Responsible 

 Fatherhood  Spotlight 

National Responsible Fatherhood Clearinghouse  101 Lake Forest Boulevard, Suite 360  Gaithersburg, MD 208

 Toll-free: 1 (877) 4DAD411  Fax: (301) 948-4325  www.fatherhood.gov 

Fathers and Incarceration Far more men are incarcerated than are women. Since most incarcerated men have families, when a man is incarcerated, repercussions not only for himself, but also for his children and his spouse or partner. However, not all families are affected same way. The implications of incarceration vary by the incarcerated individual’s gender, race/ethnicity, age, and the geoghe lives. Definitions Incarceration is the end result of arrest, trial, conviction, and sentencing. Incarcerated fathers can fall into three categories. 

Imprisoned fathers: Fathers who are in prison are those who were convicted of crimes and are currently serving sentences in either local jails or state or federal prisons. In 1999, approximately 55 percent (593,800) of state and 63 percent (74,100) of federal male prisoners reported having at least one child under the age of 18.i

Fathers on parole: Fathers who are on parole are those who are conditionally released from their prison terms either by a parole board or under a mandatory conditional release. As parolees, they reenter the community but are supervised; and they can be returned to jail or prison if they are found to have violated any rules or committed other offenses or crimes. In 2005, 45 percent (227,600) of parolees successfully completed their terms of supervision, whereas 38 percent (191,800) returned to jail or prison because of parole violations.iiFathers released and reentering the community: Fathers who are released and are reentering the community are those who have served their court-mandated sentences—minus any credits 

they have earned—and are released to thany supervision (i.e., parole). Reentry refoffenders from prison to the general popu

Implications of Incarceration The crime committed and the punishment mereceive more attention than the implications oinvolved, both the victims and the families of individual. Here we focus on the incarcerated families. The implications of incarceration for reaching. Prison sentences affect fathers therelationships with their children and their spouas the community as a whole. Communities incarcerated men are characterized by a predheaded households, along with fewer availabfathers and as spouses.iv However, it is impo

implications of incarceration from the implicateconomic disadvantage, community characteactivity itself. Yet little research has been concomplex interactions. 
National Responsible Fatherhood Clearinghouse  101 Lake Forest Boulevard, Suite 360  Gaithersburg, MD 208

 Toll-free: 1 (877) 4DAD411  Fax: (301) 948-4325  www.fatherhood.gov 

Implications for Fathers • Incarceration can affect a father’s emotional well-being, causing 

feelings of loneliness and isolation. Many incarcerated fathers have high levels of depression and anxiety, as well as low selfesteem. Fathers experience feelings of loss, powerlessness, and sadness. Some fathers feel guilty about the disruption that they have caused in the lives of their family members, blaming themselves for problems that occur in their children’s lives.v

• Incarceration frequently deprives fathers of the opportunity to 

fulfill family roles. Indeed, in some communities with high incarceration rates, women are averse to getting involved with the men in the community. The women see these potential partners as risks in that these men have a higher probability of being incarcerated and they may bring few social or economic benefits to the relationship.vi

• Incarceration can also cause some fathers to lose their parental 

rights. About 44 percent of incarcerated fathers lived with their children before prison; after they are sent to prison, 85 percent of the children will live with their mother and 2 percent will enter the foster care system.vii The fathers of the children who enter the 

foster care system face having their parental rights terminated. According to the 1997 Adoption and Safe Families Act, once a child has been in foster care for 15 of the most recent 22 months, the state is required to file a petition to terminate parental rights.viii Fathers have to find competent legal 

representation and deal with the perception of others that contact 

with the incarcerated parent is not in the best interest of the child.ix

Implications for Children 

• Available evidence suggests that children with an 

incarcerated parent are more likely to exhibit signs of negative development, such as low self-esteem, depression, and inappropriate or disruptive behavior in school or at home.x Having a parent go to prison can be a traumatic 

event that can take energy away from the tasks necessary for proper development.xi

• The immediate effects of parental inc

can include feelings of shame, social support, weakened ties to the parentcomposition, poorer school performadelinquency. Some of the long-term einclude the questioning of parental authe ability to cope with stress, and pabehavior.xii

Implications for Fathers’ Spouses or Partners 

• Most of the male inmates in state an

not married. Incarcerated married mlikely to have their marriages dissolvsentences than those are who have incarcerated.xiii Distance and the she

incarcerated can put strains on marrare an average distance of 100 miles homes, making contact with their fam

Another barrier to contact is that few visits or extended contact with the pr

• Spouses/partners of inmates can ex

personal changes during the incarcenecessity, they often gain greater indto be self-sufficient. These changes expectations of the inmate’s role upo

• During incarceration, husbands gene

financially to the household. Most incfull-time or part-time jobs prior to impincome is often the primary source oThe loss of that income may substanwho already are living in poverty. Spon other sources of income, includinassistance from family and friends, a

Overall Trends in Incarceration The number of children with incarcerated parin the 1990s. In 1991, approximately 936,500 of 18 had a parent in prison; by 1999, that nuestimated 1,498,800, or about 2.1 percent of children under the age 18.xviii (See Table 1.) 

missing from 300,900 households with minor incarceration.xix
National Responsible Fatherhood Clearinghouse  101 Lake Forest Boulevard, Suite 360  Gaithersburg, MD 208

 Toll-free: 1 (877) 4DAD411  Fax: (301) 948-4325  www.fatherhood.gov 

Table 1. Estimated Number of State and Federal Prisoners with Minor Children, by Gender, 19

State Prisoners Federal Prisoners 

State and 

Federal 

Prisoners 

Total Male Female Total Male Female Total 

Number of Parents 

1991 413,100 386,500 26,600 39,400 36,500 2,900 452,500 1999 642,300 593,800 48,500 79,200 74,100 5,100 721,500 

Number of Minor Children 

1991 852,300 794,500 57,800 84,200 78,300 5,900 936,500 1999 1,324,900 1,209,400 115,500 173,500 163,300 10,600 1,498,400 

Source: Adapted from Incarcerated Parents and Their Children. Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report, NCJ 182335.

Differences in Levels of Contact Parent-child contact in the form of phone, mail, or personal visits while in prison is less for incarcerated fathers than it is for incarcerated mothers. (See Table 2.) Approximately 62 percent of incarcerated fathers reported monthly contact and only 40 percent reported weekly contact with their children, whereas 78 percent of incarcerated mothers reported monthly contact and 60 percent reported weekly contact with their children. In contrast, a majority of incarcerated fathers reported that they never have had a personal visit from their children during their time in prison.xx Also, telephone 

calls from inmates can be very expensive, with some phone companies charging fees of between $1.50 and $4 to place a collect call, on top of the per-minute charges for collect calls.xxi Prisoners 

who maintain contact through letters and visits experience reduced recidivism, when compared with prisoners who do not maintain family ties. 

Table 2. Frequency of Telephone, Mail, anwith Children for Parents in State Prisons, 

Percent of State InmaMonthly Contact with T

Type of 1997 Contact Male Any 62.4% Phone 42.0% Mail 49.9% Visits 21.0% 

Source: Adapted from Incarcerated Parents and TheiStatistics Special Report, NCJ 182335. 

Differences in Incarceration by SubgroDifferences by Gender Far more men are incarcerated than are wom

the number of incarcerated adult males incre2005 from 1,057,406 to 1,418,406. The popuwomen also increased between 1995 and 20107,518. However, the total number of incarcmuch less than the total number of incarcerat
Table 3. State and Federal Prison Populations by Gender, 

Selected Years, 1995-2005 

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 Toll-free: 1 (877) 4DAD411  Fax: (301) 948-4325  www.fatherhood.gov 

Number of Inmates in State and 

Federal Prisons 

Year Males Females 

2005 1,418,406 107,518 2004 1,392,278 104,822 1995 1,057,406 68,468 

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics Bulletin, Prisoners in 2005, NCJ 215092 

Differences by Race/Ethnicity Figure 1 and Table 4 show rates of incarcerated persons by race. Black men have higher rates of incarceration than do men in the other racial and ethnic groups. Even though women’s rates of incarceration are significantly lower than those of men, the pattern of these rates shows similar racial and ethnic disparities.Table 4. Number of Inmates in State or Federal Prisons and Local Jails per 100,000 Residents, by Gender and Race/Ethnicity, 2005 

Race/Ethnicity Males FemalesWhite 709 88 Black 4,682 347 Hispanic 1,856 144 Total 1,371 129 

Note: Based on the U.S. resident population for January 1, 2005, by gender, race, and Hispanic origin. Detailed categories exclude persons who reported two or more races. The total includes American Indians, Alaska Natives, Asians, Native Hawaiians, and other Pacific Islanders. Source: Adapted from the Bureau of Justice Statistics Bulletin, Prisoner and Jail Inmates at Midyear 2005, NCJ 213133 

Figure 1. Number of Inmates in State or FLocal Jails per 100,000 Residents, by Race

0

500

100015002000250030003500400045005000

Male Female

Number of Inmates per 100,000 

Residents

Note: Based on the U.S. resident population for January Hispanic origin. Detailed categories exclude persons whThe total includes American Indians, Alaska Natives, Asother Pacific Islanders. Source: Table 4 Differences by Age Table 5 shows that young males between the more likely to be incarcerated than are males 
National Responsible Fatherhood Clearinghouse  101 Lake Forest Boulevard, Suite 360  Gaithersburg, MD 208

 Toll-free: 1 (877) 4DAD411  Fax: (301) 948-4325  www.fatherhood.gov 

Table 5. Number of Inmates in State or Federal Prisons and Local Jails per 100,000 Residents, by Age, 2005 

Number of Inmates per 100,000 Residents 

Age Male Female 18-19 1,739 116 20-24 3,291 277 25-29 3,462 299 30-34 3,122 342 35-39 2,765 364 40-44 2,240 264 45-54 1,214 110 55 or Older 

260 12 

Note: Based on the U.S. resident population for January 1, 2005. 

Source: Adapted from the Bureau of Justice Statistics Bulletin, Prisoner and Jail Inmates at Midyear 2005, NCJ 213133 

Differences by Region As shown in Table 5, the South tends to have the most male prisoners, when compared with other regions. Table 5. Number of Prisoners Under State or Federal Correctional Authorities, by Region and Gender, 2004 and 2005 

Male Prisoners Female Prisoners 

2005 2004 2005 2004 

U.S. Total 1,418,406 1,392,278 107,518 104,822 

Federal 175,196 168,164 12,422 12,164 

State 1,243,210 1,224,114 95,096 92,658 

Northeast 163,708 241,682 9,202 8,910 Midwest 237,851 234,047 16,855 16,545 South 561,096 555,480 45,140 44,789 West 280,555 272,515 23,899 22,414 

Source: Adapted from the Bureau of Justice Statistics Bulletin, Prisoner and Jail Inmates at Midyear 2005, NCJ 213133 

Definition of Measures, and Data SourChristopher J. Mumola provided information oand federal prisoners with minor children in a Incarcerated Parents and Their Children. He numbers using the following Bureau of Justiccollection programs: the 1991 and 1997 Survand Federal Correctional Facilities, and custoNational Prisoners Statistics program. The SuState and Federal Correctional Facilities provrepresentative data on persons held in state aThese data are collected from approximately state prisons and 6,600 inmates in 53 federaInmate populations by gender and region, anrates by race and ethnicity and age, were alsBureau of Justice Statistics and its data colleNational Probation Data Survey and the Natioare conducted annually and report statistics oprobation and parole counts, in addition to the people supervised by probation and parole agPrisoner Statistics program produces annual data on the number of prisoners in state and The Annual Survey of Jails collects estimates inmates in the local jails around the nation anbetween jail populations and capacities.xxiii Th

Inmates includes all local confinement facilitieauthority of 2,853 local jurisdictions. The Cenprivately operated jails, 65 multi-jurisdictional operated jails in Alaska. These do not include facilities.xxiv

Data Limitations Among children with an incarcerated parent, experience separation from their mother than 

Consequently, more research has been condmothers’ incarceration on families and childrecomparable effects of fathers’ incarceration. Aneeded so that a more updated and reliable pfathers can emerge. 
National Responsible Fatherhood Clearinghouse  101 Lake Forest Boulevard, Suite 360  Gaithersburg, MD 208

 Toll-free: 1 (877) 4DAD411  Fax: (301) 948-4325  www.fatherhood.gov 

References: i Mumola, C.J. (2000). Incarcerated parents and their children. Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report, NCJ 182335. ii Bureau of Justice Statistics Probation and Parole Statistics. Retrieved from http://www.ojp.gov/bjs/pandp.htm. iii Bureau of Justice Statistics Reentry Trends in the U.S.: Definitions. Retrieved from http://www.ojp.gov/bjs/reentry/definition.htm. iv Travis, J. (2005). Families and children. Federal Probation, 69(1). v Lanier, C. (2005). Incarcerated fathers: A research agenda. The Family Side of Corrections. 7(2). Retrieved from http://www.csc-scc.gc.ca/text/pblct/foruvi Travis, J. (2005). vii Travis, J. (2005). viii Travis, J., McBride, E.C., & Solomon, A.L. (2003). Families left behind: The hidden costs of incarceration and reentry. Urban Institute, Justice Policy Ceix Lanier, C. (2005). x Travis, J. (2005). xi Travis, J. (2005). xii Travis, J., McBride, E.C., & Solomon, A.L. (2003). xiii Lopoo, L.M., & Western, B. (2003). Absence makes the heart grow fonder or out of sight, out of mind? Incarceration and the stability of marital unions

for Public Policy Analysis and Management (APPAM) Fall Conference, November 6-8, 2003, Washington, DC. xiv Travis, J., McBride, E.C., & Solomon, A.L. (2003). 

xv Travis, J., McBride, E.C., & Solomon, A.L. (2003). xvi Travis, J., McBride, E.C., & Solomon, A.L. (2003). xvii Travis, J., McBride, E.C., & Solomon, A.L. (2003). xviii Mumola, C.J. (2000). xix Mumola, C.J. (2000). xx Travis, J. (2005). xxi Mumola, C.J. (2000). xxii Bureau of Justice Statistics Corrections Statistics. Retrieved from http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/correct.htm#Programs. xxiii Bureau of Justice Statistics Corrections Statistics. Retrieved from http://www.ojp.gov/bjs/correct.htm#Programs. xxiv U.S. Justice Department. (2006). Prison and Jail Inmates at Midyear 2005. Bureau of Justice Statistics Bulletin, NCJ 213133.xxv Parke, R., & Clarke-Stewart, K.A. (2002). Effects of parental incarceration on young children. Prepared for “From Prison to Home” conference funded b

and Human Services. Retrieved from http://aspe.hhs.gov/HSP/prison2home02/parke&stewart.pdf