Responsible 

Fatherhood 

Spotlight 

February 2010

Take Time to Be a Dad Today 

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Father Involvement and Child Gender 

The gender of a child has important implications for father involvement. Both the quantity and type of 

father involvement vary by gender, and this involvement may affect sons and daughters differently as 

well. 

Definitions 

Father involvement refers to the type and level of a father’s involvement with his children. The concept 

encompasses three main dimensions: engagement (a father’s involvement in activities with his child), 

accessibility (a father’s availability to his child), and responsibility (the extent to which a father provides his 

child with resources, including financial support).26, 27

Importance and Implications of Child Gender for Father Involvement 

Research on father involvement with sons and daughters shows that both the quantity and type of father 

involvement vary by child gender and that the effects of father involvement may be different for sons than 

for daughters. 

Implications for Fathers’ Involvement With Children 

Research shows that there are differences in the quantity of involvement that fathers exhibit with their 

sons, versus their daughters. 

 Studies suggest that father-son relationships are stronger and involve more closeness than do 

father-daughter relationships.57, 59, 64 

 Overall, studies suggest that fathers differentiate between male and female children more so than 

mothers35, 54 and that fathers are more involved with male children than with female children. 6, 7, 

33, 18 

o A number of analyses have demonstrated that fathers are more available to and spend 

more time with sons than with daughters. 2, 21, 24, 36, 46, 61 

o Fathers spend more time in caregiving (e.g., feeding, bathing, putting children to bed) 

and play activities with sons than with daughters. 27, 36, 44, 45

o Fathers exhibit higher levels of attentiveness, emotional engagement, and nurturing with 

boys. 18, 57

o Fathers are more likely to discipline boys than girls. 9, 40, 57 

o Fathers show higher levels of material investment if they have sons than if they have 

daughters, working harder and earning more money in the former case. 10, 33

o Fathers have been shown to have higher expectations for their daughters’ achievement 

in the preschool years than for their preschool-aged sons. 37

o Studies have found that fathers are more likely to marry and less likely to divorce if they 

have sons than if they have daughters. Thus, fathers are more likely to be present in the 

lives of their sons.18, 46 

o Unmarried fathers are more likely to legally recognize the birth of a son than of a 

daughter (e.g., have their name placed on the birth certificate) and to share custody of 

sons.34, 46
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 Research suggests that fathers may be more involved with sons than with daughters because 

they may feel they can identify more with a same-sex child and may perceive greater incentives 

and rewards from active involvement with boys. Fathers may believe that they are better 

equipped with the appropriate knowledge and skills to be involved with their sons than with their 

daughters.38 In addition, fathers may face greater external pressures and expectations to spend 

more time with boys and serve as role models for them.11, 24, 43, 46 

 However, some studies examining father involvement have failed to find differences in levels of 

involvement according to child gender. 3, 35, 42, 52

o Some research suggests that fathers are more involved with daughters if sons are also 

present in the family; the more sons a father has, the higher his level of involvement with 

daughters. Thus, the presence of a son may draw a father into more active parenting and 

increase involvement for all children in the family. 18, 24

o Differences in father involvement by child gender may vary by the age of the child.12

Some studies have failed to find gender differences for very young children, suggesting 

that differences in father involvement by child gender may only be present for older 

children.8, 45, 53, 63 

In addition to differences in the quantity of involvement that fathers have with sons and daughters, studies 

have also found that the type of father involvement differs by child gender. 12

 Fathers are more likely than are mothers to encourage sex-typed behaviors and traditional 

gender roles in children.35 Numerous studies indicate that fathers differentiate between sons and 

daughters in terms of gender roles and play a key role in socializing sex-typed behavior in 

children. For example, fathers are more likely to encourage participation in housework, to 

discourage aggression, and to display warmth with girls than with boys. Fathers also tend to 

encourage children to play with gender specific toys (e.g., trains for boys versus dolls for girls).28, 

35, 46, 51 

 In the realm of discipline, fathers are gentler with girls and firmer, harsher, stricter, and more 

directive with boys.28, 54, 55

 In terms of play, fathers are more likely to engage in physical, rough-and-tumble play with boys 

and more “pretend” play with girls. Further, fathers are more likely to encourage assertiveness, 

exploration, and independence in boys and to emphasize relationship-enhancing skills in girls.15, 

22, 30, 31, 54, 55

 When engaging in interactive teaching activities with young children (e.g., helping them complete 

a jigsaw puzzle), fathers’ behaviors differ by child gender. Fathers are more directive, more likely 

to express approval or disapproval, and more likely to emphasize general problem-solving 

strategies with sons. They are more cooperative, concrete, and specific with daughters, and are 

more likely to give girls feedback about their performance.16

 Fathers are more likely to discuss emotions (e.g., sadness, dislike) with girls than with boys.1

 Fathers’ perceptions of their children also differ by gender. Regardless of children’s actual 

characteristics, fathers tend to view infant boys as being stronger and hardier than infant girls, 

whom they view as being smaller, quieter, weaker, less coordinated, more beautiful, and more 

delicate.54, 60 In addition, fathers tend to hold more stereotyped views of boys and girls than do 

mothers, believing, for example, that it is more appropriate for girls to express sadness and for 

boys to express anger. 14

Implications for Children 

Several studies have suggested that fathers may play a stronger role in sons’ development than in 

daughters’.25, 18, 19, 56 

 Some evidence suggests that boys are more strongly influenced by father involvement than are 

girls in the realm of cognitive development (e.g., measured by IQ scores, Bayley Scales of Infant 

Outcomes4

). 5, 13, 47

 Several studies have shown that father involvement has a stronger influence on the behavioral 

outcomes of male than of female children.41, 20 For example, studies have shown that the quality 
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of the father-child relationship is more protective of risk and antisocial behaviors (e.g., 

delinquency, substance use) for males than for females.6, 7, 23

 Father involvement has been found to have a stronger influence on the quality of children’s peer 

relationships (e.g., intimacy, negativity) for boys than for girls.63

 Fathers may also be more influential for boys than for girls when it comes to intimacy and the 

development of marital attitudes during adolescence.50

 High levels of father involvement have been found to increase academic achievement among 

school-aged and adolescent girls but not among their male counterparts.29, 62 

 Research also suggests that paternal levels of caring and closeness are strongly associated with 

higher self-esteem for adolescent boys, but less so for adolescent girls.48

 Fathers’ gender-role attitudes and beliefs have been shown to be associated with the 

development of children’s sex-typed attitudes and behaviors, with some studies showing stronger 

effects for boys than for girls. 17, 28, 30 

Child Gender and Father Involvement in Early Childhood 

The following estimates are for fathers of infants (9-month-old children). 

Table 1 shows that there were statistically significant differences by child gender in four out of five types 

of father involvement. Fathers engaged in more caregiving, physical care, and nurturing activities with 

boys than with girls. Alternatively, they engaged in more cognitively stimulating activities with girls than 

with boys. There were no differences in levels of father warmth by child gender. 

 Table 1: Differences in Resident Father Involvement by Child Gender 

Type of Involvement Boy Girl Possible Range 

Caregiving 12.2 12.0a 0-15 

Physical Care 10.5 10.1a 0-20 

Cognitive Stimulation 3.9 4.0 a 0-9 

Warmth 9.7 9.7 0-10 

Nurturing 9.1 9.0 a 0-16 

a = significantly different from fathers of boys

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 

Differences in Father Involvement With Sons and Daughters by Subgroup 

Gender Differences in Father Involvement by Poverty Status 

Figure 1 and Table 2 show that for both households above and below the poverty line, fathers’ 

involvement in caregiving activities was higher for boys than for girls, though the difference was not 

statistically significant. 
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Figure 1. Level of Fathers’ Caregiving Involvement by Poverty Status and Child Gender 

Level of Father Caregiving Involvement 

by Poverty Status and Child Gender

11.9

11.95

12

12.05

12.1

12.15

12.2

12.25

Poor Not Poor

Poverty Status

Caregiving

Boy

Girl

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 

Table 2. Father Caregiving Involvement by Poverty Status and Child Gender 

Poverty Status Boy Girl Possible Range 

Poor 12.2 12.0 0-15 

Not Poor 12.2 12.0 0-15 

a = significantly different from boys 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 
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Figure 2 and Table 3 show that in both poor and nonpoor households, fathers engaged in more physical 

care activities with boys than with girls. The differences, however, were only statistically significant in 

households above the poverty line. 

Figure 2. Level of Fathers’ Physical Care by Poverty Status and Child Gender 

Levels of Father Physical Care 

Involvement by Poverty Status and 

Child Gender

9

9.5

10

10.5

11

11.5

Poor Not Poor

Poverty Status

Physical Care

Boy

Girl

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 

Table 3. Father Physical Care Involvement by Poverty Status and Child Gender 

Poverty Status Boy Girl Possible Range 

Poor 11.2 11.0 0-20 

Not Poor 10.4 10.0 a 0-20 

a = significantly different from boys 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 
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Figure 3 and Table 4 show that in households below the poverty line, fathers showed higher levels of warmth with 

girls than with boys, though the differences were not statistically significant. In households above the poverty line, 

there were no differences in the levels of paternal warmth by child gender. 

Figure 3. Level of Fathers’ Warmth by Poverty Status and Child Gender 

Level of Father Warmth Involvement 

by Poverty Status and Child Gender

9.4

9.45

9.5

9.55

9.6

9.65

9.7

9.75

Poor Not Poor

Poverty Status

Warmth

Boy

Girl

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 

Table 4. Father Warmth Involvement by Poverty Status and Child Gender 

Poverty Status Boy Girl Possible Range 

Poor 9.5 9.6 0-10 

Not Poor 9.7 9.7 0-10 

a = significantly different from boys 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 
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Figure 4 and Table 5 show that in both poor and nonpoor households, fathers engaged in higher levels 

of cognitively stimulating activities with girls than with boys. The differences were only statistically 

significant in households above the poverty line, however. 

Figure 4. Level of Fathers’ Cognitive Stimulation by Poverty Status and Child Gender 

Level of Father Cognitive Stimulation 

Involvement by Poverty Status and 

Child Gender

3.6

3.7

3.8

3.9

4

4.1

4.2

Poor Not Poor

Poverty Status

Cognitive 

Stimulatio

n

Boy

Girl

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 

Table 5. Father Cognitive Stimulation Involvement by Poverty Status and Child Gender 

Poverty Status Boy Girl Possible Range 

Poor 3.9 4.1 0-9 

Not Poor 3.8 4.0 a 0-9 

a = significantly different from boys 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 
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Figure 5 and Table 6 show that in both poor and nonpoor households, fathers showed slightly higher 

levels of nurturing toward boys than toward girls. However, the differences were not statistically 

significant. 

Figure 5. Level of Fathers’ Nurturing by Poverty Status and Child Gender 

Level of Father Nurturing Involvement 

by Poverty Status and Child Gender

8

8.5

9

9.5

10

10.5

Poor Not Poor

Poverty Status

Nurturing

Boy

Girl

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 

Table 6. Father Nurturing Involvement by Poverty Status and Child Gender 

Poverty Status Boy Girl Possible Range 

Poor 10.2 10.0 0-16 

Not Poor 8.9 8.8 0-16 

a = significantly different from boys 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 
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Differences by Educational Attainment 

Figure 6 and Table 7 show that fathers with a high school diploma or less engaged in significantly higher 

levels of caregiving activities with boys than with girls. However, for fathers with more than a high school 

education, levels of caregiving did not differ by child gender. 

Figure 6. Level of Fathers’ Caregiving Involvement by Education Level and Child Gender 

Level of Father Caregiving 

Involvement by Education Level and 

Child Gender

11.8

11.9

12

12.1

12.2

12.3

12.4

High School or Less More Than High

School

Education Level

Caregiving

Boy

Girl

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 

Table 7. Father Caregiving Involvement by Education Level and Child Gender 

Education Level Boy Girl Possible Range 

High School or 

Less 12.3 12.0 a 0-15 

More Than High 

School 12.1 12.1 0-15 

a = significantly different from boys 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 
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Figure 7 and Table 8 show that regardless of educational attainment, fathers’ levels of physical care 

were significantly higher for boys than for girls. 

Figure 7. Level of Fathers’ Physical Care Involvement by Education Level and Child Gender 

Level of Father Physical Care 

Involvement by Education Level and 

Child Gender

9

9.5

10

10.5

11

11.5

High School or Less More Than High

School

Education Level

Physical Care

Boy

Girl

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 

Table 8. Father Physical Care Involvement by Education Level and Child Gender 

Education Level Boy Girl Possible Range 

High School or 

Less 11.0 10.5 a 0-20 

More Than High 

School 10.2 9.9 a 0-20 

a = significantly different from boys 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 
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Figure 8 and Table 9 show that fathers with a high school diploma or less showed higher levels of 

warmth toward boys than toward girls, though results were not statistically significant. However, for 

fathers with more than a high school education, levels of warmth did not differ by child gender. 

Figure 8. Level of Fathers’ Warmth by Education Level and Child Gender 

Level of Father Warmth Involvement by 

Education Level and Child Gender

9.4

9.45

9.5

9.55

9.6

9.65

9.7

9.75

High School or Less More Than High

School

Education Level

Warmth

Boy

Girl

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 

Table 9. Father Warmth Involvement by Education Level and Child Gender 

Education Level Boy Girl Possible Range 

High School or 

Less 9.5 9.6 0-10 

More Than High 

School 9.7 9.7 0-10 

a = significantly different from boys 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 
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Figure 9 and Table 10 show that regardless of educational attainment, fathers engaged in more 

cognitively stimulating activities with girls than with boys. However, these differences were only 

statistically significant for fathers with more than a high school level of education. 

Figure 9. Level of Fathers’ Cognitive Stimulation by Education Level and Child Gender 

Level of Cognitive Stimulation 

Involvement by Education Level and 

Child Gender

3.5

3.6

3.7

3.8

3.9

4

4.1

4.2

High School or Less More Than High

School

Education Level

Cognitive Stimulation

Boy

Girl

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 

Table 10. Father Cognitive Stimulation Involvement by Education Level and Child Gender 

Education Level Boy Girl Possible Range 

High School or 

Less 3.7 3.8 0-9 

More Than High 

School 3.9 4.1 a 0-9 

a = significantly different from boys 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 
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Figure 10 and Table 11 show that regardless of educational attainment, fathers exhibited higher levels of 

nurturing with boys than with girls. The differences in levels of nurturing were not statistically significant, 

however. 

Figure 10. Level of Fathers’ Nurturing by Education Level and Child Gender 

Father Nurturing Involvement by 

Education Level and Child Gender

8.4

8.6

8.8

9

9.2

9.4

9.6

High School or Less More Than High

School

Education Level

Nurturing

Boy

Girl

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 

Table 11. Father Nurturing Involvement by Education Level and Child Gender 

Education Level Boy Girl Possible Range 

High School or 

Less 9.5 9.4 0-16 

More Than High 

School 8.9 8.8 0-16 

a = significantly different from boys 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data

Definitions and Measurement 

Father involvement was measured by adding together scores from a series of questions about the 

frequency with which fathers take part in various activities with their children. These activities included 

reading books, singing songs, telling stories, going on errands, playing chasing games, preparing meals, 

changing diapers, giving the child a ride on shoulders, playing indoors, putting the child to sleep, bathing 

the child, playing outside, helping the child get dressed, going out to eat, helping the child eat, helping the 

child brush teeth, taking the child to religious services, soothing an upset child, staying home with an ill 

child, or taking the child to day care. 
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Data Sources 

The tables and charts in this brief documenting relationship happiness and father involvement among 

resident fathers are based on Child Trends’ analyses of data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study 

– Birth Cohort (ECLS-B) 9-month, 24-month, and 48-month surveys. The ECLS-B is a nationally 

representative, longitudinal survey of American children born in 2001. The ECLS-B includes 10,688 

children and their caregivers, and it follows these children from infancy until the time they enter first 

grade. Data were collected through parent interviews, direct child assessments, birth certificate data, and 

interviews with children’s caregivers and teachers. The National Center for Education Statistics collected 

the data. 

Data Limitations 

Because fathers are asked a different series of questions about involvement with children at each survey 

wave, the measure of father involvement differs slightly at each time point. 

Resources 

 The U. S. Department of Health and Human Services funds programs and research about 

fatherhood development and the importance of fathers for children: http://fatherhood.hhs.gov/ 

 The National Center on Fathers and Families provides research-based information about 

father involvement and child well-being aimed at improving children’s lives through the positive 

participation of their fathers: http://www.ncoff.gse.upenn.edu/ 

 The National Center for Fathering conducts research and provides resources to increase 

involvement of fathers in the lives of children: http://www.fathers.com 

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