DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

WATER-SUPPLY

AND

IRRIGATION PAPERS

OF THE

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

f WATER RESOURCES OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK

PART I. RAFTER

WASHINGTON

GOVERNMENT FEINTING OFFICE 

1899
IRRIGATION REPORTS.

Thef ollowinglist contains the titles and brief descriptions of the principal reports 

relating to water supply and irrigation, prepared by the United States Geological

Survey since 1890:

1890.

First Annual Report of the United States Irrigation Survey, 1890; octavo, 123 pp.

Printed as Part II, Irrigation, of the Tenth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1888-89. Contains a statement of the origin of the Irrigation Survey, a preliminary report on the organization and prosecution of the survey of the arid lands for 

purposes of irrigation, and report of work done during 1890.

1891.

Second Annual Report of the United States Irrigation Survey, 1891; octavo, 395 pp.

Published as Part II, Irrigation, of the Eleventh Annual Report of the United States 

Geological Survey, 1889-90. Contains a description of the hydrography of the arid region 

and of the engineering operations carried on by the* Irrigation Survey during 1890; also 

the statement of the_ Director of the Survey to the House Committee on Irrigation, and 

other papers, including a bibliography of irrigation literature. Illustrated by 29 plates and 

4 figures.

Third Annual Report of the United States Irrigation Survey, 1891; octavo, 576 pp.

Printed as Part II of the Twelfth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1890-91. Contains " Report upon the location and survey of reservoir sites during the 

fiscal year ended June 30,1891," by A. H. Thompson; "Hydrography of the arid regions," 

by P. H. Newell; and "Irrigation in India," by Herbert M. Wilson. Illustrated by 93 plates 

and 190 figures.

Bulletins of the Eleventh Census of the United States upon irrigation, prepared 

by F. H. Newell; quarto.

No. 35, Irrigation in Arizona; No. 60, Irrigation in New Mexico; No. 85, 

Irrigation in Utah; No. 107, Irrigation in Wyoming; No. 153, Irrigation in 

Montana; No. 157, Irrigation in Idaho; No. 163, Irrigation in Nevada; No. 

178, Irrigation in Oregon; No. 193, Artesian wells for irrigation; No. 198, 

Irrigation in Washington.

1893.

Irrigation of western United States, by F. H. Newell; extra census bulletin No. 

23, September 9, 1892; quarto, 22 pp.

Contains tabulations showing the total number, average size, etc., of irrigated holdings, 

the total area and average size of irrigated farms in the subhumid regions, the percentage 

of number of farms irrigated, character of crops, value of irrigated lands, the average cost 

of irrigation, the investment and profits, together with a resume of the water supply and 

a description of irrigation by artesia_n wells. Illustrated by colored maps showing the 

location and relative extent of the irrigated areas.

1893.

Thirteenth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1891-92, Part 

HI, Irrigation, 1893; octavo, 486 pp.

Consists of three papers: "Water supply for irrigation," by F. H. Newell; "American 

irrigation engineering " and "Engineering results of the Irrigation Survey," by Herbert 

M. Wilson; and " Construction of topographic maps and selection and survey of reservoir 

sites," by A. H. Thompson. Illustrated by 77 plates and 119 figures.

A geological reconnoissance in central Washington, by Israel Cook Russell, 1893; 

octavo, 108 pp., 15 plates. Bulletin No. 108 ot the United States Geological 

Survey; price, 15 cents.

Contains a description of thejexamination of the geologic structure in and adjacent to

';he Colu 

waters.

1894.

Report on agriculture by irrigation in the western part of the United States at the 

Eleventh Census, 1890, by F. H. Newell, 1894; quarto, 283 pp.

Consists of a general description of the condition of irrigation in the United States, the 

area irrigated, cost of works, their value and profits; also describes the water supply, the 

value of water, of artesian wells, reservoirs, and other details; then takes up each State 

and Territory in order, giving a general description of the C9ndition of agriculture by irrigation, and discusses the physical conditions and local peculiarities in each county.

Fourteenth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1892-93, Part 

II, Accompanying papers, 1894; octavo, 597 pp.

Contains papers on "Potable waters of the eastern United States," by W J McGee; 

"Natural mineral waters of the United States," by A. C. Peale; and "Results of stream 

measurements," by F. H. Newell. Illustrated by maps and diagrams.

(Continued on third page of cover.) 

IRR24

the drainage basin of Yakima River and the great plains of the Columbia to the east of 

this area, with special reference to the occurrence of artesian
DEPAETMENT OF THE INTEEIOE

WATER-SUPPLY

IEEIGATION PAPEES

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

No. 24

WASHINGTON

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1899
UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

CHARLES D. WALCJTT, DIRECTOR

WATER RESOURCES

OF THE

STATE OF NEW TOEK

PART I

BY

GKEORGKE W. RAFTER,

WASHINGTON

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1899
CONTENTS.

Page.

Letter of transmittal ..................................................... 7

Introduction ................................,.........^.................. 9

General statements-.. .................................................... 10

Favorable natural conditions... ....................................... 11

Artificial modifications __._._---...__._...._........_..--._-----...--- 11

Water storage..--------.._--._.- .................................... 12

Erie Canal _.___._______________.______..____-.-..__ __.-...-.._-_--. 13

Value of water to industries ..----.-.. __----..-.---.---------.-.---_. 14

Ownership of water -..__.._____.. ._____._..---..-.._---------_-..--- 14

Physical conditions..-..-------.-- -...-........-..-.-----.-..---.-...----- 16

Mountains and forests _____________._____._.____._._.---._.--._._-_--- 16

Temperature and precipitation__.--._____._-----._--_..--------..._._. 18

Rocks and stream flow. ...................^........................... 21

Biver systems .......... ................... ......-.....--.--.-.....-.... 23

St. Lawrence system .L.............. .................................. 24

Niagara River.... ..f ............... ........................ ..... 24

Genesee River -.--_...-.--.-.--... ....---.-.-.._-------......---- 25

Oswego River --.-_..-.-.-..-.........-.--.--.-...--.------.--.--- - 27

Black River. .........................^.. ........................ 29

Streams flowing into St. Lawrence River ......................... 30

Lake Champlain system ..... ........... ............................. 31

Hudson River system_._-._._...._-__._..--.----._---.---.-.----... ... 33

Mohawk River... .....-...-.--....--.-...-....-.-...... ... ..... 35

Schorarie Creek ._._..__.-...._._..._-.---..-....---.._- ___-. 35

EastCanada Creek .._...____..._._....-.._--.---.-- ......... 36

West Canada Creek....................... ............_...... 38

Other tributaries of Mohawk River ............. ...--..--..-.. 40

Hoosic River ..................................... .... ........... 40

Battenkill River......... ........................................ 40

Fish Greek............................................. .......... 41

Sacundaga River _... ......-.........-.-.--.._,-.-..---..-.. .... 42

Schroon River .....__......-.............-......-...-.. ..-.......-- 43

Tributaries south of Mohawk River ..... .......-.....--.....---.. 43

Allegheny River system ..................-....-..--...-...---.-..----- 44

Susquehanna River system.....'..................-..-.-.-.-.-..-.--.-. 44

Delaware River system .................. .. -.-....-------.-..-----.. 46

Streams of Long Island.....__...... .............. -------.--.---.--. 47

Available water supply............................... ...---...--. ....... 48

Run off of Niagara River ..........._.........----..-...-...- ........ 48

Run-off of St. Lawrence River ...........................I...... ...... 65

Run-off of inland streams of New York ._..--..-......-...--....-..--. 66

Discharge measurements of Eaton and Madison brooks ............ 67

Discharge measurements of OatkaCreek _......._._........._..... 69

Discharge measurements of Genesee River ... _.----...--__.._.--. 70

Discharge measurements of Hemlock Lake.,......-.--...--.-....- 75

Discharge measurements of Skaneateles Lake ..................... 77

5
6 CONTENTS.

Available water supply Continued. Page. 

Run-off of inland streams of New York Continued.

Discharge measurements of Hudson River ..._____.________-.--- 79

Discharge measurements of Croton River __.__......_-__..__-.-- . 82

Maximum and minimum flow of streams in New York._--.-_.__._-._- 87

Floods in Chemung River..._._..__..-----....----_.---.--.------. 87

Low-water flow of Oatka Creek......-----...- .-.-....---......... 90

Low-water flow of G-enesee River .______.._______._.-.-........... 90

Low-water flow of Hemlock Lake.......----.--.---------.-------- 92

Low-water flow of Morris Run,.-..._-._._.,_-_--_._--._-_._. .... 93

Low-water flow of West Branch of Canadaway Creek ......_.-_-.. 94

Low-water flow of Skaneateles Lake _--.--_..------.-------.-----. 96

Low-water flow of Os wego River ................ ........ ....... 96

Low- water flow of Black River .......... ............. ..-.-..-.. 96

Low-water flow of Mohawk River ............-.--..--. --.-.---.. 97

Low-water flow of Hudson River ........ ......... .............. 97

Low-water flow of Croton River _..........._.......-... ......... 98

Summary of knowledge of low-water flow....--.-.-.-.---.-...--.. 98

Index ____._.._.___.___.-_..______._-----....--..--.----.---------------- 100

ILLUSTRATIONS.

PLATE I. Erie Canal at the city of Buffalo ....................... . ...... 13

II. A, Beaver Meadow, near Indian Lake, a typical reservoir site in the

Adirondacks; B, Bog River in the Adirondacks........ ........ 16

HI. Drainage area of Genesee River................................. 24

IV. A, Upper an<J Middle Falls of Genesee River, at Portage; B,

Genesee River Canyon below Middle Falls, at Portage......... 26

V. Middle and Lower Falls of Genesee River at Rochester.......... 28

VI. A, Dam at the High Falls of East Canada Creek; B, High Falls

at Trenton on West Canada Creek......._.... ... ............ 38

VII. Big Falls of Battenkill River.................................... 40

VIII. A, Hudson River above Luzerne; B, Sacundaga River near

Luzerne............._.._.____.___._..__..._.___....__.._-__._ 42

I.. Drainage area of Schroon River...._..............._............ 44

X. Canyon of Genesee River between Mount Morris and Portage.. _ 70

XI. A, Erie Canal aqueduct and south side of Main street bridge, 

Rochester; B, Great flood of 1865 at Rochester, showing lumber 

lodged against aqueduct bridge _.........-.-...-..-..... ...... 90

XII. Upper Falls of Genesee River at Portage...................._... 92

XIII. High Falls of Mohawk River at time of low water............... 96

FIG. 1. Index map of rivers of New York.................................. 23

2. Discharge of Genesee River at Mount Morris, New York, 1893 to

1896 ..-......-.................................._..._........... 73

3. Flood flow of Genesee River, May 18-34,1894...................... 74

4. Discharge of Hudson River at Mechanicville, New York, 1888 to

1897---....-.----.-.----.. ..---.-.-------.,---.-.----.-.-....._. 81
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, 

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY,

DIVISION OF HYDROGRAPHY,

Washington, November 26, 1898.

SIR: I have the honor to transmit herewith a manuscript entitled 

Water Resources of the State of New York, prepared by Mr. George 

W. Rafter, and to recommend that it be published in the series of 

pamphlets upon Water Supply and Irrigation. The data herewith 

presented were brought together by Mr. Rafter daring 1897 and transmitted early in February, 1898. Publication has been somewhat 

delayed by various obstacles which could not be readily overcome. 

The data are, however, of general interest and value, not only to the 

people of New York State, but also to engineers and persons in all 

parts of the country interested in the development and utilization of 

the water resources. Particular attention is given to the discussion 

of floods and low-water flow, these being to a large extent the determining factors in considerations of the utilization of water power. 

Very respectfully,

F. H. NEWELL, 

Hydrographer in Charge. 

Hon. CHARLES D. WALCOTT,

Director United States Geological Survey.
WATER RESOURCES OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK,

PART I.

By GEORGE W. RAFTER.

INTRODUCTION.

The preeminent position of the State of New York is due almost 

entirely to her great natural water resources. Reaching from the 

ocean on the east to the Great Lakes on the west, she has gathered 

to herself the treasures of the foreign world as well as those of half 

the Western Continent. Her inland rivers, with their great water 

powers, have been in the past and will continue to be in the future 

a perpetual source of wealth. Taking into account the commercial 

supremacy guaranteed by the Erie Canal, it may be said that the history of the State's progress during the nineteenth century is largely 

a history of the development of her water resources. It is the purpose of the author in this report to relate briefly not only in what 

manner these resources have been employed, but to indicate the 

recent lines of development and the prolbable future of the State 

if her water is utilized to the fullest degree. It is proposed to 

describe in a general way the river systems, giving brief descriptions 

of several of the more important utilizations of water in New York, 

together with a discussion of some of the economic problems confronting the people of the State.

As regards the water power of New York, it may be noted that the 

Tenth Census of the United States, 1880, Vols. XVI and XVII, gives 

in great detail the statistics of the main water powers as they existed 

in 1882. Many of these show considerable increase at the present 

time, although the new works are for the most part similar to those 

described in the census report, and hence present few additional features of interest. Several of the recent plants, however, are on quite 

different lines both as to their scope and as to the method of development adopted. It has therefore seemed more important to describe a 

few of the new plants and to give the main facts of the great storage 

projects of the Hudson and Genesee rivers than to spend time on 

small and relatively unimportant powers.

9
10 WATER RESOURCES OP STATE OP NEW YORK, PART I. [NO. 24.

The peculiar relation of the State to water-power development on 

the main rivers of New York should be here mentioned. Owing to 

the circumstances of the early settlements and the development ot the 

canal system, the State has assumed ownership of the inland waters, 

or, at any rate, of all streams used as feeders of the canals. This 

assumption has worked injustice to riparian owners, and is at present 

a bar in the way of the full development of important streams by 

private enterprise.

The data embodied in this report have been gathered from many 

sources the annual reports of the State engineer and surveyor, the 

superintendent of public works, the forest commission, the State 

board of health, the State weather service, and other public documents. The data in the reports on the Water Power of the United 

States, Tenth Census, have been used in many cases where later data 

are not available. During the years 1896 and 1897 the author, in 

addition to his regular duties in the State engineer's department, 

gathered a large amount of information bearing on the water resources 

of the State and not published in the annual reports of the State 

engineer's department. Much of this is in the way of piecing out 

earlier information and bringing the subject up to date. By the 

courtesy of the State engineer and surveyor these special data have 

been embodied in the present report.

The figures as to drainage area have been obtained by checking 

on French's map, published in 1860, those given in the reports on 

the water power of the United States, Tenth Census, so far as they 

are available, and by planimeter measurement on the topographic 

atlas sheets of the State made by the United States Geological Survey. Bien's Atlas of the State of New York has also been used as a 

check in some cases, and a number of areas have been taken from 

the report of the Deep Waterways Commission.

The elevations of points above tide water have been compiled from 

all available sources of information, such as Dictionary of Altitudes 

in the United States, Bulletin No. 76 of the United States Geological 

Survey; the reports of the New York State survey and railway canal 

profiles; the topographic atlas sheets of the United States Geological 

Survey, and the reports on the water power of the United States, 

Tenth Census, 1880.

GENERAL L;TATEME:NT.

A report of this character is prepared for the benefit of two classes: 

First, professional or business men who read during leisure hours in 

order to add to their stock of general information; second, engineering 

specialists, physicists, and men of expert scientific attainments generally who desire full details as part of their stock of professional 

knowledge. The latter class will naturally study the details, while
RAFTER.] .NATURAL CONDITIONS AND ARTIFICIAL MODIFICATIONS. 11

for the former a succinct statement of the results of the study is generally sufficient. It is from this point of view that a statement of the 

general results of the study of the water resources of New York is 

here introduced at the beginning of the report.

*

FAVORABLE NATURAL CONDITIONS.

New York State is great in water resources, not only by virtue of 

her position between the Atlantic Ocean and the Great Lakes, but 

because topographic, geologic, and climatic conditions have combined 

to make her the highway of commerce as well as the manufacturing 

center of the United States. Some of the contributing causes to this 

preeminent position maybe found in her mountain systems, affording 

three great water centers, from which large streams descend to the 

neighboring lowlands, affording large opportunities for the economic 

development of water power. As regards water power, the other 

chief contributing causes are the possession, as part of her domain, of 

Niagara and St. Lawrence rivers, with their extensive possibilities for 

future water-power development.

A study of the climatology of New York shows that in nearly every 

portion of the State the amount and distribution of the rainfall are 

such as to insure a large enough run-off of streams to furnish, even 

under natural conditions, considerable water power.

ARTIFICIAL MODIFICATIONS.

Natural conditions have been largely interfered with by the cutting 

off of forests and the consequent extensive development of the agricultural interests of the State. As a tentative proposition, it is 

assumed that the general cutting off of the forests of New York State 

has decreased the annual run-off of streams issuing from the deforested areas to a depth of from 4 to 6 inches per annum.

The run-off of Niagara River has been commonly assumed, on the 

authority of the Lake Survey, at about 265,000 cubic feet per second. 

The recent studies indicate that the extreme low flow of a cycle of 

minimum years may be not more than 60 per cent of this figure. 

From this point of view the people of the State of New York have 

the greatest possible interest in any project which would tend to 

decrease the low-water run-off of that stream. Such interest is 

equally pronounced in the case of St. Lawrence River.

Measurements of discharge of a, number of the inland streams of 

New York indicate considerable variations in water yield in differentparts of the State. For instance, Genesee River, in the western part, 

in 1895 gave, with a rainfall of 31 inches, a minimum flow for the 

year of 6.67 inches. The drainage area of this stream is mostly 

deforested, whence it results that serious floods are frequent. For
12 WATER RESOURCES OP STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [NO. 24.

example, from May 19 to 24, 1894, the total discharge was nearly 

6,900,000,000 cubic feet, the maximum, which occurred at 3.30 a. m., 

May 21, being 42,000 cubic feet per second. The drainage area above 

the point where this flood occurred is 1,070 square miles.

The lowest annual run-off thus far measured in the State of New 

York is that of the Hemlock Lake drainage area, where, in 1880, the 

total run-off from an area of 43 square miles was only about 3.35 

inches.

Oswego, Mohawk, and Hudson rivers and their tributaries in this 

State all have large pondage on natural lakes, which, with other conditions, tend to maintain the low-water flow. Croton River presents 

surface geological conditions which tend to increase its low-water flow. 

Without going into detail, we may say that these streams will yield a 

minimum flow of about 0.3 of a cubic foot per square mile per second. 

Variations from, this limit are given in the chapters specially discussing minimum flow,

As a typical flood stream of the State, Chemung River may be mentioned, where serious floods, due to deforestation of a mountainous 

drainage area, have become so common as to necessitate the carrying 

out of extensive protection works at the large towns on that stream.

WATER STORAGE.

Large development of water power on Genesee River has led to 

a demand for extensive storage reservoirs^ on that stream. The surveys made by the State indicate that a storage reservoir of 15,000,000,000 

cubic feet capacity can be constructed at a cost of $2,600,000, or at the 

rate of about $173 per million cubic feet stored. It is considered that 

the construction of such a reservoir is commercially feasible, and, provided the State legislature will grant the necessary permission, the 

project will probably be carried out by a private company. The developed water power of Genesee River has increased from about 6,000 

horsepower in 1882 to about 18,000 horsepower in 1898.

Extended studies have also been made of the possibilities of water 

storage on Hudson River, where the water power has increased from 

less than 13,000 horsepower in 1882 to something like 55,000 horsepower at the beginning of 1898. The studies, so far as carried, show 

that it is possible to create on that stream a continuous, permanent 

power of about 175,000 horsepower. Probably when the studies are 

complete it will appear that considerably more than this can be developed at a cost which will be commercially feasible.

The great power developments on Niagara River at Niagara Falls, 

and on St. Lawrence River at Massena, are the most significant industrial movements now taking place in the United States. The future 

power of these two streams may easily be placed at several hundred 

thousand horsepower.
U, S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 24 PL. I

ERIE CANAL AT THE CITY OF BUFFALO.
RAFTER.] GENERAL STATEMENT. 13

ERIE CANAL.

Erie Canal, a view of which is given on PI. I, was the first great 

development of the internal water resources of New York, and grew 

out of the demand for transportation facilities between the Atlantic 

seaboard and the Great Lakes. The impulse which, it gave to the 

development of New York State, and of the entire territory tributary 

to the Great Lakes, can hardly be estimated. Taking into account 

its far-reaching consequences, it may be considered the greatest public work thus far carried out in the United States. Nevertheless, 

Erie Canal has not only passed its day of usefulness,'but, to some 

extent, stands in the way of future development, the chief cause for 

this being a too pronounced regard for the canal's former greatness. 

The historical matter cited in the body of the report may serve to indicate how strongly the feeling that Erie Canal should be maintained 

in perpetuity has been impressed upon th& people of the State of 

New York.

By way of illustrating the rise and decline of Erie Canal, it may be 

cited that in 1837 the total freight carried was 1,171,296 tons, valued at 

$55,809,288; in 1880 the total freight carried was 6,457,656 tons, valued 

at $247,844,790; in 1895 the total freight carried was 3,500,314 tons, 

valued at $97,453,021. Statistics show that the great bulk of all the 

freight now carried on Erie Canal is through freight carried for 

Western producers, local business being only a small per cent of the 

whole. Statistics show that freights are now carried by railways as 

cheaply as they can be carried by the canal, and this, too, at a profit, 

while the canal, in order to obtain any freight at all, has been obliged 

to do away with all tolls, thus making the cost of shipment by canal 

the bare cost of transportation proper.

In 1895 an improvement of Erie Canal was authorized at a cost of 

$9,000,000. The work of this improvement is now in progress. 

Recently it has been found that the cost will be $16,000,000, instead of 

$9,000,000, as originally expected. On this basis, and throwing out 

of the account former expenditures, we may say that Erie Canal will 

cost the people of the State of New York annually at least $1,230,000. 

Assuming a traffic for the enlargement of the canal of 5,000,000 tons 

per annum, carried 200 miles, we have a total of 1,000,000,000 ton-miles 

per annum on which the people of the State of New York must pay in 

the way of interest and cost of maintenance and operation about 1.25 

mills per ton-mile, while canal freights now average about 1.2 mills 

per ton-mile; hence the people of the State of New York will be 

obliged to pay under the new conditions over 50 per cent of the total 

cost of the transportation. At present the local canal freights are only 

15 per cent of the total.

Owing to her extensive inland-navigation system the experience of 

New York as to loss of water from artificial channels has been very
14 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OP NEW YORK, PART I. [NO. 24.

extensive. Measurements made at different times show that in a 

canal of the dimensions of the original Erie Canal, which had a section of 40 feet water surface, 28 feet bottom, and 4 feet depth, there 

should be provided, in order to cover the evaporation and percolation 

losses, a water supply of about 100 cubic feet per mile per minute. 

Details relating to this special subject may be found further on.

The State early adopted the policy of leasing surplus waters of Erie 

Canal for power purposes. The most extensive development growing 

out of such leases is that at Lockport, where several thousand horsepower are in use supplying establishments valued at about $2,500,000 

a year, and employing nearly 1,900 operatives, with an annual product 

of about $3,000,000.

VALUE OF WATER TO INDUSTRIES.

Water power is extensively sold at Oswego, Cohoes, and Niagara 

Falls, and to some extent at Rochester. It will also be extensively 

sold at Massena when the development there is completed.

The value of the internal waters of the State to some of the leading 

industries, such as the lumber industry and the wood-pulp and paper 

industry, may be noted. On Hudson River from 1851 to 1897, inclusive, the total number of logs taken to market by water transportation was 23,313,585, these market logs furnishing 4,662,717,000 feet 

B. M. of lumber. The cost of driving logs from the head waters of 

the Hudson to the Big Boom above Glens Falls is said to be from 50 to 

75 cents per thousand feet B. M.

The wood-pulp and paper industry is developed in New York State 

to a point beyond that reached in any other State of tho Union. On 

January 1, 1898, there were at least 125,000 net water horsepower in 

use in the State in the production of mechanical wood pulp, while 

probabty from 30,000 to 35,000 more are consumed in operating paper 

mills.

One obstacle to the easy operation of water power in this State is 

the formation on many streams of frazil or anchor ice. A study of 

the formation of frazil and anchor ice, as made by the Montreal harbor commiss-ioners, indicates that it may be possible to learn in the 

future how to remedy this difficulty.

OWNERSHIP OF WATER.

The sand areas of Long Island present conditions of water yield 

different from those of the other drainage areas of the State. We 

have here an extended region of coarse, deep sand, into which the 

rainfall sinks easily, there being almost no surface run-off. These 

sand areas form subterranean reservoirs, from which from 0.7 to 0.8 

cubic foot per square mile per second may be drawn, the same as from 

artificial reservoirs on the earth's surface, these natural underground
RAFTER.] OWNERSHIP OF WATER. 15

reservoirs possessing the advantage of furnishing a filtered water of 

a high degree of purity.

The taking of the water supply of Brooklyn from the sand areas of 

Long Island has led to the development of legal principles relating to 

rights in underground water somewhat different from those derived 

from the common law of England. The decision in a test case now 

before the courts is, in effect, that when subterranean water is taken 

in large quantity for the supply of cities or for manufacturing purposes the party taking it is liable to the adjacent landowners the 

same as in the case of diverting surface water.

Owing to the development of the internal navigation system, and 

the consequent assumption on the part of the courts and State officials 

that the State's rights to the inland waters were, in effect, paramount 

to all other rights, no genecal mill act has ever been enacted in the 

State. Nevertheless, the demand for water storage on the streams of 

the northern part of the State and on St. Lawrence River, which are 

not in any way tributary to Erie Canal, has led to the enactment of 

a number of special laws which have the force of mill acts in that 

they grant the right of eminent domain for the purpose of improving 

the hydraulic power of streams. This phase of development of the 

laws of this State relating to riparian rights is an exceedingly interesting one.

Titles to lands under water and water rights have been considerably 

complicated in New York because of the peculiar circumstances of the 

early settlement. It is well-established law that Hudson and Mohawk 

rivers belong to the State, while the Genesee and the other large rivers 

belong to the riparian owners. A confusion of ideas arising out of 

such contradictory facts as these has undoubtedly assisted in obscuring the real relations of the State to riparian owners in New York.

In the case of Black River large quantities of water have been 

diverted for the supply of Black River and Erie Canal, which has been 

compensated for in kind by the construction of a system of State reservoirs on the head waters of that stream capable of storing nearly 

3,800,000,000 cubic feet. The State has further recognized the rights 

of riparian owners in the Black River reservoirs by creating a commission of owners and users of water power on Black River to manage 

the discharge from the reservoirs.

Skaneateles Lake presents a case where the State, having originally 

appropriated water for the supply of Erie Canal, has later, by act of 

legislature, allowed the taking of the said water for a municipal 

supply.

With restrictive legislation repealed and a proper mill act enacted, 

we may hope ultimately to develop in New York approximately 

1,518,000 gross horsepower, worth to the people of the State anywhere from $150,000,000 to $200,000,000 a year, or as much as the 

present entire agricultural product of the State.
16 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OP NEW YORK, PART I. [NO.24.

PHYSICAL CONDITIONS.

Considering only the broader topographic features, the streams of 

the State may be pictured as coming from three main water centers. 

The first of these in importance is the Adirondack area, the peaks of 

which are over 5,000 feet in height. Next to this are the Catskill 

Mountains, in the southeastern part of the State, the greatest heights 

of which are about 4,000 feet; and third are the highlands of the 

southwestern portion of the State, portions of the Allegheny Plateau. 

In extent the Adirondack Region is much the largest, and owing to 

this fact and its higher elevation it is the most important water center 

of the State. The Catskill Region, from its lower altitude and from 

changes introduced by cutting off the forests, is much less valuable 

in yield of water. The issuing streams are flashy and uncertain, 

pouring down destructive floods in spring and running nearly dry 

during the summer and fall. It is, without doubt, largely owing to 

this fact that water-power development has made less progress in this 

part of the State than in the other power-producing sections. The 

Allegheny Plateau has also greatly deteriorated in water-yielding 

capacity on account of deforestation. The serious effect of such 

decrease is discussed later in connection with the Genesee River 

storage project.

MOUNTAINS AND FORESTS.

The mountain belt included in the Adirondacks proper the Bouquet, Schroon, Kayaderosseras, and Luzerne ranges, with the Highlands immediately to the west has come to be commonly known as 

the Adirondack Plateau. Describing this broadly, it may be considered as bounded on the east by Lake Charnplain, on the west by the 

valley of Black River, on the north by the farming regions of the St. 

Lawrence, and on the south by those of the Mohawk Valley. The 

mountain belt proper, however, occupies only the eastern and southern 

part of the Adirondack Plateau. Its greatest width is about 40 miles. 

The mountain ranges, however, are not always distinct; sometimes 

these are lateral spurs interlocked and sometimes single mountains 

occupy the space between the ranges, filling the valleys.

From the Adirondack Plateau streams flow to the north, southeast, 

and west. The principal streams flowing north, east, and west to the 

St. Lawrence system are Moose, Beaver, Oswegatchie, Grass, Raquette, 

St. Regis, Salmon, Saranac, Ausable, and Bouquet rivers.- The southern 

streams, which all belong to the Hudson system, are Sacundaga, Indian, 

Cedar, Opalescent, Boreas, and Schroon rivers, and East Canada and 

West Canada creeks. All these streams head in lakes, of which the 

most important, tributary to the St. Lawrence, are Placid, Saranac, 

St. Regis, Loon, Rainbow, Osgood, Meacham, Massawepie, Cranberry, 

Tupper, Smiths, Albany, Red Horse Chain, Beaver, Brandeth, Bog
U. S GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 24 PL. II

BEAVER MEADOW, NEAR INDIAN LAKE, A TYPICAL RESERVOIR SITE IN THE 

ADIRONDACKS.

1?. BOG RIVER IN THE ADIRONDACKS.
RAFTER.] MOUNTAINS AND FORESTS^ 17

River Chain, Big Moose, Fulton Chain, Woodhull, Bisby, Raquette, 

and Blue Mountain. Typical views are given on PL II.

Following are the principal lakes of the Adirondack Plateau tributary to the Hudson system: Pleasant, Piseco, Oxbow, Sacundaga, Elm, 

Morehouse, Honnedaga, West Canada, Wilmurt, Salmon, Spruce, 

Cedar, Lewey, Indian, Rock, Chain, Catlin, Rich, Harris, Newcomb, 

Thirteenth, Henderson, Sanford, Golden, Boreas, Elk, Paradox, Brant, 

Schroon, and Luzerne.

The great forest of northern New York occupies the central part of 

the Adirondack Plateau, and deserves notice from its importance -as 

a conservator of the streams issuing from that region. According 

to a map accompanying the report of the forest commissioners of New 

York for 1891, the outlines of the great forest are substantially as 

follows: Its eastern boundary coincides quite closely with a line 

drawn through Keene Valley and thence along the valleys of Schroon 

River and the upper Hudson; its southern boundary is for the main 

part identical with that of Hamilton County and the town of Wilmurt, 

in Herkimer County, although in some places the forest extends a 

short distance into Fulton County; its western boundary is the county 

line between Lewis and Herkimer counties; its northern boundary runs 

in an irregular line from a point near Harrisville, on the Lewis and St. 

Lawrence County line, to the Upper Chateaugay Lake, which is situated near the line between Franklin and Clinton counties. This 

territory contains about 3,590,000 acres, of which 3,280,000 acres are 

considered to be covered with dense forests. Within this region there 

are from 1,300 to 1,400 lakes and ponds, while from it the eighteen 

important streams just enumerated diverge in every direction. The 

general elevation of the Adirondack Plateau is about 2,000 feet above 

the level of the sea. Little discussion is needed, therefore, to show the 

great value of this elevated forest-covered plateau as a conservator of 

the natural waters of the State.

One important utilization of the waters of this State formerly was 

the carrying of logs to market through the various streams. By 

reason of the clearing off of the forests, that business has gradually 

declined, until, except in the Adirondack Plateau, it is now of 

little importance. It has been the policy of the State for a number 

of years to acquire, as far as possible, by tax title and purchase, 

bodies of land in the Adirondack forest for the purpose not only 

of conserving the forests in order to increase the yield of streams, 

but for the further purpose of creating a forest park worthy of the 

great Commonwealth of New York. In order to carry out this project 

the forest-preserve board has been empowered to purchase lands 

within the forest, or, failing to agree on terms with the landowners, 

to take lands under condemnation proceeding. 1

1 The State holdings in the Adirondack .Region up to the year 1895 may be determined by reference to a map of the Adirondack forest and adjoining territory as issued by the fisheries, 

game, and forest commission in 1895.

IBB 24 2
18 WATER RESOURCES OP STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [NO. 24.

The Adirondack Plateau is a rugged, rocky region, sparsely populated, and worthless for agriculture. Its chief value lies in a complete utilization of such natural resources as attach to its unparalleled water-yielding capacity. From this point of view it may easily 

become an important factor in the future development of New York. 

To insure this result the water yield of every stream of the region 

needs to be conserved by reservoir systems.

TEMPERATURE AND PRECIPITATION.

In 1826 an elaborate system, of meteorological observations at the 

State academies was inaugurated by the board of regents of the 

University of New York and was continued until 1863. During a 

portion of this period, and later, a large amount of data was obtained 

by volunteer observers of the Smithsonian Institution and at military 

posts. In 1871 the United States Signal Service took charge of work 

of this character, and in 1889 the State meteorological bureau was 

organized. There is, therefore, a large accumulation of material 

regarding the local climate, such that an account of it would extend 

beyond the limits of this paper. For details reference should be 

made to the volumes on meteorology published by the board of 

regents of the State University; also to the bulletins and annual 

reports of the State meteorological bureau and of the United States 

Weather Bureau.

To facilitate the study of meteorological data the individual stations have been grouped in accordance with topographic features and 

geographic position, the subdivisions being as shown in the accompanying table. The names indicate in a general way the relative 

position, the Western Plateau including the portion of the Appalachian Highlands west of Seneca Lake, and the Eastern Plateau the 

remainder of the Appalachian Highlands from Seneca Lake eastward 

to the Hudson Valley.

The average annual temperature is generally taken as decreasing 

with altitude at the ratio of 1° F. to every 300 feet of elevation, the 

rate being somewhat below this average in winter and above it in 

summer. An approximate determination for the State indicates that 

the rates of decrease are .3° F. per hundred feet elevation for the 

winter, and .4° F. per hundred feet for the summer. For the mountains of northern New York a much smaller variation than .3° F. 

appears to hold for the winter months.
RAFTER.] TEMPERATURE AND PRECIPITATION. 19

Average monthly and annual temperatures for the %%-year period, 1871-1892. (a)

Altitude

(feet)...

January . -

February _

March .... 

April

May .--...

June ----_

July.......

August . _ .

September

October ..

November

December -

Average

Western Plateau.

1,287

22.0

23.6

28.5 

41.7

54.8

64.3

68.6

66.6

59.3

47.3

35.5

26.7

44.8

Eastern Plateau.

1,070

21.3

22.5

28.6 

42.0

55.0

64.8

68.6

66.3

61.5

47.2

35.6

25.9

44.7

Northern Plateau.

1,578

16.0

16.8

24.0 

36.8

57.8

60.3

63.8

62.5

55.0

43.3

31.0

21.2

40.3

Atlantic 

coast.

83

30.5

31.6

35.9

46.7

57.6

67.0

72.3

71.1

65.3

55.1

43.9

34.5

50.8

Hudson 

Valley.

221

21.5

26.9

38.2 

46.2

58.8

68.1

72.0

69.6

62.8

50.8

39.0

28.5

48.4

Champlain 

Valley.

186

16.3

17.5

25.9

40.8

55.2

64.7

69.9

67.5

58.6

46.9

34.5

21.8

43.2

St. Lawrence

Valley.

431

15.9

17.3

26.5

40.4

55.5

64.2

68.2

65.9

58.4

45.7

33.3

22.2

42.8

Great 

Lakes.

484

23.4

24.3

29.9 

42.0

54.8

64.9

69.8

68.1

61.1

49.3

37.3

28.4

46.0

Ceutral 

lakes.

645

24.2

25.8

30.6 

44.2

57.3

66.0

70.8

68.7

61.6

49.6

37.1

28.3

47.0

Mohawk

Valley.

639

21.0

22.8

28.8 

42.8

55.8

65.0

69.2

67.3

60.0

48.0

35.0

25.8

45.2

Average 

of the 

ten 

regions.

662

21.6

22.9

29.2 

42.3

55.7

65 0

69.3

67.4

60.4

48.3

36.3

26.3

45.4

a From fifth auaual report of the State weather bureau.

The intimate relation which exists between air circulation and precipitation in New York is one of the most interesting facts to be 

noted. Owing to lack of moisture in the continental interior, northwest winds in the spring, summer, and fall are essentially dry. 

In winter their dryness proceeds from low temperature and consequent small vapor-carrying capacity. The winter precipitation is due 

almost entirely to storm areas passing either actually across or in the 

vicinity of this State and deriving their supply of vapor from the 

inflow of moist air which they induce, either from the Atlantic Ocean 

or from the Gulf Region.

The winter months December, January, and February have 

somewhat less precipitation than either of the other seasons, although 

in the vicinity of the Atlantic coast, on the southwestern highlands 

of the State, and in the region of the Great Lakes the winter precipitation is relatively large.

In the spring rising temperature produces a modification and shifting of pressure systems, the winds decreasing in velocity and their 

directions being more variable than in winter. The frequent showers occurring in April and May appear to be due more than at any 

other time to the effect of an admixture of air having different temperatures.
20 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OP NEW YORK, PART I. [NO.24.

In summer the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean contribute 

large supplies of moisture to northward-moving air currents, and, 

although cyclonic depressions are less frequent than at any other season, the rainfall accompanying each storm is heavy, and in New York 

the maximum seasonal precipitation, amounting as an average for 

the whole State to 10.96 inches, occurs in this season.

As regards the fall months, the rainfall of September is usually 

light in the region east of the Great Lakes, while in October the maximum general rainfall occurs. As regards meteorological conditions, 

winter may be considered as beginning in November.

Average precipitation in Neir> York State, in inches.

Altitude (feet) a__.__

March .____________..

May ...... ...-._.....

July.................

August .-.--_-----_-.

November .... ......

Annual . .-.--.

Storage period ........

Growing period ......

Replenishing period . .

Western 

Plateau.

1,307

2 52

2.23

2.51

2.68

3.36

4.23

3.25

3.13

2.90

3.28

2.76

2.73

35.58

16.03

10.61

8.94

Eastern 

Plateau.

1,056

2.52

2.34

2.46

3.80

3.54

4.16

4.04

3.50

3.13

3.31

2.81

2.83

37.43

16.49

11.69

9.26

Northern 

Plateau.

973

3.11

3.78

3.06

2.66

3.45

3.38

4.09

3.50

3.19

3.47

3.48

3.90

38.97

17.96

10.87

10.14

Coast 

region.

132

3.47

3 22

3.74

3.50

3.90

3.53

4.20

4.54

3.59

3.93

3.87

3.44

44.93

21.29

12.27

11.37

Hudson 

Valley.

230

2.89

2.26

2.88

2.83

3.53

3.68

4.24

3.69

2.90

3.52

3.15

2.89

38.46

17.37

11.62

9.57

Champlain 

Valley.

262

1.73

1.35

1.94

1.88

3.63

3.16

3.24

3.39

3.09

3.12

2.61

1.92

30.06

11.44

9.79

8.83

St. Lawrence 

Valley.

414

2.19

2.15

2.49

2.21

2.82

3.54

3.39

2.75

3.36

3.44

2 71

2.57

33.52

14.43

9.68

9.41

a Average altitude of stations considered.

A study of the data shows that there are a number of contending 

forces which are distinctively operative in New York, and which bymodifying one another tend to produce numerous irregularities of the 

rainfall. So irregular indeed is the precipitation that frequently 

places only a short distance apart show wide variations.

In a general way it may be said that the amounts of annual rainfall 

in different sections of New York are mainly determined by proximity to sources of vapor or to vapor-laden air currents, and by the 

character of the local topography. As regards the latter statement, a 

more definite form would be that under similar conditions the pre-
RAFTER.] ROCKS AND STREAM FLOW. 21

cipitation is in some degree proportionate to the altitude. This rule, 

while generally true, does not apply to the valley of Hudson River, 

where the upper portion, including the Champlain Valley, receives a 

somewhat deficient rainfall as compared with the State as a whole. 

To the west, the Adirondack Plateau receives a marked increase of 

rainfall, while farther northwest there is a decrease in the valley of 

the St. Lawrence. This is also true of the elevated region in the 

vicinity of Hemlock Lake, which, although several hundred feet 

higher, has a rainfall considerably less than that at Rochester.

In the southeastern portion of the State the ocean winds find no 

obstruction along the coast, but, passing inland and meeting the 

abrupt ranges of the southeastern counties, give a copious rainfall, as 

compared with that of the intervening regions.

Western New York, on account of the frequent southwesterly direction of the winds, receives an appreciable portion of its vapor supply 

from the Gulf of Mexico. The rainfall in central New York, although 

less than that of the southeastern and southwestern highlands, is 

generally abundant. The principal valleys of the Susquehanna system, and also the depression of the central lakes tributary to Oswego 

River, show a deficiency as compared with the average of the State.

A knowledge of the snowfall is important in a study of the water 

resources, because by reason of the snow lying on the ground continuously for several months it is a great source of loss in open regions 

subject to severe winds, the evaporative effect of the winds tending 

 to carry away large quantities of moisture which would otherwise be 

available to maintain stream flow. Thus far the only data relating 

to depth of snow are those derived from the reports of the State 

meteorological bureau. The following are a few figures so derived: 

In the winter of 1891-92 the total depth of snow at Humphrey, in the 

Western Plateau, was 119.8 inches; in 1890-91 the total depth at 

Cooperstown, in the Eastern Plateau, was 110 inches; in 1891-92 the 

total depth at Constableville, in the Northern Plateau, was 170.7 

inches; in the winter of 1890-91, at TJtica, in the Mohawk Valley, the 

total depth was 165 inches, and in 1891-92, at the same place, 151.6 

inches. The records show that at the places where these large snowfalls occurred the ground was continuously covered with snow for 

several months. If the winds were of high velocity at the same time 

the evaporation loss must have been very great.

ROCKS AND STREAM FLOW.

Among the principal factors affecting stream flow should be noted 

the structure and texture of the rocks, especially those of the surface. 

For example, in regions with stiff, heavy, compact soils a much larger 

proportion of the rainfall runs off on the surface, passing immediately 

into the streams, than is the case in regions with open, porous soils or 

extensive sandy areas. A general knowledge of the surface geology
22 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [NO.24.

is therefore desirable in a study of the water resources of the State. 

The relative position and area of the different geologic formations are 

best shown on the large geologic map of New York prepared under 

the direction of James Hall, State geologist, by W. J. McGee, and 

printed by the United States Geological Survey in 1894 (scale, about 

5 miles to the inch). A similar but smaller map showing essentially 

the same features was also printed in the same year under authority 

of the regents of the university to accompany the report on the 

mineral exhibit of New York at the World's Columbian Exposition, 

this being on the scale of approximately 14 miles to an inch. On examining either of these maps one will note the preponderance, so far as 

area is concerned, of two classes of rocks the ancient crystallines, 

which cover a large area in the northern part of the State, and the 

conglomerates, sandstones, and shales of the Devonian, which form 

the greater part of the Appalachian Plateau, stretching from Lake 

Erie across the State to within a short distance of Hudson River, this 

being the area classified by the State weather bureau as the Eastern 

and Western plateaus. The streams from the northern crystalline 

area undoubtedly furnish the best water supply of the State. This 

may not be due wholly to the character of the rocks, as many other 

factors contribute to this result.

The sandstones of the Upper Devonian along the northern boundary 

of Pennsylvania are bounded on the north by the long narrow belts of 

outcrop of the underlying rocks stretching in a general easterly and 

westerly direction. The streams pursuing a general northerly course 

pass in succession across these. As a rule, the soils of the region are 

heavy, with considerable clay, and the rainfall being absorbed somewhat slowly, a considerable portion of it flows directly into the water 

courses. The primeval forest has for the most part been cut away 

and heavy floods are common, such as those of the Genesee and 

Chemung rivers, described more fully on a later page.

The only streams of this region on which extensive discharge measurements have been made are Genesee River and its tributary, Oatka 

Creek. Streams of similar character in western Pennsylvania, however, have been measured for a number of years by the Philadelphia 

water department, and the results of these measurements are available for comparison and discussion. The results obtained on the 

Pennsylvania streams, the Neshaminy, Tohickon, and Perkiomen, are 

applicable particularly in estimates of the flow of the tributaries of 

Delaware River, rising jn New York State, and to the more easterly 

streams which form the Susquehanna.

The drainage basins of the Oswego, Mohawk, and Hudson rivers are 

so highly composite as regards geologic formations and embrace such 

a wide variation in topography and surface geology that no definite 

deductions concerning the effect of the formations on water flow have 

been drawn. The streams of Long Island, rising among the sands,
RAFTER.] RIVER SYSTEMS. 23

tills, and gravels of comparatively recent, unconsolidated formations, 

offer peculiar conditions, which are discussed on a later page.

BITER SYSTEMS.

The rivers of the State may be classified into seven general systems, 

whose relative position is shown by the accompanying index map, 

fig. 1. These are:

(1) St. Lawrence system, which includes all waters draining to Lakes 

Erie and Ontario, and Niagara and St. Lawrence rivers.

FIG. 1. Index map of rivers of New York.

(2) Champlain system, including all streams in the State tributary 

to Lakes Champlain and George. The Champlain system is in reality 

a subdivision of the St. Lawrence, but made separate here merely for 

convenience in discussing the river systems of the State.

(3) Hudson River system, including all streams tributary to the 

Hudson and its main branch, the Mohawk.

(4) Allegheny River system.

(5) Susquehanna River system.

(6) Delaware River system.
24 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. two.'24.

(7) The streams of Long Island tributary to Long Island Sound and 

the Atlantic Ocean.

The head waters of the branches of Housatonic River in ^Connecticut flow out of the State to the east, while the head waters of Ramapo 

River, in Rockland County, flow from New York into New Jersey. 

These latter are of possible future importance by reason of the necessity of water for the supply either of Greater New York or, in the 

case of Ramapo River, also for the municipalities of northern New 

Jersey. Chateaugay River, a tributary of the St. Lawrence, also 

flows northward into the Dominion of Canada.

ST. LAWRENCE RIVER SYSTEM.

This group embraces the streams tributary to Lake Erie, Niagara 

River, Lake Ontario, and St. Lawrence River. On the extreme southwest, in Chautauqua County, the watershed line approaches within a 

few miles of Lake Erie, but at an elevation of several hundred feet 

above, and as a consequence the streams are short and rapid. A 

small amount of power is developed on Chautauqua Creek at Westfield, and on Canadaway Creek near Fredonia. Cattaraugus, Buffalo, Tonawanda, and Oak Orchard creeks may also be mentioned 

as tributaries of Lakes Erie and Ontario and Niagara River in western New York. Buffalo Creek is important as forming a large portion 

of Buffalo Harbor at its mouth. Tonawanda Creek, which flows into 

Niagara River at Tonawanda, is used for several miles as a part of 

Erie Canal. This stream is sluggish throughout nearly its whole 

course and affords only a small amount of power. The water supply 

of the village of Attica is taken from its head waters.

NIAGARA RIVER.

Niagara River forms a portion of the boundary between the Dominion of Canada and the State of New York. The difference in elevation 

between Lakes Erie and Ontario is, approximately, 336 feet, of which 

about 160 feet are at Niagara Falls. Between Lake Erie and Niagara 

Falls the river divides into two channels around Grand Island, which 

is 10 miles long and 4 or 5 miles wide. The general course of the 

river is from south to north, but in passing around Grand Island the 

eastern channel bends westward, and for 3 miles from the foot of 

the island the course of the river is west.

Goat Island lies at the foot of this westerly stretch. On the New 

York side the American channel finds its way around the island to 

the American Falls, which break over the rough ledge at right angles 

to the main river. The Horseshoe Falls, on the Canadian side, are 

about 3,000 feet higher up and lie between the west end of Goat Island 

and the Canadian shore. At the Canadian Falls the main river again 

turns to the north and pursues that general course to Lake Ontario.

The elevation of the water surface at the head of the rapids above 

the falls is 560 feet above tide water, thus giving a fall from the Lake
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 24 PL. Ill

DRAINAGE AREA OP THE GENESEE RIVER.
BAFTEB.] GENESEE RIVER. 25

Erie level to that point of from 12 to 13 feet, of which from 4 to 5 feet 

are included in the rapids at the city of Buffalo, in front of and just 

below Fort Porter. The descent in the river from the head of the 

rapids to the brink of the falls is about 50 feet. At the narrows, half 

a mile above the whirlpool, the elevation of the water surface is 300 

feet, while that of the surface of the still water opposite Lewiston is 

249 feet; the fall in this section, which is from 4 to 4.5 miles in length, 

may therefore be taken at 51 feet, while from Lewiston to the mouth 

at Fort Niagara the fall is only 2 feet in a distance of 7 miles. The 

total length of Niagara River is about 37 miles.

On account of the immense water-power developments now taking 

place at Niagara Falls the run-off of Niagara River must necessarily 

receive extended discussion in a complete account of the water 

resources of New York.

GENESBE RIVEK.

Genesee River, as shown on PI. Ill, issues from the highlands of 

the Allegheny Plateau in Potter County, Pennsylvania, a few miles 

south of the New York State boundary. Entering Allegany County, 

it first runs northwesterly for upward of 30 miles to near the village 

of Canadea, at which point it turns northeasterly, this direction being 

generally maintained to the mouth. It flows entirely across the county 

of Allegany and then for several miles forms the boundary between 

Livingston and Wyoming counties, after which it crosses the northeast part of Livingston into Monroe County, through which it continues to its mouth at Charlotte. Above Portage its course from the 

State line is chiefly through an alluvial valley.

From Portage to Mount Morris the river flows through a deep and 

in some places narrow canyon for a distance of over 20 miles. The 

Portage Falls, with a total descent including the intervening rapids 

of about 330 feet, are at the head of this canyon. The Upper Portage 

Falls have a descent, including the rapids, of about 70 feet. Half a 

mile below are the Middle Falls, shown on PI. IV, with a descent of 

110 feet; while 2 miles below begin the Lower Falls, consisting of a 

series of rapids about half a mile long with an aggregate fall of 150 

feet. These three falls may be taken as aggregating about 270 feet, 

exclusive of the rapids. At present no power developments exist. 

Formerly a sawmill was located at the Middle Falls, but on account 

of the extinction of the lumber business on the stream it has not been 

operated for many years.

At Mount Morris, Genesee River issues into a broad, level, alluvial 

valley from 1 to 2 miles wide, which continues to near Rochester, 

where there is a descent of 263 feet in about 3 miles. The Upper 

Falls at Rochester, 90 feet in height, are a cataract in the Niagara 

limestone, while at the Lower Falls, 94 feet in height, shown on PL 

V, the Medina sandstone appears.

The principal tributaries of Genesee River are Canaseraga, Hone-
26 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [NO.

oye, and Conesus creeks from the east, and Oatka, Black, and Wiscoy 

creeks from the west. Honeoye, Canadice, and Hemlock lakes are 

tributary to the Honeoye Creek, and Conesus Lake to Conesus Creek. 

Silver Lake is another small body of water in the Genesee Basin and 

tributary to the river by the Silver Lake outlet. Canaseraga Creek 

joins Genesee River near Mount Morris. From Dansville to its mouth, 

a distance of 16 miles, this creek flows through a broad alluvial valley with very little fall. Above Dansville the stream is more rapid, 

but the comparatively small, deforested drainage area limits its value 

for water power. Honeoye Creek, which is the outlet of Honeoye, 

Canadice, and Hemlock lakes, furnishes some water power. There 

are also several mills on the outlet of Conesus Lake.

Formerly there were a number of mills on the Silver Lake outlet, 

but changed business conditions have led to their decay. The other 

tributaries of the Genesee have little significance as mill streams. It 

appears, then, that the two places of importance on Genesee River, 

from the water-power point of view, are Portage and Rochester. 

These will be discussed in detail farther on.

The following table gives the detail of the several subdivisions of 

the drainage area of Genesee River:

Drainage areas, in square miles, of tributaries of Genesee River.

Creek.

Cryder... ... _.___... .

Vandeinarck .............

Phillips. ............. ...

White ........... .. ......

Black...... . ...........

Crawf ord ...... . _ . ....

Caneadea ......__....._.

Cold................. ..

Rush .............. . .

Wiscoy ... - .----.-.....

Wolf ....................

Silver Lake ..............

Coshaqua . . . ...... ....

Conesus Lake ............

Black........... ........

Drainage 

area.

43.3

30.0

68.3

21.6

22 3

32.3

55.7

82.1

15.9

31.1

11.8

63.3

41.0

35.3

108.6

19.3

30.4

82.0

258.7

41.3

88.8

262.6

198.1

211.8

Area above 

mouth.

99.9

181.0

214.0

301.3

323.9

372.8

410.4

481.1

569.2

595.5

637.6

651.0

745.3

787.0

833.6

974.9

1,029.2

1, 059. 6

1,148.4

1,423.1

1,555.5

1,675.9

1,947.1

2,168.5

Area lielow 

inouth.

143.2

211.0

282.3

322.9

346.2

405.1

466.1

563.2

585.1

626.6

649.4

714.3

786.3

822.3

942.2

994.2

1,059.6

1,141.6

1,407.1

1, 464. 4

1, 643. 9

1,938.5

2,145.2

2, 380. 0

The total drainage area of Genesee River at its mouth is 2,445.6 

square miles.
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 24 PL. IV

A. UPPER AND MIDDLE FALLS OF GENESEE RIVER AT PORTAGE.

B. GENESEE RIVER CANYON BELOW MIDDLE FALLS AT PORTAGE.
RAFTEB.] OSWEGO RIVER. 27

The following tabulation gives the elevation of Genesee River at 

various points.

Elevation above tide ivater of Genesee River at various points,

Feet. 

Mean surface of Lake Ontario......................... ................... 24?

Crest of the feeder dam in south part of the city of Rochester....-_..___.-- 510

Low-water surface of river at New York, Lake Erie and Western Railway

bridge near Avon...-.--...---..-,-.............-..-.. .-... ............. 538

Crest of old Mount Morris power dam ...................^................. 605

Water surface just above Upper Falls at Portage .......................... 1,080

Water surface at New York. Lake Erie and Western Railway bridge near

Belvidere................................................................ 1,333

The extreme head waters in Potter County, Pennsylvania, are stated 

to be considerably over 2,000 feet above tide.

OSWEGO RIVER.

Oswego River flows into Lake Ontario at the city of Oswego. Its 

basin includes the more important of the inland lakes of western New 

York. Taking the lakes of the Oswego River Basin in order from 

west to east, their names, elevations above tide, area of water surface, 

and tributary drainage area at the foot of each lake are as follows:

Elevation ancf, area of lakes of the Oswego River Basin.

Lake.

Cayuga ............... ..

Oswaco ......... ........

Skaneateles ..............

Cazenovia. . -.--.. ........

Elevation 

above tide.

Feet. 

687.0

720.0

443.0

380.0

710.0

867.0

784.0

364.0

900.0

370.0

Area.

Sq. miles.

18.6

20.3

66.0

66.8

12.4

12.8

3.0

4.0

2.8

80.9

Drainage 

area.

Sq. miles. 

175.0

187.0

707.0

1,593.0

208.0

73.0

41.0

267.0

9.0

1, 300. 0

The following are the drainage areas of Oswego River and its principal tributaries:

Drainage areas of Oswego River and principal tributaries.

Sq. miles. 

Oswego River afc mouth ............ .. .,,.......^........................ 5,013

Below junction of Seneca and Oneida rivers.------...--.------------------ 4,868

Oneida River.----.-----..---------.----_-.-----------.-..--. ._........... 1,420

Seneca River..... --.--..-..--....--.--..-..-.--...-___....--..--._-...... 3,450
28 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [NO. 24.

The subdivisions of the damage area of Seneca River are as 

follows:

Subdivisions of drainage area of Seneca River.

Sq. miles. 

At junction with Oneida River -.____....-,..._.---.....-. ,.._......--...-- 3,450

At Baldwinsville _..-._-..--_.. ... ...._....--.........--_._...._.-...-- 3,136

At Montezuma. ............................ ........................ ...... 2,472

Below Cayuga Lake.._-......__..____......_____-__-.._.._,.._.... ....... 1,593

At entrance to Cayuga Lake............I.........._...-........... .. .... 780

At Seneca Falls ......................................................... 771

Waterloo ..............................................^................ 745

At foot of Seneca Lake .-.._......._..-..-...---. _.-.__.._-___._-.-__-_ . 707

Keuka Lake Outlet-......................... ........ .... .............. 213

Catherines Creek .................................. ...................... 94

The drainage areas of Cayuga Lake and its tributaries are as follows:

Drainage areas of Cayuga Lake and tributaries.

Sq. miles. 

At outlet.-......-.....-..................--..-..--..-.-..-.:.-.---.......... 813

Cayuga Inlet, including Cascadilla Creek............. ...................... 173

Fall Creek, not including Cascadilla Creek. .. ...-.-.-........--..----.-.... 152

Salmon Creek _...__.__._....________..__.__._.___...._..._____.____._..._.. 90

Taughanic Creek............... .................. -...-. ................. 60

Clyde River, a tributary of Seneca River, is formed by the junction 

of Canandaigua Outlet and Mud Creek. The latter stream rises in 

the southern part of Ontario County and flows first north and then 

east, uniting with Canandaigua Outlet at Lyons. Clyde River joins 

Seneca River at Montezuma. The following are the drainage areas 

of Clyde River and tributaries:

Drainage areas of Clyde River and tributaries.

Sq. miles. 

Atmouth...-.....-......-._..--...... ...................... ......_,...... 869

At Clyde.. ..................... .......................... ............... 807

At Lyons, at junction of Canandaigua Outlet and Mud Creek......... ._.._.. 729

Mud Creek at Lyons...... ---.--..-.._--.----------. ......... ... ........ 298

Canandaigua Outlet at .junction with Mud Creek._.....-.--..._.-._..-_-__.. 431

Canandaigua Outlet at Phelps.-.-.-...-..-... ........ -,..-.:._..... ..... 390

Canandaigua Lake at foot................... ....... ........ ... . ....... 175

Canandaigua Inlet .............. .................... ...... .............. 85

Owasco Lake discharges into Seneca River through an outlet 15 

miles in length. The following are the drainage areas of Owasco 

Outlet:

Drainage areas of Owasco Outlet.

Sq. miles. 

At mouth ._.-__-..-.......--.---.--..'.-_-.....__.._.._.....-...........__. 230

At Auburn....................._............................._.,......... 212

Owasco Lake at foot.-.-.....--.-..---..-...-...-..---...---....-...... .... 208

Owasco Inlet...... ......................................................... 12Q
O. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 24 PL. V

MIDDLE AND LOWER FALLS OF GENESEE RIVER AT ROCHESTER.
RAFTER.] BLACK RIVEE. 29

The drainage areas of Oneida River and its principal tributaries 

are as follows:

Drainage areas of Oneida River and principal tributaries.

Sq. miles.

Oneida Biver at mouth.__._._--.____._.__..__..__._..,._.---..--.._.------ 1,420

Oneida Lake at foot...-_.__.-..._.._.._.__.__......-.-._--.-.----- ..-- 1,300

Fish Creek.............................. .............................. - 480

Chittenango Creek,including Cazenovia Lake....---..-..-.......--.....-. 306

Oneida Creek.................................._.....,......-...._........ 128

The Oswego River and its tributaries furnish a large number of 

water powers, the detail of which may be obtained from the Report 

on Water Power of the United States, Tenth Census of the United 

States, 1880. Very little can be added to the statements in that report.

The next stream of any importance tributary to Lake Ontario is 

Big Salmon River, which rises in the highlands of Lewis County and 

flows westerly into Lake Ontario. This stream was extensively considered several years ago as the source of water supply for the city of 

Syracuse, the water to be taken at a point about 40 miles distant from 

the city. Its"watershed above the proposed point of diversion comprises 70 square miles of forest land at an elevation of from 1,000 to 

1,500 feet above tide water.

BLACK RIVEE.

Between Big Salmon River and the mouth of Black River there are 

a number of small streams flowing into Lake Ontario, none of which 

are of special importance. We may therefore pass to a brief description of Black River. This stream rises in the western part of Hamilton County and pursues a southwesterly direction, passing across 

Herkimer County into Oneida County; it then bends to somewhat 

west of north through Lewis County, but soon after passing the northwesterly boundary of that county it changes to a general westerly 

course, flowing into Black River Bay at the extreme eastern end of 

Lake Ontario. Extensive water-power developments are in use on 

this stream and its tributaries, at Watertown, Lyons Falls, Carthage, 

Black River, Brownville, Dexter, and other points. There are also a 

number of State reservoirs on the head waters which will be discussed 

in detail later. The following gives the elevation in feet of the main 

points on Black River above tide water, according to the best available information.

Altitude of points along Black River.

Feet. 

Atmouth .............................. .................................. 247

Watertown, west line of city... .......................................... 370

Watertown at head of falls....................... .-...---.--...-...-.---_ 492

Carthage at foot of rapids. -_--...--.............. ....................... 669

Carthage at crest of State dam ...............,,......................_... 724
30 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [NO. 24.

Altitude of points along Black River Continued.

Feet. 

Lyons Falls at foot. ...................................................... 733

Lyons Falls, crest of State dam....-.___.__.----.--_.---__._-..-....-----_ 802

Forestport, crest of State darn.-..._......._.. .._.__... .._-_--.--..... .... 1,129

North Branch reservoir ..^.............................................^. 1,821

Chub Lake. __._..--__.__._-.-...._._._....-....__-..--_.__----..-_...-.- 1,599

Woodhull reservoir .......................................... ............ 1,854

South Branch reservoir. ........................................ .... .- ... 2,019

Moose River at mouth._.__._____._.___. ...-_.......---._-......---.-. .... 802

First Lake, Fulton Chain.................................... ............ 1,684

Second Lake ..... __.._.__.__._____.._.__........_........_--.-.. ....... 1,684

Third Lake...................................................... ........ 1,685

Fourth Lake.... .............. ............. ...,............._. ...... 1,687

Fifth Lake.................. .................. ............-.......... 1,691

Sixth Lake................................ ... ................... ....... 1,760

Seventh Lake .........................................._................ 1,762

Eighth Lake ............................................................ 1,808

Little Moose Lake ... .................. ....--.......-.-...-.. .......... 1,772

Big Moose Lake.......-......-....--.-....._. _.....,. .................... 1,787

Beaver River at mouth ............................ _....--..- ..^ ........ 724

Beaver Lake at Number Four. .......... ...... .......... ^................ 1,436

The drainage areas of Black River and its tributaries, in square 

miles, are as follows:

Drainage areas of Black River and tributaries,

Sq. miles. 

Black River at mouth .................................................... 1,860

At Watertown.......................................... ....... ........ 1,820

AtCarthage............................... ........... ........_......... 1,741

At Lyons Falls below Moose River............ ..._. ..-.-----.....-.-..... 810

Forestport .... __ ..........._...............- .......... ............... 275

Above mouth of Sawmill Creek .......... _ _ ... ........................ 174

Deer River.........-.-..-............".................-.....---.......... 107

Beaver River... .. .._.... ._..............,.............................. 365

Lovell Creek............................... .... ... .. .............. 34

Independence Creek ...................................... .. ............ 90

Martins Creek______.____._____.._.__,.._ ................................. 29

Otter Creek ............................................ ............._. 60

Moose River................... ........,..__..._..______. ............._. 349

Sugar River ....... ..........._.............-.-........................... 66

STREAMS FLOWING INTO ST. LAWRENCE RIVER.

Proceeding along St. Lawrence River we find a number of streams, 

such as the Oswegatchie, which flows into the St. Lawrence at Ogdensburg; the Grass, which enters the St. Lawrence near the north line 

of the State; the Raquette and St. Regis, flowing into the St. Lawrence a short distance below the Grass, arid finally the Chateau gay, 

which flows from this State into the Dominion of Canada and thence 

into the St. Lawrence. These streams all head in and about the 

Adirondack Plateau and, as a rule, fall rapidly from their sources to 

near their mouths, affording large water powers, which thus far have
RAFTER.] LAKE CHAMPLAIN. 31

been chiefly utilized for pulp grinding, paper making, and sawing 

lumber.

There is a lack of definite information in regard to all the streams 

of the northern part of the State. No detailed surveys of this region 

have been made. Partial reservoir systems have been constructed 

on Oswegatchie, Grass, and Raquette rivers. Some of the economic 

questions involved in the construction of these reservoirs will be discussed in Part II of this paper, Water-Supply Paper No. 25.

So far as can be learned, no measurements have been made of any 

of the streams tributary to St. Lawrence River proper. It is probable, 

however, that they are the best water-yielding streams of the State, 

because they flow from the great northern forest, and because their 

head waters are in the extensive lake region which lies immediately 

west of the main Adirondack Mountains, and which extends westward 

from the base of the main range to the borders of the forest, a distance of nearly 50 miles. This portion of the Adirondack Plateau is 

comparatively level. As regards geographic distribution, these lakes 

are most numerous in the northern parts of Herkimer and Hamilton 

counties and the southern parts of St. Lawrence and Franklin counties. Those in Herkimer County flow into Moose and Beaver rivers, 

tributaries of Black River. The following are the elevations of a few 

of the more important lakes of Hamilton, St. Lawrence, and Franklin 

counties, which are tributary to streams flowing northward into the 

St. Lawrence:

Elevations of important lakes of Hamilton, St. Laivrence, and Franklin counties.

Lake.

Raqtiette ......................................

Forked ....................... ................

.Loner

BigTupper ...- ....__.._..._ .................

Feet.

1,540

1,753

1,630

1,728

1,552

LAKE CHAMPLAIN SYSTEM.

Lake Champlain has a water area of 400 square miles. The area 

of its watershed in New York State amounts to 2,950 square miles, in 

Vermont to 4,270 square miles, and in the Province of Quebec to 740 

square miles. The total area of watershed, not including water surface, is 7,960 square miles, or the total area of the drainage basin, 

including water surface, is 8,360 square miles. Lake Champlain is 

considered as beginning at Whitehall and terminating at St. Johns, 

on the Richelieu. Its length is 125 miles and its breadth in the
32 WATER RESOURCES OP STATE OF NEW YORK, PART Jt. [NO. 24.

northern portion about 13 miles. The standard low-water elevation 

is given at 95.03 feet, and standard high water at 103.78 feet, above 

tide.

The streams tributary to Lake Champlain are Big Chazy, Little 

Chazy, Saranac, Salmon, Little Ausable, Big Ausable, and Bouquet 

rivers and the outlet of Lake George. There are also a few small 

streams of no special importance.

The streams tributary to Lake Champlain are, as a rule, not of 

great length, but rising, as they nearly all do, in or near the high 

mountains of the Northern Plateau they have a rapid descent with 

an abundant fall. For illustration we may refer to the Saranac River, 

which has, by the county maps of Bien's Atlas, a length of about 55 

miles from its mouth to Lower Saranac Lake. The elevation of Lake 

Champlain above tide water is 101 feet, while that of Lower Saranac 

Lake is given at 1,539 feet. Hence the fall in 55 miles of river course 

is 1,438 feet. Middle Saranac Lake lies at an elevation of 1,542 feet 

and Upper Saranac at 1,557 feet.

In the case of Ausable River we find a distance by the course of 

the river of about 40 miles from its mouth to Lake Placid, the elevation of that body of water being 1,864 feet above tide, or 1,763 above 

Lake Champlain; or, taking the distance by that fork of Ausable 

River which leads to Ausable Lakes, the distance is about 42 miles 

to Lower Ausable Lake, the elevation of which is 1,961 feet above 

tide; hence we have a fall in this stream of 1,860 feet in a little over 

40 miles. The water power of the several streams tributary to Lake 

Champlain has been extensively developed at Plattsburg and other 

points, as indicated by the tabulations relating to pulp, paper, and 

lumber interests.

The most southerly tributary of Lake Champlain of any importance 

for water purposes is the outlet of Lake George, which in about 2 

miles has a fall of 222 feet. The greater portion of this is concentrated in the first mile from the lake. The elevation of Lake George 

above tide water is 323 feet. The area of the lake surface is stated 

at 50 square miles, and the tributary drainage area above the foot of 

the lake at 238 squara miles. In the absence of accurate topographic 

maps the drainage area of Lake George, like that of most of the other 

streams considered, can be given only approximately.

As will be shown later, the streams in eastern New York can not be 

depended on to furnish a natural flow of more that, about 0.3 cubic 

foot per square mile per second as a minimum in a dry year. On 

account of the large water surface of Lake George in proportion to 

the drainage area, it is possible, by utilizing the storage on the lake 

surface, to realize a much larger quantity. From 0.7 to 0.8 cubic 

foot per second per square mile may be assumed as a conservative 

estimate, the results being based on allowing the water to flow out 

of the lake 24 hours per day for only 310 days in the year. On this
RAFTER.] HUDSON RIVER. 33

basis we may assume a mean flow for minimum dry years of about 

200 cubic feet per second. Since the entire 222-foot fall of the Lake 

George Outlet is now utilized, we may place the permanent power in 

a dry year at about 5,000 gross horsepower. The village of Ticonderoga, at which this power is all utilized, had a population in 1890 

of 2,267.

Wood Creek, the most southerly tributary of Lake Chaniplam, is 

of interest in a study of the water resources of New York, chiefly 

because of its relations to Champlain Canal, its channel being utilized 

for several miles as part of the canal. At Fort Ann there is considerable power developed on one of its tributaries, used at present 

for grinding pulp.

HUDSON RIVER SYSTEM.

Hudson River, with its principal tributary, the Mohawk, is the most 

important river of the State. From its mouth to Troy, a distance of 

over 150 miles, it is a great inland estuary subject to tidal action, 

and because of its great length and the large fresh-water inflow it is 

unique among inland estuaries. From the first landing of the Dutch 

on Manhattan Island to the present time it has been an important 

channel of commerce. On his voyage of discovery in 1609, Hendrik 

Hudson ascended to the head of tide water, and doubtless discerned 

the possibilities of future settlement which were so soon realized at 

Albany, Waterford, and Schenectady. The tidal action of Hudson 

River originally terminated at the rapids above Troy, but its present 

termination is a few miles below, at the Troy dam, a structure erected 

about 1820 as a part of the State canal system. There is a lock at 

the east end of this dam through which canal boats pass into the pool 

above, thus enabling them to reach Lansingburg on the east side of 

the river, or Waterford on the west side, where they may enter 

Champlain Canal.

Below Troy the tributaries of Hudson River are mostly small and 

generally not of very great importance, although some of them have 

considerable power development. One of them, Croton River, is the 

principal source of water supply of the city of New York. On this 

part of the river the drainage basin is rather narrow, and many of 

the streams issuing from the highlands at either side have such small 

drainage areas as to carry only moderate quantities of water. In 

descending the river from Troy the principal streams are, on the west 

side, Normankill, Catskill, Esopus, and Rondout creeks, and on the 

east side Kinderhook, Wappinger, and Fishkill creeks and Croton 

River. Harlem River, connecting the Hudson with East River, may 

be mentioned, in view of its value to navigation interests, as an important feature of the water resources of New York.

The following are the elevations of mean tide, mean low tide, and 

mean high tide above mean sea level at New York, and the mean rise 

04 3
34 WATER EESOUECES OF STATE OP NEW YORK, PART I. [NO. 24.

and fall of tides at various points along the tidal estuary between 

New York Bay and the Troy dam:

Mean tidal elevations in feet at various points between New York Bay and Troy dam.

Locality.

Sandy Hook..........

Governors Island. ....

Coxsackie light-house. 

New Baltimore. ......

Colymans --.---.....

Van Wies ..-.___---_.

Albany ..............

Nail works . _ . . . .....

Mean tide.

0.00

0.18

1.68 

1.73

1.88

2.09

2.13

2.43

2.78

3.77

Mean low 

tide

2.20

1.62

0.17 

0.03

0.44

0.82

0.82

1.27

1.81

.3.37

Mean high 

tide.

2.20

1.98

3.53 

3.44

3.31

3.35

3.29

3.59

3.75

4.17

Mean rise 

and fall.

4.70

4.40

3.60

3.70 

3.42

2.87

2.53

2.33

2.32

1.94

0.80

The most important tributaries begin above Troy. Ascending on 

the west side we find Mohawk River, the outlet of Saratoga Lake, 

Sacundaga River, Stony and North creeks, and Indian and Cedar 

rivers. On the east side there are Hoosic, Battenkill, Schroon, and 

Boreas rivers. Above the mouth of Cedar River the main North or 

Hudson River is considered to extend to and beyond Lake Sanford, 

including Opalescent River and the streams issuing from the high 

Adirondacks.

The following gives the height above tide water at New York of a 

number of points on Hudson River.

Height above tide ivater at New YorTc of points on Hudson River.

	Feet. 

New York (at mouth)......-.....--.....-...-.-...----.-..-- ---.-...., 0.0

Troy...._____.___._.__._____.__._______..____.._.._._.,....--......._,_ 3.8

Saratoga dam (crest) ....................................^.--........... 102.0

Fort Edward (below dam)......... --.....--..--- .-.--.-..--...--..... .. 118.0

Glens Falls (crest of feeder dam) ._..___.___.._.-..__.'__._..-- ......... 284.0

Mouth of Sacundaga River ____._...__.....__.___..-_____.---._-________ 556.0

Mouthof Stony Creek........... _.._.__.__._--.---_._..---.- ._._._,. 584.0

Mouth of Schroon River.._.,___...__._._.___..__.___.__._,-.____-..___- 608.0

At Glen Bridge................................. .__.--...-. I........... 728.0

At Riverside Bridge.._-__-......-- ..-----.----..---.-.--------.-..-..- 875.0

At North Creek Bridge .... ............._...-......_._-.-.-.-.....-.... 998.0

At North River.....................................,................_... 1,050.0

Mouth of Boreas River ............................----.-.----.-------..- 1,140.0

Mouth of Indian River...........................,._-...-...-_.-.---..-.- 1,415.0

Mouth of Cedar River .................................. ............... 1,460.0

LakeSanford. ................................... ._._. .............. 1,723.0
RAFTER.] HUDSON RIVER SYSTEM. 35

MOHAWK EIVEE.

Mohawk River, the most important tributary of the Hudson, rises 

in tlie western-central part of the State, near the Lewis and Oneida 

county line. It flows in a southerly direction to the city of Rome, 

from which it takes an easterly course across the State, emptying into 

the Hudson a little above Troy. The principal tributaries are Schoharie, East Canada, West Canada, and Oriskany creeks.

The following are the elevations above tide water of a number of 

points along Mohawk River:

Elevations of points along Mohawk River.

Feet.

At mouth__._..______._.___.-_-..--___---._.....-----------.----------..-..----- 12

Lower Mohawk Aqueduct ................................................. 162

Schenectady...... ._.___.._..__..___._....___---.-_-._-----.-.-__.--------. 214

Mouth of Schoharie Creek .................................................. 270

At Rome, above feeder dam. _..-_................-_......---....--.---......-. 431

There are two principal falls of Mohawk River, the Great Falls at 

Cohoes and the Little Falls at the city of the same name, where are 

found the only important water powers thus far developed on this 

stream. At Cohoes are the Great Falls, about 120 feet in height, on 

which the Cohoes Company has developed about 105 feet. At Little 

Falls there is a total fall of about 45 feet occurring in a little over half 

a mile. Of this, from 38 to 40 feet are utilized by three dams. Aside 

from a small amount of power developed below Cohoes, just above 

the "sprouts" of the Mohawk, there are no water-power developments 

on the stream other than those of Cohoes and Little Falls, except a 

few unimportant mills on the extreme head waters. The waterworks 

of the city of Rome, at Ridge Mills, 2 miles north of Rome, where a 

water-power pumping system is in use, may, however, be mentioned.

The following are the principal subdivisions of the drainage areas 

of Mohawk River:

Subdivisions of drainage area of MohawJc River.

Sq. miles.

Atmoutti............................................. .-...-,--.---...-_- 3,400

Below mouth of Schoharie Creek..... .__.-__...--_,-_-_____...----._-____ 3,100

At Little Falls................................................ ............ 1,275

AtUtica... ...._._.__-.._.._._.._____.._.._____._--.---....----._--_..-_. 524

At Rome..-..__-.......-_-__...__._..____..__. ...._....-..-....,..---...... 184

SCHOHARIE CREEK.

Schoharie Creek rises in the southern part of Greene County, whence 

it flows 18 miles northwesterly and then northerly about 50 miles to 

the Mohawk. The principal subdivisions of the drainage area are as

follows:

Subdivisions of drainage area of Schoharie Creek.

Sq. miles. 

At mouth....... -_.__.._.__._---___..____-_-_..__._----.--.....'_-.-..._-.__ i 947

Central Bridge _. ... T ...................................................... 684

Gflboa..................................................................... 308
36 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [NO. 24.

The drainage area of Schoharie Creek comprises the greater part of 

Schoharie County and portions of Greene, Albany, Delaware, Otsego, 

Montgomery, and Schenectady counties. Its head waters drain -the 

western and northern slopes of the Catskill Mountains. At Central 

Bridge, about 19 miles from the mouth of the creek, the water surface 

is 560 feet above tide water; at the mouth the elevation is 274 feet. 

In spite of this large fall Schoharie Creek is not considered especially 

valuable for water-power development. It is subject to great extremes 

of flood and low-water flow. This is probably explainable by the 

nearly complete cutting off of the forests from the drainage area many 

years ago: The water powers thus far developed in the Schoharie 

Creek Basin are nearly all small and unimportant.

EAST CANADA CREEK.

The second important tributary of the Mohawk is East Canada 

Creek, which rises in the southwestern part of Hamilton County and 

flows southerly, joining the Mohawk at East Creek, about 7 miles 

from Little Falls. According to a map furnished by Stephen E. 

Babeock, of Little Falls, the total drainage area of East Canada 

Creek is 285.7 square miles, of which 58.2 square miles are in Hamilton County, 98.4 square miles in Herkimer County, 128 square miles 

in Fulton County, and 1.1 square miles in Montgomery County. Following are the elevations of principal points on East Canada Creek:

Elevations of principal points on East Canada Creek.

Feet.

Bottom of Beardslee Falls near mouth ...................^................ 0

Top of Beardslee Falls.........._______.._.--...-.._..--_.._._._._.____.._ 105

Bottom of High Falls. .................................................... 327

Top of High Falls ....................-.:................................. 379

Crest of dam at Dolgeville ................................................ 445

Mouth of Spruce Creek. .................................................. 477

Mouth of Fish Creek .... . ...............................I.............. 559

Emmonsburg .__._.--_.-.._...,.._.._-_..-----_-_-._-._---,--._-..-_.--.-.. 646

Stratford.................. ............................ .................. 730

Oregon................................................................... 1,140

The distance from the mouth of the stream to Oregon is about 25 

miles.

The principal tributary of East Canada Creek is Fish Creek, which 

is the outlet of the East Canada lakes. The distance from its point 

of junction with East Canada Creek to the mouth of the Canada lakes 

outlet is about 9 miles, and the total rise in this distance 635 feet. 

The outlet of the lakes, which is nearly level, is about 3.5 miles long. 

There are no falls of any magnitude on this creek. For the first 5 

miles from its mouth Fish Creek rises 245 feet, and from that point 

to the mouth of the outlet of the East Canada lakes, a distance of 4 

miles, the rise is 390 feet.
RAFTER.] EAST CANADA CKEEK. 37

The second tributary of East Canada Creek is Spruce Creek, which 

has a total length from its mouth to its head in the Eaton Millpond 

of about 8.7 miles, the total rise in this distance being about 550 feet. 

Just below the Eaton Millpond there is a fall of 180 feet in 2,000 feet. 

At' Salisbury Center, Spruce Creek falls 85 feet in about 900 feet. 

Aside from the development at Dolgeville, and small developments 

at Beardslee Palls and at one or two other points, very little use has 

thus far been*made of the water power of East Canada Creek. It is 

probable, however, that within a few years the water power of this 

stream will be nearly all utilized.

According to a manuscript report on the water power of East Canada Creek, by S. E. Babcock, the fall in this stream for the first 1,500 

feet from its junction with Mohawk River is very slight. At this 

point the first rapids are encountered, where it has been proposed to 

develop a water power, with a head of about 60 to 70 feet. About 

1,000 to 1,200 feet farther upstream there is an additional fall of from 

30 to 40 feet. This takes us to the top of the so-called Beardslee 

Palls, referred to above.

It has also been proposed to construct an extensive system of power 

development by a series of dams on East Canada Creek, some of the 

details of which may be gathered from the following table:

Plan of power development on East Canada Creels.

Location.

Green street. --_--.__...______._..._..

Intermediate ...__--.--,--,.-.,...__.--

HighFalls... __-.__._._..____._.__.-_.

No. 1 (below High Falls) ................

No. 2 (below High Falls) .... .... ..... .

No. 1 (Ingham's mill) ......___....._.

No. 2 (Inghatn's mill) ......__ .......

Totals and mean ._.,......._....

Head 

(in feet).

43

26

29

22

72

74

34

44

44

105

423

Horsepower.

1 172

1, 023

1,141

865

2,700

2,956

1,360

1,778

1,778

5,112

19, 885

Estimated 

cost.

$108, 427

73, 667

30, 910

46,090

56, 320

125, 093

56,408

135, 410

139, 800

138, 326

890, 450

Cost per horsepower.

$92. 51

72.01

27.10

53.28

20.86

43.40

41.40

76.16

73.00

25.10

44.80

This plan of power development further includes the construction of 

a storage of 1,250,000,000 cubic feet, which is estimated to cost $148,000, 

making a total for the whole development of $1,038,450. With these 

figures the-final cost per net horsepower becomes $52.22. The estimates leading to this result include cost of land to be flooded, masonry 

of dams and head works, turbine water wheels, flumes and head feeders, tail raceways, waste gates, power stations, racks, engineering
38 WATER RESOURCES OP STATE OF NEW YORE, PART I. [HO.24

and superintendence, etc. So far as the actual power developments 

are concerned, the work can probably be constructed for the estimates, but the cost of the storage is, in the author's opinion, somewhat too low. The total number of dams which it is proposed to 

build is stated at 40, thus giving an average of only $3,700 per dam. 

This sum would only build timber dams of the most temporary character. The proper operation and repairs of this number of dams, 

scattered over an area of 200 square miles, would entail'in the end an 

annual expense of $30,000, which is the annual interest at 5 per cent 

on $600,000. To obtain the real capitalized cost we need then to add 

$600,000, which gives an amended total of $1,038,450, whence the cost 

per net horsepower for the entire system would become $82.40.

At present an electric-power station is in process of installation 

by the Dolgeville Electric Light and Power Company at the high falls 

just below Dolgeville, shown on PI. VI, by which it is expected to 

develop 1,200 net horsepower. The wheels to be set are two twin 

horizontal 36-inch Victor special wheels, to work under a 72-foot 

head, and which are claimed by the manufacturers to yield, at full 

capacity, 600 net horsepower each. A portion of the power generated at this station is to be used at Dolgeville for manufacturing, 

and the balance, it is stated, will be transmitted to Little Falls, 8 

miles distant.

Dolgeville is the seat of the piano-felt and other industries established by Alfred Dolge & Son. The power for the establishments 

now in operation is derived from two 35-inch Victor turbines, working under a 25-foot head, and rated by the manufacturers to furnish, 

when running at full capacity, 229 net horsepower each, or a total of 

458 horsepower. According to the manufacturer's catalogue, these 

wheels will consume 197 cubic feet per second when working at full 

capacity, and the statement is made that they are ordinarily so 

worked. The drainage area of East Canada Creek above Dolgeville 

is about 250 square miles; hence the present development ^is based 

upon a minimum flow of 0.79 cubic foot per second per square mile. 

As there is very little pondage at Dolgeville, it may be assumed that 

the power is sometimes short in a dry season, although the effect of 

the pondage of the large number of lakes and ponds on the head 

waters of East Canada Creek will undoubtedly be to increase considerably the minimum flow.

WEST CANADA CREEK.

West Canada Creek, the third important tributary of the Mohawk, 

rises near the center of Hamilton County and flows southwesterly 

about 40 miles, by general course, to the eastern edge of the town of 

Trenton, in Oneida County, where it turns and first runs southeasterly and then southerly for a total distance of 20 miles, finally empty-
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 2* PL. VI

A. DAM AT HIGH FALLS OF EAST CANADA CREEK.

B HIGH FALLS AT TRENTON, ON WEST CANADA CREEK.
BAFTEB.] WEST CANADA CREEK. 39

ing into the Mohawk at the village of Herkimer. The total drainage 

area above Herkimer is given as 548 square miles. This creek has 

its source in the Canada lakes, which are about 40 miles northeast 

from the village of Prospect. These lakes are known separately as 

the West, Middle, and East Canada. The principal lake of this 

series has an elevation of 2,348 feet above tide water. The drainage 

area at the village of Prospect, where there is a natural fall of about 

22 feet, is 375 square miles. At Trenton Falls, 3 miles below, the 

stream descends about 200 feet in half a mile. Ascending the stream, 

the principal falls, in order, are: Sherman Falls, 24 feet; High Falls 

(shown in PL VI), 105 feet; Mill Dam Falls, 14 feet; Suydam Falls, 12 

feet.

According to a report made by Wallace C. Johnson, under date 

of March 17, 1896, to the Trenton Falls Power Company, it appears 

that of the 375 square miles of drainage area above Prospect about 

175 square miles lie at an elevation of between 2,000 and 3,000 feet 

above tide water, the average elevation of this portion being about 

2,500 feet. Of the remaining 200 square miles above Prospect the 

average elevation is placed at not less than 1,600 feet. The Trenton 

Falls Power Company is reported as intending to develop an extensive storage on the head waters of this stream, thus enabling it to produce several thousand electrical horsepower at Trenton Falls for 

transmission to Utica, Rome, and other towns in the vicinity. General plans have been prepared by Mr. Johnson, but the details of the 

project are not at hand. Judging from the data at hand, the author 

is disposed to place the minimum flow of West Canada Creek at from 

0.30 to 0.35 of a cubic foot per square mile per second.

Water powers are now in use on West Canada Creek at Herkimer, 

Middleville, Newport, and Prospect, as well as at a few points higher up.

Parties interested in the development of an extensive power project 

at Trenton Falls have claimed that a-very large storage reservoir 

could be constructed in the main valley of West Canada Creek a 

short distance above Prospect, and at very low cost per unit volume 

stored. The data are not at hand for accurately determining the cost 

of a reservoir at this place. However, casual inspection of the Remsen sheet of the topographic map of the State, made in 1897, shows 

that such a reservoir would probably be expensive in proportion to 

the storage gained. A trial estimate shows that with a dam from 80 

to 100 feet in height a storage of about 2,000,000,000 cubic feet may 

be obtained. The cost of the dam necessary to store this quantity of 

water can hardly be placed as an experimental figure at less than 

$1,000,000, whence the cost per 1,000,000 cubic feet stored would 

become $500. This approximate estimate has no other significance 

than to indicate the importance of studying large reservoir projects 

in detail before deciding as to their feasibility.
40 WATER RESOURCES OP STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [NO.24. 

OTHBB TBIBUTABIES OF MOHAWK BIVER.

As less important tributaries of the Mohawk, Sauquoit and Oriskany creeks may be mentioned. Sauquoit Creek rises in the southeastern part of Oneida County and runs northerly, emptying into the 

Mohawk about 2 miles west of Utica. Its drainage area is given as 

62 square miles. Oriskany Creek rises iu the eastern-southerly portion of Madison County and flows northerly into the Mohawk 6 miles 

west of Utica. Its drainage area is given as 135 square miles. There 

is considerable water power developed on both Sauquoit and Oriskany 

creeks.

HOOSIC RIVER.

The most important tributary of the Hudson from the east is Hoosic 

River, which rises in the mountains of Berkshire County, Massachusetts. It first runs northwesterly, passing from Massachusetts into 

the extreme southwestern corner of Vermont and thence into Rensselaer County, in New York. At the northern boundary of Rensselaer 

County it turns and pursues a westerly course to the Hudson opposite 

the village of Stillwater. Its drainage area at the mouth is taken at 

730 square miles. Its principal tributaries are Little Hoosic River, 

Walloomsac River, and Tomhannock Creek. The country drained is 

mainly mountainous, the summits attaining an elevation of from 

1,000 to 2,000 feet above tide. The principal water powers developed 

on Hoosic River, in New York, are at Schaghtieoke and Hoosic Falls, 

with a few at intermediate points. At Schaghticoke there is from 97 

to 98 feet fall, broken into falls of 8, 7.5, 24.5, 34.5, and 23 feet. The 

available statements as to the power at Hoosic Falls are so conflicting 

that it is thought best to omit them.

Hoosic River is of considerable interest to persons concerned in waterpower development on the Hudson below its mouth, because there 

are two reservoirs on its headwaters which have been constructed by 

manufacturers in Massachusetts in order to maintain a more equable 

summer flow. The first of these is the Clarksburg reservoir, on the 

North Branch of Hoosic River, and at a distance of about 2-J miles 

above North Adams. The second reservoir is on the South Branch, 

and is known as the Cheshire reservoir, being situated in the town of 

that name. The Clarksburg reservoir is stated to flow 156 acres and to 

have a depth of 22 feet. The Cheshire reservoir flows about 650 acres 

and can be drawn down about 8 feet. Both these reservoirs are controlled by an association of mill owners on the Hoosic and its branches 

in the State of Massachusetts.

BATTENKILL RIVER.

Battenkill River, another important tributary of the Hudson, rises 

in the southwestern part of Vermont, in Bennington County. It first
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 24 PL. VII

BIG FALLS OF BATTENKILL RIVER.
RAFTER.] FISH CREEK. 41

flows southwesterly and then westerly irregularly adross Washington 

County, New York, to the Hudson at a point about a mile above 

Schuylerville. The drainage area is taken at 460 square miles. The 

elevation above tide at the mouth of the river is 82 feet, and at the 

Delaware and Hudson Railway crossing, a little south of Shushan, 

the elevation is 437 feet. This gives a descent of 355 feet in 22 miles, 

about one-half of which is concentrated within the last 4 or 5 miles of 

the river's course.

The following is a brief statement of the water powers on the lower 

section of the Battenkill, in ascending order from the mouth:

Water powers on the lower section of the Battenkill.

At Clark Mills, the American Woodboard Company, 24 feet head.

At Big Falls (shown on PL VII), the dam at the head of the falls gives 106 feet 

head, divided into Bennington Falls Pulp Company, 32 feet; Ondawa Pulp and 

Paper Company, 30 feet; not utilized, 44 feet.

At Middle Falls, the dam at the head of the falls gives 55 feet head. Here there 

are a leather-board mill, shank mill, sawmill, plaster mill, gristmill, and electriclight station.

At Greenwich, Dunbar, McMaster & Co., 8 feet head; Palmer's lower dam, 9 

feet head, furnishes power for gristmill, paint works, shirt manufacturing, scale 

manufacturing, and plow works; Palmer's upper dam, 6 feet head, furnishes 

power for a cotton mill and a paper mill.

At Center Falls, Angel & Langdon Paper Mill, 25 feet head.

At Battenville, Phoenix Paper Company, 10 feet head.

At Bexleigh there is a cotton mill with 6 feet head; at Shushan a gristmill, shirt 

factory, electric-light station, and foundry, all receiving power from about 14 

feet head.

In addition to the foregoing there are stated to be undeveloped 

water powers on the Battenkill as follows: Between Clark Mills and 

Big Falls, 27 feet; between Greenwich and Center Falls, 8 feet; between Center Falls and Battenkill, 10 feet.

It is stated that the utilized powers on the Battenkill are developed 

up to about 30 horsepower per foot fall. They are, however, sometimes 

short of water in dry weather. With a drainage area of 460 square 

miles, a minimum flow of 0.3 of a cubic foot per square mile per second would give only about 15.3 gross horsepower per foot of fall. It 

is inferred, therefore, that the Battenkill is an exceedingly good water 

yielder, although definite data derived from stream measurements are 

entirely lacking.

FISH GREEK.

Fish Creek, a stream tributary to the Hudson at Sehuylerville, is 

thefoutlet of Saratoga Lake. Its chief tributary is the Kayaderosseras 

Creek, which drains the central part of Saratoga County. The drainage area of Fish Creek at its junction with the Hudson is estimated at 

253 square miles. Both Fish Creek and Kayaderosseras Creek are 

extensively utilized for water power.
42 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [NO. 24.

SACUNDAGA RIVER.

Sacundaga River, a view of which is given on PL VIII, is the next 

important tributary of the Hudson in the ascending order. It has 

three principal branches, which unite to form the main river in the 

southeastern part of Hamilton County. The West Branch is the outlet of Piseco Lake; the Middle Branch is the outlet of Sacundaga and 

Pleasant lakes, while the East Branch issues from a series of small 

ponds and lakes in the southwestern part of Warren County, not far 

from Bakers Mills. The East and Middle branches unite a few miles 

to the north of Wellstown, and West Branch joins a few miles south 

of Wellstown. The river then flows southeasterly to about 5 miles 

below Northville, where it turns rather more than a right angle and 

flows irregularly northeast to the main Hudson at Hadley. The principal tributary of the Sacundaga, aside from, its several branches, is 

East Stony Creek.

The following are the several subdivisions of the drainage area of 

Sacimdaga River:

Subdivisions of the drainage area of Sacundaga River.

Sq. miles.

Total drainage area at mouth, ..........................,..,...^.......... 1, 040

South Branch ............................... ............................. 240

Middle Branch ...__.___._._..______.__..____._.._...__...._._.-...-_---- 115

East Branch............... ___.._._ __.__..___..,. .__.-_.._._-.._.__--.. 124

Stony Creek........................................ ...................... 212

Main river below Stony Creek .____-...___-.--._.---........-._-.-_-._---. 223

The following are elevations above tide at a number of principal 

points:

Elevations above tide of points along Sacundaga River.

	Feet. 

At month of river _.........._............_..-__.._...__..-._...--_-._..--- 556

Above dam at Conklinville...... ..^....................................... 697

Nortnville........................... _............ ...... ......-.-....-. 732

Hope Center............. ......'. ...... _..___.,__. ................. 763

Wellstown ..... ..r ..^................... .............................. 902

East Branch at old farmery. _....... ._____.__._.________._______._... .... 958

East Branch at foot of High Falls. ..............-......--.-........---.-.- 1,205

East Branch at head of High Falls ......... ............. ......... ...... 1,337

East Branch at Brighams Pond..............;.. _ _ _____.._.__...._._.__. 1,706

Piseco Lake.... .^....................................................... 1,648

Lake Pleasant.................._................ ........................ 1,706

Sacundaga Lake.............. ............ ........-...---.....-......-.. 1,706

From Conklinville to the mouth of the river, a distance of a little 

over 5 miles, the river falls 141 feet. At present this section of 'the 

river is entirely unutilized except by two powers, one at Conklinville 

and the other about ,2 miles from Hadley.

Thus far there are no detailed measurements of the Sacundaga, but 

since the drainage area is still largely in primeval forest it is without 

doubt an excellent water yielder.
U. S. GEOLOSICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 24 PL. VIII

A. HUDSON RIVER ABOVE LUZERNE

B. SACUNDAGA RIVER NEAR LUZERNE. '
BATTER.] HUDSON RIVEK SYSTEM. 43

SCHROON RIVER.

Schroon River rises in Essex County, along the southern slopes of 

the highest mountains of the Adirondack group. As shown by the 

map (PI. IX), it flows in a general southerly direction for about 45 

miles, through Essex and Warren counties, and joins the Hudson 

just above Thurman. On the boundary between Essex and Warren 

counties the river flows through Schroon Lake, a body of water 

nearly 9 miles long and from a little less than 0.5 to 1.5 miles in 

width.

The following are some of the important subdivisions of the drainage area of Schroon River:

Subdivisions of the drainage area of Schroon River.

Square miles 

At mouth .................................................................. 550

Warrensburg ............................................................... 535

Tumblehead Falls ... -.......--.......-...-.-...-_...--...--......-......-. 502

Foot of Schroon Lake ...................................................... 479

Some of the elevations on Schroon River are as follows:

Elevations on Schroon River.

Feet. 

At mouth... ............................ ................................ 610

Schroon Lake ........................................................... 807

Paradox Lake -.-........_....-.............................._............ 830

Schroon Falls ..............-......................._..-.-................ 840

Elk Lake................................................................. 1,986

There is no developed water power on Schroon River except that at 

Warrensburg.

TRIBUTARIES SOUTH OF MOHAWK RIVER.

Kinderhook Creek and Croton River are the chief tributaries of 

the Hudson south of the Mohawk requiring special mention at this 

time. Brief consideration of the run-off of Croton River will be given 

further on. The Columbia Electric Light Power Company, of Valatie, 

was incorporated by the laws of 1897 to construct reservoirs and 

create extensive power developments on Kinderhook Creek and its 

tributaries in Columbia and Rensselaer counties. The surveys for 

this work are now in process under the direction of L. L. Tribus, 

chief engineer of the company.

Wallkill River, a branch of Rondout Creek, may be mentioned. 

This stream rises in New Jersey and flows north, joining Rondout 

Creek near Rondout. It is proposed to take an additional water supply for Brooklyn Borough of Greater New York from the head waters 

of this stream, in New Jersey. The drainage area south of the New 

York State line is 210 square miles.
44 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [NO. 24. 

ALLEGHENY RIVER SYSTEM.

The Allegheny River enters the State of New York from Pennsylvania in the southeastern corner of Cattaraugus County and, flowing 

in nearly a semicircle with its outward curve to the north, passes out 

of the State in the southwestern part of Cattaraugus County, again 

entering Pennsylvania. Its principal tributary from the north is 

Conewango Creek, which receives the outlet of Chautauqua Lake 

and of Cassadaga Creek as tributaries. Little Valley, Great Valley, and Olean creeks are also tributaries in New York. None of 

these streams is of especial importance for water power.

Chautauqua Lake, 20 miles in length and from 1 to nearly 2 miles 

in width, is distant from Lake Erie at its northern extremity only 

about 9.5 miles. Its elevation above tide water is 1,297 feet, while 

that of Lake Erie is 573 feet. Hence Chautauqua Lake is 724 feet 

above Lake Erie. The Conewango Creek, at the south line of the 

State, has an elevation of 1,243 feet. The fall from Chautauqua 

Lake to the southern boundary of the State along the drainage line is 

therefore only 54 feet. The drainage area of the Chautauqua outlet 

at the foot of Chautauqua Lake is 178 square miles, and of the Chautauqua outlet below Cassadaga Creek 343 square miles.

SUSQUEHANNA RIVER SYSTEM.

The head waters of the North Branch of Susquehanna River lie 

chiefly in the State of New York, the drainage area in this State being 

taken at 6,267 square miles. The main stream is considered as rising 

in Otsego Lake, from which it flows first southwesterly, then westerly 

with a short portion of its course south of the Pennsylvania line. It 

finally leaves New York State in Tioga County. The Susquehanna, 

while one of the large rivers of New York, is nob at all important as 

regards water power. The main river and most of its tributaries 

in New York flow through a rolling country with fairly uniform 

declivity. While utilized for small powers in many places, thus far 

there are no extensive developments on either the main stream or its 

branches, except at Binghamton, where considerable water power is 

utilized. The slope of the stream in New York State is shown by 

following elevations, in feet, above tide water:

Elevations along Susquehanna River in New York State.

Feet. 

At Towanda, a few miles south of the State line...-......-..-...-...-.-... 700

At Athens, on Cheinung River, near the State line ...--_.-...........---... 744

At Otsego Lake........................................................... 1,193

So far as known, no discharge measurements of this stream have 

ever been made.
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 24 PL. IX

DRAINAGE AREA OF SCHROON RIVER.
RAFTER.] SUSQUEHANNA RIVER SYSTEM. 45

As one of the important tributaries of the North Branch of Susquehanna River in New York may be mentioned Chenango River, which 

rises in Madison County, and flows south through Madison, Chenango, 

and Broome counties, emptying into the Susquehanna at Binghamton. 

Chemung River, the chief tributary of the North Branch, is formed 

in Steuben County, New York, near Painted Post, by the junction of 

the Tioga and Cohocton Rivers, whence it pursues a southeasterly 

course, joining the Susquehanna near Athens, in Bradford County, 

Pennsylvania, just south of the State line. Tioga River rises in Tioga 

County, Pennsylvania, and flows north to join the Cohocton at Painted 

Post. Canisteo, the principal New York State tributary of the Tioga, 

joins the.main stream 5 miles south of Painted Post. Cohocton River, 

which rises in Liviugston County, and flows southeast to join the Tioga 

at Painted Post, is utilized for small powers at a number of places. 

The area drained by the Cohocton and Canisteo is almost entirely 

denuded of forest and the streams are in consequence much less valuable for power than formerly. For a considerable length of time, in 

the fall of 1895, the natural yield of these streams was probably considerably less than one-tenth of a cubic foot per second per square mile.

Other tributaries of the Susquehanna in New York State are Owego 

and Cuyuta creeks, neither of which, although formerly extensively 

utilized for small powers, is now of great value, largely because of the 

exceedingly slight summer flows.

The following are the drainage areas of the Susquehanna and its 

tributaries in the State of New York:

Drainage areas of Susquehanna River and its tributaries in New York. -

Square miles.

Main river below mouth of Chemung River (south of Pennsylvania line). _ 7,463 

Total area north of Pennsylvania line.-_._......._._--.__....-_.._,._.._...6,267

Above mouth of Chemung River..._..___.........._........-.--.._.._...__ 4,945

At Binghamton ........................................._..._.._......__ 2,279

At Susqnehanna..---.-....--. ..__.___.__.__._-.._-... .................... 2,024

At Nineveh _.____..._.__,___._.____._.___.__...__.. _._._..________..._. 1,789

Below mouth of Uriadilla River............................ ........ ..... 1,638

Below mouth of Oak Creek ...__.. _.__. ................................. 212

Above mouth of Oak Creek .............................. ............._.. 97

Oak Creek................................................................ 115

Cherry Valley Creek.................................... ................. 121

Chenevas Creek ................................... ...................... 127

Charlotte River ................... .......... .................. ........ 178

Otego Creek............ ......................... ........................ 106

Oaliout Creek ...._......-.._..................................,.......... 115

Unadilla River .............................. ............................ 561

Butternut Creek........-.......................'.-...--....-.--.........-.. 123

Chenango River at mouth ..................... ...-......-..-.-----.-.... 1,540

Chenango River above Tioughnioga..--._...--.... _...-..-.-...-_...-.-.-- 685

Chenango River above Canasawacta Creek ............................... 297

Tioughnioga River at month ............... ........................ 735
46 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [NO.24.

Drainage areas of Susguehanna River and its tributaries in New York Cont'd.

Square miles.

Tioughnioga River above mouth of Otselic Eiver................... ...... 428

Otselic River___._._..._....___.___..__..____...._____.__._...___....__.___- 259

West Branch of Tioughnioga River....... ,__._____............. ......... 103

East Branch of Tioughnioga River......_.. ..__.._.__..__-....___. ........ 164

Owego Creek........................................... ....... .... ."... 391

Cayu ta Creek ............................................................. 148

Chemung River at junction of Canisteo and Cohocton rivers --...--...-.-. 1,941

Chemung River at Elmira ........... .................................... 2,055

Chemung River at mouth...... ..........^................................. 2,518

Cohocton River at mouth.........._.........................._............ 425

Tioga River at mouth .................................................... 1,530

Tioga above mouth of Canisteo ........-..........-......,..._..-....--__. 750

Canisteo at mouth.................-.............-..,-...........,.--__._ 780

Tuscarora Creek at mouth................................................. 120

DELAWARE RIVER SYSTEM.

The extreme head waters of Delaware River, in New York, are a 

series of small ponds in Schoharie County, a little north of the village 

of Stamford. From this point the stream flows southwesterly to 

Deposit, on the line between Broome and Delaware counties, where 

it turns south, on which general course it continues until near the 

Pennsylvania line, whence its course is southwesterly to Port Jervis. 

This portion of the river is the boundary line between New York and 

Pennsylvania. At Port Jervis the river passes from New York State, 

making a sharp turn to the southwest. The declivity of Delaware 

River is shown by the following elevations above tide water:

Elevations along Delaware River in New York State, showing declivity of the stream.

Feet. 

At Lackawaxen ............................................................ 600

At Deposit ...............^............................................... 984

At head waters.._...................................................... 1,886

The principal tributary in New York State is Pepacton River, which 

rises in the eastern part of Delaware and G-reene counties and flows 

southwest in a course generally parallel to the main stream. Neversink Creek, the next important tributary in the State, joins the main 

stream at the State line a mile south of Port Jervis. Neither of these 

streams has thus far developed any large amount of water power, 

although there are a number of places where good powers could be 

developed. The cutting off of the forests of the Delaware drainage 

area has undoubtedly greatly injured the tributary streams for mill 

purposes.
BAFTER.] STREAMS OF LONG ISLAND. . 47

The following are the more important drainage areas on the Delaware and its tributaries in New York State:

Drainage areas on Delaware River and tributaries in New York State.

Square miles.

Total area in New York State...............................--.-.......-.. 2,580

Mainstream below mouth of Neversink River...--..--........... . ....... 3,600

Main stream below Port Jervis.--._.___..___.___._-__..--.._,-._--..------ 3,252

Main stream below junction of East and West branches._.-__..-..-----.-- 1,604

WestBranch at mouth............................... ...... ............ 685

West Branch at Deposit, below Oquaga Creek.-.--..-.-.....--..---.--....- 519

Pepacton River at mouth.._._._____..___ .___...............-..----.--.- 919

Above mouth of Beaverkill........ _._.________._..._____._._----_---_-.--. 520

Beaverkill Creek-.......................................................... 322

Oquaga Creek....................... ....................^...-....._ .... 82

Little Delaware Creek...-.........._..........-......--.-.-.--------...-- 53

Neversink River at mouth...-..-.._........... .........-....--.---. .... 346

By way of concluding the general discussion of the Allegheny, Susquehanna, and Delaware river systems in the State of New York, it 

may be remarked that these have all been extensively used, either 

for floating logs or for propelling sawmills, or for both. The clearing 

up of the drainage areas has, however, long since reduced the lumbering business to nothing. These streams are, therefore, much less 

extensively utilized than formerly. At present, aside from one or 

two points, their use is chiefly for propelling small sawmills and gristmills and for other moderate-sized industries. With one or two 

exceptions, there are no large power developments throughout the 

whole region.

STREAMS OF LONG ISLAND.

Long Island is chiefly a sandy plain, about 120 miles in length, with 

a total area of 1,682 square miles. A considerable portion is below 

an.elevation of 100 feet above tide water, although in places it rises 

to elevations of 300 feet and more. The streams are all small and 

only a few miles in length, running down from the high land of the 

middle section to the Atlantic Ocean on the south and to Long Island 

Sound on the north. As regards water power, the water resources of 

Long Island have little significance, although there are many places 

where small powers are utilized for gristmills and other similar uses. 

The chief value of the inland water of Long Island is for the water 

supply of the city of Brooklyn.

East River, which connects Long Island Sound with New York Bay, 

may also be referred to for convenience as a Long Island water 

resource. The great value of the stream to the commerce of New 

York is so obvious as to hardly require mention.

The foregoing description of the river systems of New York has
48 WATER RESOURCES OP STATE OP NEW YORK, PART I. [NO. 24.

been made as brief as possible, because very complete descriptions 

have been given in the several monographs relating to New York 

State which appear in the report on the Water Power of the United 

States, Tenth Census, 1880. In these reports may be found full 

details of the several river valleys, with statements as to agricultural 

production, population, geology, climatology, and many other subjects 

not touched on here.

AVAILABLE WATER SUPPLY.

RUN-OFF OF NIAGARA RIVER.

The great developments of the Niagara Falls Power Company, 

authorized by the laws of 1886, have been in part completed, while at 

the same time the original Niagara Falls power development, now 

owned by the Niagara Falls Power and Manufacturing Company, has 

increased greatly in capacity. The laws of 1886, and amendments 

thereto, have also authorized the taking from Niagara River of large 

quantities of water for the purpose of creating a water power near 

the city of Lockport. A ship canal is projected connecting Lakes 

Erie and Ontario, and the Canadian Government has made a concession for extensive power developments on the Canadian side of the 

river. Hence it is evident that the future demands for water to be 

taken from Niagara River and delivered either into the lower river 

below the Falls or into Lake Ontario independent of the river are 

very large, and the interest which the people of the State of New 

York have in the run-off of Niagara River becomes exceedingly 

important.

The most recent determination of the area of the basin drained by 

the Great Lakes and of the water surfaces of the lakes themselves is 

that given in the report of the United States Deep Waterways Commission, from which the following general summary is taken:

Water surface and watershed areas of the basin drained by the Great Lakes.

Lake.

St. Glair...........

Erie ...............

Total .........

Area of water 

surface.

Square miles.

31,800

22, 400

23, 200

495

10, 000

87, 895

Area of watershed.

Square miles.

48, 600

45, 700

52, 100

6,330

24, 480

177, 200

Total area of 

basin.

Square miles. 

80, 400

68, 100

75,300

6,815

34,480

265, 095
RAFTER.] RUN-OFF OF NIAGARA RIVER. 49

That portion of the drainage area of Lake Erie lying within the 

State of New York is given as 2,210 square miles. The area of islands 

in Niagara River is given as 29 square miles. That portion of the 

watershed of Niagara River lying within the State of New York has 

an area of 789 square miles. The area of the river itself, from its 

head at Lake Erie to the Falls, is 21 square miles. 1

The accompanying table gives the precipitation within and in the 

vicinity of the drainage area of the Great Lakes for the years from 

1892 to 1895, inclusive. In this table a few only of the many precipitation records which are now available have been used. The records 

there appearing are, it is believed, sufficient to show the mean precipitation of the basin of the Great Lakes for the years indicated. In 

this and subsequent tables the water year 2 is considered as beginning 

with the month of December of the preceding year. Thus the water 

year of 1879 extends from December, 1878, to November, 1879, inclusive. The months from December to May constitute what may be 

termed the storage period. During this time vegetation is inert, the 

temperature low, with consequent light evaporation. Usually from 

70 to 80 per cent of the precipitation of this period runs off in the 

streams.

June to August, inclusive, is the growing period. Then the temperature is at its highest for the year and vegetation is active. For 

this period only aboiit 20 per cent of the rainfall appears in the 

streams, and some of that is usually the stored ground water of the 

preceding period.

September to November, inclusive, is the replenishing period. The 

temperature is again relatively low, vegetation inert, and the rainfall 

goes to replenish the stock of ground water, depleted during the growing period, or, after the ground again becomes full, appears as direct 

run-off in the streams. In the table the monthly precipitation has 

been omitted, as it can readily be found in the annual reports of the 

United States Weather Bureau, and the data have been condensed 

to show the total quantities for the storage, growing, and replenishing periods, together with-the total annual amounts.

1 Report of the United States Deep Waterways Commission, by the commissioners, James B. 

Angell, John E. Russell, Lyman E. Cooley. Accompanied by the report on technical work and 

the several topical reports and drawings pertaining thereto. Printed as House Document No. 

193, Fifty-fifth Congress, second session, Washington, 1897, pp. 146,147.

For the drainage area of the Great Lakes in detail reference may be made to an excellent map 

of the basin of the Great Lakes and of St. Lawrence and Hudson rivers in relation to the surrounding drainage systems accompanying the report of the Deep Waterways Commission.

2 Report of the State Engineer and Surveyor of New York, 1895, p. 99.

IRR 24 4
50 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [NO. 24.

Precipitation, in inches, within and in the vicinity of the drainage area of the 

Great Lakes, 1892 to 1895, inclusive.

Locality and year.

Pokegama Falls, 

1892....... ..

1893.........

1894........

1895

Minn.:

Mean ............ .......

Duluth, Minn.: 

1892.. ......

1893.........

1894....... .

1895....... .

Mean

Minneapolis. Minn.: 

1892... _..... ._-.....

1893...... ..

1894... . .

1895... . ..

Mean . ...

>

Green Bay, Wis.: 

1892. ...

1893. ........

1894 .

1895_. ................

Mean .................

Madison, Wis. : 

1892.........

1893 .

1894........,,

1895............... . .

Mean . .._... . _ .

Milwaukee, Wis. 

1892.....

1893... .

1894.................. .

1895................ .

Mean ...,.-.-,.....

December 

to May.

11.76 

9.64

14.72 

9.14

17.96 

11.08 

19.44 

6.44

13.78 

12.80 

15.66

7.72

14.95 

14.85 

19.65 

10.06

18.89 

13.37 

10.96 

5.54

18.17 

15.69 

15.94 

10.34

June to 

August.

6.99 

13.06

8.04 

12.49

11.78 

6.86 

3.80 

9.32

23.33 

9.79 

1.73 

9.96

12.47 

8.12

8.52 

7.52

13.34 

12.75 

6.23

3.88

11.00 

10.14 

4.81 

7.45

September to November.

2.86 

2.84 

9.01 

5.70

2.39 

3.64 

8.51

7.70

2.33

5.68 

6.46 

5.01

7.95 

7.15 

10.46 

3.14

4.89 

5.82 

7.61

2.57

5.71 

6.06 

8.79 

5.33

Annual.

21.61 

25.54 

31.77 

27.33

26. 56

32.13 

21.58 

31.75 

23.46

27. 23

39.43

28.27 

23. 85 

22.69

ZS.56

35. 37 

30.12 

38.63

20.72

31. 21

37.12 

31.94 

24.80 

11.99

26. 46

34.88 

31.89 

29! 54 

23.12

29.86
RAFTER.] PRECIPITATION NEAR THE GREAT LAKES. 51

Precipitation, in inches, within and in the vicinity of the drainage area of the 

Great Lakes, 1S92 to 1895, inclusive Continued.

Locality and year.

Chicago, 111.: 

1898...............................

1893..... ..........................

 1894...............................

1895...............................

Mean ...........................

Logansport, Ind.: 

1892..... ..........................

1893.............. ................

1894.............. ..................

1895...............................

Mean ..._.__._.__..._._...._._._

Ann Arbor, Mich. : 

1893...............................

1898...............................

1894....... .......................

1895-..............................

Mean ...........................

Grand Haven, Mich. : 

1892... ....... ....................

1893-..............................

1894...............................

1895................................

Mean ...._...............-.,.-..

Marquette, Mich. : 

1892-.-...-- .....................

1898..._.... ....... ...............

1894.-.---.................-.--....

1895...............................

Mean ......... _ ...............

St. Igriace, Mich.: 

1892............. .................

1893......... .................... ..

1894... ............................

1895. _ . . .I.. ._....,... _.

Mean ............ _ ............

December 

to May.

16.03

13.93

14.48

9.58

27.26

24.45

21 11

9.08

14.52

20.54

16.63

8.92

16.57

19.02

19.84

10.89

16.03

14.81

24.65

16.35

12.39

15.61

17.80

11.66

June to

August.

14.66

6.85

3.16

10.70

10.91

4.52

4.58

6.40

8.18

7.18

2.76

5.40

8.93

6.79

4.07

4.88

3.53

9.16

5.25

7.04

10.30

7.94

6.83

4.59

September 

to November.

5.56

6.18

10.30

7.00

6.97

8.92

7.82

8.56

7.70

10. 33

7.21

4.70

4.97

8.68

11.08

6.17

8.89

7.41

9.31

8.89

6.43

S.31

9.80

8.98

Annual.

36.25

26.96

27.94

37.38

26.61

45.14

37.89

33.51

24.04

35.15

30.38

38.05

26.60

19.02

28.51

30.47

34.49

34.99

31.94

30.47

28.45

31.38

39.21

32.28

38.83

29.12

31.86

34.43

35.23

30.16
52 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [NO. 24.

Precipitation, in inches, within and in the vicinity of the drainage area of the 

Great Lakes, 1892 to 1895, inclusive Continued.

Locality and year.

Traverse City, Mich.: 

1892. .... .. ........................

1893........................... --

1894.. . 

1895 -. - 

Cleveland, Ohio: 

1892. ___ . -.- .-

1893-. .-...--. ---------------------

1894 .- 

1895..--. . .- ..- .,..

Toledo, Ohio:

1892...-..-....--..-.------.-----..

1893..,. ..... ........... --------

1894.-.-..----.----..------------...

1895..--.-.--------.-.------.-.---.

Buffalo, N. Y.: 

1892..-.--- . -------

1898 ..- . '- .

1894.-...---.-.----- ...-...-..-.-_

1895-....----------------.--.....-.

Mean ... _-..- . .......

Rochester, N. Y.: 

1892...-------..-----.-,.--.... .

1893 ........ _ .._... . 

1894...-......-...........-.--.--.

1895..-- ........................

Mean ._ _.__ 

Oswego, N. Y. : 

1892........ ............... ........

1893-..---.---. .................. .

1894.....-.-.....--.-.-.... .

1895. ................. .........

Mean ................,...... _.

December

to May.

17.65

17.88

20.62

16.69

19.84

19.09

15.28

9.29

17.77

10.17

14.93

9.23

22.62

20.65

22.47

14.17

17.75

18.05

21.26

16.16

15.22

14.63

19.55

15.06

June to 

August.

10.87

7.07

5.61

4.53

11.91

5.46

5.55

7.59

12.76

4.81

2.78

6.24

16.93

8.00

5.82

6.23

13.41

9.36

7.05

6 84

15.33

9

00

6.46

6.25

September 

to November.

8.61

11.41

9.72

7.85

5.90

7.45

7.77

7.91

6.47

6.92

5.23

7.11

8.32

7.87

12.50

8.85

5.94

6.02

7.14

7.15

6.82

8 ni

11.13

9.08

Annual.-

37.13

36.36

35-95

29.07

34.63

37.65

32.00

28.60

24 79

30.76

37.00

21.90

22.94

22.58

26.10

47.87

36.52

40.79

29.25

38.61

37.10

33.43

35.45

30.15

34.03

37.37

QO A>V

37.14

30.39

34.34
RASTER.] PRECIPITATION NEAR THE GREAT LAKES. 53

Precipitation, in~ inches, within and in the vicinity of the drainage area of the 

Great Lakes, 1892 to 1895, inclusive Continued.

Locality and year.

Winnipeg, Manitoba:

1892 _.._

1898-....--.--- --.- --,.-.

1894. _.._..__.__.__.________.._._.

1895 .-.__..-..__-._.___......_.-_

Moan

Port Arthur, Ontario:

1892 ._ .

1893......... . ............ .......

1894-... _. .........................

1895....... ..........

Mean

Toronto, Ontario: 

1893-........... _.

1893.................. .

1894... ., ........

1895.... ..........

Mean ............ .

December 

to May.

6.65

8.25 

8.55 

8.18

8.84 

8.48 

8.20 

8.76

13.21 

18.64 

19.90 

11.93

June to 

August.

8.70 

10.81 

3.80 

6.62

7.35 

7.39

5.57 

7.86

13.29 

9.85 

3.07 

6.34

September 

to November.

3.96 

4.35 

5.84

2.43

5.31 

6.50

8.30 

6.05

6.65

7.86 

8.44 

7.76

Annual.

19.31 

23.41 

18.19 

17.22

19. 53

31.50 

22.37 

22.07 

22.67

SS. 15

31.15 

36. 35 

31.41 

25.93

31. 21

These precipitation data are of special interest because the year 

1895 was the culmination of a period of exceedingly low water. They 

show that for a period of four years the precipitation of this basin 

was low, and in consequence the run-off of the tributary streams 

must have been exceedingly small. As illustrating this proposition, 

we may first refer to the run-off of the Upper Mississippi, 1 where there 

is a reservoir system controlling a drainage area of 3,265 square miles, 

first operated about 1885. The rainfall of the area tributary to these 

reservoirs, as indicated by records kept at Leech Lake, Lake Winibigoshish, and Pokegama Falls from 1885 until the present time is, 

as an average, from 24 to 26 inches per year. The highest recorded 

yearly precipitation is 31.87 inches, at Pokegama Falls in 1894. The 

rainfall of the area tributary to the Upper Mississippi reservoirs is 

found to be quite similar to that of the region tributary to Lake 

Superior. Hence the run-off of this reservoir system may be considered as representing the run-off of the drainage area of Lake 

Superior and the northern portion of Lakes Michigan and Huron.

1 Annual Report of Chief of Engineers U. S. Army for 1898, Part III, p. 1843; also for 1897, Part 

UI, p. 3169.
54 WATER RESOURCES OP STATE OF NEW YOKE, PART I. [NO. 24.

The following gives the discharge from these reservoirs for the years 

1892 to 1895, inclusive, corresponding with the years of precipitation 

shown in the table on pages 50 to 53:

Mean rainfall, run-off, and proportion of run-off to rainfall of the area tributary 

to the Upper Mississippi reservoirs.

Water year.

1892..... .............

1898. ............... ..

1894..................

1895..................

Total... ........

Mean ..........

Mean rainfall 

on water 

shed.

Inches. 

21.33

25.42

26.63

25.11

98.49

24.62

Run-off of 

watershed.

Inches. 

4.43

3.61

3.62

2.79

14.45

3.61

Proportion 

of run-off to 

rainfall.

Per cent. 

20.8

14.2

13.6

11.1

14.7

The table shows that during the years 1892 to 1895, inclusive, the 

mean run-off of the Upper Mississippi watershed was only 3.61 inches 

on the total watershed. These figures, however, are subject to correction because the state of the reservoirs at the beginning and ending of the four-year period is not given in the report of the United 

States engineers, from which these data are taken. This correction, 

however, can not be very large, because the reservoirs are so operated 

as to be emptied, generally speaking, each year. In considering the 

run-off of these Upper Mississippi reservoirs, due consideration should 

be given to the fact that the water area of the reservoirs is 585 square 

miles, or nearly 18 per cent of the whole. For Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, St. Clair, and Erie we have a total water surface of 87,895 

square miles, with a total drainage area, including the surface of the 

lakes, of 265,095 square miles. The water surface of these several 

lakes is, therefore, about 33 per cent of the entire area of the basin, 

or nearly double the relative area of water surface and drainage area 

for the Upper Mississippi reservoirs. With other conditions the same, 

this fact would probably lead to a somewhat greater proportion of 

run-off from the Great Lakes.

By way of further illustrating the yield of streams in the vicinity 

of the Great Lakes drainage area, we may refer to the run-off of the 

Des Plaines River as given in the table on page 64. This stream 

has been measured by the Chicago drainage commission, with certain 

intermissions, as shown by the table, since January, 1886, the drainage area above the point of measurement being 633 square miles. 

The drainage area comprises a long and narrow, flat region extending 

from near Chicago to a few miles north of Milwaukee, the eastern line 

being for the entire distance nearly parallel to Lake Michigan and in
RAFTER.] KUN-OFF OF MUSKINGUM RIVER. 55

places only 2 or 3 miles distant therefrom. The area drained by the 

Des Plaines River is large enough to give a fair idea of the average 

yield of streams tributary to Lake Michigan in northern Illinois and 

Indiana, western Michigan, and southern and central Wisconsin. In 

1893, with a mean rainfall on the drainage area of 39.96 inches, the 

total run-off was 10.14 inches, of which 8.61 inches occurred during 

the storage period from December to May, inclusive. In 1894, with 

a total rainfall of 27.94 inches, the total run-off was 7.70 inches, of 

which 7.54 inches occurred in the storage period. For the year 1895 

the total rainfall was 27.28 inches. The run-off data of this year are 

unfortunately incomplete, but taking -into account the sequence of 

the rainfall it is clear that the total run-off for that year did not exceed 

about 2.0 to 2.5 inches. The effect of the three dry years 1893, 1894, 

and 1895 in the Des Plaines drainage area is shown by the record of 

1896, where, with a total rainfall of 39.58 inches, the total run-off was 

only 6.69 inches, of which 5.39 inches occurred in the storage period. 

These figures indicate that the ground water of the Des Plaines area 

must have been so low at the end of 1895 as to absorb a large portion 

of the heavier rainfall of 1896 before any great amount could appear

as run-off. 1

i

Rainfall, run-off, evaporation, and mean temperature of Muskingum River, as 

measured by the United States engineers, from 1888 to 1895, inclusive.

[In inches on the watershed.] '

Month.

December. ...

January ......

February ....

March. .

April ...... 

May ..........

September . . .

Tear....

Eainfall.

1.94

3.96

1.91

4.05

1.75 

3.55

17.16 

3.66

5.81

5.84

lk.31

3.38 

3. 35

4.61

ll.lk

43.61

181

Eun-off.

0.18

1.34

1.13

1.38

0.80 

0.45

5.17 

0.39

0.81

0.67

1.77

0.61 

0.77

3.01

S.S9

10.33

i8.

Kvaporation.

. __ ..

--_...-

.. .

.......

......

11.99

1S.Bh

.......

7.75

33.38

Temperature.

o

30.8

33.5

39.4

33.5

46.9

58.4

36.9 

68.4

70.4

68.8

69.fr

58.0 

45.6

41.1

48.2

47.8

Eainfall.

1.50

3.63

1.55

1.71

3.33 

3.90

13.53 

4.79

5.35

1.98

IS. IS

4.17 

3.35

3.73

10.%k

35.88

18i

Eun-off.

0.84

1.89

1.43

0.71

0.88 

0.38

6.02 

0.47

0.55

0 23

1.2k

0.14 

0.14

0.68

0.96

8.33

Kvaporation.

----...

--.-...

.......

7.50

10.88

.......

9.2S

37.66

Temperature.

o

31.5

31.7

34.0

39.0

47.9 

59.1

33.9 

65.7

71.7

67.0

68. 1

61.3 

46.5

40.3

k9.3

48.8

£

3.01

4.53

5.84

4.38

3.41 

6.61

27.77 

5.37

3.06

5.35

13.68

6.86 

6.20

2.46

15.62

56.97

18'

Run -off.

1.48

3.53

3.73

4.23

2.00 

3.10

18.07 

1 64

0.51

0.49

2.04

3.38 

2.01

1.84

6. IS

26.84

».

Kvaporation.

.--.-.-

-------

.......

9.70

11.0k

.......

9.39

30.13

CD 

h

3

a

i0>

o

41.1

37.0

37.5

33.0

48.8 

56.9

70.7

tn Q

66.6

69. k

60.6 

51.1

43.0

51.3

1 For details of the measurements of the Des Plaines River see data pertaining to rainfall and 

stream flow, by Thomas T. Johnston, Journal Western Soc. C. K., Vol. I (June,:
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Rainfall.

Run-off.

Evaporation.

Temperature.

RainfaU.

Run-off.

Evaporation.

Temperature.

Rainfall.

Run-off.

Evaporation.

Temperature.

'

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RAFTER.] RUN-OFF OF GENESEE RIVER. 57

In the table is given the rainfall and run-off record for Muskinguin 

River, in Ohio, as measured at Zanesville 1 for the years 1888 to 1895, 

inclusive, the area of the watershed above the point of measurement 

being 5,828 square miles. The head waters of the stream, are not far 

from Lake Erie and on the dividing line between the hill country of 

the east and the prairie country of the Mississippi Valley. Hence 

this stream, represents conditions applicable to the run-off of the Ohio 

streams tributary to Lake Erie. The rainfall record as used in this 

table is the mean of the records kept at Akron, Canton, Newcomerstown, and Wooster, and may be considered to represent fairly well 

the mean precipitation of the Muskingum drainage area. For the 

year 1892 the total rainfall was 41.74 inches and the total run-off 13.38 

inches, of which 9.06 occurred in the storage period. In 1893 the total 

rainfall was 42.36 inches, with a total run-off of 16.20 inches, the runoff of the storage period being 14.13 inches. In 1894 the rainfall 

dropped to a total of 30.51 inches an'd the run-off to a total of 8.70 

inches, of which 7.63 inches occurred in the storage period. In 1895 

the total rainfall was 29.84 inches and the total run-off 4.90 inches, of 

which 4.04 inches occurred during the storage period.

Genesee River, while not tributary to the Great Lakes above Niagara 

River, may still be cited as showing that at times the run-off of 

streams tributary to the Great Lakes is quite low. Referring to the 

table on page 70, giving the rainfall and run-off of Oatka Creek, a 

tributary of the Genesee, we learn that in the water year 1891, with 

a rainfall of 38.12 inches, the run-off was 14.05 inches., In 1892, with 

a rainfall of 41.69 inches, the run-off was 15.42 inches.

Taking the record of Genesee River proper, as given in the table 

on page 58, we learn that for the water year 1894, with a mean precipitation above the point of measurement of 47.79 inches, the run-off 

was 19.38 inches, of which 15.73 inches occurred in the storage period. 

In 1895 the rainfall dropped to 31 inches and the total run-off to 6.67 

inches. In 1880 Hemlock Lake, a tributary of Genesee River, with a 

drainage area of 43 square miles and a total rainfall of 21.99 inches,, 

gave a run-off of only about 3.4 inches.

1 Survey of the Miami and Erie Canal, the Ohio Canal, etc. Report of Capt. Hiram M. Chittenden, Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army, January 20, 1896, printed as House Document No. 278, 

Fifty-fourth Congress, first session, p. 43.
58 WATER RESOURCES OP STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [NO. 24.

Rainfall, run-off, evaporation, and mean temperature of Genesee River from 

December, 1893, to November, 1896, inclusive,

[In inches on the watershed.]

Month.

April .. .

May .

July ......

September...

October .-.-..

Year--

Rainfall.

3.39

3.91

3.93

1 62

7 32

8.64

37.71 

2.51

3.70

1.74

7.95 

6.97

3.50 

1.66

12.13

47.79

If

Runoff.

3.34

1.40

0.86

3.31

3.39

4.43

15.73 

1.10

0.14

0.23

l.kG 

0.93

0.44 

0.82

2 Id

19.38

(94.

Evaporation.

11. 9S

6.1,9

-----

9.9k

28.41

Mean 

tern 

pera 

ture

36.8

28.4

30.1

37.9

42 1

54.5

35.0 

64.6

67.9

63.4

65.3 

61.6

49.5 

32 1

U7.7

45.7

Rain 

fall.

2 47

3.36

-i <>2

1 72

2.10

2 43

13.30 

4.57

2.57

3.99

11.13 

1.96

1.30 

3.41

6.67

31.00

18

Runoff.

0.61

0.66

0 22

1 <U

3.01

0.19

5.63 

0.13

0.11

0.13

0.36 

0.10

0.11

0.47

0.68

6.67

95.

Evap 

oration.

7.57

10.77

-----

5. 99

34.33

Meaii

temperature.

29.0

1.91

14.5

28.0

44 2

57.8

32.1 

67.5

64.1

66.5

66.0 

61.7

' 41.8 

38.0

U7.S

44.3

Rainfall.

3.80

2 29

3.56

4.00

1.62

3.57

17.8k 

3 52

4.90

1.86

10.38 

5.33

4.08 

3.36

12.56

40.68

18

Runoff.

1.33

0.47

0.91

3.00

3.38

0.17

9.35 

0.39

0.34

0.30

0.83 

0.16

1.74

0.83

2.7£

13.80

96.

Evaporation.

8.59

9.k5

-----

9.8k

27.88

Mean 

temperature.

30.1

23.4

33.9

22 7

47.7

60.7

3k. k 

62.1

67.3

65.0

6k. 8 

57.5

43.6 

41.6

kl.6

45.3

These figures are cited to show that in years of low rainfall the 

run-off of streams tributary to the Great Lakes is very low, and as a 

consequence the run-off of Niagara River will probably be affected 

thereby. At present the data are insufficient for showing what the 

run-off of Niagara River really is.

The most elaborate measurements thus far made are those of the 

Lake Survey in 1867 and 1868, which are, however, extremely unsatisfactory. According to these measurements the mean discharge, 

rainfall, and evaporation from the Great Lakes for the year 1868, in 

cubic feet per second, were as follows: *

Mean discharge, rainfall, and evaporation from tlie Great Lakes for the year 1868,

in cubic feet per second.

 Lakes.

Superior .............

Huron and Michigan. 

Erie .................

Total ..........

Mean discharge.

86, 000

235, 000 

265, 000

Total rainfall 

on basin.

171, 430

251, 450 

100, 540

523, 220

Evaporation 

from surface.

27,690

59, 890 

14,310

101, 890

1 These figures are derived from Mr. Cooley's Lakes and Gulf Waterways, as corrected and 

given in the Journal of the Assoc. of Eng. Soc., Vol. V11I (March, 1889), p. 132.
RAFTER.] ELEVATION OP LAKE EKIE. 59

According to the Deep Waterways Commission's tabulations of 

available records of heights of the Great Lakes, it appears that the 

water levels fluctuate through a series of years to the extent of about 

4.5 feet. For the present discussion we are chiefly concerned with 

the fluctuations of Lake Erie, which control the discharge of Niagara 

River. By examination of the records of mean monthly elevation of 

Lake Erie at Buffalo from 1887 to 1897, as kept by the United States 

engineer's office at Buffalo, it appears that the highest mean monthly 

elevation during these years was for June, 1887, when the mean lake 

surface was +0.92. The lowest mean monthly elevation for the period 

was for March, 1896, when the mean for the month was 2.36. The 

range in the mean monthly elevations for this period was 3.28 feet.

Mean monthly elevation of Lake Erie at Buffalo. 

[In feet with reference to datum.]

Month.

April ...............

July.... ............

1887.

+0.60

i n KK

+0.78

+0.64 

+0.83

i n 7fi

+0.36

+0.68 

+0.05

+0.11

-0.44

-0.09

a+0.41

1888.

0.36

-0.48

 1.09

-1.03

 0.36

-0.31

 0.57 

_ 0 Q4

+0.18

+0.07

+0.07 

-0.37

-0.46

-0.61

 O.lt5

-0.38

1889.

-0.31

n 40

-0.71

-1.10

-0.73

 0.56

 0.65 

-0.09

-0.05

-0.14

 0.09 

 0.53

-1.03

-1.03

-0.86

-0.56

1890.

0.71

0.13

 0.31

-0.07

+0.18

+0.54

 0.08 

+0.87

+0.59

+0.13

+0.53 

_ 0 33

-0.35

-0.05

 0.17

+0.05

1891.

0.31

n w

-0.69

-0.55

_ 0 43

-0.65

-0.53 

 0.67

-0.49

-0.78

 0.65 

-0.95

 1 33

-1.38

 1.3S

 0.73

1893.

1.35

1.44

3.13

-1.93

 1.09

-0.65

 l.tfS 

+0.16

+0.37

+0.00

+0.18 

-0.37

-0.60

 0.98

 0.63

-0.83

1893.

1.01

-1.78

 1.83

-1.53

-0.86

 0.14

 1.19 

+0.21

+0.08

-0.51

 0.07 

 0.76

-0.87

 0.88

-0.8k

-0.83

1894.

-0.93

 0.93

 1.30

-1.19

-1.00

-0.50

 0.97 

-0.11

-0.34

 0.71

 0.36 

 0.08

 0.88

-1.06

 0.67

-0.74

1895.

-1.33

-1.36

-3.05

-3.13

-1.93

-1.57

-1.71 

-1.47

-1.49

-1.63

-1.53 

-1.61

-1.85

-334

 1.93

-1.73

1896.

3.08

1.93

-3.00

-3.36

-1.83

-1 38

 1.93 

-1.37

-1.19

 0.96

 1.18 

-1.38

-1.64

-1.61

-l.Sh

 1.64

1897.

 1 83

 1.47

-1.90

-1.39

-0,87

-0.45

 1.3S 

-0.46

.-0.48

 0.96

' 0.63 

-1.40

 1.36

-1.24

 1.33

-1.15

a Mean of nine months.

Temporarily much greater fluctuations have been experienced, due 

largely to wind action, to which Lake Erie, on account of its shallowness, and the fact that its general direction is favorable for the sweep 

of the prevailing winds, is peculiarly subject. In regard to the measurements of the Lake Survey, it may be remarked that they indicate 

large variations in discharge from all of the lakes, from the effects of 

winds and other disturbing causes, but give little clew to the quantities at either of the extremes of high or low water. According to 

Lyman E. Cooley the extreme low-water discharge is probably 20 to 

30 per cent less than the Lake Survey figures, and extreme high 

water 20 to 30 per cent more.

Measurements of the amount of water flowing in Niagara River were 

begun in December, 1891, at a time when the water in Lak§ Erie was 

very low and the conditions were considered especially favorable for
60 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. tso.24.

minimum discharge. The results are given in the Annual Report of 

the Chief of Engineers^ United States Army, for 1893, Part VI, pp. 

4364-4371. The point selected was about 1,000 feet below the International Bridge at Black Rock, near the foot of Squaw Island, at 

which point the river is free from eddies. Niagara River, on leaving 

Lake Erie, has a nearly straight channel about 2,000 feet wide for 

the first 2 miles. The fall in this section is from 4 to 5 feet, and the 

velocity ranges from 7 miles per hour at the upper end to about 5 

miles at the lower end. The point was chosen, after careful consideration, as the point in that vicinity least subject to disturbance. In taking the cross sections, the width, which varies slightly with different 

stages of the river, was actually determined for gage readings 1 foot 

apart, and for extreme points the width was determined by interpolating values derived from the known slope of the river banks. A 

local gage was established at the draw pier of the International Bridge 

by setting gage boards on each side of the pier, with the zeros of the 

gages on the same level. The local gage was read at the beginning 

and close of all velocity observations, and the gage at Buffalo was 

read at 7 a. ni. and 1 and 7 p. m. The zero of this latter gage is at 

the mean level of Lake Erie, or 572.23 feet above mean tide at New 

Yo_rk, in the Erie Canal levels, or as used by the Government engineers, 572.96 feet. During the velocity observations in December, 1891, 

Lake Erie was about 1.5 feet below its mean level, and is stated not 

to have been seriously affected by strong winds. Still the daily record 

shows that there must have been some wind action. The current 

velocities were obtained after the methods used by the Mississippi 

River Commission and described in their reports, all relocity observations being taken with a current meter, with electrical appliances for 

recording the number of revolutions. The following are some of the 

results obtained: 1

Mean heights and discharge of Niagara River.

Date.

1891. 

December 34 ....... 

December 14 ........

December 31 ........

December 30 .... ...

December 33 _.__._._. 

December 10 ... .....

1893. 

May 19.... .. .........

May 1...... .........

May 34... ............

Mean height 

on local gage.

Feet. 

0.05 

0.65

0.735

0.835

1.135 

1.33

1.563

1.750

3.393

Mean height 

on Buffalo 

gage.

Feet. 

 3.95

 1.85

 1.75

 1.75

 1. 45 

 0.50

 0.80

 0.85

+0.15

Discharge per 

second.

Cu. feet. 

164, 648 

191,833

193,533

301,433

208, 597 

218, 353

213, 180

218,988

236,763

1 Annual Report of Chief of Engineers, United States Army, 1893, Part VI, p. 4367.
RAFTER.] RUN-OFF OF NIAGARA RIVER. 61

The table shows (1) a variation in lake elevation, as indicated in 

the Buffalo gage, from 2.95 on December 24,1891, to +0.15 on May 

24,1892, a range of 3.10 feet; (2) a variation in discharge of 72,114 

cubic feet per second. There are some discrepancies in the results 

which it is not necessary to discuss at length; but in the absence of 

more satisfactory data we may assume, in view of the foregoing 

evidence as to the small run-off of streams tributary to and in the 

vicinity of the Great Lakes, that the figures obtained in the fall of 

1891 and spring of 1892 are probably more nearly correct than the 

larger figures of the Lake Survey. By plotting the observed discharges a mean discharge curve has been obtained, from which the 

discharge of the river at points within the range of the observation 

can be taken off, when one has the tabulated heights of the Buffalo 

gage before him. At present these measurements are, on the whole, 

not considered sufficiently exact to justify the labor of preparing 

a tabulation of this character. 1

Referring to the table on page 58, it is learned that the rainfall 

in that portion of the basin of the Great Lakes tributary to Niagara 

River was, for 1868, 523,220 cubic feet per second, and the evaporation from the water surface of the lakes tributary to Niagara River 

was 101,890 cubic feet per second. Hence the evaporation from the 

lake surfaces was nearly 20 per cent of the rainfall on the whole basin. 

Assuming for the moment the truth of these figures, we have 80 per 

cent of the total rainfall from which the land evaporation must be 

deducted before anything can run off. Again assuming the land 

evaporation at 1.70 feet, there results a loss from this source alone of 

298,000 cubic feet per second; adding to this the evaporation loss from 

the water surfaces gives a total evaporation loss of 399,890 cubic feet 

per second. The run-off is the difference between rainfall and total 

evaporation losses. If, therefore, the land evaporation was 1.7 feet 

for the year 1868, the run-off would have been in reality only 123,330 

cubic feet per second instead of 265,000 cubic feet per second, as

1 There have been a number of independent measurements of volume of the Niagara, and 

though the results differ widely, they probably do not differ more than the actual volume of the 

river at various stages of Lake Erie.

Lyell (1841 ?) quotes Buggies as authority for a volume of 250,000 cubic feet per second.

E. R. Blackwell, computed by Alien (Am. Jour Sci., 1841), obtains 374,000 cubic feet per second. 

His work was afterwards recomputed by D. F. Henry, who obtained 244,797 cubic feet per 

second.

In the annual report of the Chief of Engineers, United States Army, for 1867-68, D. F. Henry 

gives as a result of observations in August and September, 1867, 243,494 cubic feet per second. 

A year later he recomputed from the same data, and obtained 240,193 cubic feet per second. He 

also made a new measurement by a different method (see Report for 1868-69) from which he 

obtained two results, 304,307 and 258,586 cubic feet per second.

W. F. Reynolds (annual report of the Chief of Engineers, United States Army, 1870?), gives the 

result of observations from June to September, 1869, 213,860 cubic feet per second.

In the annual report of the Chief of Engineers, United States Army, for 1871, there is mention 

of a result, without date of measurement, 245,296 cubic feet per second.

In the annual report of the Chief of Engineers, United States Army, for 1891-92, Quintus, as a 

result of gaging, gives the volume, reduced to mean stage, as 233,800 cubic feet per second.

Sir Casimir S. Qzowski, from continuous observations at the International Bridge, 1870-1873, 

gives an average discharge for that period of 346,000 cubic feet per second.
62 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OP NEW YORK, PART I. [NO. 24.

determined by the Lake Survey. These figures, while not conclusive, 

are suggestive, so much so, indeed, that taking into account all the 

conditions it seems clear that in a series of years of minimum rainfall 

the run-off of the Great Lakes, tributary to Niagara River, may be as 

low as from 6 to 9 inches a year on the watershed. At the former 

figure the mean discharge would be about 177,700 cubic feet per 

second. 1

As an additional source of loss from the Great Lakes the proposed 

ultimate diversion of 10,000 cubic feet per second through the Chicago 

drainage canal to the head waters of Illinois River may be referred 

to. Thus far the discussion of such loss has been mainly conducted 

on the supposition that the mean discharge of the Great Lakes at 

Niagara was about 265,000 cubic feet per second. If this were true 

the ultimate injurious effect of such diversion could only appear 

during a series of extremely dry years. The author can not but think 

that this whole question of the run-off of Niagara River has become 

fogged by a discussion based thus far purely on averages. What we 

really want to know is the run-off of a cycle of dry years. With such 

data we can compute the effect of a given diversion more satisfactorily 

than when dealing with means.

With a cycle of rainfall years, either high or at about the average, it 

is probable that very little effect from such diversion will be observed, 

the consensus of opinion at the present time apparently being that it 

will not exceed about 0.3 to 0.4 foot in depth over the areas affected. 

Owing to the balancing of conditions due to the immense pondage of 

the Great Lakes, and which requires years in order to complete a 

cycle, it is iincertain whether the abstraction of 10,000 cubic feet per 

second at Chicago would be especially detrimental at Niagara Falls, 

although in years of extreme low flow it is probable that it would be 

easily apparent. If, however, the minimum flow of Niagara River is 

really as low as 150,000 to 180,000 cubic feet per second, it is clear 

that the loss of 10,000 cubic feet per second will be a matter worth 

taking into account.

In the discussion of the effect of diverting 10,000 cubic feet per 

second at Chicago on the levels of the Great Lakes, by Lyman E. 

Cooley, which appears in the proceedings of the annual convention of 

the International Deep Waterways Association, held at Cleveland in 

September, 1895, it is stated that assuming the 'correctness of the

1 By way of illustrating further the probable inaccuracy of the Lake Survey figures, it may 

be pointed out that if the determination of evaporation from the water surfaces at 101,890 cubic 

feet per second and run-off at 365,000 cubic feet per second for the year 1868 is correct, the total 

outgo from these two sources was 368,890 cubic feet per second, leaving the land evaporation 

for that year at 156,330 cubic feet per second, or at 0.9 foot over the watershed.

By studying the evaporation of the Upper Mississippi reservoirs, the Des Plaines and 

Muskingum rivers, and other streams herein referred to, it will readily be seen that it is 

exceedingly improbable that a land evaporation as low as 0.9 foot ever occurred over the whole 

watershed of the Great Lakes.
RAFTER.] EUN-OFF OF NIAGARA RIVER. 63

figures derived from the Lake Survey placing the mean discharge of 

St. Clair River at 225,000 cubic feet per second, the abstraction of 

10,000 cubic feet per second would diminish the mean outflow in St. 

Clair River by nearly 4.5 per cent and in Niagara River by about 

3.75 per cent. Mr. Cooley says that, reasoning on lines obvious to 

those unacquainted with hydraulic principles, it is apparent that the 

ruling depth in the rivers at mean level can not be lessened by an 

amount greater than the percentages just stated; but if we consider 

the question as an hydraulic proposition, taking into account the 

relation of mean radius to area and perimeter, it is apparent that the 

effect on lake levels would be only a fraction of that indicated by the 

reduction in volume.

The literature of the discharge of Niagara River and of the probable 

effect on the lake levels of abstracting 10,000 cubic feet per second at 

Chicago has now grown so extensive as to preclude further discussion 

of the question here. Those wishing to pursue the subject further 

may consult the references given in the footnote. Concluding the 

subject, it may be stated that the studies of the Lake Survey indicate 

a mean discharge of Niagara River of about 265,000 cubic feet per 

second, with a range above and below the mean of from 20 to 30 per 

cent. The only measurements since made were those of December 

to May, 1891-92, which indicate a minimum discharge as low as or 

even lower than 141,000 cubic feet per second, this latter figure 

agreeing fairly well with theoretical considerations derived from 

present knowledge of the actual minimum run-offs of contiguous 

drainage areas. 1

1 For literature of discharge of Great Lakes and allied questions see (1) Repts. Chief of Engnrs. 

1868,1869,1870, and 1883; (2) Eepts. Chief of Engnrs., 1893; (3) Eng. News, Vol. XXIX (March 3, 

1893); (4) The Lakes and Gulf Waterways, by L. E. Cooley; (5) The level of the Lakes as 

affected by the proposed Lakes and Gulf waterway, a discussion before the Western Society 

of Engineers, in Jour, of the Assn. of Eng. Socs., Vol. VIII (Men., 1889); (6) An enlarged waterway between the Great Lakes and the Atlantic seaboard, by E. L. Corthell, with discussion, in Jour, of the Assn. of Eng. Socs., Vols. X and XI (April, June, and December, 1891, and 

July, 1892); (7) Lake level effects on account of the sanitary canal at Chicago, by L. E. Cooley, 

in Proc. Internat. Deep Waterways Con., at Cleveland, Sept., 1895; (8) A technical brief, by 

Thomas T. Johnston, covered by the preceding reference; (9) Papers by William Pierson 

Judson, on an Enlarged waterway between the Great Lakes and the Atlantic seaboard, 

pamphlets, 1890 and 1893.
64 WATEK RESOURCES OF STATE OP NEW YORK, PART I. [NO. 24.

Rainfall and run-off of Des Plaines River, as determined by the Chicago drainage 

commission, from 1886 to 1897.

[Inches on watershed.!

Months.

December .... 

January .--...

April

July -

Year....

Months.

December ....

April

July ------- 

August-. -----

September .-. 

October ......

Year .

18

Rainfall.

-... ...

0.94

1.53

3.38

S.S5

6.93

1.43

1.66

10.01

18

Rainfall.

.......

6.77

10.58

2.33 

1.85 

Ik. 66

1.34 

1.54

3.68

5.56

.......

86.

Runoff.

.......

0.16

0.14

0.01

0.03

0.01

0.00

0.0k

93.

Runoff.

.......

4.34

6.04

0.79 

0.03 

6.36

0.03 

0.00 

0.03

0.0k

.......

18

Rainfall.

1.76 

3.13 

5.10

0.89

0.46

1.38

1.63

1 05

3.35

4.03

3.03

3.41

S.M

37.33

18

Rainfall.

1.63

3.08

3 44

1.69

4.16

1.93

13.93 

3.59

3.08 

0.18 

6.S5

1.98 

1.75

3.45

6. IS

36.96

87.

Runoff.

0.00 

0.89 

5.59

3.64

0.53

0.13

9 77

0 03

0.33

0.18

0.53

0 33

0.63

93.

Runoff.

0.04 

0.01

0.31

5.15

1.79

1.31

S.61 

1.37

0.14 

0.00 

1.51

0.00 

0.03 

0.00

10.14

18

Rainfall.

3.67 

1.56 

1.51

3.99

0.98

3.95

3.89

6. S3

18

Rainfall.

3.14 

1.55

3.13

3.66

3.65

3.35

lk.ltS 

1.96

0.60 

0.60 

3.16

8.38 

0.84 

1.18

27.94

88.

Runoff.

1.37 

2.50

4.84

0.00

0.00

94.

Runoff.

0.37 

0.50

1.06

3.05

0.76

1.90

7.5k 

0.08

0.01 

0.00 

0.09

0.06 

0.00 

0.01

7.70

18,

Rainfall.

1.94 

1.64 

1.31

1.43

3.35

5.38

3 93

9.56

0.39

13 S3

3.75

1.82

3.49

S.06

34.99

18<

Rainfall.

1.66 

3.15

1.60

1 32

0.86

1.99

9.5S 

1.79

3.42 

6.49 

10.70

0.89 

0.51 

5.60

37.38

89.

%

Runoff.

0.00 

0.39 

0.01

0.43

1.13

0.39

2.35

1.36

1.09

0.45

g §Q

0.00

0.00

0.01

0.01

5.06

95.

Runoff.

.......

0.31

0.71

0.39

0.11

0.00

0.00 

0.01 

0.01

0.06 

0.00 

0.00

.......

18

Rainfall.

1.90

3.57

3.58

1.39

4.30

1.59

7.18

18

Rain, 

fall.

6.76 

1.13

3.48

1.26

2.79

4.16

19.57 

2 83

3.61 

3.53

9.95

6.54 

1.36 

3.16

39.58

90.

Runoff.

.......

0.03

0.01

0.03

0.04

0.07

96.

Ruuoff.

1.80 

0.36

1.06

1.11

0.77

0.39

5.S9 

0.09

0.03 

0.06

0.17

0.33 

0.33

0.48

1.13

6.69

18

Rainfall.

.......

.......

18

Rainfall.

0.16 

4.53

Q OO

3.56

2 23

0.84

13.5k

.......

.......

.......

91.

Runoff.

.......

.......

97.

Runoff.

0.19

1.39

4.61

1.88

0.60

.......

.......

.......
RAFTER.]. RUN-OFF OF ST. LAWRENCE RIVER,

Evaporation from the Des Plaines ivatershed, as given by differences between rainfall and run-off in the preceding table.

[Inches on watershed.]

Water year.

1886........'........................................ ..........

1887 ............ ..............................................

1889 ................................................... .......

1890.................. ........................................

1893...........................................................

1893...........................................................

1894...!...............................................,.......

1895...........................................................

1896...........................................................

December to 

May.

2.95

11.80

5.33

6.94

1418

June to

August.

5.54

5.50

10.08

T.80

5.34

3.07

10.69

9.78

September to November.

'9.97

8.05

7.11

5.53

6.16

10.33

6.94

8.93

Total.

39.93

16.83

30.34

. 33.89

RUN-OFF OF ST. LAWRENCE RIVER.

According to the report of the Deep Waterways Commission, the 

area of the water surface of Lake Ontario is 7,450 square miles, and 

the area of the tributary watershed, exclusive of the area of the lake 

itself, 25,530 square miles. The total area of the drainage basin, 

including both land and water surfaces, is 32,980 square miles. The 

area of the water surface of St. Lawrence River from Gallops Rapids 

to Montreal 1 is given at 220 square miles, and the area of the tributary 

watershed at 5,710 square miles; hence the total area of the basin of 

the St. Lawrence from Gallops to -Montreal becomes 5,930 square 

miles.

In the foregoing figures Lake Ontario is considered as beginning in 

Niagara River, at the foot of Niagara Falls and terminating at the 

head of Gallops Rapids, whence the following subdivisions of watersurface area arexderived: Niagara River, 5 square miles; Lake Ontario proper, 7,260 square miles; St. Lawrence River, 185 square miles; 

giving a total, as above, of 7,450 square /miles.

Of the total area of watershed of 25,530 square miles, 14,275 square 

miles lie within the State.of New York and 11,255 square miles in the 

Province of Ontario. The standard low-water elevation of Lake Ontario is taken as 244.53 feet, and the standard high-water elevation as 

249.04 feet above tide.

St. Lawrence River is considered as beginning at Gallops Rapids. 

The following table gives the elevation of water surface at a number 

of points. 2 - .

1 Beport of U. S. Deep Waterways Commission, 1897, House Document No. 193, Fifty-fourth 

Congress, second session, pp. 151-153.

3 Report of U. S. Deep Waterways Commission, 1897, p. 153. 

IRE 24 5
66 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [NO. 24. 

Elevation above tide of loiv-water and high-water surface of $t. Laivrence River.

Locality.

Ogdensburg. ......................

Lake St. Francis, at Valley field. .. 

Lake St. Louis, at Melicheville . _ - 

Montreal .................. -.-.-..

Standard low

water.

'Feet 

244. 28

153. 50 

70.0 

23.10

Standard high 

water.

Feet. 

248. 57

155.94

77.50 

35.78

The area of water surface of the St. Lawrence from Gallops Rapids 

to Montreal is 220, square miles, and the total area of watershed not 

included in the surface of the river is 5,710 square miles, of which 

3,800 square miles lie in New York, 620 in Ontario, and 1,290 in Quebec. The total area of the drainage basin, including water surface 

of the river, is 5,930 square miles.

The only measurements as to the discharge of St. Lawrence River 

thus far made are those of the Lake, Survey, which give a mean discharge of 300,000 cubic feet per second. The recent data would indicate that this figure is somewhat too large, as in the Lake Survey discharge of Niagara River. The streams tributary to Lake Ontario, 

however, issue from a region of heavier rainfall than those tributary to 

the Upper Great Lakes and, as shown by the run-off tables of this report, 

are generally much -better water yielders. Taking everything into 

account, it is probable that the minimum discharge of St. Lawrence 

River will not be less than from.8 to 10 inches over the entire watershed per year. A run-off of 12 inches per year over the entire drainage basin would give a mean discharge of 234,300 cubic feet per 

second, or a discharge of 0.884 cubic foot per square mile per second. 

A mean discharge of 300,000 cubic feet per second, as measured by 

the Lake Survey, would give 1.13 cubic feet per square mile per second. These figures are for the minimum discharge; for years, or 

cycles of years, of average rainfall the run,-off would be more.

RUN-OFF OF INLAND STREAMS OF NEW YORK.

i

The data for determining the run-off of the inland streams of New 

York are included in the tables given on pages 67 to 85 and others following. The results of measurements on Oatka Creek, a tributary of 

Genesee River, with a drainage area of 27.5 square miles above the 

point of measurement, from April, 1890, to November, 1892, are given 

on page 70. The discharge of Genesee River at Mount Morris, above 

which point the drainage area is 1,070 square niiles? from December, 

1893, to November, 1896, is given on page 58. The table on pages 76 and 

77 shows the quantity of water drawn from Hemlock Lake, also a tribu-
KAPTER.] RUN-OFF OF EATON AND MADISON BEOOKS. 67"

tary of Genesee River, and with a drainage area above the point of 

measurement of 43 square miles, for the water years 1880 to 1884, 

inclusive. The table on page 78 gives a similar tabulation of water" 

drawn from Skaneateles Lake-for the months indicated from October, 

1890, to November, 1897, inclusive. The tables on page 82 give the 

run-off of Hudson River as measured at Meehanicville, where the 

drainage area is 4,500 square miles, from October, 1887, to November, 

1896, inclusive. The table on pages 83 to 85 gives the run-off of Croton 

River, as measured at the Croton dam, where the drainage area is 

338 square miles, for the water years from 1870 to 1896, inclusive. 

The table on page 72 presents measurements at Rochester in comparison with those at Mount Morris. So far as the author can learn, 

the^foregoing include all the systematic measurements of streams, for 

considerable periods, thus far made in the State of New York, except 

those by John B. Jervis of the Madison and Eaton brooks in 1835, the 

results of which are presented in his report for that year to the canal 

commissioners.*

DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS OP EATON AND MADISON BROOKS.

Eaton and Madison brooks, of which measurements were made by 

Mr. Jervis in 1835, are in the central-eastern part of Madison County 

and tributary to Chenango River. The drainage area of Eaton 

Brook is given by Mr. Jervis at 6,800 acres, or 10.6 square miles,- and 

that of Madison Brook as 6,000 acres, or 9.4 square F-^es.

Rainfall and run-off of Eaton Brook.

Month.

1835.

July............

August .-.-.---..

October ..........

November ...--..

June to December, inclusive. . . 

June to October, 

inclusive ...-._

Rainfall.

Inches.

6.73

2.74

2.86

1.34

3.0

2.20 

0.96

19.83

Rainfall for 6,800 

acres.

Cubic feet. 

165, 876, 480

67, 634, 160

70, 596, 240

33, 076, 560

74, 053, 000

54, 304, 800 

23, 696, 640

489, 236, 880 

411,235,440

Run-off from 

6,800 acres.

Cubic feet. 

59,407,394

27, 994, 240

13, 547, 058

9, 586, 513

20, 694, 651

23, 772, 620 

36, 525, 544

191,538,030 

131,239,856

Percentage 

of run-off to 

rainfall.

35.8

41.4

19.3

29.0

37 3

43.8 

54 1

39.3 

31.9

i The measurements for short periods of several streams and of the water supply of Brooklyn 

are not overlooked in this statement, which is intended to apply to measurements extending 

over a year or more.
68 WATER RESOURCES OP STATE OP NEW YORK, PART I. [NO.24. 

Rainfall and rim-off of Madison Brook.

Month.

1835.

Snow of November-December, 

1834, on ground.

February ........

March ...........

May ..-.....--..

July.............

August .. ...-.-.

October. ........

November . .....

December ....

January to December, inclusive... 

January to May,

June to October,

Rainfall.

Inches.

2.17

2.50

1.03

5.0

1.98

8.05

3.87

3.06

0.88

3.86

2.10

0.76

35.26

Rainfall for 6,000 

acres.

Cubic feet. 

87, 120, 000

47, 262, 600

54, 450, 000

22, 443, 400

108, 900, 000

43, 124, 400

175, 329, 000

84, 288, 600

. 66, 646, 800

19, 166, 400

84, 070, 800

45, 738, 000

16, 552, 800

855, 092, 800 

363,300,400

429, 501, 600

Run-off from 

6,000 acres.

Cubic feet.

23, 192, 079

35, 377, 594

43, 284, 656

80.776,974

58. 013, 176

' 20, 138, 006

23, 141, 302

23, 725, 060

19, 158, 957

19, 544, 880

18,232,372

19,401,364

383, 986, 420 

340, 644, 479

X

105, 708, 205

Percentage 

of run -off to 

rainfall.

49.1

64.9

192.8

7J. 1

134.5

11.5

27.4

35.6

99.9

23.2

39.9

117.2

44.9 

66.3

"S4.6

The following statements in regard to these measurements are 

abstracted from Mr. Jervis's report: 1 From the Eaton Brook results it 

appears that the average run-off from June to December, inclusive, 

was 39.2 per cent of the rainfall and from June to October, inclusive, 

31.9 per cent of the rainfall. The minimum monthly run-off was in 

August, which shows only 19.2 per cent of the rainfall. The rainfall 

in the month of June, 1835, on Eaton Brook was 6.72 inches and in 

July 2.74 inches. The percentage of run-off to rainfall for June was 

35.8, whereas for July it was 41.4, which would indicate that the bulk 

of the June rain must have been at the end of the month.

1 For Mr. Jervis's original report see Appendix P to Ann. Rept. Canal Com., 1835, Ass. Doc. 

Ho. 65, pp. 55-60. Mr. Jervis's tables, with extracts from the report, are also quoted in the following documents:

(1) Report of F. C. Mills, chief engineer Gen. Val. Can., in Appendix D to Ann. Rept. Can. 

Com., 1837, Ass. Doc. No. 80, p.81.

(2) Report of W. H. Talcott, Res. Eng. Gen. Val. Can., 1840, Ass. Doc. No. 96, p. 51. 

(3> Beport of tfce-Regent£ of the University, 1838, Sen. Doc. No. 53, pp. 208-311. 

(4) Documentary History of the New York State Canals. By S. H. Sweet, Dep. State Eng. and 

Sur., 1863, Ass. Doc. No. 8, pp. 303-204.
BASTER.] DISCHARGE OF OATKA GREEK. 69

From the measurements of Madison Brook it appears that in 1835 

the average run-off for- the whole year, including the snow on the 

ground on January 1, was 44.9 per cent, or nearly one-half of the rainfall. Mr. Jervis points out that on account of the storage of the reservoir Madison Brook record can not be taken for the summer months, 

but that the year should be divided into two periods. For the first 

period he gives the results from January to May, inclusive, during 

which the run-off was 66.2 per cent of the rainfall, and for the second 

from June to October, during which the run-off was 24.6 per cent of 

the rainfall. During the second period, June to October, inclusive, 

Eaton Brook gave a run-off of 31.9 per cent of the rainfall. Mr. 

Jervis explains these different results by the different characters of 

the two districts drained. Eaton Brook Valley-is very narrow and 

the area drained quite steep, with a very close-textured soiL Madison Brook Valley, on the other hand, is much wider, with easy slopes, 

and the soil in a portion of it is more porous than that on Eaton 

Brook. Mr. Jervis - concludes his discussion with the remark that 

Eaton Brook Valley would afford more than an average run-off over 

a large district of country including the usual varities of soil, while 

Madison Brook would probably not differ materially from the general 

average in this State.

In his documentary history of the New York State canals, which is 

included in the annual report of the State engineer and surveyor for 

the fiscal year ending September 30, 1862, S. H. Sweet analyzes Mr. 

Jervis's measurements of discharge of Eaton and Madison brooks and 

points out several probable errors, especially in the Madison Brook 

result, where, because the measurements indicate only what was actually discharged through the sluice pipes each day instead of what 

drained off from the valley, he concludes that the real drainage of the 

Madison Brook area in 1835 was about 0.518 of .the rainfall, instead of 

0.449, as given by Mr. Jervis. Inasmuch as the Eaton Brook and 

Madison Brook measurements have only historical interest at the 

present time, this branch of the subject is not here pursued at length. 

So far as can be learned, the measurements of these two streams by 

Mr. Jervis, in 1835, were the first systematic measurement of the runoff of streams in the United States. Geologically these streams lie in 

the horizon of the Hamilton shales. *

DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS OF OATKA CREEK.

The measurements of Oatka Creek, recorded in the following table, 

were made at the rnilldam in the south part of the village of Warsaw, 

in Wyoming County. The dam was new, practically tight, and well 

adapted for securing accurate results. Measurements were also made 

of the outflow of the head race way leading from the dam for different 

elevations of water on the dam, and a curve prepared from which the 

discharge of the race way was read off and added to the discharge over
70 WATER RESOURCES OP STATE* OF NEW YORK, PART I. [NO. 24,

the dam as computed by Francis's weir formula. It is believed that 

the results are accurate within a very small per cent.

Rainfall, run-off, evaporation, and mean temperature of Odtka Greek drainage

area. 

[In inches on the watershed.]

Months.

February ....

July ..........

Rainfall.

3.33

4.36

3.63

2 7°

2 82

6.15

33.01 

4.13

3.18

3 *>

10.53 

6.59

4 53

2.90

Ik. 01

47.54

18

Runoff.

.......

3.17

3.16

1.85

0.38

0 38

& ^ 

1.35

2.27

2.13

5.75

».

Evaporation.

.......

.......

S.01

8.26

Mean 

temperature.

37.0

32 7

31.5 

29.5

dA. 7

52.8

3S.O 

67.4

70.2

66.8

6S.1 

60.3

60.3

39.3

W.9

48.5

Rainfall."

2.61

4.13

4.67 

3.70

1.52

1.60

IS. 22 

4.01

4 53

4 25

13.78 

1 73

3,49

2.91

7.13

38.12

18

Runoff.

0.97

2.62

3.40

1.39

0.63

11. SS 

n 14.

0.37

0.25

1.06 

0.46

0.24

0.41

1.11

14.05

Jl.

Evaporation.

.......

- 6. Sit

11.72

6.01

34.07

Mean 

temperature.

24.6

26.1

29.0 

29.9

45.7

52.8

Sit. 7 

65.2

63.9

65.4

64. S 

62.5

46.6

36.5

ltS.5

45 7

Rainfall.

3.80

3.83

3.71 

1.73

1 04

5.74

19.SU 

6.67

4.18

/t AS

15.30 

1 62

2.19

2.74

6.55

41.69

18

Runoff.

1.04

0.78

1.66 

1.94

2 21

1.75

9.SS 

1.41

2.06

1.43

It. 911 

0.24

0.33

0.57

1.1U

15.42

92.

Evaporation.

.......

10. It')

10. 40

S.ltl

36.27

Mean 

temperature.

34.9

21.0

26. » 

26.1

42.1

50.0-

31. S 

67.2

68.1

67.1

67.5 

59. 0

47 2

35.0

It7.1

45.4

The drainage area of Oatka Creek above Warsaw includes 27.5 

square miles of rolling semimountainous country. The valley of the 

creek is deep cut, with numerous springs at the head waters. The 

drainage area is mostly deforested and in a high state of cultivation, 

the soil inclining to clay for a considerable portion. Geologically the 

stream lies in the rocks of the Portage formation, as developed in 

western New York. The run-off from this area may be taken as 

fairly typical of many small streams, in western New York.

DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS OF GE&ESEE RIVER.

The measurements of Genesee River proper, presented in the table 

on page 58, were made at tne timber dam of the Mount Morris Hydraulic 

Power Company from September, 1893, to November, 1896, inclusive. 

The crest of this dam is quite irregular, and, in order to apply weir 

formulse to it, an accurate profile was taken and the dam divided into 

a number of approximately level sections, with each section computed separately for various heights and advancing by 0.1 of a foot 

up to 10 feet. Working on this plan, the flow over the entire dam, 

which is 337 feet in length, was obtained by adding together the sums 

of the several sections at the corresponding heights and tabulating 

these. A gage graduated to 0.05 foot was erected on the river bridge
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO- 24 PL. X

CANYON OF GENESEE RIVER BETWEEN MOUNT MORRIS AND PORTAGE.
RAFTEK.] DISCHARGE OP GENESEE RIVER. 71

a short distance away, with its zero level coinciding with the lowest 

point of the dam. During ordinary stages of the river readings of this 

gage were taken twice each day, but in time of high water, in order to 

obtain the movement of floods as accurately as possible, readings 

were taken several times a day. In order to compute the flow readily, 

a curve was projected, embodying the data of" the tabulation previously referred to, and from which, with the given gage heights, the 

flows in cubic feet per second could be quickly read off. 

When the measurements were first begun, it was considered that

the formula Q=1142 H^ was best suited to the form of the dam, but 

after more careful consideration it was apparent that the results given 

by this formula were somewhat in excess of the actual discharge, especially for the low-water flows. Accordingly a weir was constructed 

during the summer of 1£96, at a point 2.5 miles above the Hydraulic 

Power Company's dam, where rock bottom clear across the river offered 

a convenient opportunity for such construction without heavy expense. 

This weir was made perfectly tight.

In order to correlate the measurements at the Mount Morris 

Hydraulic Power Company's dam with those of the weir, two observations a day were taken at each place, nearly at the same time; that 

is to say, they were both taken by the same man, who passed immediately from the weir to the dam and vice versa. Observations on 

the weir were obtained up to a head of 4 feet, and the corresponding 

discharge computed with the proper allowance for velocity of 

approach, etc. The depths on the Hydraulic Power Company's dam 

corresponding to the given depths on the weir were so plotted on the 

diagram as to give at once the relation between the flow at the weir 

and the depth on the crest of the Hydraulic Power Company's dam. 

By proceeding in this way the dam was accurately rated up to a discharge of 5,000 cubic feet per second. For discharges beyond 5,000 

cubic feet per second the original determination has been used. An 

extension of the plotted curves shows that some*little distance above 

5,000 cubic feet per second discharge the results of the two methods 

are substantially the same. The two curves crossed at the point of 

about 6,000 cubic feet per second discharge. For discharges above* 

10,000 or 15,000 cubic feet per second there is probably an error in 

the results of from 5 to 10 per cent. Below 5,000 cubic feet per second it is believed that the results are now accurate within 2 or 3 per

cent. Francis's formula, Q = 3.33 L H^ has been used for the weir 

computations.

The measurements taken previously to the construction of the weir 

and the rating of the dam, as aforesaid, have all been corrected to 

conform to the new determinations; hence all the data of the Genesee 

measurements of this table may be considered as accurate within the 

limits stated.
72 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [NO.24.

Discharge measurements of Genesee River have also been kept for 

the last three years at Rochester, where the drainage area is about 

2,400 square miles. From data obtained during^the summer of 1895 

it was apparent that these measurements also require a correction in 

order to give the approximate true flow of the, stream during the 

.period covered. Without going into detail it may be stated that the 

Rochester measurements in the following table give the corrected 

results, which are now probably accurate within from 5 to 10 per 

cent:

Comparison of the measurements of Genesee River at Rochester with tliose at Mount

Morris for the water years 1394 to 1896, inclusive. 

[In cubic feet per second, and with yearly means also in inches on the watershed.]

Month.

April.........- ...-

Year . .-......

Inches on watershed -

As per 

record.

3,914

2,841

2,584

6,008

5,646

6,304

U, 576 

2,951

1,055

973

1,656 

1.664

1 326

1,782

1,573

3,088,

19.20

1894.

Corrected.

3,914

3,841

2,584

6,008

5,646

6,304

It, 576 

2,800

792

732

l,l$6 

1,500

920

1,600

1,335

3,978

18.35

Estimated 

from 

measurements at 

Mount 

Morris, a

4,797

3,867

1,954

6,794

7,173

9,080

5,lt77 

3,321

293

442

1,003 

1,963

899

1,739

1,533

3,370

19.38

As per 

record.

1,459

1,619

977

4,035

3,083

1,309

2,099 

885

645

600

728 

407

366

834

BSft

1,364

8.48

1895.

Corrected.

1,100

1,200

700

4,035

3,083

900

1,81,8 

535

390

400

IM 

350

320

500

333

1,116

6.41

Estimated 

from 

measurements at 

Mount 

Morris, a

1 356

1,335

495

3,985

4 357

385

1,958 

383

332

254

256 

221

330

993

U78

1,163

6.67

As per 

record.

1,839

1,645

2,702

3,735

7,623

1,576

3,181 

1,317

854

585

.977 

324

2,371

993-

1,353

2,174

13.48

1896.

Corrected.

1,700

1,400

3,702

3,725

7,623

1,300

3,05U 

1,000

645

440

69f 

340

2,000

745

1,006

1,951

11.20

Estimated 

from 

measurements at 

Mount 

Morris, a

2,710

964

2,005

6,158

7 173

34t

3,218 

654

501

416

538 

327

3,667

1,738

1,9S6

2 * 220

13.80

a Increased in proportion to increased drairiage area at Rochester.

As interesting data from Genesee River measurements, we may discuss the flood of May 20-23, 1894, at which time the approximate 

discharge of the stream at Mount Morris, from a drainage area of 

1,070 square miles, was as follows:

Discharge of Genesee River at Mount Morris during the flood in May, 1894.

Cubic feet 

per second.

May 18, 7a.m...._._._.._._....___.__..._..___._..____,._ _...___..._____. 600

May 18, 6 p. in ......................................................... 3,090

May 19, 7 a. m...._............ ^......................................... 5,530

May 19, 6 p. m ......................................................... 5,090

May 20, 7 a. m.......................................................... 16,580

May 20,12 m .......................................................... 22,210
RAFTER.] DISCHARGE OP GENESEE RIVER.

Discharge of Genesee River at Mount Morris during the flood in May, 1894 Cont'd.

Cubic feet 

per second.

May 20,6 p. m .......................................................... 28,000

May 21, 3.30 a. m................... ......... ..._._.;_....._.......... 42,000

May 21, 7a.m........................................................... 33,000

May 21,12 m ........... v ........................,.......:............. 30,730

May 21, 6 p. m ...........................................'............... 26,500

May22,'7a. m. .......................................................... 15,650

May 22,12 m.....__.....................:.............................. 13,650

May 22, 6 p. m _._.__...._..._..__.._._._.._..__...._...,.......... . ... 10,720

May 23, 7a.m........................................................... 7,300

May23,12 m............................................................ 6,700

May 23,6 p. m .......................................................... 5,690

May 24, 7 a. m_........_.:............................................... 5,390

The total run-off from 7 a. m. of May 19 to 7 a. m. of May 24 was 

nearly 6,900,000,000 cubic feet. 

On the morning of May 21 the flats in the broad, level valley of

12,000

11,000

10,000

9,000

8,000

7,000

6,000

5,000

4,000

3,000

2,000

I,000

0

12,000

II,000 

10,000 

9,000 

8,000

r.ooo

6,000

5,000

4,000

3,000

2,000

1,000

0

FIG. 3. Discharge of Genesee River at Mount Morris, New York, 1893 to 1896.

Genesee River and Canaseraga Creek, between Dansville, Mount 

Morris, and Rochester, aad<which have an area of from 60 to 80 square 

miles, were nearly flooded, in some localities to a depth of from 4 to 

6 feet. On account of the large pondage by these flats, although the 

maximum run-off at Mount Morris was 42,000__eubic feet per second 

at 3.30 a. m. on the morning of May 21, at Rochester the maximum 

flow did not at any time exceed about 20,000 cubic feet per second. 

We have, then, a case where a large ponda~ge has, by prolonging the 

time of run-off, modified a flood flow over 50 per cent. As further 

illustrating the effect of a large reservoir, or, what is the same thing, 

the effect of a large pond area in modifying the effect of an extreme
74 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [NO. 24.

flood, reference may be made to fig. 3, in which, with time as abscissas 

and run-off as ordinates, the run-off record of Genesee River for 

May 18-24, 1894, has been plotted. The lower curve of that figure 

may be taken as representing approximately the law of the run-off of 

any generally distributed heavy rainfall on the catchment area of this 

stream. In making this statement it is not overlooked that flood 

flows at other seasons of the year may differ sonjewhat in their movement from that of May, 1894. Inasmuch as the rapidity and intensity 

of the run-off of any given stream depend largely upon the topography, 

the statement may be made that the general law of movement of 

floods in Genesee River is indicated by the lower curve of fig. 3. 

With this understanding we may assume any other run-off and construct the approximate curve by drawing it generally parallel to the 

curve of the actually observed case. In this way the upper curve of 

fig. 3, representing the curve of a flood one and one-half times greater 

than that of May, 1894, has been produced, slight irregularities of the 

lower curve having been neglected in projecting the upper one.

WOO 

5000 

4000 

3000

zooo

10001

H093S

!

k 

5

3/B/JO

^

^

6AM NOON 6PM 

MAYrS

^ 

/

#

6A.M' NOON 6PM 

MAY 19

7t/

$ 

*.

</ (V

1

/'

0

£

I* f

4

p

6A.M NOON 6F.M 

MAY 20

^

,<<s

> '

\

^

K

^

\

»"x

 ta

\

 X

6AM NOON 6PM 

MAYZI

\

*<

\

0. '*2\

N

\

6A.M NOON 6P.M 

MAYZZ

^

0 . -- <

CAM NOON 6P.M 

MAYZ3

1

6AM NOON 6PM 

MAY 24

PIG. 3. Flood flow of Genesee Biver, May 18-24,1894.

A flood flow one and one-half times as great as that of May, 1894, 

which culminated in a maximum of about 42,000 cubic feet per second at 2.30 a. m. of May 21, gives a maximum of 63,000 cubic feet per 

second, the movement of which would be, under the assumptions, 

substantially as in the upper curve of fig. 3. As to the probability 

of a maximum flood flow of 63,000 cubic feet per second on the upper 

Genesee drainage area, the case of the neighboring Chemung River 

may be cited, where .a flood flow of 67.1 cubic feet per second per 

square mile occurred in June, 1889. This figure applied to the upper 

Genesee would give a possible maximum run-off of 71,126 cubic feet 

per second.

Geologically, the drainage area of Genesee River above Mount 

Morris, the point of measurement, lies in the shales, sandstones, etc., 

of the Portage and Chemung groups. Its extreme head waters south
DISCHARGE OF HEMLOCK LAKE. 75

of the Pennsylvania line issue from the lower Carboniferous. Generally the soils throughout the whole basin are heavy and tenacious, 

inclining to clay. Their capacity for absorbing and retaining"water 

must, therefore, be considered as small.

DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS OF HEMLOCK LAKE.

Measurements of the run-off of the Hemlock Lake drainage area for 

the water years 1880 to 1884, inclusive, w.ere made by the Rochester 

Waterworks. Hemlock Lake lies at an elevation of 896 feet above 

tide, and-has a length of 6.5 miles, with an average width of about 

0.5 of a mile. The area of the surface at low water is 1,828 acres. The 

total drainage basin, including the area of the lake, is 27,554 acres, or 

about 43 square miles. The shores are bold, and on the east side rise 

to a height of several hundred feet above the lake in a distance of 2 

or 3 miles. At the head of the lake there is a swamp of 118 acres, 

partially covered at high water.

The outflow of the lake during the period covered by the measurements included in the following table may be considered as having 

taken place at three points: (1) At the natural outlet of the lake; 

(2) at an artificial channel through which water was discharged at will 

for the benefit of the millers on the outlet; and (3) through the conduit of the Rochester waterworks. The run-offs given are the sums 

of these several outgoes. In order* to determine the outflow of the 

natural outlet, a weir was constructed and the discharge observed at 

different heights of the lake surface. The discharge into the artificial 

channel was through submerged'orifices of known dimensions, and has 

been computed from standard formulae for the discharge of such 

orifices, the size of the openings and the difference of level of water 

surfaces above and below being known.

The discharge of the conduit of the Rochester waterworks is as 

computed from standard formulae for discharge through pipes. Measurements made by the author and others during the last few years 

show that the computed quantities passing through the conduit were 

not far from correct. As a whole, it is believed that the Hemlock 

Lake results are accurate within from 5 to 8 per cent.
76 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OP NEW YORK, J*ART I. [NO 24.

Water drawn from Hemlock Lake for the water years 1880 to 1884, inclusive. 

[In inches on the watershed.]

Month.

May .......... .....

July.... ...........

Year.........

Mean monthly elevation 

of lake 

surface.

-1.67

-0.91

-0.11

+0.21

+0.79

+0.87

-O.Ik 

+0.45

-0.15

-0.70

 0.13 

-1.13

-1.57

-1.34

 1.31

 0.43

Bainfall.

1 36

1.37

1 45

1.47

1.25

2.08

8.88 

1.66

1.93

3.46

7.05

i.m

3.85

0.86

6.06

31.99

1880.

Water 

drawn.

0.16

0.15

0.16

0.15

0.15

0.17

0.9k 

0.36

0.41

0.35

1.12 

0.31

0.31

0.39

1.01

3.07

Bainfall, 

less the 

water 

drawn.

7.94

5.9S

5.05

18.93

.Tenv 

peratnre.

a31.4

a25.5

agT.3

a 31. 8

a45.7

71.8

S8.9 

76.5

77.1

74.4

76.0 

69.7

53.4

37.1

53. 4

51.8

Mean monthly elevation 

of lake 

surface.

-1.33

1 47

-0.11

+1 30

+1.47

+1.33

+0.18 

+1.08

+0.58

+0.55 

-0.69

-0.81

-0.71

 O.Tl

+0.04

Rainfall.

0.73

3 34

1.08

1.93

0.53

2.23

8.71 

3.13

3.71

0.95

7.79 

1.73

4.33

1.81

7.77

34 37

1881.

Water 

drawn.

0.49

0 44

0.54

1.73

1.34

1.11

6.55 

0.76

0.43

0.50

1.69 

0.35

0.33

0.46

l.llt

8.38

Bainfall, 

less the 

water 

drawn.

S.16

6.10

6.63

15.89

Temperature.

37.3

24 7

29.7

39.1

AS 9

69.7

S9 3 

73.9

75.6

80.0

76.5 

77.9

59.1

44.8

60.6

53.9

a Interpolated from«average of fifteen years.

Month.

March _ ..........

April... ...........

May .......... .....

July. ...........

Year.........

Mean monthly elevation 

of lake 

surface.

-0.05

+1.63

+1.39

+1.67

+1.51

+1.61

+1.29 

+1.45

+0.81

+0.15

+0.80 

 0.44

-0.99

-1.38

 0.94

+0.61

Bainfall.

4.03

1.03

1.07

1.47

3 49

5.29

15. 37 

3.31

1.43

3 17

5.90 

1.78

1.00

1.41

4.19

9K. <tfi

1883.

Water 

drawn.

0.66

3.04

1.40

3.82

1.53

1.74

10.19 

1.85

0.63

0.41

S.8S 

0.43

0.65

ft 36

1.1A

14.51

Rainfall, 

less the 

water 

drawn.

5.18

3.03

3.75

10.95

Temperature.

39.8

39.4

37.0

38.7

48.5

57.4

1*1.8 

71.9

78.0

76.8

75.6 

69.4

61.4

41.8

67. 6

fU. 9

Mean monthly elevation 

of lake 

surface.

 1.51

 1.56

+0.03

+0.95

+1.67

+1.59

+0.18 

+1.38

+1.39

+0.64

+1.10 

+0.25

+0.07

1 A if

+O.J6

+0.41

Rainfall.

0.91

0.84

3.11

0.90

3.43

9.54

17. 7S 

4.52

2.13

3.86

9.51 

3.36

1.63

3.03

6.00

33.34

1883.

Water 

drawn.

0.19

0.31

0.28

0.68

1.58

3.59

5.5S 

1.65

1.08

0.45

3.18 

0.21

0,18

0.19

0.58

9

QQ

Rainfall, 

less the 

water 

drawn.

13.30

6.33

5M

33.95

Temperature.

31.0

25.7

30.6

33.3

47.8

59.1

37. 9 

74.3

75.7

73 7

74.5 

65.1

55.7

45.1

53. 3

51.4
RAFTER.} DISCHARGE OF SKANEATELES LAKE. 77 

Wafer drawn from Hemlock Lake for the water years 1880 to 1884, etc. Cont'd.

Month.

May.. ........ ...... ....... . ... ..

July..............................................

Mean 

monthly elevation of 

lake 

surface.

-Ul 44

( n 4R

+1 38

+147

+1.56

+1.63

+1.U 

+1.01

+0.58

i n 97

 +0.63 

 0.36

' -0.70

-1. 17

 0.71

+0.55

Rainfall.

3.01

1.78

3.17

3.18

g 21

3.30

lit. 65 

3.44

3.98

1.08

7.50" 

3.34

1.34

1.01

It. 59

36 74

1884.

Water 

drawn.

0.54

1.01

3.70

3.71

' 1.47

1.69

10. n

0.75

0.37

0.34

1.36 

0.71

0.30

0.18

1.09

13.57

Rainfall, 

less the 

water 

drawn.

It. 53

6.1k

3.50

14.17

Temperattire.

34 0

24.7

30 3

30.5

43.7

- 56.7

36.5 

70.4

68.4

70.8

69.9 

66.9

53.3

38.9

52.7

48.9

The drainage area of Hemlock Lake is, as stated, 27,554 acres, and 

the area of the lake itself at the elevation ±0.0 is 1,828 acres; hence 

the lake surface is 6.6 per cent of the total drainage area, or the drainage 

area is 15.1 times the area of the lake surface. On this basis I inch on 

the whole area is 15.1 inches on the lake. Taking into account these 

statements, it is clear that the data of the table give approximately 

the natural run-off, although for exact figures corrections for actual 

elevations of lake surface at the beginning, as well as at the end of each 

year, should be applied. On this point see the discussion on the minimum flow of Hemlock Lake, on pages 92 and 93. Geologically, the 

Hemlock Lake Basin proper is^in the Hamilton and Marcellus shale, 

with the hills at the side rising into the rocks of the Portage group.

DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS OP SKANEATELES LAKE.

The measurements of the run-off of Skaneateles Lake drainage area, 

as given in the following table, have been made by the Syracuse 

waterworks over a dam at the foot of the lake or over a weir a short 

distance below since October, 1890. Previous to 1886 this lake was 

the principal feeder of the Jordan level of Erie Canal, but in that 

year Otisco and Owasco lakes were also made, feeders. The Skaneateles Lake dam was reconstructed 9 feet high by the State in 1887, 

and in 1893 was again rebuilt by the Syracuse water board with its' 

spillway 2 feet higher than the crest of the old dam. The -area of the 

water surface of Skaneateles Lake is 12.75 square miles, and the area 

of the watershed, including the area of the-lake,-is 73 square miles.
78 WATER RESOURCES OP STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I, [NO.24.

The elevation above tide is 867 feet. The lake lies in a deep valley, 

with bold shores rising several hundred feet at either side. The figures given in the following table do not represent in any degree the 

natural run-off of this drainage area, but merely the water yield during the years indicated, in which there was large storage.

In March, 1895, the city of Syracuse began to draw water through 

its new conduit to Skaneateles Lake. Since that time the results 

given in the table are the quantity flowing in the outlet as measured 

on the weir located at Willow Glen plus the outflow through the conduit. Previous to March, 1895, the results are from measurements at 

the dam at the foot of the lake. The earlier results are possibly 

affected by errors of from 12 to 15 per cent, while the latter are probably accurate within from 2 to 5 per cent. Geologically the drainage 

basin of Skaneateles Lake is in the Hamilton group of rocks". ,

Water drawn from and monthly elevatians of Skaneateles LaJce fof the months 

indicated for the water years 1890 to 1897, inclusive.

[Water drawn in inches on the watershed.]

Year, etc.

1890:

Mean lake surface.. _ ......

Water drawn

1891:

Mean lake surface ...........

Water drawn. . .

1893:

Mean lake surface ...........

Water drawn

1893:

Mean lake surface... .......

Water drawn. . ,

1894:

Mean lake surface ...........

Water drawn

1895:

Mean lake- surface - ......

Water drawn. ..

1896:

Mean lake sur-

 face ..........;

Water drawn...

1897:

Mean lake surWater drawn. . .

Dec.

-1.93

-1.00

1.63

-5.79

-2.56

1.09

 4.75

1,38

 1.58

0.33

-4.56

1.58

-3.93

1.35

Jan.

-3.08

-1.50

1.63

-5.50

-3.71

0.87

 4.48

0.86

-1.30

0.34

-4.33

1.51

-4.13

1.85

Feb.

 3.35

-1.00

1.53

-3.93

0.87

......

-1.75

' 0.33

 4.60

1.46

 4.S9

1.08

Mar.

+0.33

+0.16

3.43

-5.0

-3.75

1.10

......

-0.37

1.39

 4.08

1.61

 4.56

1.06

Apr.

+0.33

+0.50

3.57

-3.67

-1.33

1.18

......

-0.17

,3.55

-3.43

1.50

-3.46

0.38

May.

+0.35

0.0

ctl.90

 1.83

0.0

 3.50

0.36

+0.14

3.14

-1.35

1.59

 3.67

1.13

June.

+0.37

-0.75

1.33

 0.67

+0.33

3.10

-1.37

0.15

-0.40

1.64

-158

1.61

 3.50

1.34

July.

+0.50

-1.43

1.33

-0.33

-0.67

1.98

+0.35

0.57

 0.93

1.77

 1.94

1.51

-3.65

1.45

Aug.

-0.43

 3.21

1.93

_

-0.67

-1.43

»1.53

-0.06

1.07

 1.67

1.87

 3.33

1.50

3.01

Sept.

-1.33

-3.35

1.79

-1.08

1.35

 3.17

1.08

-0.88

1.39

-3.18

1.64

-3.94

1.51

1.41

Oct.

 1.08

1.59

-4.13

1.61

 1.83

, 1.34

-3.00

1.58

 1.00

1.46

-3.12

1.85

 3.43

1.50

1.61

Nov.

-1.16

1.67

-5.35

1.31

 3.58

1.13

-3.83

1.58

-1.31

1.44

 4.14

1.75

-5.85

1.38

1.47

Total.

..-..

30.76

30.03

.....

-----

17.38

18.36,

15.61

a Interpolated. No record. Mean of preceding and following months used.
BAFTBR.J INLAND STREAMS OP NEW YORK. 79 

DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS OF HUDSON RIVER.

Measurements of the flow of Hudson River have been made over 

the dam of the Duncan Company, at Mechanicville. In 1887 this 

company began daily measurement of the amount of water flowing in 

Hudson River at their mill. 1 With the exception of one or two days 

this record has been kept for every working day since October 1,1887. 

A record has also been kept of the number, size, and kind of turbine 

water wheel in use for the same period. The Duncan Company placed 

all this material at the disposal of the survey of the tipper Hudson 

Yalley, of which the author has had charge, thus enabling him to 

compute the mean daily flow of the river for each working day from 

October 1,1887, to November 30,1896. The flow of Sundays and holidays, when no observations were taken, has been assumed as a mean 

between the preceding Saturday and the following Monday, etc. The 

dam is a substantial structure of masonry 16 feet high, with a length 

of 794 feet between the abutments. The crest is stated by John R. 

Kaley, the constructing engineer, to be perfectly level, and from all 

that can be learned it appears that the daily observations have been 

taken with such care as to leave no reason for doubting that this is a 

fairly accurate exhibit of the daily flow of the stream for the period 

covered. This record is therefore considered to be accurate within 

from 5 to 8 per cent;

The greatest depth on this dam in the nine-year period, 1888 to 1896, 

inclusive, occurred May 5, 1^93, when the gage showed a depth of 

7.83 feet and the mean flow of the day was over 53,000 cubic feet per 

second. The drainage area of Hudson River above the Mechanicville dam is taken at 4,500 square miles.

Experience in flows over dams of this length and with depths as 

great as from 7 to 8 feet is as yet rather limited in this country, and 

the question was raised as to the best method of computing the discharge for a case like the one under discussion. The engineers of the 

British Government in India have had, in connection with their large 

irrigation works, perhaps more experience in this class of measurement than all others combined, and the f ormulse used by them appear 

more rational in form than those commonly used in .the United States 

for such computations, and after some study it was decided to use 

these. As many American engineers may not be familiar with these 

formulse they are here reproduced. They take the following form 

Q = fLCV2^F, (1) 

in which 

Q = the discharge over a thin-edged clear overfall, in cubic feet per

second, 

L = the length of the dam in linear feet,

1 Annual Report of the State Engineer and Surveyor of New York, 1895, p. 104.
80 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [NO. 24.

C = coefficient depending for its value, on d, 

g = acceleration of gravity =ss 32.2, 

d = depth on crest, in linear feet.

Equation (1) may also take the form 

Q = 5.35 L C V^P. (2) 

To find C for different values of d, we have 

04 (34.6 + d)^\ /o\ 

4 /

This gives a series of values of C corresponding to d. For instance, 

for d = 0.25 foot, C = 0.651; for d = 0.50 foot, C = 0.649, and so on.

For a wide-crested dam the coefficient is further modified to suit 

the actual width of the crest. For this we have given the expression 

/"0.02S C (B + 1)\

in which 

B = the width of the crest in linear feet;

C = the coefficient for a thin-edged weir, corresponding to a depth

d, as per equation (3), and

C' = the adjusted coefficient corresponding to a given breadth B and 

a depth c?. 1 t

In the case of the Mechanicville dam we have a stone crest 7 feet 

in width and slightly inclined upstream. The width of the river a 

short distance above the dam is considerably over 800 feet; the depth 

for some distance back is from 16 to 20 feet. In order to avoid a 

correction for velocity of approach, a crest was assumed & feet wide 

and values of C' were computed on that basis.

.Having obtained values of C' for d = 0.25, 0.50, 0.75, 1.00, 1.25, 1.50, 

1.75 feet, and so on up to 8 feet, corresponding values of Q were computed and plotted at a large scale as a curve with values of d as 

abscissas and the corresponding flows as ordinates. From this curve 

intermediate values of Q have been read off.

i The method of deducing equations (3) and (4) may be found in Mullin's Irrigation Manual, 

1890, pp. 11, 13, 138, 139, If 1, 172.
RAFTER.] DISCHARGE OP HUDSON RIVER. 81

34,000

33,000

30,000

18,000

16,000

14,000

13,000

10,000

8,000

6,000

4,000

2,000

0

60,000

65,000

50,000

45,000

40,000

35,000

30,000

25,000

20,000

15,000

10,000

5,000

0

60,000

55,000

50,000

45,000

40,000

35,000

30,000

25,000

20,000

15,000

10,000

5,000

0

60,000

55,000

50,000

45,000

40,000

35,000

30,000

35,000

30,000

15,000

10,000

5,000

60, 

55,

50,000- 

45,000 

40,000 

35,000 

30,000 

25,000- 

30,000 

15,000 

10,00(1 

5,00(1 

(I

FIG. 4. Discharge of Hudson Eiver at Mechanicville, New York, 1888 to 1897. 

IRE 24 6
82 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [NO. 24.

Run-off of Hudson River at Mechanicville from October, 1SS7, to November, 1896,

inclusive, (a)

[In cubic feet per second.]

Month. 1887.

3,365

4,190

1888.

8,018

3.714

6,845

21,300

21,430

11 aSt

4,917

1,537

1,725

a 703

3,851

4,608

10,642

6,018

7,820

1889.

10,014

10,983

3,790

8,280

13,690

8,871

Q q.5?7

6,869

5,727

4,273

1,963

3,740

It 522

7,197

1890.

13,326

11 272

7,913

11,129

15,053

17,931

1O Q&1

7,392

1,950

2,019

8,844

9,315

9,121

9,597

1891.

3,344

8,384

11,664

17,736

30,021

5,533

11,031

3,200

2,337

3,666

2,040

1,472

4,088

3 521

6,867

1893.

8,577

18,857

9,363

10,939

31,554

19,632

13,395

9,287

5,485

4,448

3,819

. 7,604

U,93U

10,909

1893.

4,031

3,192

4,805

8,250

17,889

32,385

10, Ilk

4,801

2 521

5,005

6,870

3,865

3,639

k,7Sl

7,271

1894.

7 317

4,836

14,738

11,135

7,566

S yzQ

7,097

3,168

3,456

1,889

3,649

6,379

3,969

6,418

1895.

4,367

 3,876

3,543

4,304

33,823

6,850

if iJKCt

3,816

3,559

3,901

3,629

2,631

8,421

h,5S9

5,780

1896.

10,899

6,787

4,668

13,600

24,973

4,610

4,738

2,773

3 443

3,317

2,879

4,106

11 353

6,113

7,818

[In inches on the watershed.]

April. .......... ....

Total. ........

July . ...............

Total. ........

TVvt-nl

0.61

1.04

3.05

1.63

0.89

1.75

5.36

5.49

H.Ofi

1 22

0.39

0.44

0.71

1.18

2.64

33.64

2.57

3.81

0.88

3 12

3.37

lU.Oh

1.70

1.47

1.09

4.26

0.49

0.96

1.96

3.U

31.71

3.39

3.89

1.83

3.85

3.73

4.59

19. $S

1.83

0.50

0.53

2.85

2. 19

3.36

3.26

6.81

28.56

0.83

2.13

2.70

4.55

4.97

1.43

16.59

0.79

0.60

0.68

3.07

0.51

0.38

1.01

1 90

20.56

2.27

4.83

2 33

3.80

5.35

5.03

SS. 50

3.08

2.38

1.41

6.87

1.10

0.73

1.89

33.08

1.03

0.83

1.09

3.11

4.44

5.71

15.20

1.19

0.65

1 28

3.13

1.70

0.99

0.90

3.59

21.90

1.85

1.73

1 13

3.78

2.76

1.94

13.18

1.76

0.81

0.63

3.20

0.47

0.94

1.58

& go

19.37

1.13

0.99

0.83

1.08

5.91

1.76

11.68

0.70

0.66

1.00

0.65

0.69

2.08

3.43

17.46

3.79

1.74

1.13

3.49

6.30

1.18

16.52

1.18

0.73

0.63

2.53

0.71

1.05

3.83

4.58

33.63

a Annual Report of the State Engineer and Surveyor of New York, 1895, pp. 107,120.

DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS OF CROTON RIVER.

The record of the run-off of Croton River as measured at the old 

Croton dam for the watei years 1870 to 1896, inclusive, is given in the 

table on pages 83 to 85. The watershed of the Croton consists of a 

broken, hilly country with its surface soil composed principally of sand 

and gravel. Clay, hardpan, and peat, while found in a few localities, 

are for the whole area only present to a limited extent. The rock formation consists generally of gneiss, although strata of limestone, some 

micaceous and talcose slates, with veins of granite, serpentine, and
RAFTER.] DISCHARGE OF CROTON RIVER. 83

iron ore, occur in a few places. The drainage area lies almost entirely 

in the State of New York, only a small portion being in Connecticut;. 

It amounts to about 338 square miles above the old Croton darn and 

to 360 square miles above the new Croton dam under construction. 

The main river is formed by three branches, known, respectively, as 

East, Middle, and West branches, which, rising in the southern part 

of Dutchess County, flow south through Putnam County and unite 

near its south boundary. The river then flows across Westchester 

County to Hudson River, into which it empties at Croton Point, about 

30 miles north of the city of New York. The principal tributaries 

aside from East, Middle, and West branches are Kisko, Titicus, Cross, 

and Muscoot rivers. The monthly and annual rainfall of the Croton 

watershed, as well as the run-off of the water years, from 1870 to 1896, 

inclusive, are given in the following table. The average annual rainfall for this period was 48.10 inches and the run-off 24.65 inches. 1

Rainfall and run-off of Croton River drainage area from 1870 to 1896, inclusive.

[In inches on the watershed. ]

Month.

December ....

January...-.

February ....

April. ........

September . . .

October . __ .

November ...

Total...

. 18

Rainfall.

5.96

451

6.40 

3.80

5.45

2.30

38.lt3 

2.06

3.43

5.10

10.59

3.85

4.73

2.51

10.09

49.10

"0.

Runoff.

3.07

3.99

4.28 

3.56

4.11

1.86

20. S7 

0.83

0.51

0.51

1.85

0.35

0.42

0.63

1.39

24.11

18

Rain- 

-fall.

1.49

3.80

3.81

4.27

3.01

3.45

19. S3 

5.73

5.07

5.24

16.0k

1.44

6.18

4.35

11.97

47.84

n.

Runoff.

0.64

0.59

3.21 

3.52

2 02

2.06

11.0k 

1 43

0.73

0.85

3.01

0.63

1.92

3.41

5.96

30.01

18'

Rainfall.

2.59

1.44

1.22

2.59

3.04

3.69

Ik. 51 

-4.00

4.34

5.99

Ik. 3S

3.69

2.15

4.91

10. 75

39.65

rs.

Runoff.

2.11

2.08

1.25 

1.75

3.11

1.29

11.59 

1 23

0.61

1.64

S.k7

1.25

1.13

2.67

5.05

30.11

18

Bainfall.

3.68

5.66

3.00 

3. 08

3,rr

2.91

S3. 19 

0.71

2.21

5.73

8. 65

3.73

5.13

3.72

12. 5S

43.43

T3.

Runoff.

1.45

4.29

1.73 

4.03

7 12

3.19

SO. SO 

0.54

0.49

an

i.7k

0.52

1.45

1.81

5.78

26.33

18

Rainfall.

4.13

6.96

2.78 

1.57

6.31

1.99

23. Ik 

3.57

5.98

2.75

12.30

3.56

3.40

3 72

S.6S

44.72

"4.

Runoff.

3.38

8.32

2.79 

3.03

3.63

3.19

Sk.Sk 

0.92

1.43

0.89

3. 3k

0.58

0.81

0.74

2. IS

39.61

18

Rainfall.

1.78

3.74

3.47 

4.99

3.04

1.08

17.10 

3.03

3.10

10.33

16. k5

3.11

3.61

4.61

10. SS

43.88

15.

Runoff.

0.98

0.65

4.09 

3.34

5.58

1.86

16. 1<Q 

0.59

0.58

5.80

6.97

0.90

0.85

2.05

3.30

27.17

i See Wegmam's History of the Water Supply of the City of New York, Chap. IX, The Croton 

watershed.
84 WATER RESOURCES OP STATE OP NEW YORK, PART I. [NO. 24. 

Rainfall and run-off of Croton River drainage area from 1870 to 1896, etc. Cont'd.

Month.

January... ... 

February ....

July ;.. .......

August ..-. ...

September ... 

October ......

November ,..

Total ..

Month.

December.... 

January ......

February ....

April.........

September.-. 

October ...... 

November ...

Total...

18

Rainfall.

1.56

1.43 

4.91 

6.33

4.43

3.99

SS.6U 

2.52

3.42 

1.30 

7.1k 

5.31 

1.50 

3.40 

10.11

39.89

18

Rainfall.

6.53 

4.41 

5.96 

4.58

1.36

6.30

20.1k 

3.04

3.63

3.93

10.59 

14.33 

3.33 

1.66 

19.38

59.05

re.

Runoff.

1 si

1.59 

3.65

7.16

6.39

3.03

%#}» 66 

0.71

0.55 

0.50 

1.76 

0.37 

0.38 

0.71 

I.!t6

35.88

Sv.

Runoff.

1.73 

2.40 

4.33

1.43

3 20

16.73 

1.70

0.69

0.53

2.91 

3.35 

3.37 

0.96 

6. US

36.12

18

Rainfall.

3.35

3.68 

0.80 

7.66

3.35

0.85

16.69 

4.95

4.65 

3.54 

12. Ik 

1.49 

8.38 

8.16 

13.03

46.86

18i

Rainfall.

3.68 

2.80 

5.21 

1.67

3.94

3.86

19.16 

5.64

4 36

3.09

11.99 

3.45 

6.99 

1.79

11.33

43.38

"7.

Runoff.

1.19

0.84 

1.55 

6.97

3.02

0.89

14.46 

0.63

0.51 

0.49 

1.63 

0.34 

1.14 

4.18 

5.66

31.74

*3.

Runoff.

1.39 

1.06 

3.81 

3.03

3.73

1.38

13.30 

0.63

0.52

0.53

1.67 

0.51 

0.66 

0.69 

1.86

16.83

18

Rainfall.

1 f>9

4.49 

3.65 

3.10

2.85

SO. 58 

4.65

4.38 

3.66 

11.59 

6.61

3.78 

4.36

lit. 75

46.93

18

Rainfall.

3.45 

5.07 

6.31

4.83

2.96

4.33

26.9k 

3.04

6.54

4.50

13.08 

1.69 

3.74 

4.37 

9.80

49.82

rs.

Runoff.

1.97

3,85 

3.93 

3.89

1.69

1.57

IB. 89 

1 53

0.74 

0.68 

2.9k 

2.13 

0.93 

2.09 

5.15

33.98

84.

Runoff.

0.64 

2.14 

4.95 

5.01

3.00

1.91

17J65 

0.70

0.81

1.18

S.69 

0.74 

0.57 

0.98 

3.29

23.63

18

Rainfall.

8.74

3.53 

2.85 

4.96

5.10

3.45

26.62 

5.29

5.95 

5.83 

17.07 

3.43 

0.95 

2,49 

0.87

50.56

38

Rainfall.

7.34 

5.59 

4.66 

1.29

2.09

2 44

23. kl 

1.19

5.27

7.35

13.81 

1.09 

5.19 

5.99 

13.37

49.49

ra.

Runoff.

7 23

1.45 

2.77 

4.30

5.12

1.77

22.6k 

0.94

0.73 

1.48 

3.15 

1.09 

0.67 

0.83 

3.58

28.37

35.

Runoff.

3.78 

4.13 

3.44 

3.05

2.62

1.58

16.59 

0 59

0.53

0.58

1.69 

0.4S 

0.55 

2.19 

3. 16

21.44

181

Rainfall.

4 36

4.00 

2.92

4.51

3.99

1.17

SO. 85 

1.38

5.65 

3.60 

10. 5J 

3.69 

3.35 

2.97 

8.91

40.29

18

Rainfall.

3.84 

5.34 

5.20 

3.86

3.61

4.54

26.29 

3k 09

4.40

3.21

10.71 

3.30

Iss

5.57 

10.15

47.15

30.

Runoff.

2.03

2.75 

3.99 

3.01

2.09

0.98

13.85 

0.53

0.54

0.53 

1.58 

0.50 

0.51 

0.57 

1.58

17.01

86

Runoff.

2.09 

3.43 

4.89 

3.50

4.51

2.15

19.56 

0.78

0.61

0.58

1.97 

0.51 

0.53 

0.88 

1.91

23.44

18!

Rainfall.

2.49

4.19 

5.38 

6.14

1.67

3.74

23.^51 

5.' 72

2.45 

1.71

9.88 

0.75 

3.65 

4.50 

8.90

43.39

18

Rainfall.

4.39 

5.68 

6.01 

3.60

3.47

0.33

2$. 37 

7.70

13.32

7.06

28.08 

2.00 

3.13 

3.69

7.81

59.36

a.

Runoff.

0.54

0.76 

4.33 

6.09

1.88

1.39

Ik. 98 

1.67

0.58 

0.53 

$.77 

0.51 

0.52 

0.48 

1.51

19.26

S7.

Runoff.

1.19

2.74 

4.98 

3.69

3.26

1.30

17.16 

1. L6

3.63

3.56

7.35 

0.90 

1.03 

0.95 

3.88

27.39
BAFTER.] DISCHARGE OF CROTON RIVER. 85 

Rainfall antPrun-offof Croton River drainage area from 1S70 to 1896, etc. Cout'd.

Month_

December . 

January.. .... 

February .... 

March.... .

July ..........

September . _ . 

October ......

November ...

Total...

1888.

Rainfall.

6.71 

5.56

5.07 

6.44

2.68 

6.37 

SS. 13 

2.00 

2.43 

6.87 

11.30 

10.77 

4.80 

4.49 

20. 06

64.09

Month.

July ................

Total. ........

Runoff.

3.48 

4.01 

4.95 

4.69 

4.85 

2.67 

23. 65 

1.39 

0.67 

1.11 

3.17 

3.11

3.04 

S.73

35.55

1889.

Rainfall.

6.13 

5.14 

3.33

1.86 

4.43 

3.32

S3. 10 

4.51 

7.74 

3.90 

15.15 

6.13 

4.85 

8.45 

19.1,3

57.68

Runoff.

5.36 

4.41 

2.36 

3.10 

3.58 

1.76 

IS. 47 

1.43 

1.63 

4.03 

7.09

1.93

5.39 

9.49

35.05

1894.

Rainfall.

5.34 

3.40 

5.01 

1.63

3.07 

6.67 

$$.11 

1.69 

1.75 

1.45 

lt.89 

7.49 

5.94 

4.44 

17.87

47.87

Run-off.

4.13 

1.77 

3.15 

5.31 

2.44 

1.88 

1". 57 

1.48 

0.45 

0.71 

S.fitt 

0.57 

0.75 

3.37 

It. 69

34.90

1890.

Rainfall.

2.94 

2.03 

4.94 

5.66 

3.03 

5.74 

54. -?4 

3.56 

5.46 

4.70 

13.73 

6.86 

7.63 

1.13 

15. 61

53.67

Runoff.

4.55 

2.34 

3.19 

4.72 

3.29 

2.73 

SO. S3 

1.53 

0.71 

0.59 

2.83 

2.04 

3.36 

2.09 

7. ltd

31.14

1891.

Rainfall.

3.71

9.76 

6.03 

3.36 

3.77 

1.36 

27.98 

1.81 

2.97 

5.61 

10.39 

1.87 

2.15 

3.86 

7.88

46.35

1895.

Rainfall.

4.43 

3.63 

3.34

1.88 

5.63 

3.41 

21.32 

1.89 

3.95 

3.10 

8.94 

1.16 

3.55 

3.91 

1.62

37.88

Run-off.

3.57 

3.42 

1.04 

3.87 

4 33 

1.33 

16. h5 

0.49 

0.44 

0.63 

1. 55 

0.09 

0.40 

0.83 

1.31

19.31

Runoff.

1.85 

6.84 

5.73 

4.37 

3.90 

0.89 

S3.3H 

0.63 

0.40 

0.31 

1.3k 

0.38 

0.41 

0.64, 

1.43

35.15

' 1893.

Rainfall.

5.65 

5.95 

1.33

3.90 

1.08 

5.74 

SB. Sit 

3.84 

5.05 

6.13 

15.01 

3.65 

0.92 

7.85 

11.13

48.97

1896.

Rainfall.

4.88 

1.53 

6.65 

8.20 

0.96 

3.09 

25. SO 

3.79 

. 3.98 

4.56 

13. S3 

6.50 

3.17 

3.96 

13.63

50.26

Run-off.

1.30 

2.06 

4.33

7.90 

3.05 

0.87 

19. 61 

0.97 

0.86 

0.76 

2 59 

0.65 

0.88 

1.73 

3.36

35.36

Runoff.

1.64 

5.07 

1.54 

3.10 

1.43 

1.63 

1S.S9 

1.15 

0.70 

0.90 

2.75 

0.51 

0.17 

1.58

18.40

1893.

Rainfall.

1.11

3.39 

4.60 

4.53 

3.55 

8.18 

S5.®5 

2.43 

3.38 

7.06 

11.87 

3.65 

6.43 

3.32 

13.39

49.51

Runoff.

1.48 

1.70 

3.27 

7.31 

3.57 

6.06 

*j3*i29 

0.96 

0.40 

0.73 

3. OS 

0.53 

1.17 

3.08 

3.78

39.15

Mean.

Rainfall.

23.44

13.54

12.12

48.10

Run-off.

18. 00

3.90

3. lit

34.65

The run-off as given is stated by A. Pteley, chief engineer of new Croton aqueduct, to have 

been corrected as far as necessary for the storage, and accordingly represents approximately 

the natural run-off of the stream.
86 WATER EESOURCES OF STATE OP NEW YOKE, PART I. [NO. 24.

Evaporation from the Croton River ivatershed as given by differences between rainfall and run-off in preceding table.

[Inches on watershed.]

Year.

1870........

1871-.......

1872........

1873........

1874........

1875........

1876........

1877........

1878........

1879........

1880........

1S81-.......

1882

1883........

1884........

December to 

May.

7.55

8.79

2.98

1.39

aO.50

0.70

aO.03

2 33

4.69

3.98

7.00

8.53

12.41

5.86

9.29

June to 

August.

8.74

13.03

10.86

6.91

9.06

9.48

5.38

10.53

8.65

13.93

8.95

7.11

7.68

10.33

10.39

September to November.

8.70

6.01

5.70

8.80

6.55

6.53

8.65

12.37

9.60

4.39

7.33

7.39

12.84

9.37

7.51

Total.

24.99

27.83

19.54

17.10

15.11

16.71

14.01

35 13

22.94

23.19

23 28

23.03

32.93

35.55

27.19

Year.

1885.......

1886.......

1887.......

1888.......

1889. ......

1890.......

1891. ......

1893.......

1893. ......

1894.......

1895.......

1896.......

Mean . .

December to 

May.

6.82

6.73

6.21

9.08

4.63

3.53

5.60

9.15

1.90

7.54

4.87

5.79

5.44

June to 

August.

8.74

20.73

8.13

8.06

10.89

9.05

13.36

9.79

2.25

r-.39

9.74

9.64

September to November.

9.11

8.24

4.93

11.33

9.94

8.13

6.45

9.16

8.61

13.18

6.31

9.37

o. oO

Total.

38.05

33 71

31.87

38.54,

32.63

33.53

21.10

30.57

20.36

23.97

18.57

34.90

23.46

. a During this period the run-off exceeded rainfall.

This stream is an exceedingly good water yielder. The minimum 

yield for a complete water year for the whole period from 1870 to 1896 

was in 1883, in which water year, from December to November, inclusive, the total run-off was 16.83 inches.

The Croton watershed contains 31 lakes and ponds, many of which 

have been utilized as natural storage basins by constructing dams at 

their outlets. The following tabulation gives the entire natural and 

artificial storage, either actually carried out or now under construction, 

in the Croton watershed:

Storage capacity in tJie Croton. tvatershed,

U.S. 

Boyds Corners reservoir....--. ................................... 2,727,

Middle Branch reservoir....... ..............-....---.--..-.-.--. 4,004,

Lake Mahopac a.. 

Lake Kirk a......

Lake Glenida a... 

Lake Gilead a....

Lake Waccabuc a 

Lake Tonnetta a.. 

Barretts Pond a .. 

China Ponda..-.. 

White Pond a... _ 

Pine Pond a..... .

Long Pond a .....

575,

565,

165,

380,

200,

50,

170,

105,

100,

75,

60,

gallons. 

000,000 

000,000 

000,000 

000,000 

000,000 

000,000 

000,000 

000,000 

000,000 

000,000 

000,000 

000,000 

000,000

a The lakes and ponds marked thus are owned by the city. 

reservoirs. Those not marked are city
BAFTBR.I FLOODS IN CHEMUNG BIVEE. 87

Storage capacity in the Croton watershed Continued.

U. S. gallons. 

Peach Pond a.................................................... 230,000,000

CrossPonda .................................................... 110,000,000

HainesPonda................ .................................. 25,000,000

East Branch reservoir ........................ .................. 9,028,000,000

Tittkmsreservoir.................... .............. ........... 7,000,000,000

Caramel reservoir............................................... 9,000,000,000

New Croton reservoir -..............._......................... 32,000,000,000

Amawalk reservoir..... ........................................ 7,000,000,000

Total storage.............................................. 73,569,000,000

a The lakes and ponds marked thus are owned by the city. Those not marked are city 

reservoirs.

The drainage area above the new Croton dam now constructing is 

360 square miles. It is considered by the Croton aqueduct officials 

that the storage afforded by this reservoir system will furnish a daily 

supply of at least 280,000,000 gallons. At this rate the utilization from 

this drainage area of 360 square miles will become 778,000 gallons per 

square mile per day, or 1.20 cubic feet per square mile per second.

MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM FLOW OF STREAMS IN NEW YORK.

The data relating to floods in Genesee River, given on pages 72 to 

74, as well as the following facts, may be taken as indicating some of 

the maximum flows of streams in New York.

FLOODS IN CHEMUNG RIVER.

Severe floods have occurred in this stream several times during the 

historical period, the most severe being the great flood of June, 1889, 

which caused serious damage to property at Elmira and Corning. 

Chemung River is formed by the junction of Tioga and Cohocton 

rivers at Painted Post, a few miles above Corning, the principal tributary of the Tioga in this State being the Canisteo. Tioga River rises 

near Blossburg, in Tioga County, Pennsylvania, in an elevated region 

from 1,500 to 2,500 feet above tide. The descent from the extreme 

head waters near the Fall Brook Coal Company's mines to Blossburg 

is at the rate of about 22 feet per mile, after which it descends at the 

rate of about 11 feet to the mile. The streams tributary to the Tioga 

are also very rapid; they flow mainly through deep, narrow rock valleys, with their heads generally at an elevation of nearly 2,000 feet 

above tide. Recently the hill slopes have been largely denuded of 

timber, thus permitting a rapid descent of the rainfall or melted snow. 

Hence it results that Tioga River not only naturally rises quickly, 

but its freshet flows have very high velocities. Canisteo River, joining the Tioga from the west, has an average slope of about 5.5 feet 

per mile. The slope of the Chemung from Painted Post to Elmira is
88 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [NO.24

at the rate of 5.9 feet per mile; thence through the city of Elmira for 

3 miles at the rate of 3.5 feet per mile; from Elmira to Chemung, 5.5 

feet per mile, and thence to Athens, where it joins the main East 

Branch of the Susquehanna, 3.4 feet per mile. Cohocton River is also 

a stream of comparatively low slope.

The foregoing facts indicate that the floods will be slower in rising 

on Canisteo and Cohocton rivers than on the Tioga. In a general 

storm, where other conditions are equal, the first flood water to reach 

Corning and Elmira will come from the Tioga, to be followed later by 

large flows from the Canisteo and the Cohocton.. The areas drained 

by these streams are approximately as follows:

Areas drained by tributaries of Chemung River,

Square miles. 

Tioga, aside from the Canisteo.-__._--.__-.._._-.-_. ..-...__.._.......... 750

Canisteo .................................................................... 780

Cohocton. ...................................................... ......... 425

Chemung above Ehnira.......................... ........................ 100

TotaL..... .................................... ............ ...... 2,055

On May 31, 1889, the region tributary to Chemung River above 

Elmira was visited by a phenomenally heavy rainfall, amounting in 

many places to nearly 10 inches. The center of this downpour was 

located about 10 miles south and 15 miles west of Elmira. At Elmira 

the rainfall was not unusual, 1.5 inches being recorded from 8 p. m. 

of May 31 to 7 a. m. of June 1; but at Wellsboro, 36 miles southwesterly from Elmira, the total precipitation was 9.8 inches, of which 

7.45 inches occurred after 9 p. m. of May 31 and before 7 a. m.-of 

June 1. At South Canisteo, 45 miles westerly from Elmira, a total 

fall of 6.25 inches was recorded, of which 4.5 inches fell between midnight and 3 a. m. of June 1. Farther up the valley 6 inches were 

measured between the same hours. At Painted Post a total fall of 

about 8 inches was reported. At Savonia, on the Cohocton, 5 inches 

fell, but the fall grew gradually less to the north. At a number of 

points to the south and southwest rainfalls of from 6 to 8 inches were 

recorded for May 31, heavy rains occurring as far south as Virginia.

It will be noticed from the preceding statement of the rainfall of 

May 31 and June 1, 1889, that-the heaviest precipitation was practically at the same time over the entire watershed. The following 

indicates the heights of the flood wave at several points: At Tioga 

the river was highest about 6.30 a. in. on June 1; Canisteo River was 

at its highest a little before noon of June 1; at Painted Post the local 

creeks reached their highest points at 5 a. m., and the Tioga began to 

rise rapidly about the same time; the Chemung reached a height at 

this place of 18 feet above low water; at Elmira the river began to rise 

rapjdly about 9 a. m. of June 1 and was at its highest at about 7 p. m.
RAFTER.] FLOODS IN CHEMUNG EIVEE. 89

According to Francis Collingwood, 1 who investigated the Cheinung 

River flood of 1889, for the city of Elmira, the foregoing data indicate 

that in a flood coming more from the south than from the west the 

highest water in Chemung River may be looked for about twelve 

hours after the highest water has passed the Tioga, and at a somewhat later period when the water comes more from the Canisteo and 

Cohocton rivers. Mr. Collingwood concludes that the flood flow at 

Elmira will usually be not less than fourteen hours after a heavy rain 

On the head waters of these streams.

The surveys made by Mr. Collingwood, in which a considerable 

number of flood elevations were fixed and plotted, show that the discharge of Chemung River at its maximum was about 138,000 cubic 

feet per second, and the mean velocity 12.72 feet per second. A 

maximum of 138,000 cubic feet per second, gives 67.1 cubic feet per 

second per square mile. By the way of comparison, it may be noted 

that a maximum, has been recorded on the Croton watershed of 74.87 

cubic feet per second per square mile; also that Genesee River at 

Mount Morris gave in the flood of 1894 the maximum discharge of 

42,000 cubic feet per second, or 48.6 cubic feet per second per square 

mile.

The Chemung flood of 1889 did considerable damage both at Corning and at Elmira, and the investigations of Mr. Collingwood were 

with reference to plans for protecting the latter city from devastation 

by future floods. Several plans were proposed, all including the rectification, clearing, and lowering of the river through the city with 

such dikes at the side as might be necessary for special protection at 

exposed points. The estimated cost of these various projects varied 

from $336,000 to $700,000. So far as known, nothing in the way of 

constructing the work at Elmira has yet been done.

The city of Corning, which is situated on the banks of Chemung 

River a few miles above Elmira, was also greatly damaged by the flood 

of June, 1889. In consequence, it was determined to construct protective works, and an act of the legislature was accordingly passed in 

1892, creating a board of river commissioners, with authority to issue 

bonds for this purpose, under which enactment and amendments 

thereto bonds to the amount of 1150,000 have been issued. The work 

began in June, 1896, and is now about completed. The plan adopted 

is to construct earthen dikes to confine the river at all points where 

it is subject to overflow. The total length of the dikes is about 25,800 

feet, or 4.9 miles, and they vary in height from 4 to 19 feet. The river 

dikes were generally 8 feet wide on top, with a slope of from 3 to 1 (3 

horizontal to 1 vertical) on'the river side, and a slope of 2 to 1 on the 

land side.

Whatever the purpose for which an inland stream is to be utilized,

1 Report on the Prevention of Floods at Elmira.
90 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [NO. 24.

the first question asked by an experienced engineer is with regard to 

the minimum, flow. If for power development, the minimum flow 

will determine the amount of power which can be insured on a given 

head; if for the water supply of a town, the minimum flow will indicate at once the number of people which may be supplied without 

storage. From every point of view, therefore, a knowledge of the 

minimum flow is a matter of the first importance. Below are given 

the minimum flows of the inland streams of the State of New York so 

far as information is at hand.

LOW-WATER FLOW OF OATKA CREEK.

The drainage area of this stream above the point of measurement 

is 27.5 square miles. The mean flow for the month of Augupt, 1891, 

was 6 cubic feet per second; for September, 5.83 cubic feet per second; 

for October, 5.8 cubic feet per second. Expressed in cubic feet per 

second per square mile, the foregoing results are 0.218 cubic foot 

for August, 0.212 cubic foot for September, and 0.211 cubic foot for 

October. Expressed in inches on the watershed, the run-off of this 

stream for August to October, 1891, was from 0.24 to 0.25 inch per 

month. For several days during the months of August to October, 

1891, the flow of Oatka Creek was down to about 4.2 cubic feet per 

second, or to about 0.151 cubic foot per square mile per second. On 

September 26, 1891, the recorded mean flow for the the day was 3.77 

cubic feet per second, or 0.137 cubic foot per square mile per second.

As a general proposition, statements of minimum flows of streams 

ought not to be based on the record of single days, especially on streams 

where there are mill ponds above the point of measurement, because 

such accidental circumstances as the holding back of the water may 

vitiate the result; from this poiuL of view an average extending over 

as long a period as possible should be taken.

The measurements of Oatka Creek from August to October, 1891, 

illustrate well the nearly universal tendency of streams to run either 

at approximately a fixed rate or to decrease only very slowly after 

the tributary ground water has become well drawn down. For several days at a time the records show only slight variations.

LOW-WATER PLOW OF GENESEE RIVER.

The drainage area above Mount Morris, the first point of measurement, is 1,070 square miles; above Rochester, the second point, 2,365
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY :R NO. 24 PL. XI

A. ERIE CAIMAL AQUEDUCT AMD SOUTH SIDE OF MAIN STREET BRIDGE, ROCHESTER

B. GREAT FLOOD OF 1865 AT ROCHESTER, SHOWING LUMBER LODGED AGAINST 

AQUEDUCT BRIDGE.
RAFTER.] LOW-WATER FLOW OF GENESEE RIVER. 91

square miles. The following table gives the mean monthly flows at 

Mount Morris and Rochester for several low months of the year 1895:

Mean monthly flow of Genesee River at Mount Morris and Rochester.

Month.

May ...............

June.. ......... ....

July ...............

August .-.... .._.

September .........

Mount Morris.

Mean flow 

(cubic feel 

per second).

174 

128 

105 

115 

100 

104

Cubic feet 

per second 

per square 

mile.

0.163 

0.119 

0.099 

0.108 

0.093 

0.097

Inches on 

the water 

shed.

0.19 

0.13 

0.11 

0.12 

0.10 

0.11

Rochester.

Mean flow 

(cubic feet 

per second.)

385 

283 

232 

254 

221 

230

Cubic feet 

per second 

per square 

mile.

0.380 

0.226 

0.165 

0.169 

0. 106 

0.093

Comparing the foregoing figures for Mount Morris with those for 

Rochester for the month of October, 1895, it is seen that the proportion of run-off at Rochester was somewhat less for that month than 

at Mount Morris, although for the previous months it appears to have 

been larger. The explanation of this is that there are between 

Rochester, Mount Morris, and Dansville extensive flats aggregating 

from 60 to 80 square miles. The temporary ground-water storage of 

these flats acts to sustain a, somewhat more equable flow at Rochester 

than at Mount Morris, above which point there are proportionately 

much smaller areas of flats.

The foregoing minimum flows of Genesee River show conclusively 

that in its present condition it is not a good mill stream. The great 

variations in run-off are conclusive on this point. The figures show 

that the run-off of the stream may be exceedingly slack during the 

summer and fall months.

In the summer of 1846 Daniel Marsh made a series of measurements in order to determine the low-water flow of that year. As the 

result of 9 measurements made at various times in July and August 

he placed the minimum flow at Rochester in 1846 at 412 cubic feet 

per second.

If we examine the meteorological records of western New York for 

the years 1844 to 1846,, we find that the period covered was one of low 

rainfall. For instance, at Rochester the rainfall for the storage period 

of the year 1846 (from December, 1845, to May, 1846, inclusive) was 

only 11.57 inches; the rainfall of the growing period, 11.30 inches; 

for the replenishing period, 13.16 inches; the total for the water year 

1846 being 36.03 inches. For 1845 the total was 34.66 inches. For 1844 

the storage period rainfall was 10.52 inches; growing period, 8.23 

inches; replenishing period, 7.68 inches; total for the year, 26.43 inches.
92 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [NO. 24.

At Middlebury Academy, Wyoming County, in the drainage area 

of Oatka Creek, the rainfall for the water year 1845 was, for the storage period, 12.59 inches; growing period, 4.82 inches; replenishing 

period, 8.60 inches; total for the year, 26.01 inches. The record for 

the year 1846 at Middlebury is not given. It is clear, therefore, so 

far as we have any definite meteorological record, that the measurements made by Mr. Marsh in 1846 were at a time of very low water.

The foregoing statements indicate that apparently the minimum 

summer flow of Genesee River has decreased from 462 cubic feet per 

second in 1846 to about 220 cubic feet per second in 1895. As to the 

reason for this decrease it is believed that the extensive deforestation 

of the drainage area which has taken place since 1846 offers full 

explanation. In 1846 the upper Genesee drainage area was still very 

largely in forest. Probably of the entire area above Rochester the 

virgin forest was from 65 to 70 per cent of the whole. We have, 

therefore, apparently a marked case where the deforestation of a 

large area has materially reduced the minimum run-off.

LOW-WATER FLOW OF HEMLOCK LAKE.

According to a report made by Henry Tracy, the minimum flow of 

Hemlock Lake (drainage area 43 square miles) is 5 cubic feet per 

second, or 0.116 cubic foot per square mile per second. 1

The table on pages 76 and 77 gives, as previously stated, the quantity of water passing out of Hemlock Lake for the period covered and 

without reference to the natural flow. In order to obtain the approximate natural flow for the year we must take into account the mean 

elevations of lake surface. Thus, for the water year 1880 the mean 

elevation of the first month, December, was 1.67, while for the last 

month, November, it was 1.24. The difference (0.43 foot) represents the gain in depth of storage for the year. Computing for the 

value of this storage in inches on the drainage basin, we have 0.28 

inch, which, added to the quantity of water passing out of the lake 

(3.07 inches), gives as the approximate total run-off for the year 3.35 

inches. Since 1880 was a very dry year, we may compute the flow for 

the entire water year to be 10.3 cubic feet per second, which again 

amounts to 0.24 cubic foot per square mile per second. So far as 

known this is the lowest annual run-off thus far measured in the 

State of New York.

For the flve-year period included in this table, the total rainfall 

and run-off are as follows:

1 Report on the cost and policy of constructing reservoirs of Conesus, Hemlock, Honeoye, and 

Canadice lakes. Senate Document No. 40,1850.
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 24 PL. XII

UPPER FALLS OF GENESEE RIVER AT PORTAGE.
BAFTEB.] LOW-WATER FLOW OF MORRIS RUN. 

Rainfall and run-off of Hemlock Lake.

93

Water year.

1880.-- ------..---\ .........

1881.-..-.--.....-...--. ...--.......-

1883.. - . . - _..., .. ..-

1883.. .... ..... --_-__-..._....._.

1884. _ __. ..- ...

Add for rise in level ........ . . .....

Total ......... .__. . ..__.._..

Rainfall.

Inches. 

21.99

24 27

25.46

33.24

26.74

131.70

Run-off.

Inches. 

3.07

8.3S

14.51

9.29

12.57

0.40

48 22

For the five-year period the total run-off was therefore only 36.6 

per cent of the rainfall. In 1880 the run-off was only 15.2 per cent of 

the rainfall.

LOW-WATER FLOW OF MORRIS RUN. ,

The result of a measurement of Morris Run, a tributary of Oatka 

Creek, the source of a part of the water supply of the village of 

Warsaw, Wyoming County, made from July 4 to December 26, 

1894, is shown by the accompanying table. The measured drainage 

area is 156 acres, but it may, by reason of the peculiar topography, be 

somewhat greater than this. The water issues along the thread of 

the short valley in the form of springs. The measurement was made 

by a thin-edged notched weir at a point just below the lowest spring. 

As may be observed, the flow varied greatly at different times, the 

minimum being 77,630 gallons per day or 7.2 cubic feet per minute, in 

October. On July 8 the discharge was 238,580 gallons, or 22.1 cubic 

feet per minute for twenty-four hours. There is a popular impression that springs do not vary their flow at different seasons. The 

measurements of Morris Run are valuable, therefore, as illustrating 

that even a spring-fed stream will gradually decrease during a dry 

season.

Daily mean discharge in cubic feet per minute of Morris Run near Warsaw, Neio

York, in 1894.

Day.

1.. ..........

2.--.-.......

3.............

4.. ......... _

5. ....... ....

6. ........ ...

7. ...........

July.

19.4

17.8

19.5

20.9

August.

16.0

17.3

16.7

18.3

18.2

14.9

September.

10.4

8.3

8.0

f** O

October.

7.8

3.2

6.7

November.

10.9

9.4

..........

December.

10.0
94 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [NO. 24.

Daily mean discharge in cubic feet per minute of Morris Bun near Warsaw, New

York, in 1894 Continued.

Day.

8. ____.__. _

9............

10.... ........

11... ......._.

12...... ......

13............

14.... ........

15.............

16. ..........

17. ...-._.___.

18... ........

19.. .........

20............

31... .........

23............

23... .........

24

25...... .....

26............

27............

28.......... .

29.._. ........

30. .-.._-_.. ..

31.. ..........

July.

22.1

21 2

21.3

20.8

20.6

19.7

20.1

19.7

19.3

18.7

18.3

17.5

17.9

21.2

20.6

20.0

20.4

18.7

17.8

17.3

17.1

17.8

16.3

16.5

August.

11.7

September.

8.8

8.2

19.0

11.1

8.8

8.8

8.8

8.8

October.

9.4

7.8

8.8

7.8

7.8

7 2

7.2

7 2

53.8

8.8

7.8

7.2

7.2

19.0

November.

8.3

8.2

8.2

8.8

8.2

8.2

December.

21.9

16.2

14.9

'

13.4

13.6

13.6

13.6

LOW-WATER FLOW OF WEST BRANCH OF CANADAWAY CREEK.

In the summer of 1883 measurements were made of the West 

Branch of Canadaway Creek in Chautauqua County, from July 18 to 

September 2 of that year. This stream, which is the source of the 

water supply of the village of Fredonia, has a drainage area above 

the point of measurement of 4.3 square miles. The valley is deep cut 

for a distance of 3 miles from the measuring point to its extreme 

headwaters. Small springs issue frequently throughout the valley. 

On July 18, 1883, the stream was flowing at the rate of 541,620 gallons in 24 hours, or 50.2 cubic feet per second, and very gradually 

decreased to 270,000 gallons, or 25 cubic feet per minute, on July 22. 

Rains between July 22 and July 29 brought the stream up to a discharge of 1,319,000 gallons per day, or 122.1 cubic feet per minute, 

on the latter date. The flow then gradually decreased during the 

month of August until, on August 26, it was only 216,000 gallons per
RAFTER.] WEST BRANCH OF CANADAWAY CREEK. 95

day, or 20 cubic feet per minute, which was the lowest point reached 

during the summer of 1883.

This stream can not be considered a good water yielder. A mean 

discharge of 216,000 gallons in twenty-four hours from a drainage 

area of 4.3 square miles represents a yield of 0.334 cubic foot per 

second, or, what is the same thing, 0.078 cubic foot per square mile 

per second. It is apparent, therefore, that even a spring-fed stream 

with a deep valley in Chautauqua County may at times furnish a 

very small outflow, though it should not be overlooked that the flow 

of 0.078 cubic foot per square mile per second was the extreme minimum for one day only. The relations of this extreme minimum 

to the daily flows during the period covered by the measurements 

may be easily gathered from an inspection of the table. The gradual 

falling in water yield from August 1 to 26 is the most interesting fact 

revealed by these measurements.

The following was the rainfall at the point of measurements during 

the month of August, 1883:

Inches. 

Augusts......................................................... .-....--. 0.04

August 18.. _-.-....-.._..._-__.._.._._.___.._.___.._..._..___...-....- .... 0.10

AugustSO ......*.__.__._._......,..............._......................... 0.05

August 33................................................................. 0.05

August28 .,-..------............................-...................-..:.. 1.98

Daily mean discJiarge in cubic feet per minute of West Branch of Canadaway Creek, 

near Fredonia, New York.

[Drainage area, 4.3 square miles.}

Day.

1.. ......

2

3........

4.........

5........

6........

1.. ......

8.. .-__..

9........

10........

11.........

12

13........

14..--....

15. .......

16........

July. August.

56.5

50.3

46.2

45.4

39.8

36.9

36.0

34.1

34.1

33.3

31.7

30.2

30.2

32.4

27.0

27.9

September.

45.0

Day,

17. ....... -

18.. .......

19. .......

20.-..-....

31.........

22-....,...

33_. .......

24

25. ....... .

26.........

27

28

29

30.........

31.. .......

July.

50.2

49.3

45.7

M o

25.0

122.1

62.4

August.

31.7

28.4

29.3

31.7

33.2

22.9

25.6

22 1

20.0

21.3

105.1

321.9

101.7

60.0

September.
96 WATER RESOURCES OP STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [NO.24. 

LOW-WATER FLOW OF SKANEATELES LAKE.

So far as can be learned, no definite statements of the minimum flow 

from this drainage basin, having an area of 73 square miles, have 

ever been made. Before the taking of the waters of this lake for the 

supply of the city of Syracuse the supply was ample for the canal, 

and close estimates were not made. For the run-off of a water year 

we find by the table on page 78 that 1897 was the lowest thus far 

measured, the total of that year being 15.61 inches on the watershed. 

The indications of the table, so far as they go, are that the Skaneateles area is a good water yielder. Nevertheless, it is improbable that 

1897 was a year of minimum flow.

LOW-WATER FLOW OF OSWEGO RIVER.

There are no records of any long-continued measurements of the 

discharge of Oswego River, whose drainage area at the mouth is 5,013 

square miles. The minimum flow of this stream has been the subject 

of judicial inquiry. In August, 1875, in the case of Michael J. Cummings against owners and lessees of the water of the Varick Canal at 

Oswego, it was decreed:

(1) That the average flow of water from the Oswego Rive&into the Varick 

Canal in low water in the summer months is about 45,000 to 50,000 cubic feet per 

minute;' (2) that in extreme low water in the summer, and which usually occurs 

in the month of July or August, it is about 35,000 cubic feet per minute; (3) that 

the average flow of the whole three summer months is about 75,000 cubic feet per 

minute.

Varick Canal is entitled to receive one-half the total flow of the 

river, less the amount of water required for navigation purposes. 

Hence the average summer flow, according to the decree, is from 

.90,000 to 100,000 cubic feet per minute (1.500 to 1,670 cubic feet per 

second). The extreme low-water flow is placed at 70,000 cubic feet 

per mimite for the whole flow of the river, or at 1,170 cubic feet pef 

second, while the average flow of the whole three summer months is 

given at about 150,000 cubic feet per minute, or 2,500 cubic feet per 

second. From the foregoing figures we deduce an extreme minimum 

of perhaps 0.23 of a cubic foot per square mile per second, with an 

average of low water in the summer months of about 0.30 to 0.33 of a 

cubic foot per square mile per second.

LOW-WATER FLOW OF BLACK RIVER.

The drainage area of this stream at Watertown is 1,820 square miles. 

There is very little definite information as to either the maximum or 

the minimum flow. Aside from a few measurements made by engineers 

in the employ of the State at the time of construction of Black River 

Canal and a few made by Frank A. Hines in 1875, there do not appear 

to be any measurements of flow. As stated in the Report on Water 

Power of the United States, Tenth Census, probably the minimum flow
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ER NO. 24 PL. XIII

HIGH FAI_i_S OF MOHAWK RIVER AT TIME OF LOW WATER.
RAFTER.] LOW-WATER FLOW OF HUDSON RIVER. 97

in an ordinarily dry season may be taken at from 1,000 to 1,100 cubic 

feet per second for 24 hours. By reasoning from the data of Hudson 

River, it may be assumed that in very dry years the minimum flow will 

be less than this. Taking into account the large surface storage on 

the numerous lakes at the head waters, it is doubtful if Black River 

in its natural state will, while present forestry conditions are maintained, ever go below about 0.4 of a cubic foot per square mile per 

second, although it is claimed to have been less than this in 1849. As 

is shown in detail in another place, there are a large number of reservoirs upon the upper waters of this stream, which, if properly operated, 

may be expected to keep the low-water flow at a considerably higher 

figure than 0.4 of a cubic foot per square mile per second, that figure 

relating to the natural flow of the stream only.

LOW-WATER FLOW OF MOHAWK RIVER.

The drainage area of this stream is 3,400 square miles. According 

to David H. Van Auken, the engineer of The Gohoes Company, at 

Cohoes, the minimum flow of Mohawk River does not exceed 800 cubic 

feet per second, or 0.235 cubic foot per square mile per second. Since 

considerable water is taken from Mohawk River for the supply of 

Erie Canal, probably Mr. Van Auken's statement relates to the amount 

realized for water power at Cohoes, and, in the absence of definite 

figures as to the amount abstracted for the canal, must be taken as 

somewhat general. There is, however, a well-defined feeling that the 

minimum flow of the Mohawk has been gradually decreasing during 

the last twenty or twenty-five years, due probably bo decreasing 

deforestation of the drainage area.

LOW-WATER FLOW OF HUDSON RIVER.

The drainage area above Mechanicville is 4,500 square miles. 

Measurements have been made at Mechanicville since October, 1887, 

the record of which to November, 1896, is presented in the tables 

on page 82. The natural flow of this stream is somewhat obscured 

by the presence of a considerable number of lumbermen's reservoirs 

on its head waters, the total storage of which aggregates about 

4,000,000,000 cubic feet. The month of minimum run-off for the 

whole period covered by the measurements was July, 1888, the mean 

for the month being 1,537 cubic feet per second, or 0.39 inch on the 

watershed. For short periods the mean flow has been less than this. 

Thus, from August 14 to 19, 1890, the mean, flow was 1,080 cubic feet 

per second; also, from October 2 to 6, 1891, inclusive, the mean flow 

is given at 1,080 cubic feet per second. For 4,500 square miles 

drainage area this gives 0.24 cubic foot per second. Taking the 

diversion for the supply of Champlain Canal into account, we have 

about 0.29 cubic foot per square mile per second as the actually 

observed minimum flow. 

IRR 24 7
98 WATER RESOURCES OF STATE OF NEW YORK, PART I. [NO.24.

The figures show, moreover, that the minimum of 0.29 of a cubic 

foot per second has occurred for only two periods, one of six days and 

the other of five days, a total of eleven days for the whole period covered by the measurements. For July, 1888, the mean flow, including 

the diversion which was then occurring for the supply of Champlain 

Canal, may be taken at 0.37 of a cubic foot per square mile per second. 

For October, 1891, the mean flow for the whole month was 1,472 cubic 

feet per second, or, including the diversion to the Champlain Canal, 

0.36 of a cubic foot per square mile per second. In July, 1890, the 

mean flow for the month was 1,950 cubic feet per second, and in several other months, as July, 1893, July, 1895, and September and October, 1895, the mean monthly flow varied from about 2,600 to 2,700 

cubic feet per second. Hence we may say that for any business where 

it is not absolutely indispensable to have permanent power, water 

power on Hudson River may be developed up to the limit of about 0.4 

of a cubic foot per square mile per second, with a prospect of not being 

interrupted on account of low water more than a few days in each 

year. For electric power, however, or any application of water power 

requiring a permanent power every day in the year, the development 

ought not to be based, under present conditions, on more than about 

0.24 to 0.25 of a cubic foot per square mile per second, these latter 

figures relating especially to that portion of the river from which 

water is diverted for the supply of Champlain Canal. At points above 

the Glens Falls feeder the indications of the available data are that 

permanent power developments may be made up to 0.3 of a cubic 

foot per square mile per second. As is shown in the section on the 

water power of Hudson River, nearly all of the plants on that stream 

are developed.far beyond these figures.

LOW-WATER FLOW OF CROTON RIVER.

The drainage area above the point of measurement is 338 square 

miles. The minimum flow of the main Croton River above the point 

of measurement, as given by J. J. R. Croes, is 0.178 of a cubic foot 

per square mile per second. The minimum flow of West Branch of 

Croton River, with a drainage area of 20.4 square miles, is given at 

0.02 cubic foot per square mile per second. The lowest mean monthly 

flow in the period from 1870 to 1896, covered by the table on pages 83 

to 85, is for the month of September, 1870, in which month the average daily run-off was 69,401,200 gallons or 9,265,800 cubic feet in 24 

hours. These figures give 7.5 cubic feet per second and 0.318 of a 

cubic foot per square mile per second.

SUMMARY OF KNOWLEDGE OF LOW-WATER FLOW.

Summarizing the present knowledge of the minimum flow of streams 

in New York, we may say that in western New York for streams like 

Genesee River, issuing from regions of heavy, compact soil, mostly
SUMMARY OP KNOWLEDGE OF LOW-WATER FLOW. 99

deforested, the minimum flows are likely to run as low as 0.1 of a 

cubic foot per square mile per second, and even less. Spring-fed 

streams in that region, and those with considerable lake-surface pondage, may be expected to be somewhat greater than this. For the 

central part of the State the information is too limited to permit of 

making other than general statements. It is probable, however, that 

Oswego River, the main stream of the central region, has by reason 

of its lake pondage and swamp area a minimum flow not much less 

than 0.3 of a cubic foot per square mile per second. The Mohawk 

and the upper Hudson may also be placed, while their present condition of f orestation is maintained, at a minimum of about 0.3 of a cubic 

foot per square mile per second. This figure also appears to apply to 

the Croton drainage area, where there are considerable sand areas, 

which compensate for the limited forestation. The streams of Long 

Island issuing from sand plains will give larger yields, the measurements showing a run-off of 0.58 cubic foot per second per square mile 

drained. The streams of the northern part of the State, which issue 

from denser forests than the others, may be expected to give minimum, 

yields somewhat in excess of 0.3 of a cubic foot per square mile per 

second. Little is known as to the yield of streams tributary to the 

Allegheny, Susquehanna, and Delaware rivers aside from the measurements of Eaton and Madison brooks by Mr. Jervis, in 1835. Apparently jio measurements of any other of these streams have been made. 

It is probable, however, that many of them are not specially different in water-yielding capacity from the Neshaminy, Tohickon, and 

Perkiomen creeks in Pennsylvania. 1

In view of the vast importance of a detailed knowledge of stream 

flow in the State of New York, on account not only of the canal interests of the last seventy-five years, but also on account of the great 

possibilities of water-power developments, it is a matter of surprise 

that more extended measurements of the inland streams have not 

been made.

1 For details of the measurements of the Neshaminy, Tohickon, and Perkiomen creeks, see a 

paper, Observations on rainfall and stream flow in eastern Pennsylvania, by John E. Oodman. 

Proc. Eng. Club of Philadelphia, Vol. XIV (July to September, 1897).

[For index, see Part II of this report Water-Supply Paper No. 25.]

O
1895.

Sixteenth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1894-95, Part II, 

Papers of an economic character, 1895; octavo, 598 pp.

Contains a paper on the public lauds and their water supply, by F. H. Newell, illustrated 

by a large map showing the relative extent and location of the vacant public lands; also a 

report on the water resources of a portion of the Great Plains, by Robert Hay.

A geological reconnoissance of northwestern Wyoming, by George H. Eldridge. 

1894; octavo, 72 pp. Bulletin No. 119 of the United States Geological Survey; 

price, 10 cents.

Contains a description of the geologic structure of portions of the Bighorn Range and 

Bighorn Basin, especially with reference to the coal fields, and remarks upon the water 

supply and agricultural possibilities.

Report of progress of the division of hydrography for the calendar years 1893 and 

1894, by F. H. Newell, 1895; octavo, 176 pp. Bulletin No. 131 of the United 

States Geological Survey: price, 15 cents.

Contains results of stream measurements at various points, mainly within the arid region, 

and records of wells in a number of counties in western Nebraska, western Kansas, and 

eastern Colorado.

1896.

Seventeenth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1895-96, Part 

II, Economic geology and hydrography, 1896; octavo, 864 pp.

Contains papers on "The underground water of the Arkansas Valley in eastern Colorado," by G. K. Gilbert; " The water resources of Illinois," by Frank Leverett; and "Preliminary report on the artesian areas of a portion of the Dakotas," by N. H. Darton.

Artesian-well prospects in the Atlantic Coastal Plain region, by N. H. Darton, 

1896; octavo, 230 pp., 19 plates. Bulletin No. 138 of the United States Geological Survey; price, 20 cents.

Gives a description of the geologic conditions of the coastal region from Long Island, 

N. Y., to Georgia, and contains data relating to many of the deep wells.

Report of progress of the division of hydrography for the calendar year 1895, by 

F. H. Newell, hydrographer in charge, 1896; octavo, 356 pp. Bulletin No. 140 

of the United States Geological Survey; price, 25 cents.

Contains a description of the instruments and methods employed in measuring streams 

and the results of hydrographic investigations in various parts of the United States.

1897.

Eighteenth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1896-97, Part 

IV, Hydrography, 1897; octavo, 756 pp.

Contains a "Report of progress of stream measurements for the year 1896," by Arthur 

P. Davis; "The water resources of Indiana and Ohio," by Frank Leverett; "New developments in well boring and irrigation in South Dakota," by N. H. Darton; and "Reservoirs for irrigation," by J. D. Schuyler.

1898.

Nineteenth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1897-98, Part 

IV, Hydrography, 1899; octavo, 814 pp.

Contains a "Report of progress of stream measurements for the calendar year 1897," 

by F. H. Newell and others; "The rock waters of Ohio," by Edward Orton; and "Preliminary report on the geology and water resources of Nebraska west of the one hundred 

and third meridian," by N. H. Darton.

WATER-SUPPLY AND IRRIGATION PAPERS, 1896-1899.

This series of papers is designed to present in pamphlet form the results of stream measurements and of special investigations. A list of these, with other information, is given on 

the outside (or fourth) page of this cover.

Survey bulletins can be obtained only by prepayment of cost, as noted above. 

Postage stamps, checks, and drafts can not be accepted. Money should be transmitted by postal money order or express order, made payable to the Director of 

the United States Geological Survey. Correspondence relating to the publications 

of the Survey should be addressed to The Director, United States Geological 

Survey, Washington, D. C. 

IRR 24
WATER-SUPPLY AJSTD IRRIGATION PAPERS.

1. Pumping water for irrigation, by Herbert M. Wilson, 1896.

2. Irrigation near Phoenix, Arizona, by Arthur P. Davis, 1897.

3. Sewage irrigation, by George W. Rafter, 1897.

4. A reconnoissance in southeastern Washington, by Israel C. Russell, 1897.

5. Irrigation practice on the Great Plains, by E. B. Cowgill, 1897.

6. Underground waters of southwestern Kansas, by Erasmus Haworth, 1897.

7. Seepage waters of northern Utah, by Samuel Fortier, 1897.

8. Windmills for irrigation, by E. C. Murphy, 1897.

9. Irrigation near Greeley, Colorado, by David Boyd, 1897.

10. Irrigation in Mesilla Valley, New Mexico, by F. C. Barker, 1898.

11. River heights for 1896, by Arthur P. Davis, 1897.

12. Water resources of southeastern Nebraska, by Nelson Horatio Darton, 1898.

13. Irrigation systems in Texas, by William Ferguson Hutson, 1898.

14. New tests of pumps and water lifts used in irrigation, by O. P. Hood, 1898.

15. Operations at river stations, 1897, Part I, 1898.

16. Operations at river stations, 1897, Part II, 1898.

17. Irrigation near Bakersfield, California, by C. E. Grunsky, 1898.

18. Irrigation near Fresno, California, by C. E. Grunsky, 1898.

19. Irrigation near Merced, California, by C. E. Grunsky, 1899.

20. Experiments with windmills, by Thomas O. Perry, 1899.

21. Wells of northern Indiana, by Frank Leverett, 1899.

22. Sewage irrigation, Part II, by George W. Rafter, 1899.

23. Water-right problems in the Bighorn Mountains, by Elwood Mead, 1899.

24. Water resources of the State of New York, Part I, by George W. Rafter, 1899.

In addition to the above, there are in various stages of preparation other papers 

relating to the measurement of streams, the storage of water, the amount available 

from underground sources, the efficiency of windmills, the cost of pumping, and 

other details relating to the methods of utilizing the water resources of the country. Provision has been made for printing these by the following clause in the 

sundry civil act making appropriations for the year 1896-97:

Provided, That hereafter the reports of the Geological Survey in relation to the 

gauging of streams and to the methods of utilizing the water resources may be 

printed in octavo form, not to exceed 100 pages in length and 5,000 copies in number; 1,000 copies of which shall be for the official use of the Geological Survey, 

1.100 copies shall be delivered to the Senate, and 2,500 copies shall be delivered to 

tl'eHouseof Representatives, for distribution. [Approved June 11,1896; Stat. L., 

vo_. 29, p. 453.J

The maximum number of copies available for the use of the Geological Survey 

ii 1,000. This number falls far short of the demand, so that it is impossible to 

meets all requests. Attempts are made to send these pamphlets to persons who 

i,ave rendered assistance in their preparation through replies to schedules or 

d( nation of data. Requests specifying a certain paper and stating a reason for 

asKing for it are attended to whenever practicable, but it is impossible to comply 

w th general requests, such as to have all of the series sent indiscriminately.

Application for these papers should be made either to members of Congress or to 

THE DIRECTOR,

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY,

Washington, D. C, 

IRR 24