Water Requirements 

of the Rayon- and 

Acetate-Fiber 

Industry

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 1330-D
Water Requirements 

of the Rayon- and 

Acetate-Fiber 

Industry

By ORVILLE D. MUSSEY

WATER REQUIREMENTS OF SELECTED INDUSTRIES

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 1330-D

A study of the manufacturing processes 

with emphasis on present water use and 

future water requirements

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON : 1957
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

FRED A. SEATON, Secretary

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Thomas B. Nolan, Director

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office 

Washington 25, D. C. - Price 20 cents (paper cover)
PREFACE

This report is one of a series describing the water requirements 

of selected industries that are of national importance. It was prepared at the request of and in consultation with the Water and Sewerage Industry and Utilities Division, Business and Defense Services 

Administration, Department of Commerce, and is designed to serve 

the dual purpose of providing basic information for national defense planning and at the same time of providing assistance to 

business and industry.

Special acknowledgment is given to the many officials of the 

companies manufacturing rayon and acetate fiber who supplied 

information concerning the water used at their plants.

The author is indebted to Ernest H. Sieveka, chemical engineer 

of the Geological Survey, who planned the scope of the reports on 

the use of water in industry and has guided and aided the author 

during the study of the water requirements of the rayon- and 

acetate-fiber industry.

Ill

CONTENTS

	Page 

Abstract ............................................................................................................................... 141

Introduction ._.......................................................................... ............................................. 142

Purpose and scope........................................................................................................... 142

History................................................................................................................................ 142

Definitions of rayon and acetate.................................................................................... 144

Properties of rayon and acetate fibers.......................................................................... 144

Manufacturing processes..................................................................................................... 145

Purified wood cellulose................................................................................................... 145

Purified cotton linters .................................................................................................... 145

Viscose rayon................................................................................................................... 147

Cuprammonium rayon......................................................................................................... 149

Acetate............................................................................................................................... 149

Wastes..................................................................................................................................... 150

Rayon................................................................................................................................. 150

Acetate............................................................................................................................... 151

Water requirements for preparation of raw material.......................................................... 151

Quantitative water requirements.......................................................................................... 152

Review of literature......................................................................................................... 152

Field surveys..................................................................................................................... 153

Unit water-use requirements........................................................................................ 153

Consumptive water use................................................................................................ 155

Qualitative water requirements............................................................................................ 156

Published data................................................................................................................... 156

Process water................................................................................................................ 156

Boiler-feed water........................................................................................................... 158

Cooling water................................................................................................................. 158

Field surveys..................................................................................................................... 160

Quality of untreated water........................................................................................... 160

Water treatment.............................................................................................................. 166

Future water requirements.................................................................................................... J67

Location of industry......................................................................................................... 167

Growth of industry......................................................................................................... 167

Present capacity of plants........................................................................................... 170

Trends in the rayon and acetate fiber industry............................................................. 173

Summary.................................................................................................................................. 174

Quantitative water requirements..................................................................................... 174

Quantitative water requirements..................................................................................... 174

Trends in water requirements ......................................................................................... 175

Selected references............................................................................................................... 175

Index....................................................................................................................................... 179

ILLUSTRATIONS

Page

Figure 24. Frequency distribution of chemical characteristics in untreated 

water supplies used for process water in the manufacture of 

viscose-rayon fiber...................................................................................... 163
VI CONTENTS

Page

Figure 25. Frequency distribution of physical characteristics in untreated water 

supplies used for process water in the manufacture of viscoserayon fiber .................................................................................................... 164

26. Chemical composition of a typical untreated water used for process

water in the manufacture of viscose-rayon fiber...................................... 165

27. Location of rayon- and acetate-fiber plants, 1952....................................... 168

28. United States and world production of rayon and acetate fiber by (A)

quantity and (B) percent, 1930-53 ............................................................. 169

29. Mill consumption of selected fibers in the United States by (A)

quantity and (B) percent, 1930-53............................................................. 171

30. Production of types of rayon and acetate fibers by (A) quantity and

(B) percent, 1930-53................................................................................... 172

TABLES

Page 

Table 1. Suggested maximum allowable concentrations of dissolved and

suspended constituents in process water used for making purified

wood cellulose for viscose-rayon fiber .................................................... 152

2. Gallons of water per pound of product, arranged by product, use,

and magnitude ............................................................................................. 154

3. Source of water used in rayon- and acetate-fiber manufacture in the

United States, 1952-53 survey................................................................. 155

4. Suggested maximum concentrations of dissolved and suspended

constituents and range of recommended threshold of process water

for the manufacture of viscose-rayon fiber............................................... 157

5. Specifications for water quality for rayon-fiber manufacture..................... 158

6. Suggested water-quality tolerance for boiler-feed water ............................ 159

7. Quality characteristics of untreated water used for cooling and

processing in the manufacture of viscose-rayon fiber............................ 161

8. Quality characteristics of untreated water used for cooling and

processing in the manufacture of acetate fiber....................................... *62

9. Properties of untreated water used for the manufacture of viscoserayon and acetate fiber............................................................................... 166

10. Water-treatment methods at rayon- and acetate-fiber plants...................... 166

11. Most important quality characteristics of untreated water used for

process water in the manufacture of viscose-rayon fiber..................... 1'5
WATER REQUIREMENTS OF SELECTED INDUSTRIES

WATER REQUIREMENTS OF THE RAYON- AND 

ACETATE-FIBER INDUSTRY

By Orville D. Mussey

ABSTRACT

Water is required for several purposes in the manufacture of rayon and acetate fiber. 

These water requirements, as indicated by a survey of the water used by the plants operating in 1953, are both quantitative and qualitative.

About 300 mgd (million gallons per day) of water was used in 1953 in the preparation of 

purified wood cellulose and cotton linters, the basic material from which the rayon and 

acetate fiber is made. An additional 620 mgd was used in the process of converting the 

cellulose to rayon and acetate fiber. The total, 920 mgd, is about 1 percent of the total 

estimated withdrawals of industrial water in the United States in 1953.

The rayon- and acetate-fiber plants are scattered through eastern United States and 

generally are located in small towns or rural areas where there are abundant supplies of 

clean, soft water. Water use at a typical rayon-fiber plant was about 9 mgd, and at a 

typical acetate-fiber plant about 38 mgd.

About 110 gallons of water was used to produce a pound of rayon fiber 32 gallons 

per pound was process water and the remainder was used largely for cooling in connection with power production and air conditioning. For the manufacture of a pound of acetate 

fiber about 170 gallons of water was used. However, the field survey on which this report 

is based indicated a wide range in the amount of water used per pound of product. For 

example, in the manufacture of viscose rayon, the maximum unit water use was 8 times 

the minimum unit water use. Water use in summer was about 22 percent greater than average annual use. About 8 mgd of water was consumed by evaporation in the manufacture of 

rayon and acetate fiber.

More than 90 percent of the water used by the rayon and acetate industry was withdrawn from surface-water sources, about 8 percent from ground water, and less than 2 

percent from municipal water supplies.

All available analyses of the untreated waters used by the rayon and acetate industry 

were collected and studied. The untreated waters were generally cool, low in content of 

calcium and magnesium, and very low in iron and manganese. At many plants, water was 

obtained from more than one source, and thus had different quality characteristics. Dissolved solids in all the untreated waters analyzed ranged between 14 and 747 ppm (parts 

per million) but in those waters used in processing the dissolved solids content was 

less than 200 ppm.

The cooling water used by the industry is also generally of very high quality, principally because the requirements for a high-quality process water necessitate location of 

the plants in areas where such water is available.

141
142 WATER REQUIREMENTS OF SELECTED INDUSTRIES

INTRODUCTION

PURPOSE AND SCOPE

The results of a survey of the quantitative and qualitative water 

requirements of the rayon- and acetate-fiber manufacturers are 

presented in this report. Such information will aid in planning 

the location of new plants using large amounts of industrial water 

for the production of either rayon or acetate fiber or of other 

material.

The literature was carefully studied to gather as much information as possible about the use of water in rayon- and acetate-fiber 

manufacture, particularly how much and what kind of water was 

required for economical operation. Plants that prepared the special purified wood cellulose and cotton linters used as a raw 

material in cellulosic-fiber manufacture also are included in this 

study.

A field survey of the rayon- and acetate-fiber plants was made 

to determine the amount and quality of the water used at each 

plant, the way the water was used, the amount of water that was 

reused, and the total consumptive water use. Similar information 

for two cellophane plants was obtained because it was found that 

water requirements for the manufacture of vis cose-ray on fiber 

and the manufacture of cellophane were nearly identical. The 

information obtained included source or sources of supply, adequacy of the supply, temperature of the water, treatment given 

the water, and particularly any unusual practices in water use and 

the reasons for such practices. The source of water used for 

cooling, washing, process, boiler feed, sanitary, and chemical 

recovery was also sought. The type of raw material used and the 

amount and kind of fiber produced at each plant were ascertained 

to determine the relation to water use. All water used at the 

plants was part of the ordinary operation of cellulosic-fiber plants 

and thus was considered a part of the plant use.

Any estimate of the future water requirements of these industries would normally be based on an estimate of the future production of rayon and acetate fiber. Therefore, a brief history of 

the growth of the industries has been included to explain past 

changes in production rates and assist in estimating the future 

rates of production.

HISTORY

Nearly 300 years ago Robert Hooke envisioned the possibilities 

of creating artificial silk by chemical means. It seemed possible
RAYON- AND ACETATE-FIBER INDUSTRY 143

to him that, if a silkworm could spew out a fiber produced from 

a diet of mulberry leaves, man could discover how to make similar fibers from vegetable matter. However, it was not until 1884 

that the nitrocellulose process for making artificial silk was patented. The viscose process was patented in 1892 and the acetate 

process in the following year. The first cuprammonium yarn was 

made commercially in Germany in 1898.

The early history of the manufacture of artificial silk is one of 

bankruptcies and reorganizations of companies that did not exist 

long enough to solve the problem of economically producing and 

selling a product that could compete with natural fibers. The first 

artificial silk was coarse and harsh and only the lustrous sheen of 

real silk was attained. The fibers produced by the cuprammonium 

process were the only ones that had what William Haynes (1953) 

described as "the sensuous feel and the soft, clinging drape of 

silk, " but these fibers were physically weak; machines designed 

for use with silk or cotton could handle the knitting and weaving of 

cuprammonium fibers only by slowing down their operation. The 

cuprammonium fibers remained weak until aprocess for strengthening the filaments by stretching them was adopted in 1919. Gradually the producers of viscose and acetate fiber learned to make 

finer and stronger fibers, until these artificial-silk fibers rivaled 

natural silk.

No commercially successful artificial silk plants had been established in America before 1910, but in that year the English firm 

of Courtaulds constructed at Marcus Hook, Pa., the first plant of 

what was to become the American Viscose Corporation. The success of this enterprise resulted from the acquirement of the 

American rights to a group of patents that previously were held by 

competitive companies. From 1910 to 1920 production was doubled 

and redoubled and new plants were built, but the supply lagged behind demand. After 1920,. when the patents expired, many other 

companies established plants in the United States until, in 1923, 

this country was producing one-third of the world's artificial silk, 

twice as much as any other country.

In 1924 the entire product of this industry was renamed rayon. 

The 15 years following the adoption of the new name showed a 

rapid increase in production in the United States, but the world 

picture so changed that by 1939 the United States was producing 

only one-sixth of the world supply; Germany, Italy, and Japan were 

producing nearly two-thirds of the supply; and the rest of the world 

was producing the remaining one-sixth. During this period many 

changes took place in the American industry. One of the most 

significant changes occurred in 1938 when the first continuousprocess rayon plant was placed in commercial operation, and

4Z6143 O -57 -2
144 WATER REQUIREMENTS OF SELECTED INDUSTRIES

established new standards of uniform quality for the entire 

industry.

Cellulose acetate was only about 3 percent of the total rayon and 

acetate production for 1925, but by 1940 nearly one-third of the 

production was acetate. As early as 1934 high-tenacity rayon 

filaments suitable for automobile tires, belting, and other heavy 

duty fabrics were introduced and replaced, for the most part, the 

costly long-fiber cottons that had been used previously.

Rayon and acetate staple fiber (filament cut into short lengths 

for thread and textile manufacture by the same methods used for 

cotton and wool) and tow (a rope of parallel filaments from which 

such staple can be readily produced) now (1953) constitute about a 

quarter of our total cellulosic-fiber production.

DEFINITIONS OF RAYON AND ACETATE

The literature dealing with manmade fibers of cellulosic origin 

is somewhat confusing because of the changes in nomenclature of 

the product. For many years before 1924 such fibers were generally described as artificial silk. In 1924, the Federal Trade 

Commission ruled that any fiber of cellulosic origin should be 

called rayon in marketing and advertising. Later, however, the 

Federal Trade Commission (1951) defined rayon as "manmade 

textile fibers and filaments composed of regenerated cellulose, 

and yarn, thread, or textile fabric made of such fibers and filaments. " At the same time it defined acetate as "manmade textile 

fibers and filaments composed of cellulose acetate, and yarn, 

thread, or textile fabric made of such fibers and filaments. "

PROPERTIES OF RAYON AND ACETATE FIBERS

Viscose and cuprammonium rayons are somewhat alike, but 

acetate differs from the others in several respects. Cuprammonium rayon generally is composed of filaments of smaller diameter 

than viscose rayon and usually is woven into a sheer fabric called 

bemberg. Acetate fabrics have a suppleness that results in a 

more pleasing drape and a finer "feel" than rayon fabrics made 

from yarn of the same denier. The denier is a measure of the 

size of filaments or yarn; it is the weight in grams of 9,000 

meters of filament or yarn the finer the yarn the smaller the 

denier.

Rayon may be dyed using selected dyes that have an affinity for 

cotton, but special acetate dyes generally are used for acetate
RAYON- AND ACETATE-FIBER INDUSTRY 145

fibers. Acetate blends well with other synthetic and natural fibers; 

this permits some interesting color effects as the fibers may be 

affected differently by a single dyeing process. Acetate is thermoplastic and may be pleated permanently or given a moire effect by 

the use of heat.

The regular grade of viscose rayon is not quite as strong as 

cuprammonium rayon but is stronger than the regular grade of 

acetate. Saponified acetate fiber (cellulose acetate fiber which 

has been chemically transformed into cellulose) is stronger than 

high-tenacity viscose fiber.

The different properties of the various kinds of cellulosic fibers 

have strongly affected the trends in their production.

MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

The brief descriptions of the manufacturing processes that follow are based on reports by Mauersberger (1952) and Shreve 

(1945) and on information, obtained from visits to the rayon and 

acetate plants. Only enough process description is presented to 

enable the reader to understand where water enters into the processes and the water quality requirements for the different uses.

Although the manufacturers of rayon and acetate were quite 

willing to discuss the use of water in a general way, details of the 

flow of water through the plants were not available. Large 

amounts of water are used for washing and process but most of the 

water is used for power production, temperature control of process, factory air conditioning, and chemical recovery.

PURIFIED WOOD CELLULOSE

Purified wood cellulose (high in alpha-cellulose content) is 

made by methods similar to those used in producing wood pulp for 

paper manufacture (Mussey, 1955, p. 7 15). The basic difference 

is that considerable effort is made to separate a large part of the 

beta and gamma cellulose (low molecular weight) from the alpha 

cellulose (high molecular weight). The alpha-cellulose derivatives 

dissolve to form solutions suitable for rayon and acetate manufacture. Purified wood cellulose is produced from wood chips 

that are first treated with acid and then with caustic soda or other 

strong alkalis.

In the sulfite process, a mixture of sulfurous acid and calcium 

and magnesium bisulfite breaks down the lignins into a soluble
146 WATER REQUIREMENTS OF SELECTED INDUSTRIES

product of lignin and sulfuric acid and partially hydrolyzes the 

beta and gamma cellulose to sugar. The beta and gamma cellulose are removed later with caustic soda. Knots, bark fragments, and pieces of unpulped chips are removed by screening. 

This is followed by bleaching (with chlorine or hypochlorite) and 

purification.

The cellulose is thoroughly washed using multistage, countercurrent backwashing at each stage of the process, for which large 

quantities of pure water are needed. As the wood cellulose acts 

as a filter and removes many of the substances in suspension in 

the water, the wash water should be almost entirely free of suspended matter and salts of such metals as copper, iron, and 

manganese.

Some purified wood cellulose is prepared by a modified sulfate 

process in which the wood chips are treated with dilute sulfuric 

acid followed by the conventional sulfate process which involves 

cooking in a liquor containing sodium sulfide and caustic soda. 

The cooking is followed by washing, screening, and bleaching 

similar to that followed in the sulfite process.

After bleaching and purification, the fibers' are formed on a 

Fourdrinier papermaking machine into sheets that resemble blotting paper. These sheets are then shipped either in bales of flat 

sheets or in rolls to the rayon- and acetate-fiber plants.

PURIFIED COTTON LINTERS

Cotton linters are the very short cellulose fibers that cling to 

the cotton seed after the ginning process. These short fibers are 

cut from the seeds in preparing them for the oil press. Natural 

impurities and foreign matter are removed from the fibers by 

cooking in dilute caustic soda in steel digesters under steam pressure. The linters are then washed and bleached with chlorine in 

multiple stages with close control of pH, temperature, and time. 

Enormous amounts of high-quality water must be used for washing 

after each stage of bleaching. Cotton linters, like wood cellulose, 

act as a filter and will retain any impurities in the wash water. 

Such impurities may make the product unusable. Processed 

chemical cotton may be either dried and baled or processed, by 

the use of standard papermaking machinery, into sheets that resemble blotting paper.
RAYON- AND ACETATE-FIBER INDUSTRY 147 

VISCOSE RAYON

Sheets of purified wood cellulose (or cotton linters) are placed 

in steeping presses where they are soaked 2 4 hours in an 18 percent caustic soda solution at controlled temperatures. Much of 

the remaining beta and gamma cellulose goes into solution in the 

caustic, and the alpha cellulose is converted to alkali cellulose. 

The caustic soda solution containing nearly all of the dissolved 

beta and gamma cellulose is pressed from the cellulose sheets 

and sent to chemical recovery.

Sheets of alkali cellulose are reduced to small crumbs in a water-jacketed shredder at carefully controlled temperatures. The 

crumbs are aged for variable periods also at very definite temperatures; this results in a change in the molecular structure. 

After the aging is completed, the crumbs are placed in a barratte, 

which is a hexagonal horizontal iron-drum mixer. One pound of 

carbon disulfide is added for each 10 pounds of crumbs. In 2 or 3 

hours the alkali cellulose is converted to cellulose xanthate. The 

excess carbon disulfide is exhausted, and the cellulose xanthate is 

dissolved in a dilute solution of caustic soda in a water-jacketed 

mixer.

Several batches are blended, and the blend is aged or ripened 

until it is about ready to coagulate. The temperature is very 

carefully controlled. When the viscosity is suitable, the solution 

is filtered, and the filtrate is placed under vacuum for 24 hours. 

The viscose solution is then pumped to the spinning machine where 

it is filtered again and extruded through minute holes in a spinneret into an acid bath where it coagulates to form filaments of 

regenerated cellulose.

The bath consists of warm water that contains 8 12 percent 

sulfuric acid, 13^ 20 percent sodium sulfate, 1 percent zinc sulfate or magnesium sulfate, and 4 10 percent glucose. The quality 

of the bath is kept uniform by continuous circulation to a large 

supply tank. Because the bath loses acid and gains water and 

sodium sulfate, sulfuric acid is added to the bath, and from 

time to time withdrawals of liquid from the solution are made 

to a lead-lined evaporator where the excess water is removed 

by evaporation and the concentrated solution is cooled. This 

causes the excess sodium sulfate to settle out as Glauber salt, 

and the remaining liquid is returned to the spinning bath.

Three different systems are used for processing the thread 

after it leaves the spinning bath.
148 WATER REQUIREMENTS OF SELECTED INDUSTRIES

(1) Most rayon is produced by passing the gathered filaments 

into the center of the top of a bucket revolving at 6,000 10,000 

revolutions per minute. The coils of rayon threads collected in the 

bucket are called cakes. Considerable water is used in completing the treatment of the cakes. A warm alkaline-water rinse is 

used first to deacidify the filaments; next a dilute sodium sulfide 

wash is used to remove the yellow color that results from the 

residual sulfur; and then the cakes receive a thorough warm-water 

rinse which is followed by a cold-water rinse. If it is desired to 

bleach the thread completely it is next subjected to a weak solution of sodium hypochlorite followed by a bath of dilute hydrochloric or sulfuric acid which stops the bleaching action, after which 

another thorough rinse in warm water is followed by a cold-water 

rinse. The final bath is an emulsion of water and oil or soap 

which improves the softness and pliability of the yarn. The cakes 

are then slowly dried 60-72 hours at temperatures of 160°-180°F 

allowing the cakes to shrink sufficiently to relieve tensions in the 

yarn. The whole process from spinning to cured cake takes 

about 90 hours.

(2) In a system using bobbins the filaments are wound, without 

twisting, on a perforated core. The wound bobbins are removed 

from the machine, deacified, desulfured, and rinsed in a bobbinwashing machine as were the cakes.

(3) A continuous system of viscose manufacture has been developed which permits production of a yarn of more uniform quality than can be manufactured by processing the rayon in cakes or 

spools. One method involves a series of thread-advancing reels 

offset horizontally and vertically like stairs. On each reel the 

thread receives a special chemical or washing treatment, each 

step representing one of the series of treatments described in the 

first, or bucket, system. Thread is dried on the last reel or reels, 

twisted by passage over cap twisters, and wound on bobbins holding several pounds of dry yarn. The entire process from spinning 

bath to bobbin requires about 6 minutes. Several other methods 

for continuous production by the viscose process also have been 

developed.

All the buildings (even ones used for packaging) are usually air 

conditioned, with- control over both temperature and humidity. 

This extensive air conditioning was found desirable to facilitate 

the operation of the yarn-handling machinery. Large amounts of 

cooling water are used in air conditioning and also in maintaining 

desirable temperatures within narrow limits at some points in the 

process.
RAYON- AND ACETATE-FIBER INDUSTRY 149 

CUPRAMMONIUM RAYON

Cuprammonium rayon is manufactured by first dissolving cotton 

linters or purified wood pulp in Schweitzer's reagent, which is an 

ammoniacal solution of copper hydroxide. After passing through 

filters this spinning solution is pumped from the spinnerets into 

spinning funnels through which deaerated water is flowing. This 

water removes about a third of the copper and most of the ammonia 

causing a mild coagulation of the cellulose. During spinning, the 

fibers are stretched until they have a cross section that is only 

about one five-thousandth of the area of the spinneret holes.

The thread then is passed into a bath of dilute sulfuric acid 

which completes the hardening of the threads by converting the 

remaining ammonia to ammonium sulfate and the remaining copper 

to copper sulfate. The untwisted thread is wound on reels to form 

skeins that are laced to prevent tangling during washing. Copper 

sulfate, ammonium sulfate, and excess acid are washed out, and 

lubricants are introduced to soften the threads; and then the skeins 

are dried. A second bath contains an emulsion of soap and oil to 

further soften the thread and may contain tints for temporarily 

coloring the material for identification. After a second drying, 

the skeins are packaged to suit the customer.

ACETATE

Purified cellulose is selected from several different batches to 

help in maintaining uniform quality in the final product. Most, 

but not all, of the moisture normally present in the cellulose is 

first removed in a tunnel dryer at low temperatures.

The cellulose is dissolved in a mixing tank called an acetylator, 

which is equipped with a stirring device and is jacketed for control of temperature by a liquid medium that has a range from 20° 

to 120°F. The cellulose is introduced slowly into a mixture of 

glacial acetic acid mixed with a small amount of sulfuric acid. 

During this time the mix is agitated, and the temperature is kept 

below 45°F. Acetic anhydride, with sufficient sulfuric acid to act 

as a catalyst, is added; the temperature is kept below 68°F during 

the first hour and then raised to 86°F. After several hours the 

acetylation is complete, and a heavy viscous clear solution results. 

Exact time, temperature, and catalyst control are important 

factors in producing a desirable end product. The output of the 

acetylator is cellulose triacetate which is soluble only in costly 

solvents and is too impervious to moisture and dyes. Therefore, 

cellulose triacetate is converted to diacetate, which is soluble in 

acetone.
150 WATER REQUIREMENTS OF SELECTED INDUSTRIES

This conversion is accomplished by placing the cellulose triacetate into an aging tank where water and acetic acid are added 

and the temperature is maintained at higher levels than in the 

acetylator. Hydrolysis of the cellulose triacetate occurs and 

acetic acid is liberated. When samples indicate the desired acetyl 

content has been reached, the secondary acetate in the aging tank 

is precipitated in the form of flakes by discharging it into a large 

volume of water. The flakes are washed several times by decanting, centrifuging, and rewashing, after which they are dried in a 

centrifuge and a steam drier.

A spinning solution is prepared by dissolving flakes from different batches in acetone and a small amount of water. After 

repeated filtering and deaerating, the spinning solution is ready 

for the spinning machine.

Acetate fibers are produced by discharging the spinning fluid 

through a spinneret into a cabinet through which air at about 134°F 

is passing. This air, which is slightly above the boiling point of 

acetone, removes the acetone by evaporation. At the end of the 

cabinet the filaments are gathered together, lubricated, and wound 

in a suitable package.

A very strong saponified acetate, which has very important 

military and industrial uses, may be produced by saponification 

with caustic soda or other alkalis while the material is under high 

tension. Saponified acetate fiber may be dyed with viscose-rayon 

dyes. A partially saponified acetate that takes on some of the 

properties of both acetate and rayon is generally used as staple 

fiber. Both of these processes require additional water for process and subsequent washing.

WASTES

RAYON

In viscose-rayon manufacture, four different types of waste 

from the plants are emptied into sewers: (1) sanitary sewage;

(2) wastes from that part of the plant where the viscose syrup 

is produced these wastes are strongly alkaline on the pH scale;

(3) wastes that result from regeneration of the viscose, including the first washing of the regenerated fiber these wastes are 

strongly acid; and (4) acid wastes from final treatment of the 

rayon fibers. Each of these wastes generally is kept separate 

to facilitate treatment.

At their Front Royal, Va., plant (Roetman, 1944), the American 

Viscose Corporation treats the sanitary sewage in Imhoff tanks
RAYON- AND ACETATE-FIBER INDUSTRY 151

and trickling filters. The effluent from this process is mixed with 

the effluent from a biochemical treatment of the sodium sulfide 

wastes from desulfuring the fiber in the aftertreatment. The alkaline wastes from the production of viscose solution are added to 

acid wastes from the spinning and aftertreatment departments, and 

the combined waste, which is always acid, is neutralized by the addition of a lime slurry. Wastes from the biochemical treatments 

are added, after which the mixture of all the liquid wastes passes 

to a settling and retention basin where the suspended matter settles out and the effluent is returned to the South Fork Shenandoah 

River.

Very little information could be found regarding cuprammoniumrayon waste, but one authority (Besselievre, 1952) indicates that 

cupr ammonium-rayon waste has a biochemical oxygen demand ofonly about 4 percent of that of viscose-rayon waste per pound of 

end product. Cuprammonium-rayon waste appears to be a very 

minor problem, although American Bemberg, only cuprammoniumrayon manufacturer in the United States, took the lead in Tennessee 

in equipping its plant with facilities for treatment of industrial 

wastes (Norman, 1948).

ACETATE

Most of the waste from the manufacture of acetate fiber results 

from the recovery of dilute acetic acid and the conversion of some 

of the recovered acetic acid to acetic anhydride (Roznoy, 1954). 

The waste contains small amounts of acetic acid, acetate, celluloseacetate fines, sugars resulting from hydrolysis of the cellulose, 

and appreciable amounts of sulfate. One troublesome feature of 

this waste is its relatively high biochemical oxygen demand.

In recent laboratory scale tests, the biochemical oxygen demand 

has been reduced as much as 93 percent by aerobic biologic treatment methods. Testing on a pilot-plant scale is planned, but results 

are not yet available. However, this would not reduce the sulfate 

content.

WATER REQUIREMENTS FOR PREPARATION OF RAW MATERIAL

Large amounts of water are used for the manufacture of purified 

wood cellulose, but the only figure obtained for unit water use was 

200,000 gallons per ton of purified wood cellulose at an unidentified 

pulp mill (Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry, 

1942). No figures were obtained as to the quantity of water used for 

the purification of cotton linters, the other basic raw material, but 

a comparison of the process used in purifying cotton linters with 

that used in refining wood cellulose reveals that the unit water use 

is perhaps about half that for purified wood cellulose.

4Z6~143 O -57-3
152 WATER REQUIREMENTS OF SELECTED INDUSTRIES

An estimated 300 mgd, based on 200,000 gallons per ton of 

purified wood cellulose and about half that amount per ton of refined cotton linters, was used in 1953 for the preparation of special 

cellulose for rayon- and acetate-fiber manufacture. This is a 

water requirement for the plants that refine the purified wood 

cellulose and cotton linters and not for the rayon- and acetatefiber plants.

The quality of the water used in manufacturing purified wood 

cellulose must be quite high; suggested maximum allowable concentrations for several of the ordinary constituents of process 

water are shown in table 1. If these constituents are present in

Table 1. Suggested maximum allowable concentrations of dissolved and suspended constituents in process water used for making purified wood cellulose for viscose-rayon fiber

[Modified from American Water Wodts Association, 1950, p. 67]

Constituent

Turbidity............................... ...... ,

Hardness as CaCOs^j.........................

IronCFe).........................................

Ppm

5

5

8

.05

.03

.05

Constituent

Aluminum oxide (A1ZOL)....................... 

Silica (SiO,).......................................

Copper *: (Cu).. * *............. .......................

Ppm

100

50

8 

25

5

the process water in amounts greater than those suggested, they 

may cause difficulties of two types: undesirable colors in the 

finished synthetic fibers may result from three of the constituents 

color, iron, and manganese becoming concentrated in the pulp by 

being filtered out of the process water; increased ash content of 

the cellulose, which makes it unsuitable for use as a raw material 

for rayon and acetate fiber, may occur if all of the constituents 

shown in table 1 are filtered out of the wash water.

Although no quality requirements were obtained for water for 

purifying cotton linters, the similarity in processes for purifying 

them and for manufacturing purified wood cellulose suggests that 

the specifications for the chemical quality of the water used should 

be similar to those given in table 1.

QUANTITATIVE WATER REQUIREMENTS

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The most recent figures compiled by the American Water 

Works Association (1953, p. 8) indicate that the water used in 

production of rayon is 45 100 gallons per pound of yarn.
RAYON- AND ACETATE-FIBER INDUSTRY 153

According to H. R. Mauersberger (1952), 1 pound of viscose - 

rayon yarn requires about 30 60 gallons of water and 1 pound of 

cellulose-acetate fiber requires about 10 gallons of processing 

water. This 10 gallons per pound for processing water is consistent with a total water requirement of 1,000 gallons per pound, 

as nearly all of the water used in manufacturing acetate fiber is 

used for steam-power production, temperature control of process, 

factory air conditioning, and chemical recovery.

E. R. Riegel (1949) stated that 100-200 gallons of pure water 

is required to produce 1 pound of viscose-rayon yarn and about 

1, 000 gallons is used to produce 1 pound of cellulose acetate.

Two figures for quantity of water used per unit produced are 

given in Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering (1947). Notes 

on the flow sheets state that 45 80 gallons of water is used to 

produce 1 pound of cuprammonium rayon and 90 100 gallons to 

produce 1 pound of viscose rayon.

The U. S. Tariff Commission (1944, p. 92) stated that rayon 

manufacture requires large quantities of clean, soft water; about 

150 200 gallons to produce 1 pound of viscose rayon and 1,000 

gallons to produce 1 pound of acetate.

Only those quantitative water-requirement values that appear 

reasonable have been quoted in this section; some previously 

published figures of water use in these industries appear to be 

grossly in error.

FIELD SURVEYS

UNIT WATER-USE REQUIREMENTS

During the survey of plants conducted in late 1952 and early 

1953 (a few plants were visited in 1951), unit water-use figures 

were obtained; these figures varied considerably. At three of 

the rayon-fiber plants it was necessary to estimate daily production to compute unit water use because company policy was 

opposed to release of production figures. During the investigation it was discovered that the water requirements for cellophane 

production were equivalent to those for viscose-rayon production. Data on unit water requirements obtained for two cellophane plants also were included. One rayon plant supplied the 

water requirements for a company town in addition to the water 

required for production. The municipal use was equivalent to 

6. 5 gallons per pound of rayon fiber produced. This amount for 

municipal use was subtracted from total water use in computing 

unit water used for that particular installation.
154 WATER REQUIREMENTS OF SELECTED INDUSTRIES

All of the unit water-use data obtained in the survey of the rayon 

plants are listed in table 2. The maximum was 240 gallons per 

pound of rayon fiber, 8 times the minimum; the median was 110 

gallons.

At eight of the viscose-rayon plants, data on unit use requirements for process water (called soft water in the industry) were 

obtained. These process-water requirements (table 2) range 

from about 10 to about 80 gallons per pound of product. The median use was 32 gallons of process water per pound of viscose-rayon 

fiber.

Acetate fiber is made at seven plants in the United States. At 

one plant, acetate fiber is made from cellulose acetate, but at the 

other plants the raw cellulose material is either purified wood 

cellulose or cotton'linters. Unit water-use values obtained from 

the six acetate-fiber plants using the complete process are shown 

in table 2. Unit use ranged from about 40 to nearly 500 gallons

Table 2. Gallons of water per pound of product, arranged by product, use, and magnitude 

[Compiled from data obtained at the plants, November 1952-January 1953]

Viscose 

and

ci'prammonium

Total

use

30

42 2 50

2 60

73

74

84

88

102

2 106

109

109 2 110

112

112

114

128

130

132

132

137

160

166

178

178 2 186

240

Rayoni

Viscose

Process

use

ziO.6

13.3

15.6

28.2

36.2

43.3

49.9

82.0

Consumptive

use

0.18

.18

.18

.24

.58

.75

.84

.91

1.06

2.65

2.97

3.27

3.36

3.65

3.72

4.11

10.2

12.0

12.5

Acetate

Total

use

41

<L12

2140

209

360

494

Consumptive

use

0.3

4.5

5.0

llncludes 2 cellophane plants. 

ZValue obtained in 1951.
RAYON- AND ACETATE-FIBER INDUSTRY 155

per pound of acetate produced; the maximum was slightly more 

than 12 times the minimum and the median was 170 gallons per 

pound.

Both summer and mean annual water-use values were obtained 

at 12 rayon- and acetate-fiber plants. Summer use ranged from 

2 to 50 percent greater and averaged 22 percent greater than mean 

annual water use because cooling requirements for air conditioning were greater and the water available for cooling was 

usually warmer.

Table 3 shows the total water used in the United States for 

rayon- and acetate-fiber manufacture, by source of water used.

Table 3. Source of water used in rayon- and acetate-fiber manufacture in the United

States, 1952-53 survey

Source

Private supply:

Total................................................... . ..........

Rayon

Million 

gallons 

per day

257.3 

27.2 

6.3

290.8

Percent

89 

9

2

100

Acetate

Million 

gallons 

per day

299.2 

23.9 

2.4

325.5

Percent

92 

7 

1

100

Most of the water was derived from surface-water supplies. Although surface water generally requires treatment, this is not 

particularly disadvantageous because the surface water available 

at the plant sites selected is generally of good quality, and the 

treatment methods are inexpensive. An advantage of surface water is its generally low mineral content as compared with ground 

water in the same locality. Ground water constituted the major 

source of supply at five plants. It was also used at a few plants 

for cooling in summer and at one plant the ground water used for 

this purpose was saline. At this plant sea water was used for 

cooling in winter.

The median use of water for all purposes at a rayon-fiber plant 

was 9 mgd and at an acetate-fiber plant was 38 mgd.

CONSUMPTIVE WATER USE

Water is used consumptively in the manufacture of viscoserayon fiber: by evaporation to maintain humidity in the air-conditioning system; in the operation of cooling towers used in power 

production and air cooling; and to rejuvenate the spinning solution.
156 WATER REQUIREMENTS OF SELECTED INDUSTRIES

Water losses also result from evaporation of the many water solutions used at the plant and from drying the finished product. Not 

all the viscose-rayon plants visited in the 1952 53 survey indicated 

what their consumptive losses were, but the consumptive water 

use in gallons per pound of product for 19 plants was obtained (see 

table 2). The median consumptive water use was 1. 7 gallons per 

pound. The largest consumptive water use per pound of fiber was 

about 70 times the minimum. No relation appears to exist between 

the total unit water use and the consumptive unit water use at the 

viscose-rayon plants.

Water loss in the manufacture of cuprammonium-rayon fiber 

results principally from drying the finished fibers and from evaporation of water solutions used in processing. As there is only 

one cuprammonium rayon plant operating in the United States, 

consumptive use of water is not reported.

In producing acetate fiber, water losses result from evaporation 

to maintain humidity in air conditioning; in the operation of cooling 

towers used in power production and air cooling; and from evaporation from water solutions used in processing. In addition, 

water is lost in chemical-recovery processes and in drying the 

cellulose-acetate flakes. Three of the acetate-fiber plants estimated their consumptive water use at 0. 3, 4. 5, and 5. 0 gallons 

per pound (table 2). The estimates cover a considerable range; 

the largest of the three values is about 17 times the smallest. 

There is no apparent relation between the total water use per 

pound of acetate fiber and the consumptive water use per pound.

When computed from the unit consumptive water use as determined by the survey, total consumptive water use in the rayonfiber industry in 1953 was a little more than 4 mgd and in the 

acetate-fiber industry a little less than 4 mgd. Combined consumptive water use in the two industries was a little less than 

8 mgd.

QUALITATIVE WATER REQUIREMENTS

PUBLISHED DATA

PROCESS WATER

Many references in the technical literature indicate that pure, 

cool water, free from injurious chemicals, is desirable for rayonand acetate-fiber manufacture. The earliest water-quality specifications that were found were given by Moore (1940) and are 

presented in table 4. These specifications have been widely quoted.
RAYON- AND ACETATE-FIBER INDUSTRY 157

Table 4. Suggested maximum concentrations ot dissolved and suspended constituents 

and range of recommended threshold of process water for the manufacture of viscoserayon fiber.

[Data modified from Moore, 1940]

Total hardness (as C

pH.......................

Constituent or property Limiting values 

(ppm)

0.0

.0

55

7.8 - 8.3

.3

Habbart (1945), in a discussion of the American Viscose Company, stated that the water for rayon-fiber manufacture should be 

cool, relatively free from iron, manganese, and industrial waste, 

and low in calcium, magnesium, silica, and color. He pointed out 

that magnesium hydroxide and residual alum, because of their 

gelatinous properties, tend to adhere to textile fibers and may 

affect dyeing, and suggested an upper limit of 0. 4 ppm (parts per 

million) for residual alum. Iron and manganese cause stains and 

interfere with bleaching and dyeing. Iron precipitates as ferric 

hydroxide and attaches easily to the fibers, and iron in any form 

will be deposited on the surface of a filament by adsorption. In 

addition, manganese is very detrimental in the mercerizing process because of its catalytic reaction. In some operations, iron 

(as Fe) under 0. 2 ppm and manganese (as Mn) under 0. 1 ppm will 

give little trouble, but it is advisable to keep the sum of the two 

well under 0. 1 ppm. Ordinary methods of controlling the 

Crenothrix-type bacteria that use iron or manganese in their life 

processes cannot be used. The copper in the copper sulfate frequently used to control algae cannot be tolerated in the process 

water. Habbart also stated that free chlorine acts more rapidly 

and is more economical than chloramine or sodium pentachlorophenate for retarding biologic growth with the plan of operation 

generally used in plants manufacturing rayon fiber.

Miller (1946) presented specifications for water quality for 

rayon-fiber manufacture that permit much higher mineral content 

than those given by Moore in 1940. However, he did indicate that 

for some operations in which the water comes in contact with the 

product a lower mineral content would be required. On the other 

hand he stated that water of higher mineral content could be used 

for other operations. In general, the specifications that he gave 

would permit satisfactory operation. (See table 5.)

Process water for manufacture of acetate fiber must be very 

low in color, turbidity, and iron (Mauersberger, 1952).
158 WATER REQUIREMENTS OF SELECTED INDUSTRIES

Table 5. Specifications for water quality for rayon-fiber manufacture 

[Data modified from Miller, 1946]

Constituent or property

Iron (Fe).......... ........ ........ . ... ................................................

Alkalinity (as CaCOj).^............................«........................................».

Permissible 

upper limits 

(ppm)

10 

.25 

.05 

.02 

.01 

200 

10 

75

5 

1 

5 

0 or sterile

^Reporting unit is not given; apparently does not include iron or manganese.

BOILER-FEED WATER

Large amounts of boiler-feed water are used to produce steam 

as it is economical to operate the system only partly closed and 

use the steam for two purposes. Usually the steam, at high pressure from the boiler plant, is first used to operate turbines that 

drive electric generators. Low-pressure steam discharged from 

the turbines is used for process heating, of which a large part is 

used by mixing with process water and thus is lost to the boiler 

system. The ratio of boiler-water makeup to total steam output 

is therefore quite high compared with a closed system.

Untreated water generally is unsatisfactory for boiler-feed 

water. Its proper treatment is so specialized that for large 

installations consultants ordinarily are employed to revise the 

treatment whenever it is necessary due to quality changes in the 

available raw water. The use of unsuitable water can result in 

heavy maintenance and replacement costs as a result of excessive corrosion, scale formation, and even caustic embrittlement.

Suggested limits of tolerance for boiler-feed water proposed by 

Moore (1940) are given in table 6. These values were prepared 

by the Committee on Water Quality Tolerances for Industrial 

Uses of the New England Water Works Association and have been 

widely quoted.

COOLING WATER

Water may be used for cooling or heat transfer either in a 

recirculating or a once-through system. In a recirculating system,
RAYON- AND ACETATE-FIBER INDUSTRY 159

Table 6. Suggested water-quality tolerance tor boiler-feed water 

[After Moore, 1940. Allowable limits in parts per million]

Bicarbonate (HCOs)1 . ....... ............................

Turbidity..................................................

Sulf ate- carbonate ratio* fNa*SQt : NasCO.) .......

0-150

15

t1 -4

*e

80

5

40

50

200

50

3, 000-500

80

Q A

20

1-1

150-250

10

.14

*q

40

.5

20

30

100

40

2, 500-500

40

8.4

10

2:1

250-400

4

.0

0

10

.05

5

5

40

30

1,500-100

5

Q f)

 5

3:1

Over 400

3

.0

0

2

.01

1

0

Oft

15

50

2

9.6

1

3:1

1Limits applicable only to feed water entering boiler, not to original water supply. 

^Except when odor in live steam would be objectionable. 

Depends on design of boiler. 

4American Society of Mechanical Engineers standards.

the water acquires heat from the process and loses the heat in a 

cooling tower or spray pond. The only water needed in a recirculating cooling system is that needed to compensate for evaporation 

and spray losses and to drain off excessive mineral concentrations. A once-through system uses the water only once for cooling after which it is either wasted or used in process.

Cooling water should be of a satisfactory quality to keep corrosion, scale formation, and the growth of micro-organisms at a 

minimum. Achievement of this goal ordinarily requires water 

treatment, at least for recirculating systems. Cooling water that 

is used only once must be of a suitable temperature. Generally 

in once-through use it is advisable to chlorinate to prevent the 

growth of slimes and iron or manganese bacteria. Scale formation sometimes may be prevented by adding small amounts of 

sulfuric acid. This converts some of the carbonates to sulfates, 

which are more soluble than the carbonates and so will not precipitate as scale when the water temperature is raised. The 

addition of small doses of polyphosphates will prevent precipitation of calcium, magnesium, and iron, if the pH of the water is 

not too high and the water temperature is not raised excessively 

(Nordell, 1951).

If the cooling water is to be used subsequently for process, it 

is generally advisable to complete the necessary treatment before 

using it as a coolant. Such water is ordinarily very satisfactory 

for cooling.
160 WATER REQUIREMENTS OF SELECTED INDUSTRIES

FIELD SURVEYS

All the rayon- and acetate-fiber plants in the United States were 

visited during the survey (1951 53). The type of treatment and 

the use of treated water at each plant were inventoried.

The management of the various plants supplied a considerable 

amount of data on the chemical and physical characteristics of 

their untreated water supplies. However, more than 60 percent 

of the water-quality data presented in this report were obtained 

by the U. S. Geological Survey as a part of its program of investigation of the quality of water of the United States.

A little more than one-half of the rayon- and acetate-fiber 

plants obtain all their water from a single source, about one-third 

of the plants find it advantageous to obtain water from two sources, 

and about one-seventh use three or more sources. In the majority of plants where water was obtained from more than one source, 

one quality of water was used for process and another quality for 

cooling.

QUALITY OF UNTREATED WATER

Data were obtained on the chemical and physical characteristics 

of the untreated water supplies as shown in tables 7 8. The information was separated into four groups based on the intended 

use of the water. The data on the quality of the untreated water 

used for cooling in viscose-rayon manufacture are given in table 

7. At some plants, cooling water was used without treatment; at 

other plants all or part of the cooling water was treated before 

use. The minimum, lower quartile, median, upper quartile, and 

maximum were determined for each constituent and characteristic 

for which a sufficient number of samples was available. The 

characteristics of the untreated water used to furnish process 

water in viscose-rayon manufacture are also given in table 7. A 

comparison of the two groups shows that all the minimum values 

and the maximum, median, and quartile values for silica, aluminum, iron, manganese, free carbon dioxide, carbonate, fluoride, 

nitrate, pH, turbidity, suspended matter, and average temperature are nearly identical. However, the maximum, median and 

quartile values for the other constituents and characteristics for 

process water are generally lower than the values for the same 

constituents in cooling water.

Table 8 shows the chemical and physical characteristics of the 

untreated waters used to furnish cooling water and process water,
Table 7. Quality characteristics of untreated water used for cooling and processing in the man

analyses j

[Results expressed in parts per million unless otherwise indicated. These are based on individu

Constituent 

or 

property

Iron (Fe).... ..............................

Sodium and potassium (as Na) ......

Sulfate (SC-4)......... ...................

Chloride (Cl). ...........................

Nitrate (NOs).... ........................

Hardness as CaCOs:

Alkalinity as CaCO,. .......... ........

* 3

_TT

Specific conductance (in micromhos at 25*C).. ....... ............

Cooling1

Number 

of 

samples

22 

3 

23 

6 

23 

23 

16 

5 

7 

21 

22 

23 

16 

19 

21

26 

12 

6

21 

23

10 

6 

4 

23

Minimum

0 

.3 

.01 

.00 

.7 

.4 

1.7 

1.8 

0 

6 

0 

.5 

.0 

.1 

14

3 

0 

8

0

4.8

52.0 

4 

2 

55

Lower 

quartile

4.2

.04

9 

1.9 

2.8

0 

24 

5 

2.0 

.04 

.3 

53

33 

8

4 

6.8

90

57

Median

6.5

.07 

.00

19 

4.3 

4.6

0 

56 

15 

4.3 

.1 

1.0 

92

70 

21

78

7.2 

7.3

150 

30

60

Upper 

quartile

9.3

.18

32

9 

7.8

0 

95 

28 

10 

.16 

2.5 

140

117 

35

10 

7.6

270

63

Maximum

16 

3.4 

2.5 

.7 

55 

29 

9.8 

38 

0 

172 

108 

285 

.4 

6.1 

747

197 

43 

145

50 

8.0

1,260 

150 

51 

69

Numb

of 

samp

1 One plant using sea water is nor included.
Table 8. Quality characteristics of untreated water used for cooling and processing in the manu

[Results expressed in parts per million unless otherwise indicated. These are based on individu

Constituent of property

Silica (SiO2).. ......... ...................................................... ..............

Sulfate(SO4)....... .......................................................................

Chloride (Cl). .............................................................................

Fluoride (F)..... ...........................................................................

Nitrate (NC%).. .............................. ..............................................

Hardness as CaCOj: 

Total.....................................................................................

 T.T

Cooling

Number 

of 

samples

4 

4 

1 

7 

6 

4 

1 

1 

4 

8 

8 

3 

4 

7

7 

2 

5

6 

6 

3 

4 

6

Minimum

4.5 

.02

3.6

.8 

1.7

58 

2 

.5 

.1 

.25 

47

13 

9 

11

0 

6.3 

123 

1 

54.2

Median

7 

.25 

0 

16 

7 

3 

9 ^

0 

70 

8 

3 

.1 

1.4 

100

70

60

10 

7.1

6

57
RAYON- AND ACETATE- FIBER INDUSTRY 163

respectively, for acetate-fiber manufacture. However, the. number 

of samples was too small to permit the computation of quartiles. 

Comparison of the two groups indicates that untreated process 

water is of slightly better quality than untreated cooling water. 

Water is almost always treated for process use and may be treated for cooling use. This difference in quality is greater in water 

used in the viscose-rayon industry than in the acetate industry.

More detailed information on the occurence of iron, dissolved 

solids, and total hardness in the untreated water used for process 

in viscose-rayon manufacture is shown by means of frequency 

distribution charts in figure 24. Similar data on color, pH, 

turbidity, and average temperature are shown in figure 25.

o

Ul 1-

0

o

z

111 o

w.

I

Fi "W

^

1

P

1 %

<* 0 0

^

%> m

24 S

«

imples

H H H

0.2 Q3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7

IRON (Fe), IN PARTS PER MILLION

22 Samples

25 50 75 100 125 150 

DISSOLVED SOLIDS. IN PARTS PER MILLION

175 200

24 Samples

20 40 60 80 100 120

TOTAL HARDNESS AS Ca C03, IN PARTS PER MILLION

140

Figure 24. Frequency distribution of chemical characteristics in untreated water supplies used 

for process water in the manufacture of viscose-rayon fiber, based on available analyses.

A graphical representation of the chemical composition of a 

typical untreated water for process in the manufacture of viscoserayon fiber is shown in figure 26. Silica is shown as a percentage by weight of the sum of all the constituents. The cations are 

shown in two categories, expressed as a percentage of equivalents 

per million of strong and weak bases, and the anions are shown 

as a percentage of equivalents per million of strong and weak 

acids.
164 WATER REQUIREMENTS OF SELECTED INDUSTRIES

INDICATED RANGE REPORTED INOFTIMES NUMBER

co Den 1

>

1

y

22 S

10

1 5

J .

amples

20 

COLOR

23 S ampl< 

P

6

pH

7 S

iS

11

30

1

7

imples

) 25 50 

TURBIDITY AS

1,

II

23 S

 1

Si02,

40 50

111I

8

1

75 100 125 15 

IN PARTS PER MILLION

amples

50 55 60 

41

65

AVERAGE TEMPERATURE AT INTAKE, IN 

DEGREES FAHRENHEIT

70

Figure 25. Frequency distribution of physical characteristics in untreated water supplies used 

for process water in the manufacture of viscose-rayon fiber, based on available analyses.

A summary of the properties of the untreated water used for 

cooling and for process in the manufacture of both viscose-rayon 

and acetate fiber is given in table 9. The maximum, minimum, 

and mean values, of the total cations expressed in equivalents per
RAYON- AND ACETATE-FIBER INDUSTRY 165

Strong bases (12%) 

Sodium and potassium

Strong acids (21%) 

Sulfate,chloride,and nitrate

Weak acids(79%) 

Calcium and Bicarbonate

magnesium

'Silica (10%)

Figure 26. -Chemical composition of a typical untreated water used for process water in the 

manufacture of viscose-rayon fiber.

(Silica equals per9entage composition by weight; all other constituents indicate percentages of 

equivalents per million of total cations or anions.)

million (epm) the ratio of calcium (epm) to magnesium (epm), 

and the ratio of calcium (epm) to total cations (epm) for each of four 

groups of waters are given. Mean values of the ratios of calcium 

to magnesium ranged from 1.89 to 2. 43, and mean values of the 

ratios of calcium to total cations ranged from 0.48 to 0. 57 for the 

groups. No ratios of calcium to magnesium greater than 4 2 

were found.

In summation it can be said that the raw waters for cooling and 

process were generally low in content of calcium and magnesium 

(with calcium comprising about one-half the total cations) were 

Vf M'F m ir°n and manganese' and had an average temperature
166 WATER REQUIREMENTS OF SELECTED INDUSTRIES

Table 9. Properties of untreated water used for the manufacture of viscose-rayon and 

acetate fiber based on available analyses

Fiber

Viscose rayon... 

Do.............

Do............

Use 

of 

water

Process (Soft 

water).

Process.........

Number 

of 

analyses

16 

19

3 

3

Total cations 

(equivalents 

per million)

Maximum

3.50 

2.97

3.43 

3.43

Minimum

0.13 

.13

1.32 

1.32

Mean

1.69 

1.41

2.04 

2.13

Calcium : 

magnesium1

Maximum

4.20 

4.20

2.20 

2.20

Minimum

1.00 

1.00

1.70 

1.78

Mean

2.34 

2.43

1.89 

2.04

Calcium : total 

cations1

Maximum

0.76 

.76

.61 

.61

Minimum

0.23 

.23

.52 

.30

Mean

0.55 

.56

.57 

.48

1 Ratio of constituents in equivalents per million.

WATER TREATMENT

In the rayon-fiber industry much of the plant capacity has been 

constructed or modernized during recent years. As a result, 

operations at the various plants are quite similar and the treated 

water used at all rayon-fiber plants is similar. The situation is 

the same in the acetate-fiber industry. Table 10 shows the watertreatment methods used at the various rayon- and acetate-fiber 

plants. The type of water treatment differs more with the quality 

of the raw water than with variations in the process of manufacture. Because most of the water is obtained from surface supplies, the principal types of water treatment consist of coagulation, 

sedimentation, filtration, pH adjustment, chlorination, and softening, in the order named. Only a scattering of other types of 

treatment are employed.

The quality requirements for process water at rayon and acetate plants are such that general-purpose water for drinking and 

other domestic service usually can be supplied by using process 

water. However, nearly half of the plants purchase at least a 

small part of their water from public supplies.

Table 10. Water-treatment methods at rayon- and acetate-fiber plants 

[Does not include prior treatment of purchased water]

Filtration................. .................................................... .............

Chlorination................. ............................................................... .

Number

Rayon

22

99

99

91

1 Q

15

1

1

1

of plants

Acetate

4

4

5

4

1

1

1
RAYON- AND ACETATE-FIBER INDUSTRY 167

FUTURE WATER REQUIREMENTS

Many factors must be considered in estimating the total water 

requirements of the rayon- and acetate-fiber industry in future 

years. Some of these factors, such as the extent to which rayon 

and acetate fibers may replace or be replaced by other natural or 

synthetic fibers, are rather uncertain; other factors may be more 

accurately determined. Reasonably accurate estimates can be 

made of the amounts of water that will be required at individual 

plants of feasible size and in what section of the country such 

plants probably will be located.

LOCATION OF INDUSTRY

The locations of the rayon- and acetate-fiber plants in operation 

at the time of the 1952 53 survey are shown in figure 27. The 25 

rayon-fiber and 7 acetate-fiber plants are scattered from Alabama 

to Vermont and, with few exceptions, are located in small towns 

or at sites several miles from any large city. One authority 

(Alderfer and Michl, 1950) stated, "The chief reasons for the wide 

geographical spread appear to be the search for areas where there 

is an abundant supply of clean, soft water and where taxes are 

low. " Other factors of less importance in site selection are fuel 

prices and transportation costs. Large amounts of coal are used 

in producing the steam and electricity required, so points near 

coal mines mean lower freight costs for fuel. Much of the rayon 

and acetate fiber is shipped from the plants on reusable spools or 

bobbins designed to fit the textile machinery of the purchaser, so 

proximity to the rayon textile mills is desirable. Most of the textile industry is now located in the Southeast with the Northeast in 

second place. All of the cotton linters and much of the purified 

wood cellulose used in rayon-and acetate-fiber manufacture are 

also produced in the South.

GROWTH OF INDUSTRY

Production of rayon and acetate fiber in the United States and in 

the world increased about eightfold during the period 1930-53 as 

shown in figure 28 which shows domestic and foreign quantitative 

and percentage values of the total annual production of these fibers 

during the period. Foreign production, which, in 1939, was concentrated in Japan, Germany, and Italy, was drastically affected 

by World War II, but the principal effect on United States production was to stimulate output during the first 6 postwar years.

Manufacturing costs of rayon and acetate products are so high 

in relation to transportation costs that foreign production is
168 WATER REQUIREMENTS OF SELECTED INDUSTRIES

EXPLANATION

 

Rayon

x

Acetate

Figure 27. Location of rayon- and acetate-fiber plants, 1952.
RAYON- AND ACETATE-FIBER INDUSTRY 169

O 1000

Figure 28. United States and world production of rayon and acetate fiber by (A) quantity and 

(B) percent, 1930-53.

(Data for 1930-45, Mauersberger, 1952, p. 56, 58, 72; 1946-53, Textile Qrganon, 1954, no. 6,

p. 89.)
170 WATER REQUIREMENTS OF SELECTED INDUSTRIES

intimately related to production in the United States. The exportimport trade is sensitive to small price changes. Thus, for rayon 

and acetate fiber and yarn there was an import balance of 10 percent of domestic production in 1939; an export balance of 12 percent in 1949; and an import balance of 4percent in 1951. Domestic 

production in some years may be much less and for others much 

more than domestic consumption, depending on the delicate balance of foreign trade.

Rayon and acetate are competitive with cotton, wool, silk, and 

the other manmade fibers. Figure 29 shows the annual mill consumption of each of these fibers, by both quantity and percent of 

total, for the years 1930 53. Of the fibers selected, cotton and 

wool are supplying a decreasing percentage of the total requirements. Since 1941 silk has almost completely vanished from the 

market. The use of rayon and acetate fibers is increasing rapidly 

but, since 1950, the use of other manmade fibers has increased 

even more rapidly.

Figure 30 shows the annual production of various types of rayon 

and acetate fibers by both quantity and percent of total for 1930 

53. In 1930, textile-grade rayon filament constituted more than 

90 percent of total rayon- and acetate-fiber production, but although total production of this type had about doubled during the 

period, percentagewise it had shrunk to 17 percent in 1953. The 

production of acetate filament during this same period increased 

more than twentyfold and rose from 8 percent to 19 percent of the 

total. The use of high-tenacity rayon filament for industrial fiber 

began in the midthirties and by 1953 had increased to 38 percent 

of the total, more than twice the production of any other classification. Production of rayon staple and tow began about 1930 and 

increased rapidly until, by 1953, it exceeded production of rayon 

filament. Manufacture of acetate t>raple and tow began in 1953 and 

output has amounted to about hak" the production of rayon staple 

and tow since 1950. The most rapid expansion in the manufacture 

of this type of fiber occurred in the 5 years following World War II.

PRESENT CAPACITY OF PLANTS

Most of the rayon- and acetate-fiber plants now in operation 

were constructed in comparatively small units and gradually expanded by the addition of similar or slightly improved units until 

they reached their present size. This type of expansion is apparently continuing and probably will continue. Occasionally, new 

plants are placed in operation or obsolete plants are abandoned, 

but most of the industry's growth has resulted from expansion of 

existing plants.
<-* 2!

.**? V-**

o 

-0 

rf».

i 

£ a

o «

H .-*

s -e

PERCENT OF TOTAL ANNUAL MILL CONSUMPTION OF SELECTED 

FIBERS

MILL CON
PERCENT OFTOTAL ANNUAL PRODUCTION OFRAYON AND ACETATE FIBER PRODUCTION OFR

en ffi K-\ r1

i~|" *^ ^

(0 ._- *rt P5

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^
RAYON- AND ACETATE-FIBER INDUSTRY 173

Rayon. At the time of the 1952 53 survey, 25 rayon-fiber 

plants were in operation in the United States. The median capacity 

of these plants was 38 million pounds per year, and the upper and 

lower quartiles were 54 and 15 million pounds per year, respectively. The capacity of the newer mills averaged closer to the 

upper quartile than to the median value.

Acetate. Only 7 acetate-fiber plants were in operation at the 

time of the water-use survey, and 1 of these employed only a partial process making practical a much smaller plant capacity than 

would be feasible fora complete process plant. The median capacity of the 6 complete process plants was 85 million pounds per 

year. The capacity of the largest plant was about 3 j times the capacity of the smallest plant.

TRENDS IN THE RAYON- AND ACETATE-FIBER INDUSTRY

Primarily because of the manufacturers' reluctance to change 

production practice to include synthetic materials and the consumers' hesitance to accept them, rayon and acetate fibers have 

yet to reach the limit of their potentialities. However, their 

prospects have been dimmed somewhat by the introduction of 

other synthetic fibers. Relative prices of rayon and acetate fibers 

and the newer synthetics probably will be an important factor in 

the extent of the market eventually controlled by each fiber (Alderfer and Michl, 1950). Price probably will be a more important 

factor in selection of fibers for commercial use than for such 

items as clothing where fashion or convenience may be a deciding 

factor.

It has been estimated that 1, 200, 000 tons pf purified wood cellulose will be consumed by the rayon- and acetate-fiber industry 

in the United States in 1975 (Stanford Research Institute, 1954). 

This probably would be in addition to about 100, 000 tons of cotton 

linters. As the quantity of water required to produce a pound of 

purified wood cellulose probably is double that required for refining cotton linters, the relation between the two sources of raw 

material may affect the total water requirements of the industry.

The President's Materials Policy Commisiion (1952) estimated 

that the 1975 production of rayon fiber in the United States would 

be 2, 100 million pounds and the production of acetate fiber for 

that year would be 900 million pounds.

On the basis of 1953 unit water-requirements values, about 680 

mgd would be required in 1975 for the preparation of special cellulose for rayon- and acetate-fiber manufacture, and about 1,050
174 WATER REQUIREMENTS OF SELECTED INDUSTRIES

mgd would be required for use at the rayon- and acetate-fiber 

plants. This would mean a total water requirement of about 1, 700 

mgd in 1975, including preparation of the special cellulose.

SUMMARY

QUANTITATIVE WATER REQUIREMENTS

The primary aim of the survey conducted in 1952 53 was to determine the current water requirements of the rayon- and acetatefiber plants rather than to determine the minimum amount of 

water that could be used in producing the materials.

Median unit water use was 110 gallons per pound in the rayon 

plants and 170 gallons per pound in the acetate plants. Median 

water requirements for all purposes at rayon and acetate plants in 

1953 were 9 mgd and 38 mgd, respectively. Water requirements 

in summer were somewhat greater.

Total annual water use for rayon-fiber manufacture in the 

United States in 1953 averaged 290 mgd and for acetate-fiber manufacture averaged 330 mgd. The annual average total water use 

by the rayon- and acetate-fiber industry in 1953 was about 620 

mgd. Because much of this water was used for cooling and air 

conditioning, the rate of use in summer was about 22 percent 

greater or about 760 mgd. In 1953, the estimated average total 

water requirements for rayon- and acetate-fiber manufacture, including water for cellulose preparation, amounted to about 920 

mgd or about 1 percent of the estimated total withdrawal of industrial water in the United States.

Consumptive use of water in the rayon- and acetate-fiber industry .is relatively insignificant; it averaged less than 8 mgd for the 

entire industry in 1953.

QUALITATIVE WATER REQUIREMENTS

The qualitative requirements for water used in the rayon- and 

acetate-fiber industry differ greatly with the use that is made of 

the water. At the typical plant, cooling water is withdrawn from 

a river and screened and chlorinated before being used only once. 

If the cooling water is reused, treatment may be more elaborate. 

Specifications for processing water for both rayon and acetate 

manufacture are quite strict; the water must be soft and very low 

in dissolved solids. Similar specifications apply to the process 

and wash water used in preparing the purified wood cellulose and
RAYON- AND ACETATE:FIBER INDUSTRY 175

cotton linters used as raw materials. Process water is usually 

suitable for domestic use including drinking. Frequently more 

than one source of raw or untreated water is available, in which 

case the water of higher quality is generally used for process 

water.

The minimum, median, and maximum values of the more important chemical and physical characteristics of the untreated 

waters used for process water in viscose-rayon manufacture are 

summarized in table 11. The untreated water used for process in 

acetate-fiber manufacture was of very similar character as indicated by the available analyses (Table 8).

Untreated cooling waters used for both rayon and acetate manufacture were, as a group, only slightly lower in quality than the 

process water. These waters somewhat resembled the untreated 

process waters and were generally cool, low in calcium and magnesium content, and very low in iron and manganese.

Table 11. Most important quality characteristics of untreated water used for process 

water in the manufacture of viscose-.rayon fiber

[Results expressed in parts per million unless otherwise indicated. These are based on individual 

observations and are not balanced analyses]

Constituent or property

Iron (Fe) ............

Total hardness as C

Turbidity

laCOs.. ................................................

Minimum

0 

.01 

.00 

.7 

.4 

3

0 

3 

55

Median

6.7 

.07 

.00 

14 

3.2 

55

5 

20 

60

Maximum

16 

.7 

.7 

39 

11 

132

50 

150 

69

TRENDS BV WATER REQUIREMENTS

The manufacture of rayon and acetate fiber constitutes a comparatively new industry, accustomed to change. Most of the plants, 

therefore, have been quick to adopt new methods that would result 

in savings, including those that might result from economies in 

water use. There is a tendency to use smaller amounts of water 

per pound of product and to increase the size of the plants.

SELECTED REFERENCES

Alderfer, E. B., and Michl, H. E., 1950, Economics of American industry: New York,

McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc.

American Viscose Corp., 1952, Preview of American Viscose Corp.: Philadelphia, Pa. 

American Water Works Association, 1950, Water quality and treatment: New York. 

 1953, Willing Water No. 25: New York.
176 WATER REQUIREMENTS OF SELECTED INDUSTRIES

Besselievre, E. B., 1952, Industrial waste treatment: New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 

Inc.

Bogren, G. G., 1950, Treatment of cotton finishing waste liquors: Indus, and Eng. Chemistry, v. 42, no. 4, p. 619-621.

California State Water Pollution Control Board, 1952, Water quality criteria: Pub. no. 3, 

Sacramento, Calif.

Celanese Corporation of America [undated], What you should know about spun fabrics: 

New York.

 1952, Annual report - 1951: New York.

Chemical and Engineering News, 1951, Synthetic fibers: v. 29, no. 26, p. 2552-2557.

Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, 1944, Viscose staple fiber; v. 51, no. 8, p. 128.

 1945, Cellulose acetate yarn: v. 52 no. 1, p. 132.

 1947, Chemical engineering flow sheets: 4th ed., New York, McGraw-Hill Publishing

Co., Inc., p. 18, 129, 131, 132.

Chemical Engineering 1948, Water supply: v. 55, no. 1, p. 137-144. 

Coburn, S. E., 1950, Treatment of cotton printing and finishing wastes: Indus, and Eng.

Chemistry, v. 42, no. 4, p. 621-625. 

Daily News Record, 1952, Waynesboro works enters 24th year of operations: Daily News

Record, Nov. 28, 1952; New York. 

Douglas, T. W., 1950, The rayon yarn industry in Virginia: Bureau of Population and

Economic Research, Charlottesville, Univ. Va. 

DuPont de Nemours, E. I., & Co., Inc. [undated], Dupont Cordura high tenacity rayon:

Wilmington, Del.

 1952, Man-made fibers: Wilmington, Del.

Federal Trade Commission, 1951, Trade practice rules for the rayon and acetate textile 

industry.

Friske, P. W., 1949, Industrial waste problems in the-rayon industry: Rayon and Synthetic 

Textiles, v. 30, no. 6, p. 52-53.

General Dyestuff Corp., 1952, Dyeing synthetic fibers: New York.

Geyer, J. C., 1947, Textile industry: Indus, and Eng. Chemistry., v. 39, no. 5, P- 653-656.

Glidden, A. L., 1948, Ranney water collectors in New England: Rayon Textile Monthly, v. 

29, no. 3, p. 59-60.

Grove, C. S., Jr., and others, 1951, Fibers: Indus, and Eng. Chemistry., v. 43, no. 10, p. 

2235-2238.

Habbart, W. S., 1945, Treatment and preparation of water in rayon textile mills: Rayon 

Textile Monthly, v. 26, no. 11.

Haynes, Williams, 1953, Cellulose the chemical that grows: Garden City, N. Y., Doubleday & Co., Inc.

Industrial Rayon Corp. [undated], Rayon mile by mile perfect inch by inch: Cleveland, 

Ohio.

Jordan, H. E., 1946, Industrial requirements for water: Am. Water Works Assoc. Jour., v. 

38, no. 1.

Lake, G. K., 1952, Properties of fabrics made from several synthetic fibers and their impact on the textile industry: Textile Research Jour., v. 23, no. 2, p. 138-143.

Laurin, E. T., 1950, Textile process water problems and control: Rayon and Synthetic 

Textiles, v. 31, no. 5, p. 103-105; no. 6, p. 81-82; no. 7, p. 81-83.

Lipsett, C. H., 1951, Industrial wastes: New York, Atlas Publishing Co... Tnc.

Loughlin, J. E. [undated], The coloring of post-war synthetic fibers: New York, National Aniline Div., Allied Chemical & Dye Corp.

Mauer, Leonard, and Wechsler, Harry, 1952, Rayon, Part 1 of Modern textiles handbook: 

Modern Textiles, v. 33, no. 10, p. 42, 84-86, 98.

Mauersberger, H. R., 1952, American handbook of synthetic textiles: New York, Textile 

Book Publishers, Inc.

Miedendorp, Henry, 1948, Water purification and waste disposal: Rayon Textile Monthly, 

v. 29, no. 5, p. 85-87.

 1949, The importance of soft, pure water for textile mills: Rayon and Synthetic 

Textiles, v. 30, no. 5, p. 89-91.

 1951, Water purification and waste disposal: Rayon and Synthetic Textiles, v. 32, 

no. 6, p. 74-76.

 1952, Water treatment: Rayon and Synthetic Textiles, v. 33, no. 7, p. 73,75,77. 

Miller, L. B., 1945, Process water for rayons: Rayon Textile Monthly, v. 26, no. 11.

 1946, Water requirements of the rayon industry: The Betz Indicator, March 1946.

 1948, Iron bacteria in industrial process water: Rayon Textile Monthly, v. 29, no. 5, 

p. 77-80.
RAYON- AND ACETATE-FIBER INDUSTRY 177

Moisson, G. M., 1952, Where are synthetics going?: Textile World, v. 102, no. 9, o. 71,

72, 300, 302. 

Moore, E. W., 1940, Progress report of the committee on quality tolerances of water for

industrial uses: New England Water Works Assoc. Jour., v. 54, p. 263. 

Mussey, 0. D., 1955, Water requirements of the pulp and paper industry: U. S. Geol.

Survey Water-Supply Paper 1330-A.

National Production Authority, 1950, Synthetic yarns and fibers: Washington, D. C. 

Nemerow, N. T., 1952, Sewage problem solved by headwork and teamwork: Textile World,

v. 102, no. 6, p. 151.

Newell, W. A., 1951, Synthetic-fiber table: Textile World Repr., New York. 

Nordell, Eskel, 1951, Water treatment for industrial and other uses: New York, Reinhold

Publishing Corp. 

Norman, J. T., 1948, Synthetic fiber production in the South, Part 1: Daily News Record,

Feb. 28, 1948, p. 5. 

Nuessle, A. G., 1951, Some aspects of the chemical finishing of fabrics derived from

synthetic fibers: American Dyestuff Reporter, v. 40, no. 17, p. P524-P528. 

Oberholtzer, R. E., 1949, Continuous treatment of textile wastes: Textile World, v. 99,

no. 10, p. 103-107. 

Olive, T. R., 1938, Viscose rayon spun continuously: Chem. and Metall. Eng., v. 45,

no. 12, p. 668.

President's Materials Policy Commission, 1952, Resources for freedom. 

Ray, L. G., Jr., 1952, The role of synthetic fibers in the textile industry of the future:

Textile Research Jour. v. 23, no. 2, p. 144-151. 

Rayon and Synthetic Textiles, 1950, Textile processing requires pure, soft water: v. 31,

no. 6, p. 85-87.

 1951, Synthetic blends the wool trade's salvation?: v. 32, no. 9, p. 32. 

Riegel, E. R., 1949, Industrial chemistry: 5th ed., New York, Reinhold Publishing Corp.,

p. 455. 

Roetman, E. T., 1944, Viscose rayon manufacturing wastes and their treatment Water

Works and Sewerage, v. 91, no. 7, p. 265-268; no. 8, p. 295-299. 

Roy, A. P., 1952, New developments in the dyeing of synthetic fibers: American Dyestuff

Reporter, v. 41, no. 2, p. P35-P38.

Roznoy, L. W., 1954, Experimental filters for treating cellulose acetate wastes yield encouraging results: Civil Eng. v. 24, no. 5, p. 42.

Scheuer, B. N., 1948, Four wastes; one effluent: Chem. Eng.,v. 55,no. 2, p. 138-140. 

Shreve, R. N., 1945, The chemical process industries: New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co.,Inc. 

Smith, H. DeW., 1940, Cellulose acetate rayons, types, properties and uses: Indus, and

Eng. Chemistry, v. 32, no. 12, p. 1555. 

Stanford Research Institute, 1954, America's demand for wood, 1929-1975: Stanford,

Calif., p. 54-56. 

Steele, Richard, and Messier, Corneil, 1952, Review of textile research and development

during 1951: Textile Research Jour., v. 23, no. 5, p. 293-377. 

Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry, 1942, Industrial water for pulp,

paper, and paperboard manufacture: TAPPI Mono. ser. 1.

Ter Horst, W. P., 1950, Newer synthetic fibers: Chem. Industries, v. 66, no.4, p. 521-526. 

Textile Institute, 1952, Review of textile progress, v. 3,1951: London, p. 198-206. 

Textile Organon, 1952, v. 23, nos. 3, 4, 6, 9, 10, 12; 1954, v. 25, nos. 3, 6, 12:

New York, Textile Economics Bureau, Inc. 

United States Departments of Commerce and Labor, 1952, Economic development in the

Cumberland, Maryland, area.

United States Tariff Commission, 1944, The rayon industry. 

Williams, Simon, 1952, Evaluating a new fiber: Rayon and Synthetic Textiles, v. 33, no.

5, p. 31, 58, 61, 62.

INDEX

Page 

Acetate, definition...............................144

Acetate fibers, properties.................144-145

Acetate manufacturing, consumptive

water use.................................... 156

process......................................149-150

quality of untreated water...........162, 163,

164-165, 166 

wastes.............................................151

water-treatment methods.................... 166

Acetate plants, capacity........................173

Acknowledgments.................................. iii

Bemberg fabric.................................... 144

Bibliography..................................175-177

Boiler-feed water, quantitative water

requirements.........................158, 159

Capacity of plants, present...............170-173

Consumptive use of water..........155-156, 174

Cooling water, quantitative water

requirements..........................158-159

quality of untreated supplies........160, 161,

162, 164, 165. 166 

Cotton linters, definition....................... 146

Cotton-linters manufacturing, process.......146

quality of the water........................... 152

unit water use............................151, 152

Cuprammonium rayon, properties...... 144-145

Cuprammonium-rayon manufacturing,

consumptive water use................... 156

process............................................149

wastes.............................................151

Definitions of rayon and acetate..............144

Future water requirements................ 167-174

Growth of industry..................167, 169, 170

History of industry.......................... 142-144

Location of industry.......................167, 168

Manufacturing processes, acetate.......149-150

cotton linters....................................146

cuprammonium rayon.........................l49

viscose rayon..............................147-148

wood cellulose............................145-146

Process water, quality of untreated

supplies...160,161,162,163,164,165,166

quantitative water requirements..... 156-158

Purpose of investigation......................... 142

Quality of the water, cotton-linters

manufacturing..............................152

wood-cellulose manufacturing..............152

Page 

Quality of untreated water................160-166

Quantitative water requirements,

boiler-feed water...................158, 159

cooling water............................. 158-159

process water..............................156-157

summary................................... 174-175

Quantitative water requirements, field

survey, consumptive water use...155-156 

field survey, unit water use........... 153-155

published data............................ 152-153

summary......................................... 174

Raw material, water requirements for

preparation of........................ 151-152

Rayon, definition.................................144

Rayon fibers, properties...................144-145

Rayon manufacturing, consumptive

water use.............................. 155-156

processes................................... 147-149

wastes.......................................150-151

water-treatment methods.................... 166

Rayon plants, capacity..........................173

Scope of investigation........................... 142

Trends, industry.............................173-174

water requirements............................ 175

Unit water use, acetate manufacturing.... 154,

155 

cotton-linters manufacturing.........151, 152

rayon manufacturing............ 153, 154, 155

summary......................................... 174

wood-cellulose manufacturing.......151, 152

Untreated water, quality..................160-166

Viscose rayon, properties................ 144, 145

Viscose-rayon manufacturing, consumptive

water use.............................. 155-156

processes .................................. 147-148

quality of untreated water....160, 161, 163,

164-165, 166 

treatment of wastes......................150-151

types of wastes..................................150

Wastes, acetate................................... 151

cuprammonium rayon.........................151

viscose rayon..............................150-151

Water-treatment methods, acetate plants..166 

rayon plants..................................... 166

Wood cellulose, made from....................145

Wood-cellulose manufacturing, quality

of the water.................................152

sulfate process.................................. 146

sulfite process.............................145-146

unit water use............................151, 152

179

U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1957 O -4Z6143