Responsible 

Fatherhood 

Spotlight 

February 2010 

Take Time to Be a Dad Today 

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Father Involvement and Social Support 

Fathers who report having high levels of social support experience better psychological well-being and 

demonstrate more positive patterns of father involvement and coparenting. The benefits of fathers’ social 

support may also have important implications for child well-being. 

Definitions 

Father involvement refers to the type and level of a father’s involvement with his children. The concept 

encompasses three main dimensions: engagement (a father’s involvement in activities with his child), 

accessibility (a father’s availability to his child), and responsibility (the extent to which a father provides his 

child with resources, including financial support).36,37

Social support refers to the interpersonal relationships and social interactions that individuals have with 

family members, extended kin, friends, and co-workers who make up the community and other social 

networks that help to protect individual well-being.31, 38, 47 Research has identified different types of social 

support.15, 18, 33 These types include spousal/partner support (help, advice and understanding received 

from a partner, including both emotional and practical aspects); instrumental support (tangible assistance, 

including child care, money, and other forms of in-kind assistance); and program support (assistance and 

advice received from direct participation in a program to help an individual meet family responsibilities).6, 

27

Importance and Implications of Social Support for Father Involvement 

Research has found that parents’ levels of social support have important implications for fathers’ wellbeing, father involvement with their children, the coparental relationship, and child outcomes. 

Implications for Fathers

Social support has been found to play a vital role in the lives of parents. Indeed, both the availability and 

the quality of social support are important social assets for individual adjustment and well-being.25, 30, 32, 34

 Social support networks may buffer fathers from the demands and conflicts associated with 

parenting, as well as help to alleviate the strains on energy and time experienced by parents of 

preschool-age children. In addition, for men who often lack role models of how to be a father, 

social support networks may help buffer men’s sense of competence in parenting.6 

 Spousal/partner support is positively associated with fathers’ well-being. 

o Resident fathers in two-parent families receive a substantial amount of spousal/partner 

support, which helps them cope with the stress of parenting and improve their 

effectiveness as parents and their psychological well-being.6

o Spousal/partner support helps buffer against feelings of distress and dissatisfaction in the 

fathering role.48 

o High rates of partner support have been found to be linked to lower rates of father 

depression.10, 11

o Increased levels of spousal/partner support are associated with lower levels of 

aggravation in parenting.11 
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o Social support from partners has been found to be associated with fathers’ effectiveness 

in the parental role.11, 43 

o Findings suggest that partner support has the strongest influence on men’s well-being 

and parenting, relative to other forms of social support.11 

 Research suggests that program support has positive benefits for fathers’ well-being. 

o Program support has been found to play a role in fathers’ abilities to balance and manage 

family responsibilities.7

 

o High levels of program support are associated with higher reports of fathers’ parenting 

skills.11, 16, 20 However, some sources of social support may decrease fathers’ feelings of 

being good parents if they perceive their need for support and services as an inability to 

provide for their families.5, 23, 56 

o Some studies suggest that parenting programs may provide fathers with the parenting 

skills necessary to minimize parenting stress.43 

 Studies show that fathers who report high levels of tangible—or instrumental—support also report 

better well-being. 

o Instrumental support in prior studies has been found to be positively associated with wellbeing and reductions in stress associated with family demands.6, 28 

o High levels of instrumental support are associated with lower rates of paternal 

depression.11 

o Some research based on small-scale studies of mothers suggests that social support in 

the form of financial resources from family and friends may relieve parenting stress.14, 57 

o Gender differences exist in the availability of instrumental support, in that resident fathers 

tend to provide more instrumental support than do resident mothers.59 Thus, although 

men provide more instrumental support, resident fathers are less likely to be the 

recipients of instrumental support, compared with resident mothers.42 

 The availability and influence of social support have been found to vary according to a number of 

characteristics. 

o Older fathers report receiving more social support than do younger fathers.60

o The types of social support available and the benefits of such support may vary by 

fathers’ racial and ethnic group.40, 53 

o Fathers with higher educational attainment report better, more supportive coparenting 

relationships,4

 and individuals’ perceptions of support may also increase with years of 

education.60 

o A drop in income may also affect social support. Research has shown that certain types 

of social support have less of an impact on families who are experiencing economic 

stress compared with families who are more financially stable.52 

o Married parents have been found to engage in more positive coparenting than unmarried 

parents, suggesting that marital status is also important.39 Additionally, being involved in 

an intimate relationship has been found to be associated with higher levels of perceived 

support.38

Implications for Father Involvement

Levels of social support have been found to have both direct and indirect links to parenting and father 

involvement. 

 Throughout the life course, families are embedded in networks of relatives, neighbors, and friends 

that may serve as sources of support.30 These networks may directly or indirectly influence 

childrearing and the coparenting relationship (i.e., the interaction between parents who share 

decision making about the well-being of a child).58

 Spousal/partner support is positively associated with father involvement and coparenting. 

o The effects of spousal/partner support on individual parenting have been examined 

extensively and has been found to have positive effects.6, 29, 55 

o Studies specifically examining fathers have found that, for them, spousal/partner support 

has a positive influence on individual parenting (i.e., involvement). 2, 26 
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o Fathers who report receiving spousal/partner support are more likely to consider their role 

as fathers a high priority .50

o Partner support is directly and indirectly related to fathers’ coparenting skills, with men 

who report higher partner support acknowledging better coparenting than men who do 

not. 9, 11, 41, 45, 54 

 Program support is positively related to father involvement and may have a positive association 

with coparenting. 

o Program support has been found to positively influence fathers’ individual parenting and 

involvement with their children. 3, 12, 44 

o It also has been found to be linked directly and indirectly to increases in fathers’ 

coparenting skills.11 

o Program participation may provide a process that allows parents to adopt or modify 

parenting behaviors as a consequence of watching the behaviors of other parents and 

modeling such behaviors in their interactions with their partners. 

o Program support may act to reduce the demands on fathers and provide assistance with 

coping strategies and valuable resources that enhance the capacity of fathers to perform 

in the coparental role.11

o For some fathers, however, the need for program support may be perceived as an 

inability to provide for their families. This perception may cause these fathers to have a 

more negative assessment of their parenting abilities. It may also spur them to 

reevaluate their own parenting abilities after learning about more positive behaviors 

through program participation.5, 23, 56

o However, some studies have found that, for men, program support has no significant 

effect on the coparenting relationship.21, 46 For example, in a randomized trial test of the 

Dads for Life intervention for divorced parents, results showed that fathers participating 

in the program did not report improved coparenting.19 

 Fathers’ levels of instrumental support have also been associated with their coparenting abilities. 

o One study of rural, African-American families found that greater instrumental (specifically, 

financial) support for parents predicted greater co-caregiving support and less coparental 

conflict.10 

o Instrumental support has been found to be linked indirectly to coparenting through its 

influence on paternal depression.11 

Implications for Children 

Few studies have examined the effects of parental social support on child well-being, but the handful of 

studies that do exist suggest that children may benefit indirectly when their parents receive high levels of 

social support. 

 Parents’ social support networks can influence child development either directly or indirectly by 

providing children with direct stimulation, emotional and material support, access to opportunities, 

and models and sanctions for behavior. Furthermore, parental social support networks may 

influence child development either negatively or positively, in that they may bring children into 

contact with persons or resources that can be either beneficial or harmful.16

 Parents’ social support networks may influence children’s intellectual and social development by 

exposing children to cognitively stimulating situations or by positively influencing the cognitive 

setting of the home, as well as through exposure to and interaction with individuals outside of the 

family.16 

 More supportive parental social networks have been found to be associated with better parental 

ratings of child behavior and development.24 

 Strong social support networks have been linked to better health outcomes among children in 

U.S. immigrant families.22 

 Finally, parental social support may indirectly influence children by having an impact on the level 

and quality of father involvement and the coparental relationship, both of which have been found 

to be associated with child well-being in a number of studies.49, 51
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Social Support and Father Involvement in Early Childhood 

The following estimates are for fathers of infants (12-month-old children). 

Figure 1 and Table 1 show that most urban fathers of infants reported that they experienced high levels

of both partner support (63.2 percent) and instrumental support (79 percent). Slightly more than one-thir

(36.8 percent) of fathers reported low levels of partner support, and only about one-fifth reported low 

levels of instrumental support (21.1 percent). 

Figure 1. Levels of Social Support Among Urban Fathers of Infants 

d 

63.2%

79%

36.8%

21.1%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

Partner Support Instrumental Support

Percent

Type of Social Support

Levels of Social Support Among Urban

Fathers of Infants

High Support

Low Support

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of Fragile Families Baseline and 12-month data 

Table 1. Levels of Social Support Among Urban Fathers of Infants 

Type of Social High Low Possible Mean Support Support Support Range 

Partner Support 63.2% 36.8% 7.8 0-10 

Instrumental 79.0% 21.1% 2.6 0-3 Support 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of Fragile Families Baseline and 12-month data 
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Differences in Social Support and Father Involvement by Subgroup 

Differences in Fathers’ Social Support by Father Age 

Figure 2 and Table 2 show that although levels of instrumental support did not vary by father age, there 

were significant variations in levels of partner support among fathers of different age groups. 

 Fathers aged 24 or younger reported significantly lower levels of partner support than did fathers 

between the ages of 25 and 35 and between the ages of 35 and 44. 

Figure 2. Father Social Support by Father Age 

7.5

2.7

7.9

2.7

8

2.7

7.8

2.6

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Partner Instrumental

Level of Support

Type of Social Support

Levels of Fathers' Social Support by

Father Age

24 and younger

25 – 34

35 – 44

45 and older

 Source: Child Trends’ analysis of Fragile Families Baseline and 12-month data 

Table 2. Father Social Support by Father Age 

Type of Social 24 and 45 and 25 – 34 35 – 44 Possible Range Support younger older 

Partner 7.5b,c 7.9a

 8.0a 7.8 0-10 

Instrumental 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.6 0-3 

a = significantly different from fathers 24 and younger, 

b = significantly different from fathers 25-34, 

c = significantly different from fathers 35-44, 

d = significantly different from fathers 45 and older 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of Fragile Families Baseline and 12-month data 
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Differences in Fathers’ Social Support by Father Race/Ethnicity 

Figure 3 and Table 3 show that there were significant differences in both partner support and 

instrumental support among fathers of different races/ethnicities. 

 Non-Hispanic white fathers reported significantly higher levels of both partner and instrumental 

support than did fathers of any other racial group. 

 Non-Hispanic black fathers reported levels of partner support that were significantly lower than 

that of white fathers and of Hispanic fathers. 

 Hispanic fathers reported levels of partner support that were significantly lower than that of white 

fathers but were higher than that of non-Hispanic black fathers. 

Figure 3. Father Social Support by Father Race 

8.1

2.9

7.6

2.6

7.8

2.6

7.5

2.6

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Partner Instrumental

Level of Support

Type of Social Support

Levels of Fathers' Social Support by

Father Race/Ethnicity

Non‐Hispanic White

Non‐Hispanic Black

Hispanic

Other Race

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of Fragile Families Baseline and 12-month data 

Table 3. Father Social Support by Father Race 

Type of Social Non-Hispanic Non-Hispanic Other Possible Hispanic Support White Black Race Range 

Partner 8.1b,c,d 7.6a,c 7.8a,b 7.5a

 0-10 

Instrumental 2.9 b,c,d 2.6a

 2.6a 2.6a 0-3 

a = significantly different from non-Hispanic white fathers, 

b = significantly different from non-Hispanic black fathers, 

c = significantly different from Hispanic fathers, 

d = significantly different from other race fathers 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of Fragile Families Baseline and 12-month data 
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Differences in Fathers’ Social Support by Fathers’ Marital Status 

Figure 4 and Table 4 show that there were significant differences in fathers’ reports of both partner and 

instrumental support by marital status. 

o Married fathers reported significantly higher levels of both partner and instrumental support than 

did both cohabiting and “other” fathers. 

o Cohabiting fathers reported significantly higher levels of partner support than did fathers who 

were not married or cohabiting. 

o Cohabiting fathers reported significantly higher levels of instrumental support than did fathers who 

were not married or cohabiting. 

Figure 4. Father Social Support by Fathers’ Marital Status 

8.2

2.8

8

2.6

6.4

2.5

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Partner Instrumental

Level of Support

Type of Social Support

Levels of Fathers' Social Support by

Marital Status

Married

Cohabiting

Other

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of Fragile Families Baseline and 12-month data 

Table 4. Father Social Support by Fathers’ Marital Status 

Type of Social Possible Married Cohabiting Other Support Range 

Partner 8.2b,c 8.0a,c 6.4a,b 0-10 

Instrumental 2.8 b,c 2.6 a,c 2.5 a,b 0-3 

a = significantly different from married fathers, 

b = significantly different from cohabiting fathers, 

c = significantly different from other fathers 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of Fragile Families Baseline and 12-month data 
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Differences in Father Involvement by Level of Social Support 

Figure 5 and Table 5 show that fathers who reported high levels of partner support exhibited significantly 

higher levels of father involvement, compared with fathers who reported lower levels of partner support. 

Figure 5: Differences in Father Involvement by Level of Partner Support 

37.8

32.5

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

Father Involvement

Differences in Father Involvement by

Level of Partner Support

High Support

Low Support

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of Fragile Families Baseline and 12-month data 

Table 5: Differences in Father Involvement by Level of Partner Support 

High Low Possible 

Support Support Range 

Father 37.8 32.5 a 0-56 Involvement 

a = significantly different from high support fathers 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of Fragile Families Baseline and 12-month data 
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Figure 6 and Table 6 show that fathers who reported high levels of instrumental support also exhibited 

significantly higher levels of father involvement, compared with fathers who reported lower levels of 

instrumental support.

Figure 6: Differences in Father Involvement by Level of Instrumental Support 

35.5

32.7

31

31.5

32

32.5

33

33.5

34

34.5

35

35.5

36

Father Involvement

Differences in Father Involvement by

Level of Instrumental Support

High Support

Low Support

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of Fragile Families Baseline and 12-month data 

Table 6: Differences in Father Involvement by Level of Instrumental Support 

High Low Possible 

Support Support Range 

Involvement 35.5 32.7 a 0-56 

a = significantly different from high support fathers 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of Fragile Families Baseline and 12-month data 

Definitions and Measurement 

Father involvement (father-child activities) was measured using an eight-item summative index that 

assesses, at the 12-month follow-up, how many times per week (0-7) the father reports participating in a 

number of activities with the focal child. These activities included singing songs, hugging or showing 

physical affection, telling the child that he loves him/her, letting the child help with household chores, 

playing imaginary games, reading and telling stories, playing inside with toys, telling the child something 

s/he did is appreciated, taking the child to visit relatives, going out to eat with the child, assisting the child 

with eating, and putting the child to bed. A higher score indicates fathers being more engaged in activities 

with the focal child. 

Social support was measured by two composites capturing spousal/partner support and instrumental 

support: 

 Spousal/partner support (emotional dimension) was measured at the 12-month follow-up using a 

latent variable comprised of five items relating to: 1) partner conflict, 2) compromise, 3) affection, 

4) encouragement, and 5) criticism. These concepts were adapted from the Multi-Dimensional 

Support Scale (MMSD) and Lloyd’s Effects of Violence on Work and Family Scale. Conflict was 

measured using fathers’ reports of how often they argued with their partner about things that 
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fathers considered important. The responses were measured on a five-point scale ranging from 

1-always to 5-never. Compromise was measured using father reports of how often their partner 

was fair and willing to compromise when they have a disagreement. Affection was measured by 

father reports of how often their partner expresses love or affection towards them. 

Encouragement was measured using father reports of how often their partner helps or 

encourages them to do things that are important to them. Criticism was measured using father 

reports of how often their partner insults or criticizes them or their ideas. Compromise, affection, 

and encouragement were measured on a three-point scale ranging from 1-never to 3-often. 

Responses were reverse coded for criticism so that higher values represent low levels of partner 

criticism ranging from 1-often to 3-never. 

 Instrumental support was measured as a latent variable consisting of three items from the 12-

month follow-up survey relating to fathers’ perceptions of whether or not they could count on 

someone to provide them with 1) financial help, 2) a place to live, or 3) emergency child care if 

they needed it in the next year. Respondents answered no (0) or yes (1) to each of the three 

instrumental support items. 

Data Sources 

The tables and charts in this brief documenting fathers’ social support and father involvement among 

resident fathers are based on Child Trends’ analyses of data from the Fragile Families and Child 

Wellbeing Study baseline and 12-month surveys. Fragile Families is a national, longitudinal survey that 

provides information on the characteristics of fathers and mothers, on their relationships with one another 

at the time of their child's birth, and on the influence of public policies, such as welfare reform on parents' 

behaviors and living arrangements. As part of the study, mothers were interviewed in person in the 

hospital within two days of giving birth, and fathers were interviewed following the birth, either in the 

hospital or elsewhere. Baseline survey data were collected between 1998 and 2000 for 4,898 families in 

20 cities in the United States. The study includes 3,712 unmarried couples and 1,186 married couples 

who were interviewed at the birth of their child; further interviews with parents, including nonresident 

fathers, have been completed or are scheduled for when the child is one, three, and five years old. These 

data are representative of births in U.S. cities with populations of more than 200,000. 

Data Limitations 

The sample used in these analyses, as noted, is based primarily on responses from parents who live in 

larger urban communities. Thus, the generalizability of findings to resident fathers in small cities and in 

rural contexts should not be made. In addition, some of the measures of spousal/partner support 

available in the Fragile Families data may reflect to some extent relationship quality rather than direct 

support provided by men’s spouses or partners. However, the items that comprise the spousal/partner 

support concept reflect an emotional component of social support that is transmitted through 

interpersonal relationships. Finally, the sample used here is limited to fathers who live with their children 

and, thus, the findings may not apply to nonresident fathers. 

Resources 

 The U. S. Department of Health and Human Services funds programs and research about 

fatherhood development and the importance of fathers for children: http://fatherhood.hhs.gov/ 

 The National Center on Fathers and Families provides research-based information about 

father involvement and child well-being aimed at improving children’s lives through the positive 

participation of their fathers: http://www.ncoff.gse.upenn.edu/ 

 The National Center for Fathering conducts research and provides resources to increase 

involvement of fathers in the lives of children: http://www.fathers.com 
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