Responsible 

 Fatherhood  Spotlight 

National Responsible Fatherhood Clearinghouse  101 Lake Forest Boulevard, Suite 360  Gaithersburg, MD 208

 Toll-free: 1 (877) 4DAD411  Fax: (301) 948-4325  www.fatherhood.gov 

Fathers and Substance Use Fathers who abuse drugs not only hurt themselves but they hurt the closest people in their lives. While illicit substance use 

declined since the 1970s, these rates remain higher for men than for women. This drug use is more common among youngunmarried men in minority groups than among other fathers. 

Definitions Illicit substance use refers to the use of drugs —such as cocaine, heroin, LSD, marijuana, PCP, Ecstasy, fentanyl, methamphetamine, morphine, ketamine, opium, peyote, psilocybin, THC, and any other substance not prescribed by a doctor—that the Controlled Substances Act defines as illegal substances.i The Diagnostic and 

Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders IV (DSM-IV) ii defines 

substance abuse as a pattern of substance use within a 12-month period that results in one or more of the following behaviors: 

 Failure to fulfill major role obligations at work, school, or 

home, 

 Use of illicit substances in physically hazardous situations 

 Legal problems related to substance abuse, and/or  Continued use of an illicit substance despite having 

persistent or recurrent social or interpersonal problems caused or exacerbated by the effects of the substance. 

In general, when a person’s use of drugs is negatively affecting his or her ability to function as a member of society, it is a sign of abuse. 

Importance and Implications of Illicit Substance Use Substance use and abuse can clearly harm the individual user. However, research suggests that a father’s substance use can affect not only his well-being, but his relationships with partners and the well-being of any children he may have. Drug use puts fathers in a higher risk environment both physically and socially. 

Implications for Fathers 

 Substances such as cocaine, heroin, 

are physically addictive and can lead including pulmonary complications, lirespiratory problems. Prolonged use can lead to withdrawal symptoms, suinsomnia, and general pain.iii iv v

 Possession, use, or sale of illicit subs

Consequently, individuals using thesthemselves at risk of arrest and incarinherent criminality of illicit drug use iare frequently related to other crimes

 Fathers not currently abusing drugs, 

in the past and have been convicted may find it challenging to reenter socthat such men underwent as part of caccount for their recovery. Yet ex-offeautomatically excluded from many jorequirements, and many potential emmuch of a risk to hire a person with a 
Implications for Fathers’ Involvement with Children 

 Numerous studies have found associations between 

parental substance abuse and subsequent alcohol problems in children.viii, , ix x

 Father’s illicit substance use has been linked with adolescent 

smoking, independent of the father-child relationship. Paternal tobacco and drug use has also been linked to poorer relationships with the children. This weak relationship can make it harder for the children of substanceabusing fathers to avoid smoking. xi

 Parental drug use is associated with poorer intellectual, 

sensory-motor, and behavioral development in young children.xii

Implications for Fathers’ Partners Fathers’ relationship with their partners or spouses can suffer as a result of substance abuse. Substance abuse has been associated with marital stress, as well as with spousal abuse.xiii These lowquality relationships also have the potential to harm a child or 

children who are exposed to them.xiv ,xv

Trends in Substance Use Over Time Figure 1 shows that from 1979 to 2005, males were more likely than were females to report using illicit substances within the previous past month. Illicit substance use among males declined steadily through the 1980s, but increased again between 2000 and 2005. However, the increased proportions of people reporting illicit substances in 2005 may be due to changes in the National Survey of Drug Use and Health (see Definitions and Measurement section). For more information, see Table 8. 

Figure 1. Percentage of Males and FemaleUsing Illicit Substances Over the Past Mon

05

101520253035404550

1979 1985 1990 1995 200

Year

Percent 

Source: National Survey on Drug Use and H

Data before 2002 should not be compared w

Differences in Illicit Substance by SubDifferences by Sex Table 1 shows that in 2005, a smaller proporillegal drug use in the past month than did nopattern held true for women who were mothenot, but the differences were not as sharp. Msubstance use in the past 30 days than did mdifference in male and female drug use was mnon-parents. A higher percentage of males wreported using drugs than did their female co

National Responsible Fatherhood Clearinghouse  101 Lake Forest Boulevard, Suite 360  Gaithersburg, MD 208

 Toll-free: 1 (877) 4DAD411  Fax: (301) 948-4325  www.fatherhood.gov 
National Responsible Fatherhood Clearinghouse  101 Lake Forest Boulevard, Suite 360  Gaithersburg, MD 208

 Toll-free: 1 (877) 4DAD411  Fax: (301) 948-4325  www.fatherhood.gov 

Table 1. Percentage of Parents’ Reporting Illicit Substance Use in the Past 30 days by Gender, 2005 

Substance 

Use Fathers Non- fathers Mothers Non- mothers 

Any Use 7.4 11.2 5.8 6.3 

Source: National Survey on Drug Use and Health, 2005 

Differences by Age Table 2 shows that fathers aged 18 to 25 were more likely than those in any other age group to report using an illicit substance in the past month. Most illicit drug use among fathers occurred during their 20s and early 30s. (See Definitions and Measurement section for NSDUH methodology.) 

Table 2. Percentage of Males and Fathers Reporting Illicit Substance Use in the Past Month by Age, 1985-2005 

Males Fathers 

Age 1985 1995 2005 2005 

12-17 16.4 12.1 9.8 2.7 18-25 30.2 17.0 24.8 18.5 26-34 25.7 11.2 15.0 11.4 

35+ 4.4 3.8 5.7 5.3 

Source: National Survey on Drug Use and Health, 2005 

Data before 2002 should not be compared with data after 2002 

Differences by Education level Table 3 shows that in 2005, fathers with a high school education or less were the most likely to have reported using illegal substances in the past month. Fathers who graduated college had the lowest reported substance use in the past month. (See Definitions and Measurement section for NSDUH methodology.)

Table 3. Percentage of Men and Fathers 18 Older Reporting Illicit Substance Use in thEducation Level, 1985-2005 

Males 

Education Level 1985 1995 

Less than HS 10.3 9.2 

HS Graduate 16.0 7.0 

Some College 17.1 10.3 

College 

Graduate 12.2 3.9 

Source: National Survey on Drug Use and H

Data before 2002 should not be compared w

Differences by Race/Ethnicity Table 4 shows that black fathers had the highuse in the past month, compared with fathers racial/ethnic groups. White fathers had the spercentage of reported substance use in the pattern held true for men in general. (See DeMeasurement section for NSDUH methodolo

Table 4. Percentage of Men and FatherSubstance Use in the Past Month by R2005 

Males 

Race/Ethnicity 1985 1995 

White 13.6 7.5 

Black 20.0 12.2 

Hispanic 14.1 6.9 

Other 14.3 4.1 

Source: National Survey on Drug Use and H

Data before 2002 should not be compared w
National Responsible Fatherhood Clearinghouse  101 Lake Forest Boulevard, Suite 360  Gaithersburg, MD 208

 Toll-free: 1 (877) 4DAD411  Fax: (301) 948-4325  www.fatherhood.gov 

Differences by Marital Status Table 5 shows that in 2005, never-married fathers had the highest reported substance use in the past month. Rates of widowed fathers’ reported substance abuse in the past month were notably higher than rates of widowed men as a whole. (See Definitions and Measurement section for NSDUH methodology.) 

Table 5. Percentage of Men and Fathers Reporting Substance Use in the Past Month by Marital Status, 1985-2005 

Males Fathers

Marital Status 1985 1995 2005 2005 

Married 8.1 3.1 4.9 5.6 

Widowed 0.7 6.3 3.2 14.5 

Divorced/ 

Separated 18.5 12.9 12.6 14.2 

Never Married 29.4 16.4 20.0 19.0 

Source: National Survey on Drug Use and Health, 1985-2005 

Data before 2002 should not be compared with data after 2002 

Differences by Income 

Table 6 shows that in 2005, fathers with a family income of 

$20,000 to $49,999 had the highest reported substance use in the past month. However, among all men in 2005, those with a family income of less than $20,000 had the highest reported substance use in the past month. (See Definitions and Measurement section for NSDUH methodology.) 

Table 6. Percentage of Men and FatherSubstance Use in the Past Month by T1995-2005 

Males 

Family 

Income 1995 2005 

Less than 

$20,000 10.2 15.1 

$20,000-

49,999 8.2 11.5 

$50,000-

74,999 6.8 8.6 

$75,000+ 3.9 7.0 

Source: National Survey on Drug Use and H

Data before 2002 should not be compared w

Differences by Employment Status Table 7 shows that in 2005, unemployed fathdouble the percentage of illicit drug use in the with employed fathers. Unemployed men hasubstance use in the past month. (See DefinMeasurement section for NSDUH methodolo

Table 7. Percentage of Men and F

Substance Use in the Past Month by 

1985-2005 

Males 

Employment 

Status 1985 1995 2

Employed 15.8 7.5 

Not 

Employed 32.0 17.2 

Source: National Survey on Drug Use an

Data before 2002 should not be compared w
National Responsible Fatherhood Clearinghouse  101 Lake Forest Boulevard, Suite 360  Gaithersburg, MD 208

 Toll-free: 1 (877) 4DAD411  Fax: (301) 948-4325  www.fatherhood.gov 

Definitions and Measurement Prevalence of illicit substance use among men and women over time was calculated based on NSDUH results. The data includes use of an illegal substance, as defined by the Controlled Substances Act, in the past month. Fathers were defined in the NSDUH as males with one or more of their children under the age of 18 living in their household. Respondents were classified as employed if in the past week they had a full-time job, part-time job, or did not work in the past week, but did have a job. Data Limitations In 2002 and beyond, the methodology changed in the National Survey of Drug Use and Health (NSDUH). Additions to the 2002 survey and future surveys include incentive payments for respondents, improved data collection quality control, and weighting based on the 2000 census. Based on these changes, response rates have increased. A panel of researchers and methodology experts recommended that surveys before 2002 should not be compared with surveys from 2002 and after.xvi The NSDUH does 

not indicate if a father has children outside of his household. 

Data Sources Data documenting substance use among fathers were gathered from the National Survey of Drug Use and Health (NSDUH). Tables and charts were created from analyses using data from the NSDUH retrieved from the Web site of the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), Office of Applied Studies (OAS).xvii The NSDUH is a survey of the general U.S. civilian 

population aged 12 and older. The achieved sample size for the 2005 survey was 68,308 persons. Data on drug-related criminal behavior were collected from the U.S. Department of Justice Bureau of Justice Statistics. 

Table 8. Percentage of Men and WomeSubstance Use in the Past Month, 1979

Year Males 

1979 18.7 1985 14.3 1990 7.9 1995 7.8 2000 7.7 2005 10.2 

Source: National Survey on Drug Use and H

Data before 2002 should not be compared w

Resources  The Substance Abuse and Mental Hea

Administration provides information on substance abuse and national statistics a

http://www.samhsa.gov/

 The Partnership for a Drug Free Ameri

to help individuals with drug problems anrecognizing drug problems, finding treatmrecovery: http://www.drugfree.org/Interve

 The National Institute on Drug Abuse c

drug abuse and uses the results to improtreatment, and policy: http://www.nida.nih

 The United States Department of Justi

Statistics provides information about dru

substance abuse among incarcerated pefor state and federal drug awareness acti

http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/drugs.htm
National Responsible Fatherhood Clearinghouse  101 Lake Forest Boulevard, Suite 360  Gaithersburg, MD 208

 Toll-free: 1 (877) 4DAD411  Fax: (301) 948-4325  www.fatherhood.gov 

References: i Controlled Substances Act, 21 (2005). ii Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. (1994).). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association. iii National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2006). Crack and Cocaine. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. iv National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2006). Heroin. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. v National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2006). Methamphetamine. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. vi Bureau of Justice Statistics. (2006). Criminal victimization in the United States, 2005 - Statistical tables. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice. vii Sung, H., & Richter, L. (2006). Contextual barriers to successful reentry of recovering drug offenders. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 31, 365-3viii Chassin, L., Pillow, D. R., & Curran, P. J. (1993). Relation of parental alcoholism to early adolescent substance use: A test of three mediating mechanis

Psychology, 102, 3-19. ix Semlitz, L., & Gold, M. S. (1986). Adolescent drug abuse diagnosis, treatment, and prevention. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 9(455-473). 

x Smart, R. G., & Fejer, D. (1972). Drug use among adolescents and their parents: Closing the generation gap in mood modification. Journal of Abnormal xi Brook, D. W., Brook, J. S., Rubenstone, E., Zhang, C., & Gerochi, C. (2006). Cigarette smoking in the adolescent children of drug-abusing fathers. Pedixii Wilson, G. W., Desmond, M. M., & Vemiaud, W. M. (1973). Early development of infants of heroin-addicted mothers. American Journal of Diseases of Cxiii Widom, C. S., & Hiller-Sturmhofel, S. (2001). Alcohol abuse as a risk factor for and consequence of child abuse. Alcohol Research and Health, 25(1), 5xiv Miller, B. A., Maguin, E., & Downs, W. R. (1997). Alcohol, drugs, and violence in children's lives. In M. Galanter (Ed.), Recent developments in alcoholis

Violence (pp. 357-385). New York: Plenum Press. 

xv Fleming, J., Mullen, P., & Bammer, G. (1997). A study of potential risk factors for sexual abuse in childhood. Child Abuse & Neglect, 21(1), 49-58. xvi Substance Abuse & Mental Health Services Administration. (2005). Results from the 2004 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: National Findings. 

Department of Health and Human Services. 

xvii Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2007). Office of Applied Studies. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Retri

http://www.oas.samhsa.gov/