Importation of Banana, Musa spp., as Fresh, Hard Green Fruit 

from the Philippines to Guam, Hawaii, and the Northern Mariana 

Islands

A Qualitative Pathway-Initiated Risk Analysis

January 29, 2013

Version 3

Agency Contact:

Center for Plant Health Science and Technology

Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Laboratory

United States Department of Agriculture

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service

Plant Protection and Quarantine

1730 Varsity Drive, Suite 300

Raleigh, NC 27606
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Ver. 3 January 29, 2013 ii

Executive Summary

In this assessment we examined the pest risks associated with the importation of mature hard 

green bananas (Musa spp.) from the Philippines into Guam, Hawaii, and the Northern Mariana 

Islands. We developed a list of quarantine pests associated with banana in the Philippines that 

could be introduced into these areas via this pathway. We considered commercial field 

production, which includes bagging immature fruit with insecticide-impregnated plastic bags. In 

addition, standard post-harvest processing measures include culling, cleaning (removing foreign 

matter), and washing with high-pressure spray and chlorinated water. All quarantine significant 

pests were highly unlikely to follow the pathway because they are targeted for inspection,

treatment, or both and will be excluded or removed from the pathway by standard commercial 

practices and post-harvest processing measures.
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Table of Contents

Executive Summary...................................................................................................................... ii

1. Introduction............................................................................................................................... 1

1.1. Background.......................................................................................................................... 1

1.2. Market access request information ...................................................................................... 1

1.3. Standard production and post-harvest processing................................................................ 2

2. Risk Assessment ........................................................................................................................ 3

2.1. Initiating Event: Proposed Action........................................................................................ 3

2.2. Botanical and Horticultural Background ............................................................................. 3

2.3. Assessment of the Weediness Potential of Musa spp. ......................................................... 5

2.4. Decision History, Current Status, and Pest Interceptions.................................................... 6

2.5. Pests reported on banana in the Philippines....................................................................... 10

2.6. Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 34

3. Literature Cited ...................................................................................................................... 35

4. Authors and Reviewers........................................................................................................... 43

5. Appendices............................................................................................................................... 44

Appendix A: Pest mitigation measures built in the production and processing operations of 

Philippine bananas intended for export..................................................................................... 44

Appendix B: Banana pest list provided by the Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant 

Industry, the Philippines and Dole Fruit Company, Philippines .............................................. 47
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1. Introduction

1.1. Background

This document was prepared by the Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Laboratory of the 

Center for Plant Health Science and Technology, USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection 

Service (APHIS), Plant Protection and Quarantine (PPQ), in response to a request to evaluate the 

risks associated with the importation of commercially produced mature hard green bananas 

(Musa spp.) from the Philippines into Guam, Hawaii, and the Northern Mariana Islands.

The International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) provides guidance for conducting pest risk 

analyses. The methods used here are consistent with guidelines provided by the IPPC, 

specifically the International Standard for Phytosanitary Measures (ISPM) on ‘Pest Risk 

Analysis for Quarantine Pests, Including Analysis of Environmental Risks and Living Modified 

Organisms’ (IPPC, 2009: ISPM #11). The use of biological and phytosanitary terms is consistent 

with the ‘Glossary of Phytosanitary Terms and the Compendium of Phytosanitary Terms’ (IPPC, 

2009: ISPM #5). 

Three stages of pest risk analysis are described in international standards: Stage 1, Initiation, 

Stage 2, Risk Assessment, and Stage 3, Risk Management. This document satisfies the 

requirements of Stages 1 and 2. 

This is a qualitative risk analysis; estimates of risk are expressed in terms of High, Medium, and 

Low pest risk potentials based on the combined ratings for specified risk elements (PPQ, 2000) 

related to the probability and consequences of importing mature hard green bananas (Musa spp.)

from the Philippines. For the purposes of this assessment High, Medium, and Low probabilities 

will be defined as:

High: More likely to occur than not to occur

Medium: As likely to occur as not to occur

Low: More likely to not occur than to occur

The appropriate risk management strategy for a particular pest depends on the risk posed by that 

pest. Identification of appropriate sanitary and phytosanitary measures to mitigate the risk, if any, 

for this pest is undertaken as part of Stage 3 (Risk Management). Other than listing possible 

mitigation options for the pests of concern, we did not discuss risk management in this 

document.

1.2. Market access request information

This pest risk assessment was originally prepared for Dole Philippines, Inc., Dole Asia Ltd., 

Makati, Philippines. A request for market access has been submitted previously by the Bureau of 

Plant Industry (BPI), Department of Agriculture of the Philippines, to the Animal and Plant 

Health Inspection Service (APHIS), U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). This risk 

assessment was submitted by Lealyn A. Ramos, Director/Officer-in-Charge, BPI, to APHIS in 

support of the request for market access.
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In this assessment, we examine the risks associated with the importation as mature, green banana 

fruits of Musa spp., which include Musa acuminata cultivars and Musa acuminata x Musa 

balbisiana hybrids, from the Philippines into Guam, Hawaii, and the Northern Mariana Islands. 

We use the word “green” herein to mean banana fruit harvested in the mature (hard) green stage, 

which is Stage 1 in the banana fruit growth cycle, and packed for export within 24 hours of 

harvesting. Hard or mature green is equivalent to Stage 1 in the following banana industry

standard (Kader, 2005): 

 Stage 1 = dark green or green

 Stage 2 = green with a trace of yellow around the finger stalk, or light green

 Stage 3 = more green than yellow

 Stages 4-7 = more yellow than green, to yellow with brown spots.

We did the assessment on the basis of pests and pathogens of the genus Musa with edible fruits, 

in general, and M. acuminata and its hybrids or cultivars in particular (please see Section 2.2 for 

botanical details). Hereafter, we will refer to the commodity as “Musa spp.”

1.3. Standard production and post-harvest processing

The BPI of the Philippines has submitted a very thorough description of the pest mitigation 

measures that are applied to banana fruit from the Philippines intended for export (Appendix A). 

These mitigation measures were considered during the construction of this risk assessment. Pests 

that were expected to be excluded by these mitigation measures from following the pathway of 

commercial bananas were not analyzed in this document any further than listing them in the pest 

list (Table 6) except for a brief discussion and summary of the measures expected to remove 

each pest from the pathway.

The following processes, as described by the exporters (Appendix A), are standard and 

completed for all exported products. These processes will be subject to verification and 

compliance checks. 

In standard banana operations, growers do the following during production: 

 Apply insecticides and fungicides as injections and sprays

 Cover developing bunches with plastic bags impregnated with insecticides 

These measures are meant to exclude or control thrips, scale insects, mealybugs, aphids, fruit 

flies, and other external insect pests, as well as bacterial and fungal diseases.

Near maturity of the bananas producers do the following:

 In the field

o Inspect banana bunches (inspection 1) one day before harvest and cull infested fruit

 At the packing plant

o Spray fruit bunches with high-pressure water

o Examine and cull fruit again (inspection 2) for pest infestations or other damage 

o Separate the bunches into “hands”—smaller individual bunches of bananas

o Thoroughly clean hands of bananas with soapy, chlorinated water

o Inspect yet again for pest infestation (inspection 3)
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Packing plant activities all happen within three hours of harvest. Lastly, they pack fruit into clean 

boxes, place on pallets, and load pallets into shipping vessels or cold storage.

2. Risk Assessment

2.1. Initiating Event: Proposed Action

This assessment is commodity-based, and therefore is “pathway-initiated.” The original 

assessment was completed by Robert P. Kahn and Philip Lima, Consultants in Plant Protection 

and Quarantine, in a contract (dated September 20, 2004) with Dole Food Company, represented 

by James Prideaux, Director, Dole, Philippines, Inc., to assess the potential risk of importing into 

Guam, Hawaii, and the Northern Mariana Islands commercial shipments of mature hard green 

bananas of Musa acuminata cultivars and M. acuminata x M. balbisiana and other hybrids. The 

importation of the fresh fruit of species or hybrids of Musa is a potential pathway for the 

introduction of plant pests of quarantine significance. The regulatory authority for the 

importation of fruits and vegetables from foreign sources into Guam, Hawaii, and the Northern 

Marianas may be found in the Code of Federal Regulations (7 CFR § 319.56, 2005).

2.2. Botanical and Horticultural Background

Bananas are classified under two genera, Musa and Ensete, in the family Musaceae and order 

Zingiberales. In this document we did not assess the genus Ensete, which includes E. 

ventricosum, an African species known as the Abyssinian banana (Jones, 2000a; Wiersema and 

León, 1999). The genus Musa contains ornamental, fiber, wild, and edible species. We did not 

assess M. textilis, or abaca, which is a species grown commercially in the Philippines as a source 

of fiber known as Manila hemp. 

The edible species of the genus Musa that we assessed here include M. acuminata Colla, M. 

balbisiana Colla, and M. troglodytarum L., and hybrids such as Musa x paradisiaca or M. 

acuminata x M. balbisiana. Musa acuminata and M. balbisiana are characterized further by their 

genomes, which are designated as “A” for those derived from M. acuminata sources and “B” for 

M. balbisiana. AA and BB are used to denote diploids, AAA and BBB for triploids and AAAA, 

and BBBB for tetraploids (Simmonds, 1966). 

Dole is primarily interested in exporting Cavendish bananas; cultivars in this subgroup include 

Dwarf Cavendish, Giant Cavendish, Grand Nain (AAA), and Williams. Stanfilco, a Division of 

Dole Philippines, mainly produces the Dwarf Cavendish cultivar, but also produces selections 

from Giant Cavendish (such as SFC-18, also known as Supersweet). Other varieties to be 

exported in smaller quantities include M. acuminata cultivars Lakatan (AA) and Señorita (AA),

M. acuminata x M. balbisiana cultivar Tindok (AAB), and M. acuminata cultivars Bungulan and 

Morado (AAA) (Munez, 2004). 

Banana plants are parthenocarpic: fruits develop without pollination (Simmonds, 1966). 

Triploids and cultivated diploids of M. acuminata are seedless. The plant is a monocotyledonous 

herbaceous perennial. The plant or mat consists of:

 a fleshy rhizome (sometimes called a corm or head)
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 a fibrous root system

 a pseudostem, which arises from the rhizome, consisting of fused petiole bases (i.e., 

tightly packed leaf sheaths)

 other suckers that arise from the rhizome

 one sucker, retained for continued growth of the mat, referred to as the “maiden” or 

“maiden plant” when the main pseudostem is known as the “mother” or “mother plant” 

 other suckers for propagation, often referred as “followers” or “seed,” but not seed in the 

botanical sense

 leaves (also known as sword-, spear-, or arrow-leaves) that emerge from the pseudostem 

to form a canopy

 a peduncle or stalk upon which bracts, inflorescences, i.e., separate female and male 

flowers (sometimes called bells), and fruits are borne

 a bunch, which is a collective term for a series of hands (also referred to as tiers) 

consisting of fruits known as fingers

 crowns, which are the fleshy part of a hand, and give rise to pedicels that support fingers

We used many of these terms in the pest list (Table 6). More detailed descriptions of the banana 

plant morphology are available (Crane and Balerdi, 1998; Jones, 2000a; Karamura and 

Karamura, 1995; Morton, 1987; Price, 1995; Robinson, 1993; Simmonds, 1966).

Since thrips are associated with flowers, we present the following description of male and female 

flowers (Crane and Balerdi, 1998). In Florida, the inflorescence emerges from the center of the 

pseudostem 10-15 months after planting, when 26-32 leaves are present. The flowers are 

arranged spirally along the axis of the inflorescence in groups of 10-20. A purplish fleshy bract 

covers each group of flowers and can be shed. The first flowers to emerge are functionally

female, and the last are functionally male. In edible cultivars, the ovaries develop 

parthenocarpically into clusters of fruits (i.e., hands). 

Bananas grow best under humid and uniformly warm to hot conditions. Consequently, bananas 

are grown in humid tropical climates within latitudes of 30° N and S of the equator, but are most 

productive within 20° N and S. Most multinational companies produce bananas within 16° N or 

S latitudes (Watson, 1997). Robinson (1993) states, “The banana is primarily a crop of the humid 

tropical lowlands which are areas characterized by less than 10° N and S latitude, less than 100 

meters altitude, not less than 19°C mean minimum temperature, and more than 100 mm of rain 

each month.” In the Philippines, bananas are grown in similar tropical humid climates.

Tropical areas are also characterized by less fluctuation between high and low temperatures than 

subtropical areas where there may be an unfavorable range of too high and too low temperatures. 

In South Africa, bananas are grown under subtropical rather than tropical conditions. During 

winter months, cold night temperatures between 12° and 5°C are devastating to the banana crop. 

Temperatures approach the ideal there only during the summer months, when daily minimum 

temperatures are above 18°C (Robinson, 1993). 

In Florida, the influence of temperature on banana plant growth has been described (Crane and 

Belerdi, 1998) as follows: 

 Shoots grow best at 26-28°C and fruits grow best at 29-30°C
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 Plant growth slows below 16°C and stops at 10°C

 Symptoms of chilling injury that occur below 16°C but above 0°C include a failure of 

flower stalk or fruit bunch to emerge, a dull yellow or greenish gray color to ripening 

fruit, distorted fruit, and an increase in fruit rotting

 Chilling damage and irreversible freeze damage may occur at or below 0°C. Symptoms 

include water-soaking appearance of aboveground parts, desiccation, browning, and 

death of leaves, pseudostems, and fruit

 Temperature below -7°C usually kill plants to the ground but new growth may sprout 

when warm weather returns

 Temperatures above 37°C may result in leaf scorch and narrowing of newly emerged leaf 

blades

Banana plant growth is also influenced by humidity, wind, drought, flooding, soil type and 

moisture, fertilizer, and shading (Crane and Belerdi, 1998; Simmonds, 1966; Robinson, 1993; 

and Turner, 1995).

2.3. Assessment of the Weediness Potential of Musa spp. 

In addition to the references listed in the “Guidelines” for the preparation of Table 1, we also 

consulted A Global Compendium of Weeds (Randall, 2002), which is based on over 700 

references or databases. This compendium includes Musa x hybrids, M. acuminata, M. basjoo, 

M. liukiuensis, M. textilis, M. tikap, and M. troglodytarum, but no countries considered them to 

be quarantine, noxious, or sleeper (posing a potential threat) weeds. Where these species are 

listed as “weeds,” they are further classified as: [1] weed (economic weeds, i.e. pests of 

agriculture), [2] naturalized (self-sustaining and spreading without human assistance), [3] 

introduced (species that have been planted and that may or may not become naturalized; some 

species are desirable in some locations), [4] casual alien (survive without human assistance but 

do not develop persistent populations), and [5] cultivation escapes (escaped from cultivated area 

–includes some crop or pasture species). 

The results of the screening for weediness potential of Musa species did not prompt a pestinitiated risk assessment.

Table 1. Assessing the weediness potential of Musa spp.

Commodity: Fresh green banana fruits, Musa spp. (Musaceae).

Phase 1: Various species of Musa are grown in Guam, Hawaii, and the Northern Mariana 

Islands (Nelson et al., 2006).

Phase 2: Is the species listed in:

YES A Geographical Atlas of the World Weeds (Holm et al., 1979).

Musa acuminata is listed as “present as a weed (defined as: the species is present and 

behaves as a weed but its economic importance is unknown)” in Malaysia, as is M. x

paradisiaca in Jamaica. The latter hybrid is listed as part of the flora of Israel but needs 

evidence confirming that it could behave as a weed.

NO The World’s Worst Weeds (Holm et al., 1977). 
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NO 1982 Report of the Technical Committee to Evaluate Noxious Weeds;

Exotic Weeds for the Federal Noxious Weed Act (Gunn and Ritchie, 1982).

NO Economically Important Foreign Weeds (Reed, 1977). 

NO Composite List of Weeds (WSSA, 1989).

NO World Weeds (Holm et al., 1997).

NO A Global Compendium of Weeds (Randall, 2002).

NO Do any literature references indicate weediness (e.g., AGRICOLA, CABI, Biological 

Abstracts, and AGRIS search on “species name” combined with “weed”)?

Phase 3: Since we found no indication of weediness potential, and because various species of 

Musa are grown in Guam, Hawaii, and the Northern Mariana Islands, we have proceeded with

the pathway risk assessment.

2.4. Decision History, Current Status, and Pest Interceptions

2.4.1. Decision history

Below we summarized the decisions made by a panel of APHIS entomologists and plant 

pathologists based on assessments of pest data for bananas from the Philippines in “fact sheets” 

(Table 2).

2.4.2. Current Status of Banana Imports 

Bananas are currently allowed into the United States from numerous countries (Table 3).

2.4.3. Pest Interception Records for Musa spp. 

Pests are intercepted on imported articles, including commodities, at U.S.-authorized ports-ofentry. Such interceptions indicate that the commodity can serve as a pathway for the entry of the 

pest. Pest interceptions at U.S. ports-of-entry (including Hawaii) on banana fruit in baggage from 

the Philippines (PestID, 2009) are shown below (Table 4). However, the baggage may not have 

originated in the country listed below: passengers may have been in transit from another country.

Because they are pertinent to the APHIS risk assessments and regulations for bananas exported 

to the United States, we separately listed interceptions at U. S. ports-of-entry (including Hawaii) 

on bananas in baggage from Pacific Ocean islands that have been approved for exportation of 

green bananas into the United States (including U.S. Territories) (Table 5).

APHIS regulations permitting green bananas from Hawaii to Guam and to the continental U.S. 

are found in 7 CFR § 318.13–4i (2005). Bactrocera dorsalis occurs in Hawaii, but not in Guam 

or in the Philippines (IIE, 1986). As a result of studies conducted in Hawaii, mature green 

bananas without precocious ripening and morphological aberrations that are grown under certain 

horticultural conditions are not likely to be hosts of B. dorsalis in nature (Armstrong 1983, 

2001). Miller and Chang (1998) analyzed Armstrong’s results and recommended conditions of 

entry into the continental U.S. and the territories.
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Table 2. Results from available decision sheets since 1970 concerning recommendations for the 

entry into the United States of commercial shipments of banana fruit from the Philippines 

(CPHST, 2008).

Date Ports Requested Decision Rationale

06/07/70 All Approved North Atlantic ports. Subject to ethylene dibromide 

(EDB) treatment as a condition of entry with a note 

that EDB treatment may affect flavor

04/11/72 Guam Approved Permit entry subject to phytosanitary conditions at 

origin and inspection on arrival

06/20/83 Guam Denied No acceptable treatment available for Dacus

dorsalis

09/22/86 Honolulu Denied A complex of Dacus spp. fruit flies for which there 

are no known treatments

03/03/88 Guam Denied No acceptable treatment available for Dacus

dorsalis

09/24/93 Hawaii Denied Undetermined species of Bactrocera

Table 3. Imports allowed of banana fruit, flowers, or leaves, and the approved ports (APHIS, 

2004a).

Country Plant Parts Ports

Asia and Oceania

American Samoa a Green fruit Allb

Cook Islands (Also see Table 2) Green fruit All

Japan (from specified areas) Fruit, leaves Alaska, Guam, Northern Marianas

Korea, Republic of (South Korea) Fruit Guam, Northern Marianas

Micronesia, Federated States of 

(from named islands)

Fruit Guam, Northern Marianas

Samoa Green fruit All

Tonga Green fruit All

Vanuatu Fruit All

South America

Argentina aFruit All

Bolivia aFruit, Leaves All

Brazil aFruit, Leaves, Stem All

Chile aFruit, Leaves All

Colombia aFruit, Leaves All

Ecuador aFlower, Fruit, Leaves All

French Guiana aFruit, Leaves All

Guyana aFruit, Leaves All

Paraguay aFruit, Leaves All

Peru aFruit, Leaves All
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Country Plant Parts Ports

Suriname aFruit, Leaves All

Uruguay aFruit All

Venezuela aFruit All

North America Including Central America

Aruba aFruit All

Barbados Flowers, Fruit, Leaves All

Belize aFlowers In Bracts With 

Stem, Fruit, Leaves

All

Bermuda Fruit, Leaves All

Costa Rica aFruit, Leaves All

Dominican Republic Flower, Fruit All

El Salvador aFruit, Leaves All

Guatemala aFruit, Leaves All

Honduras aFlower, Fruit, Leaves All

Mexico Flower, Fruit, Leaves 

(Commercial 

Shipments Only)

Fruit (Release Program 

Protocol) a

All 

Netherlands Antilles: Curacao Fruit, Leaves All

Nicaragua aFruit, Leaves All

Panama aFruit, Leaves All

Trinidad And Tobago aFruit All

West Indies, All Countries a, c Fruit, Leaves All

Africa

Algeria Fruit, Leaves All

Angola Fruit North Pacific

Benin Fruit, Leaves All

Burkina Faso Fruit, Leaves All

Cameroon Fruit, Leaves All

Congo, Democratic Republic of the Fruit, Leaves All

Congo, Republic of the Fruit, Leaves All

Côte D’Ivoire Fruit, Leaves All

Egypt Fruit, Leaves All

Ghana Fruit, Leaves All

Guinea, Republic of Fruit, Leaves All

Liberia Fruit, Leaves All

Mali Fruit, Leaves All

Mauritania Fruit, Leaves All

Morocco Fruit, Leaves All
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Country Plant Parts Ports

Niger Fruit, Leaves All

Nigeria Fruit, Leaves All

Senegal Fruit, Leaves All

Sierra Leon Fruit, Leaves All

Togo Fruit, Leaves All

Tunisia Fruit, Leaves All

Europe

Spain: Canary Islands Fruit, leaves All

a No written permits required (APHIS, 2004a)

b

“All” means all ports-of-entry where PPQ officers are stationed or their areas of coverage, including 

Guam, Commonwealth of Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands.

c West Indies includes (APHIS, 2004a): Antigua, Bahamas, Barbados, Cayman Islands, Cuba, Dominica, 

Dominican Republic, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Haiti, Jamaica, Martinique, Montserrat, Nevis, St. 

Barthelemy, St. Eustatius, St. Kitts, St. Lucia, St. Martin, St. Vincent, and British Virgin Islands. 

(Some of these areas are listed separately.)

Table 4. Pest interceptions on banana fruit in baggage from the Philippines (PestID, 2009).

Organism Interceptions 

(No.)

Organism Interceptions 

(No.)

Aphididae, species of 2 Maconellicoccus hirsutus 1

Aspidiotus sp. 1 Margarodidae, species of 1

Coccidae, species of 3 Phomopsis musicola 1

Coccus sp 1 Phyllosticta musarum 135

Dacus sp. 2 Phyllosticta spp. 2

Diaspididae, species of 2 Pinnaspis musae 1

Dysmicoccus neobrevipes 60 Planococcus lilacinus 6

Dysmicoccus spp. 5 Planococcus minor 6

Flatidae, species of 1 Planococcus sp. 1

Gryllidae, species of 1 Pseudococcidae, species of 52

Guignardia musae 45 Pseudococcus cryptus 1

Icerya pulcher 8 Pseudococcus spp. 3

Icerya sp. 4 Pyralidae, species of 2

Imperata sp. (seed) 1 Thripidae, species of 1

Lepidosaphes similis 2 Tineidae, species of 1

Lymantriidae, species of 1 Uxantis siccifolia 1
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Table 5. Pest interceptions on banana fruit in baggage from Pacific Ocean islands.

Island group Organism Interceptions (no.)

American Samoa Aphidae, species of 1

Dysmicoccus neobrevipes 3

Planococcus minor 2

Pseudococcidae, species of 2

Guam Diaspididae, species of 2

Dysmicoccus neobrevipes 3

Hesperidae, species of (leaf) 1

Phyllosticta musarum 1

Pseudaulacaspis sp. 1

Pseudococcidae, species of 3

Samoa Dysmicoccus neobrevipes 1

Pseudococcidae, species of 3

Tonga Planococcus minor 3

Pseudococcus sp. 1

Tephritidae, species of 1

2.5. Pests reported on banana in the Philippines

Below we list pests reported in the scientific and regulatory literature to occur on Musa species 

and cultivars in the Philippines (Table 6). We also include information on the presence of these 

pests in the Guam, Hawaii, and the Northern Mariana Islands, as well as the quarantine status of 

the pest, and the parts of the host that are infested or infected by the pest. In the table below, the 

“pathway” is defined as commercial hard green mature banana fruits.

The BPI of the Philippines submitted a thorough description of the pest mitigation measures that 

are applied to banana fruit from the Philippines intended for export (Section 1.3; Appendix A). 

We considered these mitigation measures explicitly while developing this risk assessment. We 

did not further analyze pests likely to be excluded from following the pathway of commercial 

bananas by these mitigation measures.
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Table 6. Pests associated with Musa spp. (in any country) and present in the Philippines (on any host).

Scientific name 

(taxonomy) 

Geographic 

distribution1

Plant part 

affected2

Quarantine pest Follow 

pathway3

References

GU HI MP

PLANT PATHOGENS

Fungi

Mastigomycotina

Pythium debaryanum Auct.

non R. Hesse 

(Oomycetes:

Peronosporales)

PH, WW R, Rh No No No N/A CABI, 2004

Ascomycotina

Ceratocystis paradoxa 

(Dade) C. Moreau 

Telemorph. 

Syn = Ceratostomella 

paradoxa Dade 

(Pyrenomycetes: 

Ophiostomatales) 

Anamorph = Charlara 

paradoxa (De Seynes) 

Sacc. Syn = Thielaviopsis 

paradoxa (De Seynes) 

Honn. (Hyphomycetes)

PH, HI, WW F, L, P, 

Rh 

No No No N/A Anon., 1982; BPI/Dole, 

2004; CABI, 2004; Farr 

et al., no date; Muirhead 

and Jones, 2000; 

USGS-PIERC, 2005

Cochliobolus lunatus 

R.R.Nelson & Haasis

(Loculoascomycetes: 

Dothideales). Anamorph 

= Curvularia lunata

(Wakk.) Boedijn 

(Hyphomycetes)

PH, WW L No No No N/A BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004; Meredith, 1963

Gibberella fujikuroi

(Sawada) Ito in Ito & 

K.Kimura 

(Pyrenomycetes: 

Hypocreales). Anamorph 

= Fusarium moniliforme 

Sheldon (Hyphomycetes)

Also see F. moniliforme

PH, GU, HI, 

MP

B, C, F, L, 

Ps

No No No N/A BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004; Ploetz, 1994;

UGA, 2011

 

1

PH = Philippines; GU = Guam; HI = Hawaii; MP = Northern Mariana Islands; WW = reported in the literature as worldwide or cosmopolitan.

2 B = bracts, C = crown, F = fruit, Fl = reported as flowers or inflorescences, L = leaves, N/A = not applicable, P = peduncle,

Ps = pseudostem (sometimes reported as “stem”), R = roots, Rh = rhizome (sometimes reported as “corm”), S = sucker, 

and W = whole plant. When reported as such, S (sucker) is equivalent to Ps. Please see Section 2.2 for a more detailed 

explanation of these terms.

3 The “pathway” is defined as commercial hard green mature banana fruits (see Section 1.1). They are subjected to the 

growing-season pest-management procedures and also phytosanitary safeguards during harvesting, packing, and shipping, 

which are applied within 24 hours of harvest, as described in Section 1.3. For non-quarantine pests, specifying whether or 

not they would follow the pathway is irrelevant. We indicated this using “N/A” = ‘Not applicable’.
Pest Risk Assessment for Philippine Bananas to U.S. Territories

Ver. 3 January 29, 2013 12

Scientific name 

(taxonomy) 

Geographic 

distribution1

Plant part 

affected2

Quarantine pest Follow 

pathway3

References

GU HI MP

Glomerella cingulata

(Stoneman) Spauld. & 

H.Schrenk 

(Pyrenomycetes: 

Phyllachorales). 

Anamorph = 

Collectotricium gloeosporiodes (Penz.) Penz. 

in Sacc. (Coelomycetes)

PH, GU, HI, 

MP

B, F, L, P, 

S

No No No N/A ARS, 1970; CABI, 

2004; Farr et al., no 

date; Gaskala, 2004; 

UGA, 2011

Guignardia musae Racib.4

(Loculoascomycetes: 

Dothideales) Anamorph = 

Phyllosticta musarum 

(Cooke) van der Aa. Syn: 

Phyllosticina musarum

(Cooke) Petr.

PH, GU, HI, 

MP

B, F, L No No No N/A APHIS, 2004b; 

BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004: Jones, 2000e; 

Jones and Stover, 2000;

Nandwani et al., 2010;

PCARRD, 1988; UGA, 

2011

Phyllosticta sp.

(Coelomycetes)

PH, GU F No Yes Yes Yes5 APHIS, 2004b

Mycosphaerella fijiensis

Morelet [black leaf streak 

or black Sigatoka 

disease] 

(Loculoascomycetes: 

Dothideales) Anamorph = 

Pseudocercospora 

fijiensis (Morelet)

Deighton

(Hyphomycetes)

PH, GU, HI L No No Yes No BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004; Carlier et al., 

2000; Crane and 

Balerdi, 1998; Farr et 

al., no date; Gaskalla, 

2004; Jeger et al., 1995; 

Marin et al., 2003; 

PCARRD, 1988; Ploetz, 

2001; Stover, 1972; 

Wardlaw, 1972

Mycosphaerella musicola

J.L.Mulder in J.L.Mulder 

& Stover [Yellow 

sigatoka disease] 

(Loculoascomycetes: 

Dothideales) Anamorph = 

Pseudocercospora musae 

Speg. (Hyphomycetes)

PH, GU L No Yes Yes No Alfieri et al., 1994; 

BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004; Crane and 

Balerdi, 1998; Farr et 

al., no date; Gaskalla, 

2004; Jeger et al., 1995; 

Jones, 2000a; PCARRD, 

1988; Stover, 1972; 

Wardlaw, 1972

 

4 Guignardia musae (teleomorph) and Phyllosticta musarum (anamorph) are widespread in South and East Asia and the 

Pacific islands (including Hawaii), and have been reported in the Caribbean area and Africa (CABI, 2004; Jones, 2000c, 

Jones and Stover, 2000). These two forms or morphs exhibit different symptoms; therefore, some confusion exists about 

the taxonomy of the causal agent.

5 The following mitigation measures are highly likely to remove this pest from the pathway: planting clean tissue culture, 

eliminating alternate hosts (weeds), disinfesting tools, surveying and eradicating diseases, spraying bunches with 

fungicide, deflowering to lessen visits from the vectors of disease, debudding by hand instead of knife, inspecting and 

culling, and treating with a chlorine and aluminum sulphate mix in the floatation tanks.
Pest Risk Assessment for Philippine Bananas to U.S. Territories

Ver. 3 January 29, 2013 13

Scientific name 

(taxonomy) 

Geographic 

distribution1

Plant part 

affected2

Quarantine pest Follow 

pathway3

References

GU HI MP

Basidiomycotina

Corticium rolfsii Curzi

Syn = Athelia rolfsii 

(Curzi) C. C. Tu &

Kimbrough. 

(Aphyllophorales ) 

Anamorph = (Sclerotium 

rolfsii Sacc. 

(Agronomycetes) 

PH, GU, HI, 

MP

R, Rh No No No N/A CABI, 2004; UGA, 

2011

Marasmiellus inoderma

(Berkeley) Singer. 

Syn = M. semiustus

(Berk. & M. A. Curtis) 

Singer; Marasmius 

semiustus Berkeley & 

Curtis (Agaricales)

PH, GU L, Ps, R No Yes Yes No Jones and Lomerio, 

2000

Uredo musae Cummins 

(Uredinales)

PH L Yes Yes Yes No BPI/Dole, 2004; Jones, 

2000f

Uromyces musae P. Henn

(Uredinales)

PH L Yes Yes Yes No BPI/Dole, 2004; Jones, 

2000f; Weber, 1973

Deuteromycotina: Hyphomycetes

Aspergillus niger Tiegh.6PH, WW F, Ps No No No N/A CABI, 2004 

Bipolaris saccharri (E.J. 

Butler) Shoemaker

PH L Yes Yes Yes No CABI, 2004

Cercospora hayi Calpouzos PH, WW C, F, P No No No N/A BPI/Dole, 2004; Jones 

and Stover, 2000; Kaiser 

and Lukezic, 1965, 

1966; PCARRD, 1988

Cordana musae (Zimm.) 

Höhne.

PH L, P, Ps Yes Yes Yes No Anon., 1982; BPI/Dole, 

2004; Farr et al., 1989; 

Gaskalla, 2004; Jones, 

2000b; PCARRD, 1988

Deightoniella torulosa

(Syd.) M. B. Ellis

PH, HI, MP F, L, Ps Yes No No No7 Anon., 1982; BPI/Dole, 

2004; CMI, 1983; Farr 

et al., 1989; Gaskalla, 

2004; Jones, 2000c; 

Jones and Stover, 2000; 

UGA, 2011

 

6 Aspergillus niger is a storage pathogen found on many hosts including tropical fruits. The fungus has a worldwide 

distribution. Like other storage pathogens, it causes a watery rot of banana (CABI, 2004).

7 Deightoniella torulosa is a saprophyte on dead banana leaves and flowers and causes spots or speckles on leaves and fruit 

(Jones and Stover, 2000). Because it does not sporulate on fruit (Jones and Stover, 2000), it is highly unlikely to follow the 

pathway of commercial grade green banana.
Pest Risk Assessment for Philippine Bananas to U.S. Territories

Ver. 3 January 29, 2013 14

Scientific name 

(taxonomy) 

Geographic 

distribution1

Plant part 

affected2

Quarantine pest Follow 

pathway3

References

GU HI MP

Fusarium moniliforme J. 

Sheldon (Also see 

Gibberella fujikuroi) 8

PH, GU, HI, 

MP

B, C, F, R, 

Rh

No No No N/A BPI/Dole, 2004; 

Gaskalla, 2004; Jones, 

and Lomerio, 2000a; 

Jones and Stover, 2000; 

PCARRD, 1988; Raabe 

et al., 1981

Fusarium oxysporium 

Schlecht. f. sp. cubense

(E. F. Smith) W. C. 

Synder & N. H. Hans.

PH, GU, HI, 

MP

L, P, Ps, 

Rh

No No No N/A Alfieri et al., 1994; 

Anon., 1982; BPI/Dole, 

2004; CABI, 2004; 

Gaskalla, 2004; Jeger, et 

al.,1995, PCARRD, 

1988; Ploetz et al., 

1990; Ploetz and Pegg, 

2000; USGS-PIERC, 

2005

Fusarium pallidoroseum

(Cooke) Sacc.

PH C, F, P, R, 

Rh

No9 No9 No9 N/A BPI/Dole, 2004; Farr et 

al., 1989; Jones and 

Stover, 2000; PCARRD, 

1988

Fusarium roseum Link: Fr. PH, WW C, F, Rh No No No N/A BPI/Dole, 2004; Farr et 

al., 1989; PCARRD, 

1988; USGS-PIERC, 

2005

Periconiella musae Stahel 

ex Ellis.10 Syn = 

Ramichloridium musae 

(Stahel ex. E. B. Ellis) De 

Hoog

PH, WW F, L, P No No No N/A Jeger et al., 1995; Jones, 

2000d; PCARRD, 1988

Pyricularia grisea (Cooke) 

Sacc. Teleomoph =

Magnaporthe grisea

(Herbert) Barr. 

(Pyrenomycetes: 

Phyllachorales )

PH, WW L, F, P, Ps No No No N/A Alfieri et al., 1994; 

BPI/Dole, 2004; Farr et 

al., 1989; Gaskalla, 

2004; Jeger et al., 1995; 

Jones and Stover, 2000; 

Stover, 1972

 

8 Distribution considered cosmopolitan but rare in cooler regions; the name is not proposed for conservation due to imprecise 

species concept. Synonym pro parte, also includes F. proliferatum, F. subglutinans, and mating populations A-H in 

Gibberella fujikuroi complex (teleomorph). (Farr et al., 2011) 

9 Fusarium pallidoroseum is listed as a non-reportable species in PestID (2011). Fusarium spp. are often isolated from fruit 

spots caused by Cercospora hayi (Jones and Stover, 2000) (see C. hayi in this pest list) and from dead leaves or banana 

plantation trash. These fungi are found in association with other fungi as crown rots (PCARRD, 1988; Jones and Stover, 

2000). Fusarium pallidoroseum is not considered a quarantine species of concern.

10 Periconiella musae and Veronaea musae are causal agents of the “Tropical Speckle Disease.” Tropical Speckle is the name 

of a disease given to two types of leaf symptoms in which these fungi are involved. In the Umlalog variety (AAA , 

Cavendish subgroup), the fungus affects the ends of fingers, making the fruit unacceptable for export (Jones, 2000d). The 

species have a worldwide distribution.
Pest Risk Assessment for Philippine Bananas to U.S. Territories

Ver. 3 January 29, 2013 15

Scientific name 

(taxonomy) 

Geographic 

distribution1

Plant part 

affected2

Quarantine pest Follow 

pathway3

References

GU HI MP

Deuteromycotina: Coelomycetes

Colletotrichum musae

(Berk. & M. A. Curt. von 

Arx. 

Syn = Gloeosporium 

musarum Cooke and 

Massee

PH, GU, HI C, F, P, 

Ps, Rh

No No Yes No11 BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004; Farr et al., no 

date; Jones and Stover, 

2000; PCARRD, 1988; 

USGS-PIERC, 2005; 

Weber, 1973

Lasiodiplodia theobromae 

(Pat.) Griffon & Maubl.

Syn= Botryodiplodia 

theobromae Pat.

PH, GU, HI, 

MP

C, F, P, 

Ps, Rh 

No No No No11 Alfieri et al., 1994; 

BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004; CABI/EPPO, 

2010; Farr et al., no 

date; Jones, 2000; 

PCARRD, 1988; UGA, 

2011; Weber, 1973 

BACTERIA

Burkholderiales: Burkholdericeae

Ralstonia solanacearum 

(Smith) Yabuuchi et al., 

Race 1, bacterial wilt 

disease. 

Syn = Pseudomonas 

solanacearum;

Bulkholderia 

solanacearum (Infects 

diploid bananas)

PH, GU, HI B, F, Fw, 

P, Ps, Rh

No No Yes No12 Alfieri et al., 1994; 

BPI/Dole, 2004; 

Bradbury, 1986; CABI, 

2004; CABI, 2011; 

CABI/EPPO, 1999a; 

BPI/Dole, 2004; Jeger 

et al., 1995

Ralstonia solanacearum 

(Smith) Yabuuchi et al., 

Race 2 Biovar 1 (moko 

disease).13 (Infects 

triploid bananas)

PH, GU, HI B, F, Fw, 

P, Ps, Rh

No No Yes Yes14 BPI/Dole, 2004; 

Bradbury, 1986; CABI, 

2004; CABI/EPPO, 

1999b; Jeger et al., 

1995; PCARRD, 1988; 

Thwaites et al., 2000; 

Wardlaw, 1972; Weber, 

1973 

 

11 Colletotrichum musae and Lasiodiplodia theobromae are commonly saprophytic, and are often associated with rotting 

parts of the banana plant (CABI, 2004). Like other storage pathogens, they may cause a watery rot of banana. The hard, 

green bananas exported would not be hosts of these pathogens.

12 Ralstonia solanacearum Race 1 is not reported to infect edible banana cultivars (only wild diploids) (Jones, 2000). Inedible 

banana cultivars are not proposed or anticipated to be a part of the shipments. Also the following mitigation measures are 

highly likely to remove this pest from the pathway: planting clean tissue culture, eliminating alternate hosts (weeds), 

disinfesting tools, surveying and eradicating diseases, deflowering to lessen visits from the vectors of disease, bagging the 

inflorescence at the bending stage, debudding by hand instead of knife, inspecting and culling, and treating with a chlorine 

and aluminum sulphate mix in the floatation tanks.

13 Bugtok and Moko diseases are considered to be caused by the same bacterium, Ralstonia solanacearum (Thwaites et al., 

2000). “Although the causal agent Ralstonia solanacearum appears to be identical to that of Moko disease, they are treated 

here separately as the disease is distinct in terms of symptoms and host range. Bugtok is not recognized in commercially 

grown dessert bananas, although in many areas of the southern Philippines the disease has become a limiting factor in the 
Pest Risk Assessment for Philippine Bananas to U.S. Territories

Ver. 3 January 29, 2013 16

Scientific name 

(taxonomy) 

Geographic 

distribution1

Plant part 

affected2

Quarantine pest Follow 

pathway3

References

GU HI MP

Ralstonia solanacearum 

(Smith) Yabuuchi et al.,

13

Race 2 Biovar 1 (bugtok 

disease of cooking 

bananas) (Infects triploid 

bananas) 

PH B, F, Fw, 

P, Ps, Rh

Yes Yes Yes Yes14 BPI/Dole, 2004; 

Bradbury, 1986; CABI, 

2004; Jeger et al., 1995; 

Soguilon, et al., 1995; 

Thwaites et al., 2000; 

Wardlaw, 1972

Enterobacteriales: Enterobacteriaceae

Erwinia carotovora subsp. 

atroseptica (van Hall) 

Dye

PH, HI P, Rh Yes No Yes No CABI, 2004; UGA, 

2011b

Erwinia carotovora subsp.

carotovora (Jones) 

Bergey et al.

PH, HI P, Ps, Rh Yes No Yes No BPI/Dole, 2004; 

Bradbury, 1986; CABI, 

2004; Jeger et al., 1995; 

Thwaites et al., 2000; 

UGA, 2011b; Weber, 

1973

Erwinia chrysanthemi 

Burkholder et al.

PH, HI P, Rh Yes No Yes No CABI, 2004; Jeger et 

al., 1995; UGA, 2011b

Erwinia chrysanthemi pv. 

zeae (Saet) Victoria et al.

PH P, Rh Yes Yes Yes No CABI, 2004

VIRUSES

Abacá mosaic potyvirus15

[Also known as the 

Abacá mosaic strain of 

sugarcane mosaic 

potyvirus]

PH W Yes Yes Yes No16 Bajet and Magnaye, 

2002; BPI/Dole, 2004; 

Diekmann and Putter, 

1996; Thomas and 

Magnaye, 2000

Banana bract mosaic 

potyvirus

PH W Yes Yes Yes No16 BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004; Diekmann and 

Putter, 1996; Thomas et 

al., 2000

 

cultivation of cooking bananas. Bugtok and Moko can be controlled by bagging the inflorescence at the bending stage 

(Soguilon et al., 1995; Jones, 2000; Hayward, 2006), which is included in the planned mitigations.

14 The following mitigation measures are highly likely to remove this pest from the pathway: planting clean tissue culture, 

eliminating alternate hosts (weeds), disinfesting tools, surveying and eradicating diseases, deflowering to lessen visits from 

the vectors of disease, bagging the inflorescence at the bending stage, debudding by hand instead of knife, inspecting and 

culling, and treating with a chlorine and aluminum sulphate mix in the floatation tanks.

15 Abacá mosaic potyvirus (AbMV) is a strain of sugarcane mosaic potyvirus (SCMV--Ab) (CABI, 2004; Gambley et al., 

2004). AbMV has been experimentally transmitted from abacá to banana using aphid vectors (Gambley et al., 2004).

16 Because bananas are seedless and intended for consumption, viruses are highly unlikely to follow the pathway of 

commercially produced fresh mature hard green banana fruit.
Pest Risk Assessment for Philippine Bananas to U.S. Territories

Ver. 3 January 29, 2013 17

Scientific name 

(taxonomy) 

Geographic 

distribution1

Plant part 

affected2

Quarantine pest Follow 

pathway3

References

GU HI MP

Banana bunchy top

nanovirus

PH, GU, HI, 

MP

W No No No N/A BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004; Diekmann and 

Putter, 1996; Jeger, et 

al., 1995; PPS, 2008; 

Thomas and IskraCarauna, 2000; 

PCARRD, 1988

Banana streak badnavirus PH W Yes Yes Yes No16 BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004; Diekmann and 

Putter, 1996; Lockhart 

and Jones, 2000a

Cucumber mosaic 

cucumovirus (banana 

mosaic)

PH, GU, HI W No No Yes No16 Alfieri et al., 1994; 

BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004; Gaskalla, 2004;

Lockhart and Jones, 

2000b; PCARRD, 1988

NEMATODA

Criconematidae

Criconemella sp. PH R Yes Yes Yes No CABI, 2004

Hemicriconemoides 

mangiferae Siddiqi

PH R Yes Yes Yes No Anon., 1984; CABI, 

2004 

Heteroderidae 

Meloidogyne arenaria 

(Neal) Chitwood

PH R Yes Yes Yes No Anon., 1984; CABI, 

2004; De Waele, 2000; 

PCARRD, 1988 

Meloidogyne incognita

(Kofoid & White) 

Chitwood 

PH R Yes Yes Yes No Anon., 1984; BPI/Dole, 

2004; CABI, 2004; 

PCARRD, 1988

Meloidogyne javanica 

(Treub) Chitwood 

PH R Yes Yes Yes No Anon., 1984; CABI, 

2004; De Waele, 2000

Hoplolaimidea

Helicotylenchus 

multicinctus (Cobb) 

Golden

PH R Yes Yes Yes No BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004; Crane and 

Balerdi,1998; Gowen, 

2000; Ploetz, 1994

Hopolaimus seinhorsti Luc PH R Yes Yes Yes No Anon., 1984; BPI/Dole, 

2004; CABI, 2004

Rotylenchulus reniformis 

Linford & Oliveira 

PH, GU R No Yes Yes No Anon., 1984; CABI, 

2004; De Waele, 2000

Longidoridae

Longidorus sp. PH R Yes Yes Yes No Anon., 1984; CABI, 

2004
Pest Risk Assessment for Philippine Bananas to U.S. Territories

Ver. 3 January 29, 2013 18

Scientific name 

(taxonomy) 

Geographic 

distribution1

Plant part 

affected2

Quarantine pest Follow 

pathway3

References

GU HI MP

Pratylenchidae

Pratylenchus coffeae 

(Zimmermann) Filipjev 

& Schuurmans Stekhoven 

PH R, Rh Yes Yes Yes No Anon., 1984; CABI, 

2004; Gowen, 2000; 

Ploetz, 1994

Pratylenchus penetrans 

(Cobb) Filipjev & 

Schuurmans Stekhoven 

PH R, Rh Yes Yes Yes No Anon., 1984; CABI, 

2004; Gowen, 2000 

Pratylenchus zeae Graham PH R, Rh Yes Yes Yes No Anon., 1984; CABI, 

2004; Gowen, 2000 

Radopholus similis (Cobb) 

Thorne) 

PH, GU, HI R, Rh No No Yes No Anon., 1982; Anon., 

1984; BPI/Dole, 2004; 

CABI, 2004; Crane and 

Balerdi, 1998; 

PCARRD, 1988; Ploetz, 

1994; Sarah, 2000

WEEDS

Imperata cylindrica (L.) 

Beauv.

PH N/A Yes Yes Yes No17 CABI, 2004; CFR, 

2005; NRCS, 2005

Imperata sp. PH N/A Yes Yes Yes No17 APHIS, 2004b; CFR, 

2005

ARTHROPODS

Acari: Acaridae

Tyrophagus putrescentiae

(Schrank)

PH, HI Stored 

products

Yes No Yes No CABI, 2004; HTAC, 

2002

Acari: Tenuipalpidae

Brevipalpus californicus

(Banks)

PH, HI F, L, Ps Yes No Yes Yes18 CABI, 2004; HTAC, 

2002

Brevipalpus phoenicis

(Geijskes)

PH, HI L, Ps, W Yes No Yes Yes18 CABI, 2004; HTAC, 

2002

Acari: Tetranychidae

Eutetranychus orientalis

Klein

PH L Yes Yes Yes No BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004

Oligonychus orthius

Rimando)

PH L Yes Yes Yes No BPI/Dole, 2004 

 

17 Imperata sp. was intercepted once with banana fruit from the Philippines. The true origin of any baggage is unclear since it 

may have originated in a country previously visited by the passenger. Two species of Imperata—I. brasiliensis Trin. and I. 

cylindrica (L.) Raeusch—are listed and regulated as Federal Noxious Weeds. Bananas carried by passengers usually have 

been produced for local consumption and not for export. In baggage, the banana skin or any associated plant material (leaf

debris, bracts, etc.) could have been contaminated with Imperata seeds. Because of production procedures (e.g., bagging of 

banana fruit during the growing season) and post-harvest processing measures (e.g., high-pressured wash), commercially 

produced banana fruit is highly unlikely to be a pathway for weed seed.

18 The following mitigation measures are highly likely to remove this pest from the pathway: covering bunches with 

Chlorpyrifos-impregnated polyethylene (PE) bags, inspecting and culling bunches for infestations, and washing bunches 

with high-pressure water sprays.
Pest Risk Assessment for Philippine Bananas to U.S. Territories

Ver. 3 January 29, 2013 19

Scientific name 

(taxonomy) 

Geographic 

distribution1

Plant part 

affected2

Quarantine pest Follow 

pathway3

References

GU HI MP

Oligonychus velascoi

(Rimando)

PH L Yes Yes Yes No BPI/Dole, 2004; Cayme 

and Gapasin, 1987

Tetranychus cinnabarinus

(Boisduval)

PH, GU, HI L No No Yes No BPI/Dole, 20004; CABI, 

2004; HTAC, 2002

Tetranychus neocaledonicus

Andre

PH, GU, HI L No No Yes No BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004; Gaskala, 2004; 

HTAC, 2002

Tetranychus piercei

(McGregor)

PH L, Ps Yes Yes Yes No BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004

Tetranychus urticae (Koch) PH, HI L Yes No Yes No BPI/Dole, 2004; HTAC, 

2002

Coleoptera: Anthribidae

Araecerus coffeae

(Fabricius) = A. 

fasciculatus (De Geer)

PH, GU, HI F, Ps, R No No Yes No19 BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004

Coleoptera: Cerambycidae

Sybra alternans Wiedemann PH, HI F, Ps No No No N/A Chen et al., 2000; 

HTAC, 2002; Thomas, 

1999

Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae

Hispodonta sp. PH Fl, L, Ps Yes Yes Yes No Cayabyab et al., 2000

Coleoptera: Curculionidae

Cosmopolites sordidus 

(Gemar)

PH, GU, HI, 

MP

C, R, Rh, 

Ps

No No No N/A BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004; Gaskala, 2004; 

Gold and Messiaen, 

2000; Gold et al., 2002; 

HTAC, 2002; 

Muniappan and Bjork, 

1984; PCARRD, 1988; 

Smith, 1995; UGCES, 

2008

Metamasius hemipterus 

Linnaeus

PH L, Ps, W Yes Yes Yes Yes18 CABI, 2004; Gold et al., 

2002

Odoiporus longicollis

(Olivier)

PH L, Ps Yes Yes Yes No BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004; Capco, 1956; 

Gold et al., 2002

Philicoptus demissus

(Heller)

PH Fl, L Yes Yes Yes No BPI/Dole, 2004; 

Stephens, 1984

Philicoptus iliganus (Heller) PH Fl, L, R Yes Yes Yes No BPI/Dole, 2004; 

Muniappan and Bjork, 

1984; PCARRD, 1988; 

Stephens, 1984

 

19 Though this pest attacks coffee berries on the plant, Araecerus coffeae is primarily a pest of stored products and is highly 

unlikely to follow the pathway of commercially produced bananas (CABI, 2004). 
Pest Risk Assessment for Philippine Bananas to U.S. Territories

Ver. 3 January 29, 2013 20

Scientific name 

(taxonomy) 

Geographic 

distribution1

Plant part 

affected2

Quarantine pest Follow 

pathway3

References

GU HI MP

Philicoptus sp.20 PH Fl, L Yes Yes Yes No Stephens, 1984

Philicoptus stringifons

(Heller)

PH Fl, L Yes Yes Yes No BPI/Dole, 2004; 

Stephens, 1984

Philicoptus waltoni

(Boheman)

PH F Yes Yes Yes No21 El-Sayed and Suckling, 

2004; Hill, 1983 

Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae

Oryctes rhinoceros

(Linnaeus)

PH L Yes Yes Yes No BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004

Scapanes australis

Boisduval

PH F, L, Ps, 

W

Yes Yes Yes Yes22 CABI, 2004

Xylotrupes gideon

(Linnaeus)

PH, HI L Yes No Yes No CABI, 2004; HTAC, 

2002

Diptera: Muscidae

Atherigona orientalis 

Schiner

PH, GU, HI F, L, Ps, 

R, W

No No Yes Yes22 BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004; HTAC, 2002

Diptera: Tephritidae

Bactrocera occipitalis

(Bezzi)23

PH F Yes Yes Yes Yes22 Anon., 2002; BPI/Dole, 

2004; Carroll et al., 

2002; Drew and 

Hancock, 1994; IIE, 

1994a; Pacifly, 2002b; 

Sengebau, 2001; White 

and Elson-Harris, 1992 

Bactrocera philippinensis

Drew and Hancock22

PH F Yes Yes Yes Yes22 Anon., 2002; BPI/Dole, 

2004; Carroll et al., 

2002; Drew and 

Hancock, 1994; IIE, 

1994b; Pacifly, 2002c; 

Sengebau, 2001; White 

and Elson-Harris, 1992 

 

20 Stephens (1984) discussed two undescribed species within the genus. These species feed on the flowers and leaves of 

banana in the Philippines, but we did not further analyze them because they have not been identified to the species level.

21 Philicoptus waltoni has never been intercepted on Musa spp. (PestID, 2009). We found no other data on its feeding habits, 

but think it will behave similarly to others in the same genus (e.g., P. demissus, P. iliganus, and P. stringifons). These 

weevils drop from fruit when disturbed, and are all relatively large in size (6-8 mm) and mobile (Stephens, 1984). Thus, 

the basic biology of P. waltoni makes it highly unlikely to follow the pathway of banana fruit. 

22 The following mitigation measures are highly likely to remove these pests from the pathway: spraying with insecticides, 

covering bunches with chlorpyrifos-impregnated polyethylene (PE) bags, inspecting and culling bunches for insect 

infestations, and washing bunches with high-pressure water sprays.

23 Bactrocera dorsalis complex contains 75 species (Clarke et al., 2004). Fifty-two species were described by Drew and 

Hancock (1994)—forty of these were new species, of which eight are economically important. As a result, Bactrocera 

dorsalis was redescribed and its distribution redefined. Bactrocera dorsalis does not occur in the Philippines (Clarke et al., 

2004; IIE, 1986), but two other members of the complex and significant economic pest occur in the Philippines.

Bactrocera occipitalis and B. philippinensis cause 30 percent damage to bananas in Palau (Anon., 2002).
Pest Risk Assessment for Philippine Bananas to U.S. Territories

Ver. 3 January 29, 2013 21

Scientific name 

(taxonomy) 

Geographic 

distribution1

Plant part 

affected2

Quarantine pest Follow 

pathway3

References

GU HI MP

Bactrocera musae (Tryon)24 PH F Yes Yes Yes Yes22 BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004; Carroll et al., 

2002; Drew et al.,1982; 

Pacifly, 2002a; Smith, 

1977; White and ElsonHarris, 1992 

Diptera: Stratiomyidae

Hermetia illucens

(Linnaeus)

PH, HI F Yes No Yes No25 BPI/Dole, 2004; HTAC, 

2002; Stephens, 1975; 

Tomberlin and 

Sheppard, 2001; 

Woodley, 1989

Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae

Aleurocanthus woglumi

Ashby

PH, GU, HI L, Ps No No Yes No BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004; HTAC, 2002

Aleurodicus dispersus

Russell

PH, GU, HI, 

MP

L No No No N/A BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004; HTAC, 2002

Hemiptera: Aphididae

Aphis gossypii Glover PH, GU, HI, 

MP

Fl, L, Ps, 

W

No No No N/A BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004; HTAC, 2002; 

Muniappan and Bjork, 

1984; UGCES, 2008

Pentalonia nigronervosa

(Coquerel)

PH, GU, HI, 

MP

L, Ps, W No No No N/A BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004; Gold et al., 2002; 

HTAC, 2002; Mau, et 

al., 1994; Muniappan 

and Bjork, 1984; 

PCARRD, 1988; Silva 

and Fancelli, 1998; 

UGCES, 2008

Rhopalosiphum (Aphis) 

maidis (Fitch) 

PH, GU, HI L, Ps No No Yes No BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004; HTAC, 2002

Rhopalosiphum nymphaeae 

(Linnaeus)

PH, HI L, Ps Yes No Yes No CABI, 2004; Capco, 

1956; HTAC, 2002

Rhopalosiphum padi

Linnaeus

PH, HI Fl, L, Ps, 

W

Yes No Yes Yes26 CABI, 2004; HTAC, 

2002

 

24 The banana fruit fly, Bactrocera musae, will lay eggs in green, immature, and ripe bananas and will sting young fruit 

(Drew et al., 1982). However, Gold et al. (2002) state that commercial bananas collected in the “hard green” stage, 

(preclimacteric), are not hosts for B. musae and emphasize that harvesting before the fruit becomes susceptible 

(climacteric) will result in “damage-free” fruit. There is some question as to the potential for this fruit fly to lay eggs in 

immature bananas, but even if eggs are deposited and survive the hard, green banana host, the mitigation measures during 

production and post-harvest make B. musae highly unlikely to follow the pathway.

25 Females of Hermetia illucens will sometimes oviposit between young banana fingers in Panama, but hatching larvae fall to 

the ground without penetrating the fruit (Stephen, 1975).
Pest Risk Assessment for Philippine Bananas to U.S. Territories

Ver. 3 January 29, 2013 22

Scientific name 

(taxonomy) 

Geographic 

distribution1

Plant part 

affected2

Quarantine pest Follow 

pathway3

References

GU HI MP

Hemiptera: Coccidae

Ceroplastes cirripediformis

Comstock

PH, HI F, L, Ps Yes No Yes Yes26 CABI, 2004; HTAC, 

2002; Scalenet, 2005

Ceroplastes rubens Maskell PH, GU, HI F, L, Ps No No Yes Yes26 CABI, 2004; HTAC, 

2002; Scalenet, 2005

Coccus hesperidum

Linnaeus

PH, GU, HI, 

MP

L, Ps No No No N/A CABI, 2004; HTAC, 

2002; Scalenet, 2005; 

UGCES, 2008

Coccus longulus (Douglas) PH, GU, HI F, L, Ps No No Yes Yes26 HTAC, 2002; Scalenet, 

2005

Coccus sp. PH F, L, Ps Yes Yes Yes Yes26 APHIS, 2004b

Coccus viridis (Green) PH, GU, HI, 

MP

F, L, Ps No No No N/A CABI, 2004; Capco, 

1956; Hill, 1983; 

HTAC, 2002; Moore 

and Tudela, 1999; 

Nafus, 2000; Scalenet, 

2005; UGCES, 2008; 

USDA, 2000a

Parasaissetia nigra

(Nietner)

PH, GU, HI L, Ps No No Yes No CABI, 2004; HTAC, 

2002; Scalenet, 2005

Saissetia coffeae (Walker) PH, GU, HI, 

MP

L, Ps No No No N/A CABI, 2004; HTAC, 

2002; Scalenet, 2005; 

UGCES, 2008

Vinsonia stellifera

(Westwood)

PH, HI L, Ps Yes No No No HTAC, 2002; Scalenet, 

2005; Thomas, 1999

Hemiptera: Coreidae

Leptoglossus gonagra

(Fabricius)=L. australis

(Fabricius)

PH, GU F, Ps No Yes Yes Yes26 CABI, 2004; 

Baranowski and Slater, 

1986; Muniappan and 

Bjork, 1984

Hemiptera: Diaspididae

Abgrallaspis (Hemiberlesia)

cynaophylli (Signoret)

PH, HI L Yes No Yes No BPI/Dole, 2004; HTAC, 

2002; Scalenet, 2005; 

Velasquez, 1971

Abgrallaspis (Hemiberlesia)

palmae (Cockerell)

PH, HI L Yes No Yes No HTAC, 2002; 

PCARRD, 1988; 

Scalenet, 2005

Aonidiella aurantii

(Maskell)

PH, GU, MP F, L, Ps, 

W

No Yes No Yes27 CABI, 2004; Scalenet, 

2005; UGCES, 2008;

Velasquez, 1971

 

26 The following mitigation measures are highly likely to remove these pests from the pathway: spraying pseudostem and 

bunches with insecticides, covering bunches with chlorpyrifos-impregnated polyethylene (PE) bags, inspecting and culling 

bunches for insect infestations, and washing bunches with high-pressure water sprays.

27 Diaspididae, armored scales, may enter on commercial fruit for consumption, but they are highly unlikely to become 

established via this pathway. Please see discussion below for a detailed explanation.
Pest Risk Assessment for Philippine Bananas to U.S. Territories

Ver. 3 January 29, 2013 23

Scientific name 

(taxonomy) 

Geographic 

distribution1

Plant part 

affected2

Quarantine pest Follow 

pathway3

References

GU HI MP

Aonidiella comperei

McKenzie

PH, GU F, L, Ps No Yes Yes Yes27Scalenet, 2005; 

Velasquez, 1971

Aonidiella inornata

McKenzie

PH, GU, HI, 

MP

F, L, Ps No No No N/A HTAC, 2002; 

Muniappan and Bjork, 

1984; Scalenet, 2005; 

UGCES, 2008; 

Velasquez, 1971

Aonidiella orientalis

(Newstead)

PH, GU F, L, Ps No Yes Yes Yes27 CABI, 2004; Scalenet, 

2005; Velasquez, 1971

Aspidiotus coryphae

Cockerell and Robinson 

PH F, L, Ps Yes Yes Yes Yes27 BPI/Dole, 2004; 

Scalenet, 2005; 

Velasquez, 1971

Aspidiotus destructor

Signoret

PH, GU, HI, 

MP

F, L, Ps No No No N/A BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004; HTAC, 2002;

Muniappan and Bjork, 

1984; PCARRD, 1988; 

Scalenet, 2005; UGCES, 

2008; Velasquez, 1971

Aspidiotus excisus Green PH, MP F, L, Ps Yes Yes No Yes27 BPI/Dole, 2004; 

Scalenet, 2005; UGCES, 

2008; Velasquez, 1971

Aspidiotus sp. PH F, L, Ps Yes Yes Yes Yes27 APHIS, 2004b

Chrysomphalus aonidum

(Linnaeus)=C. ficus

Ashmead

PH, HI F, L, Ps Yes No Yes Yes27 BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004; HTAC, 2002; 

Muniappan and Bjork, 

1984; Scalenet, 2005; 

Velasquez, 1971

Chrysomphalus 

dictyospermi (Morgan)

PH, GU, HI, 

MP

F, L, Ps No No No N/A BPI/Dole, 2004; HTAC, 

2002; Scalenet, 2005; 

UGCES, 2008; 

Velasquez, 1971

Hemiberlesia lataniae

(Signoret)

PH, GU F, L, Ps No Yes Yes Yes27 BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004; Scalenet, 2005; 

Velasquez, 1971

Hemiberlesia palmae

(Cockerell)

PH, GU F, L, Ps No Yes Yes Yes27 BPI/Dole, 2004; 

Scalenet, 2005; 

Velasquez, 1971

Hemiberlesia rapax

(Comstock)

PH, HI F, L, Ps Yes No Yes Yes27 BPI/Dole, 2004; HTAC, 

2002; Scalenet, 2005

Ischnaspis longirostris

(Signoret)

PH, GU, HI, 

MP

F, L, Ps No No No N/A CABI, 2004; HTAC, 

2002; Scalenet, 2005; 

UGCES, 2008

Lepidosaphes beckii

(Newman)

PH, GU, HI F, L, Ps No No Yes Yes27 CABI, 2004; HTAC, 

2002; Scalenet, 2005

Lepidosaphes similis 

Beardsley

PH, GU F, L, Ps No Yes Yes Yes27 APHIS, 2004b
Pest Risk Assessment for Philippine Bananas to U.S. Territories

Ver. 3 January 29, 2013 24

Scientific name 

(taxonomy) 

Geographic 

distribution1

Plant part 

affected2

Quarantine pest Follow 

pathway3

References

GU HI MP

Mycetaspis personata

(Comstock)

PH, HI F, L, Ps Yes No Yes Yes27 HTAC, 2002; Scalenet, 

2005

Parlatoria proteus (Curtis) PH, GU, HI F, L, Ps No No Yes Yes27 HTAC, 2002; Scalenet, 

2005

Pinnaspis aspidistrae 

aspidistrae (Signoret)

PH, GU, HI F, L, Ps No No Yes Yes27 HTAC, 2002; Scalenet, 

2005

Pinnaspis buxi (BouchT) PH, GU, HI F, L, Ps No No Yes Yes27 HTAC, 2002; Scalenet, 

2004

Pinnaspis musae Takagi PH F, L, Ps Yes Yes Yes Yes27 APHIS, 2004b; 

BPI/Dole, 2004; 

Scalenet, 2005

Pinnsaspis strachani

(Cooley)

PH, GU, HI F, L, Ps, 

W

No No Yes Yes27 BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004; HTAC, 2002; 

Scalenet, 2005

Pseudaulacaspis cockerelli

(Cooley)

PH, GU, HI F, L, Ps, 

W

No No Yes Yes27 BPI/Dole, 2004; HTAC, 

2002; Scalenet, 2005

Selenaspidus articulatus 

(Morgan)

PH, HI F, L, Ps Yes No Yes Yes27 CABI, 2004; HTAC, 

2002; Scalenet, 2005

Unaspis citri (Comstock) PH, GU, HI F, L, Ps No No Yes Yes27 CABI, 2004; HTAC, 

2002; Scalenet, 2005

Hemiptera: Flatidae

Uxantis siccifolia (Stal) PH L, Ps Yes Yes Yes No APHIS, 2004b

Hemiptera: Margarodidae

Icerya aegyptiaca Douglas PH, GU, MP F, L, Ps, 

W

No Yes No Yes26 CABI, 2004; Hill, 1983; 

Muniappan and Bjork, 

1984; UGCES, 2008; 

USDA, 2000a

Icerya pulcher (Leonardi) PH F, L, Ps, 

W

Yes Yes Yes Yes26 APHIS, 2004b

Icerya seychellarum

(Westwood)

PH, GU, HI F, L, Ps, 

W

No No Yes Yes26 BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004; Hill, 1983; 

HTAC, 2002

Icerya sp. PH F Yes Yes Yes Yes26 APHIS, 2004b

Hemiptera: Pentatomidae

Tessaratoma papillosa 

(Drury)

PH F, Fl, Ps Yes Yes Yes Yes26 CABI, 2004

Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae

Dysmicoccus brevipes 

(Cockerell)

PH, GU, HI, 

MP

F, L, Ps, 

R, W

No No No N/A Ben-Dov, 1994; 

BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004; HTAC, 2002; 

Martin Kessing and 

Mau, 1992; Scalenet, 

2005
Pest Risk Assessment for Philippine Bananas to U.S. Territories

Ver. 3 January 29, 2013 25

Scientific name 

(taxonomy) 

Geographic 

distribution1

Plant part 

affected2

Quarantine pest Follow 

pathway3

References

GU HI MP

Dysmicoccus neobrevipes

Beardsley

PH, GU, HI, 

MP

F, L, Ps No No No N/A APHIS, 2004b; BenDov, 1994; BPI/Dole, 

2004; HTAC, 2002;

Miller and Miller, 2002; 

PCARRD, 1988; 

Scalenet, 2005; UGCES, 

2008

Dysmicoccus sp. PH F, L, Ps Yes Yes Yes Yes26 APHIS, 2004b

Ferrisia virgata (Cockerell) PH, GU, HI, 

MP

F, L, Ps No No No N/A Ben-Dov, 1994; 

BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004; HTAC, 2002;

Scalenet, 2005; UGCES, 

2008

Geococcus coffeae Green PH, GU, HI F, Fl, L, 

Ps

No No Yes Yes26 Ben-Dov, 1994; CABI, 

2004; HTAC, 2002; 

Scalenet, 2005

Maconellicoccus hirsutus

(Green)

PH, GU, HI F, Fl, L, 

R, Ps

No No Yes Yes26 APHIS, 2004b; BenDov, 1994; BPI/Dole, 

2004; CABI, 2004; Hill, 

1983; HTAC, 2002; 

Scalenet, 2005

Planococcus citri (Risso) PH, GU, HI, 

MP

F, FL, L No No No N/A Ben-Dov, 1994; 

BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004; HTAC, 2002; 

Scalenet, 2005; UGCES, 

2008

Planococcus lilacinus 

(Cockerell)

PH, GU, HI F, Fl, L, 

Ps, W

No No Yes Yes26 APHIS, 2004b; CABI, 

2004; HTAC, 2002; 

Scalenet, 2005

Planococcus minor

(Maskell) = P. pacificus

Cox

PH, GU F, L, Ps No No No N/A APHIS, 2004b; 

BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004; Scalenet, 2005

Planococcus sp. PH F, L Yes Yes Yes Yes26 APHIS, 2004b

Pseudococcus cryptus 

Hempel

PH, HI F Yes No Yes Yes26 APHIS, 2004b; HTAC, 

2002; Scalenet, 2005

Pseudococcus 

jackbeardsleyi Gimpel 

and Miller = P. elisae

Borchsenius

PH, HI F, L, Ps Yes No Yes Yes26 Ben-Dov, 1994; 

BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004; HTAC, 2002; 

Scalenet, 2005; Thomas, 

1999

Pseudococcus longispinus

(Targioni Tozzetti)

PH, Hi F, Fl, L. 

Ps

Yes No Yes Yes26 BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004; HTAC, 2002; 

Muiniappan and Bjork, 

1984
Pest Risk Assessment for Philippine Bananas to U.S. Territories

Ver. 3 January 29, 2013 26

Scientific name 

(taxonomy) 

Geographic 

distribution1

Plant part 

affected2

Quarantine pest Follow 

pathway3

References

GU HI MP

Pseudococcus sp. PH F, Fl, L, 

Ps, W

Yes Yes Yes Yes26 APHIS, 2004b; BenDov, 1994; CABI, 2004; 

Scalenet, 2005

Rastrococcus invadens

Williams

PH F, L, Ps Yes Yes Yes Yes26 Ben-Dov, 1994; 

BPI/Dole, 2004; 

Scalenet, 2005

Rastrococcus spinosus

(Robinson)

PH, HI F, L, Ps Yes No Yes Yes26 Ben-Dov, 1994; 

BPI/Dole, 2004; HTAC, 

2002

Hemiptera: Tingidae

Stephanitis typicus (Distant) PH L Yes Yes Yes No BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004; Capco, 1956; 

Muniappan and Bjork, 

1984

Lepidoptera: Hesperidae

Erionota torus Evans PH L Yes Yes Yes No Jong, de and 

Treadaway, 1993

Erionota (Pilopidas) thrax

(Linnaeus)

PH, GU, HI, 

MP

L No No No N/A BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004; HTAC, 2002; 

Monty, 1970;

Muniappan and Bjork, 

1984; PCARRD, 1988; 

Jong, de and 

Treadaway, 1993; 

UGCES, 2008

Erionota thrax mindana 

Evans

PH L Yes Yes Yes No Sands et al., 1991

Lepidoptera: Limacodidae

Darna diducta Snellen PH L Yes Yes Yes No CABI, 2004

Parasa lepida (Cramer) PH F, L Yes Yes Yes Yes26 CABI, 2004; 

Waterhouse, 1993

Thosea sinensis Walker= 

Hindothosea cervina

Moore

PH L Yes Yes Yes No BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004; Muniappan and 

Bjork, 1984

Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae

Olene mendosa Hubner= 

Dasychira mendosa 

(Hubner)

PH L Yes Yes Yes No CABI, 2004; 

Waterhouse, 1993

Lepidoptera: Noctuidae

Agrotis ipsilon (Hufnagel) PH, HI F, L, Ps, 

W

Yes No Yes Yes26 CABI, 2004; HTAC, 

2002; Zhang, 1994
Pest Risk Assessment for Philippine Bananas to U.S. Territories

Ver. 3 January 29, 2013 27

Scientific name 

(taxonomy) 

Geographic 

distribution1

Plant part 

affected2

Quarantine pest Follow 

pathway3

References

GU HI MP

Eudocima (Othreis) fullonia

(Clerck)

PH, GU, HI, 

MP

F No No No N/A CABI, 2004; Denton et 

al., 1989, 1999; HTAC, 

2002; Martin Kessing 

and Mau, 1993; 

Muniappan et al., 1995; 

UGCES, 2008; Zhang, 

1994 

Spodoptera exigua (Hubner) PH, HI F, Fl, L Yes No Yes Yes26 BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004; HTAC, 2002; 

Zhang, 1994

Spodoptera (Prodena) litura

(Fabricius)

PH, GU, HI, 

MP

L No No No N/A CABI, 2004; HTAC, 

2002

Tiracola plagiata (Walker) PH, GU, MP L, Ps No Yes No N/A BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004

Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae

Melanitis leda ismene

Cramer

PH L Yes Yes Yes No BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004

Lepidoptera: Psychidae

Cryptothelea (Eumeta) 

fuscescens (Snellen)

PH L Yes Yes Yes No BPI/Dole, 2004; Capco, 

1956; PCARRD, 1988

Lepidoptera: Pyralidae

Cnaphalocrocis medinalis

(Guenee)

PH L Yes Yes Yes No CABI, 2004; Zhang, 

1994

Diaphania indica

(Saunders)

PH, GU, MP F, L No Yes No Yes26 CABI, 2004; Zhang, 

1994

Pyralidae sp. PH L Yes Yes Yes No APHIS, 2004b

Tirathaba rufivena (Walker) PH Fl Yes Yes Yes No BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004; Zhang, 1994

Lepidoptera: Thyrididae

Rodenura intimalis (Moore) PH L, Ps Yes Yes Yes No Capco, 1956

Lepidoptera: Zygaenidae

Artona catoxantha

(Hampson)

PH L Yes Yes Yes No BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004; Zhang, 1994

Orthoptera: Acrididae

Chondracris rosea

(DeGeer)

PH F, Fl, L, 

Ps, W 

Yes Yes Yes Yes26 BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004

Locusta migratoria

(Linnaeus)

PH F, Fl, L, 

Ps W

Yes Yes Yes Yes26 BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004

Melicodes tenebrosa 

Walker

PH F, Fl, L, 

Ps

Yes Yes Yes Yes26 Capco, 1956

Valanga nigricornis 

Burmeister

PH, GU, MP F, Fl, L, 

Ps

No Yes No Yes26 BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004; Muniappan and 

Bjork, 1984; UGCES, 

2008
Pest Risk Assessment for Philippine Bananas to U.S. Territories

Ver. 3 January 29, 2013 28

Scientific name 

(taxonomy) 

Geographic 

distribution1

Plant part 

affected2

Quarantine pest Follow 

pathway3

References

GU HI MP

Thysanoptera: Thripidae

Chaetanaphothrips 

signipennis (Bangnall)

PH, HI F, L, Ps Yes No Yes Yes28 BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004; Hara et al., 2002; 

HTAC, 2002; 

PCARRD, 1988; Silva 

and Fancelli, 1998

Elixothrips brevisetis 

(Bangnall)

PH, GU, HI Fl, L, Ps No No No N/A BPI/Dole, 2004; HTAC, 

2002; Mau and Martin 

Kessing, 1993; 

Muniappan and Bjork, 

1984; Thomas, 1999

Hercinothrips femoralis

(Reuter)

PH, HI F, L Yes No Yes Yes28 CABI, 2004; HTAC, 

2002; Muniappan and 

Bjork, 1984; Silva and 

Fancelli, 1998

Thrips florum Schmutz PH F, Fl Yes Yes Yes Yes28 BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004; Muniappan and 

Bjork, 1984; PCARRD, 

1988; Silva and 

Fancelli, 1998

Thrips hawaiiensis

(Morgan) = T. albipes 

Bangnall

PH, GU, HI F, Fl, L No No Yes Yes28 BPI/Dole, 2004; CABI, 

2004; HTAC, 2002; 

Muniappan and Bjork, 

1984

MOLLUSCA

Achitinidae

Achatina fulica Bowdich

= Lissachatina fulica 

(Bowdich)

PH, GU, MP F, L, Ps, 

R, W

No Yes No Yes29 CABI, 2004

 

28 Thrips spp. feed on developing fruit and cause a corky scab that decreases fruit quality; these bananas would be culled 

during the harvesting and post-harvesting procedures (Gold et al., 2002). Bananas for export receive insecticidal bud 

injections, which kill flower thrips during production. Therefore, thrips are highly unlikely to follow the pathway of 

commercially produced bananas.

29 Achatina fulica is a large, normally 5 to 10 cm, external feeder that attacks the entire plant, but prefers cuttings or seedlings 

(CABI, 2004). Additionally, the following mitigation measures are highly likely to remove this pest from the pathway: 

covering bunches with bags, inspecting and culling bunches for infestations, and washing bunches with high-pressure 

water sprays.
Pest Risk Assessment for Philippine Bananas to Guam, Hawaii, and the Northern Mariana Islands

Ver. 3 January 29, 2013 29

2.5.2. Discussion of pests not further analyzed

We found numerous pests of quarantine significance associated with banana fruit in the 

Philippines (Table 7). Standard production and post-harvest processing measures used by the 

Philippines for exported bananas are highly likely to kill or remove these pests, as summarized 

below by the measures and the pests against which they are effective (Table 8)

Diseases. Mitigations that will be effective for fungi include planting clean tissue culture, 

surveying and eradicating diseases during production, spraying bunches with fungicide, 

inspecting and culling in packing house, and treating with a chlorine and aluminum sulphate mix 

in the floatation tanks.

Ralstonia solanacearum Race 2 Biovar 1 (both Bugtok and Moko disease) are bacteria of 

quarantine concern for parts of the import area, however these pathogens are removed from the 

pathway due to the use of clean tissue culture, surveying and eradicating diseases during 

production, inspecting and culling in the packing house as well as eliminating alternate hosts

(Heliconia for Moko disease (Eyres et al., 2005)), disinfesting tools, deflowering to lessen visits 

from the vectors of disease, bagging the inflorescence with chlorpyrifos-impregnated 

polyethylene (PE) bags at the bending stage, and debudding by hand instead of knife. Both 

Bugtok and Moko are reported to be insect transmitted; bagging of the inflorescence is a 

standard control measure for these diseases (Hayward, 2006; Jones, 2000). Male debudding is 

also shown to be effective for Moko disease control (Jones, 2000). There is no concern of seed 

transmission, as bananas are seedless.

Some other fungi are highly unlikely to follow the pathway of commercial banana due to their 

basic biology. Aspergillus niger is a storage pathogen found on many hosts. Deightoniella 

torulosa is a saprophyte on dead banana leaves and flowers and does not sporulate on fruit. 

Colletotrichum musae and Lasiodiplodia theobromae are commonly saprophytic, and are often 

associated with rotting parts of the banana plant.

Viruses are removed from the pathway because bananas are seedless and intended for 

consumption, making it highly unlikely that viruses will follow the pathway of commercially

produced banana.

Weeds. Seeds of the weed Imperata cylindrical are removed from the pathway because of 

production procedures (e.g., bagging of banana fruit during the growing season) and post-harvest 

processing measures (e.g., high-pressured wash).

Arthropods. The mites Brevipalpus californicus and B. phoenicis are highly likely to be 

removed from the pathway by the following mitigation measures: covering bunches with 

Chlorpyrifos-impregnated polyethylene (PE) bags, inspecting and culling bunches for 

infestations, and washing bunches with high-pressure water sprays.

The following insects are removed from the pathway of commercial banana due to their basic 

biology. Araecerus coffeae (Coleoptera: Anthribidae) is primarily a pest of stored products.

Philicoptus waltoni (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) is large and mobile, and drops from fruit when 

disturbed. Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) sometimes oviposits between young 

banana fingers in Panama, but hatching larvae fall to the ground without penetrating the fruit.
Pest Risk Assessment for Philippine Bananas to Guam, Hawaii, and the Northern Mariana Islands

Ver. 3 January 29, 2013 30

Mitigation measures such as spraying bunches with insecticides, covering bunches with 

chlorpyrifos-impregnated polyethylene (PE) bags, and inspecting and culling bunches for insect 

infestations are highly likely to remove the following internal pests from the pathway: 

Bactrocera occipitalis, B. philippinensis, and B. musae (Diptera: Tephritidae).

Mitigation measures such as spraying with insecticides, covering bunches with chlorpyrifosimpregnated polyethylene (PE) bags, inspecting and culling bunches for insect infestations, and 

washing bunches with high-pressure water sprays are highly likely to remove the following

external pests from the pathway: Metamasius hemipterus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae); Scapanes 

australis (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae); Atherigona orientalis (Diptera: Muscidae); Rhopalosiphum 

padi (Hemiptera: Aphididae); Ceroplastes cirripediformis, C. rubens, Coccus longulus

(Hemiptera: Coccidae); Leptoglossus gonagra (Hemiptera: Coreidae), Icerya aegyptiaca, I. 

pulcher, I. seychellarum (Hemiptera: Margarodidae); Tessaratoma papillosa (Hemiptera: 

Pentatomidae); Geococcus coffeae, Maconellicoccus hirsutus, Planococcus lilacinus, P. minor, 

Pseudococcus cryptus, P. jackbeardsleyi, P. longispinus, Rastrococcus invadens, R. spinosus 

(Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae); Parasa lepida (Lepidoptera: Limacodidae); Agrotis ipsilon, 

Spodoptera exigua (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae); Diaphania indica (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae); 

Chondracris rosea, Locusta migratoria, Melicodes tenebrosa, and Valanga nigricornis

(Orthoptera: Acrididae); Chaetanaphothrips signipennis, Hercinothrips femoralis, Thrips florum, 

and T. hawaiiensis (Thysanoptera: Thripidae).

We did not further analyze any of the 21 armored scales (Diaspididae) identified (Table 6), 

because, although armored scales may enter on commercial fruit for consumption, they are 

highly unlikely to establish via this pathway (Miller, 1985; PERAL, 2007). A recent critical 

review of the literature, APHIS-PPQ operational data, and expert opinion concludes that, even 

assuming high quantities of imported fruit infested with armored scale species that could be 

parthenogenic, highly fecund, polyphagous, invasive, theoretically able to survive in most of the 

United States, and capable of causing high level consequences, the specific pathway represented 

by commercially produced fruit shipped without leaves, stems, or contaminants constitutes an 

extremely low risk (PERAL, 2007). This low risk is explained by poor ability of armored scales 

to disperse to new host plants from fruits for consumption, and consequently, by their low 

probability of establishment. The following characteristics of armored scales contribute to their 

poor dispersal capability:

 Legs and wings are absent in females and in feeding immature forms. Males possess 

wings but are short-lived, do not feed, and tend to mate with nearby females. 

 Self-dispersal of armored scales occurs by immature forms, or “crawlers.” They are the 

most vulnerable life stage, survival of which decreases with long-distance wind dispersal. 

Crawlers can be passively dispersed by wind from one plant to another only during a time 

period of approximately 24 hours. No further dispersal is possible after the crawlers start 

feeding as they lose their legs during the first molt and the mouth parts are deeply 

inserted in the host, anchoring them firmly to the substrate.

 Dispersal from fruit discarded in the environment is considered very unlikely because of 

low wind speeds at ground level and low survival rate of crawlers on the ground or on 

decaying fruit or fruit peel. There is a low probability of active dispersal of crawlers by 

walking from their natal host since they are not capable of rapid movement over bare soil 

or rough surfaces. 
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Ver. 3 January 29, 2013 31

Processing, culling, and inspection of fruit infested with armored scales can further reduce the 

prevalence and survival of this group of pests.

Molluscs. Achatina fulica is a large; normally 5 to 10 cm, external feeding snail that attacks the 

entire plant, but prefers cuttings or seedlings. Additionally, the following mitigation measures 

are highly likely to remove this pest from the pathway: covering bunches with bags, inspecting 

and culling bunches for infestations, and washing bunches with high-pressure water sprays.

Table 7. Summary list of quarantine pests associated with banana fruit from the Philippines.

Type Taxonomy Pest

Arthropods Acari: Tenuipalpidae Brevipalpus californicus (Banks) 

Brevipalpus phoenicis (Geijskes)

Coleoptera: Anthribidae Araecerus coffeae (Fabricius)

Coleoptera: Curculionidae Metamasius hemipterus Linnaeus

Philicoptus waltoni (Boheman)

Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae Scapanes australis Boisduval

Diptera: Muscidae Atherigona orientalis Schiner

Diptera: Tephritidae Bactrocera occipitalis (Bezzi)

Bactrocera philippinensis Drew and Hancock

Bactrocera musae (Tryon)

Diptera: Stratiomyidae Hermetia illucens (Linnaeus)

Hemiptera: Aphididae Rhopalosiphum padi Linnaeus

Hemiptera: Coccidae Ceroplastes cirripediformis Comstock

Ceroplastes rubens Maskell

Coccus longulus (Douglas)

Hemiptera: Coreidae Leptoglossus gonagra (Fabricius)

Arthropods

(contd.)

Hemiptera: Diaspididae Aonidiella aurantii (Maskell)

Aonidiella comperei McKenzie

Aonidiella orientalis (Newstead)

Aspidiotus coryphae Cockerell and Robinson 

Aspidiotus excisus Green

Chrysomphalus aonidum (Linnaeus)

Hemiberlesia lataniae (Signoret)

Hemiberlesia palmae (Cockerell)

Hemiberlesia rapax (Comstock)

Lepidosaphes beckii (Newman)

Lepidosaphes similis Beardsley

Mycetaspis personata (Comstock)

Parlatoria proteus (Curtis)

Pinnaspis aspidistrae aspidistrae (Signoret)

Pinnaspis buxi (BouchT)

Pinnaspis musae Takagi

Pinnsaspis strachani (Cooley)
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Ver. 3 January 29, 2013 32

Type Taxonomy Pest

Pseudaulacaspis cockerelli (Cooley)

Selenaspidus articulatus (Morgan)

Unaspis citri (Comstock)

Hemiptera: Margarodidae Icerya aegyptiaca Douglas

Icerya pulcher (Leonardi)

Icerya seychellanum (Westwood)

Hemiptera: Pentatomidae Tessaratoma papillosa (Drury)

Hemiptera: 

Pseudococcidae

Geococcus coffeae Green

Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green)

Planococcus lilacinus (Cockerell)

Pseudococcus cryptus Hempel

Pseudococcus jackbeardsleyi Gimpel and Miller

Pseudococcus longispinus (Targioni Tozzetti)

Rastrococcus invadens Williams

Rastrococcus spinosus (Robinson)

Lepidoptera: Limacodidae Parasa lepida (Cramer)

Lepidoptera: Noctuidae Agrotis ipsilon (Hufnagel)

Spodoptera exigua (Hubner)

Lepidoptera: Pyralidae Diaphania indica (Saunders)

Orthoptera: Acrididae Chondracris rosea (DeGeer)

Locusta migratoria (Linnaeus)

Melicodes tenebrosa Walker

Valanga nigricornis Burmeister

Thysanoptera: Thripidae Chaetanaphothrips signipennis (Bangnall)

Hercinothrips femoralis (Reuter)

Thrips florum Schmutz

Thrips hawaiiensis (Morgan)

Mollusca Achitinidae Achatina fulica Bowdich

Weed Imperata cylindrica (L.) Beauv.

Bacteria Burkholdericeae Ralstonia solanacearum (Smith) Yabuuchi et al., Race 2, 

Biovar 1 (Moko and Bugtok)
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Ver. 3 January 29, 2013 33

Table 9. Summary of pest mitigation practices and corresponding targeted pests.

Measures Pests

Plantations – Insects

1. Use insect-free tissue culture plantlets (TCPs) in new plantings and 

all replantings

All insects30

2. Weed management by manual, mechanical, and chemical methods All insects, mollusk

3. Removal of senescent pseudostem All insects, mollusk

4. Removal of developing suckers All insects, mollusk

5. Insecticide injection of male buds Thysanoptera: Thripidae

6. Insecticide spraying of the pseudostem and foliage All insects

7. Disbudding of the male bud after the fruit developed, and removal of 

female flowers on tip of each fruit at least twice 

Thysanoptera: Thripidae

8. Spraying insecticide before bagging of bunches All insects

9. Covering bunches with chlorpyrifos-impregnated polyethylene (PE) 

bags

All insects

10. Wrapping chlorpyrifos-impregnated PE “strips” around the fruit 

stalk and folding PE “squares” at the distal end of the last hand 

All insects

11. Inspecting fruit one day before harvest for faults (including fruits 

that are precociously ripened, damaged, have compromised skin 

integrity, have tip rot or fused fingers)

All insects, mollusk

Plantations – Pathogens

12. Use disease-free tissue culture plantlets (TCPs) in new plantings and 

all replantings

Bacteria, Fungi, Viruses31

13. Weed management by manual, mechanical and chemical methods Viruses

14. Disinfecting/disinfesting of tools Bacteria, Fungi

15. Surveying for disease presence in plantation Bacteria, Fungi, Viruses

16. Deflowering of each developing bunch twice before bagging Bacteria, Fungi, Viruses

17. Fungicide treatment Fungi

18. Spraying fungicide twice before bagging Fungi

19. Bagging bunches with chlorpyrifos-impregnated PE bags Bacteria,Viruses (controls insect 

vectors)

20. Disbudding by hand and not with a knife Bacteria, Fungi, Viruses

21. Inspection of bunches ready for harvest for presence of diseases Bacteria, Fungi, Viruses

22. Inspection of bunch during harvest Bacteria, Fungi, Viruses

Packing House – Insects

23. Spraying bunches with high-pressure water External feeders32

24. Inspection of bunches before de-handing All insects

25. Inspection of bunches during de-handing All insects

 

30 “All insects” includes Arthropod pests except for Acari: Tenuipalpidae (mites). This includes the orders: 

Coleoptera, Diptera, Hemiptera, Lepidoptera, Orthoptera, and Thysanoptera.

31 Because bananas are seedless and intended for consumption, viruses are highly unlikely to follow the pathway of 

commercially produced banana fruit. However, these mitigation measures are still in place to control the potential 

yield loss of banana due to virus infestations.

32 “External feeders” includes Acari (Tenuipalpidae), Coleoptera (Anthribidae, Curculionidae, Scarabaeidae), 

Hemiptera (Aphididae, Coccidae, Coreidae, Diaspididae, Margarodidae, Pentatomidae, Pseudococcidae), 

Lepidoptera (Limacodidae, Noctuidae, Pyralidae), Orthoptera (Acrididae), Thysanoptera (Thripidae), and 

Mollusca (Achitinidae). 
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Ver. 3 January 29, 2013 34

Measures Pests

26. Washing bunches with soap and water after de-handing, and sprayed 

again with high-pressure water

External feeders 

27. Inspecting individual hands All insects

Packing House – Pathogens

28. Treating fruits with a mixture of chlorine and aluminum sulphate in 

de-handing and floatation tanks during processing 

Bacteria, Fungi

Storage and Shipping

29. Utilizing new pallets or those that are cleaned, dried and freed from 

trash, soil, weed seeds, and other contaminants

Weed

30. Eliminating any sources of contamination at the wharf areas Weed, Fungi, Bacteria

31. Loading palletized fruits in boxes into cold storage within three 

hours 

Diptera: Tephritidae

32. Disinfecting vessels before loadings Weed, Fungi, Bacteria

2.6. Conclusion

Organisms identified to the genus or higher taxonomic level are not analyzed further, even 

though individual species within those taxonomic groups are potential pests that may or may not 

occur within the United States. The IPPC guidelines do not require risk assessment of pests 

identified only by genus name (IPPC, 2009: ISPM #2). By necessity, pest risk assessments focus 

on those organisms for which adequate biological and taxonomic information is available. Often, 

there are many species within a genus, and it is not reasonable to assume that the biology of all 

organisms within a genus is identical. Lack of species identification may indicate the limits of 

the current taxonomic knowledge or the life stage or quality of the specimen submitted for 

identification. Lack of identification at the species level does not rule out the possibility that a 

high risk quarantine pest was intercepted or that the intercepted pest was not a quarantine pest.

By developing detailed assessments for known pests that inhabit a variety of niches on the parent 

commodity, for example, on the surface of or within the stem or fruit, on the flowers, etc., 

effective mitigation measures may be developed to eliminate the known pests, and any similar 

unknown ones that inhabit the same niches. Lack of biological information on any given insect 

or pathogen should not be equated with a low risk.

Other plant pests not chosen for further scrutiny may be detrimental to U.S. ecosystems, but were 

not subjected to further analysis for a variety of reasons. For example, they were associated 

mainly with plant parts other than the commodity; may be associated with the commodity, but 

would not reasonably remain with the commodity during processing; or have been intercepted as 

biological contaminants of these commodities during U.S. agricultural port-of-entry inspection, 

but would not be present in commercial shipments. 

All pests are highly likely to be excluded by one or more of the risk mitigation measures planned 

by the Philippines (Appendix A). We found no quarantine pests of Musa spp. in the Philippines 

that are likely to follow the pathway of commercial banana fruit.
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Ver. 3 January 29, 2013 35

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4. Authors and Reviewers 

Authors:

Robert P. Kahn, Plant Pathologist and Consultant, Columbia, MD 21045 

Philip Lima, Entomologist and Consultant, Rockville, MD 20853 

Christie Bertone, Entomologist, USDA-APHIS-PPQ-CPHST-PERAL

Reviewers of Draft by R. P. Kahn and P. Lima:

Jorge Peña, Entomologist, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS), University of 

Florida, Homestead, FL 33031

R. C. Ploetz, Plant Pathologist, IFAS, University of Florida, Homestead, FL 33031

John Lightfield, Middletown, MD 21769

PERAL Reviewers

Nicanor Liquido, Risk Analyst

Lawrence Brown, Plant Pathologist

Thomas Culliney, Entomologist/Risk Analyst
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5. Appendices

Appendix A: Pest mitigation measures built in the production and processing operations of 

Philippine bananas intended for export.

The following measures are standard farm operations and packing station practices that are 

aimed at preventing or reducing the likelihood of pests such as mealybugs, scale insects, fruit 

flies, freckle pathogens, or bunchy top disease being present in the exported banana fruits. 

A1. Insect Pest Management:

a) Use of tissue culture seedlings in new plantings. 

b) Weed control to eliminate alternate hosts, thus reducing resident insect pest populations in 

plantations.

c) Pseudostem sanitation to eliminate insect breeding sites.

d) Fruit obstruction removal to prevent fruit damage as well as to eliminate bridges that may be 

utilized by insects to infest fruits.

e) Insecticidal bud injection to control the banana flower thrips.

f) Insecticidal sprays on the pseudostem to eliminate insect pests, e.g., scale insects, mealybugs, 

aphids, and other external pests.

g) Regular bunch sprays with insecticide(s) to prevent mealybugs, scale insects, and other pests 

from colonizing the developing fruit bunch. These sprays also kill foraging fruit flies, if 

present. 

h) Chlorpyrifos-impregnated polyethylene (PE) bags are used to cover the fruit bunches after 

the bunch spray to further prevent infestation by mealybugs, scales, other external pests, and 

fruit flies, if present. 

i) Additional chlorpyrifos-impregnated PE material (in a form of “strip” or “square”) is 

installed on the fruit as additional control against insect pests when needed.

j) Bunches for harvest are identified/tagged one day before harvest in a procedure called “precalibration.” In the process, bunches are inspected for the presence of insect pests. Bunches 

with mealybugs, scales, and other insect infestations are discarded during harvest.

k) Upon arrival at the packing plant, fruit bunches are sprayed with high-pressure water to 

eliminate any possible, although highly improbable, mealybug or other external pest 

infestation.

l) While bunches are waiting to be de-handed, the “fruit inspector” in the packing plant will 

check for insect damage, particularly mealybug infestation, on individual bunches. 

m)During de-handing, individual hands are thoroughly inspected by the “de-hander” for 

possible mealybug and other surface insect infestations and for any other evidence of insect 

damage. To remove fruit that may have a fruit fly infestation, hands with “faults” are culled 

during de-handing. “Faults” include fruits that are precociously ripened, damaged and/or 

with compromised skin integrity, and with tip rot and fused fingers. 

n) After de-handing, individual hands are thoroughly cleaned with soap and water by the fruit 

selectors and further brushed with high-pressure water to eliminate possible surface insect 

infestation.

o) The individual hands are again inspected to confirm freedom from mealybugs and other 

surface insects during weighing and immediately before packing inside the shipping box.
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p) Only new pallets and those that are clean, dry, and free from any trash, soil, weed seeds, and 

other contaminants are utilized by the industry.

q) Fruits in boxes packed in pallets are brought to the wharf, and are loaded into the shipping 

vessel or into cold storage facility within three hours. Wharf areas are kept clean and situated 

away from houses and farms. The wharf is cleaned regularly to remove any source of 

contamination. 

r) Vessels are cleaned with the recommended disinfectant before loading. Some vessels use 

ozone for disinfection between loads.

A2. Diseases

a) Use of disease-free tissue culture seedlings in new plantings. 

b) Application of weed management practices to eliminate alternate hosts of diseases and/or 

their vectors.

c) Strict tools disinfection to prevent spread of diseases like moko (R. solanacearum) and fruit 

rot (E. carotovora pv. carotovora).

d) Disease surveys (i.e., sigatoka, moko and bunchy top) are done regularly. All plants infected 

with moko or bunchy top are eradicated within 24 hours from detection.

e) Each fruit bunch receives at least two cycles of bunch spray containing fungicide to control 

fruit fungal diseases.

f) Each developing bunch is deflowered two times before bagging, thereby making it less likely 

that insects carry pathogens such as the ones causing moko and bugtok (Ralstonia 

solanacearum Race 2 Biovar 1) will visit the plant. 

g) Each developing bunch is treated with insecticide-fungicide sprays; such insecticide 

prevents/deters insect vectors from being attracted to the developing bunch and subsequently 

transmitting diseases. 

h) Bunches are bagged with chlorpyrifos-impregnated polybags that prevents further insect 

vector incursions after bagging. At the time of bagging, bunches have already received at 

least two fungicidal bunch sprays. 

i) Debudding is by hand, not with a knife. Therefore, further fruit infection due to inoculum 

transmission by insects would be negligible after debudding. Debudding has long been 

demonstrated by Buddenhagen and Elsasser (1962) and Buddenhagen and Kelman (1964) as 

an effective measure to prevent occurrence of insect transmission of moko disease (Ralstonia 

solanacearum Race 2 Biovar 1).

j) Bunches for harvest are identified one day before harvest in a procedure “pre-calibration.” In 

the process, bunches are inspected for the presence of diseases. In the case of moko infection, 

the symptoms clearly manifest in terms of premature ripening, rupture, and fruit 

malformation. The whole mat on which moko-infected fruit was detected is eradicated 

immediately following standard eradication procedures, while bunches with fruit rot disease 

are discarded outright. 

k) During harvest, the stalk of the bunch is inspected for the presence of internal disease 

symptoms (discolored vascular bundles) of moko and discolored vascular bundles at the cut 

surface of the peduncle. Infected bunches including the whole mat are eradicated 

immediately.

l) During processing in the packing plant, fruits are treated with a mixture of chlorine and 

aluminum sulphate in the dehanding and floatation tanks. The aluminum sulphate binds and 
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removes the sap from the solution to keep the desired concentration and efficacy of chlorine. 

Chlorine is lethal to bacterial and fungal pathogens that adhere on the surface of the fruits.
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Appendix B: Banana pest list provided by the Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant 

Industry, the Philippines and Dole Fruit Company, Philippines

Source: Munez, 2004

Scientific Name Common Name Order Family Reference

1 Abgrallaspis 

cyanophylli 

(Signoret)

Cyanophyllum 

scale

Hemiptera Diaspididae Sugimoto, 1994; 

Velasquez, 1971

2 Aleurocanthus woglumi

Ashby

Citrus whitefly Hemiptera Aleyrodidae Martin, 1999; Mound & 

Halsey, 1978

3 Aleurodicus dispersus

Russell

Spiraling 

whitefly

Hemiptera Aleyrodidae Lit & Calilung, 1994; 

Waterhouse, 1993

4 Aphis gossypili Glover Cotton aphid; 

melon aphid

Hemiptera Aphidae Waterhouse, 1993

5 Araecerus coffeae

(Fabricius) 

Syn = Araecerus 

fasciculatus (De 

Geer)

Coffee bean 

weevil

Coleoptera Anthribidae Mphuru, 1974; 

Waterhouse, 1993

6 Artona catoxantha

(Hampson)

Syn = Brachartona 

catoxantha

(Hampson

Coconut leaf 

moth

Lepidoptera Zygaenidae Merino, 1938

7 Aspidiotus coryphae 

Cockerell & 

Robinson

Hard scale Hemiptera Diaspididae Sugimoto, 1994; 

Velasquez, 1971

8 Aspidiotus destructor

Signoret

Transparent 

scale; coconut 

scale

Hemiptera Diaspididae PCARRD, 1988; 

Sugimoto, 1994; 

Velasquez, 1971; 

Waterhouse, 1993

9 Aspidiotus excisus

Green

Hard scale Hemiptera Diaspididae Sugimoto, 1994; 

Velasquez, 1971

10 Atherigona orientalis Pepper fruit fly Diptera Muscidae CABI, 2002

11 Bactrocera musae Banana fruit fly Diptera Tephritidae CABI, 2002

12 Bactrocera occipitalis 

(Bezzi)

Fruit fly Diptera Tephritidae Drew & Hancock, 1994

13 Bactrocera 

philippinensis Drew

& Hancock

Philippine fruit 

fly

Diptera Tephritidae Drew & Hancock, 1994

14 Chaetanaphothrips 

signipennis 

(Bagnall)

Banana rust 

thrips; red rust 

thrips

Thysanoptera Thripidae PCARRD, 1988

15 Chondracris rosea Citrus locust Orthoptera Acrididae CABI, 2002

16 Chrysomphalus 

aonidum

Circular ecale Hemiptera Diaspididae CABI, 2002

17 Chrysomphalus 

dictyospermi

Spanish red scale Hemiptera Diaspididae CABI, 2002

18 Coccus hesperidium

Linnaeus

Soft brown scale Hemiptera Coccidae Sugimoto, 1994; Swirski 

et al., 1997
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Scientific Name Common Name Order Family Reference

19 Cosmopolites sordidus

(Germar)

Banana weevil 

borer; banana 

root weevil

Coleoptera Curculionidae Deang et al., 1971; 

PCARRD, 1988

20 Cryptothelea 

fuscescens (Snellen)

Bag worm Lepidoptera Psychidae Kalshoven, 1981; 

PCARRD, 1988

21 Dysmicoccus brevipes

(Cockerell)

Pineapple 

mealybug

Hemiptera Pseudococcidae Sugimoto, 1994;

22 Dysmicoccus 

neobrevipes

Beardsley

Grey pineapple 

mealybug

Hemiptera Pseudococcidae Ben-Dov, 1994; 

PCARRD, 1988; 

Sugimoto, 1994

23 Elixothrips brevisetis

Bagnall

Banana rind 

thrips

Thysanoptera Thripidae Mau & Kessing, 1993a

24 Erionota thrax

(Linnaeus) 

Syn = Pelopidas 

thrax (Linnaeus)

Banana skipper; 

banana leaf 

roller

Lepidoptera Hesperiidae De Jong & Treadaway 

1993; Hoffmann, 1935; 

PCARRD, 1988

25 Ferrisia virgata 

(Cockerell)

Striped 

mealybug

Hemiptera Pseudococcidae Waterhouse, 1993

26 Hemiberlesia lataniae

(Signoret)

Latania scale Hemiptera Diaspididae CABI, 2002; Velasquez, 

1971

27 Hemiberlesia palmae

(Cockerell)

Citrus black 

scale

Hemiptera Diaspididae PCARRD, 1988; 

Sugimoto, 1994; 

Velasquez, 1971

28 Hemiberlesia rapax

(Comstock)

Greedy scale Hemiptera Diaspididae Sugimoto, 1994;

29 Hermetia illucens

(Linnaeus)

American soldier 

fly

Rueda et al., 1990

30 Icerya seychellarum 

(Westwood)

Seychelles scale Hemiptera Margarodidae Sugimoto, 1994;

31 Locusta migratoria Migratory locust Orthoptera Acrididae CABI, 2002

32 Melanitis leda ismene Rice butterfly Lepidoptera Nymphalidae CABI, 2002

33 Odoiporus longicollis

Olivier

Banana stem 

weevil; banana 

stem borer

Coleoptera Curculionidae Uichanco, 1936

34 Oryctes rhinoceros Rhinoceros 

beetle

Coleoptera Scarabaeidae CABI, 2002

35 Pentalonia 

nigronervosa 

Coquerel

Banana aphid Hemiptera Aphidae Lomerio & Calilung, 

1993; PCARRD, 1988

36 Philicoptus demissus 

(Heller)

Peel-scarring 

weevil

Coleoptera Curculionidae Stephens, 1984

37 Philicoptus iliganus

(Heller)

Peel-scarring 

weevil

Coleoptera Curculionidae PCARRD, 1988; Stephens, 

1984

38 Philicoptus sp. 1 Peel-scarring 

weevil

Coleoptera Curculionidae Stephens, 1984

39 Philicoptus sp. 2 Peel-scarring 

weevil

Coleoptera Curculionidae Stephens, 1984

40 Philicoptus stringifrons 

(Heller)

Peel-scarring 

weevil

Coleoptera Curculionidae Stephens, 1984

41 Pinnapsis musae

Takagi

Hard scale Hemiptera Diaspididae Sugimoto, 1994;
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Scientific Name Common Name Order Family Reference

42 Pinnaspis strachani Lesser snow 

scale

Hemiptera Diaspididae CABI, 2002

43 Planococcus citri

(Risso)

Citrus mealybug Hemiptera Pseudococcidae Waterhouse, 1993

44 Planococcus minor

(Maskell)

Syn = P. pacificus

Cox

Passionvine 

mealybug; 

Pacific 

mealybug

Hemiptera Pseudococcidae Ben-Dov., 1994

45 Pseudaulacapsis 

cockerelli (Cooley)

Mango scale; 

Oleander scale

Hemiptera Diaspididae Sugimoto, 1994;

46 Pseudococcus 

jackbeardsleyi

Gimpel & Miller

Syn = P. elisae

Borchsenius

Banana 

mealybug

Hemiptera Pseudococcidae Ben-Dov., 1994; Lit & 

Calilung, 1994

47 Pseudococcus 

longispinus

(Targioni Tozzetti)

Longtail 

mealybug

Hemiptera Pseudococcidae Lit & Calilung, 1994

48 Rastrococcus spinosus

Robinson

Mealybug Hemiptera Pseudococcidae Ben-Dov., 1994; Williams, 

1989

49 Rhopalosiphum maidis

(Fitch)

Syn = Aphis maidis

(Fitch

Corn aphid; 

maize aphid

Hemiptera Aphidae Waterhouse, 1993

50 Spodoptera exigua Beet armyworm Lepidoptera Noctuidae CABI, 2002

51 Stephanitis typica 

(Distant)

Banana lacewing 

bug

Hoffmann, 1935; 

Waterhouse, 1993

52 Thosea sinensis

(Walker)

Cup moth; 

Assam nettle; 

saddle-back 

nettle

Lepidoptera Limacodidae Waterhouse, 1993

53 Thrips florum Schmutz Banana flower 

thrips; scab 

thrips

Thysanoptera Thripidae Palmer & Wetton, 1987; 

PCARRD, 1988

54 Thrips hawaiiensis Hawaiian flower 

thrips

Thysanoptera Thripidae CABI, 2002

55 Tiracola plagiata Plague 

caterpillar

Lepidoptera Noctuidae CABI, 2002

56 Tirathaba rufivena Coconut spike 

moth

Lepidoptera Pyralidae CABI, 2002

57 Valanga nigricornis 

Burmeister

Grasshopper Orthoptera Acrididae Waterhouse, 1993

58 Eutetranychus 

orientalis

Citus brown mite CABI, 2002

59 Oligonychus orthius

(Rimando)

Spider mite Corpuz-Raros, 1989; 

Rimando, 1962

60 Oligonychus velascoi

(Rimando)

Coconut spider 

mite

Corpuz-Raros, 1989; 

Rimando, 1962

61 Tetranychus 

cinnabarinus

(Boisduval)

Spider mite Corpuz-Raros, 1989;
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Scientific Name Common Name Order Family Reference

62 Tetranychus 

neocaledonicus

Andre

Spider mite Corpuz-Raros, 1989;

63 Tetranychus piercei

(McGregor)

Red spider mite McGregor, 1950

64 Tetranychus urticae

(Koch)

Two-spotted 

spider mite

Corpuz-Raros, 1989;

Bacteria:

65 Erwinia carotovora

(Jones) Bergy, 

Harrison, Breed, 

Hammer & Huntoon

Corm rot Enterobacteriales Enterobacteriaceae Phil. Dept. of Agric, 2001; 

San Juan, 1980

66 Ralstonia 

solanacearum

(Smith, 1896) 

Yabuuchi et al., 

1995 Race 2 

Syn = Pseudomonas 

solanacearum

Moko/Bugtok Burkholderiales Burkholderiaceae Phil. Dept. of Agric, 2001; 

Jones, 2000a

Fungi:

67 Aspergillus niger Tiegh Collar rot, fruit 

rot

Mitosporic Fungi Hyphomycetes CABI, 2002

68 Botryodiplodia 

theobromae Pat. 

Anamorph = 

Lasiodiplodia 

theobromae (Pat.)

Griff. & Maubl.)

Crown rot, 

finger rot

Mitosporic fungi Coelomycetes PCARRD, 1988; CABI, 

2002

69 Ceratocystis paradoxa

(Dade) C. Moreau 

Anamorph = 

Charlara paradoxa 

(DeSeynes) Sac. 

Syn =Thielaviopsis 

paradoxa (Der 

Syanes) Honn.

Corm rot, black 

end, fingertip rot

Ophiostomatales Ophiostomataceae CABI, 2002

Ceratostomella 

paradoxa Dade 

(teleomorph);

Ophiostoma paradoxa

(Dade) Nannf. 

(teleomorph);

Sporoschisma 

paradoxum De 

Seynes (teleomorph)

70 Cercospora hayi

Calpouzos

Brown spot, 

diamond spot

Mitosporic fungi Hyphomycetes PCARRD, 1988; CABI, 

2002

71 Colletotrichum musae

(Berk. & Curt.) von 

Arx

Anthracnose, 

crown rot

Mitosporic fungi Coelomycetes BPI, 2000
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Scientific Name Common Name Order Family Reference

Gloeosporium 

musarum Cooke &

Massee

PCARRD, 1988

72 Cochliobolus lunatus

R.R. Nelson & 

Hasis. Anamorph = 

Curvularia lunata

(Wakk.) Biedjin

Loculoascomycetes Dothideales CABI, 2002

73 Cordana musae

(Zimm) Hohnel

Cordana leaf 

spot

Mitosporic Fungi Phil. Dept. of Agric, 2001;

74 Deightoniella torulosa

(Syd.) Ellis 

Speckle Mitosporic fungi Hyphomycetes Phil. Dept. of Agric, 2001;

75 Fusarium oxysporum f. 

sp. cubense (Smith) 

Sny. & Han.

Fusarium wilt, 

Panama Disease

Ascomycetes 

Hypocreales

Hypocreaceae Phil. Dept. of Agric, 2001; 

Jones, 2000a

76 Fusarium moniliforme

Sheldon Teleomorph 

= Gibberella 

fujikuroi (J. Sawada) 

Wollenw.)

Crown rot, fruit 

rot

Ascomycetes 

Hypocreales 

Hypocreaceae PCARRD, 1988

77 Fusarium 

pallidoroseum 

(Cooke)

Crown rot, fruit 

rot

Ascomycetes Hypocreaceae PCARRD, 1988

Sacc. F. semitectum

auct. non

Hypocreales

78 Fusarium roseum

Link:Fr.

Crown rot, fruit 

rot

Ascomycetes 

Hypocreales

Hypocreaceae PCARRD, 1988

79 Guignardia musae

Racib.

Freckle Dothideales Mycosphaerellaceae Jones, 2000a; Conde, 2001

80 Mycosphaerella 

fijiensis

Black sigatoka, Ascomycetes Mycosphaerellaceae Phil. Dept. of Agric, 2001; 

Jones, 2000a

M. fijiensis var. 

difformis Mulder & 

Stover;

Paracercospora 

fijiensis (Morelet) 

Deighton;

black leaf streak Dothideales

Cercospora fijiensis

Morelet

Pseudocercospora 

fijiensis (Morelet0

81 Mycosphaerella 

musicola J.L.Mulder 

& Stover

Yellow sigatoka Ascomycetes Mycosphaerellaceae Jones, 2000a

Pseudocercospora 

musae (A. 

Zimmerm.) 

Deighton

Dothideales

82 Pyricularia grisea

(Cooke) Sacc. Syn = 

Magnaporthe grisea

(Hebert) Barr.)

Pitmark, fruit 

pitting disease, 

Johnson spot

Ascomycetes Magnaporthaceae Jones, 2000a; Phil. Dept. 

of Agric, 2001
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Scientific Name Common Name Order Family Reference

83 Remichloridium musae

(Stahel ex E.B. Ellis) 

De Hoog

Speckle PCARRD, 1988

Chloridium musae

Stahel nom. Inval; 

Periconiella musae

Stahel ex M.B. Ellis; 

Veronaea musae 

Stahel ex M. B. Ellis

84 Uredo musae Cummins Rust Uredinales Pucciniaceae CIE, 1971

85 Uromyces musae Henn. Rust Uredinales Pucciniaceae Teodoro, 1937; PCARRD, 

1988

Nematodes:

86 Helicotylenchus 

multicinctus

Banana spiral 

nematode

Tylenchida Hoploplaimidae CABI, 2002

87 Hopolaimus seinhorsti 

Luc

Lance nematode Tylenchida Hoploplaimidae CABI, 2002

88 Meliodogyne arenaria 

Neal

Root knot 

nematode

Tylenchida Meloidogynidae Taylor et al., 1982

89 Meliodogyne incognita

(Kofoid & White)

Root knot 

nematode

Tylenchida Meloidogynidae Timm, 1965

90 Radopholus similes 

(Cobb) Thorne

Burrowing 

nematode

Tylenchida Pratylenchidae Booth & Stover, 1974

91 Rotylenchus reniformis

Linford & Oliveira

Reniform 

nematode

Tylenchida Heteroderidae CABI, 2002

Viruses:

92 Abaca mosaic 

polyvirus

Abaca mosaic, 

sugarcane 

mosaic

Jones, 2000a

93 Banana bract mosaic 

potyvirus

Banana bract 

mosaic virus

Jones, 2000a

94 Banana bunchy top 

nanavirus

Banana bunchy 

top

Jones, 2000a

95 Banana streak 

badnavirus

Banana streak Jones, 2000a

96 Cucumber mosaic 

cucumovirus

Mosaic, 

infectious 

chlorosis, heartrot, virus sheath 

rot

Phil. Dept. of Agric, 2001