U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CIRCULAR 930-1 

International Strategic Minerals Inventory 

Summary Report-Lithium 

Prepared as a cooperative effort among earthscience and mineral-resource agencies of 

Australia, Canada, the Federal Republic of 

Germany, the Republic of South Africa, the 

United Kingdom, and the United States of 

America 
Geologic Time Scale 

Million years Age before present 

Holocene I 

Quaternary r- 0.01 

Pleistocene r-- 2 u Pliocene 0 

N r-- 5 

Miocene 0 

z t- 24 

Oligocene Tertiary w 

u r- 38 

Eocene r- 55 

Paleocene 

63 

Late Cretaceous 

Cretaceous u - - 96 

Early Cretaceous 0 

N r- 138 

0 Jurassic en 

w 

~ r- 205 

Triassic 

-240 

Permian 

r- 290 

Pennsylvanian 

Carboniferous r- -330 

Mississippian u 

0 r- 360 

N Devonian 0 

w r- 410 ....J 

Silurian ~ r- 435 

Ordovician 

500 

Cambrian 

-570 u Late Proterozoic 0 

~ 900 N 

0 Middle Proterozoic a: 

w r- 1600 z 1-

0 <( 

~ Early Proterozoic a: 

ll... m 2500 ~ 

<( z 

u <( 

w w 

a: ::I: 

c.. u 

a: 

<( 
International Strategic Minerals Inventory 

Summary Report-Lithium 

By Terrance F. Anstett, Ulrich H. Krauss, joyce A.Ober, 

and Helmut W. Schmidt 

U.S. GEOlOGICAl SURVEY CIRCULAR 930-1 

Prepared as a cooperative effort among earthscience and mineral-resource agencies of 

Australia, Canada, the Federal Republic of 

Germany, the Republic of South Africa, the 

United Kingdom, and the United States of 

America 

1990 
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

MANUEL LUJAN, Jr., Secretary 

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Dallas L. Peck, Director 

Any use of trade, product, or firm names in this publication is for descriptive 

purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government 

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1990 

Free on application to the 

Books and Open-File Reports Section 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Federal Center, Box 25425 

Denver, CO 80225 

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data 

International strategic minerals inventory summary report-Lithium I Terrance F. 

Anstett . . . [ et al. 1. 

p. ; em. - (Geological Survey circular; 930-0 

Includes bibliographical references. 

Supt. of Docs. no.: I 19.4/2:930-1 

1. Lithium. 2. Strategic materials. I. Anstett, T.F. (Terrance F.) ll. Series. 

TN490.L5157 1990 

333.8'5499-dc20 CIP 
FOREWORD 

Earth-science and mineral-resource agencies from several countries started the 

International Strategic Minerals Inventory in order to gather cooperatively information 

about major sources of strategic mineral raw materials. This circular summarizes 

inventory information about major deposits of lithium, one of the mineral commodities 

selected for the inventory. 

The report was prepared by Terrance F. Anstett and Joyce A. Ober of the U.S. 

Bureau of Mines (USBM) and Ulrich H. Krauss and Helmut W. Schmidt of the Federal 

Institute of Geosciences and Natural Resources (BGR) of the Federal Republic of 

Germany. It was edited by David M. Sutphin and transcribed by Dorothy J. Manley of the 

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). 

Lithium inventory information was compiled by Terrance F. Anstett, Derik Cloete, 

Geological Survey of South Africa; Ulrich H. Krauss (chief compiler), and Ian 

McNaught, Australian Bureau of Mineral Resources. Additional contributions to the 

report were made by Sigrid Asher-Bolinder, USGS; Aldo F. Barsotti, USBM; John H. 

DeYoung, Jr., USGS; Christoph Kippenberger, BGR; W. David Sinclair, Energy, Mines 

and Resources Canada (EMR), Geological Survey of Canada; and Antony B.T. Werner 

(EMR), Mineral Policy Sector. 

Director 

ill 

CONTENTS 

Page 

Foreword- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - iii 

Abstract------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 

Part I-Overview - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 

Introduction----------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 

Uses and supply aspects - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3 

Distribution of lithium deposits and districts--------------------------------------------- 5 

Lithium resources - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - 7 

Lithium production - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 8 

Aspects of future lithium supply and demand-------------------------------------------- 11 

Conclusions----------------------------------------------------------------------- 13 

Part II -Selected inventory information for lithium deposits and districts-------------------------- 13 

References cited - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 27 

Additional references on lithium resources- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 28 

ILLUSTRATIONS 

Page 

FIGURE 1-2. Diagrams showing: 

1. United Nations resource categories used in this report--------------------------- 2 

2. Estimated world lithium demand by product type------------------------------- 4 

3. Flow chart showing lithium materials flow---------------------------------------- 5 

4. Map showing location, deposit type, and estimated resources of major lithium 

deposits and districts in the world- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6 

5. Graph showing present lithium production capacities and possible future demand - - - - - - - - 12 

6. Map showing major lithium deposits and districts, their present production status, and 

their probable production status in 2025- - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 26 

TABLES 

Page 

TABLE 1. Properties of lithium- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3 

2. Chemical composition and uses of common lithium compounds - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3 

3. Chemical formulas and lithium content of lithium-bearing minerals---------------------- 7 

4. Lithium resources in the world's major deposits and districts, by geologic deposit type and 

resource category - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 8 

5. Lithium resources of three major brine deposits in market economy countries - - - - - - - - - - - - - 8 

6. Known economically exploitable (RlE) and recoverable (rlE) lithium resources in 

pegmatite deposits and districts, listed by country- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9 

7. Known in-place marginal and subeconomic lithium resources in pegmatite deposits 

and districts, listed by country - - - - - - - - - - - ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9 

8. Mine production of lithium by country, 1980 to 1986- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 10 

9. Production capacities of major lithium operations ------------------------------------ 11 

10. Plans for expanding operations and for establishing new production facilities-------------- 13 

11. Selected geologic and location information from ISMI records for lithium deposits and 

districts - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --,-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 14 

12. Selected production and mineral-resource information from ISM! records for lithium 

deposits and districts - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 20 

v 

INTERNATIONAL STRATEGIC MINERALS INVENTORY 

SUMMARY REPORT 

LITHIUM 

By Terrance F. Anstett,1 Ulrich H. Krauss/ Joyce A. Ober,1 and Helmut W. Schmidtl 

ABSTRACT 

Major world resources of lithium are described in this 

summary report of information in the International Strategic 

Minerals Inventory (ISMI). ISMI is a cooperative datacollection effort of earth-science and mineral-resource agencies in Australia, Canada, the Federal Republic of Germany, 

the Republic of South Africa, the United Kingdom, and the 

United States of America. Part I of this report presents an 

overview of the resources and potential supply of lithium on 

the basis of inventory information; Part II contains tables of 

some of the geologic information and mineral-resource information and production data collected by ISMI participants. 

In terms of lithium-resource availability, present economically viable resources are more than sufficient to meet 

likely demand in the foreseeable future. In times of excess 

capacity such as currently exist, some pegmatite operations 

cannot compete with brine operations, which are less costly. 

A further production shift from pegmatites to brines will result 

in the concentration of supply in a few countries such as Chile 

and the United States. This shift would lead to the dependence of industrialized countries on deliveries from these 

sources. 

PART I-OVERVIEW 

INTRODUCTION 

The reliability o_f future supplies of so-called strategic minerals is of concern to many nations. This 

widespread concern has led to duplication of effort in 

the gathering of information on the world's major 

Manuscript approved for publication June 20, 1989. 1 U.S. Bureau of Mines (Terrance Anstett, deceased). 2 Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources of the Federal 

Republic of Germany. 

1 

sources of strategic mineral materials. With the aim of 

pooling such information, a cooperative program named 

International Strategic Minerals Inventory (ISMI) was 

started in 1981 by officials of the governments of the 

United States, Canada, and the Federal Republic of 

Germany. It was subsequently joined by the Republic of 

South Africa, Australia, and the United Kingdom. 

The objective of ISMI reports is to make publicly 

available, in convenient form, nonproprietary data and 

characteristics of major deposits of strategic mineral 

commodities for policy considerations in regard to the 

short-term, medium-term, and long-term world supply. 

Part I of this report provides a summary statement of the 

data compiled and an overview of the supply aspects of 

lithium in a format designed to be of benefit to policy 

analysts and geologists. Knowledge of the geologic 

aspects of mineral resources is essential in order to 

discover and develop mineral deposits. However, technical, financial, and political decisions must be made, 

and often transportation and marketing systems must be 

constructed before ore can be mined and processed and 

the products transported to the consumer; the technical, 

financial, and political aspects of mineral-resource 

development are not specifically addressed in this report. 

The report addresses the primary stages in the supply 

process for lithium and includes some considerations of 

lithium demand. 

The term "strategic minerals" is imprecise. It 

generally refers to mineral ore and derivative products 

that come largely or entirely from foreign sources, that 

are difficult to replace, and that are important to the 

nation's economy, in particular to its defense industry. 
R* 

IN SITU RESOURCEsQuantities of economic interest 

for the next few decades 

R1 

KNOWN DEPOSITSReliable estimates EXTENSIONS OF KNOWN AND 

NEWLY DISCOVERED DEPOSITSR3 

UNDISCOVERED DEPOSITsTentative estimates 

Economically 

R1E~R1S Marginally Subeconomic 

Preliminary estimates 

R2E ~ R2S 

exploitable economic 

Economically Subeconomic 

exploitable 

*The capital "R" denotes resources in situ; a lowercase "r" expresses the corresponding recoverable resources 

for each category and subcategory. Thus, r1E is the recoverable equivalent of R1E. This report deals only 

with R1 and R2, not with R3. 

FIGURE 1. United Nations resource categories us.ed in this report (modified from Schanz, 1980, p. 313). 

Usually, the term implies a nation's perception of 

vulnerability to supply disruptions and of a need to 

safeguard its industries from the repercussions of a loss 

of supplies. 

Because a mineral that is strategic to one country 

may not be strategic to another, no one list of strategic 

minerals can be prepared. The ISMI Working Group 

decided to commence with chromium, manganese, 

nickel, and phosphate. All of these studies, plus the 

study of platinum-group metals, cobalt, titanium, and 

natural graphite have now been published. Additional 

studies on lithium (this report), vanadium, tungsten, tin, 

and zirconium have been subsequently undertaken. 

The data in the ISMI lithium inventory, some of 

which are presented in Part II of this report, were 

collected from April 1987 to September 1988. The report 

was submitted for review and publication in March 

1989. The information used was the best available in 

various agencies of the participating countries that contributed to the preparation of this report. Those agencies 

were the Bureau of Mines and the Geological Survey of 

the U.S. Department of the Interior; the Geological 

Survey and the Mineral Policy Sector of the Canadian 

Department of Energy, Mines and Resources; the Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources of 

the Federal Republic of Germany; the Geological Survey 

and the Minerals Bureau of the Department of Mineral 

and Energy Affairs of South Africa; the Bureau of 

Mineral Resources, Geology and Geophysics of the 

Australian Department of Primary Industries and 

Energy; and the British Geological Survey, a component 

2 

of the Natural Environment Research Council of the 

United Kingdom. 

No geologic definition of a deposit (or district) is 

used for compiling records for this report. Deposits (or 

districts) are selected for the inventory on the basis of 

their present or expected future contribution to world 

supply. Records of all deposits compiled by ISMI 

participants meet this general "major deposit" criterion 

and are included in the inventory. 3 Because the assignment of a specific number of records to the lithium 

resources of a district or even of a nation was not done 

with the same detail by all compilers, comparisons 

among numbers of lithium records in different geographic areas or among numbers of lithium records and 

those records of other commodities reported on in this 

series are not meaningful. 

The ISMI record collection and this report on 

lithium have adopted the international classification 

system for mineral resources recommended by the 

United Nations Group of Experts on Definitions and 

Terminology for Mineral Resources (United Nations 

Economic and Social Council, 1979; Schanz, 1980). The 

terms, definitions, and resource categories of this system 

were established in 1979 to facilitate international 

exchange of mineral-resource data; the Group of Experts 

sought a system that would be compatible with the 

several systems already in use in several countries. 

Figure 1 shows the U.N. resource classification used in 

3 No information is provided on deposits that were once significant but 

whose resources are now considered to be depleted. 
this report. This report focuses on category R1, which 

covers reliable estimates of tonnages and grades of 

known deposits. The familiar term "reserves," which 

many would consider to be equivalent to rlE or R1E, has 

been interpreted inconsistently and thus has been deliberately avoided in the U.N. classification. 

It should be noted that generally until a deposit has 

been extensively explored or mined, its size and grade 

are imperfectly defined. In many cases, actual deposit 

size will prove to be significantly larger, sometimes even 

several times larger, than was thought when the decision 

to mine was made. Experts with a sound knowledge of a 

deposit and its geologic setting might infer that the 

deposit extends beyond the bounds reliably established 

up to that time. Tonnage estimates for such inferred 

extensions fall into category R2. For major deposits, 

ISMI records show R2 estimates in the few cases for 

which they are readily available. Category R3, postulated but undiscovered resources, is not dealt with in this 

report. 

Mining recovery from an ore body depends on 

individual conditions and may vary considerably, typically in the range of 75 to 90 percent for underground 

mining; that is, 10 to 25 percent of the in-place resources 

cannot be extracted. 

USES AND SUPPLY ASPECTS 

Lithium, a silvery white metal, is the lightest solid 

element at normal temperatures. Its chemical symbol is 

Li, and its atomic number is 3. Lithium belongs to the 

alkali metal group. Some physical and chemical properties of lithium are listed in table 1. 

End uses. -Lithium possesses a unique combination of chemical and physical properties. For this reason, 

it is being used in an increasing number of manufacturing processes, mostly in the form of lithium compounds 

and mineral concentrates and to a lesser extent in its 

elemental form. Some of these compounds find applicaTABLE 1. -Properties of lithium 

[Source: Weast, 1987] 

Naturally occurring isotopes................ ~i 

Atomic weight......................... 6.015 

7

Li 

7.016 

Relative abundance (percent) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.42 92.58 

Average atomic weight....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.941 

Density (g/cm3 at 20 oq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .534 

Melting point COC). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180.54 

Boiling point (

0

C) ................................. 1 ,342 

Mobs hardness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 

Valence ........................................ . 

3 

TABLE 2.-Chemical composition and uses of common lithium 

compounds 

Compound Chemical Percent Main end uses formula lithium 

Lithium . . . . . . . Li2C03 18.8 Aluminum electrolysis, ceramcarbonate ics, and glass. Starting material 

for all other lithium compounds 

and ensuing products. 

Lithium ........ LiOH• H20 16.5 Lubricants, additive in Ni-Fe 

hydroxide batteries, and air conditioning. 

monohydrate 

Lithium ........ LiCl 16.4 Production of lithium metal, air 

chloride conditioning, dehumidification, welding fluxes, and production of butyllithium. 

Lithium ........ LiOCl 11.9 Bleaches and sanitizers. 

hypochlorite 

Butyllithium .... n-C4f4Li 10.8 Catalyst for synthetic rubber 

production. 

Lithium ........ LiC18H3502 2.3 High-temperature and waterstearate resistant lubricants and 

greases. 

tion as ingredients in final products and others as 

additives that do not change the final product but that 

make the production process more efficient. Table 2 

shows the lithium content of important lithium chemicals 

and their primary uses. Several aspects of lithium uses 

and supply are especially noteworthy: 

• Addition of lithium carbonate (Li2C03 , having 18.8 

percent lithium) or lithium ores to ceramics and 

glass is currently the world's leading consumption 

of lithium. Glass and ceramics produced with lithium have high strength and low thermal expansion, 

and lithium replaces toxic lead in enamels and 

glazes. The presence of lithia (Li20, having 46.5 

percent lithium) in glass and ceramics also reduces 

melting temperatures, thereby reducing energy consumption and increasing production (Carroll and 

Angelo, 1983). High-grade lithium-mineral concentrates having low iron content are gaining popularity as raw materials in the container and bottle-glass 

industry. While providing the lithia needed for the 

extra strength it imparts, the ores are also a source 

of alumina and silica, both necessary ingredients in 

glass. 

• The aluminum industry is another large consumer of 

lithium. Lithium carbonate is added to the aluminum salt bath of aluminum potlines to increase the 

electrical conductivity and to lower the temperature 

of the bath, resulting in increased cell capacity and 

reduced power consumption (Cheney, 1983). Aluminum companies are also beginning to produce 

aluminum-lithium alloys that could be used in the 

aircraft and aerospace industries. These alloys con-
tain 2 to 3 percent lithium by weight and when used 

for wing and fuselage skins in aircraft can reduce 

the weight and hence increase fuel economy or 

payload without compromising strength or flexibility (Sanders, 1980). This market, however, is not 

clearly established. 

• Lithium soaps prepared from lithium hydroxide 

monohydrate (LiOH · H20, having 16.5 percent lithium) are used in a large percentage of lubricating 

greases. Lithium greases are water resistant, resist 

oxidation, perform well over extreme temperature 

ranges, and form a stable grease on resolidification 

after melting (American Metal Market, 1972). 

• Lithium salts of bromine (LiBr) and chlorine (LiCl), 

containing 8.0 and 16.4 percent lithium, respectively, are used in industrial air conditioning and 

dehumidification systems. Solutions containing 

either lithium salt absorb water vapor from the air, 

cool it, and, in the process, destroy airborne microorganisms, mold, and bacteria (Engineering News 

Record, 1983). 

• One use of lithium is in high-energy batteries having 

lithium anodes, an application with growth potential. These batteries have more energy per unit 

weight and a longer shelf life than conventional 

alkaline batteries and operate dependably over a 

large temperature range. Lithium is used for anodes, 

and lithium compounds are used as electrolytes in 

primary batteries which are nonrechargeable. Lithium is also used in some secondary, or rechargeable, batteries (Bro and others, 1987). 

• Small quantities of lithium compounds are used as 

material for absorption of carbon dioxide in air 

purifiers, in sanitizers and bleaches, as catalysts in 

the synthesis of high-performance rubbers and plastics, and to improve fiber properties and to reduce 

pollution in the manufacturing of synthetic textiles. 

Lithium carbonate is used medically to treat manicdepressive mental disorders. 

• In the future, lithium may be used as a coolant or as 

a source of fuel in nuclear-fusion reactors. Although 

not currently feasible, if such technology were 

developed by the beginning of the next century, a 

significant increase in demand for lithium could 

result. 

Estimates of current world lithium production 

patterns are presented in figure 2. 

Ceramics, glass, and enamels 

46.2 percent 

Lithium carbonate 

31.3 percent 

Lithium carbonate 

16.4 percent 

Mineral 

concentrates 

14.9 percent 

Other lithium compounds 

17.2 percent 

Other 1.5 percent 

', / Butyllithium 1.9 percent 

Lithium salts 

3.0 percent 

Primary aluminum-----

production ""- Lubricants and greases 

FIGURE 2. Estimated world lithium demand by product type. (Totals do not add to 100 percent due to rounding.) 

4 
SUPPLY 

Primary aluminum 

Lubricants (LiOH · H 20) 

Glass, ceramics 

USAGE 

Lithium salts (Br, S04 , F, N03 ) 

Lithium chloride 

L FIGURE 3. Lithium materials flow. 

Figure 3 shows the materials flow from pegmatites 

and brines to the major products. Materials flow is an 

important factor in the economics of the lithium market, 

because for all products except glass and ceramics, 

lithium carbonate is the main intermediate chemical. 

The largest consumption of lithium occurs in the 

glass, ceramics, and enamel industry, followed by the 

lubricants and grease industry and the primary aluminum 

industry. These three segments represent more than 80 

percent of total lithium consumption. More than 46 

percent of total consumption is in the glass, ceramics, 

and enamels industry, which is the only major sector 

using natural mineral concentrate. Lithium carbonate or 

downstream lithium compounds are required as starting 

materials in more than 85 percent of total lithium 

consumption. 

DISTRIBUTION OF LITHIUM DEPOSITS AND DISTRICTS 

Many lithium occurrences are known throughout 

the world. Only about 15 deposits are currently produc5 

ing; however, several others are available for future 

development. Locations of producing deposits and other 

important world occurrences are shown in figure 4. 

Four types of lithium enrichments (deposits) can be 

distinguished: pegmatites, brines, greisenized granites, 

and lithium-rich clays such as hectorite and saporite and 

stevensite. Major lithium deposits in this report are either 

pegmatite or brine deposits, although significant lithium 

resources in clays are known (Industrial Minerals, 1987, 

p. 25). Greisenized granites, once a major source of 

lithium, are no longer important in western countries. 

They may still be mined in the Soviet Union at Sherlovaya Gora and also in the Transbaikalia region. Figure 

4 shows the locations of 29 pegmatite deposits, representing 34 inventory records, and 5 locations of brine 

deposits, representing 5 inventory records. Figure 4 also 

indicates the size of the deposits or deposit groups at 

each location. There are two very large (greater than 1 

million metric tons of contained lithium in total reported 

resources) locations and inventory records, both of 

which are brines. The eight large (from 100,000 to 1 
0"1 

soo 

40" 

20° 

oo 

20° 

400 

1v 

·~o 

·:.. .... ·~ 

ARG~NTINA 

Salar del Hombre Muerto ------tl 

San Luis Province 

MERCATOR PROJECTION 

oo oo LATITUDE 

70' 70° 

1000 500 0 500 1000 KILOMETERS 

Base from Bundesanstalt fUr GeowiS5ef'lSChaften und Rohs~~ Boundary Cll'ld nafT!eS represer)tation, oot t')eCess,arily ~r¥ttive. 1 

Brine 

'tf ()" 

PORTUGAL 

Guarda area 

MAU 

Bougouni area 

... 

BRAZIL 

Quixeramobim 

Solon6pole 

ltinga 

Ara~uai 

NAMIBIA 

Norrabees 

Noumas ____.J 

EXPLANATION 

Geologic deposit type 

Resources (metric tons of lithium contained in reported Rl and R2 categories) 

• >1,000,000 

[J 10,000- 100,000 

D Unreported 

4()0 

0 

_((, 

,.,'tHINA 

.9 ' ' ,:7'· Koktokay 

"(::~:~·:<;~ 0 •. 

::_-.;( \ • .r;-;- ' ~ 

MOZAMBIQUE 

Alto Ligonha district 

('t·-~; 

·' ~· '.~· -~~~t~· k -.;;;,. ... \ .... 

\' oW~ I '"'- '\. 

~~?-' . 

' 

.. 0 

AUSTRAUA 

Green bushes 

·v ) ~ 

Pegmatite 

Resources (metric tons of lithium contained in reported R 1 and R2 categories) 

• 100,000 - 1,000,000 

0 10,000- 100,000 

® <10,000 

0 Unreported 

FIGURE 4. Location, deposit type, and estimated resources of major lithium deposits and districts in the world. Numbers in parentheses indicate numbers of records (deposits 

and districts) for each location. Location names are from table 11 of Part II. 
million metric tons of contained lithium in total reported 

resources) locations represent 12 inventory records all of 

which are pegmatite deposits. The six medium (from 

10,000 to 100,000 metric tons of contained lithium in 

total reported resources) locations represent six inventory records (four pegmatite deposits and two brine 

deposits), and the six small (less than 10,000 metric tons 

of contained lithium in total reported resources) locations 

represent a like number of pegmatite deposits. The sizes 

of 12 pegmatite deposits and 1 brine deposit, represented 

by 11 map symbols, are unreported. 

Pegmatites.-Lithium-bearing pegmatite deposits 

are widespread throughout the world and can be divided 

into two categories: zoned or unzoned. Zoned deposits 

contain spodumene and other economically important 

lithium minerals such as petalite, lepidolite, eucryptite, 

and amblygonite (see table 3) that are segregated into a 

series of different compositions and textures (Norton, 

1973, p. 367). A typical pegmatite deposit contains 

about 20 percent spodumene, 41 percent feldspar, 32 

percent quartz, 6 percent muscovite, and 1 percent trace 

minerals (Ferrell, 1985a, p. 463). In such pegmatites, 

spodumene crystals may be over 3 feet in length. 

Low-iron spodumene concentrates are produced mainly 

from zoned pegmatites. Bikita, Zimbabwe, which produces petalite with some spodumene, lepidolite, and 

amblygonite, and Manono-Kitotolo, Zaire, are localities 

having large zoned pegmatite deposits. 

Unzoned pegmatite deposits contain ~podumene 

that is evenly distributed throughout; the rock is said to 

be homogeneous. Unzoned pegmatites are by far the 

most important pegmatitic source of spodumene, which 

may make up to 25 percent of the rock. Deposits of this 

type include the Kings Mountain and Bessemer City 

operations in the United States and Koralpe in Austria. 

Lithium pegmatite deposits generally range from 1 

to 50 million metric tons of ore containing from 0.59 to 

1. 36 percent lithium. They are mined mostly from the 

surface, although the mine at Bernie Lake, Canada, is 

worked from underground. Grinding, crushing, and 

flotation produce concentrates of 75 to 80 percent 

spodumene, with feldspar, quartz, and mica byproducts. 

Production of lithium carbonate is complete~ by use of a 

sulfuric acid process and reaction with sodium carbonate. Total carbonate recovery yields 55 to 70 percent of 

the contained lithium. 

Brines.-Like other alkali metals, lithium is dissolved through chemical weathering. In closed basins, 

especially in areas of high evaporation, lithium may be 

concentrated in subsurface brines or in specialized clay 

minerals. Lithium-rich brines are generally associated 

with desert basins in areas of rocks of Tertiary to 

Holocene ages. Some investigators suggest, implicitly, 

that geothermal activity may make brines a renewable 

resource. However, significant regeneration does not 

occur within the timespan of economic planning. 

The size of major brine deposits generally ranges 

from 200 million to 1.3 billion metric tons, and the grade 

ranges from 0.015 to 0.125 percent lithium. Brine 

deposits in the ISMI lithium inventory are Salar de 

Hombre Muerto, Argentina; Salar de Uyuni, Bolivia; 

Salar de Atacama, Chile; and Silver Peak and Searles 

Lake in the United States. 

At Silver Peak, lithium brines are exploited by 

pumping them to solar evaporation ponds in which they 

are concentrated by a factor of about 20. This process 

produces a chloride solution containing about 0.6 percent lithium from which lithium carbonate is precipitated 

by the addition of soda ash (Ferrell, 1985a, p. 464). 

Byproducts of brine operations are commonly boron and 

(or) potassium. 

LITHIUM RESOURCES 

Mineral resources normally are assessed and classified in different categories of geologic assurance and 

economic recoverability. Unfortunately, it is not possible to appraise lithium resources in this way as it would 

TABLE 3.-Chemical formulas and lithium content of lithium-bearing minerals 

[After Norton, 1973, p. 367] 

Mineral Chemical formula 

Spodumene .................... Li20· Al20 3 ·4Si02 

Petalite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Li20 · Al20 3 • 8Si02 

Eucryptite ...................... Li20· Al20 3 • 2Si02 

Amblygonite ................... 2Li(F ,OH) • Al20 3 • P 20 5 

Lepidolite ...................... KLi2A1Si40 10(F ,OH,O) 

Theoretical content 

(percent) 

3.73 

2.27 

5.51 

4.69-4.76 

:S3.58 

8.03 

4.88 

11.86 

10.1-10.24 

:s7.70 

1 A glass-grade spodumene concentrate containing 4.5 percent Li20 is available from one producer. 

Contents of commercial 

concentrates (percent) 

Li Li20 

2.6-3.5 

1.7-2.2 

2.1-3.0 

3.5-4.4 

1.5-3.3 

1

5.5-7.5 

3.6-4.7 

5.5-6.5 

7.5-9.5 

2

3.3-7.0 

2 Lepidolite concentrates, once a major source of lithium, have declined in importance because they emit environmentally 

harmful fluorides during processing. However, some lepidolite concentrates are an important source of rubidium. 

7 
TABLE 4. -Lithium resources in the world's major deposits and 

districts, by geologic deposit type and resource category 

[Resource figures are in thousand metric tons of contained lithium; 

figures may not add to totals shown due to rounding; figures in 

parentheses are percentages of world total] 

Geologic deposit type1 No. of 

records 

All other 

Rl and R23 

Pegmatites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 1 ,320 (85) 1,080 (9) 

Brines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 232 (15) 10,436 (91) 

Total .................. 39 1,552 (100) 11,516 (100) 

1 Deposit types of the world's major lithium deposits are shown in figure 

4 and in table 11 of Part II. 2 Reliable estimates from identified deposits with economically exploitable resources (fig. 1). 3 That is, resources in the RlM, RlS, R2E, and R2S categories (fig. 1). 

involve comparison of brine and pegmatite deposits that 

possess different economic and technological characteristics. It is appropriate, therefore, to assess brine and 

pegmatite resources separately. Estimated resources for 

the world's major lithium pegmatite and brine deposits 

and districts are shown in table 4. 

Brines.-In western countries, lithium is presently 

recovered at two brine operations: Silver Peak (Clayton 

Valley), Nevada, in the United States and Salar de 

Atacama in Chile. There are reports indicating that 

similar deposits may be worked in the Soviet Union in 

the Minusinsk area and in China in the Tsaidam Basin, 

but no details are available. 

Several other brine deposits have been identified in 

Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, and in the Western United 

States. Some of them have been investigated, and studies 

are underway for development of new brine operations in 

Bolivia and Chile that may recover boron and potassium 

as well as lithium. Enormous quantities of lithium are 

contained in brines, but probably only a small portion of 

these resources will be recoverable. 

An attempt is made in table 5 to divide the lithium 

resources of major brine deposits into categories-identified economic resource (R1E) figures are from company reports. These R1E resources may increase considerably if major investments are granted for the development of new operations such as Salar de Uyuni in Bolivia 

and the AMAX-MOL YMET project in the northern 

Salar de Atacama in Chile. 

Pegmatites. -Lithium-bearing pegmatites are 

known to occur in many countries, and huge quantities 

of lithium-bearing pegmatites have been identified. At 

present, however, less than 10 to 15 pegmatite deposits 

are being mined for lithium in market economy countries. From published data about major operations, it is 

estimated that in these countries about 90.4 million 

metric tons of recoverable (rlE) pegmatitic ore, mostly 

spodumene from 97.9 million metric tons of in-place 

(R1E) material, can be mined with current technology 

and under present-day economic conditions. A total of 

about 22 million metric tons of concentrates, containing 

about 670 thousand metric tons of lithium, can be 

extracted assuming a 75- to SO-percent rate of recovery 

from the recoverable ore. Additionally, at least another 

200,000 metric tons of contained lithium are estimated to 

be available in centrally planned economy countries 

from similar deposits, such as the Koktokay deposits in 

China and the Zavitaya and Tro San Zhen deposits in the 

Soviet Union. A major portion of the currently rlE 

pegmatite resources will become marginal (r1M) or 

subeconomic (rlS) as additional capacities from brine 

deposits come on stream. 

Table 6 summarizes R1E and rlE resource estimates for pegmatites. Although data on marginal, subeconomic, and inferred resources are incomplete and 

inconsistent, table 7 gives estimated grades and tonnages. It is believed that continued work on this inventory will not produce significantly better figures. 

LITHIUM PRODUCTION 

Lithium is produced from natural brines, pegmatites, and possibly greisens in more than 12 countries. 

TABLE 5. -Lithium resources of three major brine deposits in market economy countries 

[Resources are in thousand metric tons; categories are explained in figure 1. Figures may not add to totals shown due to 

rounding. N.r.=Not reported. Countries where major lithium deposits and districts occur are, by economic category: 

market economy countries-Afghanistan, Argentina, Australia, Austria, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, France, India, 

Mali, Mozambique, Namibia, Portugal, South Africa, the United States, Zaire, and Zimbabwe; and centrally planned 

economy countries-China, Czechoslovakia, and the Soviet Union. Market economy countries are defined as all countries 

that are not centrally planned economy countries] 

Deposit Grade Lithium content 

Rl (percent lithium) RlE RIM RlS Total R2 

Silver Peak (United States) ............. . 240,000 0.033 30 35 14 79 36 

Salar de Atacama (Chile) .............. . 1,300,000 .125 201 1,099 325 1,625 2,675 

Salar de Uyuni (Bolivia) ............... . 505,000 .025 N.r. 101 25 126 5,374 

Total ......................... . 2,045,000 .090 (avg) 232 1,235 364 1,830 8,085 

8 
TABLE 6.-Known economically exploitable (RJE) and recoverable (rlE) lithium resources in pegmatite 

deposits and districts, listed by country 

[Resources are in thousand metric tons. Figures may not add to totals shown due to rounding. N .r. =Not reported; Countries 

where major lithium deposits and districts occur are, by economic category: market economy countries-Afghanistan, 

Argentina, Australia, Austria, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, France, India, Mali, Mozambique, Namibia, Portugal, 

South Africa, the United States, Zaire, and Zimbabwe; and centrally planned economy countries-China, 

Czechoslovakia, and the Soviet Union. Market economy countries are defined as all countries that are not centrally 

planned economy countries] 

Country Identified economic 

resources (R1E)1 

(thousand metric tons) 

Average grade 

(percent lithium) 

Lithium content 

(thousand metric tons) 

Recoverable 

lithium (r1E)2 

(thousand metric tons) 

Market economy countries 

Argentina ...................... 40 0.60 0.2 0.2 

Australia ....................... 41,900 1.36 569.8 3313.0 

Brazil ......................... 215 1.92 4.1 3.3 

Canada ........................ 6,600 1.28 84.5 68.0 

United States ................... 45,000 .67 301.5 240.5 

Zimbabwe ..................... 4,100 1.35 55.4 44.3 

Total .................... 97,855 1,015.5 669.3 

Centrally planned economy countries 

China ......................... N.r. N.r. N.r. 70.0 

Soviet Union ................... N.r. N.r. N.r. 130.0 

Total .................... N.r. N.r. 305 200.0 

World total ............... N.r. N.r. 1,320 869.3 

1 Reliable estimates from identified deposits with economically exploitable resources (fig. 1). 2 Reliable estimates of lithium recoverable from RlE resources. 3 Low recovery historically. 

TABLE 7.-Known in-place marginal and subeconomic lithium resources in pegmatite deposits and 

districts, listed by country 

[Resource figures are in thousand metric tons. Figures may not add to totals shown due to rounding. N.r.=Not 

reported] 

Country 

Austria ....................... . 

Brazil ........................ . 

Canada ....................... . 

France ....................... . 

Mali ......................... . 

Namibia ...................... . 

United States .................. . 

Zaire ......................... . 

Total ................... . 

In-place material1 

RlM+RlS+R2 

(thousand metric tons) 

13,000 

100 

76,000 

500 

1,000 

900 

900 

50,000 

142,400 

1 Categories are defined in figure 1. 

Not all of these countries disclose figures about their 

production. For more than 75 percent of world production, it is necessary to make estimates and assumptions. 

The United States, representing over 60 percent of the 

world total production, can provide no official production figures. Virtually no information is available regarding production in centrally planned economy countries, 

especially the Soviet Union. 

9 

Average grade 

(percent lithium) 

0.65 

3.96 

.63 

. 70 

.56 

. 93 

. 56 

.98 

Contained lithium (thousand metric tons) 

RlM+RlS R2 

84.50 N.r. 

3.96 N.r. 

478.80 N.r. 

3.50 N.r . 

N.r. 5.6 

8.37 N.r . 

5.04 N.r . 

305.64 184.36 

889.81 189.96 

Despite such incomplete information, it is estimated that in the past several years world lithium 

production averaged about 7,000 metric tons annually. 

About 25 percent of the world total originated in centrally planned economy countries, specifically China and 

the Soviet Union. In the 7 years from 1980 to 1986, 

market economy countries produced between 67 percent 

and 76 percent of the world total. Of that percentage, the 
TABLE 8.-Mine production of lithium by country, 1980 to 1986 

[Figures are in metric tons of contained lithium. Figures may not add to totals shown due to rounding. N.r.=~one reported. 

* =Estimated. Sources: Ferrell (1985b), Searles (1987), and Ober (1988). Countries where major lithium deposits and 

districts occur are, by economic category: market economy countries-Afghanistan, Argentina, Australia, Austria, 

Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, France, India, Mali, Mozambique, Namibia, Portugal, South Africa, the United States, 

Zaire, and Zimbabwe; and centrally planned economy countries-China, Czechoslovakia, and the Soviet Union. 

Market economy countries are defined as all countries that are not centrally planned economy countries] 

Country Source of lithium1 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 

Market economy countries 

Argentina ................... Not specified 2 3 4 I I 

Australia .................... Spodumene N.r. 3 8I 217 363 357 

Brazil ...................... Amblygonite, lepidolite, 58 57 56 43 19 20 33 

petalite, spodumene. 

Canada ..................... Spodumene N.r. N.r. N.r. N.r. 3 10 16 

Chile ....................... Brine N.r. N.r. N.r. N.r. 396 847 837 

Namibia .................... Not specified N.r. 23 19 14 16 36 23 

Portugal .................... Lepidolite 7 6 6 4 7 N.r. 

Rwanda .................... Amblygonite 1 N.r. N.r. N.r. N.r. N.r. N.r. 

United States* ............... Spodumene and brine 4,792 4,922 3,468 4,450 4,992 4,200 3,805 

Zimbabwe .................. Not specified 405 111 194 357 425 530 534 

Total ...................................... 5,265 5,I21 3,749 4,953 6,076 6,008 5,606 

Centrally planned economy countries 

China* ..................... Not specified 390 390 420 555 835 835 835 

Soviet Union* ............... Not specified 1,250 1,250 1,350 1,350 1,350 1,350 1,350 

World total ................................. 6,905 6,761 5,5I9 6,858 8,26I 8,193 7,791 

1 See table 3 for chemical formulas and lithium content of minerals. 

portion of production from developing countries4 rose 

from 7 percent at the beginning of the decade to about 18 

percent in 1986. Mine-production estimates are given in 

table 8. 

The most striking feature in this table is the high 

concentration of production among a few countries such 

as United States, the Soviet Union, China, and Zimbabwe. In the last 2 or 3 years, however, new production 

facilities have been developed in Australia, Canada, and 

Chile. This has led to a more diversified supply, 

although the concentration of the supply in a small 

number of countries remains significant. 

Production capacity. -In 1986, world production 

of lithium was about 7 ,800 metric tons, about 73 percent 

of world production capacity. Table 9 shows estimated 

production capacity for various important world lithium 

producers. For several operations, including those in 

Brazil, China, the Soviet Union, and Zimbabwe, actual 

capacities are not known. Figures shown in table 9 are 

based on recent production levels. 

4 In this report, developing countries that produce lithium are Argentina, 

Brazil, Chile, Namibia, Portugal, Rwanda, and Zimbabwe. The World Bank 

(1986, p. 180-81) classifies these countries (except for Namibia) as low- and 

middle-income economy countries on the basis of gross national product per 

capita and other criteria. 

10 

Of the total 10,520 metric tons of world lithium 

production capacity, United States operations account 

for the largest portion, almost 6,000 metric tons, or 

about 54 percent. However, Cyprus-Foote Mineral 

Company's Kings Mountain operation in North Carolina, with a production capacity of 1 ,540 metric tons or 

14 percent of the total, is currently on careand-maintenance status and is unlikely to again produce 

significant amounts of lithium unless prices and demand 

increase substantially. 

Brine operations, which are expected to become an 

increasingly important source of lithium, presently 

account for 2,560 metric tons capacity, or 24 percent of 

the world total. 

Production costs.-The small number of lithium 

producers worldwide, and the fact that brines and pegmatites have widely varying economic and technological 

attributes, makes it neither possib!e, nor desirable, to 

present average production costs among the various 

producers. Furtltermore, in countries such as China 

certain costs, specifically transportation and wages, are 

not directly attributable to the operation, so that total 

production costs are not reflected in the sales price. A 

brief discussion of some important cost considerations is 

warranted. 
TABLE 9. -Production capacities of major lithium operations 

[N.a.=Not applicable] 

Country Operation Operator Major products Capacity 

(metric tons lithium) 

Australia .............. Lithium Australia Lithium Australia Limited Spodumene 510 

Limited (formerly 

Green bushes) 

Brazil ................. Aracuai-Itinga Arqueana de Minerios e Metais Petalite, spodumene 60 

Limitada. amblygonite, lepidolite. 

Canada ................ Bernie Lake 

Chile .................. Salar de Atacama* 

China .................. Not available 

Tantalum Mining Corporation 

Cyprus-Foote Mineral Company 

Chinese government 

Spodumene 

Lithium carbonate 

Spodumene 

200 

1,360 

700 

1,350 

1,540 

Soviet Union ............ Not available 

United States ........... Kings Mountain 

Soviet government 

Cyprus-Foote Mineral Company 

Lithium chemicals and metal 

Spodumene 

(currently on careand-maintenance 

status). 

Silver Peak* 

Bessemer City 

Cyprus-Foote Mineral Company Lithium carbonate 1,200 

Lithium Corporation of America Lithium chemicals, metal, and 3,070 

lithium carbonate. 

Zimbabwe .............. Bikita Bikita Minerals Limited Lithium carbonate, petalite, spodumene. 

530 

Total ............ N.a. N.a. 

*Brine operations. 

Lithium carbonate is produced from both brines 

and pegmatites. In terms of the cost to obtain lithium 

carbonate, brines are significantly less expensive. 

Although there are only a few operations from which to 

compare figures, and individual component costs vary 

from operation to operation, the total cost of producing 

lithium carbonate from a brine source is estimated to be 

roughly 75 percent of the cost of producing it from a 

pegmatite deposit. 

With respect to individual processing costs for a 

typical open-pit pegmatite mine in the United States, an 

average cost breakdown has been estimated. The cost of 

mining is approximately equal to the cost of crushing and 

beneficiation with each constituting about 16 to 17 

percent of the total processing costs. The remainder is 

attributable to chemical processing. 

Competition among operations producing the same 

products such as lithium carbonate or spodumene concentrates is an important factor in determining market 

share. However, there is increasing competition between 

lithium carbonate producers and concentrate producers 

to supply certain markets. In the manufacture of ceramics and glass, the use of spodumene and petalite concentrates instead of lithium carbonate may result in cost 

savings and technological advantages. It is estimated that 

demand for 4,535 metric tons of lithium carbonate 

equivalent in the glass and ceramics industry is currently 

met by concentrate producers. In the future, another 

11 

N.a. 10,520 

3,200 to 3,600 metric tons of lithium carbonate equivalent may be supplied through concentrates. 

ASPECTS OF FUTURE LITHIUM SUPPLY AND DEMAND 

Although the recent decline of the world manufacturing economy has resulted in lower lithium consumption, there are several prospects for growth in the 

demand for lithium. 

• In the ceramics and glass industry, lithium is starting to be used in container glass; previously lithium 

was used almost exclusively in shock-resistant 

glassware. 

• New applications may be found in the manufacture 

of aluminum, a major lithium-demand sector. Older 

potlines use lithium to increase energy efficiency, 

but new energy-efficient potlines may use lithium 

to remove impurities from the melt, hence enhancing environmental control. 

• The consumption of lithium in batteries is relatively 

minor, but the prospects for future growth are 

favorable. 

• Use of aluminum-lithium alloys in the aircraft 

industry has been widely publicized, but at present 

major growth in this area has yet to occur. 

In 1985, lithium producers were operating at 

approximately 70 percent of capacity, and the U.S. 

Bureau of Mines forecasted that lithium demand would 
CJ) 

2 010.6 

1-

~ 

a: 

1-

w 

~ 10.2 

--~-------------

\Current capacity 

( 10,680 metric tons) 

c 

2 

<( 

4 percent annual 

demand growth 

CJ) 

::> 

0 9.8 

:I: 

1-

2 

z 0 9.4 

i= 

u 

::> 

c 

0 

a: 

a.. 

~ 

::> 

J: 

1-

::::i 

...1 

<( 

::> 

2 

2 

<( 

9.0 

8.6 

8.2 

7.8 

1985 

1985 production (7,811 metric tons) 

1990 

2 percent annual 

demand growth 

1995 

YEAR 

2000 2005 

FIGURE 5. Present lithium production capacities and possible future demand. 

grow at 4.5 percent annually (Ferrell, 1985a, p. 469). 

Although the aluminum industry seems to be recovering 

from a recent slump, and there are prospects for future 

growth in some sectors, it is estimated that the growth of 

lithium demand will be somewhat lower than was 

previously predicted, probably on the order of 2 percent 

to 4 percent. Figure 5 compares two demand scenarios (2 

percent and 4 percent) with current production capacity. 

At 4-percent growth, capacity is sufficient to fill demand 

until approximately 1995; at 2-percent growth, capacity 

can meet expected demand until approximately 2005. 

In the United States, however, Cyprus-Foote Mineral Company's Kings Mountain operation, with an 

annual production potential of 1,540 metric tons, was 

placed on standby in mid-1986, suggesting that prices 

are not high enough to allow development of additional 

pegmatite deposits. Unless special production incentives 

are made available to prospective operators of undevel12 

oped pegmatites, it is unlikely that other pegmatites will 

be developed in the near future. A recent survey (Bleiwas and Coffman, 1986) evaluated seven undeveloped 

Canadian pegmatite deposits containing a total of 76 

million metric tons of mineralized material averaging 

0. 63 percent Li20. Lithium recovery from the least 

costly of these potential operations would be approximately two to three times more expensive than from the 

Bernie Lake operation. 

Although use of spodumene and petalite concentrates in place of lithium carbonate in glass and ceramics 

manufacturing may result in an increasing share of 

concentrate production to that market sector, it seems 

that current concentrate producers will be capable of 

meeting that demand. Furthermore, within the lithium 

carbonate sector, it is possible that producers will shift 

some production to brines, from which lithium carbonate 

can be produced at lower cost than from pegmatites. 
TABLE 10.-Plans for expanding operations and for establishing new production facilities 

[Capacity figures are in metric tons per year] 

Operation or proposed operation Deposit 

type 

1985 capacity Projected capacity 

(metric tons lithium) (metric tons lithium) 

Projected years 

of completion 

of new capacity 

Australia 

Lithium Australia Limited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pegmatite 

(formerly Greenbushes) 

510 1,045 1990-91 

Lithium Australia Limited 

Chile 

Salar de Atacama ............................. . Brine 

AMAX-MOL YMET 

Salar de Atacama ............................. . Brine 

Cyprus-Foote Mineral Company 

Table 10 shows recent and proposed future capacity of lithium operations for which expansion and developments have been announced or projected. By the early 

1990's, there could exist nearly an additional 4,000 

metric tons of annual lithium production capacity if these 

plans are implemented. 

Present and probable future production of lithium 

from major deposits included in the International Strategic Minerals Inventory are shown in figure 6 (p. 26). 

CONCLUSIONS 

In terms of lithium-resource availability, present 

economically viable resources are more than sufficient to 

meet likely demand in the foreseeable future_. In times of 

excess capacity such as currently exist, some pegmatite 

operations cannot compete with the lower costs of brine 

operations. Thus, there is an increasing tendency to 

develop new brine operations instead of pegmatite operations. A notable exception is the recent development of 

pegmatites by Lithium Australia Limited, which offers 

low-iron lithium concentrates to the glass and ceramics 

industry. 

A further production shift from pegmatites to brines 

will result in the concentration of supply in a few 

13 

0 2,800 1992 

1,360 1,704 1990 

countries such as Chile and the United States. This could 

lead to dependence of industrialized countries on deliveries from these sources. 

PART II-SELECTED INVENTORY INFORMATION 

FOR LITHIUM DEPOSITS AND DISTRICTS 

Tables 11 and 12 contain information from the 

International Strategic Minerals Inventory record forms 

for lithium deposits and districts. Only selected items of 

information about the location and geology (table 11) 

and mineral production and resources (table 12) of the 

deposits are listed here; some of this information has 

been abbreviated. 

Summary descriptions and data are presented in the 

table as they were reported in the inventory records. For 

instance, significant digits for amounts of production or 

resources have been maintained as reported. Data that 

were reported in units other than metric tons have been 

converted to metric tons for comparability. Some of the 

data in the table are more aggregated than in the 

inventory records, such as cumulative production totals 

that for some mines have been reported by year or by 

groups of years. Some of the abbreviations used in the 

inventory records have been used in these tables; they are 

explained in the headnotes. 
Age abbreviations and prefixes: 

Cenozoic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . CEN 

Tertiary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TERT 

Cretaceous . . . . . . . . . . . . CRET 

Jurassic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . JUR 

Other abbreviations: 

TABLE 11.-Selected geologic and location information 

Host rock may include some or all of the following items (separated 

Triassic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TRI 

Paleozoic . . . . . . . . . . . . . PAL 

Carboniferous . . . . . . . . . . CARB 

Precambrian . . . . . . . . . . . PREC 

Proterozoic . . . . . . . . . . . . PROT 

Huronian .............. HUR 

Archean .............. ARCH 

Early ................ E 

Late ................. L 

--,Not reported on the ISMI record form 

Site name 

Hindukush Mountain Range 

Catamarca Province 

San Luis Province 

Salar del Hombre Muerto 

Lithium Australia Limited (formerly 

Greenbushes) (Western Australia) 

Koralpe (Klirnten) 

Salar de Uyuni 

Solonopole (Ceara) 

Itinga (Minas Gerais) 

Ara~uai (Minas Gerais) 

Quixeramobim (Ceara) 

Bernie Lake (Manitoba) 

Preissac-Lacorne district (Quebec) 

Authier 

Quebec Lithium Lacorne 

Yellowknife area (Northwest 

Territories) 

Big 

Fi (Hidden Lake) 

Latitude 

35° 14'N. 

28° 40'S. 

32° 53'S. 

25° OO'S. 

33° 51'S. 

46° 50'N. 

20° 30'S. 

05° 44'S. 

16° 30'S. 

16° 43'S. 

05° 23'S. 

50° 25'N. 

48° 22'N. 

48° 24'N. 

62° 30'N. 

62° 41'N. 

Longitude Deposit type 

Afghanistan 

70° 44'E. 

65° 31'W. 

65° 39'W. 

67° OO'W. 

116° 04'E. 

14° 58'E. 

67° 30'W. 

39° 05'W. 

41° 54'W. 

41° 56'W. 

39° 09'W. 

95° 27'W. 

78° 12'W. 

Pegmatite 

Argentina 

Pegmatite, wned 

----do.------------

Brine 

Australia 

Pegmatite, zoned 

Austria 

Pegmatite, unzoned 

Bolivia 

Brine (hydrothermal?) 

Brazil 

Pegmatite 

----do.------------

----do.------------

----do.------------

Canada 

Pegmatite, zoned 

Pegmatite 

77° 49'W. Pegmatite, unzoned 

114° OO'W. Pegmatite 

113° 30'W. ----do.------------

14 

Host rock 

Mica schist, quartzites; 

Crystalline 

basement; 

LPROT-EPAL. 

----do.------------

Quartzites, gneisses; 

Balingup 

metamorphic 

belt; ARCH. 

Garnet-mica schist 

Garnet-mica schist 

----do.------------

Granite 

Age of mineralization 

LPROT-EPAL 

LPROT-EPAL 

CEN 

ARCH 

CRET-TERT 

PREC 

PREC 

PREC 

PREC 

Amphibolites; Rice Lake PREC (ARCH?) 

group; ARCH. 

Metaconglomerate; 

Rich Lake group; 

ARCH. 

PREC (ARCH?) 

Amphibolized green- PREC (ARCH?) 

stone; Keewatin; 

ARCH. 

Meta-andesites, EPROT (HUR) 

metabasalts, metasediments, Yellowknife supergroup; 

PREC. 

----do.------------ EPROT (HUR) 
from ISM/ records for lithium deposits and districts 

by semicolons): main host rock type, formation name, and host rock age. 

Abbreviations for mineral names (after Longe and others, 1978, p. 63-66 and some additions): 

Albite ................ ALBT Fluorite ............... FLRT Microcline ............ MCCL 

Amblygonite . . . . . . . . . . . AMBG Garnet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GRNT Muscovite . . . . . . . . . . . . . MSCV 

Spodumene . . . . . . . . . . . . SPDM 

Tantalite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TNTL 

Beryl ................ BRYL Halite ................ HUT Petalite ............... PETL Tourmaline ............ TRML 

Cassiterite . . . . . . . . . . . . . CSTR Hubnerite . . . . . . . . . . . . . HBNR Plagioclase . . . . . . . . . . . . PLGC 

Columbite . . . . . . . . . . . . . CLMB Lepidolite . . . . . . . . . . . . . LPDL Pollucite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PLCT 

Ulexite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ULXT 

Zinnwaldite. . . . . . . . . . . . ZWLD 

Feldspar .............. FLDP Mica ................. MICA Quartz ............... QRTZ 

Tectonic setting Local environment Principal mineral assemblages Comments Reference 

Afghanistan -Continued 

SPDM; BRYL; MCCL; QRTZ; Nilau-Kulam, Parun. Major portion Rossovskii and others (1976). 

Crystalline 

basement. 

----do.------------

Yilgarn block 

Alpine orogen 

crystalline 

core 

Anti plano 

Boliviano. 

Balingup metamorphic 

belt. 

TRML. of spodumene is gem quality. 

Argentina-Continued 

SPDM; AMBG; MCCL; PLGC; 

QRTZ. 

SPDM; AMBG; MCCL; PLGC; 

QRTZ. 

HLIT; ULXT 

Includes La Herumbrada, Juan 

Carlos, Refilljos del Mar, 

Ipizca, and Sta. Gertrudis. 

Includes La Viquita, Teresida, San 

Rolando, and Geminis. 

Recent investigation to evaluate 

possibilities for lithium 

recovery. 

Australia-Continued 

SPDM; QRTZ; FLOP; TRML Mineral assemblage is of lithium 

zone only. 

SPDM; QRTZ; FLOP 

AMBG 

Austria-Continued 

Deposit includes 3 tabular and lensshaped pegmatite bodies within 

a series of garnet-mica schists. 

Bolivia-Continued 

Brazil-Continued 

Sao Francisco Faixa de dobra- PETL; AMBG; SPDM 

craton. mentos 

Ara~uai. 

----do.------------ ----do.------------ PETL 

LPDL 

Canada-Continued 

Canadian shield 

----do.------------

Canadian shield, 

Superior 

Province. 

Canadian shield 

----do.------------

Bird River 

formation 

(Greenstone 

belt). 

SPDM; AMBG; PETL; LPDL; 

MCCL; ALBT; QRTZ. 

MCCL; ALBT; QRTZ; SPDM 

Lacome batholith, MCCL; ALBT; QRTZ; SPDM 

Manne ville 

fault. 

SPDM; QRTZ 

SPDM; QRTZ 

15 

Mineral assemblages are for lithium 

zone only. Mine was a major 

tantalum producer until 1983. 

Numerous parallel spodumenebearing dikes lie within a 

600-m- wide band. 

Angelelli (1984). 

Angelelli (1984). 

Hatcher and Elliott (1986). 

Filho (1985). 

Afgouni and Silva Sa (1978). 

Do. 

Do. 

Crouse and Cerny (1972), 

Energy, Mines and 

Resources Canada 

(1986). 

Energy, Mines and Resources 

Canada (1986). 

Mulligan (1965; 1969), 

Energy, Mines and 

Resources Canada 

(1986). 

Energy, Mines and Resources 

Canada (1986). 

Lasmanis (1978). 
TABLE 11.-Selected geologic and location information from ISM[ 

Site name Latitude Longitude Deposit type Host rock Age of mineralization 

Canada-Continued 

Jim (Hidden Lake) 62° 34'N. 114° 31'W. Pegmatite Meta-andesites, EPROT (HUR) 

metabasalts, metasediments, Yellowknife supergroup; 

PREC. 

Vo 62° 51'N. 114° 28'W. ----do.------------ ----do.------------ EPROT (HUR) 

Thor 62° 26'N. 112° ll'W. ----do.------------ Granodiorite, EPROT (HUR) 

metaclastites; 

Yellowknife 

supergroup PREC. 

Chile 

Salar de Atacama 23° 15'S. 68° 15'W. Brine Evaporites QUAT 

(Antofagasta Province). 

China 

Koktokay (Xinjiang-Uygur) 47° 15'N. 89° 37'E. Pegmatite, zoned Gabbro, granite; LTRI- LTRI-JUR 

JUR. 

Czechoslovakia 

Ro~na area (Moravia) 49° 22'N. 16° 02'E. Pegmatite; greisen? 

France 

Massif Central (Allier Department) 46° 14'N. 02° 42'E. Pegmatite; greisen Granites; Massif grani- CARB? 

tique d'Echassieres. 

Gneisses; Sioule series. 

India 

Govindpal area (Madhya Pradesh) 18° 42'N. 81° 54'E. Pegmatite, zoned 

Mali 

Bougouni area 11° 25'N. 07° 28'W. Pegmatite Two-mica granites. PREC 

Mica-schists. 

Mozambique 

Alto Ligonha district 16° OO'S. 38° OO'E. Pegmatite, zoned LPROT-EPAL 

Namibia 

Karibib district 22° 09'S. 16° OO'E. Pegmatite, zoned Metasediments; Karibib PREC 

formation; PREC. 

Granite; Salem suite; 

PREC. 

Portugal 

Guarda area 40° 30'N. 07° 20'W. Pegmatite, greisen? 

South Mrica 

Noumas (Cape Province) 28° 57'S. 17° 44'E. Pegmatite, zoned Granodiorite; Vioolsdrif PREC 

suite. 

Norrabees (Cape Province) 28° 57'S. 17° 59'E. ----do.------------ Gneiss, metasediments; PREC 

Hom formation; 

PREC. 

Red granite; Hangoor 

suite; PREC. 

16 
records for lithium deposits and districts-Continued 

Tectonic setting Local environment 

Canadian shield 

----do.------------

----do.------------

Andean Cordillera Atacama 

downwarp 

(bols6n). 

Principal mineral assemblages Comments 

SPDM;QRTZ 

SPDM; QRTZ 

SPDM; QRTZ 

Canada-Continued 

Chile-Continued 

r1E refers to SCL portion only 

China-Continued 

ALBT; SPDM; QRTZ; TNTL; 

PLCT; LPDL. 

Mineral assemblage is of lithium 

zone only. 

Czechoslovakia-Continued 

LPDL 

France-Continued 

LPDL; AMBG; QRTZ; MCCL; 

CSTR; CLMB; HBNR. 

Echassieres, Montebras, and 

La Cheze deposits. 

India-Continued 

Reference 

Lasmanis (1978). 

Do. 

Do. 

Foote Mineral Company 

(1987), Bleiwas and 

Coffman (1986), Stoertz 

and Ericksen (197 4). 

Aubert (1969). 

FLOP; QRTZ; MICA; LPDL; 

ZWLD; AMBG; SPDM; 

CSTR; TNTL; GRNT; 

BRYL; FLRT. 

Pegmatites in granites, meta- Singh and Muskerjee (1985). 

Metasediments Geosyncline 

with intrusive 

granites 

(Damara 

sequence). 

Namaqua mobile Pegmatite belt 

belt. 

sediments, and metabasic rocks. 

Mali-Continued 

QRTZ; MCCL; ALBT; MSCV; 

SPDM. 

Includes Sinsinkouro, Gouanala, 

Dialakoro, and Kola. 

Mozambique-Continued 

LPDL; AMBG; SPDM; 

PLCT; BRYL; MCCL; 

QRTZ; PLGC; MSCV. 

Includes Nahipa, Inchope, Muiane 

Morrua, and Nahora. 

Namibia-Continued 

PETL; QRTZ; ALBT; 

AMBG; CLMB; TNTL; 

LPDL. 

Pegmatites are linked to granite 

intrusives. 

Portugal-Continued 

LPDL; AMBG 

South Mrica-Continued 

SPDM; ALBT; QRTZ Spodumene mineralization is 

confined to the second 

intermediate zone. 

----do.------------ ----do.------------ ALBT; SPDM; QRTZ; MCCL 

17 

Traore and Meloux (1978). 

Lopes Nunes (1973), 

Hutchison and Claus 

(1956). 

Roering and Gevers (1964). 

Aubert (1963). 

Schutte (1972). 

Do. 
TABLE 11. -Selected geologic and location information from ISM/ 

Site name Latitude Longitude Deposit type 

Soviet Union 

Kola Peninsula (RFSR) 67° N. 37° E. Pegmatite 

(approx location) 

Tro San Zhen (Kirgiz SSR) 42° N. 77° E. ----do.------------

(approx location) 

Zavitaya (Chita Oblast) 51° N. 115° E. ----do.------------

(approx location) 

United States 

North Carolina Tin-Spodumene Belt 

Kings Mountain 35° 15'N. 81° 21'W. Pegmatite, unzoned 

Bessemer City 35° 20'N. 81° 10'W. ----do,------------

Silver Peak (Nevada) 37° 45'N. 117° 38'W. Brine 

Searles Lake (California) 35° 46'N. 117° 24'W. ----do.------------

Zaire 

Manono-Kitotolo (Shaba) 07° 19'S. 27° 27'E. Pegmatite, zoned 

Zimbabwe 

Bikita (Masvingo district) 19° 57'S. 31° 26'E. Pegmatite, zoned 

18 

Host rock Age of mineralization 

PREC 

TRI? 

PREC 

Amphibolite, schist; PREC 

Blacksburg Formation LPROT -CAM. 

Quartz Monzonite; 

Cherryville quartz 

monzonite; DEYMISS. 

----do.------------ PREC 

Clay, silt, sand, evapo- CRET-TERT 

rites; Esmeralda 

Formation. 

Salt, mud CRET-TERT 

Mica schist; Kibara PREC 

system; PREC. 

Quartzite; Kibara system; 

PREC. 

Epidiorites; Victoria 

greenstone belt; 

ARCH. 

Banded ironstones; 

Victoria greenstone 

belt; ARCH. 

ARCH 
records for lithium deposits and districts-Continued 

Tectonic setting Local environment 

Kings Mountain 

belt. 

Kings Mountain 

and Inner 

Piedmont 

belts. 

Victoria greenstone belt. 

Principal mineral assemblages 

SPDM; LPDL 

SPDM 

Soviet Union -Continued 

United States-Continued 

Comments Reference 

SPDM; MCCL; QRTZ; ALBT; 

MSCV. 

Deposit is near border between Kings Foote Mineral Company 

SPDM; MCCL; QRTZ; ALBT; 

MSCV. 

Mountain and Inner Piedmont (1987), Horton (1981), 

belts. Bleiwas and Coffman 

(1986). 

Brines located in a closed evaporite 

basin. 

Foote Mineral Company 

(1987), Davis and Vine 

(1979). 

Kesler (1960), Rykken 

(1976). 

Zaire-Continued 

SPDM; CSTR; CLMB; ALBT; Not a lithium producer at present 

QRTZ; MICA. 

Zimbabwe-Continued 

PETL; SPDM; LPDL; QRTZ; 

ALBT. 

19 

Mineralization includes spodumenequartz intergrowth which is 

chemically equivalent to petalite. 

Angermeier and others 

(197 4), V arlamoff 

(1968). 

Bleiwas and Coffman (1986), 

Cooper ( 1964). 
TABLE 12. -Selected production and mineral-resource information 

Abbreviations used throughout this table include: 

---, Not reported on the ISMI record form. 

Mining method abbreviations: 

S, surface mining; U, underground mining; and N, not presently being mined. 

Commodities provides a listing of commodities or prospective commodities and their activity status (separated by semicolons). Activity status 

abbreviations: C, current production; N, no production; and P, past production. 

Annual production includes some or all of the following items (separated by semicolons): production in thousand metric tons of material mined 

(unless other processing stage is indicated); grade of reported material; and year of production (or range of years used to estimate average 

annual production). 

Site name 

Hindukush Mountain Range 

Catamarca Province 

San Luis Province 

Salar del Hombre Muerto 

Lithium Australia Limited 

(formerly Greenbushes) 

(Western Australia) 

Koralpe (Kiirnten) 

Salar de Uyuni 

Solonopole (Ceara) 

ltinga (Minas Gerais) 

Ara~uai (Minas Gerais) 

Quixeramobim (Ceara) 

Bernie Lake (Manitoba) 

Preissac-Lacome district (Quebec) 

Authier 

Quebec Lithium Lacorne 

Yellowknife area (Northwest 

Territories) 

Big 

Fi (Hidden Lake) 

Jim (Hidden Lake) 

Vo 

Thor 

Year of 

discovery Mining method; status 

Year of 

first 

production 

Afghanistan 

S; intermittent 

production. 

----do.------------

Argentina 

1964 

N; no production 

Australia 

1978-79 S; active 1983 (Li) 

Austria 

U?; no production 

Bolivia 

1976 N; no production 

Brazil 

N; past production 

S; active 

----do.------------

N; past production 

Canada 

1929 U; active 1984 (Li) 

N; no production 

U; past production 1955 

N; no production 

----do.------------

----do.------------

----do.------------

1974-76 ----do.------------

20 

Commodities 

Li 

Li; Be 

----do.------------

K, N; B, C; Li, N 

Li, C; Ta, C; Nb,C; Sn, 

C, kaolin or 

kaolinitic clay C. 

Li, N 

Li;B; K 

Li, p 

Li, c 

Li, c 

Li, P 

Ta, P; Li, C; Cs, C; Tb, 

C; Sn, P. 

Li, N 

Li, p 

Annual production 

(thousand metric tons) 

5; 7.5 percent Li20 in 

spodumene concentrates; 1983-84 

13.2; 7.5 percent Li20 in 

spodumene concentrates; 1984-85. 

2.1; 4 percent Li20; 1986 

(combined production 

for ltinga and Aracuai). 

(Included with total for 

ltinga.) 

0.082; 7.25 percent Li20 

1984. 

0.276; 7.25 percent Li20; 

1985. 

0.830; 7.05 percent Li20; 

1986. 

40; 5 percent Li20; 1956-59 
from ISM/ records for lithium deposits and districts 

Cumulative production includes some or all of the following items (separated by semicolons): production in thousand metric 

tons of material mined (unless other processing stage is indicated); grade of reported material; and years for reported 

cumulative production. 

Resources includes, for various resource categories, some or all of the following items (separated by semicolons): resource in 

thousand metric tons; U.N. resource classification (United Nations Economic and Social Council, 1979; Schanz, 1980); 

grade (unless resource is specified as contained metal); and year of estimate. Grades reported for mining properties often 

are the grade of mill feed, while for undeveloped properties, in-place grades are usually reported. Dilution in the mill feed 

grades may be about 15 percent for underground mining. 

Cumulative production 

(thousand metric tons) 

29; 7.5 percent Li02; 

1983-86. 

Resources (thousand metric tons) Comments 

Afghanistan-Continued 

Large? 

Argentina-Continued 

Australia-Continued 

41,900; 1.48 percent Li; RlE; 1986 

Austria-Continued 

13,000; 0.77 percent Li; RlM+RlS; 1986 

Bolivia-Continued 

5,000; Li metal; RlM+RlS; 1983 

Brazil-Continued 

90.2; 3.96 percent Li: R1M; 1984 

95.1; 2.35 percent Li; RlE; 1984 

80.1; 1.17 percent Li; RlE; 1984 

4.4; 0.68 percent Li; RIM+ R1S; 1984 

Canada-Continued 

5,900; 1.24 percent Li; RlE; 1986 

5,800; 0.53 percent Li; RlS; 1977 

18,000; 0.60 percent Li; RlS; 1986 

7,200; 0.68 percent Li; RlS; 1986 

13,900; 0.55 percent Li; RlS; 1986 

3,800; 0.58 percent Li; RlS; 1986 

3,100; 0.69 percent Li; RlS; 1986 

8,400; 0.70 percent Li; RlS; 1986 

21 

Property is being evaluated. 

Deposit has large tonnage, high grade resources 

with potential for additional resources and is 

emerging as a major producer. 

Property is being evaluated; deposit is in a 

recreational area. 

Feasibility study is planned by Industria Minera 

Teirra Ltda. 

Production is mostly petalite. 

Tanco pegmatite was discovered accidentally in a 

single drill hole while exploring small tinbearing pegmatites. Deposit was not outlined 

until 1955. 

14 pegmatites in the area have been studied in 

detail. They contain 49 million metric tons of 

rock averaging 1.40 percent Li20. 

Extensive glaciation has removed most of the 

overburden leaving continuous exposures. 

Flotation tests gave an SO-percent recovery rate 

and a concentration grade of 6 percent Li20. 
Site name 

Salar de Atacama 

(Antofagasta Province). 

Koktokay (Xinjiang-Uygur) 

Rozna area (Moravia) 

Massif Central (Allier Department) 

Govindpal area (Madhya Pradesh) 

Bougouni area 

Alto Ligonha district 

Karibib district 

Guarda area 

Noumas (Cape Province) 

Norrabees (Cape Province) 

Kola Peninsula (RFSR) 

Tro San Zhen (Kirgiz SSR) 

Zavitaya (Chita Oblast) 

North Carolina Tin-Spodumene Belt 

Year of 

discovery 

1960 

1942 

1927 

TABLE 12.-Selected production and mineral-resource information from ISM/ 

Mining method; status 

Year of 

first 

production 

Chile 

Pumping, evapora- 1984 

tion; active. 

China 

S; active 1946 

Czechoslovakia 

France 

N; no production 

India 

Mali 

N; no production 

Mozambique 

U, S?; intermittent 

production. 

Namibia 

S; intermittent 

production 

1945 

Portugal 

Active 

South Africa 

S, U?; intermittent 

production. 

S; intermittent 

production 

Soviet Union 

United States 

Commodities 

Li, C; K, C 

Li, C; Be, C; Ta,C; Nb, 

C; Cs, C. 

Li, N 

Li,N 

Li C; Be, C; Ta, C; Cs, 

C;Rb, C. 

Li, C; Be, C 

Li, c 

Li, c 

Li, c 

Annual production 

(thousand metric tons) 

2.11; 99.5 percent LiC03; 

1984. 

4.508; 99.5 percent LiC03 ; 

1985. 

7.332; 99.5 percent LiC03 ; 

1988. 

0.013; amblygonite concentrates; 1970. 

0.024; lepidolite concentrates; 1970. 

8.4; 3.99 percent Li20; 1956. 

Kings Mountain 1930's S; standby 1950's Li, C; feldspar, C; mica, 

C; crushed stone, 

C; Sn, N; Ta, N. 

83.9; 1.5 percent Li20; 1986. 

0.953; 40.4 percent Li20; 

Bessemer City S; active 

Silver Peak (Nevada) Early Pumping, evapora1900's. tion; active. 

Early Li, C; Be, N 

1960's 

1967 Li, C 

22 

1986. 

2.771; Li in carbonate; 1980. 

2.744; Li in carbonate; 1979. 

1.171; Li in carbonate; 1980. 

1.023; Li in carbonate; 1979. 
records for lithium deposits and districts-Continued 

Cumulative production 

(thousand metric tons) 

0.059; amblygonite 

concentrates; 

I956-70. 

0.033; spodumene 

concentrates; 

I956-70. 

I,241.43I; 

1.47 percent 

Li02; I975-81. 

I5.972; Li in carbonate; I974-80. 

II. 786; Li in carbonate; I970-80. 

Resources (thousand metric tons) 

Chile-Continued 

201.4; Li metal; rie; I986. 

I ,424; Li metal; riM +riS; I986. 

China-Continued 

>5,000; 0.7 percent Li; RIE; I987 

Comments 

Operation actually producing is SCL near Chepica 

del Salar. 

Czechoslovakia-Continued 

France-Continued 

India-Continued 

Mali-Continued 

266; 3.02 percent Li; RIM+RIS; 1978 

Mozambique-Continued 

Namibia-Continued 

IOO; > 1.4 percent Li; RlE; I95I 

Portugal-Continued 

South Africa-Continued 

30; grade not reported; RIM; I968 

Soviet Union-Continued 

United States-Continued 

2I,682; 0.7 percent Li; RIM; I986 

23,300; 0.65 percent Li; RlE; I986 

30.4; Li metal; rlE; I986 

23 

Total area of evaporation ponds is about I6 km2

• 

Lithium grades are diminishing significantly in 

brines. 
Site name 

Searles Lake (California) 

Manono-Kitotolo (Shaba) 

Bikita (Masvingo district) 

Year of 

discovery 

1911 

1909 

TABLE 12.-Selected production and mineral-resource information from ISM/ 

Mining method; status 

Year of 

first 

production 

United States-Continued 

Pumping, evaporation; past 

production. 

About 

1938. 

Zaire 

S; active 1919 (Sn) 

Zimbabwe 

S; active 1952-53 

(Li). 

24 

Commodities 

Li, p 

Li,N; Sn, C; Ta, C; 

Nb,C. 

Li, C; Be, C; Ta, C; Sn, 

C; Cs, C; Rb, C. 

Annual production 

(thousand metric tons) 

133.557; Li ore; 1986. 

26.964; petalite concentrate; 

1986. 
records for lithium deposits and districts-Continued 

Cumulative production 

(thousand metric tons) 

1.985; ore; 1967-78 

780.0; pegmatite ore; 

1951-56. 

Resources (thousand metric tons) Comments 

United States-Continued 

31.6; Li metal; r1S; 1960 

Zaire-Continued 

31,500; 0.98 percent Li; R1M + R1S; 1986 Not a lithium producer at present. High transport 

costs are a limiting factor. 

Zimbabwe-Continued 

3,800; 1.35 percent Li;R1E; 1986 

25 

New beneficiation system and reworking of tailings 

have substantially improved workability. 
N 

0'1 

60° 

40° ·-

20° 

oo 

20° ·-

40° ·-

160° 

Kings Mountain 

Bessemer City~~ 

Silv.er Peak -~--'"""• 

Searles Lake 

·~o 

.... :. ... ,_ 

ARGENTINA 

Salar del Hombre Muerto fQl 

San Luis Province 

MERCATOR PROJECTION O"ZJT 0" LATITUDE 70' 70" 

1000 500 500 1000 KILOMETERS $> 

PORTUGAL 

Gua~da area 

MAU --.. 

Bougouni area 

BRAZIL 

Quixeramobim 

Solon6pole 

Itinga 

Ara<;uai 

NAMIBIA 

SOUTH AFRICA 

Norrabees 

Noumas ----' 

80° 

0 

MOZAMBIQUE 

Alto Ugonha district 

ZIMBABWE 

Bikita 

!!;, 

AUSTRALIA 

Green bushes 

Base from Bundesanstalt fUr Geowissenschaften und RohstO?re~ 

Bounpary ard nal'\leS represe~tation, not fleCeSSprily aythontptive I 

" 

EXPLANATION 

• Active or intermittent producer in 1986; probably a significant producer in 2025 

() Active or intermittent producer in 1986; probably an insignificant producer in 2025 

() Active or intermittent producer in 1986; information insufficient to permit any forecast as to future production 

() No production in 1986 or 1986 production not reported; probably a significant producer in 2025 

0 No production in 1986 or 1986 production not reported; probably an insignificant producer or exhausted by 2025 

CD No production in 1986 or 1986 production not reported; information insufficient to p~rmit any forecast as to future production 

(]) Present (1986) status not reported; information insufficient to permit any forecast as to future production 

160° 

... .--· 

• . 1' 

' 

v (}fl 

Figure 6. Major lithium deposits and districts, their present production status, and their probable production status in 2025. Numbers in parentheses indicate the number of 

records (deposits and districts) for each location. Location names are from tables 11 and 12. 
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in Penner, S.S., ed., Lithium-Needs and resources, 

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American Metal Market, 1972, Humble unveils lithium grease: 

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Angelelli, Victorio, 1984, Yacimientos metaliferos de la 

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Comisi6n Investigaciones Cientiffcas Provincia de Buenos 

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Angermeier, H.-0., Krauss, Ulrich, Kruszona, Manfred, and 

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Aubert, Georges, 1963, Le lithium: France, Bureau de Recherches Geologiques et Minieres Bulletin, no. 2, p. 23-93. 

---1969, Les coupoles granitiques de Montebras et 

d'Echassieres (Massif Central franctais) et la genese de 

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Minieres, Memoires no. 46, 345 p. 

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Bro, P., Gabano, J.P., Takehara, Z., and Yamamoto, 0., 

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Carroll, H.R., and Angelo, J .J., 1983, Adding lithium can 

improve melting-forming performance: Glass Industry, 

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Cheney, R.G., 1983, The lithium advantage in making aluminum: Foote Mineral Company, Foote Prints, v. 46, no. 2, 

p. 14-26. 

Cooper, D.G., 1964, The geology of the Bikita pegmatite, in 

Haughton, S .H., ed., The geology of some ore deposits in 

southern Africa, v. 2: Geological Society of South Africa, 

p. 441-461. 

Crouse, R.A., and Cerny, P., 1972, The Tanco pegmatite at 

Bernie Lake, Manitoba; I, Geology and paragenesis: 

Canadian Mineralogist, v. 11, part 3, p. 591-608. 

Davis, J.R., and Vine, J.D., 1979, Stratigraphic and tectonic 

setting of the lithium brine field, Clayton Valley, Nevada, 

in Newman, G.W., ed., Basin and Range symposium and 

Great Basin field conference: Denver, Colo. , Rocky 

Mountain Association of Geology, p. 421-430. 

Energy, Mines and Resources Canada, 1986, Lithium-An 

imported mineral commodity: Energy, Mines and Resources Canada Mineral Bulletin MR 212, 46 p. 

Engineering News Record, 1983, Dessicant cooling arrives: 

Engineering News Record, v. 210, no. 20, p. 18. 

Ferrell, J.E., 1985a, Lithium, in U.S. Bureau of Mines, 

Mineral Facts and Problems, 1985 edition: U.S. Bureau of 

Mines Bulletin 675, p. 461-470. 

27 

---1985b, Lithium, in U.S. Bureau of Mines Minerals 

Yearbook 1984, Volume I, Metals and Minerals: 

Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office, 

p. 607-613. 

Filho, L.C.D., 1985, Litio, in Departamento Nacional da 

Productao Mineral, Sumario Mineral 1985: Brasflia, Ministerio das Minas e Energia, p. 64-65. 

Foote Mineral Company, 1987, Form 10-K-Annual report 

pursuant to section 13 or 15( d) of the Securities and 

Exchange Commission, for the fiscal year ended Dec. 31, 

1986: Exton, Penn., Commission File No. 1-4064, 57 p. 

Hatcher, M.l., and Elliott, A.V., 1986, Greenbushes-A new 

world source of lithium: Industrial Minerals, 7th Industrial 

Minerals International Congress, Monte Carlo, v. 1, 

p. 217-232. 

Horton, J.W., Jr., 1981, Shear zone between the inner Piedmont and Kings Mountain belts in the Carolinas: Geology, 

v. 9, no. 1, p. 28-33. 

Hutchison, R.W., and Claus, R.J., 1956, Pegmatite deposits, 

Alto Ligonha, Portuguese East Africa: Economic Geology, v. 51, no. 8, p. 757-780. 

Industrial Minerals, 1987, Lithium-No shortage in supply: 

Industrial Minerals, no. 237, p. 22-39. 

Kesler, T.L., 1960, Lithium raw materials, in Gillson, J.L., 

editor in-chief, Industrial minerals and rocks (nonmetallies other than fuels), 3d ed.: New York, The American 

Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, Seeley W. Mudd series, p. 521-531. 

Lasmanis, R., 1978, Lithium resources in the Yellowknife 

area, Northwest Territories, Canada, in Penner, S.S., ed., 

Lithium-Needs and resources, proceedings of a symposium: Energy, v. 3, no. 3, p. 399-407. 

Longe, R.V., and others, 1978, Computer-based files on 

mineral deposits-Guidelines and recommended standards for data content [prepared by the Mineral Deposits 

Working Committee, National Advisary Committee on 

Research in the Geological Sciences]: Canada Geological 

Survey Paper 78-26, 72 p. 

Lopes Nuiies, J .E., 1973, Contribution a 1' etude mineralogique 

et geochimique des pegmatites du Mozambique: Sciences 

de la Terre, Memoire no. 26, 261 p. 

Mulligan, Robert, 1965, Geology of Canadian lithium deposits: Geological Survey of Canada, Economic Geology 

Report, no. 21, 131 p. 

---1969, Metallogeny of the region adjacent to the northem part of the Cassiar batholith, Yukon Territory and 

British Columbia (Parts of 104 0, P, and 105 B): 

Geological Survey of Canada Paper 68-70, 13 p. 

Norton, J.J., 1973, Lithium, cesium, and rubidium-The rare 

alkali metals, in Brobst, D.A., and Pratt, W.P., eds., 

United States Mineral Resources: U.S. Geological Survey 

Professional Paper 820, p. 365-378. 

Ober, J.A., 1988, Lithium, in U.S. Bureau of Mines Minerals 

Yearbook 1986, Volume I, Metals and Minerals: Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office, 

p. 619-625. 
Roering, C., and Gevers, T.W., 1964, Lithium and berylliumbearing pegmatites in the Karibib district, South West 

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of some ore deposits in southern Africa, v. 2: Geological 

Society of South Africa, p. 463-495. 

Rossovskii, L.N., Chmyrev, V.M., Yeremenko, G.K., and 

others, 1976, Geologiya i usloviya formirovaniya spodumenovykh mestorozhdeniy Gindukusha (Afghanistan) 

[Geology and conditions of formation of spodumene 

deposits in Hindu Kush, Afghanistan]: Geologiya Rudnykh Mestorozhdeniy (Akademiya Nauk SSSR), v. 43, 

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Publishers, p. 277-289. 

28 

Stoertz, G.E., and Ericksen, G.E., 1974, Geology of salars in 

northern Chile: U.S. Geological Survey Professional 

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Bauer, R.J., 1978, Lithium and Lithium-Verbindungen, 

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year 2000: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 

1005, 162 p. 


INTERNATIONAL STRATEGIC MINERALS INVENTORY 

PARTICIPATING AGENCIES 

Australia 

Bureau of Mineral Resources, 

Geology and Geophysics 

Canada 

Energy, Mines and Resources Canada 

Mineral Policy Sector 

Geological Survey of Canada 

Federal Republic of Germany 

Bundesanstalt fur Geowissenschaften 

und Rohstoffe 

South Africa 

Minerals Bureau 

Geological Survey 

United Kingdom 

British Geological Survey 

United States 

Bureau of Mines 

Geological Survey 

SUMMARY REPORTS 

This circular is one of several reports on selected mineral commodities to be published in the U.S. Geological Survey 930 series. The 

circulars published to date are listed below; year of publication is shown in 

parentheses. Copies are available free on application to The Books and 

Open-File Reports Section, U.S. Geological Survey, Federal Center, Box 

25425, Denver, CO 80225-0046 U.S.A. 

930-A. Manganese (1984) 

930-B. Chromium (1984) 

930-C. Phosphate (1984) 

930-D. Nickel (1985) 

930-F. Cobalt (1987) 

930-G. Titanium (1988) 

930-H. Graphite (1988) 

930-1. Lithium (1990) 

930-E. Platinum-Group Metals (1986) 

Requests for copies of International Strategic Minerals Inventory summary reports and for further information 

may also be addressed to: 

Ian R. McLeod 

Chief Commodity Geologist 

Minerals Resource Assessment Branch 

Bureau of Mineral Resources 

P.O. Box 378 

Canberra City, A.C.T. 2601 

AUSTRALIA 

A. Ignatow 

Director, Rare and Minor Metals Division 

Mineral Policy Sector 

Energy, Mines & Resources Canada 

460 O'Connor Street-Room 630 

Ottawa, Ontario, K1A OE4 

CANADA 

Distribution Branch 

Bundesanstalt fiir Geowissenschaften 

und Rohstoffe 

Postfach 51 01 53 

D-3000 Hannover 51 

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY 

Chief Director, Minerals Bureau 

Private Bag X4 

Braamfontein 2017 

REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA 

Richard N. Crockett 

Head, Mineral Intelligence Programme 

British Geological Survey 

Keyworth 

Nottingham NG12 500 

UNITED KINGDOM 
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