INDIAN OCEAN

PACIFIC

OCEAN

China

Mongolia

India

Nepal

Vietnam

Iran

AfghanistanPakistan

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Myanmar

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Indonesia

Indonesia

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South Japan

Korea

North

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INDIAN OCEAN

PACIFIC

OCEAN

China

Mongolia

India

Nepal

Vietnam

Iran

AfghanistanPakistan

Thailand

Myanmar

Malaysia

Indonesia

Indonesia

Philippines

South Japan

Korea

North

Korea

Snakeheads

(Pisces, Channidae)−

A Biological Synopsis

and Risk Assessment

Circular 1251

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

SNAKEHEADS (Pisces, Channidae)—

A Biological Synopsis and 

Risk Assessment

By Walter R. Courtenay, Jr., and James D. Williams

U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1251
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

GALE A. NORTON, Secretary

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

CHARLES G. GROAT, Director

Use of trade, product, or firm names in this publication is for descriptive purposes only 

and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Geological Survey. Copyrighted material 

reprinted with permission.

2004

For additional information write to: 

Walter R. Courtenay, Jr.

Florida Integrated Science Center

U.S. Geological Survey

7920 N.W. 71st Street

Gainesville, Florida 32653

For additional copies please contact:

U.S. Geological Survey

Branch of Information Services

Box 25286

Denver, Colorado 80225-0286

Telephone: 1-888-ASK-USGS

World Wide Web: http://www.usgs.gov

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Walter R. Courtenay, Jr., and James D. Williams

Snakeheads (Pisces, Channidae)—A Biological Synopsis and Risk Assessment / by Walter R. 

Courtenay, Jr., and James D. Williams

p. cm. — (U.S. Geological Survey circular ; 1251)

Includes bibliographical references.

ISBN.0-607-93720 (alk. paper)

1. Snakeheads — Pisces, Channidae— Invasive Species 2. Biological Synopsis and Risk 

Assessment. Title. II. Series.

QL653.N8D64 2004

597.8’09768’89—dc22
Contents III

CONTENTS

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Literature Review and Background Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Taxonomy and Synonymy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Common Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Description and Distinguishing Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Native Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Biology and Natural History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Associated Diseases and Parasites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

History in Fisheries and Aquaculture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

History of Introductions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Eastern Hemisphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Western Hemisphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Uses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Aquarium Trade. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Live-Food Fish Trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Biological Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

U.S. Importations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Regulations as of July 2002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Potential Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Risk Assessment Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Rating Elements of Risk Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Organism Risk Potential. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

Species Accounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Channa amphibeus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Channa argus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Channa asiatica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Channa aurantimaculata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Channa bankanensis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Channa baramensis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Channa barca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Channa bleheri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Channa burmanica. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Channa cyanospilos. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Channa gachua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

Channa harcourtbutleri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Channa lucius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Channa maculata. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Channa marulioides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

Channa marulius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

Channa melanopterus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
IV Contents

Channa melasoma. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Channa micropeltes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

Channa nox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Channa orientalis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

Channa panaw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

Channa pleurophthalma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Channa punctata. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

Channa stewartii. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

Channa striata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Parachanna africana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

Parachanna insignis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

Parachanna obscura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

FIGURES

1. Depiction of the Chinese snakehead, Channa asiatica, by Walt Disney

Productions in 1959 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2-6. Maps showing: 

2. Native distribution of the family Channidae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

3. Introductions of snakeheads in the Eastern Hemisphere . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

4. States where snakeheads have been collected from open waters, 

were cultured prior to August 2002, or are established . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

5. States prohibiting possession of live snakeheads as of 

November 2002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

6. Thermal range of snakeheads (Channidae) based largely on native

range of distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

TABLES

1. Currently recognized species of the family Channidae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2. Parasites of northern snakehead (Channa argus) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

3. Species of the family Channidae currently known to be cultured for food 

and/or aquarium fish trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

4. Snakeheads of interest to aquarists in the U.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

5. U.S. importations of live snakeheads (Channidae, all species) during 

1997-2002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

6. Origin of snakehead shipments (Channidae, all species) during the 

past 5 or more years. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

7. States prohibiting snakeheads as of July 2002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Contents V

CONVERSION FACTORS, ACRONYMS, and 

ABBREVIATIONS

Unless otherwise stated in this report, measurement of fish refers to total 

length, defined as the measurement made from the tip of the snout to the 

posterior tip of the caudal or tail fin. Standard length refers to the measurement 

made from the tip of the snout to the base of the caudal fin.

Multiply By To obtain

centimeter (cm) 0.3937 inch

meter (m) 3.281 foot

kilogram (kg) 2.2046 pound

Degrees Celsius (°C) may be converted to degrees Fahrenheit (°F) as 

follows: °F = 1.8 x (°C + 32)

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

FFWCC Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission

U.S. United States

USGS U.S. Geological Survey

ppm part per million

S$ Singapore currency

$ United States currency
VI Contents
 1

SNAKEHEADS (Pisces, Channidae)—

A Biological Synopsis and Risk Assessment

By Walter R. Courtenay, Jr., and James D. Williams

ABSTRACT

Snakeheads (family Channidae) are airbreathing freshwater fishes 

containing two genera, Channa with 26 species native to Asia, Malaysia, 

and Indonesia; and Parachanna with 3 species native to tropical Africa. 

Some snakeheads are small, reaching about 17 centimeters, but most 

are much larger, the largest reported to be 1.8 meters in length. All are 

considered thrust predators with most being piscivorous as adults.

A few of the smaller snakeheads and colorful juveniles of some 

larger ones have been available to hobbyists through the aquarium fish 

trade. Several species are highly valued as food fishes within parts of 

their native ranges, especially in Asia where they are an important part 

of capture fisheries and aquaculture.

Because of these uses by humans, introductions far beyond native 

ranges have occurred. One Asian snakehead has been established in 

Oahu, Hawaii, since before 1900. Another species was discovered 

established in southeastern Florida in 2000, and a third in a pond in 

Maryland in 2002. Others have been captured from natural waters of 

the United States without evidence of reproduction and likely represent 

released aquarium fishes. That snakeheads at or near sexual maturity 

were being sold alive in ethnic food markets raised fears that they could 

be introduced into novel waters. These concerns led to this study on the 

biology of snakeheads. A risk assessment is included that examines 

environmental and related aspects of snakehead introductions.
2

INTRODUCTION

Snakeheads (family Channidae) are airbreathing freshwater fishes 

containing two genera, Channa, native to Asia, Malaysia, and Indonesia, and 

Parachanna, endemic to tropical Africa. Taxonomy of these fishes is in flux, 

but leading authorities on snakehead systematics currently recognize 26 

species of Channa and 3 of Parachanna. A few snakeheads are small, reaching 

about 17 centimeters; most, however, are much larger, the largest reported to be 

1.8 meters in length. All are considered thrust predators with most being piscivorous 

as adults.

Within parts of their native ranges, some species of snakeheads are highly 

valued as food fishes, particularly in India, southeastern Asia, China, and to a lesser 

extent in Africa. They have long been an important part of capture fisheries and, in 

recent decades, some species have been utilized in aquaculture and a few used as 

predators to control density of tilapiine fishes in culture. 

Because of its popularity as a food fish in southern China and adjacent 

southeastern Asia, the chevron snakehead (Channa striata) has been reported as 

widely introduced into islands from the western Indian Ocean eastward to Hawaii. 

The northern snakehead (C. argus) has been a market leader, and is cultured in China 

and Korea. This species has been exported to other nations, including Canada and the 

United States where it has been sold alive in certain ethnic markets and restaurants. 

Although purposefully introduced and established in Japan in the early 1900s, its 

introduction and subsequent establishment in ponds, rivers, and reservoirs of 

Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan (formerly part of the Soviet Union) in the 

early 1960s appear to have been accidental.

Other snakeheads utilized as food fishes include the Chinese snakehead 

(Channa asiatica), blotched snakehead (C. maculata), and spotted snakehead 

(C. punctata). The bullseye snakehead (C. marulius), found in the live-food and 

aquarium fish trades, is now established in Broward County, Florida, and the blotched 

snakehead has been established in Oahu, Hawaii, prior to 1900.

Snakeheads used in the aquarium fish trade include a few small species and 

brightly colored juveniles of several large snakeheads. They are moderately popular 

with hobbyists in Japan and Europe. Several species are marketed in Canada and have 

been sold in the U.S., even in states where possession of live snakeheads has been 

illegal for decades. Hobbyists and importers can purchase snakeheads through a 

variety of sites on the Internet. Because of their highly predacious nature, however, 

snakeheads have not had a large following of interested hobbyists in the U.S. Those 

who purchased attractively colored juveniles of the larger species typically found that 

snakeheads became incompatible with other fishes (even killing others of their own 

kind), required expensive food (preferably live), and quickly outgrew their aquaria. 

This apparently has led to releases of “pet” snakeheads. As a result of these habits and 

their prohibition in several states, snakeheads have had a limited market in the U.S. 

aquarium fish trade. The fact remains, however, that they have been available for 

purchase.
 3

The earliest known record of snakehead imports into the contiguous U.S. 

was published by Brind (1914). The importation consisted of about 60 juvenile fish 

that we believe were blotched snakeheads. Their progeny are thought to have been 

consumed by parent fish (Brind, 1914). Klee (1987) noted that a snakehead species, 

the chevron snakehead, probably a misidentification of the Chinese snakehead, was in 

the U.S. aquarium fish trade by 1912. Ross B. Socolof (personal commun., 2003) said 

that the Chinese snakehead was the first snakehead imported for the U.S. aquarium 

fish trade in the very late 1800s or early 1900s. Innes (1917) mentioned snakeheads as 

aquarium fishes, but did not include individual species. Innes (1920) reported on his 

having received a “breeding pair” of what he cited as Channa fasciata from a 

colleague who brought the fish to him from San Francisco. He indicated that a “single 

adult pair and a few young” of this snakehead had been “recently imported into 

California from Southern Asia.” The photograph of this fish in Innes (1920) is clearly 

that of the Chinese snakehead, and the same photograph appeared in the account of 

the Chinese snakehead by Innes (1955). Armstrong (1923) purchased four progeny of 

Inne’s snakehead in 1922, and included his failures and success in breeding these fish 

and their care under aquarium conditions. Stoye (1935) and Axelrod and Schultz 

(1955) provided descriptions, illustrations, and information on the care and breeding 

of Chinese snakehead, leading us 

to believe that it was available for 

sale to aquarium hobbyists 

through at least the 1950s. 

The Chinese snakehead 

is one of a few species known to 

crawl short distances overland—

references to this snakehead in the 

aquarium fish literature may have 

played a role in creation of an 

information “strip” on this species, published by Walt Disney 

Productions in 1959 (fig. 1), and 

brought to our attention by Robert 

Howells of the Texas Department 

of Parks and Wildlife.

Figure 1—Perhaps due to its availability in the aquarium fish hobby 

through the 1950s, Walt Disney Productions published this depiction of the 

Chinese snakehead, Channa asiatica, 

in 1959. This is a species of snakehead 

known to crawl overland for short distances. Reprinted with permission of 

Disney Publishing Worldwide. 

© Disney Enterprises, Inc.
4

A comprehensive snakehead fish study, including a biological synopsis, risk 

assessment, and accounts for each species, was conducted between September 2001 

and September 2002 by the U.S. Geological Survey, with support provided by the 

Division of Scientific Authority and Fisheries Management of the U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service. This study was prompted for several reasons—

• The discovery of an established population of Channa marulius in Broward

County, Florida, in 2000; 

• A well established snakehead (C. maculata) population in Oahu, Hawaii, since 

the late 1800s;

• Recent captures of introduced snakeheads in several states; and 

• Recognition that channid fishes (at or near sexual maturity) were being sold in 

live-food fish markets in the U.S. 

A limited number of snakeheads have been available for sale through the aquarium fish 

trade for several decades, but a new pathway— introduction of these fishes in live-food 

fish markets—had been largely overlooked. 

Because snakeheads are highly predatory, some having the ability to travel 

overland to new water bodies, the inevitable release of these fishes by hobbyists, 

escapes from aquaculture, and liberation of live-food fish into U.S. waters threatens 

aquatic ecosystems. This report provides a comprehensive assessment of the risks 

involved with introductions of potentially invasive snakeheads into non-native waters.

LITERATURE REVIEW AND BACKGROUND 

INFORMATION

TAXONOMY AND SYNONYMY

According to Nelson (1994), the group of teleostean fishes known as 

snakeheads is classified as follows:

Two genera are currently recognized as comprising the family Channidae. 

They are Channa (Scopoli, 1777; snakeheads of Asia, Malaysia, and Indonesia) and 

Parachanna (Teugels and Daget, 1984; African snakeheads). Generic synonyms of 

Channa include Channa Gronow, 1763, a nomen nudum; Ophicephalus Bloch, 1793, 

and its misspelled version Ophiocephalus; Bostrychoides Lacepède, 1801; and 

Philypnoides Bleeker, 1849. Synonyms of Parachanna are Ophiocephalus Günther, 

1861; Parophiocephalus Senna, 1924 (originally proposed as a subgenus, but 

preoccupied in the fish family Anabantidae by Parophiocephalus Popta, 1905); and 

Channa Scopoli, 1777. Synonyms of the 29 species of snakeheads described herein are 

included in the individual species accounts contained in the section “Species Accounts.”

• Class Actinopterygii

• Subclass Neopterygii

• Order Perciformes

• Suborder Channoidei

• Family Channidae
 5

Myers and Shapovalov (1932) reviewed the status of the genera 

Ophicephalus and Channa, and they concluded that the practice of separating the two 

based on presence (Ophicephalus) or absence (Channa) of pelvic fins was invalid, 

based on specimens of C. gachua from India and one from Taiwan (introduced) that 

lacked pelvic fins. They placed Ophicephalus as a junior synonym of Channa. Five 

species of Channa lack pelvic fins. 

Vierke (1991b), Musikasinthorn (2000), Musikasinthorn and Taki (2001), 

and Zhang and others (2002) consider 29 species of this family as valid (table 1). 

Nevertheless, 87 species and 4 subspecies have been described (Eschmeyer, 1998, in 

part) and current taxonomy is in flux. Although many described species are now 

considered synonyms of recognized species, there are about 20 names that cannot be 

associated with valid taxa. The plethora of scientific names for snakeheads is in part 

due to the sometimes dramatic color changes that occur between early and late 

juvenile stages, and adult patterns, a factor then unknown and hence unrecognized by 

early taxonomists using color as one of the distinguishing characteristics. Moreover, 

some descriptions lack detail, illustrations, or type specimens that could assist in 

solving these taxonomic mysteries. Four new species have been described since 1990, 

another put into synonymy, and two removed from synonymy and recognized as valid 

during that same time period. A taxonomic revision of the family is being prepared 

(Prachya Musikasinthorn, personal commun., 2002) and will likely result in more 

species being recognized as valid, and new species will perhaps be described.

Table 1—Currently recognized species of the family Channidae 

[After Vierke (1991b), Musikasinthorn (2000), Musikasinthorn and Taki (2001), and Zhang and others (2002). 

Bibliographic sources are cited in the References section of this report or in Eschmeyer (1998)]

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Channa amphibeus (McClelland, 1845) - Chel snakehead1 Channa marulioides (Bleeker, 1851) - emperor snakehead

Channa argus (Cantor, 1842) - northern snakehead1 Channa melanoptera (Bleeker, 1855) - blackfinned snakehead1

Channa asiatica (Linnaeus, 1758) - Chinese snakehead Channa melasoma (Bleeker, 1851) - black snakehead

Channa aurantimaculata Musikasinthorn, 2000 -

 orangespotted snakehead 1

Channa micropeltes (Cuvier, 1831) - giant snakehead3

Channa bankanensis (Bleeker, 1852) - Bangka snakehead1 Channa nox Zhang, Musikasinthorn, and Watanabe, 2002 – 

 night snakehead1

Channa baramensis (Steindachner, 1901) - Baram snakehead1 Channa orientalis Schneider, 1801 - Ceylon snakehead2

Channa barca (Hamilton, 1822) - barca snakehead Channa panaw Musikasinthorn, 1998 - panaw snakehead1

Channa bleheri Vierke, 1991 - rainbow snakehead Channa pleurophthalma (Bleeker, 1851) - ocellated snakehead1

Channa burmanica Chaudhuri, 1919 – Burmese snakehead1 Channa punctata (Bloch, 1793) - spotted snakehead3

Channa cyanospilos (Bleeker, 1853) - bluespotted snakehead1 Channa stewartii (Playfair, 1867) - golden snakehead

Channa gachua (Hamilton, 1822) - dwarf snakehead3 Channa striata (Bloch, 1797) - chevron snakehead3

Channa harcourtbutleri (Annandale, 1918) - Inle snakehead1 Parachanna africana (Steindachner, 1879) - Niger snakehead1

Channa lucius (Cuvier, 1831) - splendid snakehead Parachanna insignis (Sauvage, 1884) - Congo snakehead1

Channa maculata (Lacepède, 1802) - blotched snakehead1 Parachanna obscura (Günther, 1861) - African snakehead

Channa marulius (Hamilton, 1822) - bullseye snakehead 1,3

______________________________________

1 Proposed common name. 2 Common name tentative. 3 Species complex.
6

COMMON NAMES

As is typical of fishes of foreign origin, there has been a history of different 

English common names utilized for snakeheads. It is not unusual to find dissimilar 

names used for juveniles and adults of the same species, particularly in the aquarium 

fish trade. Moreover, one can find several English common names in the scientific 

literature for the same species in different parts of its native range. This also is true for 

common names used by indigenous people for the same species. In India, for 

example, various common names for a single species are often used by people from 

diverse regions, states, or cultures. For purposes of this report, we have followed 

Robins and others (1991) in using common names for the two snakeheads they 

treated, selected names we felt appropriate primarily from those used in the aquarium 

fish trade, and have added proposed names for some species that lacked English 

common names (table 1). The common names are identified in table 1 and appear in 

bold type in the section “Species Accounts.” 

Accounts for each of these species are detailed in the section “Species 

Accounts,” which includes illustrations or photographs, source of original description, 

type specimens, synonyms, common name(s), native range, introduced range, size, 

habitat preference, temperature range, reproductive habits, feeding habits, characters, 

commercial importance in the United States, commercial importance in native range, 

and environmental concerns. Where known, the diploid chromosome number is 

included. Each account also contains a map showing native range and, where known, 

location or range of introductions. Literature citations for some synonyms are not 

included in the “References” section but can be found in Eschmeyer (1998) or on the 

Internet at http://www.calacademy.org/research/ichthyology/catalog/

fishcatsearch.html.

DESCRIPTION AND DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS

Fishes of the family Channidae are commonly referred to as snakeheads 

(sometimes serpent-heads), primarily because of their somewhat elongated and 

cylindrical bodies, but particularly due to the presence of large scales on the head of 

most species, reminiscent of the large epidermal scales (cephalic plates) on the heads 

of snakes. Another snake-like feature is the somewhat flattened head with eyes located 

in a dorsolateral position on the anterior part of the head. Anterior nostrils are present 

and tubular. Dorsal and anal fins are elongated, and all fins are supported only by rays. 

A few species lack pelvic fins (Nelson, 1994; Berra, 2001). The caudal fin is rounded. 

The mouth is terminal and large with a protruding lower jaw, which is toothed, often 

containing canine-like teeth. The prevomer and palatines may or may not be toothed, 

depending on species. Scales are cycloid or ctenoid. All species possess paired 

suprabranchial chambers located behind and above the gills. The chambers in Channa

are bordered by two plates, one from the epibranchial of the first gill arch and the 

other as an expansion of the hyomandibular. Those in Parachanna have a simple 

cavity not involving processes from the first epibranchial or hyomandibular. These 

chambers are not labyrinthic (Berg, 1947), but are lined with respiratory epithelium. 

All species occupy freshwater and a few can tolerate extremely low salinities.
 7

Illustrations or photographs of certain species of Channa appear in Nichols 

(1943), Munro (1955), Nakamura (1963), Mohsin and Ambak (1983), Masuda and 

others (1984), Lim and Ng (1990), Ng and Lim (1990), Lee and Ng (1991, 1994), 

Pethiyagoda (1991), Talwar and Jhingran (1992), Kottelat and others (1993), Jayaram 

(1999), and Kottelat (1998, 2001a). The three species of Parachanna were illustrated 

by Bonou and Teugels (1985), who provided a key for identification of Parachanna. 

But, there is no single key to identify all species of Channa, at least five of which 

appear to be species complexes rather than single, distinct species.

Two larger snakehead species, the bullseye snakehead (Channa marulius) 

and emperor snakehead (C. marulioides), superficially resemble the native bowfin 

(Amia calva) in that all three are elongated fishes, have long dorsal fins, tubular 

nostrils, and an ocellus near the base of the upper part of the caudal fin. The bowfin, 

however, has its pelvic fins in an abdominal rather than thoracic or anterior-abdominal 

position, and the anal fin is not elongated. Moreover, the bowfin lacks a rosette of 

enlarged scales on top of its head. Other than this example, there are no native fishes 

in North America or within their native ranges with which snakeheads could be 

confused.

Native Distribution

Species and species complexes of the genus Channa are native from 

southeastern Iran and eastern Afghanistan eastward through Pakistan, India, southern 

Nepal, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Malaysia, Sumatra, Indonesia, 

Vietnam, Korea, and China northward into Siberia (fig. 2). 

Of the currently recognized 26 species of Channa, 8 species and 

representatives of 4 species complexes occur in peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, and/or 

Indonesia. Of the same 26 species, 13 species and 1 species complex are tropical to 

subtropical; members of 6 species and 2 species complexes are warm temperate to 

subtropical/tropical, 2 species complexes are cold temperate to subtropical/tropical, 

and 1 species is warm temperate to boreal and can live beneath ice in the northern part 

of its range. The three species of Parachanna are native to Africa and are tropical 

(fig. 2).

Snakeheads are non-ostariophysan primary freshwater fishes (Mirza, 1975, 

1995) and have little or no tolerance for seawater. Habitat preferences vary by species 

or species complex, with a majority occurring in streams and rivers. Others live in 

swamps, rice paddies, ponds, and ditches. All can tolerate hypoxic conditions because 

they are airbreathers from late juvenile stages. The pH range, where known, varies by 

species with one, the Bangka snakehead (Channa bankanensis), preferring highly 

acidic (pH 2.8-3.8) waters (Lee and Ng, 1991; Ng and Lim, 1991). At least three 

species are tolerant of a wide pH range: the dwarf snakehead (C. gachua), spotted 

snakehead (C. punctata), and chevron snakehead (C. striata) survived for 72 hours at 

pH levels ranging from 4.25 to 9.4 (Varma, 1979).
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INDIAN

OCEAN

India PACIFIC

Native range of

Native range of

Channa

Parachanna

EXPLANATION

OCEAN

Australia

China

Mongolia

Russia

Kazakhstan

Iran

Saudi

Arabia

Afghanistan

Pakistan

Philippines

Japan

South

Korea

North

Korea

Sri

Lanka

Egypt

Algeria Libya

Sudan

Madagascar

Indonesia

Sumatra

Java

Malaysia

Vietnam

Kalimantan

Thailand

Burma

Taiwan

Biology and Natural History

• Paleogeographic origins—The fossil record indicates the presence of 

channid fishes during the upper Oligocene/lower Miocene in what is now western 

Switzerland and eastern France (Reichenbacher and Weidmann, 1992). Nevertheless, 

Ralf Britz (personal commun., 2003) noted that identification of these fishes is based 

on fossilized otoliths and may not be reliable.

Lydekker (1886) reported on fossilized skull bones of snakeheads from the 

Siwalik Hills, Himachal Pradesh, northern India. These fossils and additional material 

of Pontian age (early Pliocene) were described in more detail by Sahni and Khare 

(1977) who described Channa bhimachari, C. gregoryi, and C. romeri based on 

fossilized skull-bone material found in stream sediments. Comparing these skeletal 

elements to osteological preparations of recent snakeheads, they suggested that 

C. bhimachari was most closely related to C. striata and C. gregoryi to C. marulius. 

They were unable to determine a recent relative of C. romeri.

Boeseman (1949) described skull-bone fossils of a snakehead from 

Pleistocene deposits from Trinil, central Java. Based on comparisons with osteological 

preparations of recent snakeheads, he concluded that these fossilized remains were of a 

species closely related to living Channa striata, and he named the species Ophicephalus 

palaeostriatus. Coupled with data presented by Lydekker (1886), Boeseman (1949), and 

Sahni and Khare (1977), there is convincing evidence that congeners of living 

snakeheads were present in Asia by and probably well before the Pleistocene.

Figure 2—Native distribution of the family Channidae.
 9

A majority of living snakeheads are native to southeastern Asia, with most 

species found from Myanmar eastward and southeastward through Malaysia, Sumatra, 

Java, and Borneo (Kalimantan). Boeseman (1949) confirmed that at least one species 

of what is now included in the genus Channa was present in Java in the Pleistocene. 

Jocano (1975) noted that during the Pleistocene, the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, 

Borneo, and the “Sundas” to Palawan were connected by what is termed the “Sunda 

Shelf.” He described conditions as “a vast dryland covering 1.8 million square kilometers,” containing a “great river,” adding that many of the present river systems of Kalimantan, Sumatra, and surrounding localities were tributaries of that river. He also 

added that this “may explain the striking similarities of fish faunas in Sumatra, Borneo, 

and the Philippines,” the latter restricted to the Palawan region of the Philippines.

From an evolutionary standpoint and considering a Pliocene to Pleistocene 

presence of channid fishes in Asia, it is likely that the “great river” of the Sunda Shelf 

began to dry during the late Pleistocene and speciation of snakeheads in the region 

was in advanced stages. This probably occurred before parts of that shelf became 

isolated as peninsulas and islands, with species evolving in differing kinds of habitats 

separated from their ancestral origin(s) by geographic and biological factors. Such an 

evolutionary scenario explains why, for example, species known from Sumatra also 

occur in the southern part of the Malay Peninsula and Kalimantan, Bangka, Billiton, 

perhaps Bali, and nearby areas. Moreover, isolation of such species “populations” 

between continental and insular ranges over geologic time has doubtless led to genetic 

and phenotypic differences that complicate taxonomic interpretations. Similar 

linkages between what are now continental areas and nearby islands (for example, 

Vietnam and China with Hainan) are known from the Pleistocene (Sterling and others, 

2003). India and Sri Lanka are reported to have been connected as recently as 8,000 

years ago (www.tamilinfo.org). 

Fossils of snakeheads have also been identified from post-Pleistocene 

deposits in the Sahara Desert (Van Neer, 1989). Banerjee and others (1988) suggested 

an origin of the family from the area of Yunnan Province, southern China, dating back 

to the Pliocene or earlier, but based their suggestion on ecological habitats currently 

occupied by snakeheads rather than from fossil evidence. A more accurate picture of 

where this family evolved and its ancestor(s) is yet to be determined.

• Spawning seasons and reproductive behavior—There is a paucity of 

information on reproductive biology of many species, but several conclusions can be 

drawn for those that are known. Spawning seasons vary by species. Spawning in 

several species occurs primarily in summer months (June through August) but, in at 

least two (the Channa striata and C. punctata species complexes), breeding pairs can 

be found throughout the year. Some species spawn twice to three or more times each 

year. Okada (1960) reported that female northern snakehead are capable of spawning 

five times per year. There are several reports that when snakeheads pair, they remain 

monogamous for a spawning season, perhaps longer, but this may not apply across the 

life history of any individual snakehead.

Most snakeheads build nests by clearing a generally circular area in aquatic 

vegetation, often weaving the removed vegetation around the centrally cleared area. 

This results in a vertical column of water surrounded by vegetation. Sometimes the 
10

surface of this column contains pieces of removed vegetation. One species complex 

(Channa punctata) prepares elaborate tunnels through vegetation leading into the nest 

column. In general, the male entwines his body around that of the female, with some 

species appearing to “dance” in the water column as eggs are released and fertilized 

(Breder and Rosen, 1966; Ng and Lim, 1990). Eggs are buoyant, due to a large oil 

droplet in the yolk mass, and rise to the surface where they are vigorously guarded by 

one or both parents. Some snakeheads in one species complex (C. gachua) and 

C. orientalis are reported to be mouthbrooders, with the male being the mouthbrooder 

of fertilized eggs and, later, fry in C. orientalis. Peter Ng (personal commun., 2002) 

suggested that C. asiatica may also be a mouthbrooder. Most snakeheads, however, are 

not mouthbrooders and one or both parents vigorously guard their young. One species 

(C. micropeltes) is reported to have attacked and, in some instances killed, humans who 

approached the mass of young (Kottelat and others, 1993). Thus, parental care, whether 

by guarding or mouthbrooding, is a behavioral characteristic of snakeheads.

One might assume, based on reported spawning habits, that presence of 

vegetation is mandatory for successful spawning, but this is not the case. Wee (1982) 

cited Parameswaran and Murugesan (1976b) as having documented Channa gachua, 

C. marulius, and C. punctata spawning in ponds lacking vegetation. Alikunhi (1953) 

noted that C. striata is also known to spawn in the absence of vegetation. These 

observations, however, imply that other snakeheads are also capable of reproducing in 

waters lacking vegetation.

• Fecundity and early development—There is limited information on 

fecundity except for snakeheads of commercial importance. Nevertheless, that 

information shows a pattern that likely applies to the entire family Channidae. An 

unfertilized "egg" is an oöcyte. Once an oöcyte is fertilized by fusion of oöcyte and 

sperm nuclei, it becomes an egg, with an embryo resulting if fertilization is successful. 

Smaller snakeheads, such as Channa gachua and C. orientalis, produce few oöcytes 

(about 20 when sexual maturity is first reached and up to 200 later; Lee and Ng, 1991, 

1994). Low fecundity is a general rule among mouthbrooding fishes (Breder and 

Rosen, 1966). Fecundity increases greatly in larger snakeheads and appears to be 

linear, increasing in volume with increasing body length. For example, Quayyum and 

Qasim (1962) recorded fecundity ranging from 2,300-26,000 oöcytes for C. striata, 

increasing in number with increasing body length. Large female bullseye snakeheads, 

C. marulius, among the largest species, have been reported to produce as many as 

40,000 oöcytes (Jhingran, 1984). A fecundity for the northern snakehead, C. argus, was 

about 50,000 oöcytes (Frank, 1970). Frank's data came from Nikol'skiy (1956), who 

recorded fecundity of 22,000-51,000 in northern snakeheads from the Amur basin. 

Dukravets and Machulin (1978) gave fecundity rates of 28,600 to a high of 115,000 for 

northern snakehead (probably from Yangtze River stock) introduced into the Syr 

Dar'ya basin of Turkmenistan/Uzbekistan. They also noted that, whereas growth of 

northern snakeheads is slower than that reported for this species from the Amur basin, 

growth rates from both stocks became equal once sexual maturity was reached.
 11

Oöcytes, when released from the female parent, are small, ranging from about 

1 mm to slightly over 2 mm in diameter, depending on species. Fertilization takes place 

by the male releasing milt (sperm) on the oöcytes as they emerge from the female. 

Development time to hatching varies with water temperature and, to a lesser extent, with 

the species involved. For example, hatching occurred in 54 hours at 16-26 oC and 30 

hours at 28-33 oC in Channa punctata (Kahn, 1924). In the northern snakehead, 

C. argus, eggs hatch in 28 hours at 31 oC, 45 hours at 25 oC, and 120 hours at 18 oC.

In general, newly hatched fry, depending on species, are about 3.0-3.5 mm in length.

• Early life history—Following yolk resorption, snakehead fry begin feeding on zooplankton. Fry typically remain together until they reach early juvenile stage, 

guarded by one or both adults, when they can fend for themselves (Lee and Ng, 1994). 

Late juveniles of the giant snakehead, Channa micropeltes, school and feed in packs 

(Lee and Ng, 1991). Although there are few reports of early life history except for species of commercial importance, it appears that as larval snakeheads mature to early 

juvenile stages, the diet changes to small crustaceans and insects, particularly insect 

larvae. Presence of phytoplankton, plant material, and detritus in the digestive system 

of young snakeheads, as well as adults, appears to occur from incidental ingestion. 

Juveniles frequently differ in colors and color patterns from late juveniles to adults, 

making young of interest to some aquarium hobbyists (Lee and Ng, 1991, 1994).

• Respiration and overland migrations—Snakeheads are highly evolved 

airbreathing teleostean fishes, and several are capable of overland migration by 

wriggling motions (Lee and Ng, 1991; Berra, 2001; Peter Ng, personal commun., 

2002) despite the fact their pectoral fins lack spines like those of clariid catfishes. 

They possess suprabranchial chambers for aerial respiration, and the ventral aorta is 

divided into two parts to permit bimodal (aquatic and aerial) respiration (Das and 

Saxena, 1956; Graham, 1997). The suprabranchial chambers become functional 

during the juvenile stage of growth (Graham, 1997), following which some species of 

snakeheads are obligate and others are facultative airbreathers. In some large species 

of snakeheads, such as Channa marulius, the young are facultative airbreathers and 

adults are obligate breathers (Wee, 1982), but all species are airbreathers.

These suprabranchial chambers lie above the pharynx and gill arches, lateral 

to the otic chambers of the skull. In Channa, the chambers open into the pharynx 

through inhalant apertures. The chamber lining contains respiratory “islets” with 

vascular papillae. The chambers can be filled with air or water. In addition, in 

C. striata, there are also vascular papillae in the epithelium of the mouth and pharynx 

that can be utilized for respiration; these, however, can be retracted into depressions in 

the epithelium to prevent damage when feeding (Munshi and Hughes, 1992).

Some channids, perhaps all, have a circadian rhythm in frequency of oxygen 

uptake. Channa marulius, for example, showed a peak in oxygen uptake at night. 

Channa striata and C. gachua peaked in early night hours, and C. punctata at dusk. 

These rhythms are attributed to evolution in swamp ecosystems (that is, the rhythm is 

a property of the ecosystem) (Munshi and Hughes, 1992).

The number of species of snakeheads capable of overland migrations is 

unknown, but several display such behavior (Khin, 1948). These migrations often are 

assumed to be the result of fish relocating from drying habitats in search of those with 

water, perhaps driven by instinctive behavior for better feeding conditions, or both. 
12

Overland migrations likely apply to those species whose native range is subject to 

seasonal dry/wet (or monsoonal) conditions, which encompass much of western to 

southeastern Asia where the majority of snakehead species exist.

The species of Channa most capable of overland migrations are those that 

are somewhat flattened ventrally (Peter Ng, personal commun., 2002). These include 

C. asiatica, C. gachua, C. micropeltes, C. melasoma, C. nox, C. orientalis, and 

C. striata. Even large C. micropeltes are capable of “crawling” in a sinuous motion on 

dry or wet land, although movement is slow (Peter Ng., personal commun., 2002). 

Those snakeheads with more rounded bodies (for example, C. argus, C. lucius, and 

C. maculata) have very limited ability to move on land except as young, and only 

when some water is present, as under mild flooded conditions. Liem (1987) noted that 

Channa, like airbreathing catfishes (Clarias and Heteropneustes), do not migrate on 

land to escape drying habitats, but burrow into mud to survive droughts. These species 

only migrate during or soon after heavy rains, allowing these fishes to invade new habitats, which permits a wider dispersal from more crowded environments (Liem, 1987).

• Hypoxic survival—Snakeheads are either obligate or facultative 

airbreathers. Therefore, survival in hypoxic waters is not problematic to these fishes. 

When prevented from access to the surface, adult snakeheads of many species will 

drown due to lack of oxygen (Day, 1868; Lee and Ng, 1991). Cold temperatures 

reduce metabolism as well as oxygen demand, allowing such species as Channa argus

to survive under ice (Frank, 1970). Moreover, snakeheads can remain out of water for 

considerable periods of time as long as they remain moist. Some snakeheads, 

especially C. striata, can bury themselves in mud during times of drought (Smith, 

1945). They are known to secrete mucus that helps to reduce desiccation and 

facilitates cutaneous breathing (Mittal and Banerji, 1975; Lee and Ng, 1991). Fishers 

in Thailand are aware of this habit and, during drought periods, will slice into the mud 

until they locate the fish (Smith, 1945).

• Lifespan—No specific information appears in literature. One species 

(Channa marulius) is reported to reach a total length of 1.8 m in Maharashtra State, 

India (Talwar and Jhingran, 1992), a size that would suggest a relatively long lifespan. 

Nevertheless, we have been unable to find an ichthyologist who knows of preserved 

specimens of such a length. The typical maximum length stated for C. marulius, the 

largest snakehead, is 1.0-1.2 m. Nina Bogutskaya (personal commun., 2002) stated 

she had seen a specimen of C. argus that was almost 1.5 m in length, also indicating a 

relatively long-lived species. Moreover, Peter Ng (personal commun., 2003) reported 

that C. micropeltes is known to reach 1.5 m in length. Smaller snakeheads, such as 

members of the C. gachua and C. orientalis species complexes, may not live for more 

than a few years. Most larger snakeheads are reported to reach sexual maturity within 

2 years, after which growth slows but fecundity increases with increasing size. The 

few publications that discussed growth rates in snakeheads based on examination of 

scales or otoliths were inconclusive as to the interpretation of “growth” markings. 

Moreover, timeframes of these studies were of such short duration (a few years) that 

they documented no evidence of maximum lifespan.
 13

• Feeding habits—Few studies 

analyze the feeding habits of snakeheads. 

For those species studied, however, snakehead fry feed mostly on zooplankton following yolk-sac resorption. Munshi and Hughes 

(1992) cited Banerji (1974) that fry of 

Channa punctata feed on phytoplankton. 

As juveniles, they feed on insect larvae, 

small crustaceans, and fry of other fishes 

(Munshi and Hughes, 1992). What is universal in reports of adult feeding habits is that 

all snakeheads are predators, with many species showing a preference for other fishes, 

although they may also consume crustaceans, frogs, smaller reptiles, and sometimes 

young birds and small mammals. Welcomme 

(1985) cited C. lucius, C. micropeltes, 

C. pleurophthalma and C. striata as “large 

predators eating fish of all sizes, shrimps, 

prawns and crabs.” Under conditions of food 

depravation, snakeheads can become cannibalistic on their young. The piscivorous 

nature of snakeheads has led to the use of some species (C. striata and Parachanna 

obscura in particular) to control tilapia fish populations in aquaculture.

ASSOCIATED DISEASES AND PARASITES

Investigations of diseases and parasites of snakeheads concentrate on those 

species of importance in aquaculture. Hoffman and Schubert (1984) noted that most 

fishes can sometimes be hosts of parasites. Snakeheads are no exception. 

Jinhui (1991) listed parasitic crustaceans of Channa argus, C. asiatica, 

and C. punctata from Chinese waters. A listing of known parasites of C. gachua, 

C. marulius, C. punctata, and C. striata from Bangladesh was provided by Arthus and 

Ahmed (2002). In that study, parasites of all but C. gachua equaled or far outnumbered the parasites reported by Bykhovskaya-Pavlovskaya and others (1964) for 

C. argus (table 2).

Literature on parasites of snakeheads includes numerous descriptions of 

new species, not detailed herein, but indicates that most studies concentrate on 

cultured fishes, such as Channa argus, C. punctata, and C. striata. Chiba and others

(1989) noted that C. argus and C. maculata introduced parasites to Japan, but did not 

detail the parasites involved or fish species affected. None of the parasite literature we 

reviewed on snakeheads indicated that any of these represent a potential threat to 

native North American fishes. Conversely, such potential has not been examined.

A disease of snakeheads that has received broad attention is epizootic 

ulcerative syndrome (EUS), which causes high mortality in these fishes, particularly 

Channa striata and C. punctata under intensive culture. EUS involves several 

School of young giant snakehead, Channa micropeltes, 

feeding at the surface in Thailand. Photo courtesy of 

Jean-Francois Helias, Fishing Adventures Thailand.
14

Table 2—Parasites of northern snakehead (Channa argus)

[Adapted from Bykhovskaya-Pavlovskaya and others, 1964]

Parasite Group Host tissues Other fishes affected

Myxidium ophiocephali Myxosporidia gallbladder, liver ducts

Zschokkella ophiocephalli Myxosporidia kidney tubules

Neomyxobolus ophiocephalus Myxosporidia gill filaments

Mysosoma acuta Myxosporidia gill filaments crucian carp

Myxobolus cheisini Myxosporidia gill filaments

Henneguya zschokkei ? Myxosporidia gills, subcutaneous, 

musculature

salmonids (tubercle disease 

of salmonids)

Henneguya ophiocephali Myxosporidia gill arches, suprabranchial chambers

Henneguya vovki Myxosporidia body cavity

Thelohanellus catlae Myxosporidia kidneys

Gyrodactylus ophiocephali Monogenoidea fins

Polyonchobothrium ophiocephalina Cestoidea intestine

Cysticercus gryporhynchus cheilancristrotus Cestoidea gallbladder, intestine cyprinids, perches

Azygia hwangtsiüi Trematoda intestine

Clinostomum complanatum Trematoda body cavity perches

Pingis sinensis Nematoda intestine

Paracanthocephalus curtus Acanthocephala intestine cyprinids, esocids, sleepers, 

bagrid catfishes

Paracanthocephalus tenuirostris Acanthocephala intestine

Lamproglena chinensis Copepoda gills

pathogens, including motile aeromonad bacteria (for example, Aeromonas hydrophila, 

A. caviae, Pseudomonas fluorescens; Prasad and others, 1998; Qureshi and others, 

1999), a fungus, Aphanomyces invadans (considered a primary pathogen; Mohan and 

others, 1999; Miles and others, 2001), and perhaps a rhabdovirus (Kanchanakhan and 

others, 1999; Lio-Po and others, 2000). Another bacterium, Aquaspirillum sp., also 

has been implicated (Lio-Po and others, 2000). EUS may have originated in India in 

the 1980s, but has since been found in Pakistan, Thailand, and the Philippines, with 

outbreaks reported from all of these areas during the 1990s. Snakeheads are not the 

only fishes affected by this disease. It is also known to occur in airbreathing catfish 

(Clarias), the bagrid catfish genus Mystus, two cyprinid genera (Cyprinus and 

Puntius), mastacembelid eels (Mastacembelus), and the nandid genus Nandus in India 

(Mukherjee, 1998). In Thailand, it has been found in giant gourami (Osphronemus 

goramy) and climbing perch (Anabas testudineus) during an outbreak in 1996-1997 

(Kanchanakhan and others, 1999).

A parasitic disease that can affect humans is gnathostomiasis, caused by a 

helminth parasite, Gnathostoma spinigerum. It has been recognized as a highly 

important disease with about 800 suspected cases per year in two hospitals in Bangkok, 

Thailand, between 1985 and 1988 (Setasuban, 1990). Channa striata has been identified 

as an intermediate host for this parasite, found mostly in muscle tissue and occurring in 

100 percent of fish examined over 41 cm in length (Setasuban and others, 1991). It is 

unknown if additional species of snakeheads in Thailand and other countries of 

southeastern Asia may serve as an intermediate host for larvae of this parasite.
 15

HISTORY IN FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE

Most snakeheads are part of capture fisheries. Few details were found in the literature on fishing methods, but most appear to involve hook and line, traps, gillnets, or seines.

Species for which we have found no information that they are of importance 

as a fishery resource include Channa amphibeus, C. bankanensis, C. burmanica, 

C. cyanospilos, and C. melasoma. Some do not appear to be targets of active fisheries, 

but are believed or known to be periodically available in local markets as incidental 

catches. These species include C. aurantimaculata (Musikasinthorn, 2000), 

C. baramensis (Ng and others, 1996), C. barca (also in the aquarium trade; Talwar and 

Jhingran, 1992), C. bleheri (wild caught for the aquarium trade; Ralf Britz, personal 

commun., 2002), C. gachua (Talwar and Jhingran, 1992), C. harcourtbutleri (Ng and 

others, 1999), perhaps C. melanopterus, C. nox (Zhang and others 2002), C. panaw

(Musikasinthorn, 1998), C. stewartii (Talwar and Jhingran, 1992), and possibly 

Parachanna africana and P. insignis. Those for which there are active commercial fisheries are C. argus (Berg, 1965; Baltz, 1991; Dukravets, 1992), C. asiatica (Nichols, 

1943; Daiqin and others, 1999), C. lucius (for food and aquarium purposes; Ng and 

Lim, 1990), C. maculata (Nichols, 1943; Atkinson, 1977; Hay and Hodgkiss, 1981), 

C. marulioides (aquarium purposes; Ng and Lim, 1990), C. marulius (Sriramlu, 1979; 

Rao and Durve, 1989; Talwar and Jhingran, 1992), C. micropeltes (Lee and Ng, 1991; 

Dudley, 2000), C. orientalis (Rainboth, 1996), C. pleurophthalma (Lee and Ng, 1991; 

Kottelat and others, 1993; Dudley, 2000), C. punctata (Quayyum and Qasim, 1962; 

Bhuiyan and Rahman, 1984; Rao and Durve, 1989; also in aquarium trade, Talwar and 

Jhingran, 1992), C. stewartii (minor importance in India, also in aquarium trade; Talwar 

and Jhingran, 1992), C. striata (Roa and Durve, 1989; Talwar and Jhingran, 1992), and 

P. obscura (aquarium and food purposes; Dankwa and others, 1999) . In addition, 

C. argus, C. maculata, and C. striata are commercially fished in most areas where these 

species have been introduced. Interestingly, there are cultural differences in acceptance 

of using introduced C. argus as a food fish. Within its native range in China, Korea, and 

southern Siberia (Berg, 1965), and within its introduced range in Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and Turkemistan, it is considered a desirable and sought-after food fish (Baltz, 

1991; Dukravets, 1992; FAO, 1994); nevertheless, it failed to become popular following 

its introduction to Japan in the early 1900s (Okada, 1960).

Snakeheads known to be cultured are summarized in table 3. The most 

important and widely cultured species appears to be Channa striata. This may apply, 

however, only within its native range and perhaps where it has been introduced into 

southern China. It is becoming evident that it has been misidentified in places where this 

species has been reported as introduced (Madagascar and Hawaii in particular), and the 

introduced snakehead is C. maculata (Ralf Britz, personal commun., 2002). Thus, the 

many reported introductions of C. striata to Pacific Islands summarized by Eldredge 

(1994) and Lever (1996) will require reexamination. Channa maculata is the second 

most important snakehead cultured in China (Fang Fang, personal commun., 2002), and 

its culture appears to be concentrated primarily in Guangdong Province, where it is 

native. During 2001, imports of snakeheads (likely C. maculata) into the U.S. increased, 

the point of export having been Ghangzhou, Guangdong Province. Until identification of 

introduced “C. striata” is verified, its reputation as the most widely cultured snakehead 
16

remains in question. We have verified that it is in culture in Hawaii (Qin and Fast, 

1996a,b,c; Qin and others, 1997; Qin, Fast, and Kai, 1997; Qin, He, and Fast, 1997; Qin 

and Fast, 1998; Pam Fuller, personal commun., 2002). Moreover, it is considered to be 

the most important species economically in India (Bhatt, 1970), and is being cultured 

there and in Thailand, Java (Hofstede and others, 1953); Vietnam (Pantulu, 1976; Bard, 

1991); the Philippines (Conlu, 1986; Guerrero, 2000); Sri Lanka (Kilambi, 1986); 

Pakistan (Talwar and Jhingran, 1992); Malaysia (Ali, 1999); and Cambodia (Balzer and 

others, 2002).

Channa argus is the most important snakehead cultured in China (Fang 

Fang, personal commun., 2002) where it is grown in ponds, rice paddies, and reservoirs (Atkinson, 1977; Sifa and Senlin, 1995; Liu and others, 1998). It was being 

cultured on three fish farms in Arkansas until importation, culture, sale, and possession of snakeheads was prohibited by the Arkansas Fish and Game Commission in 

August 2002.

Channa micropeltes is cultured for food in Vietnam (Pantulu, 1976; Wee, 

1982), Malaysia (Lee and Ng, 1991), Thailand (FAO, 1994), and Cambodia (Rainboth, 1996), and often in floating cages (Pantulu, 1976; Rainboth, 1996). Young of 

this species are sold in the aquarium fish trade where this species, at least in the U.S., 

has been the most available snakehead.

Channa marulius is cultured in ponds, ricefields, and irrigation wells that do 

not support other fishes in Pakistan and India (Bardach and others, 1972). Wee (1982) 

noted that it is reared in monoculture in India, where it is fed tilapia. Mirza and Bhatti 

(1993) contradicted Bardach and others (1972) in stating that this species is unsuitable 

for aquaculture in Pakistan due to its highly piscivorous nature. Young have been available in the aquarium fish trade and are presumed to have originated from cultured stock.

Channa punctata has been an important food fish in India, where it is fished 

commercially and reared in ponds (Quayyum and Qasim, 1962; Talwar and Jhingran, 

1992). Some snakehead species, including C. punctata, used in intensive aquaculture, 

are subject to outbreaks of EUS, and this has been reported for this species in India 

(Prasad and others, 1998; Qureshi and others, 1999).

Parachanna obscura is being cultured in the Central African Republic 

(Micha, 1974), Ondo State, Nigeria (Ajana, 1983; Victor and Akpocha, 1992), Benin 

(Jackson, 1988), and Ghana (Morrice, 1991).

Table 3—Species of the family Channidae currently known to be cultured for food 

and/or aquarium fish trade

Channa argus1 Channa maculata

Channa asiatica Channa micropeltes2

Channa marulius Channa striata3

Channa punctata Parachanna obscura ________________

1Second most important species cultured for food. Also, the only species that has been in culture

 in the contiguous United States (Arkansas).

2Appears to be the most important species cultured for the aquarium fish trade.

3Species most widely cultured for food. Being cultured in Hawaii.
 17

0 2,000 MILES

0 2,000 KILOMETERS

Scale is approximate

0°

20°N

40°N

60°N

20°S

20°W 20°E 60°E 100°E 140°E 0° 40°E 80°E 120°E 160°E

Equator

EXPLANATION

Introduced range of Channa

INDIAN

OCEAN

India PACIFIC

OCEAN

Australia

China

Mongolia

Russia

Kazakhstan

Iran

Saudi

Arabia

Afghanistan

Pakistan

Philippines

Japan

South

Korea

North

Korea

Sri

Lanka

Egypt

Algeria Libya

Sudan

Madagascar

Indonesia

Sumatra

Java

Malaysia

Vietnam

Kalimantan

Thailand

Burma

Taiwan

HISTORY OF INTRODUCTIONS

Eastern Hemisphere

Locations where snakeheads have been introduced beyond their native 

ranges in the Eastern Hemisphere are shown in figure 3.

• Channa argus—Reported as introduced into “Czecho-Slovakia” and 

Russia beginning in 1949 (Holcík, 1991). No specific localities of introduction or 

information on status of the releases were provided by Holcík (1991). Nina 

Bogutskaya (personal commun., 2002) reported early introductions that failed into the 

Volga delta and ponds in Ekaterinburg (formerly Sverdlovsk) Province in the southern 

Urals. An experimental introduction was made in ponds of Moscow Province during 

1949-1950 that established. In 1953, it was recommended that the species be stocked 

widely, but that failed to happen. There was a report in a Russian aquarium journal in 

1963 noting occurrence of this species in small lakes in the Podolsk Region, Moscow 

Province, but the species is presently absent from the Moscow area. Tandon (1976) 

reported that acclimatization experiments were conducted in the former Soviet Union 

after 1950, and that fry were collected from ponds near Moscow and the Ukraine in 

1955 and sent to Czechoslovakia for acclimatization purposes. He concluded that the 

source of the original stock was the Amur basin.

Figure 3—Introductions of snakeheads in the Eastern Hemisphere.
18

The northern snakehead was introduced into the Aral Sea basin in the early 

1960s where it became established in the Amu Dar'ya, Syr Dar'ya, and Kashka-Dar'ya 

rivers of Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan (Dukravets and Machulin, 1978; 

Usmanova, 1982; Guseva, 1990; Dukravets, 1992). The initial introduction was 

apparently accidental, with snakeheads mixed with shipments of Asian carps. All 

introductions were apparently from Yangtze basin stock (Sal’nikov, 1998), although 

some authors claim the stock came from the Amur basin and were purposeful releases 

to establish a food resource. Dukravets (1992) recorded additional introductions that 

became established in the Sarysu River, reservoirs on the Talus River, and Chu River 

of Kazakhstan during the 1980s. He also reported that 10 metric tons of northern 

snakeheads was harvested from reservoirs along the Talus River in 1989.

The northern snakehead was introduced from Korea in the early 1900s and 

became established in many waters of central and southern Japan (Okada, 1960; 

Nakamura, 1963; Uyeno and Akai, 1984), which includes the islands of Hokkaido, 

Honshu, Kyushu, and Shikoku (Hiroshi Ueda, personal commun., 2002).

• Channa asiatica—Introduced and established in Taiwan 

(Musikasinthorn, 2000), probably released as a food resource.

• Channa gachua—Ismail (1989), misidentifying this snakehead as 

C. orientalis (Ralf Britz, personal commun., 2003), included Kalimantan (southern 

Borneo) in the native range of this species, and Kottelat (1985) noted its presence in 

the Greater Sunda Islands of Indonesia (probably including Kalimantan). This may 

represent an introduction, but the rationale for introducing this very small snakehead 

is not apparent. Myers and Shapovalov (1932) recorded this species in Taiwan.

• Channa maculata—Introduced and established as a food resource in 

Taiwan; Nara, Hyôgo, Hiroshima, Mie, and Shiga prefectures, Japan; and the 

Philippines (Okada, 1960; Liang and others, 1962; Hay and Hodgkiss, 1981; Uyeno 

and Akai, 1984). Ralf Britz (personal commun., 2002) confirmed that it is this species, 

not C. striata, that is established in Madagascar. He has also identified this species as 

present in Oahu, Hawaii, since about 1900, based on specimens examined at the U.S. 

National Museum of Natural History.

• Channa melasoma—Perhaps introduced and established in Palawan, 

Philippines (Kottelat, 1985). Pathway and rationale unknown.

• Channa micropeltes—We believe the presence of the giant snakehead in 

Kerala State, southwestern India, and described by Day (1865a) as Ophiocephalus 

diplogramma was the result of an introduction from southeastern Asia that occurred 

prior to the mid-1800s.

• Channa punctata—Smith (1950) reported this species as introduced in 

the vicinity of Delagoa Bay, southern Mozambique. Paul Skelton (personal commun., 

2001) stated that no snakehead has been found or reported from southern Africa since 

the Smith (1950) record.
 19

• Channa striata—This species has been reported as the most widely 

introduced species of snakehead. It was recorded as introduced and established in 

Madagascar (Raminosoa, 1987; Reinthal and Stiassny, 1991; Stiassny and Raminosoa, 

1994; Lévêque, 1998), although Ralf Britz (personal commun., 2002) stated that this 

was a misidentification of C. maculata. The chevron snakehead is also recorded from 

the following locations, although some of these records may prove to be C. maculata, 

misidentified as C. striata: Mauritius (Parameswaran and Goorah, 1981; Welcomme, 

1988, Lever, 1996); Philippines (Seale, 1908; Herre, 1924, 1934; Conlu, 1986); 

Vogelkop Peninsula, Papua, Indonesia (Allen, 1991); Sundaland, Sulawesi, Lesser 

Sundas, Moluccas (Welcomme, 1981; Kottellat and others, 1993; Lever, 1996). 

Kottelat and others (1993) reported introductions into China but gave no specific 

localities. Its presence in Papua, Indonesia, was confirmed through photographs 

supplied by Gerald L. Allen (personal commun., 2002). The species was also introduced into Fiji and New Caledonia where establishment is questionable, and its introduction to Guam failed (Maciolek, 1984). Channa striata is regarded as a prized food 

fish in many parts of southeastern Asia, and in some localities its oils are used to heal 

wounds and prevent scarring. Introductions beyond its native range were primarily to 

establish a live-food resource.

Western Hemisphere

Five species of snakeheads have been reported from open waters of the 

United States (California, Florida, Hawaii, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, North 

Carolina, Rhode Island, and Wisconsin), and three became established as reproducing 

populations (fig. 4). One species was being cultured in Arksansas until possession of 

live snakeheads was prohibited in August 2002 and a fifth species is under culture in 

Hawaii.

• California •

A northern snakehead, Channa argus, was collected by California 

Department of Fish and Game personnel by electrofishing in a reservoir, Silverwood 

Lake, October 22, 1997. This represents the earliest known record of a live snakehead 

captured from open waters of the western United States. Silverwood Lake is in the 

Mohave River drainage, east-northeast of Los Angeles and north of San Bernardino in 

the San Bernardino Mountains, and receives water from the California Aqueduct. The 

specimen was subsequently frozen and, apparently, later discarded (Camm Swift, 

personal commun., 2002). A photograph of the 71 cm specimen that weighed 3.4 kg 

was taken, which allowed identification of the fish (John Sunada, personal commun. 

to Camm Swift, 2002). It remains unknown if the snakehead was released into 

Silverwood Lake or arrived through the California Aqueduct. The aqueduct has been 

the source of other fishes in the reservoir, including inland silverside (Menidia 

beryllina), striped bass (Morone saxatilis), bigscale logperch (Percina macrolepida), 

and tule perch (Hysterocarpus traskii) (Swift and others, 1993; Camm Swift, personal 

commun., 2002).
20

Hawaii

STATE WHERE SNAKEHEADS WERE CULTURED Prior to August 2002 −

EXPLANATION

STATE WHERE SNAKEHEADS HAVE BEEN COLLECTED In open waters −

Channa maculata−Established before 1900 in Oahu, Hawaii

Channa marulius−Established in Broward County, Florida

• Florida •

An established population of the bullseye snakehead, Channa marulius, was 

discovered in residential lakes and adjoining canals in Tamarac, Broward County, 

Florida, in 2000 (Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, 2001). It is 

unknown how long this species has occupied these waters, perhaps several years, but 

both juveniles and adults have been collected, indicating reproductive success. This 

species is a large snakehead with adults commonly reaching lengths of 120-122 cm 

(Talwar and Jhingran, 1992). In Maharashtra State, India, it can reach a length of 

1.8 m and a weight of 30 kg, and was observed to reach a length of 30 cm in 1 year 

(Talwar and Jhingran, 1992). 

The pathway for the introduction in Broward County, Florida, is unknown. 

The species may have been purposefully introduced to establish a food or aquarium 

fish resource or could have been released accidentally by aquarists, in which case 

several must have been released almost simultaneously. Because this species is 

considered as a game fish in its native range (http://www.fishingasia.com), it also 

could have been released illegally to establish a new sport fishing resource. Tamarac is 

located just east of Water Conservation Area II, north of Everglades National Park, 

and interconnected canal systems lead into this area. It is likely that Channa marulius

will expand its range in peninsular Florida as its native range includes tropical to 

temperate climates. The bullseye snakehead is considered predacious (Jhingran, 1984; 

Talwar and Jhingran, 1992), especially on other fishes (Schmidt, 2001).

Figure 4—States where snakeheads have been collected from open waters, were cultured prior to 

August 2002, or are established. 
 21

The northern snakehead, Channa argus, is also reported from Florida 

waters. Two individuals were caught in the St. Johns River below Lake Harney, 

Seminole and Volusia Counties in 2000, with unconfirmed reports of an additional 

three individuals caught nearby. An attempt to collect additional specimens by Florida 

Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission (FFWCC) and U.S. Geological Survey 

(USGS) personnel by electroshocking in 2001 was unsuccessful, but will be repeated. 

Until reproduction has been confirmed, we consider the species as present but not 

established. This fish is not involved in the aquarium fish trade but has been sold in 

ethnic food markets as a food fish. The most likely pathway is introduction of livefood fish, perhaps to establish a local source.

A live northern snakehead was purchased in a live-food fish market in 

Orlando, Florida, in March 2002, another indication of its availability in a state where 

possession is illegal. Moreover, we found a few U.S. aquarium fish retailers that sell 

snakeheads via the Internet. Three species were purchased from a reputable dealer in 

Rhode Island who requested a copy of our permit to possess certain restricted fishes, 

including snakeheads. Private purchases can also be made through several Internet 

“chat rooms” where possession of permits is doubtlessly of no concern.

• Hawaii •

The blotched snakehead (Channa maculata), misidentified as the chevron 

snakehead (C. striata), has been established on Oahu, Hawaii, since the late 1800s, 

possibly introduced from southern China (Herre, 1924). For whatever reasons, it does 

not appear to have been introduced into other waters of Hawaii, although Morita (1981) 

reported the species from Kauai. It is now mainly confined to one or more reservoirs on 

Oahu (Maciolek, 1984). Ralf Britz (personal commun., 2002) has examined two 

specimens at the U.S. National Museum of Natural History, labeled as C. striata that 

were collected about 1900, and confirmed that they are C. maculata. We have examined 

other specimens, collected in the early 1900s on Oahu, borrowed from the American 

Museum of Natural History in New York City, Bernice P. Bishop Museum in Honolulu, 

the California Academy of Sciences in San Francisco, and the Field Museum of Natural 

History in Chicago, and they, too, are C. maculata. Two photographs, reported to be of 

C. striata in Yamamoto and Tagawa (2000) from Hawaii, are that of C. maculata. It was 

those photographs that alerted us to the likelihood that C. maculata existed in Hawaii. 

We believe that all past published records of C. striata in Hawaiian waters were based 

on misidentifications of C. maculata.

Channa striata is now being cultured as a food fish on Oahu, first imported 

in the early 1990s under permit to Arlo Fast of the University of Hawaii (Domingo 

Cravalho, Jr., personal commun. 2002). Peter Ng (personal commun., 2002) reported 

that he saw C. striata in a market in Honolulu in recent years. Pam Fuller (USGS, 

Gainesville, Florida) purchased five chevron snakeheads in Honolulu in September 

2002. This species is regarded as carnivorous with a preference for other fishes 

(Mohsin and Ambak, 1983; Conlu, 1986), and was described as a “territorial ambush 

feeder” (Lee and Ng, 1991). Chevron snakeheads are used to control tilapia populations in culture ponds in the Philippines (Conlu, 1986; Milstein and Prein, 1993), and 

is one of the species of snakeheads capable of overland migration (Peter Ng., personal 

commun., 2002).
22

• Maryland •

A northern snakehead, Channa argus, was caught by an angler in a 1.8-ha 

pond in Maryland on May 18, 2002 (Beth Rogers, personal commun., 2002). The 

angler, unable to identify the fish, took three photographs of the specimen before 

releasing it into the pond. Estimated total length of the specimen was 43-45 cm. On 

June 30, 2002, another angler captured a larger (66-67 cm) specimen from the same 

pond and dipnetted eight juveniles from the pond on the evenings of July 7-8. 

Maryland Department of Natural Resources personnel subsequently captured over 

100 juveniles from the pond, proving that a well established population was present. 

When the pond was treated with rotenone (a pesticide used for fish management, as 

well as other uses) in August 2002, more than 1,200 northern snakeheads were 

recovered (Bob Lunsford and Steve Early, personal commun., 2002). In addition, at 

least three specimens of the giant snakehead, C. micropeltes, have been caught in 

Maryland waters in recent years (Bob Lunsford, personal commun., 2002). Presence 

of this subtropical/tropical species in Maryland waters where it could not overwinter 

likely resulted from releases by aquarists.

Maryland DNR fishery biologist 

Bob Lunsford examines a berm of 

sandbags and silt fences strategically placed to prevent pond water 

overflow or overland fish migration from Crofton Pond to the 

Little Patuxent River. Photo by 

Walter R. Courtenay, Jr., USGS.

Biologists dipnetting for snakeheads. 

Photo by Tom Darden, Governor’s 

office, Annapolis, Maryland.
 23

Northern Snakehead

HAVE YOU SEEN THIS FISH ?

The northern snakehead from China is not native to

Maryland waters and could cause serious problems

if introduced into our ecosystem.

If you come across this fish,

PLEASE DO NOT RELEASE.

Please KILL this fish by cutting/bleeding

as it can survive out

of water for several days and all catches to

Maryland Department of Natural Resources

Fisheries Service, Thank you.

REPORT

Phone:

TTY:

Toll Free:

E-mail:

410 260-8320

410 260-8835

1 877 620-8DNR (8367) Ext 8320

customerservice@dnr.state.md.us

Distinguishing Features

Long dorsal fin small head large mouth big teeth

length up to 40 inches weight up to 15 pounds

• New England States •

A specimen of the northern snakehead, 

Channa argus, was collected in October 2001 

from Newton Pond, Sudbury, Worcester County, 

Massachusetts, by Massachusetts Department of 

Fish and Wildlife personnel (Hartel and others, 

2002). The likely source is live-food fish markets, 

as this species was the most common snakehead 

available in ethnic food markets and restaurants 

as a live-food fish. Moreover, it is capable of 

establishment in most freshwaters of the United 

States. Okada (1960) reported adults as voracious 

feeders, particularly on other fishes.

Specimens of the giant snakehead, 

Channa micropeltes, have been collected from 

open waters in Maine, Massachusetts, and Rhode 

Island (Courtenay and others, 1984; Fuller and 

others, 1999). This tropical/subtropical species 

could not establish itself in those temperate waters 

(Hartel and others, 2002). Juveniles of the species 

are cardinal red with two dark stripes on either 

side of the body, and are sold by aquarium fish 

retailers as red or redline snakeheads. Aquaristoriented websites note that this species requires 

much animal food and that growth is rapid. These sites often advise that once these fish 

reach about 15-20 cm in length, no more than one individual should be kept in a single 

aquarium because they are aggressive predators. The pathway for release into these 

New England States was likely aquarists when their “pets” grew too large for their 

aquaria and/or because of the costs of feeding them. Releases of this species into subtropical waters in southern Florida or Hawaii could lead to establishment of this snakehead, regarded as the most predacious channid and known to have attacked humans 

(Ng and Lim, 1990; Lee and Ng, 1991; Kottelat and others, 1993).

An angler reported having caught two blotched snakeheads, Channa maculata, from a bridge over the Charles River in Boston in late July 2002 (Karsten Hartel, 

personal commun., 2002). We confirmed that two live snakeheads purchased in an 

ethnic market in Boston in October 2001 by Karsten Hartel were C. maculata, thus 

proving local availability of this species at that time.

• North Carolina •

On July 31, 2002, two anglers reported catching two northern snakeheads from 

Lake Wylie, a reservoir on the Catawba River, Mecklenburg County, North Carolina 

(Wayne Starnes, personal commun., 2002). North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission biologists sampled the lake using electrofishing equipment on August 14, 2002, but 

failed to find any snakeheads (Russell Wong, personal commun., 2002).

Example of a poster alerting the public about the 

invasive, non-native snakehead (this poster 

courtesy of the Maryland Department of Natural 

Resources).
24

• Wisconsin •

A single specimen of the giant snakehead, Channa micropeltes, was 

captured by personnel of the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources in the Rock 

River near Beloit on September 4, 2003 (Karl J. Scheidegger, personal commun., 

2003). This species would not overwinter in Wisconsin and was undoubtedly released 

by an aquarist.

USES

AQUARIUM TRADE

Aquarists in Japan, Europe, and, to a lesser extent, North America 

have kept snakeheads as pet fish. Because these fishes are predators (some 

growing quite large) and high costs are involved with providing preferred live 

food, few hobbyists become dedicated snakehead enthusiasts. Judging from 

questions asked in 2002 on various Internet chat rooms dealing with aquarium 

fishes in general and predatory species in particular, interest in snakeheads seemed to 

be concentrated among a small number of serious collectors and a slightly larger 

group of amateur aquarists curious about keeping predators as pets. Most questions 

appeared to originate from persons who had experience with cichlid fishes, were 

curious as to whether snakeheads could coexist with other fishes (particularly 

cichlids), and wanted to know how to maintain snakeheads, what to feed them, what 

species could be purchased, and where they could be bought. Experienced hobbyists 

typically cautioned that large aquaria are needed for several available species, that 

larger snakeheads were intolerant of other fishes and typically another of their own 

species, and warned of the expenses of providing live food.

Snakeheads that have been periodically available to hobbyists in the U.S. are 

listed in table 4. This information was assembled in 2002 from various Internet sites in 

the U.S. and Canada that represent retailers and hobbyist groups and should not be 

considered a complete “shopping list.” Moreover, availability of snakehead species 

from retailers has been often sporadic. For example, two retailers located in states 

where importation and possession of snakeheads is legal and who advertise on the 

Internet rarely have them in stock for sale. A visit 

to one of these dealers in June 2002 found no 

snakeheads. A salesperson said they only have 

them available periodically, adding that among 

the most popular are “red” snakeheads (a “trade 

name” for juvenile Channa micropeltes, a species 

that can reach a length of 1 m as an adult and is a 

voracious predator). Snakeheads have been only 

a minor part of the aquarium fish trade in the U.S. 

(Marshall Myers, personal commun., 2002). 

Retail aquarium store, Nashville, Tennessee. 

Photo by Walter R. Courtenay, Jr., USGS.
 25

Nevertheless, hobbyists, wholesalers, and retailers have been able to import snakeheads 

from many exporters in India and southeastern Asia that advertise on the Internet. 

Individual hobbyists occasionally advertised snakeheads for sale, whereas others 

inquired about availability on Internet aquarium fish “classifieds” and chat rooms; 

sometimes these ads or inquiries originated in states where possession of snakeheads is 

illegal.

Ng and Lim (1990) noted that smaller, colorful snakeheads are important in 

the aquarium fish trade in southeastern Asia. For example, they mentioned that 

Channa gachua was selling for S$30-60 per individual, and that slightly larger species 

such as C. melanoptera and C. pleurophthalma from Borneo, Sumatra, and Malaysia 

can garner prices as high as S$100 per fish. These fishes are caught wild, are primarily 

found in forest streams, and with deforestation occurring at a rapid pace, there is fear 

of overexploitation (Ng and Lim, 1990). In the U.S., prices for C. bleheri have ranged 

from $55-75 per individual for sizes of 8-15.5 cm specimens. Larger species of snakeheads can cost well over $100 per fish, depending on size, with young individuals of 

the same species fetching prices of $15 or more. Therefore, with their predatory 

nature, periodic availability, and relatively high prices for purchase and maintenance, 

snakeheads cannot be considered an important staple of the U.S. aquarium fish industry.

Because 14 states prohibited importation and possession of live snakeheads 

prior to the Federal ban on importation and interstate transport, the potential aquarium 

market for these fishes would appear to be limited. Nevertheless, there have been 

violations of these prohibitions in several states (see section “Regulations as of 

July 2002”).

Larger snakeheads can outgrow their aquaria and/or the interest of their 

owner(s). Some have been released, as witnessed by the capture of Channa 

micropeltes from the wild in waters of Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, and Rhode 

Island (see section “Literature Review and Background Information, History of 

Introduction, Western Hemisphere”). Fortunately, this subtropical species cannot 

overwinter in these states.

Table 4—Snakeheads of interest to aquarists in the U.S.

[Information assembled from several aquarist-oriented and retailer 

websites in 2002. Common names are those often used in the 

aquarium fish trade] 

Channa asiatica Chinese snakehead

Channa bleheri Rainbow snakehead, tiger 

snakehead, python snakehead

Channa marulius Cobra snakehead

Channa micropeltes Red snakehead, redline snakehead

Channa punctata Spotted snakehead

Channa stewartii Golden snakehead

Parachanna africana African snakehead
26

LIVE-FOOD FISH TRADE

Snakeheads have long been favored food fishes in India and many parts of 

Asia, particularly southeastern Asia (Lee and Ng, 1991). Some are utilized as luxury 

specialty foods, available alive in aquaria for customer selection at upscale restaurants 

in larger cities such as Calcutta, Bangkok, Singapore, Hong Kong, and other major 

locales. They also provide easily caught food for poorer people (Wee, 1982). These 

fishes are typically freshly killed, often cooked whole or prepared as filets or steaks, 

fried or steamed, or included in soups. Excess catches in Thailand and Cambodia are 

often dried for storage and future use (Wee, 1982; Balzer and others, 2002).

Lee and Ng (1991) noted that snakeheads can remain alive out of water for 

long periods of time if kept moist. They added that some people believed that this 

ability may have provided these fishes with healing properties, making them prized as 

food, particularly to people with illnesses or recovering from surgery. In such situations, the fish are killed just before cooking, the thinking being that healing properties 

are lost if the fish are killed sooner. They also mentioned that some people in Myanmar believed that one species of snakehead represented humans transformed into fish 

because of their sins, and that eating one would result in the consumer becoming a 

lion. Day (1875) noted that some people in India believed that snakeheads that 

suddenly appeared from mud in the bottom of dried ponds after monsoonal rains 

actually fell from the sky with the rains.

To illustrate the value of snakeheads in the Orient, Wee (1982) recorded 

1977 market prices as $2.50/kg in Taiwan and $1.00/kg in Hong Kong. Ng and Lim 

(1990) reported prices of S$10 to S$20/kg for live Channa lucius, C. micropeltes, and 

C. striata, three of the larger snakeheads, in markets in Singapore in the late 1980s. 

Asian food market in Nashville, Tennessee, showing tubs and aquaria containing live-food fishes, June 2002. 

Photo by Walter R. Courtenay, Jr., USGS.
 27

They commented that even smaller 

species (such as C. gachua and 

C. melasoma) are utilized as food in 

some parts of Asia (such as Myanmar 

and Sri Lanka), adding that 

C. gachua is sometimes used as bait 

to catch larger snakeheads. Peter Ng 

(personal commun., 2003) commented that C. gachua was sold alive 

in May 2000 in fish markets and 

restaurants in Xishuangbanna and 

Luxi, Yunnan Province, China, for 

about S$5/kg, and served in restaurants as whole fish soup. He also 

noted that C. marulioides was sold 

fresh and dry salted in Sambas and 

Sintang markets, western Kalimantan, in April 1998. He also saw 

C. marulioides being sold alive in 

November 1999 in Samarinda, east Kalimantan, and, in 2002, freshly sliced fillets of 

C. micropeltes were sold at S$20/kg in Singapore. In cities such as Hong Kong and 

Singapore, snakeheads are imported for food from Malaysia and Indonesia. This 

appears to have led to declines and scarcities of such species as C. striata in Malaysia 

where this fish is considered the most valuable and important snakehead in the nation 

as food and for medicinal purposes (Wan Ahmad, personal commun., 2001).

As noted earlier, some snakeheads, particularly Channa striata, called 

“haruan” in Malaysia, are important for medical use, particularly in Malaysia and 

Indonesia. Ng and Lim (1990) and Lee and Ng (1991) noted that C. lucius and 

C. micropeltes are also utilized for such purposes in both nations. Mention was made 

of use in a postnatal diet and during recuperation from illnesses or surgery (Lee and 

Ng, 1991). Although no specific information was given as to how the fishes were used 

following surgery, a neighbor of one of the authors (WRC), a Malaysian by birth, 

stated that the oils from the haruan are used to greatly reduce scarring following 

surgery, adding she had seen the results and scar tissue was dramatically reduced to a 

minimum. It has been demonstrated that haruan tissues contain substantial levels of 

arachidonic acid, a precursor of prostaglandin, essential amino acids (especially 

glycine), and polyunsaturated fatty acids required to promote prostaglandin synthesis, 

important factors in wound healing (Baie and Sheikh, 2000).

Channa striata is an important food fish throughout its native range 

(a species complex distributed from Pakistan eastward to southern China including 

Malaysia, Indonesia, and Java). Its supposed medicinal value doubtlessly explains 

why this species is often said to be the most widely introduced species of snakehead 

as persons of Asian origin emigrated to other locations. Channa maculata, often 

misidentified as C. striata, have been imported and released in a similar manner.

Fish market sign at an Asian food market in Honolulu, 

Hawaii, showing snakehead availability. Photo by 

Pam L. Fuller, USGS.
28

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL

There is no evidence that any species of snakehead has been suggested for 

use as a biological control agent in the U.S. Nevertheless, certain species of snakeheads have been investigated or utilized as biological controls abroad. For example, 

Kehar and others (1995) reported experiments in which spotted snakeheads, Channa 

punctata, were used at different levels of pH and salinity in controlling mosquito 

larvae. They concluded that this snakehead could be utilized as a potential biological 

control of mosquito larvae in waters up to 10 ppm salinity. Mansuri and others (1979), 

however, determined that this species was intolerant of salinities above 6 ppm. Nevertheless, Khora and Rao (1994) recorded the spotted snakehead from estuaries entering 

the Bay of Bengal. Only young spotted snakeheads feed on insect larvae 

before dietary changes to larger prey 

(Quayyum and Qasim, 1962).

A more common use of 

snakeheads in biological control has 

been as a predator in fish culture. 

Conlu (1986) and Milstein and Prein 

(1993) reported that chevron snakeheads, Channa striata, are used to 

control overproduction of tilapias in 

culture ponds in the Philippines. Wee 

(1982) also noted this practice, adding, as did Bardach and others (1972), 

that they are also used in carp culture 

to control unwanted “pest fish” in culture ponds. In turn, snakeheads utilized in this 

manner are also sold as products of culture. Similarly, African snakeheads, 

Parachanna obscura, are used to control young of tilapias in aquaculture ponds in 

Bénin (Bonou and Teugels, 1985).

U.S. IMPORTATIONS

Some species of snakeheads have been imported for several decades 

for the aquarium fish trade. In the past two decades, however, snakeheads have 

also been imported to the U.S. for sale in certain ethnic markets that sell livefood fishes and some restaurants that hold live fishes in aquaria for customer 

selection. In most states and the District of Columbia, such importation and 

sale is legal, but there have been violations in at least six states where 

possession and sale of live snakeheads is illegal. Until recently, the live-food 

fish pathway for potential introduction of live fishes into U.S. waters was largely 

overlooked. Because Channa maculata (misidentified as C. striata) and other eastern 

Asian food fishes (common carp, Cyprinus carpio; oriental weatherfish, Misgurnus 

anguillicaudatus; whitespotted clarias, Clarias fuscus; and swamp eel, Monopterus 

albus) were introduced from China into Hawaii before 1900, doubtlessly encouraged 

and perhaps initiated by Asian immigrants (Maciolek, 1984), this pathway should 

have been of concern.

Predatory teeth and jaws of a snakehead. 

Photo by Walter R. Courtenay, Jr. USGS.
 29

Imports of snakeheads into the U.S. have been increasing in recent years 

(table 5). Importation records unfortunately report quantities either in numbers or by 

weight, but not both. Hence, the two columns (Number of individuals, Number of 

kilograms) in table 5 consist of 51,233 fish and an additional 22,208 kg of snakeheads. 

Furthermore, records do not provide a detailed breakdown of species imported or 

indication of the intended reason for importation (pet trade or live-food fish markets). 

Moreover, these records are probably incomplete (Marshall Myers, personal commun., 

2001) and may represent only part of the total number/weight of imported snakeheads. 

This, coupled with not knowing how much of the weight represents small snakeheads 

and juveniles of larger species destined for the aquarium fish trade versus market-size, 

larger fish, makes projecting the total number of individuals a precarious guess at best.

Sources of imported snakeheads are varied (table 6). Again, these records 

are probably incomplete, but China is clearly the major exporter of live snakeheads. 

As in table 5, there is no breakdown by species.

The number of species that have been imported for the aquarium fish trade 

or the live-food fish trade could not be determined. Nevertheless, Channa argus is the 

most widely cultured snakehead in China (Fang Fang, personal commun., 2002), and 

has been available for sale in ethnic live-food fish markets in New York (James 

Stephen Lee, personal commun., 2001) and St. Louis, Missouri (Leo Nico, personal 

commun., 2002). A total of 80 live individuals in transit to Seattle were confiscated in 

Blaine, Washington, in 2001 (Ted Pietsch, personal commun., 2001; Mike Williams, 

personal commun., 2003), and others were seized from markets in Houston, Texas 

(Howells and others, 2002), Miami and Pembroke Pines (Florida Fish and Wildlife 

Conservation Commission, 2001), and Orlando, Florida. Snakeheads had been illegal 

in California, Florida, Texas, Washington, and 10 other states for many years prior to 

Table 5—U.S. importations of live snakeheads (Channidae, all 

species) during 1997-2002 

Year Number of 

individuals1

Number of 

kilograms2

Total declared 

$ value

(individuals and 

weight combined)

 1997 372 892 5,085

 1998 1,488 1,883 12,632

 1999 6,044 8,512 27,718

 2000 8,650 9,240 39,990

 2001 18,991 1,681 21,185

 20023 15,688 -- 26,077

 Totals 51,233 22,208 $132,687

1 Not included in number of kilograms. 2 Not included in number of individuals.

3 Data are for January–May 2002.
30

July 2002. The first specimen of this species to have been captured from U.S. waters 

was taken by electrofishing in Spiritwood Lake, a reservoir north of San Bernadino, 

California, in 1997. Two individuals were caught by angling in the St. Johns River, 

below Lake Harney, Seminole and Volusia Counties, Florida, in 2001 (with three more 

reported as having been caught nearby); another was captured by electrofishing in 

Newton Pond, Worcester County, Massachusetts, in late 2001. The discovery of an 

established population of this species in a pond in Crofton, Anne Arundel County, 

Maryland, proved that this species was capable of invading U.S. waters. In July 2002 

C. argus was being sold in a live-food fish market in Orlando, Florida. That market 

was raided by FFWCC agents who confiscated several specimens. Northern 

snakeheads were reported to be in culture in Arkansas, and this may or may not have 

been a source of northern snakeheads in Florida. Channa argus was likely available in 

live-food fish markets in Boston, although two snakeheads purchased there in late 

2001 by Karsten Hartel were later identified as C. maculata. Live-food fish markets in 

Vancouver, British Columbia, also sold C. argus (Margarita Reimer, personal 

commun., 2002).

In conclusion, Channa argus is known to have been the most widely 

available snakehead in North American live-food fish markets, followed by 

C. maculata. Channa marulius was also available in New York City live-food fish 

markets (Leo Smith, personal commun., 2002). There have been no reports of 

C. striata being available for sale in live-food fish markets in the contiguous U.S., 

even though it is considered the most important snakehead used for food in 

southeastern Asia and is being cultured in Hawaii. Nevertheless, a freshly killed 

Table 6—Origin of snakehead shipments (Channidae, all species) 

during the past 5 or more years 

[1997–2002; records for 2002 extend through May 31]

Country Number of 

individuals 1

Number of 

kilograms 2

Total declared 

$ value

(individuals and 

weight combined)

China 48,533 20,323 125,295

Hong Kong 2 -- 50

India 572 -- 1,498

Indonesia 300 -- 96

Nigeria 970 -- 659

Switzerland 50 -- 100

Thailand 1,084 -- 1,420

United States 25 -- 38

Vietnam 1,079 1,435 4,265

1Not included in number of kilograms. 

2Not included in number of individuals.
 31

C. striata was purchased from an oriental market in San Diego, California, on July 29, 

2002 (Richard Rosenblatt, personal commun., 2002). There was no cloudiness in the 

eyes of the specimen, indicating that it had never been frozen and may have been kept 

in a live fish tank, perhaps on the premises of the market, until a very short time before 

being placed on ice for sale. The specimen was deposited in the fish collection of 

Scripps Institution of Oceanography (SIO 64-228). Channa striata is being sold in a 

market in Honolulu, Hawaii (Pam Fuller, personal commun., 2002).

Another observation from importation data shows that imports of live snakeheads from Ghangzhou and Shenzhen, both in Guangdong Province, China, began to 

increase in the latter part of 2001 and accounted for the majority of imports through 

May 2002. Channa argus is not native to southern China. Therefore, importation data 

suggest that many snakeheads imported during late 2001 well into 2002 may have 

been C. maculata, destined for the live-food fish trade.

REGULATIONS AS OF JULY 2002

At least 14 states specifically prohibited possession of 

live snakeheads (table 7) prior to the discovery of an established 

population of northern snakeheads in a pond in Crofton, Anne Arundel 

County, Maryland, which was eradicated in September 2002. Since 

then, the states of Arkansas, Connecticut, Illinois, North Carolina, 

Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia 

have made possession of live channids illegal (fig. 5). Indiana Department of Natural 

Resources approved emergency fisheries regulations on November 22, 2002, that bans 

possession of snakeheads effective December 1, 2002. Kansas Department of Wildlife 

and Parks prohibited possession of snakeheads in early 2003.

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service published a proposed 

rule to list the family Channidae 

(snakehead fishes) as injurious 

wildlife in the Federal Register on 

July 26, 2002 (67 FR 48855) under 

the Lacey Act (18 U.S.C. 42). The 

final rule banning importation and 

interstate transport of live snakeheads was published in the Federal 

Register on October 4, 2002 (67 FR 

62193). This ruling does not affect 

possession or sale of live snakeheads in states that do not specifically prohibit them, or importation of dead snakeheads refrigerated or frozen for sale as food fishes into states where possession of live 

snakeheads is illegal. Nevertheless, despite the Federal rule and a long-standing state 

prohibition, several live Channa argus were confiscated by U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service Inspectors in California as recently as July 2003.

Table 7—States prohibiting snakeheads 

as of July 2002

Alabama Idaho

Arizona Mississippi

California Nevada

Colorado Oregon

Florida Texas

Kentucky Utah

Georgia Washington
32

Prior to 2002, there were illegal activities involving snakeheads in states that 

prohibited their sale or possession. A total of 80 live Channa argus, destined for 

markets in Seattle, was discovered in 2001 on a truck from British Columbia. Specimens of C. micropeltes and C. marulius were confiscated from pet shops in the Los 

Angeles area, southern California, in the past 2 years. Channa argus was confiscated 

from live-food fish markets in Miami, Orlando, and Pembroke Pines, Florida, and 

Houston, Texas, in 2001. Illegal traffic in pet snakeheads, involving mostly C. bleheri, 

was discovered in Alabama and Kentucky in the past 2 years. It has been suggested 

that these snakeheads came from a distributor in Atlanta, Georgia, a state where 

snakehead possession is also illegal.

POTENTIAL RANGE

Temperature is the most important environmental factor that would 

determine potential range of snakeheads in the United States. Because there 

are few data providing thermal tolerance ranges for snakeheads, potential 

range must be inferred from distribution within native ranges (fig. 6).

The family Channidae contains 10 species that are strictly tropical 

and, if introduced, would survive in only the warmest waters, such as extreme southern 

Florida, perhaps parts of southern California and Hawaii, and certain thermal spring 

systems and their outflows in the American west. Another four species can be considered 

Hawaii

NO LEGAL VIOLATIONS REPORTED For laws related to snakeheads. −

EXPLANATION

LEGAL VIOLATIONS REPORTED For laws related to snakeheads. This would include

illegal activity, confiscations, citations issued, or investigations initiated within the last 2 years.

−

Figure 5—States prohibiting possession of live snakeheads as of November 2002.
 33

Channa amphibeus

Channa argus

Channa asiatica

Channa aurantimaculata

Channa bankanensis

Channa baramensis

Channa barca

Channa bleheri

Channa burmanica

Channa cyanospilos

Channa gachua*

Channa harcourtbutleri

Channa lucius

Channa maculata

Channa marulius*

Channa marulioides

Channa melanoptera

Channa melasoma

Channa micropeltes

Channa nox

Channa orientalis

Channa panaw

Channa pleurophthalma

Channa punctata*

Channa stewartii

Channa striata*

Parachanna africana

Parachanna insignis

Parachanna obscura

TROPICAL

SUBTROPICAL

WARM TEMPERATE

COLD TEMPERATE

EXPLANATION

* Indicates a species complex

tropical to subtropical, indicating a similar potential range of 

distribution as for tropical species, but with a greater likelihood 

of survival during cold winters and more northward limits. One is 

subtropical. Another 11 snakeheads (3 that appear to be species 

complexes) can tolerate tropical or subtropical to warm temperate 

conditions, indicative of species that could survive in most southern states. One is warm temperate, and another is warm temperate 

to cold temperate (Channa argus has a temperature range of 

0-30 oC). In summary, there are no waters in the United States 

that, based on temperature, would preclude some member(s) of 

the family Channidae from becoming established.

RISK ASSESSMENT PROCESS

Snakehead fishes have had a modest 

following among U.S. aquarists for several 

decades. Nevertheless, they are more popular in the 

Japanese and European aquarium fish trade (Ralf 

Britz, personal commun., 2002). It is only within 

the past two decades that snakeheads, limited to a 

few species, have been imported and marketed in the U.S. as livefood fishes. Thus, pathways for introduction into U.S. waters have 

been through importations and releases by aquarists and 

introductions of market-size snakeheads, the latter typically at or 

near sexual maturity. Release or introduction of snakeheads out of 

both of these pathways has been documented in open waters of 

the U.S. All snakeheads prey on other aquatic organisms, most 

showing a preference for fishes, and many are regarded as thrust 

predators, hiding and attacking prey by surprise. As with any 

introduction of a nonindigenous aquatic species, there is always 

the possibility that they may host parasites or diseases that could 

spread to native species. Some might host human parasites, and 

one snakehead species has been found to be a carrier for 

gnathostomiasis. The fact that one species has been shown as a 

carrier indicates that there are others which could present a 

similar threat to human health, yet to be investigated.

There are seven rating elements in the risk model (Risk 

Assessment Management Committee, 1996). Each element is 

assigned an estimated level of risk, rated as high, medium, or low. 

Uncertainty codes after each element rating are as follows (with 

descriptions): Very Certain (as certain as we are going to get); 

Reasonably Certain (reasonably certain); Moderately Certain 

(more certain than not); Reasonably Uncertain (reasonably 

uncertain); and Very Uncertain (a guess).

Figure 6—Thermal range of 

snakeheads (Channidae) based 

largely on native range of 

distribution.
34

RATING ELEMENTS OF RISK MODEL

• 1 • Estimate probability of the exotic organism being on, with, or in the pathway.

High—very certain

Four species of snakeheads have been recorded as reproducing in waters 

of the United States. These are Channa argus in Crofton, Maryland (isolated 

population, eradicated in September 2002), C. maculata in Oahu, Hawaii, C. marulius 

in southeastern Florida, and C. striata, being cultured in confined waters in Oahu, 

Hawaii, since the early 1990s. Specimens of C. micropeltes have been collected from 

waters of four states, the earliest records being from Maine and Rhode Island from the 

1970s. Snakeheads have had a limited market in the aquarium fish trade for several 

decades and, more recently, four species of snakeheads (C. argus, C. maculata, 

C. marulius, and C. striata) were being sold in live-food fish markets within the U.S. 

Therefore, snakeheads have been and are in the United States pathway.

• 2 • Estimate probability of the organism surviving in transit.

High—very certain

Snakeheads are capable of breathing air, many being obligate airbreathers, 

and easily transported by air or land vehicle without water as long as they are kept 

moist. They have survived importation from overseas as well as interstate truck 

transportation.

• 3 • Estimate probability of the organism successfully colonizing and maintaining a 

population where introduced. 

High—very certain

Appropriate habitats and climate are found throughout most of the United 

States. This does not infer that all species of snakeheads could become established in 

most of the U.S., but that there are habitats in all states, with the possible exception of 

Alaska, where one or more species could establish a reproducing population. 

Preferred food of snakeheads (that is, fishes, crustaceans, insects and insect larvae) is 

locally abundant.

Several species of snakeheads have established in waters outside their native 

ranges of distribution in the Eastern Hemisphere. These include Channa argus in 

Japan, Czechoslovakia, Russia for a period of time, the Aral Sea basin (Amu Dar’ya, 

Syr Dar’ya, Kaska-Dar’ya, Sarysu, Chu, and reservoirs on the Talus rivers);

C. asiatica in Taiwan; C. maculata in Taiwan, several prefectures of Japan, 

Madagascar, and Hawaii; C. melasoma on Palawan, Philippines; C. orientalis in 

Kalimantan and Greater Sunda Islands; and C. striata in many Pacific Islands and 

most recently (early 1990s) in confined waters of Oahu, Hawaii.

Within the continental U.S., two species of snakeheads have been recorded 

as established. Channa argus was established in a pond in Crofton, Anne Arundel 

County, Maryland, for at least 2 years before being eradicated in September 2002. 

There remains some concern that the species may have escaped into the Little 

Patuxent River during that period of occupancy. In addition, specimens of this species 

have been collected from the St. Johns River, Seminole and Volusia Counties, Florida, 
 35

a pond in Shrewsbury, Worcester County, Massachusetts, and from a reservoir serving 

Los Angeles, located just north of San Bernardino, California, in 1997. There was a 

reported capture of two individuals of the same species from a reservoir near 

Charlotte, Mecklenburg County, North Carolina. Subsequent sampling of that 

reservoir by North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission biologists did not reveal 

the presence of additional specimens. Channa marulius has been established for 

several years in a series of interconnected artificial lakes and canals in Tamarac, 

Broward County, Florida. This system of waterways is connected to the gridwork of 

flood control canals of southeastern Florida.

Channa maculata has been established since before 1900 on Oahu, Hawaii. 

Although the species was once widely distributed on Oahu, it is now largely confined to 

Wahiawa Reservoir and adjoining canal systems. Yamamoto and Tagawa (2000) 

reported the largest snakehead captured from waters of Oahu was “over 5 feet in length,” 

and that species had to have been C. maculata. Two specimens were also reported to 

have been captured by an angler 

from the Charles River, Boston, 

Massachusetts, in 2002. Since the 

early 1990s, C. striata was 

imported into Hawaii and it is now 

being cultured.

Channa micropeltes, 

a species largely sold through the 

pet fish trade, has been collected 

from open waters of Maine, Massachusetts, Maryland, Rhode 

Island, and Wisconsin. This tropical/subtropical species could not 

survive winters in those states. 

Nevertheless, these releases, likely 

made by hobbyists, is indicative of 

what could happen if similar introductions of this or other tropical/

subtropical snakeheads were made 

in states, such as Florida or Hawaii, 

or into thermal springs and their 

outflows in western states.

• 4 • Estimate probability of the organism to spread beyond the colonized area.

High—reasonably certain

Appropriate habitats (rivers, streams, lakes, reservoirs, ponds, canals) and 

climate are suitable for establishment of snakeheads in U.S. waters. Suitable habitat for 

subtropical/tropical species exists in southern Florida, Hawaii, perhaps southern Texas, 

and thermal springs and their outflows in several western states. Several snakehead 

species can exist in warm temperate conditions that exist in southern states. Both 

Channa argus and C. maculata, especially the former, can tolerate cold climates, 

Joe Hennessey with a giant snakehead (Channa micropeltes) 

caught in a Wisconsin river, September 4, 2003, undoubtedly after 

being released by an aquarium enthusiast. Fortunately, this species 

will not survive the winter (see fig. 6). Photo by Mike Sorge, 

Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Bureau of Fisheries 

Management and Habitat Protection.
36

making the likelihood of their becoming established a probability even in some 

northern states if released. Introductions into rivers, streams, or canal systems would 

likely spread whereas releases into lakes or ponds could be more restrictive as to range 

expansion. Nevertheless, people move fish; considering that larger species of 

snakeheads are popular with anglers in several locations within their native and 

introduced ranges abroad, the likelihood of anglers moving snakeheads to novel 

waters from colonized areas is reasonably great.

Because most snakeheads build nests in aquatic vegetation, some might 

argue that these fishes would be incapable of colonizing waters devoid of macrophytes. Nevertheless, at least three snakeheads, Channa gachua, C. marulius, and 

C. punctata, have successfully reproduced in waters lacking vegetation. The same 

may be true for C. argus that has colonized reservoirs on the Talas River of Kazakhstan. This suggests that there is likelihood that other species of snakeheads have the 

potential to establish in waters lacking vegetation. Predictions as to where or under 

what environmental conditions a nonindigenous aquatic species might or might not 

become established have been proven unreliable in several instances.

• 5 • Estimate economic impact if established. 

Medium—moderately certain

The predatory nature of snakeheads indicates that their introduction could 

negatively impact populations of native fishes through direct predation, competition 

for food resources, and alteration of food webs. Larger species of snakeheads are 

considered to be “top predators” in their native ranges. Unlike U.S. highly predatory 

native fishes, snakeheads are very protective of their young, thus enhancing survival 

beyond early life history stages and suggesting the possibility of eventual dominance 

in suitable waters. To predict what the economic impact could be to the recreational 

fishing industry or to sport fishing is difficult to assess, but could prove to be 

substantially detrimental over time.

The economic cost of eradication efforts would be high. Introduction of the 

northern snakehead, Channa argus, to a single pond in Crofton, Anne Arundel 

County, Maryland, serves as an example. The original purchase of the snakeheads that 

were eventually introduced at least 2 years ago was likely no more than $40. A recent 

estimate of the costs to the State of Maryland during 2002 in personnel, creating and 

conducting two meetings of the Maryland Snakehead Scientific Advisory Panel, 

application of herbicides and rotenone, and disposing of dead fish was about $110,000 

(Steve Early, personal commun., 2003). Introduction of non-native aquatic species is 

illegal in Maryland, but the perpetrator must be found and charged of such action 

within a 2-year period. In this instance, the time limitation had expired before the 

individual making the introduction was identified. Had that person been charged 

before the limitation expired, the fine would have been $40. At present, no state 

requires a liability bond before an intentional introduction is made by individuals or 

an agency, and there are no laws that hold an individual (or individuals) responsible 

for the costs of eradicating or controlling an unintentional introduction should the 

species involved become established.
 37

The northern snakehead introduction in Maryland was a rare instance where 

the fish was confined to a single pond from which it could be eradicated. The costs of 

eradicating an introduced species in an isolated small lake would be greater and could 

be substantial in a larger lake. Eradication from flowing waters or large lakes with 

connecting drainages is physically and fiscally impossible, and the same applies to 

control measures.

Some species of snakeheads are capable of short overland migrations. This 

presents a potential economic threat to fish culture interests if those species enter 

culture facilities from adjacent waters, such as occurred with another introduced 

airbreathing predator, the walking catfish, in Florida (Courtenay and Miley, 1975).

• 6 • Estimate environmental impact if established. 

High—very certain

Because snakeheads do not occur naturally in the U.S., there is no 

possibility of introduced snakeheads hybridizing or interbreeding with native fishes. 

Conversely, competition for food resources is probably high. Competition for habitat 

is probably low except during spawning seasons. Moreover, potential to cause habitat 

degradation and/or destruction is low.

All snakeheads are predators, particularly on fishes. Therefore, negative 

impacts to populations of native fishes could be quite high, as well as predation on 

crustaceans. Predation on other invertebrate species would be moderate to low, based 

A blue tilapia (Oreochromis aureus), an introduced species in Thailand, was sheared in half by a 

giant snakehead (Channa micropeltes). Photo courtesy of Jean-Francois Helias, Fishing Adventures 

Thailand.
38

on literature references supplied in individual species accounts. Larger snakeheads, 

however, are known to also feed on birds (particularly young waterfowl), amphibians, 

small reptiles (snakes, lizards), and small mammals.

Potential to transfer pathogens (parasites, diseases) is largely unknown. 

Nevertheless, all snakehead species are hosts to at least several species of parasites (see 

table 2). At least two snakehead species utilized in intense aquaculture, Channa 

punctata and C. striata, are susceptible to epizootic ulcerative syndrome (EUS), a 

disease believed to be caused by several species of bacteria, a fungus, and perhaps a 

retrovirus. EUS is not specific to snakeheads and has affected other fishes, such as 

clariid catfishes, bagrid catfishes, two cyprinid genera, mastacembalid eels, a nandid fish 

in India, and giant gourami and climbing perch in Thailand. There have been no studies 

undertaken to examine transfer of parasites or diseases to native North American fishes.

Adverse impacts on native wildlife and wildlife resources would likely be 

few, other than through predation. Ecosystem balance, however, could be substantially 

modified should snakeheads become established in waters with low diversity of native 

fishes and low abundance or absence of native predatory species.

Adverse impacts on threatened and endangered species would likely be 

high. Of all the taxa listed as endangered or threatened in U.S. aquatic habitats, 16 

amphibians, 115 fishes, and 5 of the 21 crustaceans (surface dwelling crayfish and 

shrimp), would be the most likely to be affected. Based on habitat requirements and 

life history, amphibians and surface dwelling crustaceans would generally be less 

likely to be affected by introduced snakeheads than would fishes. The possibility of a 

nonindigenous predator in the aquatic community with any listed amphibian or 

crustacean would constitute a threat.

Likelihood and magnitude of the effect on designated critical habitats of 

threatened or endangered species would be significant on the living component of the 

aquatic ecosystem. Depending on the habitat, snakeheads have the potential to 

detrimentally alter aquatic communities. The most likely scenario would be an 

alteration of the fish and crustacean community structure through predation. For listed 

fishes there could be competition for food in addition to direct predation. Like 

amphibians, fishes and crustaceans listed as threatened or endangered species, 

candidate taxa of these three groups or aquatic organisms would likewise be at risk.

Introduction of a small number of snakeheads (for example, less than five) 

into isolated spring habitats could result in extinction of endemic spring-adapted 

fishes or crustaceans. Introductions of fishes considered to be far less aggressive than 

snakeheads (that is, guppies, Poecilia reticulata) in such habitats have had major negative impacts (Courtenay and others, 1985). Snakeheads would not have to establish a 

reproducing population to reduce or eliminate a fish or crustacean species confined to 

a small section of a stream or isolated spring habitat. A small number of snakeheads 

introduced, but not established, in a stream or lake would likely have less of an 

impact. Nevertheless, any snakehead that becomes established in a water body would 

represent a significant threat and could potentially put any listed amphibian, fish, or 

crustacean at risk of local extinction.
 39

There is a likelihood that damage to ancillary wildlife resources through 

control measures could be substantial. Netting and/or electrofishing would be too 

selective on size classes to remove a population of snakeheads, even in an isolated 

situation. Despite preliminary fears that rotenone would be ineffective against 

airbreathing snakeheads, the Crofton, Anne Arundel County, Maryland, eradication 

program on Channa argus in September 2002 proved to be effective. Young northern 

snakeheads captured from the pond were exposed experimentally to several different 

ichthyocides, and rotenone did kill the fish. Nevertheless and as expected, when 

rotenone was applied to the three adjacent ponds in Crofton, it also killed all other 

fishes. An estimated 500 kg of native fishes died and were disposed of (Bob Lunsford 

and Steve Early, personal commun., 2002). Control methods in a nonisolated pond or 

lake, or in flowing water (streams, rivers) situations would be ineffective in 

eliminating snakeheads whether or not they were established.

• 7 • Estimate impact from social and/or political influences. 

Low—moderately certain

Snakeheads have been in the U.S. aquarium fish trade and hobby for several 

decades. Due to their predatory nature, compounded by the high costs of housing and 

feeding larger snakehead species, they have had a limited following by hobbyists. 

Therefore, snakeheads have never represented more than a very minor component of 

the U.S. aquarium fish trade. Consequently, economic impact to the aquarium fish 

trade through prohibition of importation or interstate transport of live snakeheads 

would be minor.

Importation of snakeheads for the live-food fish market in the mainland U.S. 

is a more recent trend, to our knowledge dating back to the most recent decade or two. 

Although snakeheads have been available in live-food fish markets in Hawaii for a far 

longer period of time (likely several decades), only one market (in Honolulu) was 

selling live snakeheads for food purposes as of 2002 (Mike Yamamoto, personal 

commun., 2002). Markets that sell live freshwater food fishes also sell species other 

than snakeheads, including catfishes, tilapias, carp, eels, hybrid striped bass, and 

sometimes swamp eels. These are typically Asian ethnic food markets, and they 

frequently carry a large variety of frozen, imported marine and freshwater food fishes. 

Therefore, as in the aquarium fish trade, snakeheads are only a minor component of 

live-food fish sales.

Economic impact to the live-food fish trade would be minor following a ban 

on importation and interstate transportation of live snakeheads, as these fishes can be 

imported frozen or dead on ice for sale. Until Arkansas passed an emergency rule 

banning importation, possession, and sale of live snakeheads in late July 2002, only 

three fish farmers in that state were reported to be culturing snakeheads (Channa argus) 

for the live-food fish market. There were no other culture facilities in the mainland 

U.S. known to be raising snakeheads. There is, however, one aquaculture facility on 

Oahu, Hawaii, that has been rearing C. striata since the latter part of the 1990s. 
40

Fish produced by that facility can be shipped for sale either dead on ice or frozen to 

any state or U.S. territory, or sold within Hawaii. As a result, Federal prohibition of 

importation and interstate transport of live snakeheads would not present a significant 

negative impact to most U.S. aquaculture interests. Although political entities could 

be negatively impacted by the costs of eradication or attempts to control introduced 

snakeheads, no political entity is known to support importation, culture, sale, or any 

other use of live snakeheads.

ORGANISM RISK POTENTIAL

Probability of 

establishment

Organism within 

pathway

HIGH →

Entry potential

HIGH →

Colonization 

potential

HIGH →

Spread potential

HIGH → HIGH

Consequence of 

establishment

Economic

LOW →

Environmental

HIGH →

Perceived

HIGH → HIGH

Organism risk 

potential

Probability of 

etablishment

HIGH →

Consequences of 

establishment

HIGH → HIGH

LOW = acceptable risk = organisms of little concern (does not justify mitigation)

MEDIUM = unacceptable risk = organisms of moderate concern (mitigation justified)

HIGH = unacceptable risk = organisms of major concern (mitigation justified)
 41

SPECIES ACCOUNTS 
42
 43

Channa amphibeus (McClelland, 1845)

Chel Snakehead

Original description: Ophiocephalus amphibeus McClelland, 1845:274-282. Description of four species of fishes 

at the foot of the Boutan Mountains. Journal of Natural History, Calcutta, 5(18):274-282. Type locality: vicinity of 

tributaries of the Teesta (=Tista) River below the Boutan (Bhutan) mountains. Neotype: ZSI F 11435.

Synonyms: Ophiocephalus amphibius [sic], Day, 1877:365.

Ophiocephalus amphibius [sic], Shaw and Shebbeare, 1938:119-121 (vicinity of Chel River, northern 

Bengal).

Channa amphibia [sic], Jayaram, 1981.

Channa amphibius [sic], Talwar and Jhingran, 1992.

Channa amphibious [sic], Eschmeyer, 1998:92.

Common names: In northern Bengal: bora cheng (Mechi), borna (Rabha) (Shaw and Shebbeare, 1938). 

We suggest Chel snakehead.

Native range: Endemic to Chel River basin, 

Brahmaputra River drainage, northeastern India and 

Bhutan (Musikasinthorn, 2000).

Introduced range: No introductions known.

Size: To about 25 cm.

Habitat preference: No specific information, 

but distribution indicates preference for rivers, streams, 

ponds, perhaps swamps in the Chel River basin, Brahmaputra drainage, of northeastern India and Bhutan 

(Musikasinthorn, 2000). Shaw and Shebbeare (1938) 

reported that during rainy periods, young are found “in 

flooded paddy-fields enclosed by forest; large fish can 

be found in pools of dried streams in forests.”

Temperature range: No specific information. 

Habitat preference and range indicate a warm temperate to subtropical species.

Reproductive habits: No specific information, 

but probably builds a cylindrical nest in vegetation and 

produces pelagic eggs.

Feeding habits: No specific information, but 

likely a carnivorous predator as an adult.

Characters: Gular part of head without patch of 

scales. Dorsal fin rays 50; anal fin rays 35; pectoral fin 

rays 15, pelvics 6; lateral line scales 81; cheek scales 9; 

scale rows above lateral line 5, below lateral line 13; 

predorsal scales 17; two large scales on underside of 

both sides of lower jaw. Head length 27.6 percent standard length; anal fin length less than 50 percent of 

pectoral fin length. Mouth large, maxilla extending far 

beyond posterior margin of eye. Many small conical 

teeth in premaxilla; three large conical teeth in 

prevomer; about four medium-sized canines on each 

After Shaw and Shebbeare, 1938
44

side of palatine; row of about five canine teeth on each 

dentary, smaller than those on palatine; many small 

conical teeth on outer part of dentary. Characters based 

on neotype (Musikasinthorn, 2000).

Commercial importance in the United States: 

Unlisted on aquarist-oriented websites. Negligible likelihood of being imported for sale in aquarium fish trade 

or live-food fish markets.

Commercial importance in native range: 

Unknown.

Environmental concerns: Unknown, but the 

species is probably a predator on other fishes and 

invertebrates.

DISTRIBUTION OF

Channa amphibeus

EXPLANATION

Native range

0°

20 N°

80 E° 100 E°

Scale is approximate

0 1,000 MILES

0 1,000 KILOMETERS

Equator

China

India

Nepal

Vietnam

Thailand Cambodia

Myanmar

Bangladesh

Laos

Malaysia

Indonesia

Bhutan

Thailand Bay of

Bengal

Channa amphibeus
 45

Channa argus (Cantor, 1842)

Northern Snakehead

After Berg, 1933

Original description: Ophicephalus argus Cantor, 1842:484. General features of Chusan, with remarks on the flora 

and fauna of that island. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (n.s.), 9(60):481-493. Type locality: Zoushan Dao (Chusan Island), 

China. Syntypes: BMNH 1843.7.21.3; BMNH 1860.3.10.

Synonyms: Ophicephalus pekinensis Basilewsky, 1855:225, tab. 9, fig. 3.

Ophicephalus argus warpachowskii Berg, 1909:200.

Ophiocephalus argus kimurai Shih, 1936:81, fig. 5.

Common names: northern snakehead; Amur snakehead; eastern snakehead; ocellated snakehead; zmeegolov 

(Russian, Ussuri Basin and Lake Khanka region; Berg, 1965); her-yu (China; Evermann and Shaw, 1927); ga mul 

chi (Korea); kamuruchi, raigyo (Japan; Bailey and Haller, 1977; Uyeno and Arai, 1984; Hosoya, 2002).

Native range: Middle and lower Heilong 

(Amur) River basin; Songhua (Sungari) River, 

Manchuria; Tunguska River at Khabarovsk, Russia; 

Ussuri River basin; Lake Khanka (Herzenstein and 

Warpachowski, 1887; Berg, 1965; Popova, 2002); 

Korea, except northeastern region (Okada, 1960; Berg, 

1965); rivers of China southward and southwestward to 

upper tributaries of the Chang Jiang (Yangtze) River 

basin in northeastern Yunnan Province (Evermann and 

Shaw, 1927; Kimura, 1934; Nichols, 1943; Mori, 1952; 

Berg, 1965; Xinluo and Yinrui, 1990; Ruihua, 1994). 

Reported from Guangdong Province, China (Pearl 

River Fisheries Research Institute, 1991), likely an 

introduction there. Widely distributed in Chinese 

reservoirs (Sifa and Senlin, 1995).

Introduced range: Occurrence of this species in 

the upper reaches of the Bei (Beijiang) River, Guangdong Province, China, is apparently the result of an 

introduction (Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, 

1991). Introduced from Korea in the early 1900s and 

established in many waters of central and southern 

Japan (Nakamura, 1963; Uyeno and Akai, 1984), 

considered as a “careless importation” (Okada, 1960). 

Chiba and others (1989) recorded the dates of these 

introductions as 1923-1924, noting that the species was 

reproducing in experimental or natural ponds and 

adding “Predation on native species” as a remark. In 

Japan, present and established in Hokkaido, Honshu, 

Kyushu, and Shikoku (Hiroshi Ueda, personal 

commun., 2001).

Holcík (1991) reported this species as introduced 

into “Czecho-Slovakia” and Russia, beginning in 1949. 

Holcík did not provide specific localities of introduction 

or information on status of the releases. Bogutskaya and 

Naseka (2002) listed Channa argus as having been 

transplanted within Russia. Nina Bogutskaya (personal 

commun., 2002) reported failed early introductions of 

the northern snakehead into the Volga Delta and ponds 

in Ekaterinburg (formerly Sverdlovsk) Province in the 

southern Urals. An experimental introduction was 

made in ponds of Moscow Province during 1949-1950 

that established. In 1953, it was recommended that this 
46

species should be stocked widely but that failed to 

happen. There was one report in a Russian aquarium 

journal in 1963 noting occurrence of this snakehead in 

small lakes in the Podolsk Region, Moscow Province, 

but the species is presently absent from the Moscow 

area. Tandon (1976) reported that acclimatization 

experiments were conducted in the former Soviet 

Union after 1950, and that fry were collected from 

ponds near Moscow and the Ukraine in 1955 and sent 

to Czechoslovakia for acclimatization purposes. He 

concluded that the source of the original stock was the 

Amur basin, not the Yangtze of China. In further 

support of the Amur basin having been the source of 

the stock, Zhadin and Gerd (1963) noted that “rearing 

of many Amur fishes possessed of frost resistance and 

great plasticity was recently initiated in water bodies in 

the European U.S.S.R.” and included the northern 

snakehead among species imported.

Frank (1970) was more specific on introduction 

of northern snakehead to Czechoslovakia. He stated 

that the first shipment (three individuals) was made in 

December 1956 by V. Nikol'skiy of the Department of 

Ichthyology, Moscow University. These fish were 

introduced into a pond near Nižbor during Spring 1957 

that later flooded into a nearby creek, resulting in the 

loss of the snakeheads. Nikol'skiy authorized a second 

shipment of 51 fish less than a year in age in December 

1960. Several of these were released into three "natural 

ponds" near the Elbe River, with the remainder introduced to the same ponds during summer 1961. These 

ponds contained small cyprinids, roach (Rutilus rutilus) 

and white bream (Blicca bjoerkna), that served as prey 

for the snakeheads. In one pond that contained less 

vegetation, rudd (Scardinius erythrophthalmus) were 

used to supplement the food base. Snakeheads were 

periodically sampled from 1961-1964 to determine 

growth rates. Winters between 1961-1963 were unusually severe. All of the ponds became covered with ice 

during winter. The winter of 1963 was particularly cold 

over a long period of time (air temperatures often 

reaching -30 oC and ice cover present for over 3 months). 

Due to decaying vegetation in two of the ponds producing hydrogen sulfide, a lack of oxygen, and thick ice on 

the surface, snakeheads and all other fishes perished in 

these ponds. Snakeheads did survive in the third pond, 

which was also being used experimentally to test if 

brown trout (Salmo trutta) could be used to control 

overpopulation of perch (Perca fluviatilis). During the 

winter 1963, the supply of roach and white bream was 

eliminated in the third pond by snakeheads and brown 

trout; the food base was supplemented with perch fry 

and snakeheads survived, but failed to grow. It was 

concluded that the northern snakehead could be acclimatized to Czechoslavakia as long as sufficient food 

existed. Interestingly, when the pond was cleared of 

vegetation for fish removal at the end of the experimental period, the northern snakeheads buried themselves 

in mud on the pond bottom making their capture difficult.

Borisova (1972), Amanov (1974), Dukravets and 

Machulin (1978), Usmanova (1982), Guseva (1990), 

and Dukravets (1992) documented introduction of 

Channa argus into the Aral Sea basin (about 45o N) in 

the early 1960s and its presence in the Amu Dar’ya, 

Syr Dar’ya, and Kashka-Dar’ya rivers of Kazakhstan, 

Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan. The initial importation 

in 1961 of the northern snakehead was accidental when 

it was included with target phytophagous cyprinids 

(grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon idella, and silver carp, 

Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) that were destined for 

use in ponds adjacent to the Syr Dar’ya River. Introduction into the ponds occurred at “the ’Akkurgan’ 

fish combine” (Amanov, 1974). Snakeheads escaped 

from ponds in 1964 and soon became established in 

the Syr Dar’ya (Amanov, 1974). Dukravets and 

Machulin (1978) reported that this snakehead migrated 

downstream into the Aral Sea about 1965. Similar 

escapes from ponds along the Kashka-Dar’ya in southern Uzbekistan in 1964 also led to establishment. It was 

also released with carp (Cyprinus carpio) in 1964 into 

Chimkurgan Reservoir in the Kashka-Dar’ya basin 

from a fish farm (Amanov, 1974; Usmanova, 1982; 

Baltz, 1991). Baltz (1991), however, cited 1963 as the 

year of introduction into the Aral Sea basin. At present, 

Juvenile northern snakehead, about 4 cm long, captured 

from pond in Crofton, Anne Arundel County, Maryland, July 9, 

2002. Photo by Algerina Perna; reproduced with permission 

of the Baltimore Sun.
 47

the Aral Sea has almost disappeared and there are now 

hundreds of kilometers between the terminal reaches of 

these rivers and the former coastline of the Sea (Nina 

Bogutskaya, personal commun., 2002). Moreover, the 

salinity of the Aral Sea (10-12 ppm in about 1990; 

Baltz, 1991) is well above the tolerance limits of 

snakeheads.

All introductions into western Asia and eastern 

Europe were thought by some to have originated from 

China, perhaps from Amur basin stock of Channa 

argus. Sal’nikov (1998), in a comprehensive study of 

the inland waters of Turkmenistan, stated that the Aral 

Sea introduction source was the Yangtze basin of 

China. He reported the initial introductions of northern 

snakehead into Uzbekistan, with later migration 

through the Aral Sea into the Amu Dar’ya and other 

waters of Turkmenistan. Dukravets and Machulin 

(1978) and Usmanova (1982) noted that the characters 

of the introduced stock mostly agreed with those of 

northern snakehead from the Amur basin. Dukravets 

(1992) reported additional introductions of this fish 

beginning in 1976 from the lower part of the Sarysu 

River, north of the middle Syr Dar’ya, followed by 

further releases into reservoirs of the Talas and Chu 

Rivers, north and northeast of Tashkent, the capitol of 

Kazakhstan, during the middle 1980s. The species was 

thriving in irrigation reservoirs and isolated ponds on 

the Talas River, and more than 10 metric tons were 

commercially harvested from the reservoirs in 1989 

(Dukravets, 1992). The latitude of this area of Kazakhstan parallels those of the Vermont/Quebec border, 

Minneapolis, Minnesota, and Salem, Oregon, in North 

America, indicating a possible northern range of distribution should this snakehead become established in 

U.S. waters.

As noted earlier, presence of this species in 

Guangdong Province, southern China (Pearl River 

Fisheries Research Institute, 1991), is likely the result 

of an introduction.

This species is recorded from open waters of 

the United States. A large snakehead was captured by 

electroshocking by California Fish and Game Department personnel in Silverwood Lake, located in the 

San Bernardino Mountains, north of San Bernardino, 

California, on October 22, 1997. The lake receives 

water from the California Aqueduct and serves as a 

reservoir for Los Angeles. A photograph of the specimen was taken and the specimen was frozen but later 

discarded without being preserved. The photograph has 

not yet been located. We sent a digital photograph of an 

adult Channa argus to the biologist who reported the 

capture in 1997 and he responded that this appeared to 

be the same species (John Sunada, personal commun., 

2002). It is unlikely that another species of snakehead 

could survive in this high-altitude reservoir.

Two specimens were captured from the St. Johns 

River below Lake Harney, Seminole and Volusia Counties, Florida. The first was collected February 11, 2000, 

and the second on March 4, 2000. There are unconfirmed reports of three additional specimens having been 

caught nearby (Franklin N. Snelson, Jr., personal 

commun., 2001). An attempt was made by USGS 

personnel to collect additional specimens at this site 

by electrofishing in 2001, but none were collected. Additional attempts to collect this species will be undertaken.

On May 14, 2002 a Maryland angler caught a 

43-45 cm long snakehead in a 1.8-ha retention pond 

behind a shopping mall in Crofton, Anne Arundel 

County, Maryland. The angler took photographs of the 

unusual looking fish before releasing it back into the 

pond. A month later, the angler took one of the photos 

to the Maryland Department of Natural Resources 

(MDDNR) headquarters in Annapolis for identification, and one of the biologists thought it might be a 

snakehead. That same day, the photograph was emailed 

to the USGS in Gainesville, Florida, where we readily 

identified the fish as a northern snakehead and immediately notified MDDNR. In fact, we had just completed 

and submitted a document on the risk assessment and 

evaluation potential for establishment (among other 

biological factors) to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

on the entire family of snakeheads about a week prior 

to when the Crofton pond fish was initially caught. 

A second snakehead (about 66 cm long) was 

caught by a second angler in the same retention pond 

on June 30, 2002. On the evenings of July 7-8, he 

dipnetted eight juvenile snakeheads from the pond, 

which we subsequently confirmed as northern snakeheads. This was the first proof that the species was 

established as a reproducing population. Later that 

week (July 11), MDDNR biologists captured an additional 99 juveniles ranging 5-6 cm in length, using 

backpack electrofishing units close to shore (Steve 

Early, personal commun., 2002). During the following 

week, more juveniles about the same size were 

captured by electrofishing. The pond and two adjacent 

smaller ponds were treated with herbicides by 

MDDNR personnel on August 18, 2002. Two dead 

juveniles, about 10 cm in length, were collected from 

the largest pond on August 20, 2002.
48

All three ponds were treated with rotenone on 

September 4. No snakeheads were found in the two 

smaller ponds. Dead fish ceased rising to the surface of 

the largest pond on September 7. The lengths of recovered northern snakeheads included two ranging from 

69-70 cm, two 59 cm individuals, two ranging from 

41-43 cm, more than 800 from 10-10.5 cm, and 566 

young juveniles about 3.5 cm. The total number of 

snakeheads recovered was greater than the number of 

native fishes killed (Bob Lunsford, personal commun., 

2002), although the biomass of natives was greater 

(Steve Early, personal commun., 2002).

A specimen of northern snakehead was captured 

by Massachusetts Department of Fish and Wildlife 

personnel in Newton Pond, Shrewsbury, Worcester 

County, Massachusetts, on October 4, 2001 (Karsten 

Hartel and Todd Richards, personal commun., 2001; 

Hartel and others, 2002). The likely source for both the 

Florida specimens and the one from Massachusetts is 

live-food fish markets.

In early August 2002, Gene Polk from Charlotte, 

North Carolina, reported that he and an angling partner 

caught two northern snakeheads from Lake Wylie, a 

reservoir on the Catawba River, near the U.S. Route 74 

bridge. These fish were identified as Channa argus

(Wayne Starnes, personal commun., 2002).

The USGS received an unconfirmed report of an 

angler who caught a snakehead near Rockport, southeastern Texas, that he believed was a northern snakehead based on illustrations in Howells and others 

(2002). He reportedly released the specimen without 

photographing it and has not followed up on his promise to provide a collection location or size of the fish 

(Robert Howells, personal commun. 2002).

Size: To 85 cm (Okada, 1960), although Nina 

Bogutskaya (personal commun., 2002) reported seeing 

captured specimens in Russia approaching 1.5 m total 

length. In the Amur River where the species is native 

and the Syr Dar’ya of Kazahkstan where it is introduced, males tend to be larger than females, with a 

higher dorsal fin, wider interorbital distance, and 

longer snout, postorbital distance, and upper jaw. 

Moreover, morphometrics vary with age (Dukravets 

and Machulin, 1978).

Habitat preference: Stagnant shallow ponds or 

swamps with mud substrate and aquatic vegetation; slow 

muddy streams (Okada, 1960). Also occurs in canals, 

reservoirs, lakes, and rivers (Dukravets and Machulin, 

1978; Dukravets, 1992; Nina Bogutskaya, personal 

commun., 2002). This species is an obligate airbreather 

(Uchida, 1933). It appears to occupy waters, usually 

with vegetation, close to shore, and also feeds in schools 

(Nina Bogutskaya, personal commun., 2002).

Temperature range: 0 to >30 oC (Okada, 1960).

Reproductive habits: Soin (1960) provided a 

detailed, illustrated report on spawning and development 

of the northern snakehead from within its native range. 

His study was based on observations made at a fish farm 

adjacent to the Songhua Jiang (Sungari River), northeastern China, in July 1958. He found fertilized eggs, 

about 1 day old, within an open nest (=cleared of 

vegetation) about 1 m in diameter and 60-80 cm deep. 

The eggs were guarded by two adults. Eggs were 

described as buoyant due to presence of a large lipid 

droplet that was more than three-quarters the diameter of 

the egg. Each egg had a diameter of 1.8-1.85 mm and the 

yolk was bright yellow. At 1 day of age, the length of an 

embryo removed from a fertilized egg was 3.2 mm. 

Hatching occurred 12 hours later at temperatures of 

23-25 °C, about 2 days after spawning, and each larva 

was about 4.5 mm long. Respiration was through the 

caudal vein, the subintestinal vein that covers much of 

the yolk sac, and the enlarged ducts of Cuvier. Pectoral 

fins appeared about 1 day after hatching and larvae were 

about 5.7 mm long. Yolk was noticeably resorbed, ducts 

of Cuvier were reduced in size, and respiration was 

primarily through the subintestinal and hepatic veins that 

covered about two-thirds of the yolk sac surface. An oral 

aperture was present and an operculum covered the 

developing gills. A length of 7.1 mm was reached at 

2 days following hatching and most of the yolk was 

resorbed. Nevertheless, the large lipid droplet was still 

present and caused what remained of the yolk sac to 

protrude laterally, producing a pair of cystiform structures. Melanophores had become well developed in the 

skin, giving the larvae a very dark color. By 3 days old, 

very little yolk remained, external blood vessels became 

markedly reduced, respiration by gills had begun, and 

the cystiform outpocketings remained visible on top of 

what remained of the yolk sac. Pectoral fins, used in 

locomotion, had enlarged, and the larvae, at 7.3 mm in 

length, had begun to feed. Larvae remained near the nest 

surface, grouped together, guarded by adults. About 

2 weeks after hatching, larvae were approaching 11 mm 

in length, the yolk sac and cystiform processes had 

disappeared, fin rays were visible in the pectorals, coloration was black, and the epibranchial cavities that will 

later be used for aerial respiration had begun to develop. 

A length of 2 cm was reached by the fourth week after 

hatching, pelvic fins were developing, epibranchial 
 49

breathing cavities had become functional, and body 

color had changed from black to brown. Larvae of this 

size had lost their aggregative behavior and moved to 

slightly deeper water. Scales did not develop until the 

early juveniles had reached a length of 4-4.5 cm, when 

the mottled pattern of dark blotches characteristic of the 

species had appeared.

Many of the reports on this species vary considerably from what was observed following its introduction 

into Maryland. The northern snakehead has been said to 

reach sexual maturity in about 3 years at a length of 30-

35 cm in the Amur and Syr Dar’ya, although some can 

spawn during the second year (Dukravets and Machulin, 

1978). Okada (1960) reported spawning at 2 years at a 

length of 30 cm in Japan, and Nikol’skiy (1956) indicated the same for northern snakeheads in the Amur 

basin, differing from the age report given by Dukravets 

and Machulin (1978). This species builds a mostly circular nest of pieces of aquatic plants, about 1 m in diameter, in shallow aquatic vegetation. The water surface 

above the nest is cleaned by the parents, and spawning 

occurs at dawn or in early morning. The female rises 

near the surface and releases eggs, which are then fertilized by the male. Eggs are pelagic, nonadhesive, spherical, yellow, and about 2 mm in diameter. Eggs hatch in 

28 hours at 31 oC, 45 hours at 25 oC, and 120 hours at 

18 oC. Number of eggs released ranges between 1,300-

15,000, with an average of 7,300. Wee (1982) cited 

Frank (1970) who reported fecundity for this species of 

about 50,000 oöcytes. The report by Frank (1970) was 

based on examination of individuals in Czechoslovakia, 

imported from Moscow, Russia, and apparently of Amur 

basin stock. Additionally, fecundity in the Syr Dar’ya 

basin is higher than reported for the species in the Amur 

basin by Nikol’skiy (1956), about 22,000-51,000 in the 

Amur basin and a low of 28,600 to a high of 115,000 in 

reservoirs and lakes of the Syr Dar’ya basin (Dukravets 

and Machulin, 1978). Berg (1965) reported that the 

northern snakehead spawned five times per year in the 

Amur basin. Dukravets and Machulin (1978), however, 

noted that it spawns two to three times in the Syr Dar’ya 

basin, and in one group of lakes only once per year, typically from May to June at a water temperature of 18-

20 oC. Newly hatched larvae are about 4 mm in length 

and black. Larvae remain in the nest, guarded by one or 

both parents, until the yolk is resorbed and body length 

is about 8 mm. Larvae leave the nest as a group after 

yolk resorption and begin feeding on plankton. A postlarval stage follows until a length of about 18 mm is 

reached at which time aerial respiration begins. Young 

then begin feeding on small crustaceans and fish larvae. 

Parental care continues through the post-larval stage. 

Feeding habits: Post-larvae feed on plankton, 

juveniles on small crustaceans and fish larvae, adults on 

fishes, frogs, crustaceans, and aquatic insects. This 

species is reported to be a voracious feeder (Okada, 

1960). Dukravets and Machulin (1978) noted that in the 

Syr Dar’ya basin, northern snakeheads fed on 17 species 

of fishes, including young and fish up to 33 percent of 

the predator’s body length. Larger prey included loach 

(Cobitis), bream (Abramis), carp (Cyprinus carpio), and 

perch (Perca fluviatilis). Other food items included crayfish, dragonfly larvae, beetles, and frogs, as well as plant 

material that was probably ingested incidentally with 

prey. Guseva (1990) summarized dietary changes in 

the Amu Dar’ya basin related to age based on Guseva 

and Zholdasova (1986). Northern snakeheads feed on 

“crustacean zooplankton, Cladocera,” copepods, and 

small chironimid larvae for the first month of life. Once 

a length of 4 cm is reached, they begin to feed on fishes 

and when juveniles become 13-15 cm, fishes dominate 

64-70 percent of the diet. Juveniles up to 30 cm feed 

almost exclusively on fishes (90 percent of diet), mostly 

small goldfish (Carassius) and roach (Rutilis). Moreover, in the Amu Dar’ya basin, northern snakehead feed 

only from late March to the end of October. Feeding 

begins when water temperature reaches 10 oC with 

45 percent of its annual food consumption completed 

by May. Roach dominated in the diet, but commercial 

species such as carp, zander (Sander), bream, grass carp 

(Ctenopharyngodon idella), and various catfishes were 

also consumed. Another 46 percent of annual food 

consumption occurred during June and July at temperatures of 20-27 oC with carp, zander, grass carp, and 

bream dominating (50 percent of diet; Guseva, 1990). 

Feeding declined by autumn as water temperatures 

decreased to 12-18 oC and ceased when temperatures 

dropped below 10 oC.

This species is reported to feed in schools, with 

most activity at dusk into early night and again before 

dawn, typically in vegetation close to shore. It is also 

reported that actively feeding adults make grunting 

noises "like pigs" (Nina Bogutskaya, personal commun., 

2002). Similarly, Soin (1960) noted clicking sounds 

produced by the northern snakehead in ponds adjacent to 

the Songhua Jiang (Sungari River), northeastern China, 

as the fish rose to the surface to breathe air.

Characters: Gular part of head without patch of 

scales. Head somewhat depressed anteriorly; interorbital area flat; eye above middle of upper jaw. Mouth 
50

large, reaching far beyond eye. Villiform teeth present 

in bands with some large canine-like teeth on lower jaw 

and palatines. Lateral line scales 60-67; 8 scale rows 

above lateral line to dorsal fin origin; 12-13 scale rows 

below lateral line to anal fin origin. Dorsal fin elongated, 

with 49-50 rays; anal fin with 31-32 rays. Origin of 

pelvic fin beneath 4th dorsal fin ray. Pectorals extending 

beyond base of pelvic fins.

The body has a very distinctive color pattern. 

Background color is golden tan to pale brown with a 

series of dark blotches on the sides and saddle-like 

blotches across the back interrupted by the dorsal fin. 

The species is capable of darkening its background 

colors to the point of almost obscuring the blotches 

(personal observation). The upper blotches on the sides 

are typically separate anteriorly, but more posterior 

blotches may coalesce with ventral blotches. There is a 

dark stripe from just behind the eye to the upper edge 

of the operculum with another dark stripe below from 

behind the orbit extending to the lower quadrant of the 

operculum. Coloration of juveniles is virtually the 

same as in adults, a characteristic atypical for many 

snakehead species.

Coloration of the northern snakehead is quite 

similar to that of the blotched snakehead, Channa 

maculata. A key character for separating these two is 

the bar-like markings on the caudal peduncle. In 

C. maculata, the most posterior dark bar (usually 

complete) is preceded and followed by pale bar-like 

areas, whereas in C. argus, such pale markings are 

absent and the final dark marking is irregular, often 

blotch-like.

Commercial importance in the United States: 

Generally not listed on aquarist-oriented websites. 

Nevertheless, this species has been imported for sale in 

live-food fish markets and has been the most widely 

available snakehead in the U.S. It likely has comprised 

the largest volume and greatest weight of live snakeheads imported into the U.S. until 2001. The authors 

obtained specimens that were procured alive from fish 

markets in New York, Houston, Pembroke Pines, and 

Orlando, as well as photographs of live northern snakehead in markets in New York and St. Louis that were 

taken by Leo Nico of the USGS. Photographs from the 

St. Louis market were taken in mid-July 2002, after 

northern snakeheads were found established in Maryland; the storeowner had the fish marked as “mudfish.” 

Also, see below under Environmental concerns.

A fish farmer in Arkansas was discovered culturing northern snakeheads in 2001 when possession of 

live snakeheads was legal. This was verified in July 

2002 when it was also learned that two additional 

Arkansas aquaculturists were then culturing northern 

snakehead. The report included information that the 

original snakehead aquaculturist had been approached 

by a live-food fish importer in New York and asked if 

he could culture snakeheads for sale in U.S. markets. 

Apparently, the second two fish farmers decided that 

they too might profit from snakehead culture. Thus, as 

of July 2002, there were three domestic sources of 

cultured northern snakehead, although the importation, 

culture, and possession of snakeheads in Arkansas 

were prohibited on July 29, 2002.

Commercial importance in native or introduced range: This species is cultured in ponds, rice 

paddies, and reservoirs in China (Atkinson, 1977; Sifa 

and Senlin, 1995) and considered a valuable commercial fish in Korea (Berg, 1965). FAO (1994) listed a 

production of 500 metric tons in Korea in 1992. It is the 

most important snakehead cultured in China, with most 

culture activities centered in the Chang Jiang (Yangtze) 

basin (Fang Fang, personal commun., 2002). It never 

became a popular food fish following introduction into 

Japanese waters (Okada, 1960). In tributaries of the 

Aral Sea, Kazakhstan, large populations of this species 

are fished commercially with an annual catch reported 

of 1-5 metric tons (Baltz, 1991). Dukravets (1992), 

however, reported an annual catch of 10 metric tons 

from reservoirs on the Talas River, Kazakhstan.

Environmental concerns: This species is 

described as a voracious predator on other fishes, and 

also feeds on freshwater crustaceans. Moreover, its 

native range (24-53o N) and temperature tolerance 

(0-30 oC) indicates a species that, if introduced, could 

establish feral populations throughout most of the 

contiguous United States and possibly some waters in 

adjoining Canadian provinces. Because it was found to 

be established in Maryland in 2002, perhaps also in 

Florida, and was the most widely available snakehead 

sold as a live-food fish in the U.S., the likelihood of its 

becoming more widely established is real.

Fourteen states banned possession of live snakeheads prior to August 2002. Among those states is Texas 

where possession of live snakeheads has been illegal for 

almost four decades (Howells and others, 2002). During 

Summer 2001, game wardens from the Texas Parks and 

Wildlife Department discovered large numbers of 

Channa argus being sold in live-food fish markets in 

Houston. Raids resulted in seizure of the fish and shipping documentation that traced the fish to a distributor 
 51

who had obtained the fish from a source in New York 

(Robert H. Howells, personal commun., 2001). The 

distributor was an aquaculture facility that had imported 

northern snakeheads for sale to retailers in Texas, and 

agents confiscated the fish (Howells and others, 2002).

Florida also prohibits possession of live snakeheads. Following the discovery of the bullseye snakehead, Channa marulius, that was established in 

Tamarac, Broward County, Florida, in spring 2001, 

agents of the FFWCC raided two live-food fish markets, 

one in Miami, Miami-Dade County, and another in 

Pembroke Pines, Broward County. They confiscated 

several live C. argus (Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, 2001). Channa argus was also 

confiscated from a live-food fish market in Orlando, 

Orange County, by FFWCC agents in July 2002.

Despite Florida's prohibition, one of the authors 

(JDW) purchased a live northern snakehead from a fish 

market in Orlando, Orange County, in March 2002. 

The tank in which the fish was found was labeled 

“Chinese catfish,” although the proprietor explained to 

the buyer that the fish was not a catfish but “a very 

special fish.” The Center for Aquatic Resources Studies 

of the USGS Florida Integrated Science Center has a 

permit to possess certain restricted fishes including 

snakeheads. This purchase was made to prove that illegal fish can be purchased in Florida. FFWCC agents 

confiscated four live northern snakeheads from this 

market on July 16, 2002.

The FFWCC licenses pet dealers, importers of 

restricted and tropical fishes, and retailers and wholesalers of non-native aquatic species. This last item 

includes markets that sell live-food fishes (Kyle Hill, 

personal commun., 2002). The Division of Aquaculture 

of the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Affairs certifies and inspects fish culture facilities, and deals with permits for restricted species to fish 

farmers (Paul Zajicek, personal commun., 2002) but 

does not license retailers or wholesalers that sell livefood fishes. Restricted fishes can only be sold to people 

who possess a valid Aquaculture Certificate from 

Department of Agriculture and Consumer Affairs. 

Moreover, a retailer of live-food fishes who does not 

apply for a license becomes an illegal “unknown” to 

regulatory agencies. The markets in Miami, Pembroke 

Pines, and Orlando that were selling northern snakeheads did not have licenses to possess or sell live freshwater fishes (Kyle Hill and Barry Cook, personal 

commun., 2002). Clearly, there have been sources other 

than aquarium fish dealers from which live snakeheads 

could be purchased, raising the probability of introductions that could become established, as occurred in 

Crofton, Maryland, with Channa argus.

Snakeheads are also prohibited in Washington. 

At 11:35 a.m. on April 30, 2001, a driver for a Canadian 

fish wholesaler declared a shipment of live ling cod in 

Blaine, Washington. The shipment was bound for a seafood distributor in Seattle. Wildlife Inspector Michael 

Williams, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, inspected the 

shipment to find three open boxes containing fish he 

thought were “unusual looking.” When he asked the 

driver what they were, his reply was that they were 

snakeheads that had been pond raised in China and 

shipped without water to Canada, adding this was the 

first time his employer had made such a shipment. Upon 

examining one box, Williams noticed the fish moved 

and, on further investigation, found that most were alive 

and some “capable of vigorous movement.” Williams informed the driver that possession of live snakeheads was 

in violation of Washington State regulations. The driver 

was asked to kill the fish and began striking them with a 

board. Williams notified the Washington Department of 

Fish and Wildlife and, after returning to the truck, found 

that the fish were still alive despite the driver’s attempt to 

kill them. He seized the 80 fish at noon and placed them 

in a freezer. Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife authorities arrived about 12:30 and removed the fish 

from the freezer. Most were still alive. State authorities 

took possession of the fish to proceed with penalties 

against the companies involved (Mike Williams, personal commun., 2003). The shipping invoice listed the 

fish as “Fresh Snakehead Fish–Product of China.” The 

fish were subsequently identified as northern snakeheads 

(Ted Pietsch, personal commun., 2001).

Discovery of an established population of northern snakeheads in Maryland, catches by anglers of two 

verified and three unconfirmed specimens from the 

St. Johns River in east-central Florida, and others from 

a California reservoir, a pond in central Massachusetts, 

and two from a reservoir in North Carolina, coupled 

with proof of their availability in live-food fish markets 

at or near a size when they are reproductively mature, 

were reasons for substantial environmental concern.

Despite the fact that snakeheads are now prohibited from importation, several live specimens of northern 

snakehead were confiscated in California in July 2003. 

Comments: The diploid chromosome number 

of Channa argus is 48 (Lee and Lee, 1986; Wu and 

others, 1986).
52

INDIAN

OCEAN

PACIFIC

OCEAN

20 N°

40 N°

60 N°

60 E° 80 E° 100 E° 120 E° 140 E° 160 E°

0 1,000 MILES

0 1,000 KILOMETERS

Scale is approximate

China

Mongolia

Russia

India

Kazakhstan

Iran

Saudi

Arabia

Afghanistan

Pakistan

Thailand

Philippines

Japan

South

Korea

North

Korea

DISTRIBUTION OF Channa argus

EXPLANATION

Native range

Introduced range

Turkmenistan

Uzbekistan

Tajikistan

Kyrgyzstan

Aral

Sea

Distribution of Channa argus in the Eastern Hemisphere
 53

Channa asiatica (Linnaeus, 1758)

Chinese Snakehead

UF 127103, 135 mm standard length. Specimen purchased in an Asian market in Kansas,

October 2002. Photo by Buck Albert, USGS, Gainesville, Florida.

Original description: Gymnotus asiaticus Linnaeus, 1758:246. Systema Naturae, ed. 10. Holmiae, 1:i-ii + 1-824. 

Type locality: Asia. Holotype: ZIU 171.

Synonyms: (?)Ophicephalus miliaris Cuvier, 1831:439.

Channa ocellata Peters, 1864:392.

Channa fasciata Steindachner, 1866:480.

Channa sinensis Sauvage, 1880:58.

Channa orientalis Karoli, 1882:147.

Channa formosana Wu, 1929:73; Myers and Shapovalov, 1932:36.

Cuvier (1831) described Ophicephalus miliaris based on a description by Jean-Jacques Dussumier of a 

snakehead from Canton (Guangzhou), China. Dussumier’s descriptions were made from live or fresh specimens and 

were considered quite accurate by Cuvier (Bauchot and others, 1990). Figure 10 in Bauchot and others (1990), an 

illustration of a snakehead lacking pelvic fins and based on Dussumier’s description, appears to be Channa asiatica. 

Therefore, we have treated O. miliaris as a possible synonym of C. asiatica. Nevertheless, Peter Ng (personal 

commun., 2003) noted that a closely related species, C. nox, that has very similar markings to C. asiatica, is 

available for sale in live-food fish markets in Ghangzhou, raising the possibility that O. miliaris might be a synonym 

of that species. Resolution of this situation is complicated because there are apparently no types of O. miliaris.

Common names: Chinese snakehead; chi hsing yü (Yangtze River basin, China); hua-t’sai-yü (Tungting Lake on 

Chang Jiang [Yangtze] River); kôtal (Japan; Uyeno and Akai, 1984; Hosoya, 2002).

Native range: China, middle and lower Chang 

Jiang (Yangtze) basin, and Xun River basin in Guangxi 

and Guangdong provinces (Kimura, 1934; Pearl River 

Fisheries Research Institute, 1991). Also reported from 

Hainan Island, China (Kimura, 1934) where it is likely 

native rather than introduced.

Introduced range: Taiwan (Musikasinthorn, 

2000); Japan, Ishigaki Shima Island in the Ryukyu 

Islands (Uyeno and Akai, 1984; Hosoya, 2002). Klee 

(1963) reported that this species was “occasionally 

found in Florida waters,” but we have found no 

evidence that it is established.

Size: Up to 34 cm (Daiqin and others, 1999). By 

studying annual ring development on scales, they noted 

a linear relationship between scale length and body 

length for this species. They also commented that 

growth is rapid during the first 2 years of life and slows 

thereafter. They recommended regulating a minimal 

harvestable age of this species at 2.6 years for resource 

conservation purposes.

Habitat preference: No information available. 

Probably a riverine species.

Temperature range: No information available. 

Nevertheless, distribution within native range (32-22o N) 

indicates a warm temperate to subtropical species.

Reproductive habits: No information found 

concerning reproduction in natural habitats. Hosoya 

(2002) stated this species does not build a nest but provides parental care in Japan where the species was 

introduced. Breder and Rosen (1966) summarized this 
54

20 N°

40 N°

100 E° 120 E°

0 1,000 MILES

0 1,000 KILOMETERS

Scale is approximate

China

Vietnam

Thailand

Cambodia

Myanmar Laos

Philippines

South

Korea

North

Korea

Thailand

EXPLANATION

Native range

Introduced range

DISTRIBUTION OF

Channa asiatica

South China

Sea

East

China

Sea

Bay of

Bengal

Taiwan

Hainan Island

species, in aquaria, as producing floating eggs, the eggs 

about the “size as that of the head of a pin.” Reproductively active females become paler with a pink cast, 

with dark brown markings becoming darker and silver 

markings becoming brighter. Reproductively active 

males also become darker. The prespawning female 

rises to the surface of an aquarium, gulps air, and rolls 

from side to side. The male then rises, circles the 

female, and they embrace, rising to the surface with the 

male squeezing the female. They are reported to have 

rolled once, then sank, releasing themselves, repeating 

the sequence after a few minutes. In aquaria, spawning 

can occur every 6 to 10 days. Reproductive activities 

appear to occur at night. Hatching in aquaria occurs in 

about 24 hours at 28 oC. There are some indications 

that the male may be a mouthbrooder. Both male and 

female are reported to aggressively protect against anything introduced into an aquarium when eggs or fry are 

present.

Feeding habits: No information found, but 

likely a thrust predator.

Characters: Gular region of head without patch 

of scales. Pelvic fins absent. Dorsal fin with 44 rays; 

anal fin 26 rays; pectoral fin 14 rays. Lateral line scales 

57; predorsal scales 12; rows of scales between dorsal 

origin and lateral line 5; scale rows between lateral line 

and midline of belly 16. Color 

pattern distinct among snakeheads with dark chevrons on 

sides and large ocellus centered 

on caudal peduncle. The center 

of the ocellus is not round but 

more quadrangular in shape 

(Bureau of Aquatic Products 

Industry, 1988; Lee and Ng, 

1991), unlike that illustrated in 

Pearl River Fisheries Research 

Institute (1991). The most 

closely related snakehead is 

Channa nox, which has 47-51 

dorsal fin rays, 31-33 anal fin 

rays, and is black on the upper 

half of the body. Like 

C. asiatica, C. nox also lacks 

pelvic fins and has a large black 

ocellus on the caudal peduncle.

Commercial importance in the United States: 

Ross B. Socolof (personal commun., 2003) reported 

Channa asiatica as the first snakehead to have been 

imported to the contiguous United States for the aquarium fish trade. Subsequent accounts of this species in 

the aquarium fish literature (Innes, 1920, 1955; 

Armstrong, 1923; Stoye, 1935; Axelrod and Schultz, 

1955) are indicative of its availability through much of 

the early to mid-1900s. Typically not listed on aquaristoriented websites.

Commercial importance in native range: 

Nichols (1943) commented that it was never seen for 

sale in China. Nevertheless, it is sold in the aquarium 

fish trade outside its native range in Singapore (Ng and 

Lim, 1990). Daiqin and others (1999) recommended 

restricting the legal harvestable age to 2.6 years, a clear 

indication that the species is being fished commercially 

in China. Ping Zhuang (personal commun., 2002) noted 

that this species is now common in aquaculture in China.

Environmental concerns: Probably a thrust predator on other fishes and invertebrates like many other 

snakeheads. According to Ross B. Socolof (personal 

commun., 2003), this was the first snakehead imported 

into the U.S. for the aquarium fish trade, the earliest 

imports occurring in the late 1800s or early 1900s.

Comments: The diploid number of chromosomes of Channa asiatica is 46 (Wu and others, 1986).

Channa asiatica
 55

Channa aurantimaculata Musikasinthorn, 2000

Orangespotted Snakehead

Upper image: holotype, KUMF 3135, 190.8 mm standard length. Lower image: ventral view of head showing 

enlarged scales on lower jaw, paratype, KUMF 3136, 163.7 mm standard length. Reprinted with permission 

from Prachya Musikasinthorn, author, and Tomoki Sunobe, Secretary of the Ichthyological Society of Japan, 

from: Musikasinthorn, Prachya. 2000. Channa aurantimaculata, a new channid fish from Assam (Brahmaputra 

River basin), India, with designation of a neotype for C. amphibeus (McClelland, 1845). Ichthyol. Res. 

47(1):27-32.

Original description: Channa aurantimaculata Musikasinthorn, 2000:27-32. Channa aurantimaculata, a new 

channid fish from Assam (Brahmaputra River Basin, India), with designation of a neotype for C. amphibeus

(McClelland, 1845). Ichthyological Research, 47(1):27-37, figs. 1-5. Type locality: Dibrugarh town, Digrugarh, 

Assam, India. Holotype: KUMF 3135. Paratypes: KUMF 3136; NSMT-P 55735; ZSI uncataloged, collected with 

KUMF 3136.

Synonyms: No synonyms.

Common names: orangespotted snakehead; naga-cheng (Assam, India).

Native range: Endemic to middle Brahmaputra 

River basin, northern Assam, India (Musikasinthorn, 

2000).

Introduced range: No introductions known.

Size: To about 40 cm.

Habitat preference: Forest streams, ponds, and 

swamps adjacent to the Brahmaputra River in subtropical rainforest conditions (Musikasinthorn, 2000).

Temperature range: Unknown, except preferred 

habitat and known range is subtropical.

Reproductive habits: No specific information, 

but probably a nest builder with pelagic eggs like the 

majority of channid fishes.

Feeding habits: No information, but more than 

likely a carnivorous predator as adults.

Characters: Patch of scales on gular part of head 

absent. Head elongated, mouth large, interorbital region 

almost flat. Dorsal fin rays 45-47; anal rays 28-30; 

lateral line scales 51-54; cheek scales 8-12; predorsal 

scales 13-15; total vertebrae 50-52; two large scales 

on each side of undersurface of lower jaw; pelvic fin 
56

DISTRIBUTION OF

Channa aurantimaculata

EXPLANATION

Native range

0°

20 N°

80 E° 100 E°

Scale is approximate

0 1,000 MILES

0 1,000 KILOMETERS

Equator

China

India

Nepal

Vietnam

Thailand Cambodia

Myanmar

Bangladesh

Laos

Malaysia

Indonesia

Bhutan

Thailand Bay of

Bengal

length less than 50 percent of pectoral fin length; 

cephalic sensory pores single without satellite openings. 

Small conical teeth in premaxilla with an additional 

series of somewhat larger conical teeth anteromedially; 

small teeth and 3 large conical teeth on prevomer; a 

row of conical teeth with 5 or 7 large canines on each 

side of palatine; dentary with medium-sized conical 

teeth on each side, also with 5 to 6 large canine-like 

teeth (Musikasinthorn, 2000).

Commercial importance in the United States: 

None known. Recently described species, not listed on 

aquarist-oriented websites and unknown for sale in 

live-food fish markets.

Commercial importance in native range: No 

specific information, but reported in markets in Assam, 

India (Musikasinthorn, 2000).

Environmental concerns: Unknown, but 

probably a predator on other fishes and invertebrates.

Channa aurantimaculata
 57

Channa bankanensis (Bleeker, 1852)

Bangka Snakehead

After Bleeker, 1878

Original description: Ophiocephalus bankanensis Bleeker, 1852:726. Nieuwe bijdrage tot de kenne der 

ichthyolische fauna van het eiland Banka. Natuurkd. Tijdrschr. Neder. Indië 3:715-738. Type locality: Bangka 

Island, Malaysia. Locality of holotype unknown.

Synonyms: No known synonyms (Ng and Lim, 1990).

Common names: Bangka (or Banka) snakehead; runtuk (Kalimantan).

Native range: Sumatra: southeastern rivers (Hari 

and Musi basins) of mainland; Bangka Island; rivers of 

central, southern, and western Kalimantan (southern 

Borneo; Roberts, 1989; Ng and Lim, 1991; Kottelat 

and others, 1993); peat swamps of Selangor, peninsular 

Malaysia (Lee and Ng, 1991).

Introduced Range: No introductions known.

Size: No specific information; Musikasinthorn 

(2000) examined specimens up to 14 cm standard 

length.

Habitat preference: Prefers submerged vegetation in tannin and humic acid enriched backwaters (pH 

2.8-3.8) and moderately fast-flowing streams in peat 

swamps (Lee and Ng, 1991; Ng and Lim, 1991). Also 

found in mouths and middle reaches of rivers (Lee and 

Ng, 1994).

Temperature range: Preferred range 26-30 oC 

(Lee and Ng, 1994).

Reproductive habits: No specific information, 

but likely a nest builder with pelagic eggs.

Feeding habits: No specific information, but 

probably a carnivorous predator.

Characters: Patch of scales present on gular 

part of head. Large canine-like teeth on prevomer and 

palatines. Lateral line scales 55-68; scale rows between 

lateral line and dorsal origin 41⁄2; scale rows below lateral 

line and anal fin origin 7-9; preopercular scales 5-10. 

Reprinted with permission from P.K.L. Ng from: Lee, P.G., and P.K.L. Ng. 1991. The snakehead fishes of the 

Indo-Malayan region. Nature Malaysiana 16(4):112-129.
58

0 500 MILES

0 500 KILOMETERS

Scale is approximate

Native range

DISTRIBUTION OF

Channa bankanensis

EXPLANATION

INDIAN

OCEAN

PACIFIC

OCEAN

0°

20 N°

100 E° 120 E° 140 E°

Equator

China

Vietnam

Thailand

Cambodia

Laos

Malaysia

Indonesia Indonesia

Philippines

Malaysia

Indonesia

Myanmar

Dorsal fin rays 31-45, anal fin rays 20-31. Superficially 

resembles Channa lucius, head taller and more blunt in 

C. bankanensis (see Ng and Lim, 1990, p. 142, fig. 5C, 

D), and body more compressed in C. lucius (Lee and 

Ng, 1991). Somewhat rounded, dark blotch on operculum of adult, not elongated as in C. lucius (Ng and 

Lim, 1990).

Commercial importance in the United States: 

Not listed on aquarist-oriented websites.

Commercial importance in native range: 

Probably not of commercial importance due to habitat 

preferences. Lee and Ng (1991) stated that this species 

is not popular with local anglers due to its small size.

Environmental concerns: Unknown, but probably a predator on other fishes and invertebrates. Habitat 

preferences indicate the species might only become problematic in highly acidic waters. Stoye (1935) mentioned 

availability of this species as an aquarium fish.

Channa bankanensis
 59

Channa baramensis (Steindachner, 1901)

Baram Snakehead

Live coloration (14.7 cm) 

Reprinted with permission from H.H. Ng and P.K.L. Ng from: Ng, H.H., and others, 1996. Revalidation of 

Channa baramensis (Steindachner, 1901), a species of snakehead from northern Borneo (Teleostei: 

Channidae). Sarawak Mus. J. 48(69 n.s.):219-226.

Original description: Ophicephalus baramensis Steindachner, 1901:435, pl. 17. Kükenthal’s Ergebnnisse einer 

zoologischen Forschungriese in den Molukken und Borneo. Abh. Senckenb. Naturforsch. Ges. 25:409-464, 

pls. 17-18. Type locality: Baram River, northern Sarawak (northern Borneo). Syntypes: SMF 860; SMF 8473.

Synonyms: Ophicephalus melasoma (Bleeker, 1851) fide Weber and de Beaufort (1922); Myers and Shapovalov 

(1932); Roberts (1989); Ng and Lim (1990); and Rainboth (1996). Ng and others (1996) revalidated the species and 

Musikasinthorn (2000) also recognized the species as valid.

Common names: Baram snakehead; barama snakehead.

After Steindachner, 1901
60

INDIAN

OCEAN

PACIFIC

OCEAN

0°

20 N°

100 E° 120 E° 140 E°

0 500 MILES

0 500 KILOMETERS

Scale is approximate

Native range

DISTRIBUTION OF

Channa baramensis

EXPLANATION

Equator

China

Vietnam

Thailand

Cambodia

Laos

Malaysia

Indonesia Indonesia

Philippines

Malaysia

Indonesia

Myanmar

Native range: Northern Sarawak, Brunei, and 

western Sabah (northern Borneo). Also occurs in the 

Sadong basin, southern Sarawak, and the Segama 

basin, eastern Sabah (Martin-Smith and Hui, 1998).

Introduced range: None.

Size: To about 22 cm.

Habitat preference: Known from blackwater 

swamps (Ng and others, 1996) and small to moderatesized streams, clear or turbid, in secondary growth or 

forest areas (Inger and Kong, 1962).

Temperature range: No specific information, 

but native range is tropical (about 3-6o N).

Reproductive habits: Habits can be inferred 

from those of its closest relative, Channa melasoma. 

Doubtlessly a nest builder like other channids with 

probably only one parent guarding eggs and young. 

Likely a nocturnal species.

Feeding habits: Like Channa melasoma, probably a nocturnal thrust predator that feeds on other 

fishes, small reptiles, crabs, insects and insect larvae.

Characters: No patch of scales on gular region. 

Dorsal fin rays 38-40; anal rays 23-26. Predorsal scales 

8-9; lateral line scales 51-52. This species appears to be 

most closely related to Channa melasoma, and some 

characters overlap in both species (Ng and others, 

1996). Nevertheless, adults (120 mm or more standard 

length) can be separated as follows: Lateral head 

profile of C. melasoma distinctly sharper. Postorbital 

depth greater in C. baramensis than in C. melasoma

(33.3-34.1 percent of head length versus 27.9-31.8 

percent of head length in C. melasoma) (Ng and others, 

1996). There are also distinct differences in coloration. 

In closely related C. melasoma and C. cyanospilos, 

black pigment (melanin) appears as evenly spread over 

each scale, whereas in C. baramensis, melanin is 

concentrated in the central part of most scales in adults 

and most specimens smaller than 120 mm standard 

length. Moreover, there is a distinct barred pattern on 

the caudal fin in adult C. baramensis that is absent in 

C. melasoma and C. cyanospilos of similar lengths. 

This character, however, cannot be used to identify 

specimens smaller than about 120 mm standard length 

(Ng and others, 1996).

Commercial importance in the United States: 

Unknown to have been imported for any purpose.

Commercial importance in native range: 

Reported as caught by anglers, indicating use as a food 

fish (Ng and others, 1996). Probably only of minor 

commercial importance.

Environmental concerns: This species is probably a nocturnal thrust predator. Its limited range in the 

tropics would restrict its ability to establish in all but 

the warmest waters of the U.S.

Channa baramensis
 61

Channa barca (Hamilton, 1822)

Barca Snakehead

After Hamilton, 1822

Original description: Ophiocephalus barca Hamilton, 1822:67, pl. 35, fig. 20. An account of the fishes found in 

the River Ganges and its branches. Edinburgh and London. i-vii + 1-405, pls. 1-39. Type locality: Brahmaputra 

River, near Goalpara, Assam, India. Types unknown.

Synonyms: Ophicephalus nigricans Cuvier, 183:431.

Common name: barca snakehead.

Native range: Endemic to Ganges and 

Brahmaputra River basin, India and Bangladesh 

(Musikasinthorn, 2000). Bhuiyan (1964) cited its 

presence in eastern and some areas of western Pakistan 

but this may be a misidentification.

Introduced range: No introductions known.

Size: To 90 cm (Talwar and Jhingran, 1992).

Habitat preference: Large rivers (Talwar and 

Jhingran, 1992).

Temperature range: No specific information. 

Nevertheless, its native range is located between about 

25-27o N, suggesting it is a warm temperate species.

Reproductive habits: No detailed information, 

but like other snakehead species, it is assumed to clear 

a nest in nearshore vegetation, lay pelagic eggs which, 

following fertilization, rise to the surface where they 

are guarded vigorously by one or both parents until 

hatching.

Characters: Body elongated, mostly rounded. 

Mouth large; lower jaw with a few canines behind a 

single row of villiform teeth that widen to 5 or 6 rows 

at jaw symphysis; 2 or 3 large teeth on vomer and some 

on palatines. Scales on top of head large; 9 scale rows 

between preopercular angle and posterior border of 

orbit; predorsal scales 15; 60 to 65 scales in longitudinal series. Dorsal fin rays 47-52; anal fin rays 34-36; 

pectoral rays 16; pelvic fin rays 6. Life colors violet on 

back fading to dull white with purple cast on sides; 

back and sides with large black blotches, as are dorsal, 

anal, and caudal fins; fin edges red; pectoral fins red 

with numerous black spots.

Commercial importance in the United States: 

Typically not listed on aquarist-oriented websites. 

Likelihood of being imported for sale in aquarium fish 

trade or live-food fish markets has been low to probably nonexistent.

Commercial importance in native range: 

While reported as common in the Brahmaputra River, 

Assam, India, it is said to be of minor importance as a 

fishery resource. Nevertheless, it is considered an 

excellent food fish (Talwar and Jhingran, 1992).

Environmental concerns: Like other snakeheads, adults are carnivorous predators, most preferring 

other fishes as food.
62

DISTRIBUTION OF

Channa barca

EXPLANATION

Native range

0°

20 N°

80 E° 100 E°

Scale is approximate

0 1,000 MILES

0 1,000 KILOMETERS

Equator

China

India

Nepal

Vietnam

Thailand Cambodia

Myanmar

Bangladesh

Laos

Malaysia

Indonesia

Bhutan

Thailand Bay of

Bengal

Channa barca
 63

Channa bleheri Vierke, 1991

Rainbow Snakehead

Reprinted with permission from Jörg Vierke from: Vierke, Jörg. 1991a. Ein farbenfroher neuer 

schlangenkopffish aus Assam Channa bleheri spec. nov. Das Aquarium 259:21.

Original description: Channa bleheri Vierke, 1991a:20-24. Ein farbenfroher neuer Schlangenkopffisch aus Assam 

Channa bleheri spec. nov. Das Aquarium 259:20-24. Type locality: upper part of Dibru River, near Guijan, 

Brahmaputra River basin, northeastern Assam, India. Holotype: ZFMK 16555. Paratype: ZFMK 16556.

Synonyms: No synonyms.

Common name: rainbow snakehead.

Native range: Endemic to the Brahmaputra 

River basin, Assam, India (Musikasinthorn, 2000).

Introduced Range: No introductions known.

Size: To about 20 cm.

Habitat preference: Forest streams, ponds and 

swamps in tropical rainforest conditions (Musikasinthorn, 2000).

Temperature range: Unknown, except preferred 

habitat and known range is subtropical.

Reproductive habits: No specific information 

concerning wild populations. Vierke (1991b), however, 

described reproductive behavior in aquaria in detail. He 

noted that females are smaller than males of the same 

age, and that males grow faster than females. A male 

selects the nesting site, but it is the female that appears 

to initiate courtship behavior. Two days prior to spawning, there is frequent body contact between male and 

female, with the two wrapping around each other. This 

behavior increases at spawning, near the surface, and 

the spawning act can last up to 30 seconds.

The eggs released are transparent and float to the 

surface. They are small, round, and 0.9-1.1 mm in 

diameter. An oil globule, about 0.6-0.7 mm in size, is 

present in each egg. The egg mass, with eggs close 

together, appears to be made of foam. Both the male 

and female initially tend the egg mass and display an 

interesting behavior. They take the eggs into the oral 

cavity and expel them through the gills, presumably to 

remove materials that may settle on egg surfaces. The 

eggs adhere to each other at the surface. Following 

hatching, both parents guard the larvae.

The young remain around the parents, often with 

body contact between them. Young can often be found on 

the heads of parents, appearing to be feeding on mucus. 
64

DISTRIBUTION OF

Channa bleheri

EXPLANATION

Native range

0°

20 N°

80 E° 100 E°

Scale is approximate

0 1,000 MILES

0 1,000 KILOMETERS

Equator

China

India

Nepal

Vietnam

Thailand Cambodia

Myanmar

Bangladesh

Laos

Malaysia

Indonesia

Bhutan

Thailand Bay of

Bengal

They appear to nip the parents, and removal of young 

from parents at this stage seems to slow growth of the 

separated individuals. 

Feeding habits: No information concerning wild 

populations, but likely a carnivorous predator as an 

adult. Vierke (1991b) noted that in aquaria, rainbow 

snakeheads will feed on worms similar to bloodworms. 

When fed guppies (Poecilia reticulata), they will eat 

guppies they can easily catch, but typically tire of chasing this prey, eventually tolerating their presence.

Characters: No area of scales in gular region. 

No pelvic fins. Dorsal rays 36-37; anal rays 24; predorsal scales 6-7; lateral line scales 45-46. One or 2 large 

scales on undersurface of lower jaw. 

Live adults have large irregular red or orange 

spots (white in preserved specimens) that sometimes 

coalesce (Musikasinthorn, 2000). This is the most 

colorful of all snakehead species. Newly hatched larvae 

are colorless. When they reach a length of 1 cm, the 

dorsum and sides of the body becomes “canary” 

yellow, with a dark bar on the head, angled from the tip 

of the lower jaw, through the eye, to the upper margin 

of the operculum; the ventral side is colored smoke 

gray to black. As young continue to grow, their color 

becomes more pale and an ocellus appears on the 

posterior part of the dorsal fin. Later they begin to 

change to adult coloration (Vierke, 1991a). 

This species appears to be most closely related to 

Channa burmanica (Peter Ng, personal commun., in

Vierke, 1991b). They differ in several characters. 

Channa burmanica has 51 lateral line scales, 28 anal 

rays, and 8 predorsal scales, whereas these counts in 

C. bleheri are 45-46, 24, and 6-7, respectively. The 

rainbow snakehead also has a longer caudal peduncle 

than C. burmanica with 9 scales from the posterior end 

of the anal fin to the caudal fin base in C. bleheri and 

4+2 in C. burmanica (Vierke, 1991b). 

Commercial importance in the United States: 

This species is sometimes listed on aquarist-oriented 

websites and has been available for sale through aquarium fish retailers. Because of its attractive coloration, it 

appears to have been increasing in popularity as an 

aquarium species. An aquarium fish dealer in Kentucky 

was found to be selling this species illegally, having 

imported them from a supplier in Atlanta, Georgia, 

where snakeheads are also illegal (Major David Casey, 

personal commun., 2002). 

Commercial importance in native range: This 

species is caught commercially for the aquarium fish 

trade (Ralf Britz, personal commun., 2002) and is not 

known to be cultured for this purpose.

Environmental concerns: If released into U.S. 

waters, it could become established in subtropical Florida, Hawaii, perhaps southeastern Texas, and thermal 

springs and their outflows in western states. Probably 

predacious on other fishes.

Channa bleheri
 65

Channa burmanica Chaudhuri, 1919

Burmese Snakehead

After Chaudhuri, 1919

Left: dorsal view; Right: ventral view

Original description: Channa burmanica Chaudhuri, 1919:284-286, fig. 4. Report on a small collection of fish 

from Putao (Hkamti Long) on the northern frontier of Burma. Records of the Indian Museum 16:271-287. Type 

locality: Putao Plains of northern Myanmar, river Sen-Ben-Ti. Holotype: ZSI F9755.

Synonyms: Synonyms unknown.

Common name: Burmese snakehead.

Native range: Endemic to headwaters (Kiu 

River, perhaps Lang basin) of the Ayeyarwaddy 

(=Irrawaddy) River in northern Myanmar, between the 

Kumon and Shan-ngaw mountain ranges.

Introduced range: No introductions known.

Size: Maximum size unknown. Chaudhuri’s 

(1919) largest specimen (one of four) was 106 cm 

total length. The species doubtlessly reaches a greater 

length, but cannot be considered as one of the moderateto-large snakehead species.

Habitat preference: No specific information in 

Chaudhuri’s (1919) publication. 

Temperature range: No specific information. 

The type locality (Putao Plains) is about 27o N, indicating a subtropical to warm temperate species.

Reproductive habits: No specific information. 

The Burmese snakehead may show reproductive habits 

similar to its closest relative, Channa bleheri.

Feeding habits: No specific information. 

Perhaps similar to that of Channa bleheri.

Characters: No area of scales in the gular 

region. No pelvic fins. Dorsal rays 38; anal rays 28. 

Lateral line scales 51 (50 pored scales), with lateral line 

dipping ventrally after the 12th scale (scale in disjunction without pore). Predorsal scales 8.

This species appears to be most closely related to 

Channa bleheri (Peter Ng, personal commun., in

Vierke, 1991b). See account for C. bleheri for species 

differences.

Commercial importance in the United States: 

None known.
66

DISTRIBUTION OF

Channa burmanica

EXPLANATION

Native range

0°

20 N°

80 E° 100 E°

Scale is approximate

0 1,000 MILES

0 1,000 KILOMETERS

Equator

China

India

Nepal

Vietnam

Thailand Cambodia

Myanmar

Bangladesh

Laos

Malaysia

Indonesia

Bhutan

Thailand Bay of

Bengal

Commercial importance in native range: 

Unknown.

Environmental concerns: Doubtlessly a 

predator and likely feeding on other fishes. Like 

Channa bleheri, this species has potential to establish 

in much of peninsular Florida, Hawaii, perhaps southern Texas, and thermal springs and their outflows in the 

American west if introduced.

Channa burmanica
 67

Channa cyanospilos (Bleeker, 1853)

Bluespotted Snakehead

After Bleeker, 1878

Original description: Ophicephalus cyanospilos Bleeker, 1853:256. Bleeker, P. Disgnostiche beschrijvingen van 

nieuwe of weining bekende vischsoorten van Sumatra. Tiental V-X. Tijdrschr. Neder. Indië 4:243-302. Type locality: 

Telok Betong (presently Bandar Lampung), southern Sumatra, Indonesia. Holotype locality unknown.

Synonyms: (?)Ophiocephalus striatus Weber and de Beaufort, 1922.

Channa sp. Ng and Lim, 1990.

(?)Channa striata Ng and Lim, 1990.

Common names: None known. The authors propose bluespotted snakehead as this character remains obvious in 

preserved specimens and is unknown in other channids from Indonesia or Malaysia (Ng and Lim, 1991).

Native range: Sumatra and probably peninsular 

Malaysia and Kalimantan (Kapuas basin, western 

Borneo; Ng and Lim, 1991). Also found during 1995-

1996 in Riau and Jambi, central Sumatra (Peter Ng, 

personal commun., 2003).

Introduced range: No introductions known.

Size: To at least 20 cm (Ng and Lim, 1991).

Habitat preference: No specific information, 

but known from a tributary in the Sungei Alas (Alas 

River) basin, northern Sumatra.

Temperature range: No specific information. 

The known native range of this species is between 3o N 

and 6o S, indicating a tropical, equatorial taxon.

Reproductive habits: No information located. 

Probably a nest builder that guards its eggs and young 

like other snakeheads.

Feeding habits: No information found. Likely a 

thrust predator as other snakeheads.

Characters: No patch of scales in gular region 

of head. Dorsal fin rays 38-43; anal fin rays 24-26. 

Reprinted with permission from P.K.L. Ng from: Lee, P.G., and P.K.L. Ng. 1991. The snakehead fishes of 

the Indo-Malayan region. Nature Malaysiana 16(4):112-129.
68

INDIAN

OCEAN

PACIFIC

OCEAN

0°

20 N°

100 E° 120 E° 140 E°

0 500 MILES

0 500 KILOMETERS

Scale is approximate

Possible native

range

DISTRIBUTION OF

Channa cyanospilos

EXPLANATION

Equator

China

Vietnam

Thailand

Cambodia

Laos

Malaysia

Indonesia Indonesia

Philippines

Malaysia

Indonesia

Myanmar

Native range

Lateral line scales 51-55; predorsal scales (posterior to 

cephalic shields) 8. Small canines present on lower jaw. 

Pale blue spots on the lower half of the body from gill 

cover to caudal peduncle, remaining visible in 

preserved specimens.

Weber and de Beaufort (1922) listed this species 

as a possible synonym of Channa striata, a practice 

followed for many decades. Ng and Lim (1990) cited 

the species in this same manner. Ng and Lim (1991), 

however, recognized the species as valid as did Kottelat 

and others (1993) and Musikasinthorn (2000). Ng and 

Lim (1991) allied C. cyanospilos with C. melasoma, 

rather than C. striata, based on morphological features, 

particularly with regard to the shapes of the throat 

region and ventral surfaces of the gill cover.

Channa cyanospilos can be separated from 

C. melasoma by lower jaw length (5 percent standard 

length in C. cyanospilos, 12-13 percent in 

C. melasoma). Both species also have 8 predorsal 

scales behind the cephalic shields (7 in C. striata).

Pale blue spots or blotches in the throat region of 

C. cyanospilos are similar to those in C. melasoma, but 

in the latter species the spots and blotches form a 

marbled pattern; C. striata lacks any blue spots in the 

throat region but has brown streaks and spots (Ng and 

Lim, 1991).

Commercial importance in the United States: 

Not listed on aquarist-oriented websites and probably 

has been unavailable in the aquarium fish trade. Not 

known to have been imported or available in live-food 

fish markets.

Commercial importance in native range: No 

information found. Probably occasionally caught by 

angling.

Environmental concerns: Likely a thrust predator with a diet that includes fishes. Nevertheless, this 

species is tropical and probably would survive only in 

extreme southern Florida, Hawaii, and thermal springs 

and their outflows if introduced.

Channa cyanospilos
 69

Channa gachua (Hamilton, 1822)

Dwarf Snakehead

Upper image: ZRC 41100, 107.7 mm standard length, from Perlis, Malaysia. Lower image: ZRC 41656, 

46.5 mm standard length, from Kerala, India. Reprinted with permission from P.K.L. Ng from: Ng, H.H., 

P.K.L. Ng, and Ralf Britz. 1999. Channa harcourtbutleri (Annandale, 1918): a valid species of snakehead 

(Perciformes: Channidae) from Myanmar. J. South Asian Nat. Hist. 4(1):57-63.

Original description: Ophicephalus gachua Hamilton, 1822:68, 367. An account of the fishes found in the river 

Ganges and its branches. Edinburgh and London, i-xii + 1-405. Type locality: ponds and ditches of Bengal, India. 

Type specimens unknown.

Synonyms: Ophiocephalus aurantiacus Hamilton, 1822:69, 368, pl. 23, fig. 22.

Ophicephalus marginatus Cuvier, 1829:230, fide Roberts, 1993:38, Menon, 1999, and Ng and others, 

1999:57.

Ophicephalus limbatus Cuvier, 1831, no p., pl. 201, fide Roberts, 1993:40, Menon, 1999:275, and 

Ng and others, 1999:57.

After Munro, 1955
70

Ophicephalus marginatus Cuvier, 1831, no p., pl. 201, fide Roberts, 1993:38, Menon, 1999:275, and 

Ng and others, 1999:57.

Ophicephalus coramota Cuvier, 1831:414, fide Menon, 1999:275 and Ng and others,1999:57.

Ophicephalus fuscus Cuvier, 1831:414, fide Menon, 1999:275 and Ng and others, 1999:57.

Ophicephalus montanus McClelland, 1842:583, fide Menon, 1999:275, and Ng and others, 1999:57.

Philypnoides surakartensis Bleeker, 1849:19, fide Menon, 1999:275, and Ng and others, 1999:57.

Ophiocephalus apus Canestrini, 1861:77, pl. 4, fig. 7.

Ophiocephalus kelaartii Günther, 1861:472, fide Talwar and Jhingran, 1991;1019, Menon, 1999:275, 

and Ng and others, 1999:57.

Ophiocephalus guachua [sic] var. malaccensis Peters, 1868.

Ophicephalus gachna [sic] Jordan and Seale, 1907.

Ophiocephalus gachua kelaarti Günther: Munro, 1955:100.

Species is in need of revision; status of many synonyms uncertain (Ng and Lim, 1990; Ng and others, 1999). 

Roberts (1989), Lim and others (1990), Talwar and Jhingran (1992), and Rainboth (1996) treated this species as a 

synonym of Channa orientalis, but Ng and others (1999) disagreed with this conclusion. Day (1889), Coad (1981), 

Lim and others (1990), Kottelat (1998), Musikasinthorn (2000), and others considered C. gachua to be valid. For 

purposes of this report, we follow the most recent authorities in recognizing the species as valid, but also realizing 

that it doubtlessly represents a species complex.

Common names: dwarf snakehead; frog snakehead; brown snakehead; dolli or dauli (Pakistan); dheri dhok 

(Hindu); para korava (Tamil); doarrah (Punjab, India); chen-gah (Assam, India); cheng (West Bengal, India); 

dheridhok, chainga (Bijar Province, India); chenga (Orissa Province, India); malamatta-gudisa, erramatta, tatimattagudisa (Andrah Pradesh Province, India); koravu, vattudi (Kerala Province, India); mohkorava, mottu (Karnataka 

Province, India; Talwar and Jhingran, 1992), parandal kanaya (Sri Lanka; Pethiyagoda, 1991); bakak (Malay; Lim 

and Ng, 1990).

Native range: Bampur-Haliri basin and Mashkel 

River, southeastern Iran (Coad, 1979); Kabol (Kabul) 

drainage of Afghanistan (Coad, 1981); eastern and 

western Pakistan (Qureshi, 1965); India, Sri Lanka, 

Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, 

Malaysia, Indonesia (Borneo), Java, southern China 

(Mukerji, 1933; Mendis and Fernando, 1962; Fernando 

and Indrassna, 1969; Roberts, 1989; Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, 1991; Pethiyagoda, 1991; 

Talwar and Jhingran, 1992; Kottelat, 1998, 2001a; 

Musikasinthorn, 2000). Kullander and others (1999), 

citing Das and Nath (1971), recorded this species from 

the Punch Valley, in a tributary of the Jhelum River, in 

the Kashmir Valley of northeastern Pakistan/western 

Kashmir. Peter Ng (personal commun., 2003) reported 

its occurrence in the Toba area of northern Sumatra, 

and Riau and Jambi in central Sumatra in 1996, as well 

as in Yunnan Province, China, in 2000.

Introduced range: There may have been introductions that went unrecorded, but Kottelat’s (1985) 

reference to Channa orientalis from the Greater Sunda 

Islands doubtlessly refers to some species of the 

C. gachua complex. Myers and Shapovalov (1932) 

cited a specimen of C. gachua from Formosa 

(=Taiwan) that lacked both pelvic fins. Because pelvic 

fins were absent, they tentatively identified the specimen as C. orientalis but noted other specimens of 

C. gachua from India that also lacked pelvics based on 

reports by earlier scientists. They suggested that this 

fish may have been introduced to Taiwan. This snakehead can be easily transported for great distances with 

significant altitude and temperature changes (Day, 

1877). Peter Ng (personal commun., 2003) found this 

snakehead in Bali in 2000, perhaps within its native 

range or an introduction. 

Size: This species is often referred to by authors 

as the smallest snakehead, reaching a length of about 

17 cm (Kottelat, 1998). Lee and Ng (1991) stated that it 

rarely exceeded 20 cm. The smallest snakehead, 

however, is Channa orientalis, a species that rarely 

exceeds 10 cm in length (Pethiyagoda, 1991). 

Habitat preference: Appears to prefer clear 

pools, shallow streams, and swamps, particularly in 

forested areas. Nevertheless, Pethiyagoda (1991) noted 

that it is common “in streams and ponds,” but is tolerant of “very stagnant, poorly oxygenated, turbid water.” 

Deraniyagala (1929) stated that it “flourishes in ponds 

rendered so stagnant as to prove toxic to most fishes.” 
 71

Said to be largely a nocturnal fish. Habitat destruction, 

due to deforestation near Singapore, is considered a 

threat to this species (http://www.sci-ctr.edu.sg/ssc/ 

imglib/vertebra/channa.html). Kottelat (1998, 2001a,b) 

reported this species from hill streams in Laos, Thailand, 

Cambodia, and Vietnam. Lim and others (1990) recorded 

finding it in forest streams in peninsular Malaysia. This 

snakehead is reported to tolerate a wide range of pH 

levels with 100 percent survival over 72 hours from pH 

3.10 to 9.6 (Varma, 1979).

Lee and Ng (1994) reported the species “from 

rivers, lakes, ponds, well-shaded, small forest streams 

less than 20 cm deep, hillstreams not continuous to 

mountain ranges and in the upper zone of rivers.” They 

indicated that it is found from sea level to an altitude of 

1,520 m in India and up to 1,430 m in Malaysia, in 

waters with flow rates from stationary to rapids with a 

pH range of 3.1-9.6. Lee and Ng (1991) stated that the 

species is also found in mountain brooks up to 3,600 m 

above sea level. Mukerji (1931) reported capture of two 

specimens from the Billigirirangan Hills of southern 

India at an altitude of 751 m. The species has been 

reported surviving in brackish water, but this is doubted 

by Lee and Ng (1991). Srivastava and others (1980) 

noted decreasing body weight of this species in salinities as low as 5 ppm. They are capable of overland 

migrations (Lee and Ng, 1991), and Deraniyagala 

(1929) commented that it is “exceedingly active on 

land, pregressing by a series of leaps.”

Temperature range: Lee and Ng (1994) indicated that this species can tolerate temperatures in hot 

springs in Sri Lanka to as low as 13 oC. The species 

complex, however, is reported from as far north as 

Afghanistan (with cold winters) to Borneo and Java 

(equatorial tropical). Pethiyagoda (1991) cited 

Deraniyagala (1932) as having recorded this species 

from hot springs at 36.5 oC.

Reproductive habits: This species has been 

cited as a mouthbrooder (Lee and Ng, 1991, 1994; 

Kottelat, 2001a) and confirmed by Ralf Britz (personal 

commun., 2003). An interesting factor here is that 

other authors (for example, Munro, 1955) made no 

mention of oral brooding of fertilized eggs and young 

for the dwarf snakehead. Based on Kahn (1924) and 

Deraniyagala (1929), Breder and Rosen (1966) stated 

that spawning in India occurs with the female swimming upside-down under the male, with eggs being 

released and fertilized in groups of 200-300 every 

minute or two. Females in Indonesia and Malaysia, 

however, are reported to produce from 20 to 200 eggs 

per spawning, with the male orally brooding developing eggs and fry (Lee and Ng, 1991, 1994), further 

evidence that Channa gachua is a species complex. 

This is one of three species of snakeheads known to 

spawn in ponds lacking vascular aquatic plants 

(Parameswaran and Murugesan, 1976b).

Bhuiyan and Rahman (1982) measured fecundity 

from 30 female Channa gachua collected near 

Rajshahi, Bangladesh, which ranged from 487 (94 mm 

specimen) to 4,482 (164 mm specimen). Mean fecundity of the 30 specimens was 2,307 oöcytes for a specimen having a mean length of 132 mm. The relationship 

between fecundity and length is largely linear, as is the 

relationship between fecundity and length of ovaries.

Mishra (1991) described mature (stage V) 

oöcytes as ranging from 2.1 to 2.6 mm in diameter with 

the highest percentage of stage V oöcytes in July from 

specimens collected near Berhampur, Orissa, India. 

The highest gonadosomatic index was 6.8 and occurred 

in June. Estimated fecundity ranged from 2,539 to 

7,194 in 15 mature specimens ranging from 13.4 to 

17.2 cm in length. Again, the relationship between 

fecundity and length, as well as fecundity and body 

weight, was largely linear.

Feeding habits: Lee and Ng (1994) summarized 

food preferences as including “mouse, rat, frog, tadpole, 

fish, Ephemerophtera and other insects, mosquito 

larvae, prawn (Macrobrachium sp.), crab (Irmengardia 

johnsoni), and other crustaceans.” They cited the 

species as a nocturnal predator living at or near the 

substrate and quite capable of migrating overland.

Characters: No patch of scales in the gular 

region. Pelvic fins present, although Talwar and Jhingran (1992) stated that pelvics may be present or absent. 

Lateral line scales 39-47; 31⁄2 scales between lateral line 

and base of anterior dorsal rays. Dorsal rays 32-37; 

anal rays 20-23. Lower jaw with 10-20 canines posterior to a single row of villiform teeth, the latter expanding to about 7 rows at the jaw symphysis. Dorsal, anal, 

and caudal fins with white (translucent in preserved 

specimens) margin; ocellated spot often present near 

posterior end of dorsal fin. The ocellated spot, however, 

may appear only in juveniles and females as occurs in 

Channa orientalis. Lim and others (1990) noted that 

while the fish is alive the dorsal, anal, and caudal fins 

are margined with red or yellow, and that the pectoral 

fins have semiconcentric rings and a dark area at 

the base.

Commercial importance in the United States: 

This species is occasionally mentioned on aquarist-
72

INDIAN OCEAN

0°

20 N°

40 N°

60°E 80°E 100°E 120°E

DISTRIBUTION OF

Channa gachua

EXPLANATION

Native range Scale is approximate

0 1,000 MILES

0 1,000 KILOMETERS

Equator

China

India

Nepal

Vietnam

Iran

Saudi

Arabia

Afghanistan

Pakistan

Thailand Cambodia

Myanmar

Bangladesh

Laos

Malaysia

Indonesia

Bhutan

North

Korea

South

Korea

Thailand

oriented websites and has been available for sale from 

certain aquarium fish dealers. Its small size makes it 

more appealing as an aquarium species. Too small to be 

sold in live-food fish markets.

Commercial importance in native range: 

Talwar and Jhingran (1992) cited the species as of 

minor importance in India. According to comments on 

aquarist-oriented websites and in Ng and Lim (1990), 

members of this species complex appear to be of 

importance in the aquarium fish trade with individuals 

captured from the wild for sale or export. Ng and Lim 

(1990) cited individuals being sold for S$30-60 in 

Singapore, although Lim and Ng (1990) listed the 

species as endangered there. Pethiyagoda (1991) noted 

that it is largely unused as food or in the aquarium trade 

in Sri Lanka. Deraniyagala (1929) commented that this 

snakehead is utilized as food by “only the poorest 

classes” in Sri Lanka, adding that it is used as live bait 

to catch larger species, such as Channa striata and 

C. marulius.

Environmental concerns: Like other channids, 

this species is a thrust predator, capable of breathing 

atmospheric oxygen. This species is noted by many 

authors as migrating overland.

Comments: The diploid number of chromosomes for Channa gachua is 78 from India (Banerjee 

and others, 1988) and 112 for specimens from Thailand 

(Donsakul and Magtoon, 1991), a strong indication that 

this represents a species complex.

Channa gachua
 73

Channa harcourtbutleri (Annandale, 1918)

Inle Snakehead

Upper image: ZRC 42556, 111.3 mm standard length, Myanmar: Inle Lake. Lower image: ventral view of 

head illustrating pigmentation, ZRC 42556, 111.3 mm standard length. Reprinted with permission from P.K.L. 

Ng from: Ng, H.H., P.K.L. Ng, and Ralf Britz. 1999. Channa harcourtbutleri (Annandale, 1918): a valid species 

of snakehead (Perciformes: Channidae) from Myanmar. J. South Asian Nat. Hist. 4(1):57-63.

Original description: Ophiocephalus harcourtbutleri Annandale, 1918:54, pl. 2, fig. 7; pl. 4, figs. 16-17. Fishes 

and fisheries of the Inlé Lake. Rec. Indian Mus. (Calcutta), 14:33-64, pls. 1-7. Type locality: southern Shan State, 

Myanmar (Burma). Holotype: ZSI F9439/1.

Synonyms: (?) Ophioceplahus gachua (non-Hamilton, 1822) Boulenger, 1899:199.

Ophiocephalus harcourt-butleri Annandale, 1918:54.

(?) Ophicephalus gachua (non-Hamilton, 1822) Hora and Mukerji, 1934:135.

Ophiocephalus harcourtbutleri Tint Hlaing, 1971:517.

Channa orientalis Kottelat, 1989:20; Talwar and Jhingran, 1991:1019.

Channa harcourtbutleri Ng and others, 1999.

Common name: Inle snakehead.

Native range: Yawnghwe and nearby areas of 

Myanmar, particularly Inlé Lake in southern Shan State 

(Ng and others, 1999).

Introduced range: Not known to have been 

introduced.

Size: To about 16 cm.

Habitat preference: Annandale (1918) noted 

that the species occurred in Inlé Lake on “muddy 

bottom in sluggish streams ... hiding as a rule among 

weeds.”

Temperature range: No specific information in 

literature. Nevertheless, Inlé Lake lies at about 20.7o N, 

indicating that Channa harcourtbutleri is a tropical/ 

subtropical species. Inlé Lake is at an altitude of about 

1,000 m (Kullander and others, 2000).

Reproductive habits: No specific information in 

literature. Ralf Britz (personal commun., 2003) indicated that it is unknown if this species is a nest builder 

or mouthbrooder.

Food preferences: No specific information in 

literature. Likely a thrust predator as are other snakeheads (Ng and others, 1999).
74

DISTRIBUTION OF

Channa harcourtbutleri

EXPLANATION

Native range

0°

20 N°

80 E° 100 E°

Scale is approximate

0 1,000 MILES

0 1,000 KILOMETERS

Equator

China

India

Nepal

Vietnam

Thailand Cambodia

Myanmar

Bangladesh

Laos

Malaysia

Indonesia

Bhutan

Thailand Bay of

Bengal

Characters: No patch of scales in gular region 

of head. Lateral line curves downward between scales 

15-16. Lateral line scales 44-45; transverse scales 4; 

predorsal scales 4. Dorsal fin rays 34-38 (mode 36); 

anal fin rays 23-26; pectoral fin rays 14-15 (mode 

14) (Ng and others, 1999). This species is most 

closely related to Channa gachua from which it 

can be distinguished as follows: Head profile of 

C. harcourtbutleri flatter and less convex than in 

C. gachua resulting in a smaller postorbital head depth 

(30.9-35 percent head length versus 39.8-44 for 

C. gachua), its length 32-34 percent standard length 

versus 26.8-31.9 percent, and width 16.9-19 percent 

standard length versus 18.6-21.7 percent. Moreover, 

the snout of C. harcourtbutleri is more convex when 

viewed dorsally (Ng and others, 1999, figs. 3b,4a). 

The two species also differ in coloration (Ng and 

others, 1999) with C. harcourtbutleri never having an 

ocellus at the posterior end of the dorsal fin (occurring 

in subadult C. gachua).

Commercial importance in the United States: 

Not known to have been imported for any purpose.

Commercial importance in native range: Sold 

in live-food fish markets in the vicinity of Inlé Lake, 

Myanmar (Ng and others, 1999).

Environmental concerns: Although this species 

is tropical/subtropical and could potentially establish if 

released in southern Florida, Hawaii, and warm thermal 

springs and their outflows, its food habits are largely 

unknown (Ralf Britz, personal commun., 2003). Like 

other snakeheads, it may be a predator (Ng and others, 

1999).

Channa harcourtbutleri
 75

Channa lucius (Cuvier, 1831)

Splendid Snakehead

After Bleeker, 1878

Original description: Ophicephalus lucius Cuvier in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1831:416. Histoire naturelle des 

poissons 7:i-xxix + 1-537, pls. 170-208. Type locality: Java. Holotype: RMNH, whereabouts unkown.

Synonyms: Ophiocephalus polylepis Bleeker, 1852:578.

Ophiocephalus bistriatus Weber and de Beaufort, 1922.

Ophiocephalus bivittatus Károli, 1822. Name preoccupied by Ophiocephalus bivittatus Bleeker, 1845, 

changed to Channa bistriata by Weber and de Beaufort, 1922.

Ophicephalus siamensis Günther, 1861 (Musikasinthorn and Taki, 2001).

Channa bistriata Weber and de Beaufort, 1922 (young of C. lucius [Alfred, 1964]).

Common names: splendid snakehead; forest snakehead; ikan bujok or ikan ubi (Malaysia), runtuk (Kalimantan), 

trey kanh chorn chey (Cambodia); bujok (Mayay; Lim and Ng, 1990).

Upper image: adult. Lower image: juvenile.

Reprinted with permission from P.K.L. Ng from: Lee, P.G., and P.K.L. Ng. 1991. The snakehead 

fishes of the Indo-Malayan region. Nature Malaysiana 16(4):112-129.
76

Native range: Rivers of southeastern Sumatra 

and the Kapuas basin of western Kalimantan (southern 

Borneo; Roberts, 1989); Mekong basin of Laos 

(Kottelat, 2001a). Kottelat (1985) and Ismail (1989) 

included China, Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, Malaysia, 

Kalimantan, Java, and Sumatra in the native range. 

Peter Ng (personal commun., 2003) collected this 

species during November 1999 and April 2000 in 

central Sumatra, southern Sarawak, and the Mahakam 

and Kayan basins of eastern Kalimantan.

Introduced range: No introductions known.

Size: To 40 cm.

Habitat preference: Kottelat (2001a) stated 

preference for streams in forested areas where the 

species lives among vegetation. Lim and Ng (1990) 

indicated a preference for forest streams and peat 

swamps. Lee and Ng (1994) said the species occurs in 

lakes, ponds, shaded forest streams, peat swamps, and 

mid-depths of rivers, showing a preference for faster 

moving waters. pH range is 5.5-6.0 and the species is 

said to be crepuscular or nocturnal (Lee and Ng, 1994). 

Rainboth (1996) cited preferred habitat as “slowly 

moving streams and rivers as well as lakes, ponds, and 

reservoirs from Thailand to Indonesia. Usually found 

in areas with much aquatic vegetation as well as 

submerged, woody plants...”

Temperature range: Lee and Ng (1994) 

recorded the fish in waters between 24-29 oC, indicating 

a tropical/subtropical species.

Reproductive habits: A nest builder like other 

channids, with both parents guarding developing eggs 

and larvae (Lee and Ng, 

1994). No information 

located on fecundity.

Food preferences: 

Lee and Ng (1994) cited the 

species as “a midwater or 

surface predator relying on 

camouflage to ambush its prey, 

mainly fish.” Rainboth (1996) 

stated that this species preys 

“on fishes, prawns, and crabs 

and slightly less on shrimps.”

Characters: Patch of 

scales present on gular region 

of head. Large canine teeth 

present on prevomer and 

palatines. Upper profile of 

head somewhat concave. 

Lateral line scales 58-65; 51⁄2 scales between lateral line 

and base of anterior dorsal rays. Dorsal rays 38-41; anal 

rays 27-29. Sides of body with series of distinct, dark 

“porthole” blotches, oblique bars on belly, and slightly 

elongated, dark blotch on operculum (Ng and Lim, 1990; 

Lee and Ng, 1991). Juveniles with three dark stripes from 

head to caudal fin base.

Ismail (1989) stated that this species has one or 

two rows of primarily canine teeth on the prevomer and 

palatines.

Commercial importance in the United States: 

Rarely mentioned on aquarist-oriented websites and 

probably of little or no importance in the domestic 

aquarium fish trade. No information on its past availability in live-food fish markets.

Commercial importance in native range: Ng 

and Lim (1990) listed this species as the third most 

highly prized food fish in southeastern Asia, where 

channids bring S$10-20/kg when fresh. Only Channa 

micropeltes and C. striata are more popular in livefood fish markets. It is also sold in the Singapore 

aquarium fish trade (Ng and Lim, 1990). It is sold 

fresh, frequently alive, in Cambodia (Rainboth, 1996).

Environmental concerns: This species is known 

to be a nocturnal thrust predator, with a preference for 

other fishes. Its natural range includes tropical and 

subtropical climate zones, indicating that if introduced, 

this species could establish only in similar climates or 

thermal springs and their outflows.

Comments: The diploid number of chromosomes 

of Channa lucius is 48 (Donsakul and Magtoon, 1991).

Channa lucius

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100 E° 120 E° 140 E°

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DISTRIBUTION OF

Channa lucius

EXPLANATION

Equator

China

Vietnam

Thailand

Cambodia

Laos

Malaysia

Indonesia Indonesia

Philippines

Malaysia

Indonesia

Myanmar

Native range
 77

Channa maculata (Lacepède, 1802)

Blotched Snakehead

Reprinted with permission of Tokai University Press from Masuda, H., K. Amaoka, C. Araga, T. Uyeno, and 

T. Yoshino (eds.). 1984. The Fishes of the Japanese Archipelago. © Tokai University Press, Tokyo, Japan.

Original description: Bostrychus maculatus Lacepède, 1801:140, 143. Histoire naturelle des poissons 3:i-lxvi + 

1-558, pls. 1-34. Type locality: none designated. No type specimens.

Synonyms: Ophicephalus guentheri Sauvage and Dabry de Thiersant, 1874:4.

Ophicephalus lucius Koller, 1927:41, pl. 1, fig. 7.

Ophicephalus tadianus Jordan and Evermann, 1902:1289.

Ophiocephalus marmoratus Brind, 1914:11.

Common names: blotched snakehead. No other English names known; hei-yü (Tungting Lake, China; Nichols, 

1943); tai wan li (Mandarin); lê-hî (Taiwan; Shen and Tzeng, 1993); Taiwan-dojô (Japan and Taiwan; Uyeno and 

Arai, 1984; Hosoya, 2002); fibata (Madagascar; Paul V. Loiselle, personal commun., 2003). 

Native range: southern China, south of the 

Chang Jiang (Yangtze) basin and Hainan (Nichols, 

1943; Okada, 1960; Hay and Hodgkiss, 1981; Uyeno 

and Arai, 1984); northern Vietnam (Kotellat, 2001a).

Introduced range: Taiwan (established); introduced into Japan beginning in 1916 from Taiwan, 

established in Nara, Hyôgo, Hiroshima, Mie, and Shiga 

prefectures, Japan, as of 1960 (Okada, 1960; Liang and 

others, 1962; Hay and Hodgkiss, 1981; Uyeno and 

Arai, 1984; Shen and Tzeng, 1993); Philippines 

(Uyeno and Arai, 1984), and Madagascar (misidentified as Channa striata; Raminosoa, 1987; Welcomme, 

1988; Reinthal and Stiassny, 1991; Stiassny and Raminosoa, 1994; Lever, 1996; Lévèque, 1998). Brind 

(1914) described a snakehead, Ophiocephalus marmoratus, from specimens supposedly acquired in Singapore and Malacca, Malaysia. “About 60 specimens, 

from 3 to 6 inches in length, were caught by a sailor of 

a merchant vessel and brought to New York direct” 

(Brind, 1914). There are no records of C. maculata

having been introduced to either locality. The illustration that accompanied his description of this fish, 

although somewhat poor, appears to be of C. maculata

and most certainly is not of any snakehead native to 

Singapore or Malaysia. Moreover, Brind (1914) commented that this fish “can stand cold water.” Therefore, 

we have included O. marmoratus as a synonym of 

C. maculata and conclude that either the localities from 

which these specimens were obtained were in error or 

that they were acquired from Chinese traders in those 

two cities. A somewhat similar situation involving a 

bagrid catfish, Hemibagrus elongatus, the holotype of 

which was supposedly from Singapore, was reported 

(Kottelat and others, 1998) where the actual type locality 
78

is believed to be China. Those authors also noted that 

although the type of H. elongatus might have come 

from Singapore, there had been active trade in Singapore of fishes imported from China for purposes of 

“food, aquaculture or accidentally” that would explain 

its Chinese origin. There are no type specimens of 

O. marmoratus.

This species may be one of the most widely 

introduced snakeheads in the Indian and Pacific Ocean 

basins. As of August 2002, it was becoming apparent 

that many reports of introductions and established 

populations of Channa striata in such places as Hawaii 

and Madagascar were based on misidentifications of 

C. maculata (Ralf Britz, personal commun., 2002). 

We have confirmed (October 2002) that the snakehead 

species recorded from Hawaii since the late 1800s is 

indeed C. maculata and not C. striata. See comments 

under Introduced range in the account for C. striata.

Channa maculata was introduced into Madagascar about 1978 by former President Didier Ratsiraka 

who had seen snakeheads at an aquaculture facility 

during an earlier visit to North Vietnam. The species he 

saw in North Korea was likely C. argus, but the species 

that was shipped to President Ratsiraka from China was 

C. maculata. The shipment was divided equally, one 

group stocked into ponds at the presidential summer 

residence near Antananarivo, adjacent to the headwaters of the Betsiboka River. The remaining fish were 

stocked into ponds at Ratsiraka’s home near Vatomandry on the east coast. Subsequent floods from 

monsoons washed snakeheads out of ponds in both 

localities and into adjacent natural waters. By 1986, 

C. maculata was well established in floodplain lakes of 

the Betsiboka basin. Nearly the same occurred on the 

east coast of Madagascar. There is an extensive canal 

system (Pangalanes Canal) that includes many inland 

lakes along the Indian Ocean coast of Madagascar that 

extends for hundreds of kilometers north to south. 

Snakeheads entered this canal system from ponds near 

Vatomandry and spread rapidly, being recorded about 

200 km north of Vatomandry near Toamasina, the 

northern terminus of the Pangalanes Canal, several 

years later. It also dispersed southward to the Mangoro 

River. The species apparently was also moved to other 

areas of Madagascar by Sino-Malagasy merchants 

(Paul V. Loiselle, personal commun., 2003). It was 

initially misidentified as C. striata beginning with 

Raminosoa (1987). Reports of C. striata from Mauritius are also possible misidentifications of C. maculata.

Size: To 33 cm (Okada, 1960) but reaches a 

length of more than 1 m when fully mature (William S. 

Devick, personal commun. to Paul L. Shafland, 2002).

Habitat preference: Streams, lakes, ponds and 

ditches in southern China; prefers shallow waters with 

vegetation (Okada, 1960; Hay and Hodgkiss, 1981).

Temperature range: Native range is subtropical 

to warm temperate. Nevertheless, Okada (1960) 

reported that in Japan, this species tolerated “seven 

days in 7 oC air temperature out of water.” Atkinson 

(1977), however, cited it as a “tropical” species. Nevertheless, this snakehead has become established far 

north of its native range and assumed climate tolerances in Japan, following its introduction there.

Reproductive habits: Builds a circular, open 

nest in vegetation. Eggs float to surface and are 

guarded by parents. Spawns in Japan in early summer 

(Okada, 1960).

Feeding habits: Reported to feed on crustaceans, large insects, frogs, and fishes (Okada, 1960; 

Hay and Hodgkiss, 1981); described as a “fierce predatory fish” that “hides among rocks or aquatic plants 

until its prey approaches, then it quickly attacks, kills, 

and swallows its victim” (Hay and Hodgkiss, 1981).

Paul V. Loiselle (personal commun., 2003) 

reported that a fisherman in Madagascar had observed 

young blotched snakeheads slithering onto land, allowing their bodies to be covered by ants, then returning 

to the water where the ants floated at the surface and 

were devoured by the juvenile snakeheads. He also 

commented that amphibian populations in Madagascar 

are probably being negatively affected by the introduced blotched snakehead. Historically, frog tadpoles 

in the central highlands were preyed upon to some 

extent by native eels (Anguillidae), but now those same 

waters contain considerable numbers of Channa 

maculata.

Characters: No patch of scales on gular region. 

Head profile slightly depressed. Dorsal rays 40-46; 

anal rays 26-30. Lateral line scales 41-60 with lateral 

line continuous; transverse scales below lateral line 11; 

9 scale rows between posterior rim of orbit to upper 

edge of operculum. Color pattern similar to that of 

Channa argus; dark stripe from tip of snout through 

orbit extending to almost above anterior base of pectoral 

fin; second dark stripe from posteroventral corner of 

orbit to posteroventral edge of operculum; sides of 

body with two rows of large, dark blotches extending 

posteriorly to anterior caudal peduncle; blotches in the 

form of two bar-like markings on caudal peduncle; 
 79

dark markings toward mid-dorsal part of back extending 

up onto proximal part of dorsal fin. A key character for 

separating this species from C. argus are the bar-like 

markings on the caudal peduncle. In C. maculata, the 

most posterior dark bar (usually complete) is preceded 

and followed by pale bar-like areas, whereas in 

C. argus such pale markings are absent and the final 

dark marking is irregular, often blotch-like.

Commercial importance in the United States: 

Rarely mentioned on aquarist-oriented websites. 

Because it is a valuable food fish in southern China and 

Taiwan, we believed it could be available for sale in 

live-food fish markets. Ralf Britz (personal commun., 

2002) confirmed that this species was one of the two 

snakeheads purchased from a live-food fish market in 

Boston, Massachusetts, in November 2001. A reexamination of the second specimen confirmed that it was 

also Channa maculata. We also noted from Federal 

records that imports of snakeheads from Guangdong 

Province, China, had increased during 2001. Because 

most culture of blotched snakeheads occurs in that 

province, the likelihood of availability of this northern 

snakehead “look-alike” in U.S. markets was increased. 

Ralf Britz (personal commun., 2002) also confirmed 

that the blotched snakehead has been present in Hawaii 

since before 1900, misidentified as C. striata, based on 

specimens in the U.S. National Museum of Natural 

History. We have learned that the species presently in 

culture in Hawaii as of 2002 is C. striata (Pam Fuller, 

personal commun., 2002), apparently imported in the 

early 1990s (Domingo Cravalho, Jr., personal 

commun., 2002).

Commercial importance in native range: 

Considered an important and valuable food fish in 

China (Nichols, 1943; Atkinson, 1977; Hay and 

Hodgkiss, 1981). It is the second most important 

snakehead species cultured in China with most culture 

activity located in Guangdong Province, southeastern 

China (Fang Fang, personal commun., 2002). Liang 

and others (1962) commented that it is only sold alive 

as a food fish within its introduced range in Taiwan.

Environmental concerns: This species is known 

to be a thrust predator feeding on large invertebrates and 

fishes. Moreover, its temperature tolerance indicates a 

species that could live in subtropical to temperate areas 

in the United States if introduced. That it is established 

throughout much of central Japan, an area located generally between 34-37o N, and its southernmost range in 

China is Hainan Island (about 19o N), is indicative of a 

species that has potential to establish from extreme 

southern Florida to North Carolina on the Atlantic Coast 

or central California on the Pacific Coast.

Comments: The diploid number of chromosomes of Channa maculata is 42 (Wu and others, 

1986).

See map on following page
80

INDIAN

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PACIFIC

OCEAN

0°

20 N°

40 N°

60 E° 80 E° 100 E° 120 E° 140 E°

Equator

China

Mongolia

India

Nepal

Vietnam

Iran

Afghanistan

Pakistan

Thailand Cambodia

Myanmar

Bangladesh

Laos

Malaysia

Indonesia

Indonesia

Philippines

Bhutan

Japan

South

Korea

North

Korea

0 2,000 MILES

0 2,000 KILOMETERS

Scale is approximate

DISTRIBUTION OF

Channa maculata

EXPLANATION

Native range

Introduced range

Distribution of Channa maculata in the Western Pacific basin

This species is also established on Oahu, Hawaii, and may prove to be a 

more widely introduced snakehead in the Indian and Pacific Ocean basins 

than previously known. See comments above and under Introduced 

range in the account for Channa striata.
 81

Reprinted with permission from P.K.L. Ng from: Lee, P.G., and P.K.L. Ng. 1991. The snakehead fishes 

of the Indo-Malayan region. Nature Malaysiana 16(4):112-129. Adult; photo by J. Vierke. 

Channa marulioides (Bleeker, 1851)

Emperor Snakehead

After Bleeker, 1878

Original description: Ophicephalus marulioides Bleeker, 1851:424. Vijfde bijdrage tot de kennis der 

ichthyologische fauna van Borneo, met bescrijving van eeinige nieuwe soorten van zoetwatervisschen. Natuurkd. 

Tijdschr. Neder. Indië 2:415-442. Type locality: Sambas, Kalimantan (southern Borneo), Indonesia. Whereabouts of 

holotype unknown.

Synonyms: No known synonyms (Roberts, 1989; Ng and Lim, 1990).

Common names: emperor snakehead; darkfin snakehead; ikan jaloi (Malay); toman bunga (=flower snakehead; 

Malaysia).

Native range: Rivers (Musi, Hari, Indragiri, and 

others) of southeastern Sumatra; Kapuas basin of 

western Kalimantan (southern Borneo; Roberts, 1989, 

Kottelat, 1994); Bangka (Banka) and Belitung 

(Billiton) (Roberts, 1989). Peter Ng (personal 

commun., 2003) collected this species in Samarinda, 

eastern Kalimantan, in November 1999. In peninsular 

Malaysia, occurring mostly toward the center of the 

peninsula in Pahang (Lee and Ng, 1994). Often 

confused with Channa melanoptera (Lee and Ng, 

1994). Also recorded from southern Thailand (Malay 

Peninsula) by Herre and Myers (1937) and reported as 

the only record from that country (Smith, 1945). 

Kottelat and others (1993) did not list Thailand within 

its native range, although it is possible that its range 

extends northward into extreme southern Thailand. 

Ismail (1989) included Thailand within native range 

but added that the species was “quite rare” in 

peninsular Malaysia.

Introduced range: No introductions known.
82

Size: To 65 cm (Lee and Ng, 1994).

Habitat preference: A riverine species (Kottelat, 

1994), also found in lakes, appearing to be an inland 

species (Lee and Ng, 1994).

Temperature range: No specific information 

found. The native range is equatorial/tropical.

Reproductive habits: No specific information 

found. Likely a nest builder with adults guarding fertilized eggs and larvae.

Characters: No patch of scales on gular region 

of head. Dorsal fin rays 45-47; anal fin rays 30-31. 

Lateral line scales 55-58; predorsal scales 13-15. 

Scales between lateral line and anterior rays of dorsal 

fin 31⁄2. Lateral line curves downward abruptly at lateral 

line scales 17-20. Preopercular scales 5-7. No canines 

on prevomer or palatines (Smith, 1945; Kottelat and 

others, 1993). These characters overlap those of 

Channa melanoptera. Lee and Ng (1994) stated that 

the only way to separate these two species is by coloration. Channa marulioides possesses an ocellated spot 

on the upper part of the caudal fin base, similar to that 

in C. marulius. In live specimens, the margin of the 

ocellus is orange; the margin appears white in 

preserved specimens. Channa marulioides often has a 

series of dark patches of scales, the posterior and 

posterodorsal scales each margined by white, along the 

sides of the body, a character that is absent in 

C. melanoptera (Kottelat and others, 1993; Lee and 

Ng, 1991, 1994) and C. marulius, and may disappear 

with growth. The iris of the eye is orange or red as in 

C. marulius.

Commercial importance in the United States: 

Rarely mentioned in aquarist-oriented websites. This 

species is colorful and has perhaps been found periodically for sale in the aquarium fish trade. Not known 

from live-food fish markets.

Commercial importance in native range: Ng 

and Lim (1990) stated that this snakehead is sold in the 

aquarium fish trade in Singapore, costing up to S$100 

per individual. This market likely precludes this species 

as available in live-food fish markets as a food species.

Environmental concerns: Likely a thrust predator. 

This is an equatorial/tropical species that, if introduced, 

might establish only in areas with a similar climate.

Channa marulioides, caught and released from jungle of 

Perak State, Malaysia, January 2003. Photo courtesy of 

Jean-Francois Helias, Fishing Adventures Thailand.

INDIAN

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100 E° 120 E° 140 E°

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0 500 KILOMETERS

Scale is approximate

DISTRIBUTION OF

Channa marulioides

EXPLANATION

Equator

China

Vietnam

Thailand

Cambodia

Laos

Indonesia Indonesia

Philippines

Malaysia

Indonesia

Myanmar

Native range Malaysia

Channa marulioides
 83

Channa marulius (Hamilton, 1822)

Bullseye Snakehead

Original description: Ophiocephalus marulius Hamilton, 1822:65, 367, pl. 17, fig. 19. An account of the fishes 

found in the river Ganges and its branches. Edinburgh and London, i-vii + 1-405, pls. 1-39. Type locality: “Gangetic 

provinces,” India. No types known.

Synonyms: Ophicephalus sowara Cuvier, 1831:426.

Ophicephalus grandinosus Cuvier, 1831:434.

Ophiocephalus leucopunctatus Sykes, 1839:158.

Ophiocephalus theophrasti Valenciennes, 1840:pl. 13, figs. 1-1a.

Ophicephalus pseudomarulius Günther, 1861:478.

Ophiocephalus aurolineatus Day, 1870:99.

Channa marulius ara Deraniyagala, 1945:24, pl. 24.

Common names: bullseye snakehead; giant snakehead; great snakehead; cobra snakehead; Indian snakehead; soal 

(Pakistan); haal (Assam, India); sal, gajal (West Bengal, India); pumurl, bhor (Bijar, India); kubrah, sawal, dowlah 

(Punjab, India); saal (Orissa, India); poomeenu, phoola-chapa, phool-mural (Andra Pradesh, India); aviri, puveral 

(Tamil Nadu, India); chaeru-veraal, curuva, bral (Kerala, India); hoovina-murl, madinji, aviu (Karnataka, India); ara, 

gangara, kalumaha (Sinhalese, Sri Lanka); iru viral (Tamil, Sri Lanka); ara (Sri Lanka); trey raws (Cambodia).

Smith (1945) noted that near Bankok, Thailand, the common name pla chon ngu hao is used for this species; 

ngu hao means cobra. Talwar and Jhingran (1992) listed a common name of kubrah, used in Punjab, India. This 

perhaps explains the use of “cobra snakehead” for this species in the U.S. aquarium fish trade.

After Munro, 1955

After Hamilton, 1822; juvenile
84

Native range: Pakistan (Kabul and Indus Rivers; 

Mirza, 1999); many drainages of India, Sri Lanka, 

Bangladesh, southern Nepal (Gandaki, Koshi, and 

Karnali River basins), Myanmar, Thailand, Mekong 

basin of Laos and Cambodia, and southern China (Day, 

1877, Nichols, 1943; Mendis and Fernando, 1962; 

Qureshi, 1965; Fernando and Indrassna, 1969; 

Pethiyagoda, 1991; Talwar and Jhingran, 1992; 

Rainboth, 1996; Kottelat, 2001a). Smith (1945) cited 

this species as “one of the rarest of the serpent-heads 

found in Thailand.” It is not reported from Malaysia or 

Indonesia where it appears to be replaced by a 

somewhat lookalike species, Channa marulioides. 

Nichols (1943) recorded the species from the Yangtze 

drainage, China. Maurice Kottelat and Tyson Roberts 

(personal commun. to J.D. Williams, 2001) indicated 

that C. marulius, as currently recognized, is possibly a 

species complex.

Introduced range: Introduced into residential 

lakes and adjoining canals in Tamarac, Broward 

County, Florida, and established as a reproducing 

population (Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation 

Commission, 2001; Howells and others, 2002; Paul L. 

Shafland, personal commun., 2002).

Size: This species is reported to be the largest of 

the family Channidae, reaching a length of 120-122 cm 

(Bardach and others, 1972; Talwar and Jhingran, 1992). 

Talwar and Jhingran (1992) reported that it grows to 

180 cm and a weight of 30 kg in Maharashtra State, 

western India, noting that a length of 30 cm can be 

attained in 1 year. Rohan Pethiyagoda and Prachya 

Musikasinthorn (personal commun., 2002) stated they 

doubted that any snakehead would reach such a length 

and were unaware of any specimens of that size. 

Murugesan (1978) reported a maximum size of 

52.8 cm at 8 months from fish stocked at an average 

length of 37 mm in a tank in Karnataka State, southwestern India, with lengths of 38.6 to 48 cm typical in 

1 year. He recorded growth of 2.5 to 4 mm/day for the 

first 3 months and 0.8 to 1.3 mm/day thereafter, with an 

average growth rate of 7 cm/month. Johal and others 

(1983) reported that bullseye snakeheads grow faster 

than Channa argus, C. punctata, or C. striata, but also 

noted that growth decreases with increasing age, with 

the greatest increase in weight occurring during the 

second year. Their specimens were obtained from River 

Ghagger, Rajasthan State, northwestern India. Ahmad 

and others (1990) also reported decreasing growth rate 

Adult Channa marulius guarding young. Photographed April 23, 2003, in Tamarac, Broward County, Florida, 

by Ianaré T. Sevi.
 85

with increasing age in specimens from River Kali in 

northern India. Wee (1982) cited C. marulius and 

C. micropeltes as the two fastest growing snakeheads.

Habitat preference: Lakes and rivers; deep, 

clear water with sand or rocky substrate (Talwar and 

Jhingran, 1992); “rivers usually in the vicinity of mud 

or fine sands” (Sen, 1985); “deep pools in rivers and 

occasionally in lakes” (Pethiyagoda, 1991). Jhingran 

(1984) noted presence of this species in swamps, tanks 

(=small reservoirs), and ponds, but that it also “prefers 

deep, clear stretches of water with sandy or rocky 

bottom.” Rainboth (1996) listed preferred habitat as 

“sluggish or standing water in canals, lakes, and 

swamps from India to China, south to Thailand and 

Cambodia.” He added that it is often found with 

submerged aquatic vegetation.

Temperature range: No specific information in 

literature. Native range of the species is from about 

34o N to 7o N, indicating a species that can exist in 

temperate to tropical conditions. Preliminary temperature testing on individuals from the established southeastern Florida population indicated the lower range to 

be about 10 oC (Paul L. Shafland, personal commun., 

2002), suggesting that this population did not originate 

from northern reaches of the native range of this 

species.

Reproductive habits: Breder and Rosen (1966) 

summarized brood size from Chacko and Kuriyan 

(1947) as being about 500 young with parents guarding 

them until they reached about 10 cm in length. Eggs are 

pale red-yellow and 2 mm in diameter, hatch in 54 hrs 

at 16-26 oC and 30 hrs at 28-33 oC. Parameswaran and 

Murugesan (1976a) reported brood sizes of 357 to over 

3,600 in swamps in Karnataka State, India. Talwar and 

Jhingran (1992) remarked that this species lays eggs in 

a nest and guards them, and that breeding occurs 

through most of the year. Day (1875) supported this 

guarding habit by stating, “Colonel Puckle observes 

‘that they are very savage, protecting their young with 

great boldness’.” Pethiyagoda (1991) noted that males 

are territorial. In river basins of southern Nepal, it is 

said to spawn from June until August (Shrestha, 1990). 

Parameswaran and Murugesan (1976a) indicated 

spawning occurs in all but the months of December and 

January in Karnataka State, India, peaking during the 

rainy season. Jhingran (1984) stated that fecundity of 

this species is “2,000-40,000 ova.” Mirza and Bhatti 

(1993) indicated a spawning period in Pakistan of April 

to June with parental protection of eggs and larvae for 

6 weeks. Sriramlu (1979) reported two spawning periods (May-June and November-December) for Channa 

marulius in Andhra Pradesh, southeastern India, at 

altitudes ranging from 548 to 670 m above sea level. 

Channa marulius, from Khao Laem Reservoir, Kanchanaburi Province, Thailand, June 2002. Photo courtesy 

of Jean-Francois Helias, Fishing Adventures Thailand.
86

Srivastava (1980) also reported two spawning peaks 

(May and January) for this species from a lake at Gorakhpur, in Uttar Pradesh, northern India. This species is 

one of three snakeheads known to spawn in the absence 

of vascular aquatic plants (Parameswaran and Murugesan, 1976b).

Food preferences: Regarded as predacious 

(Jhingran, 1984; Talwar and Jhingran, 1992), especially 

on other fishes (Schmidt, 2001). The few aquaristoriented websites that list this species warn that it 

cannot coexist in aquaria with other fishes once a 

length of 25 cm is reached. Schmidt (2001) goes 

further to recommend that two individuals of the same 

species or mixed with others should not remain in the 

same aquarium after they reach 25 cm, concluding that 

"at that stage...they will establish a species aquarium 

in their own way." He described the species as a "thrust 

predator", noting that it is rarely found in the aquarium 

trade and, if found, individuals are juveniles.

Dasgupta (2000) reported stomach contents of 

Channa marulius collected from several localities in 

West Bengal, India, as consisting primarily of fishes 

(40 percent), followed by crustaceans (30 percent), 

“macrophyte tissue” (15 percent), larval insects (10 

percent), and algae (5 percent). Ahmad and others 

(1990) stated the diet of C. marulius in the River Kali, 

northern India, was more than 60 percent fishes and the 

remainder crustaceans, gastropods, insects, and larval 

chironomids.

Characters: No patch of scales on gular region 

of head. Dorsal fin rays 45-55; anal fin rays 28-36; 

pectoral rays 16-18; pelvic fin rays 6. Lateral line 

scales 60-70; predorsal scales 16. Lateral line scales 

drop two rows between the 16th and 18th perforated 

scale. Scale rows between posterior margin of orbit and 

preopercular angle 10. Scales on top of head moderatesized with a rosette of head scales between the orbits, 

with the frontal head scale in the center of the rosette; 

two scales between rosette and the basal head scale; 10 

scale rows between preopercular angle and posterior 

border of orbit. Pectoral fin length about half head 

length. Mouth large, lower jaw with 7 to 18 canines 

behind a single row of villiform teeth that widen to 5-6 

rows at jaw symphysis. Teeth present on prevomer but 

absent on palatines (Talwar and Jhingran, 1992), and 

Smith (1945) indicated that canine teeth were absent 

from both prevomer and palatines.

Talwar and Jhingran (1992) provided information on life colors for both young and adults, commenting that there is a “pale-edged ocellus” toward the 

A Mozambique tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus), an introduced species 

in Thailand, bitten in half by a giant snakehead (Channa micropeltes). 

Photo courtesy of Jean-Francois Helias, Fishing Adventures Thailand.
 87

upperside of the caudal fin base that “fades with 

growth,” but provided no information as to size when 

that happens. Kottelat (2001a), however, stated that the 

ocellus occurs only in individuals less than 40 cm in 

standard length. Juveniles often with a series of dark 

blotches (usually five) bordered posteriorly and posterodorsally by a series of white scales forming a white 

margin to the blotches (Prachya Musikasinthorn, 

personal commun., 2002).

The only other species of Channa having an 

ocellus on the upper lobe of the caudal fin near its base 

is C. marulioides. The geographic ranges of the two 

species do not overlap. In contrast to C. marulius, 

C. marulioides has 55-58 lateral line scales, 13-15 

predorsal scales, and 5-7 preopercular scales. The 

lateral line drops abruptly between the 17th and 20th

scale in C. marulioides, and there is a two row drop of 

the lateral line in C. marulius between the 16th to 18th

scale. Juveniles of C. marulius may have a series of 

dark blotches along the sides, margined posteriorly and 

posterodorsally by a series of white scales; late juveniles and adults of C. marulioides also have a series of 

dark blotches on the sides, but the posterior and posterodorsal scales of these blotches are dark, usually black, 

and margined with white (Lee and Ng, 1991).

Commercial importance in the United States: 

Other than occasional mention on aquarist-oriented 

websites and Schmidt's (2001) statement that "giant 

snakehead" are rare in the aquarium trade, we found 

that it was being marketed under the name cobra snakehead as an aquarium fish in the U.S. Aquarist-oriented 

chat rooms on the Internet suggest it may be second in 

popularity to Channa micropeltes. Its introduction into 

southeastern Florida may have resulted from an intentional release of aquarium fish by hobbyists. Nevertheless, we recently learned of its availability in live-food 

fish markets in New York City (Leo Smith, personal 

commun., 2002) and, therefore, cannot rule out the 

live-food fish trade as having been the source of this 

introduction. Nevertheless, its popularity as a game 

species in Thailand (http://www.fishingasia.com) may 

have prompted someone to illegally introduce this fish 

for sport purposes. Using a special permit from the 

FFWCC to import restricted and prohibited aquatic 

species, the USGS purchased a young bullseye snakehead from an aquarium fish dealer in Rhode Island in 

early 2002. In May 2002, law enforcement personnel of 

the California Department of Fish and Game confiscated a bullseye snakehead from an aquarium fish 

dealer in the Los Angeles area (Richard Feeney, 

personal commun. 2002).

Commercial importance in native range: This 

species is considered an important food fish in India, 

and it is a significant component of the freshwater fishery in Andhra Pradesh State (Talwar and Jhingran, 

1992). Rao and Durve (1989) reported this species as 

one of three snakeheads fished commercially in Lake 

Jaisamand, the oldest reservoir in India. Sriramlu 

(1979) listed this species and Channa striata as the 

most preferred fish in two regions of Andhra Pradesh, 

India. Bardach and others (1972) noted that it was 

under culture in India and Pakistan in ponds and ricefields, and irrigation wells that do not support other 

fishes. Wee (1982) listed the species as being reared in 

monoculture ponds in India where it is fed tilapia. 

Nevertheless, Mirza and Bhatti (1993) stated that this 

species is unsuitable for aquaculture in Pakistan 

because it is piscivorous. Rainboth (1996) noted that it 

is “marketed fresh and sometimes alive” in Cambodia. 

It is touted as an important sport species in Thailand 

(http://www.fishingasia.com).

Environmental concerns: The native range of 

this species indicates a temperate to tropical species 

that, if introduced, has the potential to establish into 

southern states of the contiguous United States as well 

as Hawaii. This species is regarded as a predator, 

particularly on other fishes (Schmidt, 2001). That it has 

become established as a reproducing population in 

southeastern Florida indicates the likelihood that it 

could establish elsewhere if introduced into areas with 

a suitable temperature regime.

Comments: The diploid number of chromosomes of Channa marulius is 44 (Donsakul and 

Magtoon, 1991). 

See map on following page
88

INDIAN OCEAN

0°

20 N°

40 N°

60 E° 80 E° 100 E° 120 E°

Scale is approximate

0 1,000 MILES

0 1,000 KILOMETERS

Equator

China

India

Nepal

Vietnam

Iran

Saudi

Arabia

Afghanistan

Pakistan

Thailand Cambodia

Myanmar

Bangladesh

Laos

Malaysia

Indonesia

Bhutan

North

Korea

South

Korea

Thailand

DISTRIBUTION OF

Channa marulius

EXPLANATION

Native range

Introduced range

0 100 MILES

0 100 KILOMETERS

G U L F

O F

M E X I C O

ALABAMA

GEORGIA

30°N

25°N

85°W 80°W

ATLANTIC OCEAN

FLORIDA

Channa marulius
 89

Channa melanopterus (Bleeker, 1855)

Blackfinned Snakehead

After Bleeker, 1878

Original description: Ophicephalus melanopterus Bleeker, 1855:420. Negende bijdrage tot de kennis der 

ichthylogische fauna van Borneo. Zoetwaterfischen van Pontianak en Banjdermasin. Natuurkd. Tijdschr. Neder. 

Indië 9:415-430. Type locality: Kapuas River, Pontianak, Borneo, Indonesia. Location of holotype reported as 

unknown, but located by Musikasinthorn (2000) as RMNH 6416.

Synonyms: No known synonyms (Ng and Lim, 1990). Often confused with Channa marulius (Ng and Lim, 1990; 

P. Musikasinthorn, personal commun., 2002), and C. marulioides (Lee and Ng, 1994).

Common name: blackfinned snakehead.

Native range:Kapuas River basin of Kalimantan 

(western Borneo) and possibly the southern tip of 

Sumatra (Roberts, 1989; Lee and Ng, 1994). These 

latter authors stated that records of this species from 

central Sumatra are misidentifications of Channa 

marulioides.

Introduced range: No introductions known.

Size: To at least 65 cm (Lee and Ng, 1994).

Habitat preference: No specific information, 

but appears to be a riverine species.

Temperature range: No specific information. 

Native range is equatorial to about 3o S.

Reproductive habits: No information located, 

but likely a nest builder that provides parental protection of eggs and fry.

Feeding habits: No information found. Likely a 

thrust predator as other snakeheads.

Characters: No patch of scales on gular region 

of head. Dorsal fin rays 44-48; anal fin rays 28-32. 

Lateral line scales 54-57; predorsal scales 13-15. 

Lateral line curves downward at lateral line scales 16-18. 

After Weber and de Beaufort, 1922; image reversed from original
90

INDIAN

OCEAN

PACIFIC

OCEAN

0°

20 N°

100 E° 120 E° 140 E°

0 500 MILES

0 500 KILOMETERS

Scale is approximate

DISTRIBUTION OF

Channa melanopterus

EXPLANATION

Equator

China

Vietnam

Thailand

Cambodia

Laos

Malaysia

Indonesia

Indonesia

Philippines

Malaysia

Indonesia

Myanmar

Native range

Possible native

range

Preopercular scales 5-8. Unfortunately, these characters 

are about equal to those of Channa marulioides. Lee 

and Ng (1994) stated that the only way to separate 

these two species is by coloration. Channa marulioides

possesses an ocellated spot on the upper part of the 

caudal fin base, similar to that in C. marulius, and 

C. melanopterus lacks this ocellus. There are also differences in coloration of live individuals (Lee and Ng, 

1994). Channa marulioides also differs from C. melanopterus in that the former often (but not always) possesses several patches of dark scales rimmed by white 

margins along the sides of the body (Lee and Ng, 

1994).

Commercial importance in the United States: 

Rarely mentioned in aquarist-oriented websites and 

probably has been rarely, if ever, available for sale in 

the aquarium fish trade. Unknown from live-food fish 

markets.

Commercial importance in native range: No 

information found. Considering its moderate size, it is 

probably available at local live-food fish markets.

Environmental concerns: Likely a thrust predator. This is a strictly tropical species that could only 

establish in extreme southern Florida, Hawaii, or warm 

thermal springs and their outflows if introduced.

Channa melanopterus
 91

Channa melasoma (Bleeker, 1851)

Black Snakehead

After Bleeker, 1878

Original description: Ophicephalus melasoma Bleeker, 1851:424. Vijfde bijdrage tot de kennis der ichthyologische 

fauna van Borneo, met beschrijving van eeinige nieuwe soorten van zoetwatervisschen. Natuurkd. Tijdschr. Neder. 

Indië 2:415-442. Type locality: Sambas, western Borneo. Whereabouts of holotype unknown.

Synonyms: Ophicephalus rhodotaenia Bleeker, 1851:425.

Ophicephalus mystax Bleeker, 1853:188.

Ophicephalus melanosoma Bleeker, 1856:214.

Ophiocephalus melanosoma Günther, 1861:473.

Ophiocephalus baramensis Steindachner, 1901:3435, fide Roberts, 1989, Ng and Lim, 1990, and 

Rainboth, 1996. Species revalidated by Ng and others, 1996. 

Note: Frequently misspelled melanosoma (Ng and Lim, 1990).

Common names: black snakehead; ikan bakak (Malay).

Upper image: adult; photo by K.K.P. Lim. Lower image: subadult.

Reprinted with permission from P.K.L. Ng from Lee, P.G., and P.K.L. Ng. 1991. 

The snakehead fishes of the Indo-Malayan region. Nature Malaysiana 16(4):112-129.
92

Native range: Chao Phraya River, near Bangkok, 

Thailand (misidentification?); Mekong River in Cambodia (Rainboth, 1996; misidentification?); rivers of southeastern Sumatra; rivers of western Kalimantan, 

particularly the Kapuas basin (southern Borneo); 

Bangka and Belitung (Billiton) islands; Palawan Archipelago, Philippines (Inger and Kong, 1962; Roberts, 

1989; Ng and Lim, 1990; Lee and Ng, 1991). Bean and 

Weed (1912) reported the species from Java, later challenged by Weber and de Beaufort (1922), and there is no 

evidence that it occurs there (Ng and Lim, 1990). Smith 

(1945) reported this species as rare in Thailand, and Lee 

and Ng (1994) stated that because of its preference for 

acidic waters, the species is more common toward the 

southern part of the Malay Peninsula. It is present but 

apparently rare in the North Selangor Peat Swamp Forest 

of the Malaysia Peninsula (Ng and others, 1992). Peter 

Ng (personal commun., 2003) reported occurrence of 

this species in the Golok area of southern Thailand. 

Records of this species from northern Borneo (Sarawak, 

Brunei, and Sabah) are misidentifications of the endemic 

Channa baramensis (Ng and others, 1996).

Introduced range: Uncertain. Presence of this 

species on Palawan (Kottelat, 1985; Roberts, 1989) 

may have resulted from an introduction. The same may 

be true in the Chao Phraya River, Thailand, and 

Mekong River, Cambodia, unless misidentified.

Size: To 35 cm (Inger and Kong, 1962).

Habitat preference: Prefers shaded, clear water 

forest streams with mud bottom and leaf litter, but is also 

found in turbid waters. 

Reported to burrow into mud 

bottom when disturbed (Lee 

and Ng, 1991). Seems to 

prefer waters of pH 5-5.3 

(Lee and Ng, 1994). Also 

occurs in middle parts of 

rivers. Capable of locomotion 

on land (Lee and Ng, 1994). 

Rainboth (1996) stated that it 

prefers “sluggish or standing 

waters” in the Mekong River 

basin.

Temperature range: 

No specific information, but 

native range of Channa 

melasoma is tropical 

(Borneo) to subtropical 

(Thailand).

Reproductive habits: A nest builder like other 

channids; only one parent guards eggs and young (Ng 

and Lim, 1990).

Feeding habits: A nocturnal thrust predator (Ng 

and Lim, 1990; Lee and Ng, 1991, 1994). Feeds on other 

fishes, lizards, crabs, insects and insect larvae (Inger and 

Kong, 1962; Ng and Lim, 1990; Rainboth, 1996). 

Characters: No patch of scales on gular region. 

Dorsal fin rays 37-40; anal fin rays 22-25; pectoral rays 

14-17. Lateral line scales 50-54; transverse scale rows 

from lateral line to dorsal fin origin 4-51⁄2; transverse 

scale rows from lateral line to anal fin origin 71⁄2. Color 

in preservative dark brown above, pale below, with fins 

dusky or dark and caudal fin usually barred. Many lateral 

scales with dark central spots (Inger and Chin, 1962). 

See account of Channa baramensis for characters that 

separate C. melasoma from this closely related species.

Commercial importance in the United States: 

Rarely mentioned on aquarist-oriented websites. Not 

known to have been imported as a live-food fish 

species.

Commercial importance in native range: 

Probably nil. This species is primarily nocturnal and 

reported to be difficult to capture (Lee and Ng, 1991). 

Rainboth (1996) noted that it is not found in markets in 

Cambodia.

Environmental concerns: This species is a 

nocturnal thrust predator, known to feed on other fishes 

as well as lizards, crabs, and insects (Lee and Ng, 1991).

INDIAN

OCEAN

PACIFIC

OCEAN

0°

20 N°

100 E° 120 E° 140 E°

0 500 MILES

0 500 KILOMETERS

Scale is approximate

DISTRIBUTION OF

Channa melasoma

EXPLANATION

Equator

China

Vietnam

Thailand

Cambodia

Laos

Malaysia

Indonesia

Indonesia

Philippines

Malaysia

Indonesia

Myanmar

Native range

Possible

misidentification

Channa melasoma
 93

Channa micropeltes (Cuvier, 1831)

Giant Snakehead

After Bleeker, 1878; juvenile

Original description: Ophicephalus micropeltes Cuvier in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1831:427. Histoire naturelle 

des poissons 7:i-xxix +1-537, pls. 170-208. Type locality: Java, Indonesia. Syntypes: RMNH D2318; possible 

syntypes: RMNH D1131, RMNH D1132.

Upper image: young adult; photo by P.R. Sweet. Lower image: young juveniles. Reprinted with permission 

from P.K.L. Ng from: Lee, P.G., and P.K.L. Ng. 1991. The snakehead fishes of the Indo-Malayan region. 

Nature Malaysiana 16(4):112-129
94

Synonyms: Ophiocephalus serpentinus Cuvier, 1831:429.

Ophicephalus bivittatus Bleeker, 1845:519.

Ophiocephalus stevensii Bleeker, 1853:444.

Ophiocephalus diplogramma Day, 1865a:36.

Ophiocephalus diplogramme [sic] Day, 1865b:147.

Ophiocephalus studeri Volz, 1903:555.

Common names: giant snakehead; red snakehead, redline snakehead; Malabar snakehead; Mala; ikan toman, 

toman (Malaysia); pla chado (Thailand), pla melang pu (Bangkok, Thailand); trey diep (juvenile) and trey chhdaur 

(adult; Cambodia); toman, anak toman, gabus tobang (Kalimantan). The name red or redline snakehead is commonly 

applied to juveniles of this species in the aquarium fish trade.

Native range:This snakehead has a markedly 

disjunctive distribution. Rivers of the Malabar 

(southwestern) Coast of India (restricted to Kerala 

State, southwestern India fide Roberts, 1989; Talwar 

and Jhingran, 1992); Myanmar (?); Thailand; Mekong 

basin of Laos; Vietnam; Malaysia; southeastern 

Sumatra; Kalimantan, particularly the Kapuas basin 

(southwestern Borneo; Roberts, 1989; Rainboth, 

1996); Bangka and Belitung (Billiton) islands; northern 

Java (Day, 1877; Mohsin and Ambak, 1983; Roberts, 

1989; Lee and Ng, 1991, 1994; Kottelat, 1985, 2001a). 

Its presence in Myanmar (Burma) is questionable. 

Ismail (1989) stated that it is “quite common in 

peninsular Malaysia.”

We found it most puzzling that a species 

described from southeastern Asia (Java) could have a 

disjunctive distribution between a reported range in 

southwestern India (Kerala State) and Thailand, its 

westernmost confirmed range in southeastern Asia, a 

distance of about 2,500 km. Such a distribution gap 

indicates that the form in Kerala State, India, is either a 

different species or perhaps a very early introduction 

from its native range. We believe the latter interpretation is correct.

Day (1865a) described Ophiocephalus diplogramma based on one specimen, about 42 mm in 

length, collected in October 1863 near the port city of 

Cochin in southwestern India. Day (1865b) provided a 

species account for O. diplogramme [sic], his entry 

based on the same juvenile specimen collected in 1863 

near the “mouth of the Cochin River.” The characters 

he provided in that original description closely match 

those of Channa micropeltes, and his description of the 

life coloration appears to be that of a juvenile giant 

snakehead. 

We believe that the description of Ophiocephalus 

(=Channa) diplogramma was based on a juvenile 

C. micropeltes and that its presence in Cochin, Kerala 

State, India, was the result of one or more introductions 

from southeastern Asia that occurred prior to the mid1800s. Cochin has been a major trading port for several 

centuries. Moving an airbreathing snakehead, even on 

sailing ships from its native range to a new locale some 

2,500 km or greater distance away, would have been an 

easy task. The progeny from this introduction, resulting 

from a small founder population, would be expected to 

exhibit some small degree of character divergence 

when compared to the source population within its 

native range. 

Introduced range: This species was reported 

from Maine, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island, without 

evidence of reproduction (Courtenay and others, 1984; 

Fuller and others, 1999). A review of photographs of 

snakeheads captured from open waters of Maryland, 

undertaken by Maryland Department of Natural 

Resources personnel during Summer 2002, revealed 

two specimens of giant snakeheads that had been 

caught on separate occasions in different drainages 

during the two previous years. On September 6, 2002, a 

specimen about 56 cm long, was found struggling near 

the surface in shallow water of the Inner Harbor, Baltimore, Maryland, and captured by dipnet. All captures 

of this species appear to be of released pet fish. Two 

specimens, about 46 cm in length, were confiscated 

from an aquarium fish dealer in Los Angeles, California, in 2000 (Camm Swift, personal commun., 2002). 

California is one of fourteen states where snakeheads 

were prohibited before summer 2002.
 95

Size: To 1 m and weight of over 20 kg (Roberts, 

1989; Lee and Ng, 1991; Talwar and Jhingran, 1992). 

Peter Ng (personal commun., 2003) noted that this 

snakehead is known to reach a length of 1.5 m. Wee 

(1982) cited this species and Channa marulius as the 

two fastest growing snakeheads.

Habitat preference: Lakes, rivers, canals, and 

reservoirs (Mohsin and Ambak, 1983; Lee and Ng, 

1991). Kottelat (1998) stated a preference for “deep 

water bodies.” This species is nearly incapable of overland movements (Ng and Lim, 1990) except for the 

young (Peter Ng, personal commun., 2002), but he has 

observed large individuals attempting to move on dry 

land. Rainboth (1996) noted a preference for “standing 

or slowly flowing waters.”

Temperature range: No specific information, 

but its native range is between 20o N to about 7o S, 

indicating a subtropical/tropical species.

Reproductive habits: Like other channids, 

Channa micropeltes clear a circular area of vegetation, 

spawn, and the pelagic eggs rise to the surface where 

they are fiercely guarded by the parents. Guarding 

continues after hatching (Lee and Ng, 1991), probably 

until young become demersal.

Feeding habits: Primarily a daytime feeder (Ng 

and Lim, 1990). Accounts of this species almost invariably describe it as a vicious predator on other fishes. 

Adult and perhaps subadult Channa micropeltes feed 

in packs, usually in midwaters or near the surface. 

Parents guard their eggs and young, and are reported to 

have attacked humans that approached a nest (Smith, 

1945; Lee and Ng, 1991). Kottelat and others (1993) 

stated that anglers and swimmers who got too close to 

young were attacked, some seriously wounded, and 

that there have been fatalities. The report of fatalities 

was from local fisheries officials (Maurice Kottelat, 

personal commun., 2003). Peter Ng (personal 

commun., 2002) commented that he knew of one 

instance where a man was nearly castrated by an 

attacking giant snakehead. Prey includes other fishes, 

frogs, and birds (Lee and Ng, 1994). Lee and Ng 

(1991) commented that authorities at the Singapore 

Botanic Gardens planned to remove C. micropeltes

from ponds at that facility because this snakehead was 

feeding on cygnets. Ng and Lim (1990) referred to this 

species as the “most ravenous” of snakeheads, and 

they, Mohsin and Ambak (1983), and Roberts (1989) 

noted that it is known to kill more fishes than it 

consumes in its natural habitat. Ng and Lim (1990) 

described the enlarged canine teeth of C. micropeltes as

being knifelike, “with two cutting edges in crosssection,” the edges arranged perpendicular to the body 

axis. This allows shearing of prey.

Beeckman and De Bont (1985) reported that the 

digestive system of the giant snakehead is relatively 

short, that young fed on crustaceans and adults are 

piscivorous in the Nam Ngum reservoir, Mekong basin, 

in northern Laos. They noted parasites in stomachs of 

60 percent of all specimens captured with even more 

found in the intestines. Parasitism apparently begins 

when this species becomes piscivorous.

Cowx (1998) commented that escapes of 

Chinese carps, tilapias, and oscar (Astronotus ocellatus) from cage culture in Chenderoh Reservoir, Perak, 

Malaysia, failed to establish breeding populations. He 

attributed this failure to predation by giant snakeheads.

Characters: A patch of scales present in the 

gular area. Head depressed, somewhat pointed, and 

flattened above. Mouth large, oblique, maxillary reaching beyond posterior border of the eye. Lower jaw with 

several canine-like teeth behind a single row of villiform teeth, the latter expanding to about 5 rows at the 

jaw symphysis; large canine teeth on prevomer and 

palatines. Scales on top of head small; 16-17 scale rows 

between preopercular angle and posterior border of 

orbit; predorsal scales 22; 95-110 scales in longitudinal 

series, although Ismail (1989) reported 82-91 for specimens from peninsular Malaysia. This species obviously 

has smaller scales than other large Channa, hence the 

species name micropeltes (=small scale). Dorsal fin 

rays 43-46; anal fin rays 27-30; pectoral rays 15; pelvic 

rays 6; caudal fin rounded. Pelvic fin about 50 percent 

of pectoral fin length (Talwar and Jhingran, 1992; 

Musikasinthorn and Taki, 2001).

Commercial importance in the United States: 

This species frequently appears on aquarist-oriented 

websites. Although several sites warn that Channa 

micropeltes is only suitable for aquarium purposes as 

juveniles, require substantial amounts of animal food, 

and should not be kept with other fishes, it has been 

available in aquarium fish retail stores in states where 

snakeheads are not prohibited. One retailer who sells 

snakeheads via the Internet reported that he refused to 

sell this species to individual hobbyists (Ken Arnold, 

personal commun., 2002). Releases of this species into 

waters of Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, and Rhode 
96

Island were likely made to dispose of fish that grew 

too large for aquaria. We also know of two instances, 

one in 2001 and another in 2002, when juvenile giant 

snakeheads were confiscated from pet shops in southern 

California. Because it is an esteemed food fish in 

southeastern Asia, it has possibly been available 

periodically in live-food fish markets.

Commercial importance in native range: 

Talwar and Jhingran (1992) remarked that this species 

is only of minor interest to fisheries in Kerala State, 

India. Conversely, Lee and Ng (1991) stated that it is a 

highly prized food fish in Malaysia, and grown in cage 

culture where it is fed tilapia. It is also grown in cage 

culture in the lower Mekong basin of southern Vietnam 

where it and Channa striata collectively comprise the 

second most important fish group under culture 

(Pantulu, 1976; Wee, 1982). FAO (1994) listed a 

production of 1,490 metric tons of this species in 

Thailand in 1992, up from 386 tons in 1986. Rainboth 

(1996) noted that it is sold fresh and sometimes as 

live fish in Cambodian markets, and that it is cultured 

in cages.

In the Kapuas River of western Kalimantan, 

there is a hook fishery for Channa micropeltes, 

particularly within the Danau Sentarum Wildlife 

Reserve. About 40 percent of the fishes caught with 

large (sizes 5-8) hooks and 60 percent taken with 

medium (sizes 9-11) hooks were giant snakehead. 

In recent years, cage culture has developed for this 

species in the Reserve where large numbers of 

Mark Sabaj (left) purchasing specimens of giant snakehead for the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, 

caught from Khao Laem Reservoir, an impoundment of Mae Nam Khwae Noi River, in a market in Thong Pha 

Phum, Thailand, in 2001. Photo by Mike Hardman, Los Angeles County Museum of Natural History.
 97

juveniles are caught with cast nets, raised in wooden 

cages, and fed other wild caught fish until they reach 

market weight of 0.8-1.5 kg. This earns about 

$700,000 for the communities and represents one-third 

of fish-related income in the Reserve. Recently recognized problems with this activity include fear of diminished populations of giant snakehead due to removal of 

young from the wild for culture purposes and the 

estimated 4,000 tons of river-caught fish needed 

annually to feed them (Dudley, 2000).

Environmental concerns: Channa 

micropeltes has a reputation of being the most 

predacious of all snakeheads, known to kill more 

fishes than it consumes. Its greatest threat in the U.S. 

would be in southern Florida and Hawaii where this 

subtropical/tropical species would likely establish if 

introduced.

Comments: The diploid number of chromosomes of Channa micropeltes is 44 (Donsakul and 

Magtoon, 1991).

See map on following page

Channa micropeltes, caught by angler John Oatley; Khao Laem Reservoir, Kanchanaburi Province, 

Thailand, 2002. Photo courtesy of Jean-Francois Helias, Fishing Adventures Thailand.
98

INDIAN OCEAN

0°

20 N°

40 N°

60 E° 80 E° 100 E° 120 E°

Scale is approximate

0 1,000 MILES

0 1,000 KILOMETERS

DISTRIBUTION OF

Channa micropeltes

EXPLANATION

Native range

Possible native range

Introduced range

Equator

China

India

Nepal

Vietnam

Iran

Saudi

Arabia

Afghanistan

Pakistan

Thailand Cambodia

Myanmar

Bangladesh

Laos

Malaysia

Indonesia

Bhutan

North

Korea

South

Korea

Thailand

Channa micropeltes
 99

Channa nox Zhang, Musikasinthorn, and Watanabe, 2002

Night Snakehead

Purchased from a live-food fish market at Mong Kok, Hong Kong. Photograph by Heok Hui Tan.

Original description: Channa nox Zhang, Musikasinthorn, and Watanabe, 2002:140-146. Channa nox, a new 

channid fish lacking a pelvic fin from Guangxi, China. Ichthyological Research 49(2):140-146. Type locality: 

Nanliu River basin, vicinity of Hepu, Guangxi Province, China. Holotype: IOZCAS (Institute of Zoology, Chinese 

Academy of Sciences) 70028. Paratypes: IOZCAS 69848; IOZCAS 69849; IOZCAS 70029; IOZCAS 70039; and 

IOZCAS 70042. 

Synonyms: No synonyms.

Common names: None in English. We propose night snakehead based on the dark coloration of the fish.

Native range: Southern China, near Hepu, 

Guangzi Province, specifically the lower Nanlui Jiang 

River, where its range overlaps that of its nearest 

congener, Channa asiatica. Peter Ng (personal 

commun., 2003) found this snakehead in live-food fish 

markets in Guangzhou, China, and Hong Kong in 

July 2000.

Introduced range: No introductions known.

Size: Reported to almost 20 cm (Zhang and 

others, 2002), but probably attains a larger size.

Habitat preference: Zhang and others (2002) 

reported the species from humid rainforest conditions. 

Appears to be a riverine species.

Temperature range: No information available. 

Nevertheless, distribution within native range (21-32o N) 

indicates a warm temperate to subtropical species.

Reproductive habits: No information available 

concerning reproduction in natural habitats, but likely a 

nest builder like most snakeheads. There are indications that the male of the most closely related species, 

Channa asiatica is perhaps a mouthbrooder. Whether 

such behavior applies to C. nox is unknown.

Feeding habits: No information available, but 

likely a thrust predator as is its closest relative, Channa 

asiatica.

Characters: Gular region of head with one to 

two scales on either side of underside of lower jaw. 

Pelvic fins absent. Head small, rounded. Dorsal fin rays 

47-51; anal fin rays 31-33. Lateral line scales 55-63; 

5.5-6.5 scales above lateral line; check scales 9-13. 

Total vertebrae 53-55. Large ocellus, black with white 

rim, on caudal peduncle. This species is most closely 

related to Channa asiatica which also lacks pelvic fins 

and has 49-53 vertebrae, 41-47 dorsal fin rays and 28-

32 anal fin rays. Channa nox also differs in having a 

shorter predorsal length (26.9-28.4 percent) and snout 

length (3.6-5.1 percent). Live coloration also differs 

from C. asiatica in that C. nox is dark on the upper half 

of the body and the ocellus on the caudal peduncle 

lacks a white rim.

Commercial importance in the United 

States: None.

Commercial importance in native range: 

Available in local markets in Hepu, Guangxi Province, 

southern China (Zhang and others, 2002). Also 

reported as available in markets in Ghangzhou and 

Hong Kong (Peter Ng, personal commun., 2003).

Environmental concerns: Likely a thrust 

predator on other fishes and invertebrates like other 

snakeheads.
100

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OCEAN

0°

20 N°

100 E° 120 E° 140 E°

0 500 MILES

0 500 KILOMETERS

Scale is approximate

Native range

DISTRIBUTION OF

Channa nox

EXPLANATION

Equator

China

Vietnam

Thailand

Cambodia

Laos

Malaysia

Indonesia Indonesia

Philippines

Malaysia

Indonesia

Myanmar

Channa nox
 101

Channa orientalis Schneider, 1801

Ceylon Snakehead

Type species of Channa Scopoli, 1777

After Munro, 1955; female

Original description: Channa orientalis Schneider, in Bloch and Schneider, 1801:496, pl. 90. M.E. Blochii, 

Systema Ichthyologiae iconibus cx illustratum. Post obitum auctoris opus inchoatum absoluit, correxit, interpolavit 

Jo.Gottlob Schneider, saxo. Sumtibut Austoris Impressum et Bigliopolio Sanderiano Commissum, Beroloni. i-lx + 

1-584, pls. 1-110. Type locality: “Habitat in India orientale” (=east India). No types known (Paepke, 1993). Paepke 

(1993) noted that Schneider’s description was based on an illustration in Gronovius (1763).

Synonyms: There has been much confusion regarding the taxonomy of the Ceylon snakehead. Many have considered 

this species to be part of what we term the Channa gachua complex as reflected in the following synonymy, all of which 

are synonyms of C. gachua and are invalid for C. orientalis (Ralf Britz, personal commun., 2003).

Ophiocephalus auranticus Hamilton, 1822:69, 368, pl. 23, fig. 22.

Ophicephalus marginatus Cuvier, 1829:230, fide Menon, 1999:275.

Ophicephalus coramota Cuvier, 1831:414, fide Menon, 1999:275.

Ophicephalus fuscus Cuvier, 1831:414, fide Menon, 1999:275.

Ophicephalus limbatus Cuvier, 1831, no p., pl. 201, fide Menon, 1999:275.

Reprinted with permission from Rohan Pethiyagoda from Pethiyagoda, R. 1991. Freshwater fishes of 

Sri Lanka. Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka, Colombo, Sri Lanka.
102

Ophicephalus marginatus Cuvier, 1831, no p., pl. 201, fide Menon, 1999:275.

Ophicephalus montanus McClelland & Griffith, 1842:583, fide Menon, 1999:275.

Philypnoides surakartensis Bleeker, 1849:19, fide Menon, 1999:275.

Ophiocephalus apus Canestrini, 1861:77, pl. 4, fig. 7.

Ophiocephalus kelaartii Günther, 1861:472, fide Talwar and Jhingran, 1991:1019, and Menon, 1999:275.

(?)Channa burmanica Chaudhuri, 1919:284, pl. 22, fig. 4.

Ophiocephalus gachua kelaarti Günther: Munro, 1955:100.

Note: Although Channa burmanica is listed as a synonym, some authors recognize this species as valid 

(Peter Ng, personal commun., in Vierke, 1991b; Ralf Britz, personal commun., 2003).

Common names: Ceylon snakehead; Asiatic 

snakehead; smooth breasted snakehead (Munro, 1955; 

Pethiyagoda, 1991); green snakehead (Ettrich, 1989); 

kola kanaya (Pethiyagoda, 1991).

Native range: Channa orientalis is endemic to 

southwestern Sri Lanka (Pethiyagoda, 1991; Ralf Britz, 

personal commun., 2003), specifically to the “wet 

zone” and “lower south western hills” (Pethiyagoda, 

1991). Mendis (1954) included both C. orientalis and 

Ophicephalus gachua from Sri Lanka, commenting 

that the former may or may not possess pelvic fins. The 

Ceylon snakehead, however, lacks pelvic fins (Deraniyagala, 1929; Pethiyagoda, 1991; Ralf Britz, personal 

commun., 2003). Talwar and Jhingran (1992) noted 

that C. orientalis lacking pelvic fins occurs in Sri 

Lanka, Myanmar, and Java; nevertheless, reports of this 

fish from Myanmar and Java refer to members of the 

C. gachua complex. DeWitt (1960) considered absence 

of pelvic fins in snakeheads as an anomalous character; 

this conclusion, however, is not supported by 

C. orientalis or other snakeheads that lack pelvics 

(C. asiatica, C. bleheri, C. burmanica, apparently 

some members of the C. gachua complex, and C. nox). 

Munro (1955) correctly identified the snakehead 

species lacking pelvic fins in Sri Lanka as Channa 

orientalis and treated the taxon with pelvics as 

C. gachua kelaarti. Lim and others (1990) noted that 

Myers and Shapovalov (1932) synonymized C. gachua

with C. orientalis, but suggested these species are separate with the latter lacking pelvic fins. Because 

C. orientalis is endemic to Sri Lanka, records from 

southern India and elsewhere are erroneous.

Introduced range: No introductions known, 

although its presence in the Greater Sunda Islands 

(Kottelat, 1985) would represent an introduction if the 

species is indeed Channa orientalis. More than likely, 

however, Kottelat’s (1985) reference is to a species of 

the C. gachua complex. Pethiyagoda (1991) noted a 

possible introduction in the Mahaweli basin of Sri 

Lanka.

Size: Sometimes cited as the smallest species of 

snakehead (Ismail, 1989; Talwar and Jhingran, 1992), a 

comment often also used for Channa gachua. Pethiyagoda (1991) noted that this snakehead typically does 

not exceed 10 cm and, therefore, is significantly 

smaller than C. gachua. 

Habitat preference: Deraniyagala (1929) and 

Munro (1955) cited “clean freshwater pools close to 

streams” as the preferred habitat. Pethiyagoda (1991) 

stated that it occurs in “shaded, clear, flowing water 

with a silt or gravel substrate” and “shallow rivulets 

barely deeper than its own body.” He also predicted 

pollution and destruction of rainforest habitat in Sri 

Lanka would likely negatively affect populations of 

this species.

Temperature range: No specific information 

found. Because the species is endemic to Sri Lanka 

(unlikely), it is strictly tropical.

Reproductive habits: Ettrich (1989) reported 

this species as a mouthbrooder. He described the basic 

body color as brown, remarking that the flanks of 

males sometimes are dove gray with a violet cast, 

becoming paler ventrally. The dorsal and caudal fins of 

males are “sky-blue,” black and orange, with a blue 

anal fin margined in black and white with black rays, 

and the eye red. Reproductively active females change 

from brown to shades of blue. During spawning, the 

male wraps itself around the female near the surface, 

after which the male broods the eggs in its oral cavity, 

typically remaining in an upper corner of an aquarium. 

Fry remain in the male parent’s mouth until able to 

survive on their own. Females sometimes retrieve stray 

fry into their oral cavities, returning the young to the 
 103

parental care of the male. Fry are never ejected via the 

mouth but rather leave via the gill openings. This is 

somewhat similar to behavior observed in Channa 

bleheri (Vierke, 1991b). Both parents provide parental 

care with the female defending territory. It is unknown 

if the Ceylon snakehead is a mouthbrooder only in 

aquaria (Ettrich, 1989).

Ettrich (1989) assumed that there were two 

forms of Channa orientalis in Sri Lanka, one with and 

one without pelvic fins, but remarked that there were 

no hybrids known between these forms. The one with 

pelvic fins, however, is part of the C. gachua complex 

(Deraniyagala, 1929; Pethiyagoda, 1991; Ralf Britz, 

personal commun., 2003).

Feeding habits: Moyle and Senanayake (1984) 

determined that most gut contents consisted of terrestrial insects, the remainder comprised of trichopterans 

and a few fishes. Pethiyagoda (1991) noted that in 

aquaria, chopped steak is readily accepted by this 

snakehead.

Characters: Gular part of head without patch of 

scales. Pelvic fins absent. Predorsal scales 6-7; scales 

from posterior border of orbit to posterior edge of 

preopercle 5-6. Lateral line scales 36-42. Anal fin rays 

20-22; dorsal fin rays 30-34. Pectoral fins with 13-15 

rays. Ocellated spot at posterior end of dorsal fin, 

above caudal peduncle, in juveniles and females. 

Lower jaw with 10-20 canines behind single row of 

villiform teeth, the latter expanding to about 7 rows at 

jaw symphysis; prevomer and palatines with caninelike teeth.

Commercial importance in the United States: 

Sometimes listed on aquarist-oriented websites, but 

often misidentified. 

Commercial importance in native range: 

Pethiyagoda (1991) stated, “Small numbers are used by 

the aquarium fish export trade.”

Environmental concerns: Perhaps a thrust 

predator like other snakeheads. Because this species is 

endemic to Sri Lanka, its ability to establish in North 

America, if introduced, would be limited to subtropical 

areas (extreme southern Florida, Hawaii) or warm 

thermal springs.

See map on following page
104

DISTRIBUTION OF

Channa orientalis

EXPLANATION

Native range

0°

20 N°

80 E° 100 E°

Scale is approximate

0 1,000 MILES

0 1,000 KILOMETERS

Equator

China

India

Nepal

Vietnam

Thailand Cambodia

Myanmar

Bangladesh

Laos

Malaysia

Indonesia

Bhutan

Thailand Bay of

Bengal

Sri

Lanka

Channa orientalis
 105

Channa panaw Musikasinthorn, 1998

Panaw Snakehead

Upper image: holotype, KUMF 3050, 151.7 mm standard length. Lower image: ventral view of head showing 

enlarged scales on lower jaw; paratype, KUMF 3060. Reprinted with permission from Prachya Musikasinthorn, 

author, and Tomoki Sunobe, Secretary of the Ichthyological Society of Japan, from: Musikasinthorn, Prachya. 

1998. Channa panaw, a new channid fish from the Irrawaddy and Sittang River basins, Myanmar. Ichthyol. Res. 

45(4):355-362.

Original description: Channa panaw Musikasinthorn, 1998:356. Channa panaw, a new channid fish from the 

Irrawaddy and Sitang River basins, Myanmar. Ichthyological Research 45(4):355-362, 7 figs. Type locality: Yangon 

fish market, Yangon, Myanmar. Holotype: KUMF 3050. Paratypes: KUMF 3051; KUMF 3060; KUMF 3061; 

KUMF 3062; NSMT-P 36121; NSMT-P 36129; KUMF 3052; KUMF 3053; KUMF 3054; NRM 27421; and ANSP 

77016. 

Synonyms: No synonyms.

Common names: panaw snakehead; nga panaw (Myanmar).

Native range: Ayeyarwaddy (=Irrawaddy) and 

Sittang River basins, Myanmar (Musikasinthorn, 

1998).

Introduced range: No introductions known.

Size: No specific information in literature, but 

known to grow to at least 17 cm (Musikasinthorn, 

1998).

Habitat preference: No specific information, 

but appears to prefer rivers.

Temperature range: No specific information. 

Native range (about 16-24o N) indicates this species to 

be subtropical to tropical.

Reproductive habits: No information, but 

probably a nest builder as are most other snakeheads.

Feeding habits: No information. Nevertheless, 

Musikasinthorn (1998) stated this species is most 

closely related to Channa punctata, which suggests 

adults feed primarily on other fishes and insects.

Characters: Gular part of head without patch of 

scales. One large scale on either underside of lower 

jaw, rarely two on one side of jaw. Lateral line scales 

39-41; predorsal scales 14-17. Dorsal fin rays 32-35; 

anal fin rays 32-35; pectoral rays 17-20. Pelvic fin 

length always more than 50 percent of pectoral fin 

length. Most similar to Channa punctata, but differs in 

having a narrow, pointed snout, pelvic fins 50 percent 

or more longer than the pectorals, and there is one large 

scale (rarely two on one side) on either underside of the 

lower jaw.
106

DISTRIBUTION OF

Channa panaw

EXPLANATION

Native range

0°

20 N°

80 E° 100 E°

Scale is approximate

0 1,000 MILES

0 1,000 KILOMETERS

Equator

China

India

Nepal

Vietnam

Thailand Cambodia

Myanmar

Bangladesh

Laos

Malaysia

Indonesia

Bhutan

Thailand Bay of

Bengal

Commercial importance in the United States: 

None known. Not listed on aquarist-oriented websites.

Commercial importance in native range: No 

information, but its presence in markets in Myanmar 

(Musikasinthorn, 1998) indicates that it is fished 

commercially.

Environmental concerns: Like the closely 

related Channa punctata, this species is probably a 

thrust predator on other fishes and insects.

Channa panaw
 107

Channa pleurophthalma (Bleeker, 1851)

Ocellated Snakehead

After Bleeker, 1878

Original description: Ophicephalus pleurophthalmus Bleeker, 1851:270. Nieuwe bijdrage tot de kennis der 

ichthyologische fauna van Borneo mit beschrijving van eenige nieuwe soorten van zoetwatervisschen. Natuurkd. 

Tijdschr. Neder. Indië 1:259-275. Type locality: Bandjarmasin, Borneo, Indonesia. Syntype and/or Bleeker 

specimen: BMNH 1880.4.21.123.

Synonyms: Ophicephalus urophthalmus Bleeker, 1852:578.

Ophicephalus spiritalis Fowler, 1904:530, pl. 9, fide Roberts, 1989:170.

Common names: ocellated snakehead; eyespot snakehead; kerandana (Kalimantan).

Native range: Padang (?) and rivers (Hari and 

Musi basins) of southeastern Sumatra; Kapuas and 

Barito basins of Kalimantan (southern and 

southwestern Borneo; Roberts, 1989; Kottelat and 

others, 1993). Absent from peninsular Malaysia (Ng 

and Lim, 1990).

Introduced range: Introductions unknown.

Size: To 40 cm.

Habitat preferences: No information found, but 

probably a riverine species.

Temperature range: No information found. 

Nevertheless, native range is equatorial, indicating a 

solely tropical species.

Reproductive habits: No information found, but 

likely a nest builder as are most other snakeheads.

Feeding habits: No specific information, but 

likely a predator as are other snakeheads.

Characters: Patch of scales on gular part of 

head. Dorsal fin with 40-43 rays; anal fin with 28-31 

rays. Lateral line scales 57-58; scale rows between 

lateral line and anterior base of dorsal fin 51⁄2. Single 

row of canine-like teeth on prevomer; single row of 

small teeth and single row of 4-5 canines on palatines. 

Four to five prominent ocelli on sides of body, anteriormost ocellus on opercula, usually 3 to 4 on body 

(Kottelat and others, 1993).

Commercial importance in the United States: 

Often listed on aquarist-oriented websites. This species 

has attractive markings (red to yellow ocelli) on the 

body that has made it of interest to aquarists. Ng and 

Lim (1990) indicated it to be among the two highestpriced aquarium fishes. Not known for sale in live-food 

fish markets.
108

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OCEAN

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20 N°

100 E° 120 E° 140 E°

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0 500 KILOMETERS

Scale is approximate

DISTRIBUTION OF

Channa pleuropthalma

EXPLANATION

Equator

China

Vietnam

Thailand

Cambodia

Laos

Malaysia

Indonesia

Indonesia

Philippines

Malaysia

Indonesia

Myanmar

Native range

Commercial importance in native range: 

Kottelat and others (1993) indicated Channa 

pleurophthalma as an important food fish in Indonesia 

and Sumatra. Lee and Ng (1991) noted that it is sold in 

markets of Sumatra and Kalimantan. Dudley (2000) 

reported it in the fishery of Danau Sentarum Wildlife 

Reserve, Kapuas River, Kalimantan.

Environmental concerns: Ng and Lim (1990) 

stated that the aquarium fish trade is growing in 

Indonesia and Malaysia, indicating that this species, 

among others, may have become more readily available 

for sale in the U.S. Like other snakeheads, this species 

is probably a thrust predator. Nevertheless, it is an 

equatorial species that could probably survive in very 

few waters (thermal springs, perhaps extreme southern 

peninsular Florida, and Hawaii) if introduced into 

the U.S.

Channa pleurophthalma
 109

Channa punctata (Bloch, 1793)

Spotted Snakehead

After Bleeker, 1878

Original description: Ophicephalus punctatus Bloch, 1793:139, pl. 358. Naturgeschichte der Ausländischen 

Fische, 7:i-xiv + 1-144, pls. 325-360. Type locality: rivers and lakes of Malabar coast, southwestern India. Syntype: 

ZMB 1394.

Synonyms: Ophicephalus karruwey Lacepède, 1801:551-552.

Ophicephalus lata Hamilton, 1822:63.

Ophicephalus indicus McClelland, 1842:583.

Ophiocephalus affinis Günther, 1861:470.

Common names: spotted snakehead; green snakehead; dolla or daula (Pakistan); taki, lata (West Bengal, India); 

phool-dhok (Bihar, India); duloora, daula (Punjab, India); soal (Jammu, India); gorissa or godissa (Orissa, India); 

matta-gudisa, burada-matta (Andhra Pradesh, India); korava-patti (Tamil Nadu, India); kayichal, arracan (Kerala, 

India); korava, juchi, belikkorava (Karnataka, India); (Talwar and Jhingran, 1992); cheng (northern Bengal, India; 

Shaw and Shebbeare, 1938); mada kanaya (Sri Lanka; Pethiyagoda, 1991).

After Bloch, 1793; images reversed from original pl. 358

After Munro, 1955
110

Native range: Kabol (Kabul) River basin, 

Afghanistan, eastward through Khyber Pass into Indus 

River basin, Pakistan; rivers of the plains of India; Sri 

Lanka; southern Nepal (Edds, 1986a,b, 1993; Shrestha, 

1990; Pethiyagoda, 1991); Bangladesh; Myanmar; 

eastward to Yunnan Province, southwestern China 

(Coad, 1981; Talwar and Jhingran, 1992). Musikasinthorn (1998) reported that this species is not present

in Myanmar (replaced by Channa panaw in the 

Ayeyarwaddy (=Irrawaddy) and Sittang River basins), 

and reports from Yunnan Province, China, are probably 

misidentifications. He further stated that the eastern 

terminus of the range of C. punctata is the GangesBrahmaputra River basin. Jhingran (1984) lists this 

species as absent from Sri Lanka, but Pethiyagoda 

(1991) and Devi (1992) included Sri Lanka within its 

native range.

Introduced range: Smith (1950) reported this 

species from the vicinity of Delagoa Bay, Maputo, 

southern Mosambique, considered an introduction 

from Asia (Teugels and others, 1986). Jim Cambray, 

Albany Museum, Grahamstown, South Africa 

(personal commun., 2001) located the specimen 

(AM/G3714) and provided a digital photograph to us. 

It appeared to be a specimen of Channa striata rather 

than C. punctata. We borrowed the specimen through 

Jim Cambray and confirmed that it is C. punctata. Paul 

Skelton (Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South 

Africa; personal commun., 2001) reported the specimen as having come from the Museum in Lourenco 

Marques, Mozambique, and added that no other snakehead has been found or reported from that area since 

the Smith (1950) record. This indicates that snakeheads 

are not established in southern Africa.

Size: To 30-31 cm (Bardach and others, 1972; 

Talwar and Jhingran, 1992).

Habitat preference: Stagnant waters and muddy 

streams on plains of Pakistan and India, and abundant 

in muddy waters up to 600 m (Talwar and Jhingran, 

1992). Shaw and Shebbeare (1938) recorded the 

species from “muddy or clear streams and ponds from 

2,000 feet” (610 m) “downwards.” Quayyum and 

Qasim (1962) described preferred habitat in India as 

ponds with "a swampy bottom" and abundant aquatic 

vegetation, as well as ponds with sand or gravel 

substrate and no vegetation; they added that "large 

numbers can live together in a small body of water." 

Kumar and Mittal (1993) found habitat preferences 

included open water to very dense masses of vegetation 

in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan, 

north-central India. This species is reported to tolerate 

a wide range of pH levels with 100 percent survival 

over 72 hours from pH 4.25 to 9.4 (Varma, 1979). It is 

unable to tolerate salinities above 6 ppm (Mansuri and 

others, 1979). Nevertheless, Khora and Rao (1994) 

recorded this snakehead as present and of commercial 

importance in Bahuda Estuary, Ganjam District, 

Orissa, India; this estuary drains into the Bay of 

Bengal.

This airbreather can live indefinitely without 

rising to the surface if water is well oxygenated (6.0 

ml/L and above), but will die within 2-3 hours at an O2

level of 2.79 ml/L if access to the surface is prevented 

(Pandey and Chanchal, 1977).

Temperature range: The native range extends 

from about 34o N southward to about 7o N and altitudes 

up to 1,830 m, suggesting the species can exist in 

temperate (for example, Kabol River basin of Afghanistan) to tropical regions. Jain and Garg (1984) provided 

an upper lethal limit of 40 oC and lower limit of 9 oC 

for fish acclimated to 30 oC, but found seasonal differences. Those collected during summer months tolerated a high of 40 oC and a low of 2 oC, whereas those 

captured in winter showed an upper limit of 36 oC and a 

low of 4 oC.

Reproductive habits: Dehadrai and others 

(1973) noted that snakeheads in India are sexually 

dichromic and dimorphic, and during the breeding 

season, males and females of Channa punctata become 

deep yellow ventrally up to the lateral line, with many 

small melanophores in the ventral area of males and 

black blotches in females. Moreover, females have a 

circular genital opening whereas in males the opening 

is elongated.

Said to be a prolific breeder, with pairs spawning 

(in India) throughout the year, peaking before and 

during monsoon months (Jhingran, 1984; Talwar and 

Jhingran, 1992). Reaches sexual maturity in 1 year. 

Like many other snakeheads, this species builds circular nests in nearshore vegetation, and the eggs are 

pelagic and guarded by both parents. Most initial 

guarding appears to be by the female parent. Should the 

young be disturbed, the female follows the young and 

the male parent joins her, sometimes charging an 

intruder and sometimes leaving and swimming into 

deeper water, at which point the female attacks and 

drives away the intruder. Feeding by parents continues 

during protection of the young, and when one parent 

leaves the young, the other guards (Quayyum and 

Qasim, 1962). The nest, described as cup-shaped 
 111

(Chacko and Kuriyan, 1947), is about 22-23 cm in 

diameter. Breeding typically occurs at night, and takes 

place twice each year (Raj, 1916). Kahn (1924) stated 

that this species builds elaborate tunnels to the nest 

through surrounding vegetation. Jhingran (1984) indicated that reproduction in ponds occurs through most 

of the year. The larger the parents, the more offspring 

they produce. Fecundity is between 2,300 to 29,600 

eggs, with egg diameter peaking at slightly less than 

0.5 mm. This information is in contrast to that 

presented by Kahn (1924) who recorded egg size as 

2 mm. Khan (1924) also stated that hatching occurred 

in 54 hrs at 16-26 oC and 30 hrs at 28-33 oC. Protection of young continues for 15-20 days until juveniles 

become demersal (Quayyum and Qasim, 1962). 

Spawning in southern Nepal occurs from June until 

August (Shrestha, 1990). Lowe-McConnell (1987) 

gave April to July as the spawning period in Punjab 

Province, India, citing brood size as up to 500 individuals; guarding occurs for up to a month or until young 

are 10 cm long. Reddy (1979) stated that spawning 

occurs once per pair during July to October, with maximal spawning between July and August in Andhra 

Pradesh Province, southeastern India. This agrees with 

Bhuiyan and Rahman (1984) who reported a single 

annual spawning between April and August in Bangladesh. It appears that spawning season is largely correlated to active monsoonal periods. This is one of three 

species known to spawn in ponds lacking vascular 

aquatic plants (Parameswaran and Murugesan, 1976b).

Joshi and Sathyanesan (1981) reported finding 

stage I oöcytes in testicular tissue of 2 of over 100 

specimens of Channa punctata, all collected in December when the species is reproductively inactive. 

Oöcytes were scattered through the testis and the 

gonads appeared to be a normal testis externally.

Feeding habits: Young (1.5-3.0 cm) feed primarily on zooplankton, with rotifers, insect, and crustacean larvae constituting most of the diet. Adults 

consume fishes, insects, and aquatic vegetation 

(Quayyum and Qasim, 1962), the latter probably 

ingested in the process of capturing animal prey.

The species is an opportunistic feeder. In canals 

and irrigation ponds near Guntur, Andra Pradesh State, 

India, stomach contents consisted of 13 species of 

small fishes with young of Channa punctata (one each) 

found in only three individuals, indicating that cannibalism is rare. Fish bones, scales, fin rays, etc., were 

common. Insects comprised the second tier of ingested 

food, followed by crustaceans, tadpoles, and an annelid 

worm. No algae were found, but parts of leaves and 

seeds were occasionally observed. By far, the most 

common food item was fishes (Reddy, 1980). In 

contrast, in polluted Hussainsagar Lake, Hyderabad, 

Andra Pradesh State, insects and their larvae were 

preferred (59.5 percent), followed by fishes and fish 

larvae (12.5 percent), annelids, algae, leaves, crustaceans, amphibians, and gastropods (Reddy and Rao, 

1990). In ponds, tanks, and canals in the central delta 

area of River Godavari, Andra Pradesh, only 24 percent 

of the diet consisted of fishes, but 41.6 percent were 

crustaceans. Dutta (1994) found insects dominant (up 

to 100 percent) in young (3.1-4.5 cm in length) 

followed by crustaceans (up to 25 percent) and fishes, 

except for the months of June, July, and November 

when no fishes were found. All individuals above a 

length of 5 cm contained fishes. This study was 

conducted on specimens captured from Gadigarh 

Stream, Jammu, northern India.

Wee (1982) cited a study by Panday and Dwivedi 

(1974) in which it was shown that Channa punctata has 

well-developed olfactory organs in the nasal sacs and 

taste buds extending into the esophagus, concluding 

that this species locates food by odor. He also cited 

Gerald (1976b) as reporting maximal feeding activity 

of this species occurs at 28 oC. Food absorption efficiency was reported as 95.5 percent (Gerald, 1976a). 

Larger fish have a lower feeding rate than young 

(Gerald, 1976a).

Characters: Body elongated, mostly rounded; 4 

or 5 scales between orbit and angle of preopercle, 12 or 

13 predorsal scales; pelvic fins more than half the 

length of pectoral fins, extending to anal fin; pectoral 

fins plain, no vertical bands, 15-16 rays, about 75 

percent of pectoral fin length; anal fin rays 28-37; 

dorsal fin rays 28-32, rarely 33; caudal fin rounded. 

Mouth large; lower jaw with 3 to 6 canines behind a 

single row of villiform teeth that widen to 5 or 6 rows 

at jaw symphysis. Predorsal scales 12; scales in lateral 

series 37-40; scales on top of head large, arranged in a 

rosette between orbits, the frontal scale of which has an 

open lateralis pit, forming the center of the rosette 

(Talwar and Jhingran, 1992; Jayaram, 1999). Life 

colors vary from black to pale green on dorsum and 

sides, ventral sides white to pale yellow, sometimes 

with red tinge; several dark blotches on lower sides; 

occasionally black spots on body and dorsal, anal, and 

caudal fins. Dorsal, anal, and caudal fins dark gray, 

sometimes with reddish edge; pectoral and pelvic fins 

pale orange (Talwar and Jhingran, 1992).
112

INDIAN OCEAN

DISTRIBUTION OF

Channa punctata

EXPLANATION

Native range Scale is approximate

0 1,000 MILES

0 1,000 KILOMETERS

0°

20 N°

40 N°

60 E° 80 E° 100 E° 120 E°

Equator

China

India

Nepal

Vietnam

Iran

Saudi

Arabia

Afghanistan

Pakistan

Thailand Cambodia

Myanmar

Bangladesh

Laos

Malaysia

Indonesia

Bhutan

North

Korea

South

Korea

Thailand

Commercial importance in the United States: 

Although occasionally listed on aquarist-oriented 

websites and in aquarium fish books, this species does 

not appear to have been important to the aquarium fish 

trade in North America. It is not known to have been 

imported for culture or live-food fish market sale.

Commercial importance in native range: 

Snakehead fishes in general are regarded as important 

fishery resources in India and elsewhere, fished 

commercially and some species utilized in aquaculture. 

Quayyum and Qasim (1962) reported this species as 

"the main bulk of pond fishery in the plains of northern 

India." Rao and Durve (1989) reported Channa punctata as one of three snakehead species fished commercially in Lake Jaisamand, the oldest reservoir in India. 

They are considered to be a delicacy and demand high 

prices (Talwar and Jhingran, 1992). Pethiyagoda 

(1991) noted that it is popular as a food fish in Sri 

Lanka and is also used as bait for catching larger snakeheads.

Environmental concerns: Because of their 

voracious, carnivorous feeding habits, snakeheads are 

regarded as pests in India due to their devastation of 

other fishes (Talwar and Jhingran, 1992), apparently in 

pond or culture situations where other desired species 

exist.

Comments: Banerjee and others (1988) 

recorded the diploid chromosome number of Channa 

punctata as 32. Dhar and Chatterjee (1984), however, 

found two groups, one with 32 and another with 34, 

indicating a species complex.

Channa punctata
 113

Channa stewartii (Playfair, 1867)

Golden Snakehead

After Playfair, 1867

Original description: Ophiocephalus stewartii Playfair, 1867:14, pl. 3. On the fishes of Cachar. Proc. Zool. Soc. 

Lond. 1867(1):14-17, pl. 3. Type locality: Cachar, Assam, India. Syntypes: BMNH 1867.2.14.19-20.

Synonyms: None known.

Common names: golden snakehead; Assamese snakehead; sengalee (Assam, India; Talwar and Jhingran, 1992); 

helae (Nepal).

Native range: Endemic to Brahmaputra (upper, 

middle, lower) River basin of India and Bangladesh, 

and the Ganges River basin from southern Nepal 

southeastward (Sen, 1985; Talwar and Jhingran, 1992; 

Musikasinthorn, 2000). In southern Nepal, it occurs in 

the Kamala, Bagmati, Koshi, Gandaki, and Karnali 

River basins (Shrestha, 1990).

Introduced range: Introductions unknown.

Size: To 25.4 cm (Sen, 1985).

Habitat preference: Flowing and standing water 

(Talwar and Jhingran, 1992); marshes and estuaries, 

and tolerant of limited salinity (Sen, 1985). Sen and 

Dey (1984) recorded this species from altitudes above 

1,500 m in Meghalaya, a plateau north of Bangladesh 

and south of the Brahmaputra River, India.

Temperature range: No specific information. 

Native range is about 22-27o N, indicating a warm 

temperate to subtropical species.

Reproductive habits: No specific information, 

but probably a nest builder providing eggs and young 

with parental care.

Feeding habits: No specific information, but 

likely a thrust predator like other snakeheads.

Characters: No patch of scales on gular region 

of head. Dorsal fin with 39-40 rays; anal fin rays 27. 

Pelvic fin about one-third as long as pectoral. Lateral 

line scales 47-50; scale rows between preopercular 

angle and posterior border of orbit 4-5; predorsal scales 

13. Dorsal fin originates above base of pectoral fin. 

Black spots on many body scales.

Commercial importance in the United States: 

Rarely mentioned in aquarist-oriented websites but 

available through aquarium fish trade. Not known to be 

available in live-food fish markets.

Commercial importance in native range: 

Talwar and Jhingran (1992) stated that this species is of 

only minor fishery interest.

Environmental concerns: Likely a thrust predator, 

feeding on other fishes and invertebrates.

Comments: The diploid chromosome number of 

Channa stewartii is 104 (Rishi and Haobam, 1984).
114

DISTRIBUTION OF

Channa stewartii

EXPLANATION

Native range

0°

20 N°

80 E° 100 E°

Scale is approximate

0 1,000 MILES

0 1,000 KILOMETERS

Equator

China

India

Nepal

Vietnam

Thailand Cambodia

Myanmar

Bangladesh

Laos

Malaysia

Indonesia

Bhutan

Thailand Bay of

Bengal

Channa stewartii
 115

Channa striata (Bloch, 1793)

Chevron Snakehead

After Bleeker, 1879

Original description: Ophicephalus striatus Bloch, 1793:141, pl. 359. Naturgeschichte der Ausländischen Fische, 

7:I-xiv + 1-144, pls. 325-360. Type locality: Malabar, southwestern India. Syntypes: ZMB 1400; ZMB 6522.

Synonyms: Ophiocephalus wrahl Lacepède, 1801:552.

Ophiocephalus wrahl Hamilton, 1822:60, 367, pl. 31.

Ophiocephalus chena Hamilton, 1822:62, 367.

Ophicephalus planiceps Cuvier, 1831:424.

Ophicephalus sowarah Bleeker, 1845.

Ophiocephalus vagus Peters, 1868:260.

Ophiocephalus philippinus Peters, 1868:262.

(?)Ophiocephalus melanopterus Smith and Seale, 1906.

After Bloch, 1793; image reversed from original pl. 359

After Munro, 1955; juvenile

Note “pseudo-ocellus” on posterior lobe of dorsal fin, a juvenile characteristic (Lee and Ng, 1991).
116

Common names: chevron snakehead; striped snakehead; banded snakehead; common snakehead; soali (Pakistan); 

murrel (India); haal, shawl, shol (Assam, India); shol (West Bengal, India); morrul, morl, soura (Bihar, India); sowl, 

dhoali, carrodh (Punjab, India); dolla (Jammu, India); sola (Orissa, India); korramennu, korra-matta (Andhra 

Pradesh, India); sowrah, veralu, kaunan (Kerala, India); pooli-kuchi, koochinamarl (Karnataka, India); sohr, dekhu 

(Mararashtra, India); hal path maha, lulla (Sinhalese, Sri Lanka); viral (Tamil, Sri Lanka); pla chon or pla chorn 

(Thailand); trey phtuok (juveniles) and trey raws (adults; Cambodia); ikan aruan, haruan, ruan, tomam paya 

(Malaysia); gabus (Java); delak, gabus, telak (Kalimantan), cá lóc (Vietnam); dalag, dalak (Tagalog or Moro, 

Philippines); bakule or bulig (young; Tagalog or Moro, Philippines); pongee (Hawaii, although that name is a general 

name for snakeheads; Mike Yamamoto, personal commun., 2003).

Native range: Pakistan (Indus River basin; 

Mirza, 1975), most drainages of India, southern Nepal 

(Koshi, Gandaki, and Karnali River basins; Shrestha, 

1990), Sri Lanka (Mendis and Fernando, 1962; 

Fernando and Indrassna, 1969; Pethyagoda, 1991); 

Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, southern 

China, Malay Archipelago including Malaysia, 

Sumatra, Borneo (Pethiyagoda, 1991; Rainboth, 1996; 

Jayaram, 1999); Sabah (Inger and Kong, 1962); 

western Java (Giltay, 1933; Roberts, 1993); Vietnam, 

Laos (Yên and others, 1992; Kottelat, 2001a,b). This is 

an amazingly extensive "native" distribution for any 

freshwater fish, indicating that Channa striata is quite 

probably a species complex.

Introduced range: Channa striata has been 

considered the most widely introduced species of 

snakehead. Various reports indicate it was released into 

Hawaii before 1900, established (Jordan and Evermann, 1903; Cobb, 1905; Smith, 1907; Tinker, 1944; 

Brock, 1952, 1960); Madagascar, in 1978, established 

(Raminosoa, 1987; Reinthal and Stiassny, 1991; 

Stiassny and Raminosoa, 1994; Lévêque, 1998); 

Philippines, date unknown (Seale, 1908; Herre, 1924, 

1934; Conlu, 1986); Vogelkop Peninsula, Papua, Indonesia, probably during 1970s or 1980s, established 

(Allen, 1991) and identification confirmed by photographs provided by Gerald Allen (personal commun., 

2002); Sundaland, Sulawesi, Lesser Sundas, Moluccas, 

date unknown, established (Welcomme, 1981; Kotellat 

and others, 1993; Lever, 1996); Fiji, establishment 

questionable (Maciolek, 1984; Eldredge, 1994); 

Mauritius, established (Parameswaran and Goorah, 

1981; Welcomme, 1988; Lever, 1996); New Caledonia, 

establishment questionable (Maciolek, 1984); Guam, 

introduction unsuccessful (Maciolek, 1984; Eldredge, 

1994). Herre (1924) recorded the source of introduction into Hawaii as southern China. Kottelat and 

others (1993) reported some populations in China to 

have been introduced but gave no specific locations.

Its introduction into the Philippines probably occurred 

in the early to mid-1800s, indicated by two synonyms 

(Ophiocephalus vagus and O. philippinus) described 

from the Philippines by Peters (1868). Although 

Jayaram (1999) included Borneo in the native range of 

this species, Roberts (1989) hinted that its presence in 

western Borneo may have resulted from introductions.

Ralf Britz (personal commun., 2002) has advised 

that reports of this species from Madagascar are in 

error, the result of misidentification of the blotched 

snakehead, Channa maculata. He also examined a 

specimen labeled as C. striata (USNM 126588), 

collected by Jordan and Evermann on Oahu, Hawaii, in 

1901, that was also C. maculata. Two specimens we 

borrowed from the Bernice P. Bishop Museum in 

Honolulu (BPBM 1759 and BPBM 3798), collected in 

the early 1900s on Oahu and labeled as C. striata, are 

C. maculata. Specimens borrowed from the California 

Academy of Sciences (CAS 17710, 1 specimen; CAS 

108133, 3 specimens) collected on Oahu also proved to 

be C. maculata and not C. striata. We are convinced 

that all early records of C. striata from Hawaii are 

misidentifications of C. maculata. Although most 

records for Hawaii cite establishment only on Oahu, 

Morita (1981) reported that it also occurred on Kauai. 

Channa striata is now present and established on Oahu 

but confined to a fish culture facility. The first imports 

of this species occurred in the early 1990s. It is likely 

that many identifications of C. striata on islands of the 

Indian and Pacific Oceans are in error and that 

C. maculata may prove to be more widely introduced 

than previously thought.

Following publicity accompanying discovery of 

an established population in Maryland of northern 

snakehead, Channa argus, in June-July 2002, the lead 

investigator received an email message from an individual (Clifford Faik) in East Sepik Province, Papua 

New Guinea, who had seen the northern snakehead 

report on the CNN website. He stated that a similar 

snakehead was now present in rivers of Sepik Province. 
 117

Temperature regimes at that locality would preclude 

presence of northern snakehead, but is likely indicative 

that the chevron snakehead is the species involved, 

probably introduced from populations established in 

Papua, Indonesia. If so, this would be the first record of 

a snakehead from Papua New Guinea.

Size: To 90 cm (Bardach and others, 1972); 

91.4 cm (Sen, 1985). Can attain a length of 30-36 cm 

in 1 year (Bhatt, 1970). Talwar and Jhingran (1992) 

stated that this species is sexually mature at 30 cm, but 

added that 2 years were required to reach that size. 

Murugesan (1978), however, recorded a growth rate 

of 1.3 to 3.0 mm/day for the first 3 months, slowing to 

0.3 to 0.9 mm/day thereafter. He also reported lengths 

of 25-27 cm in 131⁄2 months and 23.4-31.7 cm in 91⁄2 

months in Kerala State, India; 32 cm in 2 years in West 

Bengal; and 30.5l cm in 2 years in Madras. In rivers of 

Uttar Pradesh, chevron snakeheads grew to 32 cm in 

2 years.

Habitat preference: Freshwater ponds and 

streams, usually in stagnant muddy waters; primarily 

found on plains in India (Talwar and Jhingran, 1992). 

It occurs in reservoirs in Sri Lanka (Fernando and 

Indrassna, 1969). Nevertheless, in Malaysia this 

species is reported to exist in rivers, lakes, swamps, 

rice paddies, mining pools, and roadside ditches 

(Mohsin and Ambak, 1983; Lee and Ng, 1991). Ng 

and Lim (1990) listed this species from “open country 

areas,” adding that it is the primary snakehead in shallow waters (1 m or less) with dense vegetation. In 

India, it can be found in reservoirs and rice paddies 

(Jhingran, 1984). In Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan, north-central India, it may be found in 

open water to dense mats of aquatic vegetation (Kumar 

and Mittal, 1993). Herre (1924), Umali (1950), and 

Conlu, 1986) recorded it from lakes and lowland rivers 

in the Philippines, and its introduction to two crater 

lakes at an altitude about 1,050 m above sea level. 

Kottelat (1998) reported a preference for “standing 

waters.” Lee and Ng (1991) noted that this species 

seems to be the most adaptable snakehead, tolerating 

“quite foul water” and able to move overland.

Channa striata is an obligate airbreather. Vivekanandan (1977a,b) stated that the breathing organ is 

developed in about 60 days during growth from a length 

of 1 to 4.5 cm at 26-28 oC. Singh and others (1986) 

noted that at 28 oC, this species breathes aquatically until 

18 to 20 days following hatching when young reach a 

length of 1.1-1.2 cm and, thereafter, becomes a bimodal 

breather. They measured a decrease in oxygen uptake 

through the gills and skin of almost 42 percent once 

bimodal respiration began. Pandian (1982) reported that 

fingerlings of this species spend up to 15 percent of the 

time in surfacing and related activities.

Varma (1979) recorded a pH range for Channa 

striata of 4.25 to 9.40 with 100 percent survival over 

72 hours, and 90 percent survival at pH 3.10 for the 

same period.

Temperature range: No specific information, 

but native range lies between about 32o N and 7o N, 

indicative of a fish that is temperate to tropical.

Reproductive habits: Lee and Ng (1991) 

indicated the species as solitary except during spawning 

seasons. In India, pairs breed during most months of the 

year, laying a few hundred to more than 1,000 ambercolored eggs (Parameswaran and Murugesan, 1976a; 

Talwar and Jhingran, 1992). Peak spawning coincides 

with peak rainfall (Parameswaran and Murugesan, 

1976a). Howell (1913) said the eggs average about 

1.25 mm and are nonadhesive, hatching in 1 to 3 days. 

Females mature about 30 cm in length at about 2 years 

of age (Talwar and Jhingran, 1992; Ali, 1999). Parents 

clear a shallow depression by biting off aquatic vegetation (Ling, 1977). Nevertheless, Alikunhi (1953) 

remarked that Channa striata will spawn in the absence 

of vegetation. Eggs float to the surface after fertilization 

(Lee and Ng, 1991). The pelagic eggs are guarded by 

both parents in the Philippines (Lowe-McConnell, 

1987) and possibly throughout the native range of the 

species. Nevertheless, Herre (1924) stated that one or 

the other parent guards the nest at all times, and that if 

food becomes scarce, parents become cannibalistic on 

the young. He further indicated that in the Philippines, 

C. striata spawns throughout the year and that many, 

perhaps all, breed twice annually. Ali (1999) confirmed 

ripe females present throughout the year in ricefields in 

Perak, northwestern Malaysia. Peak spawning in southwestern Sri Lanka occurs between May and September, 

with a secondary spawning October through December 

(Kilambi, 1986). Jhingran (1984) cited fecundity as 

3,000-30,000 ova. Lee and Ng (1991) stated that they 

had collected fry without seeing parents nearby. They 

also said that eggs hatch in 3 days in Malaysia, the fry 

developing a deep orange color. This pattern persists 

until the young reach a length of 15 mm when only an 

orange lateral stripe remains. At 40 mm in length, all 

orange color is lost but a “pseudo-ocellus” appears on 

the posterior lobe of the dorsal fin, a characteristic lost 

in adulthood. Mookerjee and others (1948) described 

and illustrated early development of C. striata.
118

Feeding habits: Carnivorous, feeding on worms, 

prawns, frogs, and especially other fishes (Mohsin and 

Ambak, 1983). Reported as a solitary (except during 

breeding season), territorial, ambush feeder (Lee and 

Ng, 1991). Conlu (1986) stated that young fry feed on 

algae and protozoans, juveniles feed on small crustaceans, and “adults are highly carnivorous, dreaded 

predators of other pond fish.” She added that this fish is 

used as a predator to control tilapias in culture ponds. 

Jhingran (1984) cited larvae as feeding “on insects, 

water fleas, and fish fry,” juveniles preferring “dipteran 

larvae, zooplankton, and fish fry,” and adults as “piscivorous.” Mahan and others (1978) reported that Channa 

striata (32 individuals ranging from 3.5 to 36.7 cm in 

length) fed almost exclusively on shrimp (47 percent by 

volume) in a lake in central Java. Dasgupta (2000) 

found that this snakehead consumed primarily insects 

(40 percent) followed by fishes (30 percent) and crustaceans (10 percent) in waters of West Bengal, India. Rao 

and others (1998) noted a preference for crustaceans 

and fishes from ponds and canals of East Godavari 

District, Andhra Pradesh, southeastern India. Ng and 

Lim (1990) described the enlarged canine teeth of 

C. striata as “cylindrical in cross section ... ideal for 

gripping, killing, and tearing.”

Characters: Gular region of head without patch 

of scales. Mouth large; lower jaw with 4-7 canines 

behind a single row of villiform teeth that widen to 6 

rows at the jaw symphysis; villiform teeth on prevomer 

and palatines. Pectoral fin about half of head length. 

Dorsal fin with 37-46 rays; anal fin rays 23-29; pectoral 

rays 15-17; pelvic rays 6; caudal fin rounded. Scales on 

top of head large with a rosette of head scales between 

orbits, with frontal head scales forming central plate of 

rosette; 9 scale rows between preopercular angle and 

posterior border of orbit; predorsal scales 18-20; scales 

50-57 in lateral series (Talwar and Jhingran, 1992). 

Coloration is quite variable in this species or species 

complex. The dorsum is often dark brown to black, 

typically obscuring the chevron-like markings dorsally. 

A distinguishing marking, however, is the dark stripe 

extending from just above the maxillary posteroventrally toward the opercular curvature.

Commercial importance in the United States: 

Introduced population is utilized as a food resource in 

Hawaii (Maciolek, 1984), although the species 

involved was not Channa striata but C. maculata, the 

result of century-old misidentifications. In addition to 

live fish, several thousand metric tons of frozen snakeheads are reported as being imported annually for food 

purposes into mainland United States. It is unknown 

how much of that market involves C. striata.

During fiscal year 1999, the U.S. Department of 

Agriculture Small Business Innovation Research 

Program funded a Phase II project to the Hawaii Fish 

Company of Waialua, Hawaii, $230,000 for 24 months, 

to develop commercial culture of C. striata. Phase I 

research had established feasibility of rearing striped 

snakeheads in captivity, spawning, and studies on rearing 

juveniles on artificial diets. Phase II was targeted to 

production of larvae and juveniles through induced 

spawning, additional studies on feeding, and cost-effective grow-out performance to marketable size. Phase III 

was designed to result in a commercial effort to produce 

farm-raised snakeheads for Hawaii, mainland U.S., and 

Canada, and was to be funded ($300,000) by the 

Wah Wah Seafood Company, Inc., of Honolulu. Phase 

III, however, was never funded.

In retrospect, importation of Channa striata to 

Hawaii is quite recent. Perhaps based on the belief that 

this species had been established in Hawaii for nearly a 

century, a permit was issued in the early 1990s to Arlo 

Fast of the University of Hawaii to import C. striata for 

culture research on Coconut Island in Kaneohe Bay. 

A second permit to import C. striata was issued to 

Dr. Fast in 1995 in cooperation with the person who 

currently cultures the species in a rockpit area at 

Mokuleia. The culturist had the only permit from the 

Hawaii Department of Agriculture to import C. striata

with restrictions that sale to consumers must be of 

fresh-killed or cooked fish (Domingo Cravalho, Jr., 

personal commun., 2002).

This species often appears in aquarist-oriented 

websites and has been sometimes listed for sale by 

commercial aquarium websites. Interest in its use as an 

aquarium fish seems to be limited due to the size it 

attains and its aggressive nature toward other fishes.

On July 24, 2002, a specimen of Channa striata

was purchased from a market in San Diego, California, 

where at least two other individuals of the same species 

were observed (Richard Rosenblatt and Phil Hastings, 

personal commun., 2002). All three were dead, on ice. 

The appearance of the specimen sent to us in a digital 

photograph seems to be of a freshly dead individual, 

with no cloudiness visible in the eye.

Commercial importance in native range: 

Channa striata is reported as being cultivated in Pakistan and India. There is a “tank fishery” for this species 

in Tamil Nadu, India. Tanks in India and Sri Lanka are 
 119

“ancient irrigation reservoirs” (Fernando and Indrassna, 

1969). They stated that there were more than 1,000 

tanks in Sri Lanka alone. In India, the chevron snakehead is described as a popular and highly prized fish, 

widely distributed, and the most economically important species of the genus (Talwar and Jhingran, 1992). 

Channa striata is one of three species of snakeheads 

commercially fished in Lake Jaisamand, the oldest 

reservoir in India (Rao and Durve, 1989). Fernando 

and Inrassna (1969) stated that it is the only species of 

snakehead in Sri Lanka of economic value, although 

three additional species (C. gachua, C. marulius, and

C. punctata) are used as food fishes. It is also cultured 

in Vietnam (Pantulu, 1976; Bard, 1991), Thailand, Java 

(Hofstede and others, 1953), and the Philippines (Guerrero, 2000). Bard (1991) noted that this species is the 

most expensive fish produced by aquaculture in northern Vietnam. Ali (1999) cited it as “a popular food fish 

in Malaysia” remarking that ricefields have provided 

the largest source of this fish. Populations in Malaysia 

are reported to be depressed due, apparently, to overfishing, raising costs for live specimens. China is 

culturing C. striata and some of the product is being 

canned for sale in Malaysia (Wan Ahmad, personal 

commun., 2001).

Lee and Ng (1991) cited this species as the most 

economically important member of the snakeheads 

and noted that it is cultured throughout most of its 

range. Hofstede and others (1953) cited this species as 

bringing “the highest prices at the markets” in Indonesia. It is sold either fresh or alive in Cambodian 

markets (Rainboth, 1996). In the Danau Sentarum 

Wildlife Reserve of Kalimantan, chevron snakehead 

comprised 13 percent of the setline fish catch using 

small (size 12-16) hooks from the Kapuas River 

(Dudley, 2000).

Ng and Lim (1990) and Lee and Ng (1991) 

indicated that Channa striata, along with C. micropeltes

and C. lucius, are utilized for medicinal purposes, 

particularly in Indonesia and Malaysia. Mention was 

made of use in a postnatal diet and during recuperation from illnesses or surgery (Lee and Ng, 1991). 

While no specifics were given as to how the fish were 

used following surgery, a neighbor of one of the 

authors (WRC), a Malaysian by birth, said that the 

oils from the “haruan” are used to greatly reduce scarring. She added that she had seen the results and “it is 

true” that scar tissue is dramatically reduced to a 

minimum.

Cream extracts of haruan tissues contain high 

levels of arachidonic acid, a precursor of prostaglandin, 

essential amino acids (particularly glycine), and 

polyunsaturated fatty acids necessary to promote 

prostaglandin synthesis. Treating wounds with these 

extracts has been demonstrated to promote synthesis of 

collagen fibers better than standard use of Cetrimide, 

an antimicrobial quaternary ammonium compound, thus 

increasing tensile strength (Baie and Sheikh, 2000).

Lee and Ng (1991) indicated that the flesh of 

these larger snakeheads is rejuvenating following 

illnesses, prepared by being double-boiled with herbs, 

and only the soup is consumed. Nevertheless, for the 

soup to be effective in recovery, it is firmly believed 

that the fish must be killed just before cooking, 

dispatched with careful but firm blows to the head with 

a mallet. Herre (1924) reported much the same for the 

Philippines. Conceivably, this could be a reason that 

obtaining live snakeheads in live-food fish markets is 

considered important to some persons of southeast 

Asian descent living in the United States. Seale (1908) 

cited this species "as one of the most wholesome fishes 

and are given to invalids" in India.

Bard (1991) noted that Channa striata is 

cultured in Vietnam and is a highly desired and expensive fish in the markets of Hanoi, with a price/kg 

matching that of beef.

Environmental concerns: Adults of this species 

are considered to be highly predacious, ambush feeders 

on other fishes. In addition, their adaptability to living 

in turbid or clear waters, their apparent ability to tolerate subtropical to warm temperate climates, suggests 

the probability of establishment if introduced into 

waters of the extreme southern U.S. The apparent northern limit within its native range (32° N) is equivalent to 

a potential range from Savannah, Georgia, to just north 

of Ensenada, Baja California del Norte, México, in 

North America. Temperature regimes in the southwestern U.S. would permit establishment well north of 32o 

N, probably as far north as the Los Angeles basin, California; Phoenix, Arizona; or Las Cruces, New Mexico.

Comments: Banerjee and others (1988) 

recorded the diploid chromosome number of Channa 

striata from India as 40, but Donsakul and Magtoon 

(1991) reported a count of 44 for this species from 

Thailand, indicating that it represents a species 

complex.
120

INDIAN

OCEAN

PACIFIC

OCEAN

0°

20 N°

40 N°

60 N°

20 S°

40 E° 60 E° 80 E° 100 E° 120 E° 140 E° 160 E° 180 E°

0 2,000 MILES

0 2,000 KILOMETERS

Scale is approximate

Equator

China

Mongolia

Russia

India

Madagascar

Australia

Nepal

Vietnam

Kazakhstan

Iraq Iran

Turkey

Syria

Saudi

Arabia

Afghanistan

Pakistan

Thailand Cambodia

Myanmar

Bangladesh

Laos

Malaysia

Indonesia Indonesia

Philippines

New Guinea

New

Caledonia

Fuji

Bhutan

Japan

South

Korea

North

Korea

DISTRIBUTION OF Channa striata

EXPLANATION

Native range

Introduced range

160°W 156°W

22°N

20°N

Pacific Ocean

0 50 MILES

0 50 KILOMETERS

Hawaii

Oahu

Distribution of Channa striata

See comments above under Introduced range, as some reports of C. striata on Indian Ocean (for 

example, Madagascar) and Pacific Islands (for example, Hawaii) are misidentifications of C. maculata that 

require further investigation.
 121

Parachanna africana (Steindachner, 1879)

Niger Snakehead

Original description: Ophiocephalus africanus Steindachner 1879:31. Über einige neue und seltene Fischarten aus 

den zoologischen Museen zu Wien, Stuttgart und Warschau. Anz. Akad. Wiss. Wien. 16(4):29-34. Type locality: 

Lagos, Nigeria. Holotype: SMNS (no number provided).

Synonyms: Channa africanus (Steindachner, 1879).

Parophiocephalus africanus (Steindachner, 1879).

Common names: Niger snakehead; African snakehead.

Native range: Southern Bénin to southern 

Nigeria, primarily the Ouémé River and Niger basin 

(Bonou and Teugels, 1985; Skelton, 1988).

Introduced range: Introductions unknown.

Size: To 32 cm.

Habitat preference: Bonou and Teugels (1985) 

noted that there was little known of the biology of this 

snakehead. Daget and Iltis (1965) considered this 

species as a Guinean form that occupied waters in 

forested areas. Teugels and others (1992) commented 

that this species is limited to coastal sections of rivers.

Temperature range: No specific information. 

Nevertheless, the native range is equatorial, indicating 

a strictly tropical species.

Reproductive habits: No specific information 

located. Likely a nest builder that provides parental 

protection to young like other snakeheads.

Feeding habits: No specific information. In 

considering this species as a game fish, Copley (1952) 

remarked that it ate frogs and worms, as well as fishes. 

Probably a thrust predator like other channid fishes.

Characters: Patch of scales present in gular 

region. No canines on prevomer or palatines. Transverse scales 19-24; lateral line scales 73-83. Dorsal 

rays 45-48; anal rays 32-35. Head slightly depressed 

anteriorly and covered with large scales. Lower jaw 

slightly longer than upper jaw with 3 to 4 large canine 

teeth. Coloration distinct among African snakeheads in 

having a series of forward-pointing chevrons on the 

side of the body posterior to the pectoral fins that 

extend upward to the base of the dorsal fin (Bonou and 

Teugels, 1985).

Commercial importance in the United States: 

Sometimes listed on aquarist-oriented websites and has 

been periodically sold through aquarium fish retailers. 

Unknown in live-food fish markets.

Commercial importance in native range: 

Unknown, but probably available in live-food fish 

markets.

Environmental concerns: Likely a thrust predator. Native range is equatorial indicating that if introduced this species would be restricted to 

tropical/subtropical waters.

After Boulenger, 1916
122

DISTRIBUTION OF

Parachanna africana

EXPLANATION

Native range

0 1,000 MILES

0 1,000 KILOMETERS

0°

20 N°

20 S°

20 W° 0° 20 E° 40 E°

Madagascar

Indian

Ocean

AFRICA

Equator

Atlantic

Ocean

Mediterranean

Sea

Red Sea

Dem.

Rep.

of the

Congo

Congo

Angola Zambia

Tanzania

Sudan

Egypt

Algeria Libya

Morocco

Central

African Republic

Nigeria

Ivory

Coast

Gabon

Cameroon

Ethopia

Saudi

Arabia

Ghana

Nambia

South

Africa

Mozambique

Chad

Togo Benin

Burkina

Parachanna africana
 123

Parachanna insignis (Sauvage, 1884)

Congo Snakehead

After Boulenger, 1916

Original description: Ophiocephalus insignis Sauvage, 1884:195, pl. 5, fig. 3. Notes sur des poissons de 

Franceville, Haut Ogooué. Bull. Soc. Zool. France 90, 1884:193-198. Type locality: upper Ogooué River, Gabon. 

Syntypes: MNHN 1844-0301 to 0305.

Synonyms: Ophiocephalus obscurus Poll, 1942.

Parophiocephalus insignis Daget and Stauch, 1963.

Ophiocephalus obscurus Matthes, 1964.

Common names: Congo snakehead; light African snakehead; ifoïfoli (juvenile; Zaire), foli (adult; Zaire).

Native range: Ogooué River basin, Gabon; Zaire 

River basin, Congo and Zaire. Bonou and Teugels 

(1985) recorded this species from above Boyoma 

(Stanley) Falls in the Lualaba (Congo) River. Guy 

Teugels (personal commun., 2002) stated that he 

doubted this distribution to be the result of an 

introduction into the upper Lualaba.

Introduced range: No introductions known.

Size: To about 45 cm.

Habitat preference: Bonou and Teugels (1985) 

noted that no specific studies of the biology of this 

species had been undertaken. General information indicates this snakehead occupies creeks, rivers, lakes, and 

lagoons, and sometimes in deep waters in calm areas.

Temperature preference: No specific information. Nevertheless, the native range of this species is 

equatorial/tropical.

Reproductive habits: Gosse (1963) commented 

that little is known of the reproduction of this snakehead. Nevertheless, he had observed juveniles (“de 30 à 

40 mm”) in groups, guarded by a large adult. He misidentified this species as Ophiocephalus obscurus in 

central Zaire.

Feeding habits: Gosse (1963) described this 

species as “un ichthyophage typique.” He noted that 

stomach contents of nine specimens contained primarily fishes (Pelmatochromis, Tilapia, Hemichromis, 

Xenomystus, cyprinodonts and fish remains).

After Sauvage, 1884
124

DISTRIBUTION OF

Parachanna insignis

EXPLANATION

Native range

0 1,000 MILES

0 1,000 KILOMETERS

0°

20 N°

20 S°

20 W° 0° 20 E° 40 E°

Madagascar

Indian

Ocean

AFRICA

Equator

Atlantic

Ocean

Mediterranean

Sea

Red Sea

Dem.

Rep.

of the

Congo

Congo

Angola Zambia

Tanzania

Sudan

Egypt

Algeria Libya

Morocco

Central

African Republic

Nigeria

Ivory

Coast

Gabon

Cameroon

Ethopia

Saudi

Arabia

Ghana

Nambia

South

Africa

Mozambique

Chad

Togo Benin

Burkina

Characters: Patch of scales present in gular 

region. No canine teeth on prevomer or palatines. 

Scales in a transverse line 25-33 with 7-10 above the 

lateral line and 16-22 below; lateral line scales 73-86. 

Dorsal fin rays 40-44; anal fin rays 27-31. Head 

slightly depressed anteriorly and covered with large 

scales. Lower jaw longer than upper jaw with 4-5 

well-developed canine teeth on each side. Lateral line 

complete. Coloration is distinct among African channids in that there are chevron-shaped bars across the 

middle of the back that extend up onto the dorsal fin; 

central area of sides contain 4-5 dark blotches that 

are distinct from each other; lateral line passes 

through these blotches. Dark stripe on side of head 

extending from posterior rim of orbit to upper part of 

operculum.

Commercial importance in the United States: 

Rarely listed on aquarist-oriented websites. Unavailable in live-food fish markets.

Commercial importance in native range: No 

specific information, but probably available in livefood fish markets in the Congo basin.

Environmental concerns: Likely a thrust predator showing a preference for fishes. If introduced, it 

could probably survive only in tropical/subtropical 

conditions.

Parachanna insignis
 125

Parachanna obscura (Günther, 1861)

African Snakehead

Type species of Parachanna Teugels and Daget, 1984

Reprinted with permission from Guy G. Teugels from: Bonou, C.A., and G.G. Teugels. 1985. Révision 

systématique du genre Parachanna Teugels et Daget 1984 (Pisces: Channidae). Rev. Hydrobiol. Trop. 

18(4):267-280.

Original description: Ophiocephalus obscurus Günther, 1861:476. Catalogue of the acanthopterygian fishes in the 

collection of the British Museum, 3:i-xxxv + 1-586. Type locality: West Africa. Syntypes: BMNH 1849.12.25.2-3.

Synonyms: Ophiocephalus (Parophiocephalus) obscurus Senna, 1924.

Channa obscura Myers and Shapovalov, 1932.

Parophiocephalus obscurus Berg, 1940.

Common names: African snakehead; snakehead; fakka (Arabic); ojul (Shilluk); abioth (Dinka); jul (Nuer); 

woroko (Zande; Bailey, 1994).

Native range:White Nile, specifically the Jebel 

and Ghazal systems of Sudan (Bailey, 1994) and 

Gambela region of Ethiopia (Golubtsov and others, 

1995); Lake Chad basin; Zaire (Congo), Cross, Niger, 

and Senegal River basins (Boulenger, 1907, 1916; 

Irvine, 1947; Teugels and Daget, 1984; Bonou and 

Teugels, 1985; Skelton, 1988; Teugels and others, 

1992). Boeseman (1957) recorded the species from 

Stanley Pool, Lualaba (Congo) River. Said to be 

“widely distributed” in Ghana and noted as both useful 

as food and aquarium species (Dankwa and others, 

1999).

Introduced range: Not known to have been 

introduced.

Size: To 35 cm (Bailey, 1994).

Habitat preference: Bailey (1994) indicated a 

preference for marginal vegetation and floodplain habitat in the Sudan. Bonou and Teugels (1985) stated that 

this species occupies a wide variety of habitats including streams, rivers, lakes, lagoons and marshes. In 

flowing water, the species occupies calm areas. LoweMcConnell (1988) indicated this species as “widely 

distributed” in marshy habitats and also found in bank 

vegetation of river channels. Teugels and others (1992) 

listed the species as common in stagnant side channels 

of the Cross River, Cameroon-Nigeria, and found 

among waterlogged fallen trees and leaf debris.

Temperature range: No specific information, 

but the native range is in equatorial Africa indicating a 

strictly tropical species.

Reproductive habits: Bonou and Teugels 

(1985) stated that little was known of the reproductive 

behavior of Parachanna obscura. Gosse (1963) stated 

that young are guarded by a large adult. Likely a nest 

builder like other channids. Under monoculture conditions in southern Nigeria, reproductive activity was 

greatest in October and November (Victor and 

Akpocha, 1992). Fecundity in this monoculture pond 

varied, with stages III, IV, and V ovaries containing 

35-4,010 oöcytes. Moreover, fecundity was found not 
126

DISTRIBUTION OF

Parachanna obscura

EXPLANATION

Native range

0 1,000 MILES

0 1,000 KILOMETERS

0°

20 N°

20 S°

20 W° 0° 20 E° 40 E°

Madagascar

Indian

Ocean

AFRICA

Equator

Atlantic

Ocean

Mediterranean

Sea

Red Sea

Dem.

Rep.

of the

Congo

Congo

Angola Zambia

Tanzania

Sudan

Egypt

Algeria Libya

Morocco

Central

African Republic

Nigeria

Ivory

Coast

Gabon

Cameroon

Ethopia

Saudi

Arabia

Ghana

Nambia

South

Africa

Mozambique

Chad

Togo Benin

Burkina

Senegal

Gambia

Sierra Leone

Liberia

Guinea

to be correlated to length or weight, but this could 

result from “poor culture conditions” (Victor and 

Akpocha, 1992).

Feeding habits: Bonou and Teugels (1985) cited 

the species as feeding on other fishes, noting that in 

Bénin it is used to control the young of tilapias in 

aquaculture ponds. Citing Blache and others (1964), 

they recorded the food of young as copepods and insect 

larvae. Adults appear to prey on other fishes (Copley, 

1952; Poll, 1957; Gosse, 1963; Teugels and others, 

1992). Adebisi (1981) noted that juveniles fed on 

prawns, copepods, and aquatic insect larvae whereas 

adults fed only on fishes in southern Nigeria.

In monoculture in a Nigerian pond, young of this 

species (10-16 cm standard length) fed primarily on 

detritus and larval insects, whereas larger individuals 

(16-24 cm standard length) contained “fish parts” and 

juveniles, with insects and fish making up the bulk of 

the diet (Victor and Akpocha, 1992).

Characters: Patch of scales present in the gular 

region. No canine teeth on prevomer or palatines. 

Transverse scales 19-24; lateral line scales 65-78. 

Dorsal fin rays 39-45; anal fin rays 26-32. Head 

depressed anteriorly, relatively long and covered with 

large scales. Lower jaw slightly longer than upper jaw, 

with 4-6 well-developed canines. Lateral line typically 

complete, rarely discontinous. Coloration distinct 

among African snakeheads in having a series of dark 

blotches, some of which may coalesce, and no chevronshaped bars across the middle of the back.

Commercial importance in the United States: 

Sometimes listed on aquarist-oriented websites. Not 

known to have been available in live-food fish markets.

Commercial importance in native range: 

Probably available in local live-food fish markets. This 

snakehead is being cultured in Ghana (Morrice, 1991), 

Nigeria (Ajana, 1983; Victor and Akpocha, 1992), and 

Bénin (Jackson, 1988), and was recommended for 

culture in the Central African Republic (Micha, 1974). 

All these localities are within the native range of this 

species.

Environmental concerns: Known to be a predator, particularly of other fishes (Copley, 1952; Poll, 

1957; Gosse, 1963; Teugels and others, 1992).

Parachanna obscura
 127

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We are most grateful to a large number of individuals who generously provided assistance to us in preparing this species synopsis and risk 

assessment. In particular, we thank Ralf Britz of the University of Tübingen, 

Germany, currently on sabbatical leave at the Division of Fishes, National 

Museum of Natural History, Washington, D.C.; Maurice Kottelat, Cornol, 

Switzerland; Sven Kullander, Swedish Museum of Natural History, Stockholm; Prachya Musikasinthorn, Faculty of Fisheries, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, 

Thailand; Peter K. L. Ng, Department of Zoology and Raffles Museum, National 

University of Singapore; Rohan Pethiyagoda, World Heritage Trust, Columbo, Sri 

Lanka; the late Guy Teugels, Musée Royale de l’Afrique Central, Tervuren, Belgium; 

and Hiroshi Ueda, Field Science Center for Northern Biosphere, Hokkaido University, 

Sapporo, Japan, for providing helpful information on snakehead taxonomy, distribution, and ecology; Nina Bogutskaya of the Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, for records, literature, and field collection information on channids in Russia and 

the former Soviet Union; Fang Fang, Swedish Museum of Natural History, and Ping 

Zhuang, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Shanghai, for their comments on 

snakehead culture in China; Jim Cambray, Albany Museum, Grahamstown, South 

Africa; Karsten Hartel and James Stephen Lee, Museum of Comparative Zoology, 

Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts; Robert Howells, Texas Parks and 

Wildlife Department, Heart of the Hills Research Station, Ingram, Texas; Paul 

Loiselle, New York Aquarium, Brooklyn, New York; Ted Pietsch and Margarita 

Reimer, School of Aquatic and Fishery Science, University of Washington, Seattle, 

Washington; Richard Rosenblatt, Scripps Institute of Oceanography, La Jolla, California; Paul Shafland, Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Boca Raton, 

Florida; Leo Smith, American Museum of Natural History, New York, New York; 

Franklin (Buck) Snelson, Department of Biology, University of Central Florida, 

Orlando, Florida; Ross B. Socolof, Bradenton, Florida; Wayne Starnes, North Carolina State Museum of Natural Sciences, Raleigh, North Carolina; John Sunada, California Department of Fish and Game, San Bernardino, California; Camm Swift, 

Arcadia, California; and Michael Williams, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Blaine, 

Washington, for input on specimens collected or confiscated and/or general information; and Gerald R. Allen, Western Australian Museum, Perth; Robert K. Hamilton, 

Baltimore Sun, Baltimore, Maryland; Phil Hastings, Scripps Institute of Oceanography; Prachya Musikasinthorn; Peter Ng; Rohan Pethiyagoda; Heok Hui Tan, National 

University of Singapore; the late Guy Teugels; Mark Sabaj, Academy of Natural 

Sciences, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; and Jörg Vierke, Husum, Germany, for permission to examine and/or use photographs and illustrations. Without their help, this 

effort would not have been possible. 

Special thanks to Disney Publishing Worldwide, Disney Enterprises, Inc., 

for permission to use the illustrations in figure 1, and to Jean-Francois Helias of 

Fishing Adventures Thailand, for use of photographs of snakeheads caught by anglers 

in Thailand and Malaysia. Tom Darden, Governor’s office, Annapolis, Maryland, also 

provided several photos.
128

We also acknowledge Steve Early and Bob Lunsford, Maryland Department 

of Natural Resources, Annapolis, Maryland, for keeping us advised on the northern 

snakehead introduction and eradication in Crofton, Anne Arundel County.

Our thanks to many others for their assistance in providing information, 

including David Casey, Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife, Frankfort, 

Kentucky; Vi Catrow, USGS, Leetown, West Virginia; Bill Chang, National Science 

Foundation, Washington, D.C.; Domingo Cravalho, Jr., Hawaii Department of 

Agriculture, Honolulu, Hawaii; Richard Feeney, Los Angleles County Museum, Los 

Angeles, California; Bill Foreman, Connecticut Department of Environmental 

Protection, Inland Fisheries Division, Hartford, Connecticut; Pam Fuller, USGS, 

Gainesville, Florida; Bob Howells; Brett Houdyshell, Kansas Department of Wildlife 

and Parks, Pratt, Kansas; Keith Johnson, Idaho Department of Game and Fish, Boise, 

Idaho; Deborah Koo, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Vancouver, British 

Columbia; John McCosker, California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco, 

California; Tom Nesler, Colorado Division of Wildlife, Denver, Colorado; Jim 

Peterson, Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife, and Parks, Great Falls, Montana; 

Tyson Roberts, California Academy of Sciences; Robert H. Robins, Florida Museum 

of Natural History, Gainesville, Florida; Beth Rogers, Maryland Department of 

Natural Resources; Dal Schaefer, Colorado Division of Wildlife, Denver, Colorado; 

Karl J. Scheidegger and Joseph Hennessy, Wisconsin Department of Natural 

Resources, Madison, Wisconsin; Russell Wong, North Carolina Wildlife Resources 

Commission, Raleigh, North Carolina; and Mike Yamamoto, Hawaii Department of 

Land and Natural Resources, Division of Aquatic Resources, Honolulu, Hawaii.

Special thanks go to Leo Nico, USGS, Gainesville, Florida, for providing 

several important references, hand-carrying snakehead specimens to us from the Bernice P. 

Bishop Museum, Honolulu, Hawaii, and for his encouragement. For loans of preserved 

specimens, we thank David Catania, California Academy of Sciences; Barry Chernoff, 

Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, Illinois; Ron Englund, Bernice P. Bishop 

Museum; Karsten Hartel; and Mel Stiassny, American Museum of Natural History. 

Support for this research was provided by Interagency Grant Agreement 

94400-1-0100 from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Division of Scientific 

Authority and Fisheries Management and Division of Environmental Quality, Branch 

of Invasive Species, Washington, D.C. Pam Hall, Sharon Gross, and Kari Duncan, 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, provided snakehead import data and information of 

Service policy on non-native fishes. Pingfu Chen, Natural History Museum, 

University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, assisted with translation of some Chinese 

literature. Ken Sulak, USGS, Gainesville, Florida, and James Joeriman, Department 

of Romance Languages and Literature, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, 

provided translation assistance of some Russian literature. Sherry L. Bostick, USGS, 

Gainesville, Florida, assisted greatly with illustrations, manuscript assembly, and 

mapping modification; and Britton Wilson, U.S. National Park Service, Homestead, 

Florida, prepared the basic distribution maps when she was with the USGS in 

Gainesville. Julie Mounts, Division of Fishes, National Museum of Natural History, 

Washington, D.C., assisted in obtaining original descriptions of several species of 

snakeheads. Susan Trammell, Archer, Florida, created the illustration of the northern 

snakehead that appears on the cover.
 129

Finally, we thank the members of the Risk Assessment and Management 

Committee of the Aquatic Nuisance Species Task Force for their review and 

comments on an earlier version of the manuscript: Richard Orr, Chairperson, 

U.S. Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, 

Riverdale, Maryland; Jim Andreasen, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 

Washington, D.C.; Shawn Alam, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Arlington, Virginia; 

Fred Kern, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Ocean 

Service, Oxford, Maryland; Marshall Myers, Pet Industry Joint Advisory Council, 

Washington, D.C.; Edwin Theriot, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways 

Experimental Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi; and Paul Zajicek, Florida Department 

of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Tallahassee, Florida. Our gratitude is also 

extended to Ralf Britz, Carter R. Gilbert, University of Florida, Robert Howells, Peter 

Ng, and Hoek Hui Tan for their careful evaluation and comments on the manuscript.

Our sincere apologies to those we may have overlooked.

REFERENCES

An asterisk (*) after the citation indicates that the reference was 

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the Upper Ogun River in Nigeria: Hydrobiologia 79, p. 167-177.

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the growth and food of the murrel Channa (=Ophicephalus) marulius (Bloch) of the River 

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Ali, A.B., 1999, Aspects of the reproductive biology of female snakehead (Channa striata) 

(Bloch) obtained from irrigated rice agroecosystem, Malaysia: Hydrobiologia, v. 411, 

p. 71-77.

Alikunhi, K.H., 1953, Notes on the bionomics, breedings and growth of the murrel, 

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no. 1, p. 41-59.

Allen, G.R., 1991, Field guide to the freshwater fishes of New Guinea: Singapore, Calendar 

Print Pte. Ltd., Christensen Research Institute, Publication No. 9, 268 p.

Amanov, A.A., 1974, Morphology and mode of life of the Amur snakehead (Ophiocephalus 

argus warpachowskii) in Chimkurgan Reservoir: Journal of Ichthyology, v. 14, no. 5, 

p. 713-717.

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