning efforts would correct such 

errors and adjust county-level recommendations appropriately.

Additionally, implementation of any management option requires a trained, committed, and supported 

workforce. It is likely that the same individuals will be called upon to implement multiple facets of the 

overall strategy. For example, first responders may be the only ones with the requisite knowledge and 

experience to conduct prescribed burning in many locations. If they are occupied responding to wildfires, 

prescribed burning is cancelled or postponed. Similarly, the best ambassadors for prevention programs 

and community planning are often local firefighters. 

67

CHAPTER 5 – IMPLEMENTATION

The Cohesive Strategy effort is remarkable, indeed unique, in terms of its broad scope and inclusiveness. 

The broad aspirations of the effort and the collaboration needed to approach it offer great strengths, but 

do not come easy. Reaching across all lands and including all parties in the development of a 

comprehensive and coherent effort to manage and live with wildland fire has required unprecedented 

effort. Even more effort will be required during implementation—where the vision and strategy become a 

reality through real-world activities on the ground.

Successful implementation requires three basic elements to be operating in tandem:

• Strategic Alignment − All parties agree to the same goals, principles, and strategic course of action.

• Communications and Collaborative Engagement − This includes governance, shared information 

and resources, communications, and monitoring and accountability.

• Programmatic Alignment − Individual agency or organization objectives are explicitly supportive of 

the national cohesive strategy goals, recognizing the disparate missions, roles and responsibilities of 

each, the cascade of decisions required, and fiscal realities and constraints.

The WFLC provides a national, intergovernmental venue for a collaborative approach to implementing the 

National Strategy. All partners and stakeholders to the National Strategy have a commitment and 

responsibility to take necessary actions for implementation. Those actions should take place in a 

coordinated, collaborative manner, using the actions and activities identified in Regional Action Plans, as 

appropriate. 

Strategic Alignment

Considerable progress has been made with regard to strategic alignment during the multiple phases of 

the Cohesive Strategy efforts to date. The National Strategy presented herein and the subsequent 

National Action Plan set the strategic, intergovernmental direction for pursuing policy priorities and 

implementation of actions nationally. These outcomes of the Cohesive Strategy represent successful 

collaborative engagement at regional and national levels for the purposes of strategic planning. Moving 

into the next stages of implementation will require continuing and expanding collaborative engagement, 

but with a change in focus toward greater emphasis on programmatic alignment.

National Action Plan 

The National Action Plan and the Regional Action Plans were developed to be complementary. The intent 

of the National Action Plan is to articulate a framework of national, strategic action for supporting the 

implementation actions and tasks necessary at various scales. 

Actions will be derived from the following sources:

• National guidance and national priorities defined in this strategy;

• The barriers and critical success factors identified in Phase II and III of the Cohesive Strategy;

• Regional action plans containing actions that are national in scope or common to multiple regions.
68

Accountability and Monitoring 

A set of national outcome performance measures will allow Congress, the national wildland fire 

management community, and other stakeholders to monitor and assess progress toward achieving the 

results for each of the three national goals. Establishing intermediate performance measures beneath the 

national outcome measures allows for a more narrowly focus means to measure the specific activities that 

must occur for progress to be made in achieving the desired national outcomes. Intermediate measures

are statements describing the level of performance to be accomplished within a timeframe, expressed as 

a tangible, measurable objective or as a quantitative standard, value, or rate. 

Throughout the Cohesive Strategy effort, it has been recognized that one size does not fit all in a country 

as large and diverse as the United States. Therefore, national outcome measures will flow directly from 

the national vision and goals, and will be intentionally broad to be inclusive of many different factors 

across geographic regions. Together, the national measures will enable us to communicate progress 

toward meeting the shared goals. The measures will help leadership and managers answer questions 

such as: 

• Are landscapes resilient to wildfire in support of our management objectives? 

• Can human populations and infrastructure in communities at risk withstand wildfire without loss? 

• Is there effective collaboration in using risk management to improve the safety, effectiveness and 

efficiency of our wildland fire management actions? 

Federal agencies are accountable to the Administration and Congress through formal performance 

measures and reporting requirements. National outcome performance measures as a result of the 

Cohesive Strategy effort would not supersede the formal agency performance measures, but should be 

used to demonstrate and report progress toward achieving the Cohesive Strategy goals. Agencies and 

organizations with a stake in wildland fire management will be encouraged to seek alignment with or 

incorporation of a shared set of national outcome measures into their own planning and performance 

processes. National outcome measures are important to drive progress, implementation of the Cohesive 

Strategy will include actions and commitments to collect the information required for these measures. 

In addition to national outcome and intermediate measures, associated efficiency measures for each goal

have utility in measuring the efficiency of investments related to significant cost centers associated with 

each goal. Specifically, efficiency measures are used to: 

• Track priority investments by Cohesive Strategy goal, over time with the intent of establishing trend 

information (where applicable) on the effects of investments to achieve goal outcomes.

• Help assess which investments are the most cost-effective means of achieving the goals in order to 

make informed investment tradeoffs with respect to wildland fire program appropriations.

Communication and Collaborative Engagement

A National Communication Framework was developed to provide communication guidance and support to 

agencies, organizations, stakeholders, and interested individuals involved in implementing and 

institutionalizing the Cohesive Strategy. Keeping people informed, implementing communication 

processes that enhance and sustain collaboration among stakeholders, and guiding future 

communication efforts are all necessary components of implementation. 
69

The communication focus now shifts from development to implementation, and new communication 

strategies are needed to meet implementation objectives. The vast majority of communications will 

originate with the many different stakeholder agencies and organizations. All stakeholders must be 

responsible for supporting communication and informing and joining in the formal and informal 

communication networks across organizations.

The communication focus also will shift from the national/regional level to the regional/local level as most 

Cohesive Strategy implementation projects will be undertaken by local community-based partnerships 

focusing on single or a few joint actions. The success of these partnerships will largely determine 

continuing support for the Cohesive Strategy and its enduring success. National communication 

objectives for institutionalizing the vision, goals, and national direction from the Cohesive Strategy 

include:

• Increase knowledge of the goals, guiding principles, core values, and national priorities in fire and 

land management organizations and expand other stakeholder knowledge and understanding;

• Improve stakeholder and public knowledge of wildland fire fundamentals;

• Mobilize higher education and extension resources to provide opportunities for stakeholders to 

improve their collaboration knowledge and skills; 

• Improve and expand communication between scientists, program managers, specialists, and 

stakeholders implementing the National Strategy to ensure that the best science and proven 

professional practices are used;

• Promote evidence-based wildland fire prevention communications and education;

• Encourage and support a continuous, rolling, and collaborative dialog among stakeholders and 

across regions to enhance shared understanding, roles, mutual trust, and willingness to pool 

resources and take joint actions.

The importance of collaboration throughout the Cohesive Strategy effort, of hearing all the voices, and 

involving all the partners cannot be overemphasized. The time and care taken in developing this strategy 

will result in a better understanding of what needs to be done, and greater ease in working with the 

multitude of agencies and individuals collectively to reduce the threat of wildfire.

A FireScape Monterey workshop to identify strategies. FireScape Monterey works collaboratively in the 

northern Santa Lucia Mountains and the Monterey Coast, California. Photo credit: TNC Fire Learning 

Network.
70

Programmatic Alignment

Programmatic alignment involves ensuring that individual agency or organization objectives are matched 

to the larger national goals and that resources are committed toward attaining those objectives. 

Successful alignment requires that the disparate missions, roles and responsibilities of each agency or 

organization are recognized and fully considered, along with fiscal realities and constraints. 

Implementation necessitates decisions at multiple scales, suggesting a cascade of decisions, each 

reinforcing or complementing the other.

Roles and Responsibilities

Addressing wildland fire is not simply a fire management, fire operations, or WUI problem—it is much 

larger and more complex. Implementation of the National Strategy relies on people working together 

towards a shared vision and set of priorities. Each agency, partner organization, and individual 

homeowner has a role in implementing the National Strategy. Long-term success will only be achieved 

through a unified, collaborative, and focused effort among:

• Local, state, tribal, and Federal government agencies

• Non-governmental organizations and constituent groups 

• Elected officials 

• Citizens from communities across the Nation

Implementation requires understanding the differences that exist across the Nation and the tensions 

among partners and stakeholders. The National Strategy recognizes significant variation in land 

ownership and land use objectives. By understanding that variation and differences exist, the National 

Strategy becomes a platform for partners and stakeholders to embrace different roles and responsibilities 

to promote cohesive and efficient fire management across all jurisdictions.

Fire crews welcome air support at the 2012 Whitewater-Baldy Complex Fire in New Mexico. Photo credit:

Kari Greer, National Interagency Fire Center.
71

One clear example of where agencies and organizations can play different roles is suggested by the 

spatial distribution of the lands that they manage (figure 5.1). At the national level, the USFS and BLM are 

the two largest land managers, with distinctly different areas of influence. Similarly, private landowners, 

as a collective, control a majority of the land base across the country. Continuing to strengthen 

relationships with key organizations that represent them as well as creating new partnerships is important 

in many areas to have an impact on the resiliency and management of the wildland fire landscape.

Working with state agencies that provide technical assistance to private landowners is key for wildfire 

control, but management of the land still remains the landowners’ purview.

The same discussion illustrated through the previous example can be examined for other Federal

bureaus, state agencies, and other conservation partners as well. For example, in Nevada the primary 

conservation partner is the BLM. The BLM has a large role and responsibility in these areas as guided by 

land management goals and objectives defined in their land use and resource management plans. Other 

stakeholders, including local fire departments and individual landowners, also have important roles and 

responsibilities. Given the geographic span of influence in this area, the BLM has both an opportunity and 

responsibility to work with partners on wildland fire management. 

Figure 5.1. Primary conservation partners in each county based on area managed by each entity

Regardless of how much or little area an individual or agency controls, and regardless of what role or 

responsibility that entity has, collaboration is essential. With each partner doing their share, significant 

progress can be made to improve wildland fire management across the Nation. The National Strategy 

focuses on providing the best data and information available to make current investments more effective. 

Source: USGS protected areas database.
72

Informing Decisions at Multiple Scales 

Translating national priorities into local action requires complementary implementation decisions to be 

made at multiple scales. This is often referred to as the “cascade of decisions.” While allocation and 

implementation decisions cannot be mandated, cooperating agencies and organizations have a better 

chance of reducing overall risks by adopting strategic direction in the National Strategy and sharing 

information and analytical tools developed collaboratively. To illustrate the cascade of decisions possible, 

two examples are described below. The examples illustrate how separate agencies might use the 

national priorities, analysis information and tools, and national and regional action plans to inform choices 

made at various scales. These examples are hypothetical and may be implemented differently than 

described, but they illustrate how the information could be used. 

Example 1. Grants for Mitigation and Assistance to Communities

The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) through the Federal Emergency Management 

Agency (FEMA) oversees several grant programs aimed at providing support to states, counties, 

local fire departments, and communities to prepare for and recover from wildfire. It is possible that 

FEMA, with the assistance of the U.S. Fire Administration (USFA), could establish criteria 

recognizing that some counties across the United States are more likely to experience damaging 

wildfire than other counties. The National Strategy established spatially explicit priorities for 

addressing Home, Community and Other Values as Risk and national priorities for Managing 

Human-caused Ignitions. These priorities could be used to review and refine grant-funding 

priorities for applicants with proposals seeking to address wildfire risk in the high-priority areas.

The states, in turn, could encourage and prioritize submissions from counties and communities 

that are within the high-priority areas. The current FEMA Assistance to Firefighters Grants and 

Fire Prevention and Safety Grants are competitively awarded directly to local fire departments 

(and other eligible applicants). The FEMA could use the National Strategy priorities to aid in 

reviewing and awarding grants. 

Example 2. Federal Investment in Reducing Fuels

The USFS invests considerable effort in fuels reduction. The funding and prioritization process 

has regional and national components. The National Strategy’s priorities for broad-scale fuels 

management could help to inform the funding and prioritization processes at the regional and 

national levels. The current prioritization process could include the national spatial priorities for 

managing fuels as one layer in the overall analysis with emphasis on areas analyzed as likely to 

benefit from broad-scale fuels management treatments. If adopted at the regional and national 

levels, the use of funding to prioritize treatments should result in more efficient and effective 

treatments to achieve broad-scale fuels objectives.

A benefit of defining goals and priorities from an intergovernmental perspective is the ability of key 

stakeholders to contribute to a more holistic and effective approach to addressing wildfire risk. The 

examples discussed illustrate the potential applicability of the National Strategy to existing decision 

processes for resource allocation and implementation decisions. Reviewing existing allocation and 

implementation decision processes in light of the national strategic priorities may reveal opportunities for 

greater efficiency and effectiveness. Likewise, seemingly independent decisions can have a greater 

impact when focused on a priority that is shared among the many stakeholders. Leveraging resources—a 

guiding principle of the Cohesive Strategy—is enhanced by programmatic alignment of individual 

decisions with common goals and priorities.
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Conclusion

The ultimate success of the Cohesive Strategy effort depends on how strategic direction and national 

priorities can be translated into the on-the-ground, local actions of agencies, organizations, governments, 

and individuals with meaningful cumulative effects. Planning efforts thus far have established a firm 

foundation for achieving strategic alignment, one of the three pillars of a successful strategy. 

Collaborative engagement, a second pillar of success, has been a staple of the planning efforts thus far, 

and will continue to be a high priority for involved partners.

The final pillar, programmatic alignment, is unique in that it begins to shift the focus back to individual 

roles, responsibilities, and actions of entities, agencies, organizations, and the public at large. Alignment 

with the strategic direction and national priorities is essential in this shift. As implementation proceeds, 

actions become far more specific and less nebulous. Implications in terms of cost, who acts, and who 

benefits are describable. Tradeoffs among actions become clear. By establishing national priorities and 

ensuring alignment of programs, policies, regulations, and actions to national direction, meaningful 

reductions in risk are possible through concerted, collaborative implementation.

75

APPENDIX A: ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS – 

COMMITTEES, COUNCILS, AND WORK 

GROUPS

National Science and Analysis Team

Phase III Contributors

The National Science and Analysis Team is led by Danny C. Lee (USDA Forest Service) and Thomas M. 

Quigley (METI Corporation) and included over 60 individuals from various agencies, organizations and 

universities (see Phase II report). 

The national analysis described in this report was completed by a small team from the NSAT using much 

of the information assembled and prepared previously by the NSAT. In addition to Drs. Lee and Quigley, 

the national analysis team included Steve Norman and William Christie from the USDA Forest Service, 

and James Fox, Karin Rogers, and Matthew Hutchins from the University of North Carolina – Asheville. 

In addition the NSAT, a national science advisory committee was assembled to support the NSAT in 

completing the national analysis. The members of that committee included Jenna Sloan (DOI), Rob 

Doudrick (USFS Research), Douglas MacDonald (IAFC and WRSC), Paige Lewis (TNC), Mike Zupko (SE 

RSC), Brad Simpkins (NE RSC), Caitlyn Pollihan (States), and Dan Olsen (FS). 

77

Cohesive Strategy Subcommittee

Name Agency / Organization

Dan Smith, Chair NASF

Patti Blankenship, Primary Member DHS-FEMA-USFA

Sandra Burnett USDA-USFS

Erin Darboven DOI-OWF

Judith Downing USDA-USFS

Danny Lee USDA-USFS; NSAT Co-Lead

Katie Lighthall Contractor with WGA; WRSC Coordinator

Doug MacDonald, WFEC Liaison IAFC 

Larry Mastic Contractor for NAASF; NE RSC Coordinator;

Dan Olsen, Primary Member USDA-USFS

Caitlyn Pollihan, Primary Member Coalition of Western State Foresters (CWSF)

Alan Quan USDA-USFS

Tom Quigley METI Corporation; NSAT Co-Lead

Brad Simpkins NH State Forester; NASF; NE RSC Chair

Jenna Sloan, Primary Member DOI-OWF

Ann Walker, Primary Member WGA

Mike Zupko, Primary Member Southern Governors’ Association; SE RSC Chair

Other Phase III Contributors

Cheryl Renner Writer/Editor; Contractor

Amparo Garcia Presidential Management Fellow, USDA-USFS-FAM

Pat Goude Writer/Editor; USDA-USFS Enterprise Team

Rachel Smith Writer/Editor; USDA-USFS

National Communications Work Group

Mary Jacobs Assistant City Manager, Sierra Vista, AZ, National League of 

Cities (NLC), WFEC Liaison

Judith Downing, Co-coordinator USDA-USFS

Erin Darboven, Co-coordinator DOI-OWF

Diane Denenberg NASF

Amparo Garcia Presidential Management Fellow, USDA-USFS-FAM

Genevieve O'Sullivan NASF

Shawn Stokes IAFC
78

Wildland Fire Leadership Council (WFLC)

Name Agency / Organization

Rhea Suh WFLC Chair and Assistant Secretary for Policy, Management and 

Budget, DOI

Robert Bonnie Undersecretary, USDA-Natural Resources and the Environment (NRE)

Butch Blazer Deputy Undersecretary, USDA-NRE

Tom Tidwell Chief, USDA-USFS

Mike Black Director, DOI-BIA

Neil Kornze Principal Deputy Director, DOI-BLM

Dan Ashe Director, DOI-FWS

Jonathan Jarvis Director, DOI-NPS

Suzette Kimball Director, DOI-USGS

Ernest Mitchell Fire Administrator, DHS-FEMA-USFA

John Kitzhaber Governor, State of Oregon; Western Governors’ Association (WGA)

Dan Shoun Commissioner, Lake County, OR; NACo

Tony Harwood Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes; ITC

Bob Roper IAFC, Wildland Fire Policy Chair

Jim Karels State Forester, Florida Forest Service; Chair, Fire Committee, NASF; 

Forest Fire Protection Committee

Mary Hamann-Roland Mayor, City of Apple Valley, MN; NLC

Mary Fallin Governor, State of Oklahoma; National Governors’ Association (NGA) 
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Wildland Fire Executive Council (WFEC)

Name Agency / Organization

Tom Harbour WFEC Chair and Director, Fire and Aviation Management, USDA-USFS

Jim Douglas Director, DOI-OWF

Jim Erickson Fire Technical Specialist, Intertribal Timber Council

Glenn Gaines Deputy Fire Administrator, DHS-FEMA-US Fire Administration

Mary Jacobs Assistant City Manager, Sierra Vista, AZ; National League of Cities

William Kaage NPS Fire Director, National Wildfire Coordinating Group

Jim Karels State Forester, Florida Forest Service; Chair, Fire Committee, NASF; 

Forest Fire Protection Committee

Douglas MacDonald Retired Fire Chief; IAFC Wildland Fire Policy Committee

Ryan Yates Associate Legislative Director, National Association of Counties

Vacant National Governors’ Association Representative

Support Staff

Shari Eckhoff Designated Federal Official; Senior Advisor DOI/OWF

WFEC Alternates

Patti Blankenship DHS-FEMA-USFA

Erik Litzenberg IAFC, Wildland Fire Policy Committee

Dan Olsen USDA-USFS-FAM

John Segar DOI-FWS-NWCG

Dan Smith NASF, Forest Fire Protection Committee
80

Northeast Regional Strategy Committee

Name Agency / Organization

Brad Simpkins – NE RSC Chair NH State Forester; NASF

Larry Mastic – NE RSC Coordinator Contractor for NAASF

George Baker IAFC

Gene Blankenbaker USDA-USFS-R9

Maureen Brooks USDA-USFS-NA S&PF

Erin Darboven DOI-OWF

Dan Dearborn DOI-FWS

Jim Erickson ITC; WFEC

Terry Gallagher USDA-USFS-R9

Rick Goutermont County Commissioner, Lake County, MN; NACo

Danny Lee NE NSAT Lead; USDA-USFS

Jim Loach DOI-NPS

Steve Olson Fond du Lac Reservation

Tom Remus DOI-BIA

Matt Rollins DOI-USGS

Tom Schuler USDA-USFS Research

Other Phase III Contributors

Jolene Ackerman Wisconsin State WUI Coordinator

Mark Boche USDA-USFS-R9

Paul Charland DOI-FWS

Dave Crary DOI-NPS

Tom Parent Executive Director, Northeast Fire Compact

Ron Stoffel Minnesota State Fire Supervisor, Great Lakes Fire Compact

Glen Stratton DOI-FWS

Randy Swaty The Nature Conservancy (TNC)

Rick Vollick DOI-FWS

Randy White Pennsylvania State Fire Supervisor, Mid-Atlantic Fire Compact
81

Southeast Regional Strategy Committee

Name Agency / Organization

Mike Zupko – RSC Chair Southern Governors’ Association

Liz Agpaoa – RSC Co-Chair Regional Forester, Southern Region, USDA-USFS

Forrest Blackbear DOI-BIA

Tom Boggus Texas State Forester; NASF

Rob Doudrick Station Director, Southern Research Station (SRS), USDA-USFS

Wade Johnson NACo

Pete Kubiak Chief, Division of Fire Management, DOI-FWS

Samuel Larry DOI-NPS

Tom Lowry Choctaw Nation

Will May IAFC 

Alexa McKerrow Biologist, DOI-USGS

Kier Klepzig Assistant Director, SRS, USDA-USFS (SRS Alternate)

Shardul Raval Assistant Director, FAM, Southern Region, USDA-USFS (USFS 

Alternate)

Other Phase III Contributors

Vince Carver DOI-FWS

Dave Frederick Technical Working Group Chair, SGSF Fire Director

Darryl Jones SC Forestry Commission

Jim Karels WFEC Liaison; Florida State Forester

Mark Melvin Jones Ecological Center

Dan Olsen (Past USFS Alternate) Deputy Director, Fire & Aviation 

Management (FAM), WO USDA-USFS

Alan Quan CSSC Liaison, USDA-USFS

Rachel Smith USDA-USFS

Tom Spencer TX A&M Forest Service
82

Western Regional Strategy Committee

Name Agency / Organization

Kent Connaughton Co-Chair; USDA-USFS

Tony Harwood Co-Chair; Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes, ITC

Ann Walker Co-Chair; Western Governors’ Association (WGA)

Katie Lighthall WRSC Regional Coordinator; WGA

Dick Bahr DOI-NPS

Aitor Bidaburu DHS-FEMA-USFA; NWCG

Gary Bowers DOI-BLM

Kevin Burke City Manager, Flagstaff, AZ; NLC

Chuck Bushey IAWF

Robert Cope Lemhi County, ID; NACo

Vincent Corrao Northwest Management, ID

Carol Daly Flathead Policy Center, Co-Lead

Dave Driscoll IAFC

Amy Duffy Duffy Consulting, DOD Contractor

Pam Ensley DOI-FWS

Sam Foster Station Director, USDA-USFS-NRCS Colorado State Office

Richard Homann Council of Western State Foresters

Doug MacDonald WFEC Liaison; IAFC

John Philbin DOI-BIA

Alan Quan USDA-USFS; CSSC Liaison

Vernon Stearns Spokane Tribes, ITC

Craig Ziegler USDA-USFS-NRCS Regional Forester

Other Phase III Contributors

Leon Ben DOI-BIA (Alternate)

Corey Butler CDC-NIOSH (Alternate)

Rich Cowger Chief, Columbus Fire, MT; IAFC (Alternate)

Jesse Duhnkrack DOI-NPS (Alternate)

John Erixson Northwest Management (Alternate)

Jonas Feinstein USDA-USFS-NRCS Colorado State Office (Alternate)

Joe Freeland DOI-BLM (Alternate)

Lynn Jungwirth Watershed Research and Training Council (WRTC) (Alternate)

Phyllis Krietz DHS-FEMA-USFA (Alternate)

Ron Mangold USDA-USFS Research Station (Alternate)

Gary Moyer Colorado Association of Conservation Districts (Alternate)

Peg Polichio USDA-USFS State and Private Forestry, Regions 6 and 10 

(Alternate)

Cheryl Renner Communications, Writer/Editor, Contractor

Cyndi Sidles DOI-FWS Region 1 (Alternate)
83

APPENDIX B: COHESIVE STRATEGY 

ACHIEVEMENTS, RESOURCES AND 

REFERENCES

The catalyst for the effort to develop a cohesive strategy was the Federal Land Assistance, Management 

and Enhancement (FLAME) Act of 2009. Over the past three and a half years, significant milestones were 

achieved and described more fully as resources below. The National Cohesive Wildland Fire 

Management Strategy (Cohesive Strategy) effort was designed as a three-phased process to allow for 

the inclusiveness necessary to understand the complexities of managing wildfire risks across the Nation.

Throughout the entire effort, applying best available science and creating environments for strong 

stakeholder engagement were established as critical to success.

Providing a Foundation

In 2010, the WFLC, agency leadership, and stakeholders agreed on the Cohesive Strategy goals: 

(1) Restore and Maintain Landscapes; (2) Fire-Adapted Communities; and (3) Response to Wildfire. In 

addition, the WFLC adopted the following vision for this century: To safely and effectively extinguish fire 

when needed; use fire where allowable; manage our natural resources; and as a Nation, to live with 

wildland fire.

More detailed information on the evolution of the Cohesive Strategy including public engagement, and 

approach can be found on www.forestsandrangelands.gov. 

Foundational Documents

• Federal Wildland Fire Management Policy & Program Review 1995 

• Quadrennial Fire and Fuel Review Report 2005 

• Quadrennial Fire Review 2009 

• A Call to Action, A New Wildland Fire Accord: It is in your Hands 

• Mutual Expectations for Preparedness and Suppression in the Interface

• [“Missions Report”] Wildland Fire Protection and Response in the United States: The Responsibilities, 

Authorities, and Roles of Federal, State, Local, and Tribal Government 

• A Collaborative Approach for Reducing Wildland Fire Risks to Communities and the Environment: 10-

Year Strategy Implementation Plan (December 2006) 

Phase I – The Blueprint

The first phase of the Cohesive Strategy was a blueprint for developing a wildland fire strategy that would 

not be limited to Federal lands, but would consider the needs of all lands and balance regional needs and 

perspectives with national planning. 

Phase I set up the leadership and engagement structure for creating the strategy. 
84

• Wildland Fire Leadership Council (WFLC) − strategic oversight of all wildland fire policies, goals and 

management activities.

• Wildland Fire Executive Council (WFEC) – an intergovernmental Federal Advisory Committee Act 

committee established to advise the Secretary of Agriculture and Secretary of the Interior on national 

policy issues, including the Cohesive Strategy. 

• Cohesive Strategy Subcommittee (CSSC) − created to advise the WFEC on Cohesive Strategy 

development and implementation. 

• Three Regional Strategy Committees (RSC) − created to advise the WFEC, to represent the regional 

perspectives, and to complete regional assessments and action plans in Phases II and III.

• The National Science and Analysis Team (NSAT) – created to advise the CSSC and WFEC, to 

complete the science and analyses necessary for completing Phases II and III, and to document 

science findings in established peer-review processes.

In this way, the Cohesive Strategy was conceived as having both a top-down and bottom-up flow of 

information. The first phase involved developing a mutual understanding of the national challenges and 

goals and the science-based process for analyzing regional and national needs.

Phase I concluded with the presentation of the blueprint to Congress in two documents: 

• A National Cohesive Wildland Fire Management Strategy

• The Federal Land Assistance, Management And Enhancement Act Of 2009 Report to Congress

The NSAT completed a Risk Framework Report, at: 

• A Comparative Risk Assessment Framework for Wildland Fire Management: The 2010 Cohesive 

Strategy Science Report http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs/rmrs_gtr262.pdf

Phase II – Regional Assessments

In Phase II, the three regions—the Northeast, the Southeast, and the West—completed, analyzed and 

compiled regional assessments including landscape elements, 

ecological processes, and human values of local resources. 

Diverse stakeholders in each region met to identify regional 

challenges and opportunities, as well as key priorities. They agreed 

upon regional goals, which mirrored the national goals. And, the 

regions focused on how the processes of wildland fire, or the 

absence of fire, affect their values-at-risk. The NSAT worked with 

the regions to develop the assessments. A national report 

combined the findings from the three regional assessments to give 

a national perspective.

The Cohesive Strategy Phase II reports include assessments from each of the RSCs, the NSAT, and the 

Communications Framework.
85

National Resources

• A National Cohesive Wildland Fire Management Strategy-Phase II National Report 

• National Science Report – Phase 

II http://www.forestsandrangelands.gov/strategy/documents/reports/phase2/NSAT_Phase_2

_Summary_Report.pdf

• Communication Framework for A National Cohesive Wildland Fire Management Strategy 

Regional Assessments

• A National Cohesive Wildland Fire Strategy: Southeastern Regional Assessment 

• A National Cohesive Wildland Fire Strategy: Northeast Regional Assessment, September 30, 2011

• A National Cohesive Wildland Fire Management Strategy: Western Regional Assessment and 

Strategy 

Phase III – Science-based Risk Analysis Reports and Action Plans

Phase III is the conclusion of the planning and development of the National Strategy and the National 

Action Plan. There were three distinct sets of milestones. The first part of Phase III focused on regional 

understanding and analysis of issues by the RSCs. The NSAT collected data from multiple sources to 

provide consistent information to the regions for their analysis of wildfire risk. The regions considered 

alternatives for emphasis, and Risk Analysis Reports were submitted and accepted by the WFEC. In 

additional to the individual Regional Risk Analysis Reports, a National Risk Analysis Report for Phase III 

was developed by the CSSC and accepted by the WFEC. 

Regional Risk Analysis Reports

• Northeast Regional Risk Analysis Report 

• Southeast Regional Risk Analysis Report 

• Western Regional Risk Analysis Report

Regional Action Plans

The second part of Phase III focused on creating Action Plans for each region. The Action Plans looked 

at the issues identified in the Risk Analysis Reports and devised specific actions, tasks and responsible 

agencies to accomplish those actions. The Regional Action Plans were submitted and accepted by the 

WFEC. The WFEC tasked the CSSC to use the regional action plans to inform the development of the 

National Action Plan.

• Northeast Regional Action Plan, April 2013 

• Southeast Regional Action Plan, April 2013

• Western Regional Action Plan, April 2013

The third part of Phase III focused on developing the National Strategy and National Action Plan. The 

NSAT also developed a science report based on the national risk analysis conducted to support the 

development of the National Strategy and National Action Plan. 
86

Science and Analysis Published Work from Phase III

The Cohesive Strategy Decision Support Tools Library includes a number of resources based on the 

analysis completed as well as the published science report, Wildland Fire in America: The Scientific Basis 

for the National Cohesive Wildland Fire Strategy at: 

http://www.forestsandrangelands.gov/strategy/thestrategy.shtml

Cohesive Strategy Decisions Support Tools Library

Additional resources, tools, and information can be found in the Cohesive Strategy Decision-Support 

Tools Library at: http://www.forestsandrangelands.gov/strategy/thestrategy.shtml.
87

APPENDIX C: BARRIERS AND SUCCESS

FACTORS

The Regional Strategy Committees (RSC) were tasked with conducting assessments, prioritizing actions 

that were responsive to regional goals, and identifying regional challenges and opportunities for improved 

land and fire management while ensuring consistency with the three national goals. In addition, the RSCs 

also identified a set of National Priority Barriers (barriers) and Critical Success Factors (success factors) 

that were found common to multiple regions. Barriers are obstacles that must be mitigated in order to be 

successful. Success factors are components that are important for improvement. Initially, a list of over 40 

barriers and success factors was identified. Through discussions among the RSCs, the Cohesive 

Strategy Steering Committee (CSSC), and the WFEC, the following list of 11 were selected as being 

common to all regions and of significant importance to be addressed first.

• Success Factor: Fuels Management on Private Land 

• Success Factor: Fuels Management on Federal Land 

• Success Factor: Growth Management, Land Development, and Zoning Laws 

• Barrier: Inefficiencies in the National Qualification Standards 

• Barrier: Policy Barriers and Process Complexities for Sharing Resources 

• Success Factor: Enforceable Fire Prevention State/Local Ordinances

• Success Factor: FEMA Grant Programs 

• Success Factor: Assisting Communities at Risk 

• Success Factor: Investing in Firefighting Workforce 

• Success Factor: Improving Data that Support Fire Management Decisions 

• Success Factor: Intergovernmental Wildland Fire Governance 

The barriers and success factors informed both the national challenges and management options 

analyzed for this National Strategy. Additional detail on each barrier and success factor is included below. 

• • Fuels Management on Private Land – There is a need to increase private land 

management assistance to complement and implement broader fuel reduction management 

objectives across fire-prone landscapes. There are a number of opportunities that should be 

examined to achieve increased fuels management on private land, including increasing the 

collaboration between actions taken on federal and private land as well as supporting federal 

conservation programs that provide assistance to achieve fuels management objectives across a 

landscape. 
88

• Success Factor: Fuels Management on Federal Land – There is a need to increase private 

land management assistance to complement and implement broader fuel reduction management 

objectives across fire-prone landscapes. There are a number of opportunities that should be 

examined to achieve increased fuels management on private land, including increasing the 

collaboration between actions taken on federal and private land as well as supporting federal 

conservation programs that provide assistance to achieve fuels management objectives across a 

landscape. 

• Success Factor: Growth Management, Land Development, and Zoning Laws – There is a 

need for growth management, land development, and zoning laws that require defensible space 

and wildland fire risk reduction actions as communities develop; and the maintenance of wildland 

fire risk reduction practices, e.g., defensible space, fire-resistant construction, hazard reduction, 

etc.

• Barrier: Inefficiencies in the National Qualification Standards – Address inefficiencies in the 

national qualification standards and procedures to increase response capabilities by developing 

one wildland fire qualification standard for the Federal, state, tribal, and local wildfire community.

Currently, the publication National Wildfire Coordinating Group (NWCG) Product Management 

System (PMS) 310-1 provides qualifications for national mobilization and recognizes the ability to 

accept qualifications of local jurisdictions while in those jurisdictions. These standards are in sync 

with the Federal Emergency Management Agency National Integration Center (FEMA NIC) efforts 

to bridge the gap with local governments. 

• Barrier: Policy Barriers and Process Complexities for Sharing Resources – There is a need 

to remove policy barriers and process complexities which affect the ability to effectively and 

efficiently share resources, not only for wildfire, but for fuels, prescribed fire work, and all-hazards 

situations. Under the 2010 Interagency Agreement for Wildland Fire Management (typically 

referred to as the Master Agreement) among the BIA, BLM, FWS, NPS, and USFS, agencies 

have the authority to share resources for fuels work; but the agencies are required to enter into 

separate agreements for personnel and other resources provided for planning and 

implementation of treatments and activities. Addressing inefficiencies in requirements and 

processes can improve the delivery and accomplishments of wildland fire management activities. 

Resource sharing is often hampered by travel restrictions, overtime caps, and administrative 

processes that require an inordinate amount of time to complete. 

• Success Factor: Enforceable Fire Prevention State/Local Ordinances – There is a need to 

develop adequate, enforceable state and local ordinances related to wildfire prevention. There is 

clear evidence that small investments in fire prevention help reduce the high cost of fire 

suppression.

• Success Factor: FEMA Grant Programs – There is a need to examine existing grant programs 

aimed at providing support to states, counties, local fire departments, and communities to 

maximize fuels reduction across a landscape, and to prepare for and recover from wildfire. Grant 

programs present an opportunity to collaborate and promote fire-resilient landscapes and fireadapted communities.
89

• Success Factor: Assisting Communities at Risk – Assist communities with evaluating their 

risk from wildfire. Provide communities with information and tools on how to mitigate risk from 

wildfire, create and conduct activities to become fire-adapted, and track their progress. 

Communications, education and outreach efforts must promote self-assessment and a 

connection to local expertise to sustain mitigation efforts.

• Success Factor: Investing in Firefighting Workforce – Invest in the firefighting capacity at the 

local level. Capacity from all entities with fire response responsibilities must be commensurate 

with the workload need and risks posed by wildfire, which in many areas is increasing. Investment 

in the fully trained firefighting workforce provides well-qualified firefighters on the ground to 

mitigate risk and hazards, capability to accomplish local risk mitigation projects, and initial attack 

success. In the long term we face a generation gap in the fire workforce available for future 

leadership of the program.

• Success Factor: Improving Data that Support Fire Management Decisions – Improved 

accuracy of LANDFIRE and other data is needed to support planning and analyses at various 

scales. LANDFIRE data are being used nationally to depict existing vegetation, surface and 

canopy fuels, fire regime condition class, and estimates of national fire hazard or risk. Without 

accurate data, many assumptions and actions based on these data will be compromised. There is 

a need for more realistic and accurate depiction of where wildland fire hazard or risk actually 

occurs across the country, which can be used to base decisions upon.

• Success Factor: Intergovernmental Wildland Fire Governance – There is a need for 

collaboration in intergovernmental wildland fire governance to serve the needs of all jurisdictions 

in both wildland fire and all-risk incidents.

91

APPENDIX D: GLOSSARY

Abiotic – In biology, abiotic components are non-living chemical and physical factors in the 

environment. 

Barriers – Policy or administrative impediments that must be removed for the Cohesive 

Strategy to be successful.

Biotic – Of, relating to, or resulting from living things, especially in their ecological relations

Collaboration - 1. Groups working together; 2. Groups working together to resolve difficult

environmental issues through mediation, negotiation, and the building of agreements.

Critical success factors – Policies, programs, agreements, partnerships, resources, and other 

factors that must be present for the Cohesive Strategy to be successful.

Fire-adapted community – Human communities consisting of informed and prepared citizens 

collaboratively planning and taking action to safely co-exist with wildland fire.

Fire-adapted ecosystem – An ecosystem is “an interacting natural system, including all the 

component organisms, together with the abiotic environment and processes affecting them” 

(NWCG Glossary). A fire-adapted ecosystem is one that collectively has the ability to survive or 

regenerate (including natural successional processes) in an environment in which fire is a 

natural process. 

Fire community – A term that collectively refers to all those who are engaged in any aspect of 

wildland fire-related activities.

Fire exclusion – The land management activity of keeping vegetation or ecosystems from

burning in a wildland fire.

Fire management community – A subset of the fire community that has a role in and 

responsibility for managing wildland fires and their effects on the environment.

Fire science community – A subset of the fire community consisting of those who study, 

analyze, communicate, or educate others on the components of fire management that can be 

measured, such as fire behavior, fire effects, fire economics, and other related fire science 

disciplines. 

Resilient – Generally referred to in this document as “resilient ecosystems,” which are those 

that resist damage and recover quickly from disturbances (such as wildland fires) and human 

activities.

Regime – A fire regime is the pattern, frequency, and intensity of wildland fire that prevails in an 

area. 

Risk – A situation involving exposure to danger; the possibility that something unpleasant or 

unwelcome will happen. 

Stakeholder – A person or group of people who has an interest and involvement in the process 

and outcome of a land management, fire management, or policy decision.
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APPENDIX E: ACRONYMS

BAER Burned Area Emergency Rehabilitation

BAR Burned Area Rehabilitation

BIA Bureau of Indian Affairs

BLM Bureau of Land Management

CWPP Community Wildfire Protection Plan

DHS Department of Homeland Security

DOD Department of Defense

DOI Department of the Interior

EACG Eastern Area Coordinating Group

FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency

FEPP Federal Excess Personal Property

FFP Fire Fighter Property

FFT2 Firefighter 2

FLAME Federal Land Assistance and Enhancement Act

FLN Fire Learning Network

FRG Fire Regime Group

FWS U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

FOC Fires of Concern

GACC Geographic Area Coordination Center

GAO Government Accountability Office

IAFC International Association of Fire Chiefs

IMT Incident Management Team

ITC Intertribal Timber Council

JFSP Joint Fire Science Program

MAC Multi‐Agency Coordination

MNICS Minnesota Incident Command System

MOA Memorandum of Agreement

MOU Memorandum of Understanding
93

NAASF Northeastern Area Association of State Foresters

NACo National Association of Counties

NASF National Association of State Foresters

NEMAC National Environmental Modeling and Analysis Center (UNC Asheville)

NFPA National Fire Protection Association

NGO Non‐Governmental Organization

NIFC National Interagency Fire Center

NLC National League of Cities

NPS National Park Service

NSAT National Science and Analysis Team (for Cohesive Strategy)

NWCG National Wildfire Coordinating Group

OWF Office of Wildland Fire (DOI)

PPE Personal Protective Equipment

RSC Regional Strategy Committee

SRS Southern Research Station (USDA-USFS)

TNC The Nature Conservancy

USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture

USFA U.S. Fire Administration

USFS U.S. Forest Service

VFA Volunteer Fire Assistance

VFD Volunteer Fire Department

WFEC Wildland Fire Executive Council

WFLC Wildland Fire Leadership Council

WG Working Group

WGA Western Governors’ Association

WUI Wildland-Urban Interface