DEPABTMENT OF THE INTEBIOB

WATER-SUPPLY

IRRIGATION PAPERS

OF THK

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

No. 43

CONVEYANCE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION CANALS, FLUMES, 

AND PIPES. FOETIER

WASHINGTON

GOVERNMENT FEINTING OFFICE 

1901
IRRIGATION REPORTS.

The following list contains titles and brief descriptions of the principal reports 

relating to water supply and irrigation, prepared by the United States Geological 

Survey since 1890:

1890.

First Annual Report of the United States Irrigation Survey, 1890; octavo, 123 pp.

Printed as Part II, Irrigation, of the Tenth Annual Report of the United States Geological 

Survey, 1888-89. Contains a statement of the origin of the Irrigation Survey, a preliminary 

report on the organization and prosecution of the survey of the arid lands for purposes of irrigation, and report of work done during 1890.

1891.

Second Annual Report of the United States Irrigation Survey, 1891; octavo, 395 pp.

Published as Part II, Irrigation, of the Eleventh Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1889-90. Contains a description of the hydrography of the arid region and of the 

engineering operations carried on by the Irrigation Survey during 1890; also the statement of 

the Director of the Survey to the House Committee on Irrigation, and other papers, including a 

bibliography of irrigation literature. Illustrated by 29 plates and 4 figures.

Third Annual Report of the United States Irrigation Survey, 1891; octavo, 576 pp.

Printed as Part II of the Twelfth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 

1890-91. Contains " Report upon the location and survey of reservoir sites during the fiscal year 

ended June 30,1891," by A. H. Thompson; " Hydrography of the arid regions," by F. H. Newell; 

"Irrigation in India," by Herbert M. Wilson. Illustrated by 93 plates and 190 figures.

Bulletins of the Eleventh Census of the United States upon irrigation, prepared by 

F. H. Newell; quarto.

No. 35, Irrigation in Arizona; No. 60, Irrigation in New Mexico; No. 85, Irrigation in Utah; No. 107, Irrigation in Wyoming; No. 153, Irrigation in Montana; 

No. 157, Irrigation in Idaho; No. 163, Irrigation in Nevada; No. 178, Irrigation in Oregon; No. 193, Artesian Avells for irrigation; No. 198, Irrigation in 

Washington.

1892.

Irrigation of western United States, by'F. H. Newell; extra census bulletin No. 23, 

September 9, 1892; quarto, 22 pp.

Contains tabulations showing the total number, average size, etc., of irrigated holdings, the 

total area and average size of irrigated farms in the subhumid regions, the percentage of number of farms irrigated, character of crops, value of,irrigated lands, the average cost of irrigation, 

the investment and profits, together with a resume of the water supply and a description of irrigation by_ artesian wells. Illustrated by colored maps, showing the location and relative extent 

of the irrigated areas.

1893.

Thirteenth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1891-92, Part 

III, Irrigation, 1893; octavo, 486 pp.

Consists of three papers: "Water supply for irrigation," by F. H. Newell; "American irrigation engineering" and "Engineering results of the Irrigation Survey," by Herbert M. Wilson; 

"Construction of topographic maps and selection and survey of reservoir sites," by A. H. 

Thompson. Illustrated by 77 plates and 119 figures.

A geological recoiinoissance in central Washington, by Israel Cook Russell, 1893; 

octavo, 108 pp., 15 plates. Bulletin No. 108 of the United States Geological 

Survey; price, 15 cents.

Contains a description of the examination of the geologic structure in and adjacent to the 

drainage basin of Yakima River and the great plains of the Columbia to the east of this area, 

with special reference to the occurrence of artesian waters.

1894.

Report on agriculture by irrigation in the western part of the United States at the 

Eleventh Census, 1890, by F. H. Newell, 1894; quarto, 283 pp.

Consists of a general description of the condition of irrigation in the United States, the area 

irrigated, cost of works, their value and profits; also describes the water supply, the value of 

water of artesian wells, reservoirs, and other details; then takes up each State and Territory in 

order, giving a general description of the condition of agriculture by irrigation, and discusses 

the physical conditions and local peculiarities in each county.

Fourteenth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1892-93, in two 

parts; Part II, Accompanying papers, 1894; octavo, 597 pp.

Contains papers on " Potable waters of the eastern United States," by->W J McGee; " Natural 

mineral waters of the United States," by A, C. Peale; " Results of stream measurements," by F. 

H. Newell. Illustrated by maps and diagrams.

(Continued on third page of cover.) 

IER43
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTEBIOB

WATER-SUPPLY

AND

IRRIGATION PAPERS

OF THE

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

ISTo. 43

WASHINGTON

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1901
UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

CHARLES D. WALCOTT, DIRECTOR

CONVEYANCE OF WATER

IN

IRRIGATION CANALS, FLUMES, AND PIPES

BY

SAMUEL FORTIER

WASHINGTON

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1901
CONTENTS.

Letter of transmittal...................................................... 9

Introduction............................................................. 11

Irrigation canals ......................................................... 11

Location.............................................................. 11

Standard cross sections ............................................... 13

Grades .............................................................. 14

Operating canals in winter ............................................ 16

Aquatic plants in canals .............................................. 19

Flow of water............................. .......................... 23

Wooden flumes .......................................................... 45

Flume lining......................................................... 46

Framework.......................................................... 49

Protection of ends.................................................... 55

Carrying capacities ................................................... 58

Semicircular flumes................................................... 60

Stave pipe ............................................................... 63

Lumber for staves.................................................... 66

Steel for bands....................................................... 68

Construction......................................................... 68

Location of pipe line.................................................. 69

Durability ........................................................... 70

Use ...................................................:............. 70

Cost................................................................. 71

Eiveted-steel pipe ......^................................................. 71

Cast-iron pipe............................................................ 75

History.............................................................. 75

Manufacture......................................................... 75

Dimensions and weights .-.-..---....-...-.....--...-.-..--.......-..- 76

Testing and inspecting................................................ 78

Laying .............................................................. 79

Durability.:......................................................... 81

Cost..-.....-..----.......-,--............-.......................--. 81

Index.--...--..............--..--...--..-.-....---.......-.....-....--.. 83

5
ILLUSTRATIONS.

PLATE I. A, Fowler Switch canal, California, showing effect of high velocities;

B, Bear River canal, Utah ..................................... 16

II. Tunnel of Bear River canal, Utah ................................ 20

III. Santa Ana canal, California (cement lined)........................ 24

IV. Cement-lined distributing ditch at North Pomona, Los Angeles

County, California ............................................ 26

Y. A, Lower end of flume in West canal branch of Bear River canal, 

Utah; B, Old flume of Davis and Weber County Canal Company, 

Weber Canyon, Utah.......................................... 48

VI. North Poudre flume, near Greeley, Colorado, 300 feet below dam,

showing canal crossing the stream from which its waters are taken. 48

VII. A, Flume on Hedge canal, Bitterroot Valley, Montana; B, Wilson

canal flume, Weber County, Utah .....-.....-..-..............." 50

VIII. Details of flumes and trestles on Bitterroot stock farm, near Hamilton, Montana................................................. 54

IX. A, Flume of Kern Valley Power Development Works, California;

B, Flume at Sanger, California................................. 56

X. End view of Sterling flume in Provo Canyon, Utah................ 60

XI. Side view of Sterling flume in Provo Canyon, Utah................ 60

XII. A, Temporary headworks of Santa Ana canal, California; B, Connection between tunnel and flume of Santa Ana canal........... 62

XIII. Stave pipe of electric-light works at Brigham, Utah ............... 64

XIV. Redwood stave pipes in California: A, Old flume and new stave pipe 

replacing it, Redlands canal; B, Pipe under 160 feet head, Santa 

Ana canal ...................................................-^ 66

XV. Redwood stave pipe (52-inch) crossing Warmsprings Canyon, near

Redlands, California ...__....._.......................-.-.-... 68

FIG. I. Embankment on low side of a canal............................... 13

2. Half section of a canal on level ground............................. 13

3. Kleinschmidt canal, on West Gallatin River, Montana, showing silt

deposit on bottom and edges .................................... 16

4. Section of rail used for V-shaped drag to remove moss from canal.... 22

5. Sections of canals experimented upon.............................. 28

6. Sections of canals experimented upon.............................. 32

7. Sections of canals experimented upon.............................. 35

8. Sections of canals experimented upon.............................. 38

9. Sections of canals experimented upon.............................. 41

10. Sections of canals experimented upon ......-.........-..--.......-- 48

11. Methods of making joints in floor of flume ......................... 47

12. Cross section of flume resting on piles.............................. 49

13. End and side elevations of flume on trestle. ........................ 50

14. Details of construction of flume for steep hillside .-..---............ 50

7
8 ILLUSTRATIONS.

Page. 

FIG. 15. Cross section of Dolores canal No. 2, La Plata County, Colorado...... 51

16. Joint designed to connect tiebeams with vertical posts .............. 52

17. Detail of connection of post with sill of flume....................... 52

18. A common type of small distributing flume ........................ 55

19. Modifications of standard distributing flume........................ 56

20. Plan and elevation of end of flume with inclined aprons............. 57

21. Section of canal, showing riprap placed on bottom and sides to prevent

erosion ........................................................ 58

22. Flume of Telluride Power Transmission Company in Provo Canyon,

Utah........................................................... 62

23. Water pipe of bored logs .......................................... 63

24. Section of stave pipe used in wooden conduit of the Toronto, Ontario,

waterworks.................................................... 64

25. Details of Alien type of stave pipe ................................. 65

26. Details of Dwelle type of stave pipe................................ 66

27. Details of stave pipe built by Pioneer Electric Power Company, of

Ogden, Utah................................................... 67
LETTER OF TRANS1VTITTAL.

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR,

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY,

DIVISION OF HYDROGRAPHY,

Washington, December 17, 1900.

SIR: I have the honor to transmit herewith a manuscript prepared 

by Prof. Samuel Fortier, of Bozeman, Montana, with the recommendation that it be printed in the series of Water-Supply and Irrigation. 

Papers. The author has had much experience in the construction of 

irrigation canals and related hydraulic works used in the reclamation 

of the arid lands. The results of his experience and observation are 

of value in considering- improved methods of utilizing the water 

resources of that section of the United States. It is important, therefore, to bring these details to the attention of engineers and others 

engaged in construction work.

Very respectfully, F. H. NEWELL,

Hydrographer in Cha/rge, 

Hon. CHARLES D. WALCOTT,

Director United ^States Geological Survey.

9

CONVEYANCE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION CANALS, 

FLUMES, AND PIPES.

By SAMUEL, FORTIER.

INTRODUCTION.

The vast extent of arid land in the United States fully two-fifths of 

its area includes some of the richest agricultural land on the globe. 

Its utilization rests not merely upon obtaining water, but to a large 

extent upon bringing water to the land at a cost commensurate with 

the value of the crops raised. The question of cost, therefore, enters 

largely into all considerations of the extent to which the arid region 

can be redeemed by irrigation. With improved methods and appliances the cost of irrigating works can be greatly reduced and the area 

of tillable land correspondingly increased. This paper has been prepared for the purpose of calling attention to present practices in the 

conveyance of water in irrigation canals, flumes, and pipes, and to 

point out ways in which works of this character can be built with 

greater permanence and at less cost than those now in existence.

IRRIGATION CANALS.

The network of ditches and canals which pervades the cultivated 

portion of arid America varies in size from the furrow of the irrigator 

to the large canal of the corporation. While the capacity of the 

smaller may be less than 1 second-foot, that of the larger may exceed 

1,000 second-feet. As a rule the small ditches were built by individual 

settlers, those of medium size by communities of farmers, and the 

large canals by capitalists.

LOCATION.

When a canal is to be built to convey water to a tract of land, considerable preliminary work is necessary before its location can be determined. It is not difficult to ascertain the total area of land under any 

proposed canal, but care and good judgment must be exercised in estimating the percentage of the total area which is arable and irrigable.

11
12 CONVEYANCE OF WATER FOR IRRIGATION. [NO. 43.

The acreage that can be irrigated having been determined, it is necessary to ascertain the volume of water that will be required for the 

tract i. e., the net volume after deducting loss due to evaporation 

and seepage from the volume admitted through the head gates. The 

preliminary line may start from the source of supply or from the land 

to be watered. When the boundaries of the tract are known and 

there is little choice as to the location of the head gates, the better 

way is to start at the highest point of land to be watered and run 

toward the source of supply on a proper grade. On the other hand, 

if there is a particular location on the river from which water can 

be readily and cheaply diverted, it is well to begin at that point and 

extend the location, allowing for the necessary grade toward the land 

to be watered. This mode of procedure is preferable when the territory covered by the proposed canal is extensive and unsettled, and 

when economy in construction is of greater importance than the area 

to be served. The zero of the final location should be at the point of 

diversion.

In locating the center line of a canal the practice of the writer has 

been to employ two level parties. One level party precedes the 

transit party and sets temporary stakes on grade, irrespective of the 

sharpness of the bends or the irregularity of the general alignment. 

The other party follows the transit party and takes the elevations of 

the located line. Before proceeding to work the level party ascertains, 

from standard cross sections of the proposed canal, the depth of the 

cut at the center. The levelman, with his rodman, chainman, and 

stake-driver, places a long, slim stake, such as a lath, at each 100-foot 

station on surface grade. This surface is always at a fixed distance 

above the bottom of the excavated canal. If the proposed canal were 

to be 10 feet wide on the bottom, the difference between the bottom 

grade and the surface grade might be 2 feet; if the proposed canal 

were to be 16 feet wide, the difference might be 4 feet, and so on, in 

like proportion. The transit party lays down as straight and direct a 

location line as is possible, consistent with the grade stakes. These 

grade stakes are visible to the transitman between transit points, and 

represent the irregularities of the surface across which he is sighting. 

When their position is zigzag he usually can locate a straight line or a 

curve between them, so as to have an equal number on each side of the 

line and thus equalize, in a measure, the excess and deficiency of excavation. A strict adherence to the grade line makes a bad location. It 

not only increases the length of the line, but introduces a multitude of 

sharp curves, which are a serious objection in the operation of canals. 

The transitman may also lessen the distance by building low embankments at the head of dry ravines. Instead of following the grade 

stakes from A around to C and B, fig. 1, he may extend the line from 

A to B. and build a small embankment on the low side of the located
FOETIEE.] IRRIGATION CANALS. 13

\C

line. In canals of low grade such ponds as (7, -5, A make good settling 

basins, where the silt accumulates instead of in the main channel.

STANDARD CBOSS SECTIONS.

When the preliminary lines are being run, notes are taken of the 

slope of the ground and the character of the materials. From this 

information, coupled with a knowledge of the required capacity, standard cross sections are made to suit the various slopes and capacities.

In these sections the material excavated is usually placed in such a

manner as to form the embank- i

ments. On level ground the 

embankments are equal, on sloping ground the greater part of 

the excavated material is deposited on the low side, and on steep 

slopes all of the material excavated goes to form the lower 

embankment.

In fig. 2 is shown a half section 

of a canal on level ground to carry 

about 100 second-feet of water 

with a mean velocity of between 

2i and 3 feet per second. It is 

12 feet wide on the bottom, with side slopes of 1 to 1, a berm of 3 

feet, and embankments 6 feet wide on top. The depth of water is 3 

feet. To the right is a half section of the same canal, showing the 

form it is likely to assume after being in use several years. In comparing this half section with the former half section it will be noted 

that the center of the bed is slightly eroded, the sharp corner of the 

berm worn down, and the material deposited along the bottom edge. 

The embankment also has settled and is of a semielliptical form.

FIG. 1. Embankment on low side of a canal.

FIG. 2. Half section of a canal on level ground.

From an examination of many sections obtained from canals long in 

use the author is led to believe that few channels in earth remain long 

in the form in which they were first constructed. The materials most 

commonly met with assume, in time, a cross section similar to that 

shown in fig. 2. Such being the case, the utility of berms is apparent. In the case under consideration a part of the excavated material 

would find its way into the channel and have to be removed a second 

time. In deep cuts or on steep hillsides berms are dispensed with, for
14 CONVEYANCE OF WATER FOE IRRIGATION. [NO. 43.

the reason that it is more economical to remove once a year the material which rolls down than to enlarge the section sufficiently to introduce them.

The top width of the embankments can not be made much less than 

6 feet, unless some kind of large grader is used to remove the dirt. 

When teams are employed they crowd, unless the driveway is nearly 

6 feet wide. The top of the embankment should also be of a uniform 

grade and parallel to the bottom grade. Any excess of materials 

should be placed on the outer slope, and not piled up in heaps above 

the grade of the embankment.

In locating a canal it is difficult to plan for just enough earth to 

make the embankments in almost every case there is either a surplus 

or a deficiency. If the standard cut at the center, or grade rod, as it 

is termed, is 2£ feet, as in fig. 2, there will be portions with a depth 

of 2 feet or less and other portions with a depth of 3 feet or more. If 

these are adjacent, the excess in the one may suffice for the shortage 

in the other. There are times, however, when borrowing from some 

other source must be resorted to. Some prefer to borrow from the 

bed of the canal; but this seems to be a bad practice. By scooping 

out the bottom in places the grade and mean velocity are no longer 

uniform, and it is difficult to repair or clean the canal, on account of 

the pools of stagnant water which are formed in such pits. Others 

prefer to widen the canal without digging below grade. There are 

serious objections to these sudden changes of cross section, but on the 

whole the practice is better than interfering with the grade. Perhaps 

the better way is to plan the standard cross sections so that the amount 

excavated will be in excess of that required to form the embankments. 

When a low place in the location is encountered, the excess material 

can be hauled a distance of 200 feet or more from each side, to make 

up the deficiency. When the excavated material is more than sufficient to form the embankments, the surplus can be added to the outer 

slope without detracting from the appearance of the canal.

GRADES.

It is difficult to determine aright the proper grade or fall for a proposed canal. It is true that the velocity of water depends primarily 

on the grade, but there are so many conditions which affect the flow, 

that, having fixed upon a fall in a given length of canal, it is not easy to 

predict what the mean velocity will be. This mean velocity is always 

important, for in nearly every canal in earth there is a rate of motion 

which is adapted to the character of the materials through which the 

water flows. If this motion be too great, the finer particles will be 

carried away, leaving a mass of porous materials through which much 

water will seep and percolate, thus reducing the volume in the canal. 

On the other hand, if the motion of the water be too slow, the conse-
FORTIEE.] IRRIGATION CANALS. 15

quences are also serious. The sediment borne by the swift currents of 

mountain streams is deposited in the artificial channel and would in 

time fill it if not periodically removed. The capacity of the canal, 

owing to deficiency in velocity, is also reduced, and, as .is pointed out 

elsewhere, aquatic plants seem to grow more abundantly and give much 

more trouble in canals having a low velocity. As already stated, velocity depends on the volume carried, on the form of cross section, and 

on other factors. The velocity of water in a farmer's lateral on a 

grade of 50 feet to the mile may not be so great as that of the large 

canal on a grade of 1 foot to the mile. One of the laterals of the 

Logan and Hyde Park canal, in Cache County, Utah, has a fall of 52 

feet to the mile, and when measured had a mean velocity of 1£ feet per 

second and a discharge of 0.85 second-foot. The Point Lookout canal, 

in Boxelder County, Utah, on a grade of 1.43 feet to the mile, has 

a mean velocity of 1.48 feet per second and a discharge of 87i secondfeet. This great difference in grade, while the velocities are nearly 

equal, is to be accounted for in both the forms of the channels and the 

volumes of water carried. In the small lateral the ratio between the 

water area and the frictional surface was 1 to 4, while in the large 

canal this ratio was less than 1 to ^.

For ditches and canals built in common earth the mean velocity 

should not vary much from 2f feet per second under a full head. The 

behavior of such watercourses in the West during the last fifteen years 

seems to verify this statement. Assuming this to be a fact, it only 

remains to allow sufficient grade to produce, under given conditions, 

the required mean velocity.

The injurious effects of either too much or too little grade are well 

shown on two canals in Gallatin County, Montana. The Middle Creek 

canal was built about thirty years ago, to divert water from Middle 

Creek. The grade was established by means of a triangle and plumb 

line. With the dread ever present in the minds of the operators of 

getting too little fall, they went to the other extreme and allowed too 

much fall. The grade near the upper end is nearly 1 per cent, but it 

diminishes to about 1 in 200 over the fourth mile, while the main 

branches are on the slope of the valley, which is from 75 to 80 feet to 

the mile. In consequence, the velocity near the head is, in places, more 

than 5 feet per second, and the bed of the channel is washed clean of 

all eaith and sediment, leaving a porous mass of coarse gravel and 

cobbles. So great is the seepage through this formation that the loss 

in 4 miles was 21.5 second-feet, or 22 per cent of the total flow during 

the month of July last. The effect of high velocities on the Fowler 

Switch canal, California, is shown in PL I, A.

The Kleinschmidt canal, Montana, was built about twelve years ago 

to divert water from West Gallatin River. It was well located, by a 

competent engineer, but the grade adopted was only sufficient to pro-
16 CONVEYANCE OF WATEE FOE IBEIGATION. [NO. 43

duce, when running full, a mean velocity of about 2 feet per second. 

Had this canal been operated to its full capacity during the last ten 

years, the effects of the low grade might not have been apparent; but 

inasmuch as the volumes carried have varied from 25 to 50 second-feet, 

instead of 100 second-feet, its approximate maximum capacity, the 

deposition of silt has been very great. In places this silt is found 

spread over the bottom, but more frequently there is only a thin layer 

on the bottom and the balance is found fairly regularly deposited on 

the edges, as represented in fig. 3. If one may judge by present conditions, the bottom width was originally M feet, with side slopes of 

1 to 1, a berm on the lower side, and the embankment about 4 feet 6 

inches above grade. This supposed original section is shown by the 

dotted line, while the heavy line, with the filling of silt at the edges, 

represents existing conditions. The grade of-this canal, with the 

exception of the upper 7,000 feet, is 2.64 feet to the mile. While the 

mean velocity of the present flow is not known, it is presumed to be

FIG. 3. Kleinschmidt canal, on West Gallatin River, Montana, showing silt deposit on bottom and

not more than H feet per second; the calculated velocity, when the 

depth is 2£ feet, is a trifle more than 2 feet per second.

OPERATING CANALS IN WINTER.

The irrigation canal is frequently the only source of water supply of 

the new settler. In many unirrigated localities in the West well water 

is often difficult, if not impossible, to obtain. When extensive areas 

of land are irrigated every summer for a number of years, a part of 

the water so used is absorbed by the earth and gradually fills the 

underlying strata. In this way the water level is brought nearer the 

surface of the ground, and water can often be obtained by digging 

inexpensive wells. Until this change is effected, however, the new 

settler depends on the canal, not only to irrigate his crops, but to furnish water for his home and his stock. Hence, for the accommodation 

of farmers who have no other means of obtaining water, irrigation 

canals are frequently operated throughout the year, with the exception 

of a short period in the early spring when the water is turned out to 

facilitate cleaning and repairs.

When the water conveyed in the canal performs the dual function of 

irrigating land and furnishing a domestic supply for a town or city, it 

is necessary that its efficiency be maintained during the winter months. 

The small cities of the West, with populations varying from 1,000 to 

6,000, have usually a small waterworks plant and the beginning of a
U. 8. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY :R NO 43 PL. I

A. FOWLER SWITCH CANAL, CALIFORNIA, SHOWING EFFECT OF HIGH VELOCITIES

B. BEAR RIVER CANAL, UTAH, LOOKING NORTH.

FOBTIER.] IRRIGATION CANALS. 17

sewer system. Often their available means will not permit the construction of a conduit to tap the waters of a natural stream, in which 

case a temporary arrangement is made by extending the distributive 

system of the water mains to the nearest available canal until such 

time as means can be provided to carry the supply pipe to the river. 

This forms the second class of canals that are operated during the 

winter months.

The third class is operated solely for mechanical purposes, and since 

power is needed for milling, manufacturing, and mining in winter as 

well as in summer, efforts are made to keep such canals full of water 

during even the coldest weather. The difficulties which canal superintendents and mill men experience in doing this consist not in the 

removal of the surface ice, but in getting rid of and overcoming the 

bad effects of anchor ice and slush ice. The conduits and canals of 

the Rocky Mountain region head for the most part in the canyons 

adjacent to the cultivated valleys. In winter the temperature within 

these canyons is from 10° to 30° F. lower than that of the bordering 

plain, which fact, together with the exposed positions and the high 

velocity of the water, seems to be favorable to the formation of 

so-called anchor ice. This form of ice differs from surface ice in that 

it adheres to the bottom and sides of the exposed channel in small, 

long crystals until the size of the water channel is greatly reduced and 

in time becomes entirely choked. As the weather grows warmer the 

ice which has formed beneath the surface is detached, rises to the surface, and, as slush ice, floats down with the current. This slush ice 

not infrequently grounds in the bed of the channel and other ice accumulates at the same place, until an ice dam is formed which causes a 

break in the canal bank. The portion which floats down the canal is 

likely to choke the intake of the waterworks or prevent the operation 

of the gates and water wheels of the mills.

Usually ice forms in thin sheets on the surface of cold water. The 

average weight of a cubic foot of clear river water is about 62£ 

pounds; the weight of a cubic foot of ice is 57i pounds. Hence, if a 

block of ice were submerged below the surface of a stream it would, 

unless held down by some force, immediately rise to the surface. It 

is, however, true that ice frequently forms on the bottom and sides of 

canals, streams, and large rivers and remains submerged until a rise in 

temperature withdraws it from its moorings and causes it to float. In 

the United States this form of ice is commonly known as anchor ice 

or ground ice; in Canada it is called frazil ice; while geologists sometimes apply to it the term specular ice. According to Mr. Peterson, 

chief engineer of the Atlantic and Northwest Railway Company, 1 when 

soundings were made during the winter of 1881-82 across the channel 

of St. Lawrence River above Lachine Rapids and below Lake St. Louis

1 See discussion of frazil ice in Trans. Can, Soc. Civ. Engrs., Vol. I, Pt. I, p.20.

IRR 43 2
18 CONVEYANCE OF WATEE FOE IEEIGATION. [NO. 43.

for the site of the present St. Lawrence Bridge, anchor ice from 2 to 3 

feet deep was found adhering to the bed of the channel. At this bridge 

the river varies in depth from 5 to 40 feet. The bridge proper is 

nearly three-fourths of a mile long, and the current at low water varies 

from 2^ to 6 miles an hour. The anchor ice formed during a period of 

extremely cold weather, when the temperature was below zero. A 

subsequent rise in temperature detached it from the bed, when it immediately rose to the surface and floated downstream in the form of 

slush ice.

From observations in different parts of this continent, the conditions 

most favorable to the formation of anchor ice seem to be a water surface uncovered by surface ice, a temperature at or below zero, a clear 

sky, and moving water, caused either by wind on lake surfaces or by 

currents in stream channels. This form of ice is seldom found in 

the bed of a channel of water which is frozen over. It rises to the 

surface on cloudy days, and is usually produced, other conditions being 

favorable, during starry nights or clear days. It seldom forms in still 

water, but it is frequently found below rapids or fast-moving currents. 

A low temperature is the chief cause of this phenomenon. In still 

water in winter the bed of the channel of a stream or canal is usually 

several degrees warmer than the surface of the water. When, however, 

the bed is rough and the grade steep, the upper layers of water move 

much faster than those nearer the bottom, and instead of moving in 

straight lines parallel to the axis of the stream, the water advances 

in irregular curves. A particle of water would thus describe a path 

similar to a point on the surface of a revolving object of the desired 

form. At the time of the Johnstown flood, credible witnesses testified that they saw locomotives floating on the surface of the water. As 

a matter of fact, they could not float, but that they were brought to 

the surface for an instant by the force of the revolving current was 

well established. If we accept the statement that the motion of rapidly 

moving water over a rough surface is extremely complex, it follows 

that a particle of water which has become chilled by the cold at the 

surface will in a brief space of time be in contact with the bottom. In 

this way the temperature of the bed might be reduced considerably 

below the freezing point, and crystals of ice would then adhere to it in 

the same manner as to the extension rod of a reservoir valve, which 

in cold weather is often covered with a mass of ice crystals to the depth 

of an inch or more. When the wind blows cold over a lake surface, 

the upper 2 or 3 feet may become as cold as, if not colder than, the 

surface sheet of still water when ice begins to form. In the former 

case, the water is full of ice needles to a considerable depth; in the 

latter case, the needles are congregated in a horizontal plane at the 

Mirface.

To successfully operate canals in winter, attention should be given
FOETIER.] IRRIGATION CANALS. 19

to a few points which, as the writer has learned by experienceyit is 

wise to observe. One of these somewhat general rules is to increase 

the flow prior to the beginning of the ice-forming period. Many 

water masters consider it safer to turn out most of the water before a 

cold spell, in the belief that the canal will be less likely to become 

choked and overflow. This is a mistaken course, for it exposes a larger 

proportion of the channel of the canal to the action of frost, and, other 

conditions being equal, a small flow will be converted into ice more 

rapidly than a large flow. It is better to maintain an average flow 

before the beginning of freezing weather, and if all of the water is not 

needed it may be allowed to flow through wasteways near the lower 

end. In this way the channel is kept free from frost, and if the head 

is not allowed to vary a thick coating of ice will in time form across 

the top. With such a covering and with no frost in the bottom of the 

canal, the writer has never known anchor ice to form.

It is true that slush ice may be admitted into the canal through the 

intake; but if care is exercised in by-passing or screening the greater 

part through wasteways at secondary gates, the remainder which may 

be allowed to enter the canal will not prove troublesome, since the 

temperature of the water beneath the ice will be, as a rule, sufficiently 

high to melt the ice crystals.

AQUATIC PLANTS IN CANALS.

Two years ago, at a farmers' institute, the following question -vvas 

asked: Can the growth of water plants in irrigation canals be prevented, and, if not, how can such growth be most economically removed ? 

In the discussion which followed various crude devices for the removal 

of moss, as it is termed, were described, and the fact that it grew most 

abundantly in canals of low grade and sluggish velocity was clearly 

brought out.

In all of the warmer States and Territories of the West the growth 

of vegetation in canals is the cause of much annoyance and expense to 

the irrigator. This is particularly true in New Mexico, Arizona, and 

California, and in the warmer portions of Colorado and Utah. In 

Montana, Wyoming, and Idaho the temperature of the irrigating 

waters is frequently too low to promote the growth of these plants. 

The disadvantages due to this cause consist in the loss of water, in 

additional trouble in subdividing the water among the several users, 

and in the greater risk of breaks. Unfortunately the moss grows 

most rapidly at the time when wate» is most needed to irrigate crops, 

and to be compelled to turn out the water, as many are at such a time, 

until the sun destroys the vegetation frequently results in a scarcity 

of water.

When no measures are taken either to remove or destroy this vegetation the channel becomes more or less choked, and the capacity may
20 CONVEYANCE OF WATER FOR IRRIGATION. [NO. 43.

be reduced in extreme cases to one-fifth the normal. It is also difficult 

under such conditions to divide the water equitably, for the reason 

that the water level on rating flumes and other measuring devices often 

rises as the quantity of water diminishes. In other words, the cross 

section of the water in the canal remains undiminished, or it may be 

increased, while the velocity is materially lessened. The fact that the 

water in the canals and flumes stands at a high mark while the volume 

flowing through is really below the normal is the cause of frequent 

breaks, since an attempt is usually made to crowd them beyond their 

safe capacity.

Of the scores of varieties of plants which grow in the water of canals 

it would be impossible to state with any degree of accuracy the natural 

conditions best adapted to the growth of each. Some varieties, for 

instance, seem to flourish in the coldest spring water, while others 

require a warm temperature. This doubtless accounts, in part at least, 

for the wide difference of opinion of superintendents of waterworks 

and irrigation canals in endeavoring to explain the presence of such 

vegetation in either the storage reservoir or the main canal. Speaking generally, one may say that the conditions most favorable to the 

growth of fresh-water plants are: (1) Clear water; (2) slow velocity; 

(3) a surface temperature above 60° F.; and (4) sunshine.

The writer can not now recall a single case in which so-called moss 

was found growing in turbid water. In 1886 and 1887, before the 

West Denver reservoir was roofed, immense quantities of fresh-water 

algse formed in the clear water of the reservoir, and yet none was ever 

found in the canal and forebay 100 feet distant. South Platte River 

supplied both, but in the case of the reservoir the water was filtered 

through natural underground galleries.

Regarding the second general rule, numerous instances might be 

cited to show that moss grows more luxuriantly in canals of low 

grade, but two examples will suffice. The Logan, Hyde Park and 

Thatcher canal, diverting water from Logan River in Cache County, 

Utah, has a capacity of about 50 second-feet. Throughout the length 

of the main canal the grade is quite steep, with the exception of a distance of about 1,000 feet, where it is quite flat. Little, if any, moss 

grows on the steep portion, where the velocity is high; but on the flat 

portion the channel is in midsummer nearly filled with vegetable 

growth. The Bear River canal, in Boxelder County, Utah, branches, 

at a point some 6 miles below the dam, into what is known as the West 

canal and the Corinne canal. The West canal has a uniform grade 

of 1.056 feet to the mile for about 12 miles, and a bottom width at 

the upper end of 30 feet, which is reduced to 18 feet at the lower 

end. The Corinne canal has a grade of 2.112 feet to the mile throughout the upper portion, and a bottom width of 22 feet. On August 17, 

1897, the West canal was carrying 87 second-feet of water, with a 

mean velocity of 1.48 feet per second. On August 21, 1897, the
11. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 43 PL. II

TUNNEL OF-BEAR RIVER CANAL, UTAH.

FORTIER.] IEEIGATION CANALS. 21

Corinne canal was carrying 110 second-feet, with a mean velocity of 

2.36 feet per second. The effect of this difference in mean velocity is 

shown in the growth of the water plants. For years the West canal 

has been filled with vegetation from July 15 to September 1, necessitating frequent dredging, at considerable expense, while in the 

Corinne canal, which has a steeper grade, although moss grows to 

some extent, it has never demanded any special attention.

As has been stated, some species of these plants exist in cold water, 

but by far the greater number require water of a temperate heat in 

order to grow. This fact may readily be proved by noting the temperature of the surface water in reservoirs when moss first begins to 

appear. The conduit which supplies the distributive reservoir at 

Ogden, Utah, taps three different sources, viz, Cold Creek, Wheeler 

Creek, and Ogden River. On July 30, 1897, the temperature of the 

water in Cold Creek was 51° F., that of Wheeler Creek 55° F., and 

that of Ogden River 64° F., while t le water at the surface of the 

reservoir was 59° F., with green algse just beginning to cover portions 

of the water slope. On that day nearly all of the water in the reservoir came from the two creeks, and shewed an increase in temperature 

of about 6°. If all of the water had been conveyed from Ogden River 

instead, with a corresponding increass in temperature, the water in 

the reservoir would have been 70°, and with water at so high a temperature the reservoir would soon have been filled with aquatic plants. 

Owing, however, to the mingling of cold water from snow-fed creeks 

'with the warmer river water, the mosfci has never accumulated in sufficient quantities to necessitate removal except by skimming the surface, 

nor has it proved a nuisance, althougl i it is now eight years since the 

reservoir was first filled and used. T le absence of moss in most of 

the canals of Montana and Wyoming is doubtless due to the fact that 

the temperature of the water passing Jarough the head gates remains 

low throughout the short irrigation period. In the evaporation tank 

at Bozeman, Montana, the writer noticed last summer that moss began 

to grow when the water in the tank reached a temperature of about 

65° F.

Sunshine also is a prime requisite far plant growth. Water plants 

die when the rays of the sun are excluded. This was fairly well 

demonstrated in the summer of 1888, when the writer was building a 

roof over Cemetery Hill reservoir, at Denver, Colorado, in accordance 

with plans prepared by Mr. Charles P. Alien, chief engineer of the 

Denver Union Water Company. During hot weather in the month of 

June, when a space 44 feet along the center of the reservoir remained 

uncovered, moss began to grow in 14 feet of water under the exposed 

surface. When the roof was completed and the sunlight excluded all 

organic growth ceased to exist, and none has appeared since.

In locating irrigation canals consideration should be given to the 

grade, in order that the velocity may be sufficient to overcome the injuri-
22 CONVEYANCE OF WATEE FOE IRRIGATION. [NO. 43.

ous effects of silt and vegetation. To accomplish this, the mean velocity should be not less than 2£ feet per second. When the mean velocity 

is less than 3 feet per second erosion of the canal bed seldom occurs, 

and in ordinary materials the engineer should fix the grade so as to 

produce a mean velocity of about 2f feet per second. When the physical features of the route are such that the desired velocity can not be 

obtained, the new canal should be built in a way to facilitate the removal 

of vegetable growth, by preventing any obstruction in the canal, such 

as fences, bridge posts, or trestles, and by removing sagebrush or 

willows from the banks in order to permit the free passage of teams. 

Eegarding canals already constructed and in operation, the first thing 

to be done is to ascertain the easiest method of removing the vegetation. In the smaller canals and ditches irrigators often take the oldfashioned scythe and snath and mow the weeds while the canal is full of

FIG. 4. Section of rail used for V-shaped drag to remove moss from canal. A is rail, E is steel plate.

water. In other sections the proprietors prefer to turn out the water 

for a week or ten days and allow the sun to destroy the water plants. 

The latter plan is not to be recommended, on account of the serious 

injury done to the crops through the lack of water at a time when it 

is most needed; besides, many of the older canals have not a uniform 

bottom grade, and although the head gates may be closed stagnant 

water will usually be found in the channels over the greater part of 

the line. Harrows and disks have also been tried with some measure 

of success, but the chief objection to the use of such implements is 

that they break down and mix the weeds with the clay of the bed and 

sides instead of removing them.

At the time the writer was superintendent of the Bear Eiver canal 

system his assistants, M. Mortensen and J. L. Ehead, designed a 

V-shaped drag (fig. 4) that was very effective. It was formed by bend-
FORTIER.] IRRIGATION CANALS. 28

ing a long 40-pound railroad rail into the shape of an inverted V, the 

base being extended to equal the bottom width of the canal. To the 

flanges of this rail there was riveted a plate of plow steel sharpened to 

a cutting edge, after the fashion of the grain-cycle section. At the 

apex of the V rail a chain was attached, to which were fastened two 

rope cables, which extended to either bank and to which teams were 

hitched. This contrivance was dragged up and down the canal until 

the plants were all cut and floated down the channel to the most convenient place of removal. In canals carrying more than 4: feet of water 

the apex of the drag and the rope cables should be fastened to a flat 

boat. In more shallow canals the apex should be fastened to the axle 

of a cart or wagon. This drag was used throughout the summer of 1898.

FLOW OF WATER.

During the summer of 1897 the writer was enabled, with the help 

' his assistants, T. H. Humphreys, A. P. Stover, and W. D. Beers, 

make a number of experiments on the carrying capacities of irrigaon ditches and canals. The funds necessary to carry on these invesgations were provided by the United States Geological Survey and 

te agricultural experiment station of Utah. Shortly after the field

work was completed, the writer resigned his position with the college 

accept that of chief engineer and superintendent of the Ogden waterorks and the Bear Kiver canal system, and since then his time has 

sen so fully occupied with other duties that until now he has not had 

opportunity to put into shape for publication the data collected two

aid a half years ago. 

About sixty experiments were made on irrigation channels varying

in size from the small ditch carrying a few miners' inches of water to

tie large canal carrying 225 second-feet. Experiments were made on 

iarly every form of ditch common to Western America, including 

any of the crudely formed ditches of the Mormon pioneers made 

early forty years ago, as well as the more modern and better designed

canals of the Bear River canal system. The object sought was to ascertiin as accurately as possible the present condition of ditches and 

nals that had been in operation a number of years. In order to deterine the volume which flowed in any particular ditch and compare it

with some well-known empirical formula, such as Kutter's or Chezy's, 

was necessary to ascertain the slope of the surface of the water, the 

ctional area, the mean velocity, and the ratio between the water area 

d the wetted perimeter. This additional information regarding the 

rm which channels assume after they are acted on by water and the 

mosphere is valuable in that it gives the builder of a new canal some

idea as to the proper form to adopt. 

In the discussions which follow, the hydraulic elements, whether

obtained in the field or computed from data taken in the field, have

been referred to two well-known formulae, Chezy's and Kutter's.
24 CONVEYANCE OF WATER FOE IRRIGATION. [NO. 43.

The carding capacities of the conduits and irrigation canals of the 

West have been designed in accordance with Kutter's formula. It is 

therefore proper that experiments on the flow of water in canals should 

be compared with that formula.

Kutter did not live long enough to adapt his formula to American 

practice, particularly to American irrigation practice. His values of 

the coefficient of roughness (n) were confined to six different classes of 

channels, as follows:

Class I, n=0.010 for carefully planed boards or smooth cement.

Class II, ra=0.012 for common boards.

Class III, n,=0.013 for ashlar masonry.

Class IV, H=0.017 for rubble masonry.

Class V, »=0.025 for channels in earth, brooks, and rivers.

Class VI, n =0.030 for streams with detritus and aquatic plants.

It will be noted that only one of these six applies to irrigation canals. 

Besides, the mode of building and the character of the materials were 

different from those which prevail in America, and these differences 

would no doubt exert some influence on the results. However, the 

late P. J. Flynn, M. Am. Soc. C. E., of Los Angeles, California, took 

up the unfinished work of the noted Swiss engineer and adapted the 

experiments of Ganguillet and Kutter, as well as other hydraulicians, 

to American practice. Mr. Flynn's tables on the flow of water in open 

and closed channels have materially lessened the labors of every American hydraulic engineer, and his values for the coefficient of roughness 

(n) which we reproduce have been considered safe guides during the 

last ten years:

Table giving the value of coefficient of roughness (n) for different clmnnels. 1

?x=.009, well-planed timber, in perfect order and alignment; otherwise, perhaps, .01 

would be suitable.

n=.010, plaster in pure cement; planed timber; glazed, coated, or enamelled stoneware and iron pipes; glazed surfaces of every sort in perfect order.

n=.011, plaster in cement, with one-third sand in good condition; also for iron, 

cement, and terra-cotta pipes, well joined and in best order.

?i=.012, unplaned timber, when perfectly continuous on the inside; flumes.

n=.013, ashlar and well-laid brickwork; ordinary metal; earthenware and stoneware 

pipe in good condition, but not new; cement and terra-cotta pipe not well 

joined nor in perfect order; plaster and planed wood in imperfect or inferior 

condition; and, generally, the materials mentioned with n=.010, when in 

imperfect or inferior condition.

n=.015, second-class or rough-faced brickwork; well-dressed stonework; foul and 

slightly tuberculated iron; cement and terra-cotta pipes, with imperfect joints 

and in bad order; and canvas lining on wooden frames.

it = .017, brickwork, ashlar, and stoneware in an inferior condition; tuberculated iron 

pipes; rubble in cement or plaster in good order; fine grave*, well rammed, £ 

to f inches in diameter; and, generally, the materials mentioned with n=.013 

when in bad order and condition.

' Flow of Water in Irrigation Canals, eto., toy P. J. Flynn, C. E., pp. 1&-20.
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 43 PL. Ill

SANTA ANA CANAL (CEM ENT-LI N ED), CALIFORNIA; CAPACITY 240 SECOND-FEET,

FOKTIER.] IRRIGATION CANALS. 25

n=.020, rubble in cement in an inferior condition; coarse rubble, rough-set in normal condition; coarse rubble set dry; ruined brickwork and masonry; coarse 

gravel, well rammed, from 1 to 1J inch diameter; canals with beds and banks 

of very firm, regular gravel, carefully trimmed and rammed in defective 

places; rough rubble, with bed partially covered with silt and mud; rectangular wooden troughs, with battens on the inside two inches apart; trimmed 

earth in perfect order.

n=.0225, canals in earth above the average in order and regimen.

n=. 025, canals and rivers in earth of tolerably uniform cross-section, slope, and direction, in moderately good order and regimen, and free from stones and weeds.

n=.0275, canals and rivers in earth below the average in order and regimen.

n=.030, canals and rivers in earth in rather bad order and regimen, having stones and 

weeds occasionally, and obstructed by detritus.

n=. 035, suitable for rivers and canals with earthen beds in bad order and regimen, 

and having stones and weeds in great quantities.

n=.05, torrents encumbered with detritus.

One of the objects which the writer had in view in making his 

experiments was to compare the results, particularly the values of the 

coefficient of roughness (w), with those given by Mr. Flynn for canals 

in similar condition. The results are herein given (pages 27 to 45) in 

eight groups, beginning with canals which were in excellent condition 

and ending with those which were in very poor condition.

The field work consisted in selecting a suitable portion of the canal 

to be investigated, in writing a brief description of the prevailing conditions, and in ascertaining the discharge in second-feet, the slope of 

the water surface, the sectional area, and the wetted perimeter. The 

office work consisted in computing, from the data taken in the field, 

the mean velocity, the hydraulic mean radius, the coefficient of roughness (n) as given in Kutter's formula, and the general coefficient (c) as 

given in Chezy's formula where V= C*/RS.

The discharge was measured either by a current meter or by a trapezoidal weir. The trapezoidal weir designed by the Italian engineer, 

Cesare Cippoletti, was preferred to the Francis rectangular weir, on 

account of the simplicity of calculation as well as the probable greater 

accuracy. The one general equation used in all weir calculations was 

$=3.367 LH%, where Q equalled the discharge in second-feet, L the 

bottom length of the weir in feet, and H the depth of the water in 

feet over the crest of the weir. The conditions necessary for accurate 

measurement were carefully observed, such as a low velocity of 

approach, a free fall, complete contraction on the bottom and sides, 

and a close measurement of the head of water over the weir.

In determining the discharge by means of the current meter the 

results were not so accurate, but in every case from three to six separate and distinct current-meter measurements were made, and it was 

thought that the mean of all of these measurements would not vary 

much from the actual discharge. At the close of the field work the
26 CONVEYANCE OF WATER FOR IRRIGATION. [NO.43.

current meter was carefully rerated at the rating station in Washington, and the new rating table was used in the calculation of the velocities of flow in the canals tested.

The average cross section was obtained by plotting, in different 

colors and on a large scale, the three or more cross sections taken in 

the field. A new perimeter was then adopted from the typical cross 

section, which represented the average of the cross sections plotted. 

Its length was found by a pair of dividers, its area by a planimeter. 

The depths of water given in the tables are taken from the typical cross 

section, but approach very nearly to an average of all of those taken 

in the field at any one point.

The slope of a canal, represented by the fall of a given portion, 

usually from 100 to 200 feet, divided by the distance, was determined 

by a new Buff and Berger 18-inch level and a leveling rod reading to 

thousandths of a foot. The slope of a water surface is difficult to 

ascertain with accuracy, for the reason that in nearly all channels there 

are pulsations which cause the surface to rise and fall. Again, in irrigation canals long in use the bottom grade, owing either to abrasion or 

sedimentation, is seldom uniform, and the flow of water in any comparatively short portion is more or less influenced by the velocity in 

the section above; e. g., if a portion 100 feet in length had a fall of 

4 feet to the mile, and another portion just below had a fall of 3 feet 

to the mile, the influence of the steeper grade of the higher portion 

would be felt on the lower portion. One could partially eliminate the 

error from this source by taking a long distance as a test, but this 

would introduce greater errors due to alignment and diversity of cross 

section. The method followed in determining the slope was to drive 

small wire finishing nails into the tops of submerged oak stakes at 

each end of the section to be tested. It was not always possible to 

have the top of the nail coincide exactly with the surface of the water, 

but this introduced no error in the results, provided the heads of both 

nails occupied the same relative position to the surface of the water. 

In the case of pulsations or slight waves caused by winds, the tops of 

both nails were even with either the highest or the lowest water surface. Under ordinary conditions this method will give as accurate 

results as those obtained by hook gages.

Having obtained all of the hydraulic elements, either from data 

taken in the field or from calculations made in the office, the coefficients 

c in the Chezy formula and n in the Kutter formula were then computed and checked.

The following are the results of 42 of 60 experiments made, arranged, 

as already stated, in eight groups, beginning with canals which were 

in excellent condition and ending with those which were in very poor 

condition.
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 4-3 PL. IV

V., 5 J" q

:tWltNT-LINED DISTRIBUTING DITCH AT NORTH POMONA, LOS ANGELES COUNTY, CALIFORNIA

FOKTIEK.] IRRIGATION CANALS. 27

GROFP No. 1. 

[n equals 0.0131 ti> 0.0184.]

Experiment No. 21. This experiment was made on the main line of 

the Bear River canal, about 7 miles below the dam and about 200 feet 

above the division gates. Water was first turned into this portion of 

the system by the writer in the spring of 1891, and during the six 

years of operation the action of the water had changed the section from 

a trapezoidal form having a bottom width of about 15 feet and side 

slopes of 1 to 1 to that of the segment of an ellipse, as shown in fig. 5. 

The formation is clayey loam and the channel when measured was covered with a coating of sediment but was entirely free from vegetation, 

gravel, or pebbles, and was of regular cross section and in excellent 

condition. Three current-meter measurements were made, with the 

following results:

Second-feet. 

First measurement .......................................... 226.56

Second measurement..__..........._---...----....._..__..._ 224.94

Third measurement ......._..........-.-...-....----........ 225.14

Average .............................................. 225.55

The results of this experiment are given in the table on page 30.

Experiment No. 12. This experiment was made on the Bear River 

City canal, 900 feet below the head gates. This canal is a branch of 

the Bear River canal system, and the conditions regarding materials, 

length of time in operation, and coating of fine sediment were similar 

to those of experiment No. 21. When first made, this channel was 

trapezoidal, with 1 to 1 slopes, but it has since changed to the form 

outlined in fig 5. Current-meter measurements were made at the top, 

middle, and bottom of the portion tested, with the following results:

Second-feet. 

Top measurement..... ........_--.--.--.._......._......._.. 10.54

Middle measurement......................................... 10.91

Bottom measurement......................................... 10.58

Average ............................................... 10.68

For the results of this test see the table on page 30.

Experiment No. 38. This test was made on a lateral of the Bear 

River canal in that part of the valley known as Roweville, Utah. 

This lateral was in good condition and was lined with clayey sediment 

similar to that referred to in the previous descriptions. The discharge 

was obtained by means of a trapezoidal weir, the bottom length of 

which was 3.15 feet. The depth of water on the crest was 0.822 foot. 

The cross section is shown in fig. 5. For the results of the test see 

the table on page 30.

Experiment No. 15. The place selected for this experiment was on 

the Corinne branch of the Sear River canal, about 4 miles below the 

division gates. This canal had been operated six years, and although
28 CONVEYANCE OF WATEE FOE IEEIGATION.

its section when new was horizontal on the bottom, with side slopes in 

excavation of 1 to 1, its form at the time of the test approached the

BEAR RIVER CANAL

Experiment No. 21. *.£. ____________________________ 22.g feet ___ *

\lQ.g51.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 S.O 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.0 16.0 17.0 18.0 19.0 20.0 21.0 22.0 !/

Experiment No. 12.

BEAR RIVER CITY CANAL

.( ,,4 feet -

V 0.25 1 .0_____2.0_____3.0_____4.0_____S.O_____6.0_____7.0_____8.0_____9.0_____10.0_____11.0

BEAR RIVER CANAL LATERAL

'xperiment No. 38. AT ROWEVILLE 

, . 6-5

J 0.25 _____ 1.0

BEAR RIVER CANAL, CORINNE BRANCH

^Experiment No. IS. 23.9 feet.

V.8S1.0 2.0 3.04.0 S.O 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.010.011.012.013.014.015.016.017.018.019.020.021.022.023.9

BEAR RIVER CANAL, CORINNE BRANCH

^Experiment No. 22. AT LOWER MALADE CROSSING

 18.9 feet-

\ 0.26 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 S.O 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0 1S.O 16.0_17.0 18.0

AFFLECK'S MILL RACE

Experiment No. 2.

1 9.7 feet

10.25 1.0_____2.0_____3.0_____4.0 ____5.0______6.0_____7.0_____8.0_____9.0

\Expmment No. 3 LOGM> HYDE PARK AND SMITHFIELD CANAL

\ fr-- - -- - -I3.7 feet -- - -

\|0.2S 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 6.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0

FIG. 5. Sections of canals experimented upon.

segment of an ellipse, as may be seen by a reference to fig 5. Where 

the test was made the canal was entirely free from vegetation, and
FORTIER.J IRRIGATION CANALS. 29

there was nothing to obstruct the flow except the friction on the 

smooth perimeter, which was coated with fine silt. Meter measurements were made at the top, middle, and bottom of "the portion chosen, 

which was 100 feet in length, with the following results:

Second-feet. 

Top measurement .................... ...................... 109.09

Middle measurement ........................................ 109.52

Bottom measurement......................................... 110. 07

Average .............................................. 109.56

For the results of the test see the table on page 30.

Experiment No. 22. This test was made on the Corinne branch, 

some 6 miles below the place where the last test was made, at a point 

about 1,300 feet below the Lower Malade crossing. (Fig. 5.) The date 

of the experiment was September 9, 1897, which accounts for the small 

volume in the canal, the irrigation season in that section being nearly 

past. This canal is similar" to those previously described, and was in 

excellent condition at the time of the experiment. The formation was 

a clayey loam, and the action of the water for six summers had'left the 

channel quite smooth and well coated with silt. The discharge was 

obtained by meter measurement in the usual manner. The results of 

the test are given in the table on page 30.

Experiment No. 2. This test was made on a 60-foot length of 

Affleck's mill race, near Logan, Utah. The general form of the cross 

section is shown in fig. 5. The channel was composed of gravel ranging in size from small particles to one-half inch in diameter, with an 

occasional pebble 2 inches in diameter. The sides were in fair condition, with some weeds near the edges which did not, however, interfere 

to any appreciable extent with the flow of water. The discharge was 

obtained from the mean of the folio wing current-meter measurements:

Second-feet.

Upper measurement.......................................... 15.152

Do .................................................... 15. 360

Middle measurement ........................................ 15. 574

Do .................................................... 15. 870

Lower measurement......................................... 15. 283

Do .................................................... 14. 836

Average .............................................. 15. 346

The results of the test are given in the table on page 30.

Experiment No. 3. On June 23, 1897, a site for an experiment was 

selected on the Logan, Hyde Park and Smithfield canal (fig. 5), near 

the mouth of Logan Canyon, Cache County, Utah. Water was first 

turned into this canal in 1882, and at the time of the experiment it 

had been operated fifteen years. The bottom and sides were smooth 

and composed of earth and gravel. The particles of gravel varied 

in size from one-half inch to 1 inch in diameter, with some pebbles
30 CONVEYANCE OF WATEE FOE IREIGATION.

from 1 inch to 2 inches in diameter, 

a slight growth of grass on one side, 

measurements were made:

There was no vegetation save 

The following current-meter

Second-feet.

Upper measurement.......................................... 46.40

Do ...................................................... 45.90

Middle measurement......................................... 46.00

Do ...................................................... 46.03

Lower measurement.......................................... 45. 31

Do...................................................... 45.75

Average ............................................... 45.90

The results of the test are given in the following table:

Table slwwing values of hydraulic elements in group No. 1.

Experiment.Discharge.

Sec.-feet.

No. 21.. 225.55

No. 12.. 10.68

Mo. 38..! 7.90

No. 15. .

No. 22. .

No. 2..

No. 3..

109. 56

64.02

15.35

45.90

Area of 

water 

section.

Sq. feet.

62.30

10.24

3.40

46.44

31.66

10.69

17.80

Mean 

velocity.

Feet per

second.

3.62

1.04

2.33

2.36

2.02

1.44

2.58

Hydraulic 

mean 

radius.

2.49

0.86

0.51

1.86

1.60

1.00

1.20

Wetted perimeter.

Lineal

feet.

25.00

11.85

6.70

24.98

19.78

10.70

14.80

Coefficient of 

roughness (n).

0. 0134

0. 0135

0. 0137

Q. 0155

0.0164

0.0177

0. 0184

Slope. Coefficient (c).*

Feet per foot.

0. 00031

0. 00012

0. 00188

0. 00027

0. 000273

0. 00032

0. 00083

130. 24

102. 16

95.27

105. 78

96.75

80.79

81.50

* In Chezy's formula.

GROUP No. 2. 

[n equals O.0194 to 0.0213.]

No. 13. This test was made on a small lateral from the 

Corinne branch of the Bear River canal. The section, an outline of 

which is shown in fig. 6, is very good, and the channel excavated in 

clayey loam was well lined with fine sediment, but there were numerous 

footprints of stock throughout the portion tested which were expected 

to reduce the coefficient of roughness below that (0.0194) given in the 

table on page 33. There were no weeds or aquatic vegetation to check 

the flow. The current-meter measurements were as follows:

Second-feet. 

Top measurement ............................................. 2. 75

Middle measurement.......................................... 2.45

Bottom measurement.......................................... 2. 40

Average 2.53

The results of the test are given in the table on page 33.
FORMER.] IRRIGATION CANALS. 31

Experiment No. .#>. The Millville and Providence canal (fig. 6) is 

the highest one diverting water from Blacksmith Fork, in Cache 

County, Utah. It was completed in 1864, so that at the time of the 

experiment water had been flowing through it thirty-three years. 

This canal was built in compact clay dotted with small rock fragments 

a half inch across. One side of the channel was perfectly smooth, 

while the other side had a few willow roots projecting into the water. 

With this exception, and the presence of a few small cobbles in the 

bed, the conditions were all favorable. The results of three meter 

measurements in a 50-foot length were as follows:

Second-feet.

Top measurement............................................ 22.06

Middle measurement ......................................... 22.27

Bottom measurement......................................... 22.51

Average ............................................... 22. 28

The results of the test are given in the table on page 33.

Experiment No. 17. On August 28, 1897, an experiment was made 

on the Logan and Hyde Park canal, which flows through Logan, Utah. 

An even stretch of 75 feet within the city limits was chosen, and the 

following current-meter measurements were made:

Second-feet. 

Top measurement............................................ 23. 95

Middle measurement ......................................... 23.67

Bottom measurement......................................... 23.04

Average ............................................... 23. 55

This canal, as fig. 6 shows, was more than 14 feet wide on top and 

only about 2 feet deep, with a mean velocity of 1.08 feet per second. 

The bed was of clay covered with a thin layer of fine sand, and about 

one-sixth of the perimeter was covered with a low, creeping water 

plant. The results of the test are given in table on page 33.

Experiment No. W. This test was on Solveson & Company's canal, 

in Cache county, Utah, a section of which is shown in fig. 6. The discharge was obtained by a trapezoidal weir. The channel was composed 

of small pebbles embedded in sand. Solveson and his neighbors own 

the ditch, which diverts water from Blacksmith Fork and serves the 

low land in the river bottom. The results of the test are given in the 

table on page 33.

Experiment No. 1$. This test was made on a lateral of Logan City 

canal (fig. 6). There was no aquatic vegetation. The bottom and 

sides were smooth and were composed of gravel about the size of peas 

embedded in finer material. The discharge was found by weir measurement. For results s,ee the table on page 33.

Experiment No. 6. This test was made on the Logan and Richmond
32 CONVEYANCE OF WATER FOE IRRIGATION. [NO. 43.

canal (see fig. 6), built in 1864 1867, and the largest ditch diverting 

water from Logan River. The bottom and sides, which were smooth

BEAR RIVER CANAL, CORINNE BRANCH LATERAL

Experiment No. 13.

j 0.25 1

^\^^ d

0 2

o

T^

6

^--_

0 3.

r*.

- -- ~~1 

0 3.75

°v

MILLVILLE AND PROVIDENCE CANAL

ExperimenlNo.W. __ _ _

^ .-_-. | yi | | cCIi - - -

X! 0.26 1.Q_____g.O_____3.0_____4.0_____5.0_____6.0_____7.0_____8.0_____9.0

LOGAN AND HYDE PARK CANAL

\Experiment No. 17.

\ \ t- f^_____ _ . _ __ _________- I |_1. ft|,_{; O-fAat TCCt- - . _ __ __ _ __________ __ __ _ _

\0.251.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 120 13.013.75

Experiment No. 20.

SOLVESON & COMPANY'S CANAL

7.5 feet

0.25 1.0 2.0________ 3.0 4.0 _____5.0

Experiment No. 48.

\J0.25 1.0_______

LOGAN CITY CANAL

 7.18 feet --- 

3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0

LOGAN AND RICHMOND CANAL

Experiment No. 6.

_i A Q2 feet ~ - -________ ____ __

0.25 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0

LOGAN, HYDE PARK AND SMITHFIELD CANAL

Experiment No. 4. _... * - _ -I2.0 feet -

0.25 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0

PIG. 6. Sections of canals experimented upon.

and free from vegetation, 'were composed of a clayey loam. With the 

exception of some indentations on the sides near the top the canal Was
POETIEE.] IRRIGATION CANALS. 33

in good condition. Meter measurements were made at three points in 

the 100-foot section, with the following results:

Second-feet. 

Top measurement............................................ 68.59

Do...................................................... 68.76

Middle measurement......................................... 68. 80

Do...................................................... 68. 75

Bottom measurement......................................... 67.90

Do ...................................................... 68. 58

68.56

For results see table on this page.

Experiment No. 4- This test was made on a 60-foot section of the 

Logan, Hyde Park and Smithfield canal near its point of diversion in 

Logan Canyon (fig. 6). The channel was composed of well-packed, 

coarse gravel and small cobbles, the common sizes being 1 inch, 2 inches, 

and 3 inches in diameter, in about equal proportion. There were some 

weeds on one edge, but it is doubtful whether they retarded the flow. 

This canal had been operated since 1882. The following are the results 

of the current-meter measurements:

Second-feet. 

Top measurement............................................ 51. 09

Do ...................................................... 51.01

Middle measurement.......:.......-.-.-..................... 51. 52

Do ........1............................................. 51.07

Bottom measurement......................................... 51. 92

Do...................................................... 51.57

Average ............................................... 51. 36

The results of the test are given in the following table:

Table showing values of hydraulic elements in group No. %.

Experiment.

No. 13 . .

No. 16 . .

No. 17 . .

No. 20 . .

No. 48 . .

No. 6..

No. 4..

Discharge.

Sec.-feet.

2.53

22.28

23.55

4.03

0.56

68.56

51.36

Area of 

water 

section.

Sq.feet.

2.23

11.50

21.78

4.00

1.03

32.02

20.61

Mean 

velocity.

Feet per

second.

1.14

1.94

1.08

1.01

0.54

2.14

2.49

Hydraulic 

mean 

radius. 

0.50

1.07

1.40

0.52

0.14

1.74

1.52

Wetted perimeter.

Lineal

feel.

4.46

10.80

15.60

7.73

7.19

17.80

13.56

Coefficient of 

roughness (n).

0. 0194

0. 0195

0. 0197

0. 0201

0. 0204

0. 0211

0. 0213

Slope.

feet per

foot.

0. 00068

0. 00062

0. 00015

0.00056

0. 00135

0. 00046

0. 00077

Coefficient (c).*

61.55

74.63

75.72

59.22

39.29

75.63

73.05

*In Chezy's formula. 

GROUP No. 3.

[n equals 0.0218 to 0.0238.]

Experiment No. 11. This experiment was made on the Point Lookout canal (fig. 7) when the volume carried (87.29 second-feet) was small 

IRR 43 3
34 CONVEYANCE OF WATEK FOE 1ERIGATION. [NO. 43.

compared with the maximum capacity, which is nearly 600 secondfeet. The surface width was nearly 36 feet; the depth of water at 

the deepest place about 2i feet. The section chosen was entirely free 

from aquatic plants, but more or less vegetation was to be found both 

above and below this site. The channel was smooth and composed of 

a clayey loam lined with sediment. The current-meter measurements 

were as follows:

Second-feet. 

Top measurement............................................ 87.64

Middle measurement.....................--......-----------. 87. 82

Bottom measurement.......................---.-----------.-- 86.40

Average ............................................... 87.29

For results of test see table on page 37.

Experiment No. 29. The Providence Town canal (fig. 7) was only 

part full when measured by weir on September 16, 1897. The length 

of the weir was 2 feet, the depth of water 0.376 foot. The bed was 

composed of well-packed and smooth gravel about the size of Spanish 

nuts, embedded in sand and sediment. There was no vegetation. 

The ditch had been in use about thirty years. The results of test are 

given in the table on page 37.

Experiment No. 19. The Lewiston canal (fig. 7), begun in 1860 and 

completed in 1880, diverts water from Cub River and serves the bench 

lands near Franklin, Idaho, and Lewiston, Utah. It is capable of conveying about 125 second-feet when running full, but at the time of the 

experiment it contained only 32.72 second-feet. The channel consisted 

of smooth, light-colored clay, but about one-fifth of the perimeter was 

covered'with a growth of fibrous moss, locally termed "frog moss." 

The meter measurements were as follows:

Second-feet.

Top measurement.---...-.._.........-..-. .................... 33.22

Do ...................................................... 32.92

Middle measurement ......................................... 32.94

Do.................................................. ... 32.54

Bottom measurement......................................... 32. 33

Do ...................................................... 32.39

Average ............................................... 32. 72

For results see table on page 37.

Experiment No. 31. This experiment was made on the Providence 

Upper canal (fig. 7), near the town of Providence, Utah. The conditions were similar to those of No. 29. The flow was measured over 

a weir 2 feet in length and having 0.494 foot of water flowing over the 

crest. The results of test are given in the table on page 37.

Experiment No. 14- This test was made on a lateral of the Bear 

River canal near Central farm (fig. 7). The formation was a clayey 

loam; the water channel was coated with sediment, and also contained
FOKTIEE-] IRRIGATION CANALS. 35

patches of what is locally termed "horsetail moss" an aquatic plant 

which grows to a length of 5 or more feet. The presence of this

POINT LOOKOUT CANAL

Experiment No.ll. BEAR RIVER CANAL SYSTEM \hriii777ro ~, "7~r, " 35> 8 feet "" o 7 ~,,~,7~ a~ 7 ~ ~i~<,ir$

NL : : : L 7 L_.^0-0.11:.Jgj.PJ.?. .14|- 01 6.Q 16^0.17..0J^.O 19.0 0. SI.OggDg . g*. B5. 26.0 . ; : . . -° 3 -° : --i/^

^Experiment No. 29.

V 0.-25 1.0

PROVIDENCE TOWN CANAL

 .6.2 feet--.

2.0 3.0 5.0 6.0

 . , 1n Experiment No. 19. .--

LEWISTON CANAL

 B . .

 16. 6 feet

O.26 1.0 g.O 3.0 4.0 6.0 6.0 7.0 80 9.0 10.0 11.'0 12.0 13.0 14.0 16.0 16.0

PROVIDENCE UPPER CANAL

--.-*-_______6.6 feet--_____._ ^_____

0.25 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0___ 6.0_________6.0

BEAR RIVER CANAL LATERAL NEAR CENTRAL FARM

Experiment No,. 14. p.* 

\J 0.26 ________ 1.0

_ _ , . 6.6 feet *

]/

-^Exmr

\Jo.26

BEAR RIVER CANAL LATERAL No. 2, CENTRAL FARM

\eriment No. 39. \

.__ _ _-_ 7i8 feet ----- >j

0.25 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 6.0 6.0 ___7.0 '

WALKER TRACT CANAL

Experiment No. 9. BEAR RIVER CANAL SYSTEM

\£- -----19. 6 feet , -- ---*!

\I0.2B1.02.0 3.0 4.0 6.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.010.011.012.013.014.015.016017.018.019.0]

^Experiment No. 1. PROVIDENCE CANAL

FIG. 7. Sections of canals experimented upon.

plant, together with somewhat uneven edges, doubtless retarded the 

velocity.
36 CONVEYANCE OF WATER FOE IRRIGATION. [NO.48.

The discharge was obtained from the average of three meter measurements, which were as follows:

Second-feet. 

Top measurement............................................. 4.69

Middle measurement .......................................... 4.67

Bottom measurement.......................................... 4.54

Average ................................................ 4. 63

For results see table on page 37.

Experiment No. 39. In this instance a portion, 80 feet in length, of 

the Central farm lateral No. 2 (fig. 7) in the vicinity of the section 

tested in experiment No. 14 was used. The conditions were similar to 

No. 14, except- that there was no moss in the bed; a few bunches of 

grass were, however, scattered along the edges. Clay and sediment 

formed the bottom. The discharge was measured over a weir. The 

results of the test are given in the table on page 37.

Ewp&riment No. 9. The Walker Tract ca'nal (fig. 7), a continuation of 

the Point Lookout canal, was built in 1892, to carry a much larger volume of water than indicated in this experiment. The true grade was 

between 3 and 4 feet to the mile, but at the time of the experiment the 

irrigators had inserted dams in the channel at different points, to raise 

the water surface. This partly accounts for the low grade of 0.63 foot 

to the mile, although this figure may be too low, owing to the action 

of waves on the canal at the time the elevations were taken. The 

channel consisted of clayey loam, and it was free from vegetation. 

The meter measurements were as follows:

Second-feet. 

Top measurement............................................ 38. 70

Middle measurement......................................... 38.72

Bottom measurement......................................... 38.23

Average ............................................... 38.55

The results of the test are given in the table on page 37.

Experiment No. 1. This test was made on the Providence canal (fig. 

7), which diverts water from Logan River. The bed was composed of 

gravel about the size of peas, with other particles about the size of 

small walnuts scattered about. There was no vegetation, and the discharge was found by taking the average of the following meter measurements:

Second-feet.

Top measurement............................................ 10. 21

Do ......-.......-.-.--.....-----.----.--.-------------- 9.95

Middle measurement......-............-........-----.--.-..- 9. 86

Do......-..-........-......-....---..------------------ 10.20

Bottom measurement......................................... 9. 75

Do ..................................................... 9.93

Average ....--........-.....-..........---..---------- 9.98
FORTIER.] IKKIGATION CANALS. 37

The results of the test are given in the following table:

Table showing values of hydraulic elements in group No. 3.

Experiment.

No. 11 . .

No. 29..

No. 19..

No. 31..

No. 14..

No. 39..

No. 9..

No. 1..

Discharge.

Sec.-feet.

87.29

1.55

32.72

- 2.34

4.63

7.90

38.55

9.98

Area of 

water 

section.

Sq.feet.

58.94

2.55

27.53

3.29

3.89

5.74

38.32

5.26

Mean 

velocity.

Feet per

second.

1.48

0.61

1.19

0.71

1.19

1.38

1.01

1.90

Hydraulic 

mean 

radius.

1.60

0.40

1.52

0.48

0.65

0.71

1.83

0.71

Wetted perimeter.

Lineal

feet.

36.73

6.34

18.08

6.80

6.00

8.12

20.90

7.40

Coefficient of 

roughness (»).

0. 0218

0. 0223

0. 0224

0. 0229

0. 0230

0. 0230

0. 0232

0. 0238

Slope.

Feet per

foot.

0. 00027

0. 00040

0. 00020

0. 00043

0. 00075

0. 000875

0. 00012

0. 00175

Coefficient(c).*

71.19

48.00

68.07

49.34

54.03

55.38

67.83

53.85

*In Chezy's formula.

GROUP No. 4. 

[n equals 0.0238 to 0.0260.]

Experiment No. 5. This test was of a 50-foot length of the College 

and City canal (fig. 8), a branch of the Logan, Hyde Park and Smithfield canal. The bed was of coarse gravel, ranging in size from particles one-half inch to 2 inches in diameter, more or less, embedded in 

finer materials. The edges were somewhat irregular, with some willow 

roots, but there was no vegetation in the channel. The meter measurements were as follows:

Second-feet. 

First trial..................................................... 7. 73

Second trial................................................... 7. 54

Third trial.................................................... 7. 48

Fourth trial................................................... 7.63

Average ................................................ 7. 60

The results are given in the table on page 39.

Experiment No. 27. This test was of a 100-foot length of the Logan, 

Hyde Park and Thatcher canal (fig. 8), near Logan, Utah. The sides 

of the channel were smooth and coated with sediment. The bottom 

consisted of earth, gravel, and pebbles, some of the latter being 2J 

inches in diameter. The coarser material covered about one-fourth 

of the perimeter. For results see table on page 39.

Experiment No. 18. This experiment was also made on the College 

and City canal (fig. 8). There was no vegetation to check the velocity, 

but the sides were uneven, and the bed was covered with fragments 

of disintegrated flat rock, ranging in size from one-half inch to 2 

inches across the greatest dimension. The meter measurements were 

as follows:

Second-feet. 

Top measurement ................^............................ 5.69

Middle measurement.......................................... 5. 67

Bottom measurement.......................................... 5. 61

Average ..................................

The results are given in the table on page 39.

5.66
38 CONVEYANCE OF WATER FOR IRRIGATION.' [NO. 43.

Experiment JVo. 63. The discharge of the small ditch known as the 

Hvrum canal (fig. 8), on which this experiment was made, was measCOLLEGE AND CITY CANAL

0.126 0.6

o>

I

I

d|

1.0

I 

I

in I

r*. | 

d i

1.5

I 

I 

I

"I

3. 7 fee

2

d

t - 

0 2.5 3.

i §! ?

d' °

_J

0 3.6 J

I!/

/

/

LOGAN, HYDE PARK AND THATCHER CANAL

-^Experiment No. 27. \\f - - I 7. 6 feet --

\0.251.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 B.O 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 U.O 15.0 16.0 17.0

COLLEGE AND CITY CANAL

e -£ _ 4.4 feet 

0.25 1.0 Z.O 3.0

f-. 4-

\ ° 2

^o

I 

 8!

oj

- - -H

4.0

J ) 

I/

Experiment No. 68.

HYRUM CANAL

BEAR RIVER CANAL LATERAL ON CENTRAL FARM

BEAR RIVER CANAL LATERAL ON CENTRAL FARM

Experiment No. 37.

\|0.26~ 1.0

THATCHER CANAL LATERAL 

'.« 

0.125 0.6 1.0 1.6 2.0

S 

d

i i

i

fe! CM °!

"^- L^*^« 

s

i - _ 

i i

gi di

i ./ ^ J "^

FIG. 8. Sections of canals experimented upon.

urea over a weir. The sides of the channel were of earth, but about 

half of the perimeter along the bottom was covered with rock frag-
FORTIER.] IRRIGATION CANALS. 39

ments from £ inch to 1 inch across. Weeds and alfalfa grew up to the 

edge of the water. The results are given in the following table:

Table showing values of hydraulic elements in group No. 4-

Experiment.

No. 5..

No. 27 . .

No. 18 . .

No. 63 . .

Discharge.

Sec.-feel. 

7.60

60.23

5.66

1.57

Area of 

water 

section.

Sq.feet. 

2.59

30.60

3.51

1.87

Mean 

velocity.

Fed per 

second. 

2.93

1.97

1.61

0.84

Hydraulic 

mean 

radius.

0.55

1.62

0.65

0.35

Wetted perimeter.

Lineal 

feet. 

4.73

18.90

5.44

5.28

Coefficient of roughness (n).

0. 0238

0. 0246

0. 0247

0. 0260

Slope.

Feet per 

foot. 

0. 00616

0.0006

0. 0016

0. 0013

Coefficient (c).*

50.43

63.16

50.18

38.92

*In Chezy's formula.

GROUP No. 5. 

[n equals 0.0293 to 0.0319.]

Experiment No. J$. This experiment was made on a Central farm 

lateral of the Bear River canal (fig. 8). The discharge was measured 

over a weir. The bed was composed of clay, but the cross section was 

not uniform, and there were a few bunches of grass scattered along 

the edges.

Experiment No. 37. This experiment also was made on one of the 

Central farm laterals (fig. 8), and nearly the same conditions were 

found as existed in the preceding experiment.

Experiment No. 51. This experiment was on a small lateral of the 

Thatcher canal (fig. 8). There was a narrow board on each edge, as 

shown in the figure. The bottom was coarse gravel and cobbles, ranging in size from large peas to goose eggs. The discharge was determined by weir measurement.

Experiment No. 64. This experiment was on the Hyrum canal 

(fig. 9), which at the time of the test carried only a large irrigation 

stream. The flow was measured over a weir. The sides were considerably overgrown with alfalfa and weeds, and the bed consisted of cobbles 

from the size of hazelnuts to that of walnuts.

Table showing values of hydraulic elements in group No. 6.

Experiment.

No. 42..

No. 37..

No. 51..

No. 64..

Discharge.

Sec.-feet.

8.08

7.83

1.08

2.47

Area of 

water 

section.

Sq.feet.

4.79

12.79

1.44

2.82

Mean 

velocity.

Feet per

second.

1.69

0.61

0.75

0.88

Hydraulic 

mean 

radius.

0.56

1.08

0.44

0.49

Wetted perimeter.

Lineal

feet.

8.56

11.80

3.25

5.79

Coefficient of roughness (n).

0. 0293

0. 0295

0. 0310

0. 0319

Slope.

Feet per

foot.

0. 0033

0. 00017

0. 00113

0. 0014

Coefficient (c).*

39.24

45.08

33.51

33.55

*In Chezy's formula.
40 CONVEYANCE OF WATEK FOK IRRIGATION.

GROUP No. 6. 

[n equals 0.0329 to 0.0365.]

Experiment No. 55. This experiment was on a Smithfield canal 

lateral (fig. 9) in Cache County, Utah. The bed consisted of cobbles 

partially covered with silt. The edges had been made irregular by 

cattle. The discharge was measured over a weir.

Experiment No. Ifl. This experiment was on a small lateral of the 

Logan and Hyde Park canal (fig. 9) on one of the streets of Smithfield, 

Cache County, Utah. It will be noted, by referring to the table on 

this page, that the fall is about 1 per cent, but that the mean velocity is 

only 1.35 feet per second. This small channel was composed wholly 

of loose, coarse gravel, varying in size from that of a pea to that of a 

small hen's egg. The discharge was measured over a weir.

Experiment No. 26. This experiment was on the Logan and BensonWard canal (fig. 9), in Cache County, Utah. In this case the flow was 

much impeded by horsetail moss, which covered about three-fourths 

of the water section. The bed was composed of medium-sized gravel, 

and the discharge was ascertained by meter measurement.

Experiment No. 33. This is another instance in which a small volume of water flowed very slowly over a rough surface, notwithstanding 

that the fall was 64 feet to the mile. This experiment was on a lateral 

of the Hyrum canal (fig. 9), near the town of Hyrum. Cache County, 

Utah. The channel consisted chiefly of rock, ranging in size from 1 

inch to 3 inches in diameter. The flow was measured over a weir.

Table showing values of hydraulic elements in group No. 6.

Experiment.

No. 55..

No. 47..

No. 26..

No- 33..

Discharge.

Sec. -feet.

1.29

0.85

24.59

0.81

Area of 

water 

section.

Sq.feet.

2.97

0.63

29.14

0.80

Mean 

velocity.

Feet per 

second.

0.43

1.35

0.84

1.02

Hydraulic 

mean 

radius.

0.52

0.27

1.32

0.20

Wetted perimeter.

Lineal 

feet.

5.70

2.32

22.00

4.00

Coefficient of roughness (n).

0. 0329

0. 0337

0. 0352

0. 0365

Slope.

Feet per 

foot.

0. 000353

0.00991

0.00033

0. 01212

Coefficient (c).*

32.02

25.87

40.33

20.68

* In Chezy's formula. 

GROUP No. 7.

[n equals 0.0377 to 0.0424.]

Experiment No. 57. This test was on a small lateral of the Smithfield City canal (fig. 9), which had a steep grade and a rough channel, 

made up principally of coarse gravel and cobbles. The flow was 

measured over a weir. (See table on page 42.)

Experiment No. 62. At the time of the test this small lateral of the 

Hyrum canal (fig. 9) was partially overgrown with alfalfa, and there
FOKTIEK.] IRRIGATION CANALS. 41

was a strip of moss on each side which covered about one-fifth of the 

channel, which was made up of flat fragments of rock from 1 inch to

 - nt HYRUM CANAL Experiment No. 64.

\[ 0.25

- 5. 5 feet

SMITHFIELD CITY CANAL LATERAL

, Experiment_No. 55.

0.125 O.B 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.6 4.0

LOGAN AND HYDE PARK CANAL LATERAL

^Experiment No, 47.

I.8 feet

LOGAN AND B. W. CANAL

-x Experiment No. 26. - ' f

\|o.25l.O 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0__70 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.0 16.0 17.0 18.0 19.0 20.0 /

HYRUM CANAL LATERAL

^\Experiment No. 33. \p 3.6 feet- --- 

\0.128 0.5_____1.0______1.5______2.0______2.5 3.0 3.5|,

SMITHFIELD CITY CANAL LATERAL

Experiment No. 57. f _ y r___________. . 4 g feet _____________________

\ 0.186 O.S___ 1.0 ___1.5__ 2.0 ___ 2.5_ 3.0___ 3.5_____4.0

v * *r *o HYRUM CANAL LATERAL \ Experiment No. 62. \ £.__________________________6.63 feet __________

X! 0.25_______1.0__________2.0__________3.0_________ 4.0__________6.0__________6.0

FIG. 9. Sections of canals experimented upon.

3 inches across the longest diameter. A weir was used to determine 

the discharge.
42 CONVEYANCE OF WATER FOE IRRIGATION. [NO. 43.

Experiment No. 56. This experiment was on a lateral of the Smithfield City canal (fig. 10) at Smithfield, Utah. The conditions were 

similar to those of No. 57. The edges of the lateral were rough and 

uneven, and the bed a mass of pebbles and cobbles washed clean by 

the large flow in the early part of the season. (See table below.)

Experiment No. %4- This test was on a well-formed canal (fig. 10), 

the property of the Brigham City Electric Light Company, located 

near the mouth of Boxelder Canyon, in the county of the same name. 

The bed consisted of medium-sized gravel, unpacked, and about onethird of the water area was filled with long, waving, water plants, 

resembling horsetails. The presence of these plants retarded the 

velocity, and no doubt changed the degree of roughness from a value of 

about 0.020 to that given in the table 0.0424. Only two meter measurements were made, but these check very closely; they were 30.99 

and 31.16 second-feet. The results are given in the following table:

Table showing values of hydraulic elements in group No. 7.

Experiment.

No. 57..

No. 62..

No. 56 . .

No. 24 . .

Discharge.

S C -feet.

1.48

2.47

1.17

31.07

Area of 

water 

section.

Sq.feel.

1.11

5.55

1.06

20.44

Mean 

velocity.

Feet per 

second.

1.33

0.44

1.10

1.52

Hydraulic 

mean 

radius.

0.23

0.77

0.23

1.62

Wetted perimeter.

Lineal 

feet.

4.75

7.20

4.70

12.60

Coefficient of roughness («).

0. 0377

0. 0393

0. 0423

0. 0424

Slope.

Feet per 

foot.

0. 0171

0. 00029

0. 0170

0. 00115

Coefficient (c).*

21.07

29.62

17.93

35.19

* In Chezy's formula.

GROUP No. 8. 

[n equals 0.0469 to 0.0529.]

The results of the experiments in this group are given in the table 

on page 44.

Experiment No. 35. This experiment was made on a small stream 

(fig. 10) which supplies the Temple grounds in Logan, Utah. The 

natural channel was made up of san.d and silt, but at the time the 

experiment was made it was more than one-third full of horsetail moss. 

The discharge was ascertained by weir measurement.

Experiment No. Jfi. This experiment was on a canal at Brigham, 

Utah (fig. 10), which was more than half filled with horsetail moss. 

The edges were also overgrown with watercress and weeds, but the 

part of the bottom which was exposed was covered with fine gravel.

Experiment No. 53. This test was on a small lateral of the Thatcher 

canal (fig. 10) near Logan, Utah. About two-thirds of the lateral was 

more or less covered and filled with horsetail moss. The remainder of 

the exposed surface of the bed was sediment.
FORTIER.] IRRIGATION CANALS. 43

Experiment, No. 5*2. This test was on another small lateral of the 

Thatcher canal (tig. 10). The bed was composed of fine silt, but about

Experiment No.56. SMITHFIELD CITY CANAL LATERAL 

j5 . . 4 e -feet - 

^0.125 O.B_____1.0_____1.5______2.0 2.6______3.0 3.5 4.0 ___4.5 I

BR1GHAM CITY ELECTRIC LIGHT COMPANY'S CANAL

^Experiment No. 24.

\ 0.25 1.0_____2.0______3.0_____4.0______5.0______6.0_____7.0 8.0 9.0____ 10.0

\I5 i i !

\ °\ \ \

\ ! ' M CO

| i

i i

J .! .

K

i /

°! /

*7j /

V

TEMPLE HILL LATERAL

i Experiment No. 35.

Experiment No. 46. BRIGHAM CITY CANAL 

 I 9.6 feet 

\Jo.g5 1.0 g.O 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 I1.0 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.0 16.0 17.0 18.0 19.0

THATCHER CANAL LATERAL Experiment No. 53.

 f 5.0 feet - - - ^l

I0.12B 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 25 . 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5

THATCHER CANAL LATERAL Experiment No. 52.

0.126 O.B

FIG. 10. Sections of canals experimented upon.

three-fourths of the entire channel was covered with aquatic plants 

similar to those described in the preceding experiments.
44 CONVEYANCE OF WATEE FOE IEEIGATION. [NO. 43. 

Table, shelving values of hydraulic elements in group No. 8.

Experiment.

No. 35..

No. 46 . .

No. 53..

No. 52..

Discharge.

Sec. -feet.

0.28

23.40

1.08

1.08

Area of 

water 

section.

Sq.feet.

0.52

35. 76

2.57

2.90

Mean 

velocity.

Feet per 

second.

0.54

0.65

0.42

0.37

Hydraulic 

mean^ 

radius.

0.25

1.74

0.48

0.58

Wetted perimeter.

Lineal 

feet.

2.10

20.50

5.30

4.98

Coefficient of roughness («).

0. 0469

0. 0499

0. 0519

0.0529

Slope.

Feet per 

foot.

0. 00442

0. 00028

0. 00107

0.00064

Coefficient (c).*

16.28

29.60

18.41

19.16

*In Chezy's formula.

The writer presents these results of experiments in the hope that 

they may aid those building and operating irrigation systems in the 

West to arrive at a better understanding regarding the behavior and 

carrying capacities of irrigation canals. In planning new systems it 

is necessary to know the approximate volume of water which each new 

channel will carry. As has been stated, the formula most generally 

used for this purpose is that of Kutter. But Kutter's formula will 

give results either too great or too small, in proportion as one chooses 

too low or too high a value for the coefficient of roughness (n).

The experiments made in the past to determine the values of n for 

canals have been largely confined either to new channels or to conditions somewhat different from those which prevail in Western America. 

In the case of new canals it is believed that the coefficient of roughness 

of the wetted surface is much greater than it is in canals of similar form 

and materials when the wetted surface is well coated with fine sediment. The friction seems to depend quite as much on the way in 

which the gravel and cobbles are packed as on their size. Again, the 

effect of water plants in retarding the velocity of water in canals has 

usually been considered less than our experiments indicate.

On account of the dissimilarity between the physical conditions of 

the channels from which the present values of n have been derived and 

the ditches and canals of irrigated America, the writer has attempted, 

in the following table, to assign values for n which are more in accordance with the conditions now existing in the Rocky Mountain States. 

Future experiments, however, in which the details are more carefully 

looked after, may modify these values of n.

Values of n for irrigation ditches and canals.

«=0.0175 for canals in earth in excellent condition, well coated with sediment, regular in cross section, and free from vegetation, loose pebbles, and cobbles.

n=0.020 for canals in earth, in good condition, lined with well-packed gravel, partly 

covered with sediment, and free from vegetation.

n=0.0225 for canals in earth, in fair condition, the wetted surface being lined with 

sediment, with an occasional patch of minute algse, or composed of loose 

gravel without vegetation.
FOKTIER.] WOODEN FLUMES. 45

«=0.0250 for canals in earth, in average condition, having few sharp bends, and 

being fairly uniform in cross section; the water slopes and bottom being lined 

with sediment and minute algae, or composed of loose, coarse gravel and 

fragments of rock less than 2 inches in diameter, and free from vegetation.

«=0.0275 for canals in earth, below the average in grade, alignment, and cross section, having indentations on the sides, the edges in places being partially 

filled with earth and gravel, and the lining composed of coarse gravel and 

cobbles unpacked. This value would also apply to a smooth, regular surface 

if the channel were partially filled with aquatic plants.

n=0.0300 for canals in earth, in rather poor condition, having the bed partially covered with debris, or having comparatively smooth sides and bottom, with 

bunches of grass and weeds projecting into the water and with aquatic plants 

growing in the channel.

n=0.0350 for small ditches having a rough, uneven bed, and for canals in earth in 

fairly good condition, but partially filled with aquatic plants.

n=0.040 for canals in earth the channels of which are about half full of aquatic vegetation.

n=0.050 for canals in earth the channels of which are about two-thirds full of aquatic 

vegetation.

The writer's experiments on the flow of water in irrigation ditches 

and canals, herein briefly described, seem to justify the following conclusions:

(1) That sections of canals in earth, although carefully built, of a trapezoidal form, 

with the bottom width horizontal, soon change to segments resembling those of an 

ellipse.

(2) That in all large or medium-sized canals in earth berms are necessary in order 

to prevent a portion of the excavated material from rolling into the canal.

(3) That during the first season of their operation the carrying capacities of irrigation canals are less than during subsequent seasons, provided the same conditions 

are maintained.

(4) That the coefficient of friction in canals well lined with sediment, in good 

condition and long in use, is less than usually has been supposed.

(5) That the frictional resistance of coarse materials, such as gravel, pebbles, or 

cobbles, depends to a large extent on whether such material is well packed or loose.

(6) That roughness in a small ditch exerts a greater influence in retarding flow 

than the same degree of roughness exerts in a large canal or a river.

(7) That in the past canal builders have to a great extent overlooked the injurious 

effects of the growth of aquatic plants.

(8) That the effects of water plants in checking the flow and lessening the capacity 

of irrigation canals may be much greater than a rough, uneven channel.

(9) That in the sections of the arid West where such vegetation grows abundantly 

the canals should be built in such a way as to prevent its growth, or, if that is 

impracticable, provision should be made to facilitate its removal.

WOODEN FLUMES.

A half century ago the pioneers of Utah built flumes of native lumber to convey irrigating water across ravines or to strengthen weak 

places in canals in earth. Since that time their use in the Rocky 

Mountain States has steadily increased, and the cost of those at present 

in service would aggregate many million dollars. Notwithstanding 

their extended use they have not proved satisfactory. The short life 

of lumber when placed in contact with the soil and the difficulties
46 CONVEYANCE OF WATEE FOR IRRIGATION. [NO. 43.

experienced in making wooden flumes water-tight have been a fruitful 

source of annoyance and expense and have brought such structures 

into disfavor.

During the last fifteen years many substitutes have been tried, such 

as stave pipes, half-round flumes, cemented canals, and inverted 

syphons, and although these later devices are more durable, as a rule 

they cost more, and it is questionable whether they will soon supplant 

the wooden flume. Like the railroad trestle, the wooden flume may be 

regarded as a temporary structure, but it possesses certain advantages 

which every canal proprietor or superintendent will appreciate. It is 

cheap, the materials of which it is composed can be readily and quickly 

procured, and the time occupied in building is short. So long as lumber is comparatively cheap and other building materials, such as Portland cement, are high, it is reasonable to conclude that the use of 

wooden flumes will be continued. The question for consideration is, 

therefore, the discovery of remedies for existing defects, rather than 

the construction of new structures to take tb^e place of the old ones. 

The defects, as well as some of the remedies that might be applied, 

will be pointed out in the following discussion of the various features 

of the construction of wooden flumes.

FLUME LINING.

During the infancy of irrigation in the West flumes were put 

together in so unworkmanlike a manner that leaks were the rule and 

not the exception. The lumber was frequently of inferior quality, 

full of knots, unevenly sawed, and imperfectly dried. The lining 

consisted of 2-inch planks spiked to the posts and sills, and in less 

than a year the joints between the edges of the planks would be sufficiently open to admit the fingers of a man's hand. Laths and edgings 

were often driven into these open joints and afterwards they were 

calked with gunny sacks or oakum soaked in pitch. When the rough 

edges of the planks were beveled so as to leave a space at the joint 

having the form of a V, as shown in fig. 11, at«, it was possible to calk 

the joint, but if the edges sloped in the opposite direction and left the 

opening on the outside, as in fig. 11, at 5, the calking would not remain 

in place.

Engineers and canal superintendents first tried to remedy these 

defects by putting on a double lining an extravagant use of lumber. 

These linings were made by nailing battens over each longitudinal 

joint (fig. 11, c), by placing a 2-inch layer over inch boards (fig. 11, <Z), 

by using two layers of inch boards (fig. 11, <?), or by using 2-inch planks 

beneath inch boards (fig. 11, /}. In Montana 1-inch by 4-inch and 

1-inch by 6-inch battens over joints are common, but they invariably are 

placed on the side next to the water, while in the opinion of the 

writer they should be placed on the outside. If, for example, battens 

were laid on the sills and the planks placed above them, the joints in
FORTIER.] WOODEN FLUMES.

the latter would fill with sediment; besides, the action of the sun 

would not warp or curl the battens. If double linings of uneven

3

SCALE OFINCHES 

Z_ _ O Z 4 6 Q

FIG. 11. Methods of making joints in floor of flume.

thickness are used, it is preferable to lay the thinner layer first; otherwise the action of the sun will cause inch boards, particularly when
48 CONVEYANCE OF WATER FOR IRRIGATION. [NO. 43.

they become partialty decayed, to draw through the nails. This same 

objection applies to the use of a double lining of inch boards.

The double-lined flumes of Colorado have not fulfilled the expectations of their builders. By using 2-inch planks over inch boards the 

cost is increased nearly 50 per cent and the durability is diminished. 

Experience has shown that a double lining will decay more rapidly 

than a single 2-inch lining. Besides, sand and sediment are likely to 

accumulate between the two floors, and to freeze in winter and cause 

displacement of the upper floor, so that the main object of the double 

floor the prevention of leaks is not always accomplished.

The common tongue and groove joint (fig. 11, g] has also been tried, 

but with little success. The cost of milling the edges of planks, the 

difficulty experienced in laying them, and the liability that the projections on each side of the groove will split off when the lining warps, 

have prevented this form of joint from being extensively used.

At the present time the tendency among irrigation engineers and 

superintendents is to demand a better grade of lumber for flume linings, to insist that the work shall be planned far enough in advance of 

construction to secure well-seasoned lumber, and to prepare the 

lumber at the mills in such a manner that the liability to leak may be 

either wholly prevented or greatly lessened. Only one lining is used, 

and its thickness may vary from 1^ to 2i inches, depending on the size 

of the flume and other conditions.

The writer would recommend either the driven-tongue joint or the 

ship lap joint. The half-timbered or ship lap joint (fig. 11, i] is well 

adapted to linings varying in thickness from 1% to If inches. It is 

true that it requires from 8 to 9 per cent more lumber to allow for the 

lap, besides the extra cost of milling; but notwithstanding this, the 

total cost is much less than that of a double lining, and if shrinkage 

occurs there is an excellent opportunity to calk the open space, in 

which case there is no chance for the filling to work through the joint. 

In the smaller flumes the edges are usually painted with white lead, 

and in the larger flumes with hot asphalt, both being applied during 

the process of construction.

The driven-tongue joint (fig. 11, A) requires thicker lumber; otherwise the projections at the edges of the groove would be likely to 

split off. A lining 2£ inches thick may have a groove on each edge 

five-eighths inch deep, which will admit a tongue five-eighths inch 

thick and seven-eighths inch wide. These tongues are milled from 

clear lumber and have the four sharp edges removed. The flooring is 

first laid, and as each plank is fitted to its place the tongue is inserted 

in the groove. No tongue is inserted in the last joint of the floor 

until after the planks have been matched and sprung into position, 

after which the tongue is driven into the groove from one end. The 

longitudinal joints in the sides of the lining are rendered water-tight
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 43 PL. V

A. LOWER END OF FLUME IN WEST CANAL BRANCH OF BEAR RIVER CANAL,

UTAH.

H. OLD FLUME OF DAVIS AND WEBER COUNTY CANAL COMPANY, WEBER 

CANYON, UTAH.

WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 43 PL. VI

NOR T H POUDRE FLUME, NEAR GREELEY, COLORADO, 300 FEET BELOW DAM, SHOWING CANAL CROSSING THE STREAM FROM WHICH ITS

WATERS ARE TAKEN.

FOKTIEK.] WOODEN FLUMES. 49

by driving wedges between the tiebeam and the upper edge of the 

lining.

FRAMEWORK.

Flumes are placed either on piles, on trestles, or on mudsills, and 

the form of the framework is modified to suit the foundation.

A cross section of a flume resting on piles is shown in fig. 12. Each 

set of piles is sawed off, after being driven, and capped with a dimension timber which is secured to each pile by means of a drift bolt. 

The stringers are then laid on the caps and the flooring is nailed to the 

stringers. The chief objection to this form of construction is the early 

decay of the piles at the surface of the ground. When thus exposed,

L

Fm. 12. Cross section of flume resting on piles.

ordinary piles decay in about seven years. Frequently the top of 

the piles next to the cap is sound, as well as the portion that is covered with earth more than 2 feet in depth. In repairing flumes of 

this kind the practice of the writer has been to excavate the earth 

around each pile to a point beyond the decayed portion, remove the 

decayed wood, then recap the sound portion and introduce a trestle 

between the new cap and the flume.

When flumes are placed on trestles the ordinary railroad trestle is

used. Small flumes, such as that shown in fig. 13, have only two

inclined supports; in the larger flumes one or more vertical posts are

inserted between the inclined posts. Sometimes farmers make use of

IRR 43 i
50 CONVEYANCE OF WATER FOE IRRIGATION. [NO. 43.

round poles to support flumes across ravines, in the manner shown in 

PI. VII, j5, which represents the Wilson canal flume, east of Ogden, 

Utah. As a rule, it is a mistake to make use of a wooden flume when

FIG. 13. End and side elevation of flume on trestle.

trestles more than 10 feet high are required. Some other form of 

construction, such as the inverted siphon, should be adopted.

Very often portions of canals in earth, when located on steep hillFIG. 14. Details of construction of flume for steep hillsid es.

sides, absorb so much moisture as to become a source of danger to the 

canal and a menace to the property owners in the vicinity. In the 

past the canal in such weak places has usually been replaced by a
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 43 PL. VII

A. FLUME ON HEDGE CANAL, BITTERROOT VALLEY, MONTANA.

B. WILSON CANAL FLUME, WEBER COUNTY, UTAH.

FOETIEE.] WOODEN FLUMES. 51

wooden flume somewhat similar in construction to that shown in fig. 

14. The same kind of flume, with the exception of the mudsills, is 

frequently seen in rocky canyons, where a shelf has been blasted out 

to a sufficient width to support it. Occasionally, too, one sees, as in 

fig. 15, a flume which rests partly on rock and partly on timber supports. Fig. 15 is a cross section of the Dolores canal No. 2, in La 

Plata County, Colorado.

Flumes may also be divided into two classes, readily distinguishable 

by the manner of supporting the vertical posts. In the Rocky MounFIG. 15. Cross section of Dolores canal No. 2, La Plata County, Colorado.

tain States the posts a're usually held in ^position by a horizontal tiebeam bolted at its ends to a pair of vertical posts. In California it is 

customary to dispense with the tiebeam, and substitute therefor an 

inclined brace extending from the floor sill to a point in the upper 

half of each post. If one takes the trouble to compute the total 

amount of lumber required for each of these types, it will be found that 

the use of a tiebeam is more economical of lumber in all except the 

largest flumes. When a flume is more than 20 feet wide it may pay
52 CONVEYANCE OF WATER FOR IRRIGATION. [NO. 43.

to introduce inclined braces to secure the vertical posts; otherwise the 

horizontal tiebeams are preferable.

Fig. 16 shows a joint designed by the writer to connect tiebeams 

with vertical posts. This kind of joint leaves the tiebeam undiminFost 6*t.

FIG. 16. Joint designed to connect tiebeams with vertical posts.

ished in thicJmess at the ends, where it is liable to split and be cracked 

by the sun; it provides an ample shoulder to prevent wind or earth 

pressure from overturning the sides; and, being dovetailed, it is 

stronger than the common half-timbered joint.

FIG. 17. Detail of connection of post with sill of flume.

Mortise joints are now seldom used in building flumes; experience 

has shown that the sills first decay around the mortise. Besides, the 

holding power of a pinned-tenon joint in saturated pine wood is but 

slight. Vertical posts are now usually toe-nailed onto the sills, and if
FOKTIEK.] WOODEN FLUMES. 53

there is any likelihood of the flooring settling away from the posts and 

sides, straps of steel should be bolted to each post and to the sill on 

which it rests, in a manner similar to that shown in fig. 14.

On the Bitterroot stock farm, owned by the late Mr. Marcus Daly 

and located near Hamilton, Montana, there are, in all, more than 5 

miles of flumes on the various canals which supply water to that extensive ranch. These flumes are similar to those shown in PI. VIII. 

They were designed by Mr. F. A. Jones, of Anaconda, Montana, chief 

engineer of the Anaconda Copper Company. The vertical posts, 

spaced 4 feet between centers, consist of two pieces of 2-inch by 6-inch 

joists, spiked with 40-penny wire nails to a 4-inch by 6-inch sill and 

tiebeam. The drawing shows a 3-inch by 6-inch tiebeam, but this was 

afterwards replaced by a 4-inch by 6-inch piece. These flumes are 

lined with 2i-ineh plank, surfaced, edged, and grooved in the manner 

shown in PI. VIII, and although built of green lumber they have 

always been practically water-tight. At the time of the writer's visit 

to this farm, in May, 1900, there were flumes of this design that did 

not leak one gallon per second in the length of a mile. In discussing 

this form of framework for flumes with Mr. Carlson, the carpenter 

and contractor who built them, he was of the opinion that the 2-inch by 

6-inch posts should be gained into the sills and the tiebeams as shown 

in fig. 17. The following tables give a list of the lumber required for 

a 16-foot length of the flume and the dimensions of the standard trestle 

bents of various heights:

List of lumber required for a 16-foot length of 3-foot by 5-foot flume used in Skalkaho ditch, 

on Bitterroot stock farm, near Hamilton, Montana.

Parts.

Bottom yoke. .........

Top yoke .............

Side yoke. ............

Tongues ..............

Subsills ..............

Total.............

Number 

of pieces.

11

4

4

16

4

8

16

3

4

Size.

Ins. Ins. Ft. 

2JX12 X16

4X6X7

3X6X7

2 V fi V 4-

3X6X3

f X |X16

{"'fix 2JX10

I 4j

4 V 4 Vlfi

2J X12 X 7

Board 

measure.

Feet. 

440

56

42

64

18

20

5

64

70

779

Kind of lumber.

both edges, and 

grooved. 

Common rough.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Clear first-class.

Do.

Do.
54 CONVEYANCE OF WATER FOE IRRIGATION. [NO. 43.

Dimensions of parts of standard trestle bents for 3-foot by 5-foot flume as used in Skalkaho 

ditch, on Bitterroot stock farm, near Hamilton, Montana.

Bottom of 

sill to top 

of stringer.

Ft. ins.

3 8...

4 8...

5 8...

6 8...

7 8...

8 8...

9 6...

10 6...

11 6...

12 6...

13 6...

14 4...

15 4...

16 4...

17 3...

18 3...

19 3...

20 3...

21 2...

22 2...

23 2...

24 2...

25 2...

26 1...

27 1...

29 4...

31 4...

33 4...

35 2...

37 2...

39 2...

41 0...

42 11...

44 11.. .

46 10...

48 10...

50 10...

52 9...

Plumb 

post, top 

of sill to 

bottom of 

cap.

Ft. ins.

1 i 7i <f

2 7J

3 7J

4 t 7i <f

5 7J

6 7J

7 5J

8 5J

9 5J

10 5J

11 5J

12 3J

13 3J

14 3J

15 2J

16 2J

17 2J

18 2J

19 1J

20 1J

21 11

22 1}

23 1}

24 OJ

25 OJ

/25 OJ 11 n

/25 01 

I 3 7J

J25 OJ 

1 5 7J

/25 OJ 

j 7 51

125 OJ

9 51

25 01 

11 5£

25 OJ 

13 3£

J25 OJ 

115 2£

/25 OJ 

117 2J

/25 OJ 

119 1}

J25 0} 

121 1}

J25 OJ 

123 11

/25 OJ 

\25 OJ

Material 

for batter 

and 

plumb 

posts. '

Feet.

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

26

2

26

4

26 

6

26 

8

26 

10

26 

12

26 

14

26 

16

26 

18

26 

20

26

22

26 

24

26 

26

Sill.

Feet.

8

8

10

10

10

10

10

12

12

12

12

12

12

14

14

14

14

14

14

16

16

16

16

16

16

J16 and 18

J16 and 18

J16 and 18

J16 and 20

J16 and 20

J16 and 20

J16 and 20

J16 and 22

J16 and 22

J16 and 22

Il6 and 24

J16 and 24

J16 and 24

Sway braces.

Feet.

8

10

10

12

12

12

14

14

14

16

16

18

18

20

12 and 14

14

14 and 16

14 and 16

14 and 16

16 and 18

16 and 18

16 and 18

16 and 18

16 and 18

16, 18, and 

8-10

16, 18, and 

10

'16, 18, and 

10-12

16, 18, and 

\ 12-14

(16, 18, and 

14

16, 18, and 

14-16

16, 18, and 

16-18

16, 18, and 

\ 18-20

/16, 18, 12, 

\andl2-14

/16,18,12-14, 

\andl4-16

f!6, 18, 14, 

1 and 14-16

J16, 18, 14-16, 

1andl6-18

J16, 18, and 

1 16-18

Sash.

Feet.

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

10 and 18

10 and 18

10 and 18

10 and 18

10 and 18

Diagonal braces.

Feet.

18

18

20

20

20

22

22

22

22

24

24

26

26

20

20

20

22

22

22

22

22 and 18

22 and 18

22 and 18

22 and 20

22 and 20

22

22 and 24

22 and 26

22 and 20

22 and 20

22

22

A common type of the small distributing flume is shown in fig. 18. 

The lining is usually li inches thick and 16 feet long. The bottom is
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

ci EV :=r^:

WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 43 PL. VIII

: :3 D

Double wedge

DETAILS OF FLUMES AND TRESTLES ON BITTERROOT STOCK FARM. NEAR

HAMILTON, MONTANA.

At a is shown an end elevation of flume ; b, wedge detail; c, tongue-and-groove detail; d, side elevation of flume ; /, trestle bents for heights to 16 feet; e, trestle bents from 16 feet to 28 feet in 

height; g, trestle bents from 28 feet to 50 feet in height. Diagonal braces should be used on all 

bents from 10 feet up.

POKTIEK.] WOODEN FLUMES. 55

12 inches and the sides are 8 inches, with collars every 4 feet. The 

lumber is usually prepared at the mills, and each section of the flume 

is dipped in hot coal tar or asphalt as soon as completed. In the 

orchards of southern California such flumes are frequently used to 

distribute water to the various furrows, by means of 2-inch holes 

spaced midway between every two collars and controlled by a galvanked-iron slide. Fig. 19 illustrates a modification of these standard 

distributing flumes which was built by the writer to convey a small 

stream of water to experiment plats on the farm of the experiment 

station of Utah.

PROTECTION OF ENDS.

It is often difficult to make a secure and water-tight connection 

between the end of a flume and an earthen canal. Various devices

PIG. 18. A common type of small distributing flume.

to accomplish this object have been used, but space will not permit 

more than a brief description of those most commonly adopted. This 

is an important feature of canal construction, for a large percentage 

of the breaks which have occurred are traceable to defective connections at the ends of the flumes. When flumes are built to convey 

water across ravines they should extend some distance beyond the 

edges of the ravines; otherwise a small leak, if unobserved, may wreck 

a costly structure.

Two forms of apron are used to prevent the passage of water either 

beneath or at the sides of a wooden flume, viz, the inclined apron and 

the vertical apron. The inclined apron extends downward from the 

floor, below grade, at an angle of about 20°, at which slope the lower 

ends of apron planks 10 feet long would be 3 feet below the bed of the 

canal. The side wings extend into the banks at even a greater angle,
56 CONVEYANCE OF WATEK FOE IRRIGATION. [NO. 43.

and impervious earth is carefully tamped around both bottom and 

sides. This mode of protecting1 the ends is reasonably secure, but 

there are serious objections to it. In the first place, it requires/a large

~U] 3*C

FIG. 19. Modifications of standard distributing fluine. At a is a view of flume showing method of 

joining ends; 6 is a cross section of flume and yoke; c is a side elevation of flume and yokes.

amount of material, and if we except the floor, which is below grade 

and always moist, this material, in the form of planking and dimension 

timbers, is placed in contact with earth and will decay in a few years.
U. S. GEOLO3ICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 43 PL. IX

A FLUME OF KERN VALLEY POWER DEVELOPMENT WORKS, CALIFORNIA.

FLUME AT SANGER, CALIFORNIA.

FORTIEK.] WOODEN FLUMES. 57

There is another objection to the side wings: Every sudden change in 

cross section of water channels is likely to produce eddies. When 

water flows through a rectangular flume and the section is suddenly 

enlarged by wings placed at an angle of from 30° to 45° to the axis of 

the canal, the main body of water in the center flows on down the 

canal, but there is a part on each side which is deflected toward the 

banks and which forms eddies. These eddies are very destructive to 

the banks, and the form of construction which has a tendency to produce them should be avoided if practicable. Fig. 20 shows, in plan 

and elevation, the end of a flume with inclined aprons. When protected by riprap the vertical apron possesses certain advantages over

I usg

1 w

| US

\ m

\ M

M \

M \

M \

N^ )

^S 1

1

\

I

T

FIG. 20. Plan and elevation of end of flume with inclined aprons.

the inclined apron. At the end of the flume a trench is dug 3 or more 

feet below grade and extending bej^ond the flume on each side to a 

distance of about half the width of the flume. An additional mudsill 

is laid in the bottom of the trench, and additional posts are placed at 

the ends, with an extended tiebeam on top. Planks are then spiked 

to these timbers and the earth is carefully tamped around them. This 

makes a water-tight bulkhead around each end of the flume. Since 

the amount of lumber required for this kind of apron is small compared with that required for the inclined apron, the writer has frequently obtained California redwood for the purpose. Pine lumber, 

if treated by some of the well-known and now much-used preservative 

processes, would, however, answer as well. To prevent erosion and 

the formation of eddies, riprap should be placed on the bottom and
58 CONVEYANCE OF WATER FOR IRRIGATION. [NO. 48.

sides, in the manner shown in fig. 21. If care is used in riprapping 

the sides, it is possible to so gradually change the cross section of the 

water in the flume to that of the canal that the flow will be but slightly 

disturbed.

There is a modification of the vertical apron introduced by Mr. J. 

C. Ulrich, civil engineer, of Colorado, 1 which is deserving of mention. 

In addition to the vertical apron, Mr. Ulrich builds at each end a short 

flume which he places 3 or more feet below grade and fills the additional 

space thus made with well-tamped earth.

CABBYING CAPACITIES.

As a rule the cross sections of flumes are too small. In calculating 

the size of a flume for a canal it is customary to take a high coefficient

«. - --sio"--- 

FIG. 21. Section of canal, showing riprap placed on the bottom and sides to prevent erosion.

of roughness for the canal and a low coefficient of roughness for the 

flume, for the reason that the flume is lined with lumber and the canal 

is composed of earth. The result of such theorizing is to overtax the 

upper ends of the flumes. In reality there is little difference between 

the carrying capacity of the flume as ordinarily built and the carrying 

capacity of an earthen canal of the same sectional area. All of the 

shorter flumes have their floors covered with sediment, gravel, and 

occasionally with cobbles, and the friction in them, if the lining be 

rough, may be greater than in the ordinary canal. 

When a flume is built on the same grade as the portion of the canal

JSee discussion on flumes in Ann. Am. Soc. Irrig. Engrs. for 1892-98, p. 181.
FORTIER.] WOODEN FLUMES. 59

adjacent to it, its width in the clear should be about equal to the mean 

width of the bottom and the surface of the canal; that is to say, if a 

canal has a bottom width of 10 feet and a surface width of 16 feet, the 

proper width of a flume for such a canal would be nearly 13 feet in the 

clear.

When water is to be conveyed through a flume crossing a ravine 

several hundred feet in width, it is customary to allow an extra fall 

for the flume, in order to reduce its size and lessen the expense. This 

extra fall can not be utilized to advantage if the size of the flume is 

uniform throughout, since the water moves with ordinary speed as it 

enters the upper end, and the effect of a steep grade is to increase the 

velocity and diminish the depth, so that the flume at the lower end 

may not run half full. In order to utilize an extra fall of this kind, 

either the width or the depth-of the flume should be gradually diminished from the upper end. By making the upper end as wide and as 

deep as the water in the canal, the width, for example, may be gradually lessened as the velocity of the water increases. This would make 

the most economical flume as regards material, but the cost of construction would be increased, which may account for the fact that few flumes 

have been built in that way. Some of these disadvantages may be 

overcome, however, by gradually enlarging the upper part of the 

flume, and allowing a steeper grade for this tapering part. By this 

means the entire volume would be admitted without damming back the 

water, and the extra grade would increase the velocity sufficiently to 

allow the flume proper to convey the volume admitted.

The following experiments were made on the carrying capacities of 

flumes:

Experiment No. %3. This test was on a flume of the Bear Eiver 

canal at the lower Malade Eiver crossing. About 200 feet of the 

upper portion is of iron and steel, lined with riveted plates; the 

lower portion, for a distance of more than 125 feet, is of wood. 

The test was made in the latter portion, and the results are given in 

the table on page 60. The discharge, 64.34 second-feet, was obtained 

by current-meter measurement. There was no sediment or gravel in 

the bottom, and the planks which formed the lining were planed.

Experiment No. 45 This test was on a small flume on the Elm 

farm, near Corinne, Utah. The lumber forming the bottom and sides 

was planed, but some of the oakum with which the joints were calked 

projected in places. The discharge was measured over a trapezoidal 

weir.

Experiment No. 8. This test was on a large flume of the Bear 

Eiver canal, located near the mouth of Bear Eiver Canyon. The 

lining was of planed lumber, but the floor of the flume was almost 

entirely covered with sediment and fragments of soft rock. Three 

current-meter measurements were made at the top, middle, and
60 CONVEYANCE OF WATER FOR IRRIGATION. [NO. 43.

bottom of a 150-foot section, and the results were 197.40, 197.32, and 

197.78 second-feet, respectively.

Experiment No. 10. This test was on a large flume of the Bear 

River canal, located about 2 miles above that of the flume of experiment No. 8. In this case the floor was covered with sediment, gravel, 

and small cobbles. The results of the current-meter measurements, 

taken at the top, middle, and bottom of a 100-foot section, were 206.36, 

207.74, and 206.89 second-feet, respectively.

Table showing values of hydraulic elements in experiments to determine carrying capacities

of flumes.

Experiment.

No. 23..

No. 45..

No. 8..

No. 10..

Discharge.

Sec.-feet. 

64.34

0.97

197. 50

207.00

Area of 

water 

section.

Sq.feet. 

11.78

1.49

66.60

84.05

Mean 

velocity.

Feet per 

second. 

5.46

0.65

2.97

2.46

Hydraulic 

mean 

radius.

0.87

0.33

2.86

2.94

Wetted * perimeter.

Lineal 

feet. 

13.62

4.51

23.32

28.60

Coefficient of roughness (n) .

0. 0142

0. 0184

0. 0201

0. 0217

Slope.

Feet per 

foot. 

0. 0032

0. 00038

0. 0004

0. 00031

Coefficient c.*

103. 37

57.64

87.72

81.85

*In Chezy's formula. 

SEMICIRCULAR FLUMES.

This form of flume, which resembles the modern stave pipe more 

than the rectangular flume, was invented by Guy Sterling, civil engineer, nearly nine years ago. His claims for a patent were filed in the 

summer of 1892, and in August, 1893, a patent was issued. The first 

flume of this type was built by William Ham. Hall, chief engineer of 

the Santa Ana canal, near Redlands, California, from a small model 

and a rough sketch prepared by Mr. Sterling. Inasmuch as the Santa 

Ana flume differs in many particulars from those built under the Sterling patent in Utah, it is reasonable to conclude that Mr. Hall modified 

Mr. Sterling's design. In this flume the 8-foot staves are milled from 

2-inch by 6-inch joists, in a manner exactly similar to the staves for 

wooden pipes, and are supported at the ends by T irons curved to 

coincide with the exterior of the flume. These T irons rest on wooden 

sills which are concave in the center and are supported by either blocks 

of concrete or by redwood mudsills. Each section of the flume is also 

bound by two five-eighths-inch round steel rods, fastened by means of 

nuts to two horizontal tiebeams which rest on the top edges of the 

flume. At their ends the staves are tightened by means of wedges 

driven between the tiebeams and iron straps, and throughout the middle 

portion they are tightened by cinching the nuts onto the two iron rods. 1

^See Trans. Am. Soc. Civ. Engrs., Vol. XXXIII, p. 100.
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY NO. 43 PL. X

END VIEW OF STERLING FLUME IN PROVO CANYON, UTAH.

U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 43 PL. XI

SIDE VIEW OF STERLING FLUME IN PROVO CANYON, UTAH.

FORTIEK.] WOODEN PLUMES. 61

At least four lines of this type of flume are now in successful opera 

tion. Their lengths, areas, and locations are as follows:

List of Sterling patent semicircular flumes in operation.

Location.

Telluride Power Transmission Co., Provo, Utah.

Length.

Lineal ft. 

11, 394

5,800

500

8,400

Sectional 

area.

Squareft. 

15.50

14.14

8.00

28.00

With the exception of the Santa Ana, all of the flumes named have 

been built in accordance with one general plan, differing only in size 

and relative proportions. The. Mount Nebo Irrigation Company's 

flume is a true semicircle of 6 feet inside diameter; the mining camp 

flume resembles a parabola, its depth being about 4 feet and its greatest width about 3 feet; and the Telluride Power Transmission Company's flume is shown in fig. 22. The staves are connected at their 

ends by metallic tongues inserted in saw kerfs, and are broken-jointed 

in that every two adjacent staves overlap at least 2 feet. The form 

of the staves, the end joints, and the manner of breaking joints are 

thus similar to those of stave pipe. The semicircular flume rests on 

wooden chairs placed 10 to 12 feet between centers. Each chair consists of a bolster, two vertical pieces curved by band sawing to suit 

the exterior of the flume, and a straight tiebeam. The chairs for the 

large flume of the Telluride Power Transmission Company in Provo 

Canyon are placed 12 feet apart, and the half-inch steel bands which 

hold the staves together are spaced 2 feet 8 inches between centers.

The Sterling semicircular flume possesses certain advantages over 

the common rectangular flume. In canyons where the line of the 

flume is made up for the most part of curves, it is comparatively easy 

to adjust the Sterling flume to ordinary curvatures. In case of shrinkage the flume may readily be made water-tight by screwing up the 

nuts at the ends of each threaded band. It also possesses the advantage of not being in contact with the soil, so that air is allowed to circulate freely around all portions, with the exception of the small 

mudsills, which may be replaced at trifling cost. No nails or spikes are 

driven through the lining of the flume, and by making a girder of each 

12-foot length fewer supports and less lumber are required.

The Provo Canyon line, shown in Pis. X and XI, has been successfully operated for nearly three years, and the only breaks that have 

occurred have been caused by bowlders becoming detached from the 

canyon sides and striking the exposed flume. The bottom staves
62 CONVEYANCE OF WATEE FOE IEEIGATION. [NO. 43.

sagged in places to such an extent that additional supports had to be 

inserted midway between the chairs. This is the most serious structural weakness which has developed in this flume, and the remedy is 

evidently a shorter span between the chairs.

In order to determine the carrying capacities of semicircular flumes, 

two current-meter measurements were made in 1898 by the late W. B. 

Dougall, civil engineer, who was then assisting the writer. One of 

these measurements was made near the intake, in what is known as the

FIG. 22. Flume of Telluride Power Transmission Company in Provo Canyon, Utah.

old flume, and the other was made at a point about a mile below, in 

what is known as the new flume. At the time these experiments were 

made the flume was not carrying its maximum quantity of water, for 

some repairs were being made. There was also considerable leakage 

between the two places of measurement, which may account for the 

greater part of the difference in discharge. The following are the 

results of Mr. Dougall's experiments:
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

A. TEMPORARY HEADWORKS OF SANTA ANA CANAL, CALIFORNIA.

S CONNECTION BETWEEN TUNNEL AND FLUME OF SANTA ANA CANAL, 

CALIFORNIA.

FOETIEE.] STAVE PIPE. 63

Table showing results of tests made by W. B. Dougall to determine the carrying capacities of

semicircular flumes.

Measurement.

Upper measurement .

Lower measurement.

Discharge.

Sec. -feet.

74.89

72.40

Area of 

water 

section.

Sq.feet.

13.24

13.49

Mean 

velocity.

Feet per 

second.

5.62

5.37

Hydraulic 

mean 

radius.

1.45

1.46

Wetted perimeter.

Lineal 

feet.

9.12

9.26

Coefficient of roughness (n).

0. 0111

0. 0116

Slope.

Feet 

perfoot.

0.001

0.001

Coefficicient.*

147. 74

140.84

* In Chezy's formula. 

STAVE PIPE.

The use of wood to convey water for domestic purposes was common 

a hundred years ago. Many of the present extensive and costly 

waterworks systems of the New England cities had 

their origin in one or more lines of bored logs. 

Owing, however, to their small capacity and the 

imperfect manner of joining the lengths, their use in 

the United States has been wholly superseded by some 

form of metal pipe. One frequently reads of these 

old bored logs being dug up to give place to modern 

improvements, and the excellent state of preservation in which they are found, after being buried a 

lifetime, speaks well for the lasting qualities of wood 

under favorable conditions.

In some parts of Canada bored logs are still extensively used for water pipes, on account of the cheapness of suitable lumber. Tamarack wood is preferred, 

both on account of its durability when in contact with 

the soil and the suitable form of the trees, which 

are frequently not larger than a stovepipe at the butt 

end and maintain a nearly uniform size throughout 

two-thirds of their entire length. When tamarack 

is not available, Canada balsam makes a good substitute. In many sections this can be had for the 

cutting. It is so soft that a man can bore with ease 

a 2-inch hole through a section length, and when 

kept moist it lasts well. The trees are cut in lengths 

of from 9 to 12 feet, and each length is placed on 

a platform, where it is bored by a long auger 

revolving in guides and operated by hand. The sections are joined by reaming a long, tapering socket 

in the larger end of each length and by shaving or 

turning the smaller end into a spigot. Formerly a band of wrought 

iron encircled the socket end to prevent the shell from splitting when

FIG. 23. Water pipe 

of bored logs.
64 CONVEYANCE OF WATEE FOE IEEIGATION. [NO. 43.

the spigot was being driven into it; but in more recent practice the 

iron band is driven into the end, as shown in fig. 23.

Illustrations of the next stage of the development of wooden pipe 

are to be seen in the penstocks of many of the old gristmills and sawmills of New England and eastern Canada. Originally these pipes, or 

penstocks, were built in sections of narrow pine or balsam planks, the 

edges being planed, by hand, to the required bevel. These staves were 

encircled by flat bands, to which were welded short pieces of round 

iron threaded and secured by nuts to cast-iron saddles. The weak* 

feature of this construction was in the joints between the sections. 

By using a tapering stave the ends of each section were made to differ 

in size, and by shaving down the smaller end it was made to telescope 

the larger. The lap, however, wa*s only a few inches at most, so that 

the joints usually leaked, or the sections slipped apart altogether. In 

some cases this defect was remedied by building the pipe in the trench

FIG. 24. Section of stave pipe used in wooden conduit of Toronto waterworks.

and avoiding distinct joints at regular distances, the ends of the staves 

being united by an iron dowel and the joints broken by a lap of 2 

or more feet. 1 The 6-foot wooden conduit laid in 1881 and 1882 as 

part of the intake of the Toronto waterworks may be cited as a sample 

of this type of stave pipe. The staves were made of white oak 6 inches 

wide and 5 inches thick, beveled on the edges and curved on the outer 

surface to conform to an arc having a radius of 3 feet 5 inches, as 

shown in fig. 24. The metallic tongue between abutting stave ends 

was one-eighth inch thick, 6 inches long, and the full width of the 

center of the stave. The hoops were of wrought iron, three-fourths 

inch thick by 3 inches wide, welded together, washtub fashion, and 

spaced 2 feet between centers.

It is a modified form of this kind of stave pipe that has been so 

extensively used in the Western States during the last twelve years. 2 

The first line of this kind was built under the supervision of Mr.

1 See paper by T. J. McMinn in Trans. Can. Soc. Civ. Engrs., Vol. I, Pt. I, p. 67.

2 Wooden-stave pipe, by Samuel Fortier: Ann. Am. Soc. Irrig. Engrs. for 1892-93.
U. S. REOLOCICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 43 PL. XIII

STAVE PIPE OF ELECTRIC-LIGHT WORKS AT BRIGHAM. UTAH.

FOETIEE.] STAVE PIPE. 65

Charles P. Alien, chief engineer of the Denver Union Water Company, 

of Denver, Colorado, and extended from the West Denver reservoir 

to thQ underground galleries on South Platte River, 3i miles distant.

The results of Mr. Alien's experiments were finally embodied in a 

patent issued March 22, 1887. This patent embraced stave pipe as a 

whole as well as each of its main features, viz, the round iron or steel 

bands, the cast-iron shoes or saddles, and the metallic tongues. Many 

modifications and some improvements, now covered by other patents, 

have since been made, and in order that the reader may obtain some 

idea of the modern forms of this pipe, a brief description of each will 

be given.

Fig. 25 illustrates the mode of connecting the butt joints of the

FIG. 26. Details of Alien type of stave pipe, a, section of wooden pipe, showing position of steel 

bands and iron saddle; b, elevation of pipe, showing method of breaking joints and position of steel 

bands; c, ends of staves, showing metallic tongue; d, ends of steel band and malleable-iron saddle; 

e, plan of saddle; /, wrench or bitstock for screwing up nuts on steel bands; g, outside form used in 

building pipe, consisting of a bent gas pipe on a block of wood in the trench; h and i, inside form 

used in building pipe, consisting of a coil of J-ineh gas pipe.

staves, the forms of the steel bands and the malleable iron saddles, 

and a portion of a completed pipe of the Alien type. The staves are 

dressed from joists varying in size from 2 inches by 4 inches to 3 

inches by 10 inches, depending on the diameter of the pipe to be built, 

and their ends are slotted to admit the metallic tongue. The malleo

able-iron saddle is so designed that it holds in position the T end of 

the band, and allows the insertion of the threaded end, which is secured 

bj means of a nut.

Pig. 26 shows the construction of the Dwelle type of stave pipe. 

It differs from the Alien type in several important particulars: The 

IEK 43 5
66 CONVEYANCE OF WATER FOR IRRIGATION. [NO. 43.

ends of the staves are connected by means of a tongue and groove; 

the band is threaded at each end and is secured to the casting by two 

corresponding nuts which abut against shoulders; the edges of the 

staves, instead of being radial, are dressed to a kind of ogee curve.

Fig. 27 shows the construction of the stave pipe recently built by 

the Pioneer Electric Power Company, of Ogden, Utah. The shape of 

the staves and the metallic tongues used to connect their ends are 

similar to those of Alien's patent, but the steel bands and saddles are 

widely different; they were designed by the late J. C. O'Melveny, 

civil engineer, of Salt Lake, Utah. The band is in two parts. One 

part encircles the upper circumference of the pipe and is attached to 

two steel saddles by means of two loop eyes; the other part encircles 

the lower circumf erence*of the pipe and is attached to the same sadFIG. 26. Details of Dwelle type of stave pipe, a, portion of section of pipe, showing ends of bands; 

6, plan of pipe; c, end of stave, showing tongue; d, portion of section, showing edges of stave dressed 

to ogee curve.

dies by means of nuts screwed to each threaded and upset end of this 

part of the band. The saddles are U shaped, being curved to suit 

the outer arc of the staves, and pressed, when hot, out of three-sixtenth-inch steel plates.

There are various other modifications of staves, bands, and saddles, 

but their use has been confined to short lengths of pipes and to few 

localities.

LUMBER FOR STAVES.

Colorado pine (Pinus ponderosa) was used on the first pipe lines built 

in the West. Its tendency to warp, the large number of knots which 

it contains, and its short life when exposed to unfavorable conditions, 

render it an unsuitable wood in every respect save that of first cost.
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

A. OLD FLUME AND NEW REDWOOD STAVE PIPE REPLACING IT, REDLANDS CANAL,

CALIFORNIA.

£. REDWOOD STAVE PIPE UNDER 160 FEET H EAD, SANTA AN A CAN AL, CALIFORNIA.

POKTIER.] STAVE PIPE. 67

-leaf yellow Texas pine (Pinus palustris) was next tried and was 

found to possess many advantages over the native pine. There were 

few knots, the staves were longer, and there was less warping on 

exposure to the action of the sun and atmosphere. The resin-filled 

ducts in the quarter-sawed lumber were among the worst defects, since 

the fluctuating water pressure within the pipe washed out the resinous 

substance and allowed the water within to ooze through the thin shell.

Section A-B

FIG. 27. Details of stave pipe built by Pioneer Electric Company, of Ogden, Utah, a, details of steel 

bands; &, plan and elevation of saddle.

California redwood (Sequoia sempervirens), on account of its great 

durability, its freedom from knots, and its fine, close texture, has been 

extensively used for this purpose on the Pacific coast and as far east 

as Utah, Montana, and Colorado. More than twenty carloads of finished redwood staves were used by the writer in the spring of 1890 to 

build a 2-foot stave conduit for the Ogden waterworks, and two years 

later the same kind of wood was used on the 18-inch conduit of the 

Logan waterworks. Both of these lines have given excellent satisfaction and bid fair to last thirty years or longer.

Douglas spruce (Pseudotsuga douglasii), commonly called Oregon 

fir, or Oregon pine, was used to the extent of 1,500,000 feet B. M. on 

the 27,000 lineal feet of 6-foot conduit of the Pioneer Electric Power 

Company, of Ogden, Utah. In appearance this lumber was perhaps
68 CONVEYANCE OF WATER FOR IRRIGATION. [NO. 43.

the finest ever used in construction work on this continent. It was 

strong and smooth, and entirely free from knots and other defects 

common to most timbers. The only question yet to be settled in 

regard to the use of Douglas spruce for staves is: Will it last long? 

We know that the life of a redwood railroad tie, if protected by thin 

metal plates from the crushing effect of the rail, is more than twice as 

long as that of either a pine or a spruce tie. The greater part of the 

conduit just mentioned is considerably below the level to which the 

water would rise if a hole were bored in the pipe, and the lumber in 

all such portions will be continuously soaked. Such being the case, the 

lumber used was perhaps the most economical. If, however., a pipe or 

conduit has to be located on grade, or in a position where the pipe will 

be only partially filled with water, there can be no question that redwood, although its first cost may be greater, will prove the cheapest 

wood in the end.

STEEL FOE BANDS.

In specifying the quality of steel for the bands, the strength of the 

metal has been considerably reduced in order to increase its toughness 

and ductility. Mr. Alien was the first to use a mild steel made by the 

open-hearth process, very similar in quality to that used for steam boilers. The average tensile strength of the specimens tested was about 

61,000 pounds per square inch, the elastic limit 40,000 pounds, the 

elongation in 8 inches more than 25 per cent, and the reduction area 

more than 50 per cent. This kind of steel will not only bend flat upon 

itself through 180 degrees when cold, but after being so bent it may 

be hammered to half its diameter without sign of fracture.

In the first lines built in the West the rods were not upset at their 

threaded ends. This omission was probably due to the extra cost of 

upsetting small rods. This work can now be done, however, for a 

mere trifle, and any one can readily see that in pipes of large diameters, requiring long bands, the saving in upsetting the threaded ends 

is considerable.

CONSTRUCTION.

The bottom width of the trench is made from 1 to 2 feet wider than, 

the diameter of the pipe, in order to give space for workmen to stand 

on either side of the pipe when it is being put together, and the side 

slopes of the trench are as steep as the nature of the material will 

permit.

Ordinarily inch gas pipes bent in the form of a U, the lower portion 

conforming to the outer circumference of the pipe, answer very well 

for outside forms in which to hold the staves in place until the lower 

half is put together. To prevent the staves from falling while the 

upper half is being built, the same kind of iron pipe is used in the
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 43 PL. XV

REDWOOD STAVE PIPE (52-INCH) CROSSING W ARMSPRINGS CANYON, NEAR REDLANDS, CALIFORNIA,

FORTIEK.] STAVE PIPE. ' 69

form of a coil, the outer diameter of which is nearly equal to that of 

the inside diameter of the pipe. The bottom staves are kept slightly 

in advance of the top staves, in order to facilitate building and to make 

a stronger joint. The lengths are joined by lapping the staves a distance of from 20 to 30 inches. An oak driving bar banded with Norway iron and struck; 1 with a 12-pound sledge hammer is the only device 

used to drive the staves and make tight all end joints. The metallic 

tongues are inserted in the slots made in the ends of the staves after 

each section or length has been driven, when all is in readiness for 

the building of the next section.

The steel rods for the bands are bent' by hand after being shaped on 

turning tables, and are afterwards either dipped in hot asphalt or 

painted. Specially designed braces are used to screw the nuts on the 

bands, and a leather-faced wooden mallet handled by a man inside of 

the pipe has been found to be the best tool to adjust the staves to the 

proper alignment and true circle.

The strength of the pipe depends on the number and size of the 

steel bands. If there is little pressure within the pipe, the bands are 

spaced far apart, but seldom more than 14 inches. As the pressure 

within increases i. e., as the pipe dips the bands are placed nearer 

together, so that a pipe under a head of 100 feet may be as strong as 

a pipe under a head of 5 feet.

LOCATION OF PIPE LINE.

It is very bad practice to locate a wooden pipe line on a grade, for 

the reason that when so placed the pipe is seldom full of water, and 

moist air and gases collect in the upper portion, which, with the earth 

without, soon cause the wood to rot. An ideal location is over gently 

undulating ground where each low, flat valley ends in a narrow ridge. 

Seen from the side, a pipe so placed would remind one of a big cable 

supported at regular intervals and sagging between every two supports. Hence, in laying out a line for wooden pipe, no matter how 

rough or uneven the country traversed may be, an attempt should be 

made to rise to grade only at intervals which might vary from a quarter to a half mile, while the line between the rising points might be 5 or 

more feet below grade. The main object of such a location is to keep 

the pipe not only full of water but under some internal pressure. Other 

conditions being favorable, and the shell being kept continuously moist, 

wooden pipe should last a lifetime.

DUBABILITY.

Stave pipe built of native pine lumber, placed in a dry soil, and 

kept only partially full of water, may rot along the top staves to
70 CONVEYANCE OF WATEE FOE IEEIGATION. [NO. 43.

such an extent that in five years those staves will have to be renewed. 

The same kind of pipe, however, if kept continuously full of water 

and under pressure and buried 2 or 3 feet beneath the surface, may be 

in good condition twenty years after being laid.

Ten years ago the city of Cheyenne, Wyoming, laid about 9,000 

lineal feet of stave pipe from wells in Crow Creek to a standpipe 

near the reservoir. The low standpipe kept the lower portion of the 

pipe line under pressure, but the upper portion was seldom full of 

water, often only half full, and rotted so rapidly that in about eight 

years 2,000 feet of it was replaced by sewer pipe, and during the year 

1897 an additional length of 2,200 feet was replaced by sewer pipe 24 

inches in diameter. Through the courtesy of Walter D. Pease, civil 

engineer, of Laramie, Wyoming, the writer obtained three samples of 

the old staves, which Mr. Pease graded best, second best, and third 

best. The best sample was in fairly good condition, having been kept 

moist, the third-best sample was greatly decayed, while portions of 

the top staves were reduced to rotten fragments and could not be 

photographed.

The durability of stave pipe when made of good lumber and properly laid is shown by the following extract from a report on the 

Ogden waterworks to the Ogden council, by N. W. Bethel, city engineer, and the writer as consulting engineer:

In consideration of the fact that this wooden stave pipe has been in operation for 

nearly eight years, its present condition is excellent. We have uncovered portionsof the pipe throughout its entire length in at least forty different places, and have 

found without exception the redwood of which the staves are composed to be in a 

sound condition.

The life of this kind of pipe is prolonged by an earth covering of 2 

feet or more. When laid near the surface, with little or no covering 

of earth, the combined action of earth, air, and sunlight causes decay.

USE.

The most expensive portions of irrigation canals in earth are the 

ravines. During the last thirty years the common practice in the 

Rocky Mountain region has been either to go around these ravine* 

with a grade canal or to erect across each a flume on trestles. The 

first method is often impracticable, and in any event the length of the 

canal is unnecessarily increased. The latter method proves expensive, 

not because of the first cost, but on account of the annual expense of 

maintenance and the frequent renewals. Such flumes usually have 

to be calked every spring, while both trestles and flume are exposed to 

landslides, fires, and windstorms, or, escaping these, are inevitably 

subject to early decay. Stave pipe, on account of its cheapness and 

the large sizes that can be constructed, is rapidly taking the place of
FORTIEB.] B1VETED-STEEL PIPE. 71

flumes on trestles. One or more lines of pipe are laid in a trench dug 

across the bottom of the ravine, and are connected with the grade canal 

at either end by means of shallow wells or rectangular boxes. The 

cost of an inverted pipe siphon is frequently less, and it may last two 

or three times longer than a flume on trestles.

The old-fashioned way of conveying water to gristmills, sawmills, or 

manufacturing plants was to make use of a short, open raceway from 

the stream to the mill and utilize the low head thus created. Wooden 

pipe, on account of its general adaptability, is now being extensively 

used for this purpose. It permits the conveyance of an equal amount 

of water a much longer distance, increasing the fall and consequently 

the power produced.

This kind of pipe is also frequently used to convey water to domestic 

distributing reservoirs, from which the water is conducted through 

iron pressure pipes laid in the streets of the city.

COST.

On account of the fluctuation in the prices of lumber and steel, as 

well as the variation in freight rates and many other causes, it is 

impossible to state the cost of stave pipe. In the Rocky Mountain 

States the price of redwood joists dressed into staves is about $40 per 

1,000 feet B. M. A pipe 20 inches in diameter requires about 13 feet 

of lumber to each lineal foot of pipe; a 24-inch pipe requires 16 feet of 

lumber, a 30-inch pipe requires 18 feet, a 36-inch pipe requires 22 feet, 

and so on in about that ratio. The cost of the iron and steel per lineal 

foot of pipe depends on the pressure of water within the pipe. When a 

stave pipe is laid near grade the bands may be spaced 12 or more inches 

apart. If, on the other hand, it is laid across the bottom of a ravine 

100 feet below grade, the bands should be about 3 inches apart.

The figures given below may convey some idea of the present comparative cost of stave pipe, cast-iron pipe, and riveted-steel pipe in the 

city of Salt Lake. The following bids were received March 24, 1900, 

for furnishing all of the materials and laying the City Creek pipe line:

4,390 lineal feet of 30-inch stave pipe, $2.95 and $3.10; or 

x 4,390 lineal feet of 30-inch cast-iron pipe, $10.20 and $10.85; or 

4,390 lineal feet of 30-inch riveted-steel pipe, $8.65 and $9.15. 

4,390 lineal feet of 24-inch stave pipe, $2,60 ami $2.55; 

5,920 lineal feet of 24-inch-cast-iron pipe, $7.45 and $8.15; and 

5,920 lineal feet of 24-inch riveted-steel pipe, $5.75 and $6.05.

RIVETED-STEEL PIPE.

Riveted-steel pipe is extensively used in southern California to convey water for orchard irrigation, but its use in the Rocky Mountain 

States has been confined to power plants and domestic water supplies.
72 CONVEYANCE OF WATEE FOE IEKIGATION. [NO. 43.

It is well adapted to high heads, and irrigators who desire to conduct 

water across deep gulches would do well to write to the makers of this 

kind of pipe for prices. The principal manufacturers of riveted-steel 

pipe on the Pacific coast are the Union Iron Works and Francis Smith 

& Company, of San Francisco, and the Lacy Manufacturing Company 

and J. D. Hooker, of Los Angeles. The writer has also obtained prices 

at various times from the Carroll-Porter Boiler and Tank Company, of 

Pittsburg, Pennsylvania.

Riveted-steel pipe ranges in size from 3 inches to 72 inches internal 

diameter. The smaller sizes are made into lengths of 25 feet or more 

at the shops and are thoroughly coated with asphaltum. The larger 

sizes are usually made in temporary shops erected near the site where 

the pipe is to be laid.

The following extracts from general specifications furnished by the 

secretary of the Carroll-Porter Boiler and Tank Company will give 

the reader some idea of the manner of making this kind of pipe:

Requirements for steel plates. The steel shall be of the class termed "soft" and shall 

be made by the basic or acid open hearth process. If by the basic open hearth process it shall contain not more than .04 of phosphorus and .04 of sulphur. If acid 

it shall contain not over .08 of phosphorus and .05 sulphur.

The amount of manganese and carbon to be in such quantities as shall produce the 

best results.

Chemical analysis of each "heat" or "melt" shall be made by the Engineer or 

his representative, and properly certified copies of the final analysis of the material 

shall be furnished to the Engineer as the work progresses.

Physical tests to determine the tensile strength, elastic limit, elongation, softness, 

and ductility of the material of each " heat" or " melt" shall also be made by experienced Inspectors whose services may be satisfactory to the Engineer. For the 

purpose of identification the "heats " or "melts" shall be numbered consecutively, 

and the corresponding number stamped upon each plate or sheet produced therefrom.. The test specimens shall in all cases be taken from the shearings of such 

plates produced from each "heat" or "melt" as is thought necessary, and such sheets 

or plates to be selected at random by said Inspector or Engineer, and properly certified copies of the record of such test shall be furnished the Engineer as the work 

progresses.

Tensile test specimens to be eight (8) inches long and one and one half (If) inches 

wide between measuring points. Tensile strength is to be between the limits of fifty 

two thousand (52,000) and sixty two thousand (62,000) pounds per square inch. 

Elastic limit to be not less than one half the tensile strength required. For plates 

three eighths (f) inch thick or more, the elongation to be not less than twenty-five 

(25) per cent. For plates thinner than three eighths (|) inch, elongation to be not 

less than twenty-two and one half (22J) per cent.

Bending test specimens cut lengthwise or crosswise from the sheet to be six (6) 

inches long and one (1) inch wide, to be bent one hundred and eighty (180) degrees 

upon itself when cold, and hammered down flat without sign of fracture on the outside of the bent portion.

The plates must also admit of cold hammering or scarfing to a fine edge at the laps 

without cracking* and the test pieces must furthermore withstand such quenching, 

forging, and other tests as may suffice to exhibit fully the temper, soundness and fitness for use of the material. The failure of said test specimens,.when taken at ran-
FORTIES.] RIVETED-3TEEL PIPE. 73

dom as aforesaid from the finished product of any "heat" or " melt," to conform to 

the above requirements will be sufficient cause for the rejection of the entire product 

of such "heats" or "melts."

The plates shall be free from lamination and surface defects and be fully up to the 

required gauge for thickness on the edges. Any plate whose thickness at any point 

may be found less than ninety-five (95) per cent of the required thickness shall be 

rejected without appeal; furthermore, at least ninety (90) percent of the plates must 

be of the full required thickness at all points. Said plates shall be rolled as flat and 

sheared as accurately as good mill practice will permit, but in no case shall they be 

scant of the prescribed or intended dimensions, and must be in all respects of a good 

merchantable condition. The Engineer shall have the right at all times to inspect 

the manufacture and testing of any and all plates and shall have, if so required, one 

fourth (J) of the number of test pieces to be prepared as above, to test or to have 

tested under his o'wn supervision.

It is further understood and agreed that any plate that shows any defects during 

the process of punching, bending, and riveting for manufacturing into pipes shall be 

rejected, notwithstanding that the same may previously have been satisfactorily 

tested.

Requirements for steel rivets. Rivet steel shall be soft and have a tensile strength 

between the limits of fifty thousand (50,000) and fifty eight thousand (58,000) pounds 

per square inch, with an elastic limit of not less than thirty thousand (30,000) pounds 

per square inch, and with an elongation of not less than twenty-eight (28) per cent, 

in a test bar eight inches long between measuring .points and full diameter of rivet, 

and with a reduction of cross sectional area at the point of fracture of not less than 

fifty (50) per cent. The material shall also be of such quality as will stand bending 

double and flat before and after heating to a light yellow heat, and quenching in cold 

water, without sign of fracture on the convex surface of the bend. All steel rivets 

not conforming to the above requirements will be rejected.

Manufacture of pipe. The sheets or plates must be of such dimensions as to admit 

of being rolled into true cylinders not less than five (5) feet in length and of the 

required internal diameter with ample allowance for the necessary overlap at the 

single longitudinal seam of each such cylinder. The pipe shall be made telescopic 

and the plates when formed shall be a cylinder whose external diameter at one end 

shall be equal to its internal diameter at the other end and forming a tight fit with 

each other before any protective coating is applied to the material.

The edges of each plate must be properly beveled for calking all around; and at 

the end of each course, where the lap of the longitudinal seam occurs, the plate must 

be reduced by cold hammering or planing, or both, to a fine edge, through which 

one of the rivets of the round seam must be driven to insure tightness. In addition 

to this rivet, still another rivet must be driven through the three thicknesses of plate 

at such joints. Each plate must be rolled to a perfect cylinder of the required 

diameter.

All rivet holes must be spaced with precision. In punching said holes the best and 

sharpest dies and punches are to be used. The holes must all coincide to within one 

thirty-second (-g^) of an inch; otherwise they are to be enlarged by a sharp reamer 

or drill. No drift pins shall be used in forcing rivet holes to coincide at any seam or 

lap; and all plates in which the said holes cannot be made to receive a rivet of the 

specified diameter, with such slight drifting or reaming as will not, in the opinion of 

the Inspector, reduce the strength of the plates, will be rejected.

All riveting in the shop must be done with hot steel rivets and by steam, compressed air, or hydraulic machinery exerting a slow pressure and retaining it sufficiently to perfectly form the rivet heads before the metal loses its red color. All 

rivets when driven must fit the holes completely. Care must in all cases be taken 

to have the rivets of the right heat to produce the best and most solid work, and any
74 CONVEYANCE OF WATEE FOE lEEIGATION. [NO.43.

rivet that may at any time or place be found defective or appear to have been "overheated, shall be cut out and replaced at the Contractor's expense by one which is 

sound in all respects. All rivet heads must be perfect in form and truly concentric 

with the shank or shaft.

All circular seams may be single riveted but all longitudinal seams on the straight 

pipe shall be double riveted. The proportions to be used in laying out and making 

the riveted 

*******

joints or seams shall in general be as follows, all figures being in inches. 

The dimensions given in the foregoing table are to be regarded as approximate, and 

subject to modification before the material for the pipe is definitely ordered by the 

Contractor; and any modification proposed by said Contractor shall be subject in 

detail to the approval of the Engineer before being carried into effect.

The pipe is to be manufactured in lengths of four or more courses each, and so laid 

that all longitudinal seams will at all times be on top and within a foot of the center 

line of the pipe.

Where angles or curves occur in either the alignment or the grade of the conduit, 

the plates must be cut and punched to the required lines for forming a small oblique 

angle at the round seams of as many courses as may be needed to produce the given 

total deflection or curvature in each locality, and the courses must be put together 

with the straight seams alternating as aforesaid. Where greater angles and special 

pieces are necessary they shall be made as ordered by the Engineer.

All rivet seams and joints of every description shall be thoroughly calked both on 

the inside and outside in the best and most workmanlike manner for first class boiler 

work, while for the necessary distance from all laps the seams shall be both chipped 

and calked.

Testing. During its manufacture, sample lengths of pipe to be selected by the 

Inspector as frequently as he may deem necessary, shall be tested after coating, under 

a water pressure equal to one and one half (1J) times the maximum hydrostatic 

head for which it is designed, and shall be tight under that pressure. All such tests 

will be made at the Contractor's expense, and he shall furnish all the necessary 

appliances and labor for their performance to the Inspector's satisfaction.

Goading. When the pipes -are finished, they are to be thoroughly coated by dipping in a bath of refined asphaltum, as follows: Each length of pipe must be 

thoroughly clean inside and outside, free from dust, earth or sand, and without 

rust upon any part of it. Any rust that may have formed must be removed by 

brushing and scrubbing with a wire brush and diluted acid, followed by mopping 

or brushing with milk of lime, or a saturated solution of soda, to remove the acid, 

until all the rust and acid shall have been removed. All alkali used shall be 

washed off and the surface dried.

The pipes are then to be heated, after which they are to be dipped in the bath of 

coating material. The coating shall consist of the best quality of California or 

Trinidad refined asphalt, such as is used for pipe coating purposes. The coating 

must be durable, smooth,- glossy, hard, tough, perfectly water-proof, not affected by 

any salts or acids found in the soil, strongly adhesive to the metal under all circumstances, and with no tendency to become soft enough to flow when exposed to the 

sun in summer, or to become so brittle as to scale off in winter.

After having been prepared as aforesaid, the coating composition shall be placed 

in a vertical tank and carefully heated to a temperature of about three hundred 

(300) degrees F., or such other temperature as may hereafter be found best adapted 

for the purpose, and kept at this temperature during the whole time of dipping.

Fresh materials must be added to the aforesaid bath from time to time in the 

right proportion to keep the mixture of the proper consistency. Such proportions 

may also be varied according to the season of the year, as will be directed by the 

Engineer or found necessary to produce a coating of the required quality.
FORTIER.] CAST-IEOK PIPE. 75

CAST-IRON PIPE.

HISTORY.

According to Mr. Jesse Garrett,1 the first cast-iron pipe was used 

for the water service of Versailles, France, in 1685. The first iron 

pipe was laid in London in 1746, and in 1835 the various water systems, 

of that metropolis included more than 1,000 miles of that kind of pipe.

During the early part of this century James Watt laid cast-iron 

pipes with flexible joints across the River Clyde, to convey water toGlasgow. These pipes had ball and socket joints, were 9 feet long-, 

and from 15 inches to 36 inches in diameter.

The first cast-iron pipes used by the city of Philadelphia weremolded by Mark Adams from designs prepared by Frederic Gratf, sr., 

the engineer of the Philadelphia waterworks. These pipes were cast 

direct from melted native bog ore. The pipe molds were placed in a 

nearly horizontal position and sufficiently low to tap the flow from the 

furnace, the excess of each pouring being run into pigs.

Fanning states 2 that the earliest pipes had joints with a packing 

ring of leather. These were 2i feet in length. Then followed somewhat longer pipes, with screw joints, which, however, were not satisfactory, the rigid joints preventing free contraction in winter and 

expansion in summer. For screw joints there were soon substituted 

slightly tapering cylindrical socket joints, in which both hub and 

spigot ends were accurately dressed on a lathe. In forming the*jointr 

a heavy lubricant, like tallow, was first spread over the dressed 

surface, after which each spigot end was driven into its socket. TM& 

kind of joint is still used for water and gas pipes in parts of Great 

Britain and Canada.

The bell and spigot joint so common at the present time was first 

adapted to wood instead of lead packing. Dry pine, dressed in the 

form of a stave to suit the diameter of the pipe to be calked and about 

3 inches in width, was cut into lengths a trifle longer than the depth of 

the socket. From four to eight of these pine wedges, which tapered 

slightly, were entered at the top, bottom, and middle of the joint and 

driven home together. The remaining annular spaces were filled by 

other wedges somewhat wider than the spaces. 3

MANUFACTURE. 4

The first process in the manufacture of cast-iron pipe consists in 

making the core, which is formed on a cylindrical iron spindle. The

1 The Early History of Cast-iron Pipe, by Jesse Garrett; Read before the New England Water WorksAssociation in 18%.

" Hydraulic Engineering and Manual for Water Supply Engineers, p. 458.

3 For description of pine packing in cast-iron pipes see paper by P. A. Creighton in Trans. Can. Sue, 

Civ. Engrs., Vol.,VHI, Pt. I, p. 145.

* The writer is indebted to Mr. W. P. McCue, of the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company, for much of 

the information contained in this description.
76 CONVEYANCE OF WATER FOE IRRIGATION. [NO. 4*.

spindle is first wrapped with machine-made hay rope, and around the 

rope tempered clay is firmly packed. After this coating- is dried a 

second coat is put on. Then the spindle is revolved in its bearing's and 

.a third coat, consisting- of blacking made from coal dust, is added. 

After this last coat has been applied the core is trimmed to exact

 dimensions and is then placed in a drying- oven.

The next step in the process is to center a cylindrical iron pattern 

inside of the flask in which the mold is formed. The outside diameter of this pattern is the inside diameter of the pipe to be made. 

Sand and a small portion of clay slightly tempered are firmly rammed 

around the pattern, so as to form the mold. The flask is then ready 

for the drying- pan. When the several parts are sufficiently dried they 

are taken from the oven and placed in the casting pit. The core is 

placed in the molds and is accurately centered in the bevel at the 

bottom and to the bead ring at the top in order to insure the desired

 dimensions of pipe. The molten metal is taken from the cupola in a 

ladle swung from a crane and is poured into the molds around the

 core. The intense heat from the metal causes the hay rope on the 

spindle to burn, leaving the spindle loose and capable of being easily 

withdrawn. As soon as the metal has become sufficiently cooled the 

pipe is lifted from the flask, taken outside of the building and placed 

upon skids, where it is thoroughly cleaned and prepared for the coating. After being cleaned it is placed on a car, run into an oven, and 

heated to a temperature of 300° F. It is then removed from the oven 

ian4 immersed in a bath of coal pitch and varnish, which is maintained 

at a temperature of about 210°. After the coating has dried the pipe 

is weighed and the weight is marked with white-lead paint on the inside 

of the bell end. It is then subjected to a hydrostatic test, the pressure 

varying from 250 to 300 pounds per square inch, according to the 

thickness of the shell and the size of t!ie pipe, and while under this 

pressure it is subjected to an additional test, consisting of a series of 

blows from a 3-pound hammer attached to a handle 16 inches long, the 

blows being applied by hand at various points throughout che length 

of the pipe.

DIMENSIONS AND WEIGHTS.

A few years ago a committee was appointed by the American Water 

Works Association to draft suitable specifications for standard castiron water pipe. Mr. S. B. Russell, who was chairman of the committee, recommended 1 three weights for each size of pipe, to be designated A, B, and C. The weight of class B was determined from the 

^average weight of the pipe used in a large number of American cities

1 Report of proceedings of the annual meeting of the American Water Works Associatioa (1890),

 p. 23.
FOETIEK.] CAST-IEON PIPE. 7T

and towns; class A was 10 per cent lighter than class B, and class C was 

10 per cent heavier than class B. The following table embodies th& 

recommendations of the committee regarding the outside diameter, 

the average thickness, and the weight of each 1,000 feet of each size 

and class. To determine the weight per lineal foot, including bell 

ends and spigots,^the weights given should be divided by 1,000.

Dimensions and weights , of cast-iron water pipe adopted by American Water Works

Association in 1890.

Size (internal diameter).

4-inch ...-_._....._....._,;._._.

8-inch ..........................

10-inch .........................

12-inch .........................

16-inch.........................

20-inch .........................

24-inch.........................

30-inch .........................

36-inch.........................

48-inch.........................

Class.

I

A

B...

p

{

A

B...

p

I

A

B...

C...

{

A

B...

P

{

A

B...

C...

{

A

T>B ...

C...

I

A

B...

C...

(

A

B...

p

I

A

B...

C...

I

A

T>B ...

c...

{

A

B...

C...

1

A

B...

p

Outside 

diameter.

Inches.

3.856 i

4.904

7.000

9.094

11. 190

13. 286

17. 476

21. 666

25. 856

32. 142

38. 428

51. 666

Average 

thickness 

of barrel.

Inches.

0.428

0.452

6.500

0.547

0.595

0.643

0.738

0.833

0.928

1.071

1.214

1.500

Weight per 

1,000 feet, a

Pounds. 

14, 000

15, 580

17, 170

19, 170

21, 330

23, 500

31, 330

34, 830

38, 330

44, 750

49, 750

54, 750

60, 570

67, 330

74, 080

78, 250

86, 920

95,580 

119, 170

132, 420

145, 580

165, 330

183, 750

202, 080

220, 750

245, 250

269, 750

316, 250

351,420

386, 580

428, 750

476, 420

524, 080

710, 670

789, 670

868, 670

a Including bell ends and spigots.

The following table gives the dimensions and weights per lineal foot 

of the various sizes of cast-iron water pipe made by the Colorado Fuel 

and Iron Company, of Pueblo, Colorado. The thickness of each shell 

is calculated to withstand a hydrostatic pressure of 125 pounds per 

square inch.
78 CONVEYANCE OF WATER FOR IRRIGATION. [NO. 43.

Dimensions and weights of cast-iron water pipe made by the Colorado Fuel and Iron

Company.

Size 

(internal 

diameter).

3-inch .

4-inch . 

6-inch .

8-inch .

10-inch .

12-inch .

16-inch .

20-inch .

Weight 

per foot.

Pounds.

15

22 

32

42

Inside diameter of bell 

at face.

Inches.

4£

5J

Outside 

diameter of 

bell at face.

Inches.

7

8*

101

91 I 131

62 I 11^ | 15|

75 13|

125

185

18

22£

17f

22£

261

Outside 

diameter at 

spigot.

Inches.

4f

5| 

7J

9}

llf

. 13f 171

22

Thickness 

of shell.

Inch.

~32 13 

1

i*if

|

1

II

TESTING AND INSPECTING.

The defects common to cast-iron pipe are chiefly due either to the 

use of poor material or to bad workmanship. The essential elements 

in cast iron are metallic iron and a low percentage of carbon. Its 

quality depends to a large extent on the amount of impurities it contains. The presence of sulphur produces a hard, weak, and brittle 

metal. "W. F. Keep states 1 that good foundry iron should contain not 

more than 0.15 per cent of sulphur nor more than 0.55 per cent of 

phosphorus. From 2 to 5 per cent of phosphorus produces a brittle 

metal. The same writer adds that the addition of a small amount of 

silicon eliminates blowholes and produces sound eastings, but that an 

excess of silicon increases the shrinkage and hardness.

The quality of the material can best be determined by testing samples. .Samples for the beam or tranverse test are usually 2 inches 

wide, 1 inch deep, and 24 inches between supports. Such a bar should 

support a weight of 2,000 pounds at the center and bend at least onefourth inch before breaking.

The tenacity of the metal is commonly found by testing small specimens having cylindrical centers and enlarged ends. The specimen is 

first dressed to a known area (1 square inch) at the middle section, and 

is then placed in the grip blocks and pulled until broken. An average 

grade of iron suitable for water pipe should withstand a strain of 

20,000 pounds per square inch before breaking.

A common error in the manufacture of cast-iron pipe is to remove 

the pipe from the flasks before it is properly cooled. Unequal cooling 

has been known to reduce the strength of small test samples 10 per 

cent. Besides, these cooling strains are very difficult to detect. It 

not infrequently happens that a pipe which has been tested in the 

proving press to 300 pounds per square inch fails when laid in the 

ground and subjected to bending stresses and water ram. J. Nelson 

Tubbs, formerly chief engineer of the Kochester waterworks, made 

use of a steel pick weighing about 3 pounds to test pipes for internal

igee The Materials of Construction, by J. B. Johnson, p. 97.
FORTIEB.] CAST-IRON. PIPE. 79

cracks caused by unequal cooling, honeycombed shells, and other 

defects.

The pressure test consists in placing each length of straight pipe in 

a proving press and increasing the water pressure to 300 pounds per 

square inch. While the pipe is under pressure it is struck at different 

places throughout its entire length by a 3-pound hammer attached to 

a handle 16 inches long.

Another defect, caused by careless molding, is unequal thickness 

in the shell of the pipe. Heavy-sided pipes can usually be detected 

by placing them on horizontal skids. If any doubt exists as to the 

uniform thickness of the shell, the pipe should be set aside and carefully calipered. A difference of 10 per cent in the thickness of the 

pipe at different points should warrant its rejection. The real test, 

however, comes after the pipe has been laid and connected. The 

whole system should then be subjected,to a pressure somewhat in 

excess of any it will likely be called upon to withstand, and this 

pressure should be increased rapidly and shut off quickly, in order 

that the pipe may be tested for the extra strain due to pressure suddenly raised and lowered.

LAYING.

It is best to lay the outlet pipes of storage reservoirs in the natural 

soil, on stable, uniform beds, with wing walls of cement near the 

upper end and near the center, to prevent the passage of water along 

the outside of the pipe.

If it is necessary to lay the outlet pipe in made ground, a parabolic 

curve with the inner end at the vertex is perhaps the best, as the 

arched form increases the strength of the pipe and the subsidence of 

the embankment will tend to tighten the joints.

Pipe lines should be accurately located, either by transit lines or by 

measurements from permanent objects. The location of all fittings, 

valves, hydrants, etc., should also be shown on the maps. The depth 

of the trench depends, as a rule, on the amount of frost. In Leadville, 

Colorado, water pipes have frozen at a depth of 6 feet, while in California a covering of 18 inches is ample.

The pipe should be inspected while it is being removed from the 

cars, the weight of each length being noted, and then distributed along 

the trench line, with the bell ends forward. After the bottom of the 

trench has been reduced to a uniform grade, a hole should be dug at 

the place for each joint, for the reception of the bell end, and the pipe 

should be lowered into the trench, by means of derricks or chain falls, 

and calked. The practice of leading several lengths of pipe on the 

bank and lowering two or three lengths at a time into the trench is not 

to be encouraged, because the .joints are often sprung in lowering and 

placing. In leading, a part of the vacant space in.each bell surrounding the spigot is first filled with yarn or oakum, inserted by the use of 

a yarning tool; the remaining space is filled with lead and thoroughly
80 CONVEYANCE OF WATER FOB IRRIGATION. [NO. 43.

calked. Narrow-edged calking tools are first used, to compact the 

metal at the inner edge of the lead space; these are followed by tools 

that nearly fill the joint.

In back filling the trench the earth should be carefully tamped beneath 

and at the sides of the pipe until it is about two-thirds covered. Earth 

bridges can then be made, to prevent notation, and the trench partially 

filled with water, after which the remainder of the earth can be filled 

in without tamping.

In American practice the usual form of. joint consists of a spigot 

inserted into a bell or socket and calked with yarn and lead. In Great 

Britain, however, and occasionally on the Continent, the turned and 

bored joint is still used. In this form of joint the socket is bored to a 

depth of 4: or more inches, the spigot end is turned to fit the socket, 

and after painting, the spigot end is inserted and driven into the drilled 

socket. Both of the dressed surfaces are slightly conical.

Owing to the hemp packing and the softness of the lead, a lead joint 

is much less rigid than a turned and bored joint, and conforms more 

readily to uneven grade lines and to expansion and contraction produced by unequal temperature. On the other hand, lead joints are 

more likely to leak after a sudden change in the temperature. Leaky 

joints are common in the spring of the year when the frost is leaving 

the ground. Both lead and cast iron contract in the winter and the 

joints remain tight, but with the advent of spring both expand, but 

in unequal ratios cast iron expands nearly three times as much as 

lead and leaks frequently result.

The following table gives the approximate cost of the various items 

in laying cast-iron water pipe. The amount of lead required for a 

joint depends upon the size and shape of the bell and spigot, which 

vary at the different manufactories; also upon the degree of water 

tightness desired. In the sixth column of the table is given the cost 

of trenching and back filling as computed by Mr. James B. Hopkins,, 

who was for years the writer's foreman.

Table stowing cost, per lineal foot, of laying cast-iron water pipe.

Size (internal diameter).

4-inch .

6-inch .

8-inch .

10-inch .

12-inch .

14-inch .

16-inch .

18-inch .

20-inch .

24-inch .

30-inch .

36-inch .

Weight of filling, 

per joint.

Lead.

Pounds.

7

10

13

15

18

22

26

32

38

42

60

80

Oakum.

Ounces.

3

5

7

9

11

13

15

16

18

20

24

30

Cost of lead 

and oakum, 

per foot of pipe.

$0.04

0.06

0.07

0.09

0.10

0.12

0.14

0.17

0.20

0.23

0.32

0.43

Cost of laying, 

per foot.

$0.02

0.02

0.03

0.03

0.04

0.04

0.045

0.05

0.06

0.08

0.16

0.18

Cost of trenching and back 

filling, per foot.

$0.08

0.08

0.09

0.09

0.10

0.10

0.11

0.12

0.12

0.14

0.16

0.20

Total cost, 

per lineal 

foot.

$0.14

0.16

0.19

0.21

0.24

0.26

0.29

0.34

0.38

0.45

0.64

0.81
FOBTIER.] CAST-IRON PIPE. 81

DURABILITY.

There is, properly speaking, no substitute for cast iron as a material 

for water mains. Cast-iron pipe has stood the test of a century, and 

is now universally regarded as superior to all other pipes for the conveyance of water. Hydraulic engineers have recommended it as safe 

and reliable, and private and municipal corporations have purchased 

and laid millions of tons in the various waterworks systems of the 

country. It is true that substitutes have been introduced in small 

cities and towns of the West, where the cost of transportation is 

high, and while some of these substitutes have given satisfaction the 

majority have proved partial failures at least. On permanent streets, 

beneath reservoir embankments, and wherever durability is an essential element, cast-iron pipe should be used. For waterworks conduits 

which may soon be replaced by larger ones, and for irrigation works, 

there are other kinds of piping that may be preferred.

COST.

In the Rocky Mountain States the price of cast-iron pipe has decreased 

from about $42 a ton in 1888 to about $30 a ton in 1898.

In the following table three different weights light, medium, and 

heavy are included. The light-weight pipe should safely withstand 

a static pressure of 120 pounds per square inch as well as ordinary 

water ram.

Table showing cost, per lineal foot, of cast-iron pipe at $30 a ton.

Size (internal

diameter).

3-inch...

4-inch...

6-inch . . .

8-inch..

10-inch..

12-inch. .

16-inch..

20-inch..

24-inch..

30-inch...

36-inch. . .

48-inch...

Light-weight pipe.

Weight per 

foot.

Pounds.

14

19

31

45

61

78

119

165

221

316

429

711

Medium-weight pipe.

Price per 

foot.

$0.21

0.29

0.47

0.68

0.93

1.17

1.69

2.48

3.32

4.74

6.44

10.67

Weight per 

foot.

Pounds.

15

21

35

50

67

87

132

184

245

351

476

790

Price per 

foot.

$0.23

0.32

0.53

0.75

1.01

1.31

1.98

2.76

3.68

5.27

7.14

11.85

Heavy-weight pipe.

Weight per 

foot.

Pounds.

17

23

38

55

74

96

146

202

270

386

524

869

Price per 

foot.

$0.26

0.35

0.57

0.83

1.11

1.44

2.19

3.03

4.05

5.79

7.86

13.04

The cost of laying the pipe has been given in the table on page 80. 

IRR 43 6

INDEX.

Adams, M., cast-iron pipes molded by...... 75

Affleck's mill race, Utah, carrying capacity

of, experiment to determine......... 29

section of............................... 28

Alien, C. P., invention of stave pipe by...... 64-66

Alien stave pipe, description of............ 64-66

details of, figure showing............... 65

steel used for bands of.................. 68

American Waterworks Association, dimensions and weights of cast-iron pipe 

recommended by..................... 76-77

Anchor ice, discussion of................... 17-18

formation of, method of preventing.... 18-19

Aprons, canal and flume with vertical, section of................................ 58

flume with inclined, plan and elevation 

of end of.............................. 57

for flumes,descriptions of .............. 55-58

Aquatic plants in canals, discussion of.. 19-23,45 

drag for removal of..................... 22-23

effect of................................. 45

Arid lands, extent and character of........ 11

irrigation of............................ 11

Bear River canal, Utah, branches of, sections of........................... 28,32,35,38

branches of, vegetation in ............. 20-21

carrying capacities of flumes on, experiments to determine............... 59,59-60

carrying capacities of laterals of, experiments to determine ............... 27,34-36

carrying capacity of, experiment to determine. .............................. 27

sections of *.............................. 28

tunnel of, view of...................... 20

view of................................. 16

Bear River City canal, Utah, carrying capacity of, experiment to determine.. 27 

section of................................ 28

Beers, W.D., aid by........................ 23

Benns, utility of......................... 13-14,45

Bethel, N. W., and Portier, S., quoted...... 70

Bitterroot stock farm, Montana, trestles 

used on, dimensions of parts for, table 

of..................................... 54

flumes and trestles used on ............ 53-64

flumes and trestles used on, details of, 

plate showing........................ 54

lumber required for flumes used on, 

list of................................. 53

Brigham, Utah, stave pipe at, view of...... 64

Brigham City canal, Utah, carrying capacity of, experiment to determine...... 42

section of............................... 43

Page.

Brigham City Electric Light Company's 

canal, Utah, carrying capacity of, experiment to determine............... 42

section of............................... 43

California, canals in, views of ....... 16,24,26,62

flumes in, views of..................... 56,62

flumes, small distributing, used in..... 54-55

frost depth in........................... 79

redwood stave pipes in, views of....... 66,68.

riveted steel pipe, use of, in............ 71,72

Canada, bored logs, use of, as water pipe in. 63-64 

stave pipe used in conduit of Toronto 

waterworks, section of............... 64

Canals, anchor ice in, method of preventing-18-19 

aquatic plants in.................... 19-23,45

carrying capacities of, experiments to 

determine ............................ 27-45

cross sections, standard, of ............. 13-14

drag for removing vegetation from .... 22-23

embankment on low side of, figure 

showing.............................. 13

flow of water in..................... 23-26,45

grades, proper, for...................... 14-16

hydraulic elements of sections tested.. 30,

33,37,39,40,42,44

in earth, velocity proper for ........... 15

locating, methods of.................... 11-13

on level ground, half section of, figure 

showing.............................. 13

operation of, in winter................. 16-19

silt deposit in, section showing.......... 16

silt in, methods of providing for....... 12-13

slope of water surface of, method of determining ............................ 26

uses of.................................. 16-17

vegetation in, method of preventing... 21-22- 

vegetation, removal of, from........ 22-23,46

velocities, high, effect of, on........... 15-16.

velocity in.............................. 14-16

Carlson, Mr., cited ......................... 53

Carroll-Porter Boiler and Tank Co., riveted

steel pipe made by, specifications for. 72-74 

Cast-iron pipe. See Pipe. 

Central farm laterals, Utah, carrying capacities of, experiments to determine .............................. 34-36,39

sections of.............................. 35,38

Cheyenne, Wyo., stave pipe, durability of,

at..................................... 70

Coefficients of roughness, Plynn' s.......... 24-25

Fortier's................................ 44-45

Kutter's................................ 24=

83
84 INDEX.

Page.

College and City canal, Utah, carrying capacity of, experiments to determine.. 37 

sections of.............................. 38

Colorado, canal in, cross section of......... 51

flumes, double-lined, in................ 48

North Poudre flume, view of........... 48

Colorado Fuel and Iron Company, cast-iron 

pipe made by, dimensions and weights 

of..................................... 78

Corinne, Utah, carrying capacity of flume

near, experiment to determine ...... 59

Corinne canal, Utah, carrying capacity of,

experiment to determine............. 27-29

carrying capacity of lateral of, experiment to determine ................... 30

lateral, section of....................... 32

sections of.............................. 28

vegetation in........................... 20-21

Creighton, F. A., cited ..................... 75

Current meter, measurements by weir and,

comparison of........................ 25-26

Davis and Weber County Canal Co., old

flume of, weir of........................ 48

Denver, Colo., vegetation in reservoir at... 21 

Distributing flumes, types of, figures showing ................................... 55,56

Dolores canal, No. 2, Colo., cross section of. 51 

Dougall, W. B., experiments by, to determine carrying capacities of semicircular flumes.......................... 62-63

Drag, rail used in V-shaped, section of..... 22

Dwelle stave pipe, description of........... 65-66

details of, figure showing............... 66

Erosion, method of protecting canals and 

flumes from, discussion of, and figure 

showing.............................. 57-58

Fanning, J. T., cited ........................ 75

Flow of water in canals, discussion of ..... 23-26

experiments to determine .. ......... 27-45

Fortier* s conclusions regarding ........ 45

Flume, aprons for ......................... 55-58

aprons for, vertical, figure showing .... 58

Flume for steep hillsides, description of.... 50-51

details of construction of, figure showing ................................... 50

Flume on piles, cross section of ............ 49

methods of building ................... 49

Flume on trestle, elevations of end and side. 56 

Flumes on trestles, methods of building.... 49-50

views of .......................... 48,50,54,56

Flumes, Sterling semicircular, advantages

of, over rectangular................... 61

Flumes, wooden, carrying capacities of .... 58-60

carrying capacities of rectangular, experiments to determine .............. 59-60

Colorado double-lined.................. 48

framework for.......................... 49-55

hydraulic elements of sections tested .. 60 

inclined aprons for, plan and elevation 

showing.............................. 57

lining for............:.................. 46-49

protection of ends of................... 55-58

substitutes for.......................... 46

use and serviceability of ............... 45-46

Flumes, carrying capacities of semicircular,

experiments to determine............ 62-63

Flumes, details of construction of rectangular, figures showing.................

47,49,50,51,52,55,56,57,58 

inventor of semicircular ............... 60

methods of constructing semicircular, 

figures showing ...................... 62

rectangular, views of............. 48,50,54,56

semicircular, views of .................. 60,62

types of distributing, figures showing .. 55-56 

use and advantages of semicircular.... 60-63

Flvnn,P.J.,cited........................... 24

coefficients of roughness established by. 24-25 

work of, and acknowledgments to ..... 24

Fowler Switch canal, Cal... high velocities,

effect of, on, plate showing........... 16

Frazil ice. See Anchor ice.

Garrett, Jesse, cited ........................ 75

Goshen, Utah, Sterling semicircular flume

at..................................... 61

Grades for canal, discussion of ............. 14-16

Graff, F., sr., method of molding cast-iron

pipe designed by..................... 75

Greeley, Colo., North Poudre flume near,

view of............................... 48

Ground ice. See Anchor ice.

Hall, W. H., semicircular flumes built by.. 60

Hedge canal, Mont., flume of, view of ..... 50

Hopkins, J. B., cost of trenching.and backfilling pipe computed by............. 80

Humphreys, T. H., aid by.................. 23

Hydraulic elements of canals tested....... 30,

33,37,39,40,42,44 

Hydraulic elements of flumes tested....... 60

Hyrum canal, Utah, carrying capacities 

of laterals of, experiments to determine .............................. 40,40-41

carrying capacity of, experiment to determine ........................... 38-39,39

laterals of, sections of .................. 41

sections of.............................. 38,41

Ice, weight of............................... 17

Irrigation canals. See Canals. 

Johnstown, Pa., force of revolving current

during flood at....................... 18

Jones, F. A., flumes designed by........... 53-54

flumes designed by, construction of, 

plate shewing........................ 54

Keep, W. F., cited.......................... 78

Kern Valley Power Development Works,

flume of, view of...................... 56

Kleinschmidt canal, Mont., description of. 15-16 

silt deposit in, figure showing.......... 16

Kutter, W. R., coefficients of roughness established by.......................... 24

La Plata County, Colo., cross section of

canal in .............................. 51

Leadville, Colo., frost depth at............. 79

Lewiston canal, Utah-Idaho, carrying capacity of, experiment to determine.. 34 

section of............................... 35

Logan, Utah, Affieck's mill race near, carrying capacity of, experiments to determine .............................. 29

Affleck' s mill race near, section of...... 28

carrying capacity of canal iu Temple 

grounds at, experiment to determine 42
INDEX. 85

Page. 

Logan, Utah, lateral in Temple grounds at,

section of............................. 43

Logan and Benson-Ward canal, Utah, carrying capacity of, experiment to determine......................... ,.... 40

section of............................... 41

Logan and Hyde Park canal, Utah, carrying capacity of, experiment to determine ................................. 31

lateral of, carrying capacity of, experiment to determine................... 40

lateral of, grade, etc., of................ 15

lateral of, section of.................... 41

section of............................... 32

Logan and Richmond canal, Utah, carrying

capacity of, experiment to determine. 31-33 

section of............................... 32

Logan City canal,Utah, carrying capacity of,

lateral of, experiment to determine.. 31 

section of............................... 32

Logan, Hyde Park, and Smithfleld canal, 

Utah, carrying capacity of, experiments to determine ............... 29-30,33

sections of.............................. 28,32

Logan, Hyde Park, and Thatcher canal,

Utah, aquatic plants in............... 20

carrying capacity of, experiment to 

determine............................ 37

section of............................... 38

McCue, W. P., cited ........................ 75

McMhm.T.J., cited....................... 64

Middle Creek canal, Mont., grade excessive in, injurious effects of ........... 15

Millville and Providence canal, Utah, carrying capacity of, experiment to determine .............................. 31

section of............................... 32

Montana, flume lining used in............. 46-48

flumes and trestles on Bitterroot stock 

farm in............................... 53-54

flumes in, views qf...................... 50,54

vegetation in canals, absence of, in.... 21

Mortensen,M., and Rhead, J. L., drag designed by............................. 22-23

Mount Nebo Irrigation Co., Sterling semicircular flume of........................ 61

New England, stave pipe in, early use of... 63-64 

Newell, P. H., letter of transmittal by...... 9

North Pomona, Cal., cement-lined ditch at,

view of............................... 26

North Poudre flume, Colo., view of ........ 48

Ogden, Utah, stave pipe in use at, description of................................ 66

stave pipe in use at, durability of...... 70

stave pipe in use at, figure showing.... 67

vegetation in reservoir at.............. 21

Pease, W.D.,acknowledgments to.......... 70

Peterson,P.A.,cited........................ 17

Philadelphia, Pa., cast-iron pipe first nsed

at..................................... 75

Pioneer Electric Power Co., stave pipe built

by, details of, figure showing......... 67

stave pipe built by ..................... 66,68

Pipe, Alien type of stave, figure showing details of................................ 65

bored-log, view of ...................... 63

Pipe, construction of stave ................. 68-69

cost of cast-iron ........................ 71-81

cost of laying cast-iron................. 80

cost of riveted-steel..................... 71

cost of stave............................ 71

dimensions and weights of cast-iron... 76-78 

durability of cast-iron.................. 81

durability of stave ..................... 70

bored-log, figure showing....:.......... 63

Dwelle type of stave, figure showing 

details of............................. 66

form of stave, early, figure showing .... 63

history of cast-iron ..................... 75

invention of stave...................... 64-65

laying cast-iron ........................ 79-80

location of lines of stave ............... 69

lumber for stave ....................... 66-68

manufacture of cast-iron............... 75-76

manufacturers of riveted-steel ......... 72

origin and early use of stave........... 63-64

Pioneer Electric Company's stave, figure 

showing details of.................... 67

riveted-steel, advantages and use of.... 71-72

specifications for riveted-steel.......... 72-74

stave, figure showing type of........... 64

stave,views of....................... 64,66,68

steel for bands of stave................. 68

testing and inspecting cast-iron........ 78-79

use of stave............................. 70-71

Point Lookout canal, Utah, carrying capacity of, experiment to determine .. 33-34 

grade, etc., of .......................... 15

section of............................... 35

Providence canal, Utah, carrying capacity

of, experiment to determine ......... 36-37

section of............................... 35

Providence Town canal, Utah, carrying capacity of, experiment to determine .. 34 

section of............................... 35

Providence Upper canal, Utah, carrying capacity of, experiment to determine .. 34 

section of............................... 35

Provo, Utah, Sterling semicircular flume at. 61

Provo Canyon, Utah, flume in, figure showing ................................... 62

Sterling flume in, views of............. 60

Rectangular flumes. See Plumes.

Redlands, Cal., Sterling semicircular flume

near.................................. 60-61

Redlands canal, Cal., redwood stave pipe

in, view of............................ 66

Rhead, J. L., and Mortensen, M., drag designed by............................. 22-23

Riveted-steel pipe. See Pipe.

Roweville, Utah.canal lateral at, section of. 28

Russell, S. B., mentioned .................. 76

Sanger, Cal., flume at, view of.............. 56

Santa Ana canal, Cal., Sterling semicircular flume in .......................... 60-61

redwood stave pipe in, view of......... 66

views of............................. 24,62,66

Semicircular flumes. See Plumes.

Silt, Kleinschmidt canal, figure showing deposit of, in............................ 16

methods of providing for, in canals.. 12-13,

13-14
86 INDEX.

Slope of water surface, method of determining ............................... 26

Slush ice. See Anchor ice.

Smithfleld canal, Utah, carrying capacities 

of laterals of, experiments to determine ................................. 40,42

laterals of,sections of .................. 41,43

Solveson & Co.'s. canal, Utah, carrying

capacity of, experiment to determine. 31 

section of............................... 32

Specular ice. See Anchor ice.

St. Lawrence River, anchor ice in ......... 17-18

Stave pipe. See Pipe.

Sterling, Guy, semicircular flume, invention of, by ............................ 60

Sterling semicircular flumes, features of... 60-63 

figure showing......................... 62

plates showing......................... 60

Stover, A. P., aid by........................ 23

Telluride Power Transmission Co., Sterling

semicircular flume of, description of . 61 

Sterling semicircular flume of, figure 

showing.............................. 62

Temple Hill lateral. See Logan, Utah.

Thatcher canal, Utah, carrying capacities 

of laterals of, experiments to determine .............................. 39,42,43

laterals of,sections of .................. 38,43

Toronto, Ont., section of stave pipe in conduit of................................ 64

Trestles for flumes, table of dimensions of

parts of............................... 54

Tubbs, J. N., cast-iron pipe used by, method

of testing............................. 78-79

Page. 

Ulrich, J. C., flume apron introduced by.... 58

Utah, canals in, experiments on............ 27-44

canals in, views of................... 16,20,48

flumes, early use of, in.................. 45

flumes in, experiments on.............. 59-60

flumes in, views of................... 48,50,60

stave pipe in, view of................... 64

Sterling semicircular flumes in ........ 60-63

Utah mining camp, Sterling semicircular

flume at.............................. 61

Velocity in canals, effect of excessive, plate

showing.............................. 14

relation of grade to..................... 14-16

Walker Tract canal, Utah, carrying capacity

of, experiment to determine......... 36

section of............................... 35

Warmsprings Canyon, CaL, redwood stave

pipe crossing, view of ................ 68

Water, weight of ........................... 17

Water level, effect of irrigation on ......... 16

Water pipe of bored logs, figure showing... 63 

Watt, James, cast-iron pipes laid by........ 75

Weber Canyon, Utah, flume in, view of ... 48 

Weirs, Cippoletti and Francis, comparison

of.................................... 25

flow over, equation used in computing.. 25 

measurements by current meter and 

comparison of........................ 25-26

West canal, Utah, vegetation in............ 20-21

flume in, lower end of, view of ........ 48

Wilson canal, Utah, flume of, view of...... 50

Wooden flumes. See Flumes.

Wyoming, vegetation in canals in, absence

of..................................... 21

o
WATER-SUPPLY AND IRRIGATION PAPERS.

1. Pumping water for irrigation, by Herbert M. Wilson, 1896.

2. Irrigation r ear Phoenix, Arizona, by Arthur P. Davis, 1897.

3. Sewage irrigation, by George W. Rafter, 1897.

4. A reconnaissance in southeastern Washington, by Israel C. Russell, 1897.

5. Irrigation practice on the Great Plains, by E. B. Cowgill, 1897.

6. Underground waters of southwestern Kansas, by Erasmus Haworth, 1897.

7. Seepage waters of northern Utah, by Samuel Fortier, 1897.

8. Windmills for irrigation, by E. C. Murphy, 1897.

9. Irrigation near Greeley, Colorado, by David Boyd, 1897.

10. Irrigation in Mesilla Valley, New Mexico, by F. C. Barker, 1898.

11. Eive heights for 1896, by Arthur P. Davis, 1897.

12. Underground waters of southeastern Nebraska, by N. H. Darton, 1898.

13. Irrigation systems in Texas, by W. F. Hutspn, 1898.

14. New tests of pumps and water lifts used in irrigation, by O. P. Hood, 1898.

15. Operations at river stations, 1897, Part 1,1898.

16. Operations at river stations, 1897, Part II, 1898.

17. Irrigation near Bakersfleld, California, by C. E. Grunsky, 1898.

18. Irrigation near Fresno, California, by C. E. Grunsky, 1898.

19. Irrigation near Merced, California, by C. E. Grunsky, 1899.

20. Experiments with windmills, by Thomas O. Perry, 1899.

21. Wells of northern Indiana, by Frank Leverett, 1899.

22. Sewage irrigation, Part II, by George W. Rafter, 1899.

23. Water-right problems of Bighorn Mountains, by Elwood Mead, 1899.

24. Water resources of the State of New York, Part I, by George W. Rafter, 1899.

25. Water resources of the State of New York, Part II, by George W. Rafter, 1899.

26. Wells of southern Indiana (continuation of No. 21), by Frank Leverett, 1899.

27. Operations at river stations, 1898, Parti, 1899.

28. Operations at river stations, 1898, Part II, 1899.

29. Wells and windmills in Nebraska, by Erwin Hinckley Barbour, 1899.

30. Water resources of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan, by Alfred C. Lane, 1899.

31. Lower Michigan mineral waters, by Alfred C. Lane, 1899.

32. Water resources of Puerto Rico, by H. M. Wilson, 1900.

33. Storage of water on Gila River, Arizona, by J. B. Lippincott, 1900.

34. Geology and water resources of southeastern South Dakota, by J. E. Todd, 1900.

35. Operations at river stations, 1899, Part 1,1900.

36. Operations at river stations, 1899, Part II, 1900.

37. Operations at river stations, 1899, Part III, 1900.

38. Operations at river stations, 1899, Part IV, 1900.

39. Operations at river stations, 1899, Part V, 1900.

40. The Austin darn, by Thomas U. Taylor, 1900.

41. The windmill: its efficiency and economic use, Part I, by E. C. Murphy, 1901.

42. The windmill: its efficiency and economic use, Part II, by E. C. Murphy, 1901.

43. Conveyance of water in irrigation canals, flumes, etc., by Samuel Fortier, 1901.

In addition to the above, there are in various stages of preparation other similar 

papers. Provision has been made for printing these by the following clause in the 

sundry civil act making appropriations for the year 1896-97:

"Provided, That hereafter the reports of the Geological Survey in relation to the 

gaging of streams and to the methods of utilizing the water resources may be printed 

in octavo form, not to exceed 100 pages in length and 5,000 copies in number; 1,000 

copies of which shall be for the official use of the Geological Survey, 1,500 copies 

shall be delivered to the Senate, and 2,500 copies shall be delivered to the House of 

Representatives, for distribution." [Approved June 11,1896; Stat. L., vol. 29, p. 453.]

The endeavor is made to send these pamphlets to persons who have rendered 

assistance in their preparation through replies to schedules or who have furnished 

data. Requests made for a certain paper and stating a reason for asking for it are 

granted whenever practicable, but it is impossible to comply with general demands, 

such as to have all of the series sent.

Application for these papers should be made either to Members of Congress or to

THE DIRECTOR, UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, WASHINGTON, D. 0. 

IRE 43
1895."

Sixteenth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1894-95, Part II, 

Papers of an economic character, 1895; octavo, 598 pp.

Contains a paper on the public lands and their water supply, by F. H. Newell, illustrated by a 

large map showing the relative extent and location of the vacant public lands; also a report on 

the water resources of a portion of the Great Plains, by Robert Hay.

A geological reconnoissance of northwestern Wyoming, by George H. Eldridge, 

1894; octavo, 72 pp. Bulletin No. 119 of the United States Geological Survey; 

price, 10 cents.

Contains a description of the geologic structure of portions of the Big Horn Range and Big 

Horn Basin, especially with reference to the coal fields, and remarks upon the water supply and 

agricultural possibilities.

Report of progress of the division of hydrography for the calendar years 1893 and 

1894, by F. H. Newell, 1895; octavo, 176 pp. Bulletin No. 131 of the United 

States Geological Survey; price, 15 cents.

Contains results of stream measurements at various points, mainly within the arid region, and 

records of wells in counties in western Nebraska, western Kansas, and eastern Colorado.

1896.

Seventeenth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1895-96, Part 

II, Economic geology and hydrography, 1896; octavo, 864 pp.

Contains papers on " The underground water of the Arkansas Valley in eastern Colorado," by 

G. K. Gilbert; "The water resources of Illinois," by Prank Leverett, and "Preliminary, report 

on the artesian waters of a portion of the Dakotas," by N. H. Darton.

Artesian-well prospects in the Atlantic Coastal Plain region, byN. H. Darton, 1896; 

octavo, 230 pp., 19 plates. Bulletin No. 138 of the United States Geological 

Survey; price, 20 cents.

Gives a description of the geologic conditions of the coastal region from Long Isiand, N. Y., 

to Georgia, and contains data relating to many of the deep wells.

Report of progress of the division of hydrography for the calendar year 1895, by 

F. H. Newell, hydrographer in charge, 1896; octavo, 356 pp. Bulletin No. 140 

of the United States Geological Survey; price, 25 cents.

Contains a description of the instruments and methods employed in measuring streams and 

the results of hydrographic investigations in various parts of the United States.

1897.

Eighteenth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1896-97, Part 

IV, Hydrography, 1897; octavo, 756 pp.

Contains a "Report of progress of stream measurements for the calendar year 1896," by Arthur 

P. Davis; " The water resources of Indiana and Ohio," by Frank Leverett; " New developments 

in well boring and irrigation in South Dakota," by N. H. Darton, and "Reservoirs for irrigation," by J. D. Schuyler.

1899.

Nineteenth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1897-98, Part IV, 

Hydrography, 1899; octavo, 814 pp.

Contains a "Report of progress of stream measurements for the calendar yeai 1898," by F. H. 

Newell and others: " The rock waters of Ohio," by Edward Orton, and "A preliminary report 

on the geology and water resources of Nebraska west of the one hundred and third meridian," 

by N. H. Darton.

Part II of the Nineteenth Annual contains a paper on " Principles and conditions of the movements of ground water," by F. H. King, and one on "Theoretical investigation of the motion of 

ground waters," by C. S. Slichter.

1900.

Twentieth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1898-99, Part IV, 

Hydrography, 1900; octavo, 660 pp.

Contains a " Report of progress of stream measurements for the calendar year 1898," by F. H. 

Newell, and "Hydrography of Nicaragua," by A, P. Davis.

WATER-SUPPLY AND IRRIGATION PAPERS, 1896-1900.

This series of papers is designed to present in pamphlet form the results of stream measurements and of special investigations. A list of these, with other information, is given on the 

outside (or fourth) page of this cover.

Survey bulletins can be obtained only by prepayment of cost, as noted above. 

Money should be transmitted by postal money order or express order, made payable 

to the Director of the United States Geological Survey. Postage stamps, checks, and 

drafts can not be accepted. Correspondence relating to the publications of the Survey should be addressed to Tne Director, U. S. Geol. Survey, Washington, D. C. 

IRK 43