Responsible 

 Fatherhood  Spotlight 

National Responsible Fatherhood Clearinghouse  101 Lake Forest Boulevard, Suite 360  Gaithersburg, MD 208

 Toll-free: 1 (877) 4DAD411  Fax: (301) 948-4325  www.fatherhood.gov 

Nonresident Fathers of Young Children Not living in the same household as one’s young child makes it difficult for a father to maintain contact with and involvemenFurther, research shows a link between fathers’ lack of social and financial involvement in their children’s lives and negativ

as problem behaviors and low academic achievement. 

Definitions A nonresident father is a father who does not live in the same household as his child.iImportance and Implications of Nonresident Fatherhood Research findings on the importance of nonresident fathers to child well-being are mixed. Some studies have found that nonresident fathers’ contact with their child is positively associated with the child’s well-being. However, other studies have shown negative and no association between these two factors. When it comes to financial support from a nonresident father, though, the evidence is unambiguous: that support consistently has been shown to have a positive association with children’s standard of living, health, and educational attainment.ii, , iii ivImplications for Fathers’ Involvement With Children 

 Contact with one’s child has been shown to be necessary for 

a close relationship, but does not guarantee one.v However, 

a close relationship (warm and supportive involvement)—along with authoritative parenting—has often been found to be associated with an increase in children’s academic achievement, a decrease in internalizing and externalizing problem-behaviors,vi and better social and emotional 

adjustment.vii

 Participation of nonresident fathers in activities with their 

children—combined with financial support—has been shown to be associated with high school completion for children.viii

 Greater nonresident father involveme

to predict decreases in adolescent de

 Nonresident father involvement and b

shown to have an association with adbehavior. Generally, this involvement decrease the likelihood that an adoleHowever, having a nonresident fatheincreases the likelihood that an adolehabit. x

 Nonresident fathers with higher level

likely to have closer and more intenschild. However, these close relationsthey can lead to conflict.xi

 Nonresident father-mother conflict ov

financial matters is associated with a involvement with the child and increaproblems in the child.xii , xiii

 While conflict between parents can e

father is involved with his child, the pinvolvement on child well-being outweffect of the parental conflict.xiv
Implications for Fathers’ Partners 

 Greater contact between a nonresident father and his child is 

associated with higher quality parenting from the resident mother.xv

National Responsible Fatherhood Clearinghouse  101 Lake Forest Boulevard, Suite 360  Gaithersburg, MD 208

 Toll-free: 1 (877) 4DAD411  Fax: (301) 948-4325  www.fatherhood.gov 

0

20406080

100

1960 1990 2000 2004

Year

Living With Two ParentsLiving With One ParentLiving With Mother Only

Percent

 Mothers’ satisfaction with the nonresident father’s contact 

with the child can remain high even when there is conflict over visitation. Increased contact may lead to more conflict, but increased contact also is associated with greater satisfaction.xvi

 Among unemployed mothers, a positive relationship with the 

nonresident father has been found to be associated with decreased depressive symptoms.xvii However, higher 

depressive symptoms among mothers have been found to be associated with a nonresident fathers’ absence in their child’s life.xviii

Trends in Nonresident Fatherhood Over Time Table 1 and Figure 1 show that the proportion of children living with two parents has decreased since the 1960s. At the same time, the proportion of children living with one parent has increased, and the majority of those children are living with their mother only. 

Figure 1. Percentage of Children Under 18 Years of Age by 

Living Arrangement, Selected Years, 1960-2004 

Source: U.S. Census Bureau. “Living Arrangements of Children Under 18 Years Old: 

1960 to Present.” Table CH-1. Internet Release Date: September, 21 2006.

Table 1. Percentage of Children Under 18 

Arrangement, Selected Years, 

Living Arrangement 1960 199

Living With Two 

Parents 87.7 72.5 

Living With One Parent 9.1 24.7 

Living with Mother Only 8 21.6 

 Source: U.S. Census Bureau. Current Population rep

D.C.: U.S. Census Bureau, 20

Differences in Nonresident Fathers of Subgroup This section draws on Child Trends’ analyses part of the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeistudy is not based on a representative samplpopulation, but on survey responses of parenpopulations over 200,000. Differences by Sex Table 2 shows that higher proportions of malparents of infants than are females. 

Table 2. Gender of Nonresident and 

Infants 

Gender of 

Parent Nonresident Parent 

Male 14.8 

Female 0.3 

Source: The Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing S

(Child Trends’ analyses, 200

Differences by Age Table 3 shows that the majority of nonresiden24 years of age or younger, whereas about 7fathers are 25 years of age and older. 
National Responsible Fatherhood Clearinghouse  101 Lake Forest Boulevard, Suite 360  Gaithersburg, MD 208

 Toll-free: 1 (877) 4DAD411  Fax: (301) 948-4325  www.fatherhood.gov 

Table 3. Percentage Nonresident and Resident Fathers of 

Infants by Age 

Age 

Nonresident 

Fathers 

Resident 

Fathers 

<20 16.5 4.1 

20-24 37.6 19 25-29 23 24.6 30-34 10.4 25.9 

35+ 12.5 26.4 

Source: The Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, 12-month Follow-Up 

(Child Trends’ analyses, 2007) 

Differences by Education Level Table 4 shows that, compared with resident fathers, larger proportions of nonresident fathers have less than a high school education. 

Table 4. Percentage of Nonresident and Resident Fathers of 

Infants by Education Level 

Education 

Level 

Nonresident 

Fathers 

Resident 

Fathers 

Less than HS 37.3 24.2 

HS Graduate 37.9 33.5 

Some College + 24.8 42.3 

Source: The Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, 12-month Follow-Up 

(Child Trends’ analyses, 2007) 

Differences by Race/Ethnicity Table 5 shows that the majority of nonresident fathers of infants are 

non-Hispanic blacks. Non-Hispanic whites comprise the majority of resident fathers. 

Table 5. Percentage of Nonresident and 

Infants by Race/Ethnic

Race/Ethnicity Nonresident Fath

Non-Hispanic White 18.6 

Non-Hispanic Black 50.9 

Hispanic 23.6 

Other 7 

Source: The Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing S

(Child Trends’ analyses, 200

Differences by Marital Status Table 6 shows that among unmarried, noncomajority of nonresident and resident fathers oromantic relationship with the mother of their 

Table 6. Percentage of Nonresident and 

Infants by Relationship S

Marital Status 

Nonresident 

Fathers 

Romantic involvement, 

not cohabiting 20.2 

Divorced/ Separated 10.8 

No relationship 69 

Source: The Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing S

(Child Trends’ analyses, 200

Differences by Employment Status Table 7 shows that the majority of nonresidenof infants are employed. However, a larger penonresident fathers of infants are unemployefathers of infants. 
National Responsible Fatherhood Clearinghouse  101 Lake Forest Boulevard, Suite 360  Gaithersburg, MD 208

 Toll-free: 1 (877) 4DAD411  Fax: (301) 948-4325  www.fatherhood.gov 

Table 7. Percentage of Nonresident and Resident Fathers of 

Infants by Employment Status 

Employment 

Status Nonresident Fathers

Resident 

Fathers 

Employed 69.7 88.8 

Not Employed 30.3 11.2 

Source: The Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, 12-month Follow-Up 

(Child Trends’ analyses, 2007) 

Differences by Income Level Table 8 shows that among nonresident fathers, the largest 

percentage earn less than $20,000, whereas among resident fathers, the smallest proportion earns this amount. 

Table 8. Percentage of Nonresident and Resident Fathers of 

Infants by Income Level, 2005 

Family Income 

Nonresident 

Fathers 

Resident 

Fathers 

Less than 

$20,000 44.3 17.8 

$20,000-49,999 31.5 41 $50,000-74,999 16.7 20.1 

$75,000+ 7.5 21.2 

Source: The Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, 12-month Follow-Up 

(Child Trends’ analyses, 2007) 

Definitions and Measurement Fathers and mothers were classified as nonresident parents in the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study if they reported that their child lives with them half of the time or less. Respondents were classified as employed if they reported doing regular work for pay in the past week, or, if on vacation, the week before vacation. Data Sources Tables and charts documenting nonresident parenthood among men and women were gathered from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, 12-month follow-up (Fragile Families). Fragile Families is a nationally representative longitudinal survey of births in cities with populations over 200,000. The survey has a sample of 5,000 families. Interviews with fathers and mothers were conducted 

separately at the child’s birth and also when tor five years old. Sixty-eight percent of the faat baseline also participated in the three-year 

The sample of fathers is representative of urbpopulation over 200,000. 

Data Limitations Because some parents were not living with ethe follow-up survey, fathers and mothers wemonths apart in some cases. Therefore, relatincome may be different between parents.xx A

Fragile Families data is that fathers’ reports omay be different, when compared with mothebehavior. 

Resources  The National Fatherhood Initiative prov

outreach to help children through increashttp://www.fatherhood.org 

 The United States Department of Healt

Services provides programs and researcdevelopment and the importance of fathehttp://fatherhood.hhs.gov/ 

 The National Center on Fathers and Fa

research on father involvement and child improving children’s lives through the postheir fathers: http://www.ncoff.gse.upenn.

 The National Center for Fathering cond

provides resources to increase involvemeof children: http://www.fathers.com
National Responsible Fatherhood Clearinghouse  101 Lake Forest Boulevard, Suite 360  Gaithersburg, MD 208

 Toll-free: 1 (877) 4DAD411  Fax: (301) 948-4325  www.fatherhood.gov 

References: i Shalala, D. E., Golden, O. A., & Ross, D. G. (2000). Involving non-resident fathers in children's learning: A Fathers Matter report. Washington, D.C.: U.S

Human Services. 

ii Furstenberg, F. F., Morgan, S. P., & Allison, P. D. (1987). Paternal participation and children's well-being after marital dissolution. American Sociologicaiii King, V. (1994). Nonresident father involvement and child well-being: Can dads make a difference? Journal of Family Issues, 15, 78-96. iv McLanahan, S., & Sandefur, G. (1994). Growing up with a single parent. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. v Berscheid, E., & Peplau, L. A. (1983). The emerging science of relationships. In H. H. Kelly, E. Berschei, A. Christensen, J. H. Harvey, T. L. Huston, G. 

Peplau, & D. R. Peterson (Eds.), Close relationships (pp. 1-19). New York: W.H. Freeman. vi Amato, P. R., & Gilbreth, J. G. (1999). Nonresident fathers and children's well-being: A meta-analysis. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 61, 557-573. vii Greene, A. D., & Moore, K. A. (2000). Nonresident father involvement and child well-being among young children in families on welfare. Marriage and F

180. 

viii Menning, C. L. (2002). Absent parents are more than money: The joint effect of activities and financial support on youths' educational attainment. Journ

671. 

ix Coley, R. L., & Medeiros, B. L. (2007). Reciprocal longitudinal relations between nonresident father involvement and adolescent delinquency. Child Devx Menning, C. L. (2006). Nonresident fathers' involvement and adolescents' smoking. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 47, 32-46. xi Dunn, J., Cheng, H., O'Connor, T., & Bridges, L. (2004). Children's perspectives on their relationships with their nonresident fathers: Influences, outcom

of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(3), 553-566. xii Coley, R. L., & Hernandez, D. C. (2006). Predictors of paternal involvement for resident and nonresident low-income fathers. Developmental Psycholog

xiii Dunn, J., O'Connor, T. G., & Cheng, H. (2005). Children's responses to conflict between their different parents: Mothers, stepfathers, nonresident fathe

stepmothers. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34(2), 223-234. xiv King, V. (1994). Variation in the consequences of nonresident father involvement for children's well-being. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 56, 963-

xv Jackson, A. P., & Scheines, R. (2005). Single mothers' self-efficacy, parenting in the home environment, and children's development in a two-wave stud

29(1), 7-20. 

xvi King, V., & Heard, H. E. (1999). Nonresident father visitation, parental conflict, and mother's satisfaction: What's best for child well-being? Journal of Ma

385-396. 

xvii Jackson & Scheines. (2005). xviii Jackson, A. P. (1999). The effects of nonresident father involvement on single black mothers and their young children. Social Work, 44(2), 156-166. xix Waller, M. R., & Swisher, R. (2006). Fathers' risk factors in Fragile Families: Implications for "healthy" relationships and father involvement. Social Probxx Bendheim-Thoman Center for Research on Child Wellbeing. (2005). Introduction to the Fragile Families Core Public Use Data. Princeton, NJ: Princeton