BLEED
Cover. Photo credits: Left, South Platte Park, Littleton, Colo., photograph by Raymond Sperger.

Center, City of Denver Skyline and Aggregate Industries, photograph by Jonathan Eady. 

Right, Detail of stone paving design, photograph by B. Arbogast. 
The Human Factor in Mining Reclamation

By Belinda F. Arbogast, Daniel H. Knepper, Jr., and William H. Langer

U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1191

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior

Bruce Babbitt, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Charles G. Groat, Director

First printing 2000

Free on application to U.S. Geological Survey, Information Services

Box 25286, Federal Center

Denver, CO 80225

This report is also available on line at 

http://greenwood.cr.usgs.gov/pub/circulars/c1191/

Any use of trade, product, or firm names in this publication

is for descriptive purposes only and does not

imply endorsement by the U.S. Government

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Arbogast, B. F. (Belinda F.)

The human factor in mining reclamation / by Belinda F. Arbogast, 

Daniel H. Knepper, Jr., and William H. Langer.

p. cm. — (U.S. Geological Survey circular ; 1191)

Includes bibliographical references.

1. Abandoned mined lands reclamation. 2. Quarries and quarrying—Environmental

aspects. 3. Sand and gravel mines and mining—Environmental aspects. 4. Urbanization.

I. Knepper, Daniel H. II. Langer, William H. III. Title. IV. Series.

TD195.Q3 A73 2000

333.76′5153—dc21 99–057005

Published in the Central Region, Denver, Colorado

Manuscript approved for publication September 30, 1999

Edited by Lorna Carter

Photo composition by William E. Sowers
III

Contents

Abstract ................................................................................................................................................ 1

Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 1

Background: Permitting and Reclamation ....................................................................................... 2

History of Resource Management .................................................................................................... 4

Exploitive ...................................................................................................................................... 4

Preservation ................................................................................................................................ 5

Utilitarian ...................................................................................................................................... 5

Conservation ............................................................................................................................... 6

Regulatory Considerations ................................................................................................................ 6

Landscape Form and Change............................................................................................................. 8

Surface Topography .................................................................................................................. 8

Dry and Wetlands ....................................................................................................................... 9

Natural and Cultural Patterns ................................................................................................. 10

Esthetics and Ecology ........................................................................................................................ 12

Design Approaches ............................................................................................................................. 13

Natural ......................................................................................................................................... 13

Camouflage ................................................................................................................................. 14

Restoration ................................................................................................................................... 15

Rehabilitation ............................................................................................................................... 15

Mitigation...................................................................................................................................... 16

Renewable Resource ................................................................................................................. 18

Education...................................................................................................................................... 20

Art .................................................................................................................................................. 21

Integration .................................................................................................................................... 23

Conclusions........................................................................................................................................... 26

References Cited.................................................................................................................................. 27

Figures

1. Stylized oblique aerial view, 3-D illustration of Colorado Front Range ...................... 1

2–28. Photographic images showing:

2. Examples of recent or current construction in the 

Urban Front Range area, Colorado ........................................................................ 3

3. Rock features exposed by mining and road construction, 

Colorado Front Range ............................................................................................. 7

4. “Earthworks for Hillside Housing,” near Los Angeles, Calif.............................. 8

5. Geometric landforms produced by humans and by geologic processes....... 8
IV

6. Ryoan-ji, circa 1488–99; within the Daiju-in monastery, 

Kyoto, Japan .............................................................................................................. 11

7. “I am Sorry,” 1995; sand, gravel, and 1,000 cement balls .................................. 11

8. “Wheat Fields on Tablelands Cut by the Marias River,”

 Cutbank, Mont. ......................................................................................................... 12

9. Cottonwood and willow restoration in a mined-out sand and gravel pit, 

Fort Collins, Colo........................................................................................................ 14

10. Vehicular entrance to a mining facility.................................................................. 14

11. View west from within the WREN pit, east-central Fort Collins, Colo.............. 15 

12. Before and after aspects of Butchart Gardens, Vancouver Island, B.C.......... 16

13. Quarry at Weldon Springs, Mo. .............................................................................. 17

14. South Platte Park, Colo., formerly an aggregate mining site............................. 18

15. Restored wetlands from gravel mine site, Boulder Valley, Colo. ...................... 18

16. Sandstone fountain and pool in Hillsboro, Oreg., constructed of 

old building foundations and lintels ....................................................................... 19

17. Recycled asphalt available for other projects (Recycled Materials Co.)........ 19

18. Stockpile at Western Mobile Boulder’s Glass Crushing Center........................ 19

19. NSA/ASLA Student Competition First Place: Linda Attaway,

Mary Dewing, University of Colorado at Denver ................................................. 20

20. Complex vegetation of the Minnesota prairie...................................................... 21

21. Western Mobile’s xeriscape garden in Albuquerque, N.Mex. .......................... 22

22. Parc des Buttes-Chaumont, Paris.......................................................................... 22

23. Aexoni Quarry, Greece............................................................................................. 23

24. “Broken Circle” ......................................................................................................... 23

25. “Untitled (Johnson Pit #30)”.................................................................................... 24

26. Coloring book page with theme of “working in partnership to 

achieve balanced natural resource management” ............................................ 25

27. Quarry Cove, Yaquina Head Outstanding Natural Area, Newport, Oreg. ........ 25

28. Water strider earthen sculpture from “Effigy Tumuli” 1983–85......................... 26 

 

Tables

1. Construction mine (including sand and gravel, hard rock) permits

for 1992–1997, Colorado Urban Front Range ........................................................ 2

2. Types of after-use for mines located below (wet bottoms) or

above (dry bottoms) the water table...................................................................... 9

3. Natural patterns of hard rock (quarry) and sand and gravel

(pit) mines in the U.S................................................................................................. 10

4. Design approaches to reclaiming mine sites....................................................... 13
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at south end of Park Meadows Mall, Colo. B, Suburban home construction in Arapahoe County, Colo. Photographs by B. Arbogast.

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Figure 6. Ryoan-ji, circa 1488–99; within the Daiju-in monastery, Kyoto, 

Japan. From Jellicoe and Jellicoe, 1987, p. 96. A, Zen garden of contemplation. Photograph by Susan Jellicoe. B, Diagram showing plan view. 

Drawing by Geoffrey Jellicoe.

Figure 7. “I Am Sorry,” 1995. Sand, gravel, and 1,000 cement balls. 

Watari Um Museum, Tokyo, Japan.

A

B
12 The Human Factor in Mining Reclamation

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Figure 8. “Wheat Fields on Tablelands Cut by the Marias River,” Cutbank, Mont. Photograph by Alex 

S. MacLean (Corner and MacLean, 1996, p. 129). Courtesy of Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn.
Design Approaches 13

	
	
		





		

			

		


		 



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14 The Human Factor in Mining Reclamation

	

	


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gravel pit, Fort Collins, Colo. Photograph by B. Arbogast.

Figure 10. Vehicular entrance to a mining facility. Photograph courtesy 

of Western Mobile, Boulder, Colo.
Design Approaches 15

	

	
			
	

	
			

									

	
	
	
			

							

		 
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16 The Human Factor in Mining Reclamation

	





	


		





		


	






		

	




	



	
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Island, B.C. Photographs courtesy of Butchart Gardens Ltd., Victoria, 

B.C. A, Historical photo showing the creation of flower beds in the 

sunken garden, circa 1912. B, The Sunken Garden—Spring.

A

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Design Approaches 17

	

	
			

	

	 
	





	

		

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Morrison Knudsen Corporation, St. Charles, Mo. A, B, The visual 

effect of dumping operations from 1940’s to1960’s. Waste types included TNT/DNT, thorium, radium, and uranium. C, Excavated quarry 

basin.

A

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18 The Human Factor in Mining Reclamation

	
	
	

			

	
	
 
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Figure 15. Restored wetlands from gravel mine site, Boulder Valley, 

Colo. Photograph courtesy of Western Mobile, Boulder, Colo.

Figure 14. South Platte Park, Colo., formerly an aggregate mining 

site. Photographs courtesy of South Suburban Park and Recreation 

District, Littleton, Colo. A, Aerial view of South Platte Park, 1988. Photograph by Bill Bevington. B, 10,000 Trees Wetland Lake #2, South 

Platte Park. Photograph by Raymond Sperger.

B

A
Design Approaches 19

	

	
	
	


		







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Figure 17. Recycled asphalt available for other projects (Recycled Materials Co.). Photograph by B. Arbogast.

Figure 18. Stockpile at Western Mobile Boulder’s Glass Crushing Center. Photograph courtesy of Western Mobile, Boulder, Colo.

Figure 16. Sandstone fountain and pool, located in the central courtyard of NEC America headquarters in Hillsboro, Oreg., constructed of 

old building foundations and lintels. From Landscape Architecture 

(Washington, D.C., ASLA, 1989), p. 90.
20 The Human Factor in Mining Reclamation

	

		





	



	
 

	
	
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Figure 19. NSA/ASLA Student Competition First 

Place: Linda Attaway, Mary Dewing, University of 

Colorado at Denver. From Landscape Architecture 

(Washington, D.C.: ASLA, 1991), p. 79.
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Figure 20. Complex vegetation of the Minnesota prairie. Photograph by 

© Richard Hamilton Smith, St. Paul, Minn.
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1987), p. 257. 

Figure 21. Western Mobile’s 

xeriscape garden in Albuquerque, 

N. Mex. Courtesy of Western 

Mobile. A, Plan showing vegetative 

scheme. B, View showing relationship between pedestrian walkways and “borrowed landscape” 

of native plants and aggregate.

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Figure 23. Aexoni Quarry, Greece. Photograph by Dimitri Ualapodas. 

From Golanda (1994, p. 145).
24 The Human Factor in Mining Reclamation

	


	

	


			


		
	

	




	


	


	

	


		


	

	
	
	





		
		
	


	

	




 
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Figure 26. A tool “in teaching our children about working in partnership to achieve balanced natural resource management.” From Lake Agassiz Beach Ridges—A Coloring Book for Children,

courtesy of Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, 1997, p. 4–5.

Figure 27. Quarry Cove, Yaquina Head Outstanding Natural Area, Newport, Oreg. Photographs courtesy of Bureau of Land Management, Salem

District. A, 

A B

View of worked-out quarry. B, Transformed cove at low tide; quarried below sea level with site open to the ocean.
26 The Human Factor in Mining Reclamation

	

	



	

	


				




		 
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Figure 28. Water strider earthen sculpture from “Effigy Tumuli,” 1983–

85. Courtesy Department of Natural Resources, Buffalo Rock State 

Park, Ill.
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U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 2000 — 573-047 / 20192 Region No. 8