Cenomanian-Turonian Aquifer 

of Central IsraelIts Development and 

Possible Use as a 

Storage Reservoir

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 1608-F

Prepared in cooperation with ff^ater 

Planning for Israel, Ltd. (TAHAL), 

under the auspices of the U.S. Agency 

for International Development

1964
Cenomanian-Turonian Aquifer 

of Central IsraelIts Development and 

Possible Use as a 

Storage Reservoir

By ROBERT SCHNEIDER

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF ASIA AND OCEANIA

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 1608-F

Prepared in cooperation with Water 

Planning for Israel, Ltd. (TAHAL), 

under the auspices of the U.S. Agency 

for International Development

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON : 1964
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

STEWART L. UDALL, Secretary

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Thomas B. Nolan, Director

The U.S. Geological Survey Library catalog card for this publication appears after page F20.

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office 

Washington, D.C. 20402
CONTENTS

Page

Abstract___________________________________________ Fl

Introduetion_-_-__________________________-__-_----__-_-_--_--_-_- 2

Geologic environment of the aquifer. ________________ ________________ 3

History of permeability development_______________________________ 5

Natural functioning of the aquifer system.___________________________ 8

Horizontal flow and diseharge_--_-__-__-___-_-___-__--_-___----_ 8

Vertical flow__________________________________________________ 11

Recharge._______________________________________________ 13

Summary__________________________________________ _ 15

Storage characteristics and sources of pumped water___________________ 15

Use of the aquifer as a storage reservoir______________________________ 18

References eited___________________________________________________ 20

ILLUSTRATIONS

[Plates are in pocket]

PLATE 1. Structure contour map.

2. Piezometric map.

3. Graphs of water levels and pumpage.

Page 

FIGURE 1. Diagrammatic geologic section___________________________ F4

2. Graph of discharge of Yarkon Springs and rainfall at Jerusalem. 12

in

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF ASIA AND OCEANIA

GENOMANIAN-TURONIAN AQUIFER OF CENTRAL

ISRAELITS DEVELOPMENT AND POSSIBLE USE AS A STORAGE

RESERVOIR

By ROBERT SCHNEIDER

ABSTRACT

The Cenomanian-Turonian formations constitute a highly permeable dolomite 

and limestone aquifer in central Israel. The aquifer is on the west limb of an 

anticlinorlum that trends north-northeast. In places it may be as much as 800 

meters thick, but in the report area, largely the foothills of the Judean-Bphraim 

Mountains where the water development is most intensive, its thickness is generally considerably less. In some places the aquifer occurs at or near the land 

surface, or it is covered by sandy and gravelly coastal-plain deposits. However, 

in a large part of the area, it is overlain by as much as 400 meters of relatively 

impermeable strata, and it is probably underlain by less permeable Lower 

Cretaceous strata.

In general the aquifer water is under artesian pressure. The porosity of the 

aquifer is characterized mainly by solution channels and cavities produced by 

jointing and faulting. In addition to the generally high permeability of the 

aquifer, some regions, which probably coincide with ancient drainage patterns 

and (or) fault zones, have exceptionally high permeabilities.

The source of most of the water in the aquifer is believed to be rain that falls 

on the foothills area. The westward movement of ground water from the mountainous outcrop areas appears to be impeded by a zone of low permeability which 

is related to structural and stratigraphic conditions along the western side of 

the mountains.

Gradients of the piezometric surface are small, and the net direction of water 

movement is westward and northwestward under natural conditions. Locally, 

however, the flow pattern may be in other directions owing to spatial variations 

in permeability in the aquifer, the location of natural discharge outlets, and the 

relation of the aquifer to adjacent geologic formations. There probably is also 

a large vertical component of flow.

Pumping has modified the flow pattern by producing several irregularly shaped 

shallow depressions in the piezometric surface although, to date, no unwatering 

of the aquifer has occurred. In the central part of the area, pumping has induced 

some infiltration from overlying coastal-plain formations.

Injecting and storing surplus water seasonally in the aquifer should be feasible at almost any place. However, the movement and recovery of the injected 

water probably could be controlled most easily if the water were injected where 

depressions have been formed in the piezometric surface.

Fl
F2 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF ASIA AND OCEANIA

INTRODUCTION

Israel is a semiarid to arid country that extends from the eastern 

Mediterranean Sea to the Gulf of Aqaba, an arm of the Red Sea. It 

covers an area of 7,984 square miles, about the size of New Jersey. 

Recently Israel has been experiencing rapid economic growth; in the 

10-year period ending 1961, its population expanded from 1,200,000 to 

2,150,000 (Wiener and Wolman, 1962, p. 257).

The economy of the country depends almost entirely on its water 

resources, which are used largely for irrigation. Wiener and Wolman 

(1962) have outlined the prevailing nationwide comprehensive water 

policy or master plan for managing all the water resources. The 

plan, which was adopted in 1950, includes the development of considerably more ground water in the future. The full implementation 

of the plan also includes underground storage of surplus water which 

is available seasonally in certain places in the northern part of the 

country. In order to obtain ultimately an annual yield of about 1,700 

million cubic meters, a storage capacity of about 1,500 to 2,000 million 

cubic meters would have to be developed (Y. Harpaz, written commun., December 1961). Owing to the scarcity of suitable sites for 

surface storage, about one-third to one-half of this amount would have 

to be stored in aquifers.

The Cenomanian-Turonian aquifer is one of the most important 

sources of ground water in Israel, but numerous technical problems 

are involved in its exploitation, Adequate solution of these problems 

will depend on accurate interpretation of the geologic history and 

hydrology of the aquifer.

I made a brief study in 1962 of the available information on the portion of the aquifer in central Israel where water development has 

been most intensive. The purpose of this report is to interpret some 

of the geologic and hydrologic characteristics of the aquifer and to 

discuss their relation to the problems involved in developing additional 

water and storing excess water. The study was made at the request 

of the State of Israel through the government water-planning agency, 

Water Planning for Israel, Ltd., known also as TAHAL, an abbreviated form of its Hebrew name. It was made under the auspices of 

the U.S. Agency for International Development.

I thank the following people for their guidance and for the stimulating discussions that they provided: Dr. Aaron Wiener, director 

general, TAHAL, and various members of his staff, including Dr. 

Samuel Mandel, chief of the Hydrological Research Section, Mr. Y. 

Harpaz, Mr. F. Mero, Mr. Y. Greitzer, Mr. M. Fink, Mr. E. Wakshal, 

and Mr. A. Galai, and also Professor Leo Picard, Department of 

Geology, Hebrew University, Jerusalem, and Mr. M. J. Goldschmidt, 

former director, Israel Hydrological Service.
CENOMANIAN-TURONIAN AQUIFER, CENTRAL ISRAEL F3 

GEOLOGIC ENVIRONMENT OF THE AQUIFER

The dominant structural feature of central Israel is the JudeanEphraim anticlinorium. The axis of this structural complex trends 

north-northeast, and in the report area (pi. 1.) it extends through a 

point near 160/130* about 10 kilometers west of Jerusalem (Bentor 

and Vroman, 1954). The Judean and Ephraim Mountains are the 

topographic expression of the anticlinorium and, consequently, except 

for the land corridor to Jerusalem, the report area consists of foothills 

and coastal plain. The general structural and stratigraphic relationships are shown diagrammatically in a geologic section (fig. 1). The 

location of the section is shown on plate 2.

The Cenomanian-Turonian formations (Upper Cretaceous) dip 

westward as steeply as 50° in a narrow north-south belt near grid line 

152 East in the Jerusalem Corridor. West of this belt, in the foothills 

of the Judean Mountains, the westward dip is very low, and east of 

the belt, toward the crest of the anticlinorium, the strata are almost 

flat lying.

The Cenomanian-Turonian formations are the most commonly 

exposed rocks in the country. According to Picard (1959, p. 14), 

their total thickness may be as much as 800 meters, and they consist 

largely of dolomite and limestone but include some "marl" (clay) and 

chalk strata. In the Judean foothills, they are usually considerably 

thinner. The formations are regarded as one highly permeable 

aquifer system whose porosity is characterized mainly by solution 

channels and by cavities produced by jointing or faulting. The 

Lower Cretaceous section is composed, in descending order, of (1) 

dolomite and limestone with chalk and shale strata, (2) sandstone, 

and (3) a shale-limestone complex (Picard, 1959, p. 10-11). Little 

information is available on the hydrologic properties of the Lower 

Cretaceous formations, but presumably they are considerably less 

permeable than the Cenomanian-Turonian formations and act as a 

lower confining layer. Except in some places between the Lod and 

Yarkon Springs areas, where the Cenomanian-Turonian aquifer is 

overlain by sandy and gravelly coastal-plain deposits, the aquifer is 

generally overlain by Senonian, Eocene, Neogene, and Quaternary 

formations which serve to confine the aquifer hydraulically. In the 

area where most of the wells are located (pi. 2), the maximum thickness of the overlying confining strata is about 400 meters. Except 

for Neogene-Quaternary sandy and gravelly strata which are thin 

(pi. 1; fig. 1), they consist largely of relatively impermeable chalk

1 Maps of Israel in this report bear a standard rectangular grid with 10-kilometer subdivisions. Locations are given east and north of the origin of the grid; for example, 

155/210 is 155 East and 210 North.
QUATERNARY

____EXPLANATION 

EOCENE CENOMANIAN-TURONIAN JURA

NEOCENE SENONIAN 

(MIOCENE-PLIOCENE)

LOWER CRETACEOUS

Con

Fa

FIGURE 1. Diagrammatic geologic section in southern 
CENOMANIAN-TURONIAN AQUIFER, CENTRAL ISRAEL F5

and clay. Inasmuch, as wells have been developed in a few places in 

Eocene carbonate-rock aquifers, the overlying formations may be 

capable of transmitting appreciable quantities of water even though 

they consist largely of chalk and clay.

The structure contour map of the top of the Turonian formations 

and the accompanying geologic cross section (pi. 1) indicate that some 

gentle warping, folding, and faulting has occurred locally. These 

features will be discussed later, particularly as they relate to the occurrence and movement of ground water. Toward the west, where the 

aquifer is beneath coastal-plain formations, it has been downwarped 

and downfaulted to a great depth. In the subsurface of the coastal 

region, where it was eroded during Tertiary time, the aquifer is covered in most of the area by a thick wedge of relatively impermeable 

clayey and shaley strata known as the Sakia Formation, principally 

of Miocene and partly of Pliocene age, according to Picard (1959, 

p. 20).

HISTORY OF PERMEABILITY DEVELOPMENT

In many places the aquifer is highly permeable; numerous wells 

yield hundreds and even thousands of cubic meters per hour with 

very small drawdowns. However, the yields of wells and the quality of the water are known to vary somewhat from place to place. 

The geologic factors that controlled the development of porosity and 

permeability are responsible for these variations, and they are a 

means of interpreting the natural flow regime, the way in which the 

present development has altered that regime, and how the future use 

of the aquifer will affect it.

According to Picard (1943, p. 41, 42), the sea retreated from Israel 

near the end of Eocene or in Oligocene time. Although the land 

was low, the circulation of ground water started to dilute and flush sea 

water from the rocks and, at the same time, enlarge joints, fractures, 

and bedding planes by chemical solution. Many of the general porosity characteristics of the aquifer probably were developed 

in Oligocene and Miocene time. During Miocene time, the rocks were 

subjected to intense tectonic activity which further fractured and 

jointed them. In addition to the folding and faulting, the land was 

uplifted, and, in places, erosion removed some of the Turonian formations. Where relatively impermeable formations were removed, as 

in the larger drainage systems, circulation of ground water was facilitated and the rate of chemical solution was accelerated. As a result, 

the porosity as well as the permeability of the Cenomanian-Turonian 

formations was increased, especially in the areas where the Turonian 

rocks were uncovered by erosion. The areal distribution of the sections

735-916 64 2
F6 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF ASIA AND OCEANIA

of highest porosity and permeability is probably related to the major 

drainage pattern that was developed during Oligocene and Miocene 

time. The drainage pattern was controlled, to a certain extent, by the 

surface expression of faults and folds; thus the configuration of the 

sections of highest permeability is linear, sinuous, or branching. An 

example of the local pattern of such a drainage system is available 

from Neev's study (1960) of a pre-Neogene (late Oligocene or early 

Miocene) channel system in the Beersheba area, about 70 kilometers 

southwest of Jerusalem. The main channel trends northwest, and 

four short tributary channels trend generally northeast.

Several aspects of the piezometric surface south of grid line 180 

North (pi. 2) are believed to reflect the manner in which the permeability distribution is related to the geologic structure. The crests of several short northeast-trending piezometric ridges or spurs occur at the 

following locations: 142/142, 143/151, 143/157, 143/163, and 145/174. 

One short northwest-trending spur is located near 141.5/178.5. Each 

ridge coincides with either a downfaulted synclinal block, a simple 

downfaulted block, or a structural basin shown on Issar's (1959, geologic sections following p. 5) structure contour map and geologic sections. Hydrologically (See also pi. 1, this report.) these structural 

features may be regarded as more or less isolated masses of relatively 

impermeable Senonian and younger formations (chalk and clay) 

bounded laterally and below by pervious Cenomanian-Turonian 

rocks. A good example of these features is shown at the north end 

of the geologic section on plate 1. Near the center of the section is 

a similar feature, but piezometric data are sparse at this location. 

As mentioned previously, the geologic features originated during late 

Tertiary time as a result of tectonic activity, and may represent regions 

where the rocks covering the Cenomanian-Turonian formations were 

not removed by erosion and where ground-water circulation and accompanying solution were limited. Consequently, they are believed to 

coincide with parts of the aquifer that are less permeable than adjacent parts from which erosion removed the strata above the aquifer.

If the aquifer were uniformly permeable in all directions and the 

rate of water withdrawal were evenly distributed along the belt between Lod and the Yarkon Springs area, the general effect on the 

piezometric surface would have been a simple north-south trench. The 

map of the piezometric surface indicates several irregularly shaped 

shallow depressions, although in detail the surface surely is much 

more irregular than can be shown with the available data. The general shape is caused partly by the areal distribution of pumpage and 

partly by variations in the permeability of the aquifer. The coincidence of the ridges in the piezometric surface with the previously
CENOMANIAN-TURONIAN AQUIFER, CENTRAL ISRAEL F7

mentioned structural features (areas of low permeability) suggests 

that specific aspects of the shape of the depressions are controlled by 

variations in the permeability of the aquifer. It might be expected 

that depressions in the piezometric surface produced by pumping 

would be elongated in the direction of highest permeability. The 

depression north of Lod is elongated in a northeast direction between 

two piezometric ridges; similar directions of elongation are apparent 

in the depressions at 145/163 and 147/173. The axes of the folds and 

almost all the faults shown on the structure contour map trend northeast and suggest that a general relationship exists between this linear 

pattern and the distribution and orientation of the sections of highest 

permeability.

Although the essential porosity and permeability characteristics 

of the aquifer were developed during late Tertiary time, the constant 

circulation and solvent action of ground water during Quaternary 

time further enlarged the pore spaces. The rate of solution probably 

was greater during Pleistocene time than during Eecent time owing 

to more humid climatic conditions.

One of the primary controls on the movement of ground water in 

a series of stratified sedimentary rocks is the difference between the 

vertical and horizontal permeability. Inasmuch as the CenomanianTuronian aquifer consists of interbedded massive and stratified dolomite and limestone and strata of clay and chalk, it is assumed that, 

where structural deformation has not influenced the permeability distribution and physical characteristics of the pore spaces, highly 

permeable zones essentially parallel the bedding planes and are 

separated by parallel zones of much lower permeability. Jointing and faulting would tend to facilitate the vertical circulation 

of water, particularly through the massive, brittle, competent strata. 

Unless they are breached by faults, the clay and chalk strata probably 

can be regarded as aquicludes because, in general, joints and cracks 

probably would not remain open in these rocks nor would they be 

enlarged significantly by chemical solution. The interbedding of carbonate rocks of relatively high permeability with the clays and chalks 

may result in the concentration of highly permeably zones near the 

contacts between the strata.

In outcrops of Cenomanian-Turonian rocks, several large cavelike 

openings were observed, some of which were several meters in diameter. Eecords and logs of wells mention depth intervals, extending 

for tens of meters, in which drilling circulation was lost. These intervals may be large cavities in the subsurface. However, these well logs 

may not all be accurate and it is difficult to determine which are 

reliable and which are not. Most of the larger solution channels are 

about half a meter in diameter or less. Some of the solution openings
F8 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF ASIA AND OCEANIA

appear to be tubelike in form, though actually most of them probably 

are extensive laterally or vertically in two dimensions (sheetlike) as 

a result of solution enlargement along joints, faults, or bedding 

planes. Locally, some of the rocks, which probably were massive, 

have had so much material dissolved from them that they appear 

spongelike. However, where large cliff faces or quarry walls in the 

Cenomanian-Turonian rocks were examined, the apparent percentage 

of the total rock volume composed of large solution openings generally is very small, perhaps only a few percent or less. Mandel 

(1959) states that the effective porosity of carbonate rocks in northern 

Israel ranges from 1 percent in Turonian limestone of the Carmel 

Mountains to 3 to 5 percent in dolomite of the Cenomanian-Turonian 

aquifer of the western Galilee Mountains; in central Israel, in the 

foothills near Lod, it is as much as 12 percent in the CenomanianTuronian aquifer.

In summary, the known hydrologic characteristics of the aquifer 

and the geologic events that controlled the development of permeability indicate that on a regional scale the aquifer is highly permeable. 

In addition, some regions, probably coinciding with ancient drainage 

patterns, fault zones, or both, may have exceptionally high permeabilities.

NATURAL FUNCTIONING OF THE AQUIFER SYSTEM

Although the Cenomanian-Turonian aquifer is considered a hydrologic unit, it is connected hydraulically with adjacent water-bearing 

rocks that generally have a lower permeability. The aquifer is the 

direct source of water pumped from wells, but some ground water 

circulates in the associated rocks of lower permeability. The recharge, 

flow, and discharge characteristics of the aquifer are obviously related 

to the hydraulics of the entire system.

In general, water in the aquifer is under artesian pressure. A comparison of the structure contour map (pi. 1) with the piezometric map 

(pi. 2) indicates that the piezometric surface of the CenomanianTuronian aquifer is above the top of the Turonian strata over practically the entire area. Where the younger confining formations are 

absent, as near 144/147, or where the aquifer is covered by a thin 

mantle of sandy and gravelly strata, as near the Yarkon Springs area, 

water in the solution openings of the system is confined, presumably 

by Cenomanian-Turonian rocks of relatively low permeability.

HORIZONTAL FLOW AND DISCHARGE

The general pattern of horizontal ground-water movement in the 

part of the aquifer beneath the foothills and coastal plain can be
CENOMANIAN-TURONIAN AQUIFER, CENTRAL ISRAEL F9

interpreted from the piezometric map (pi. 2). The few water-level 

measurements shown on the map in the Jerusalem Corridor area, east 

of grid line 155 East, were made in wells completed in the lower Cenomanian formations. These measurements indicate that the piezometric surface in this mountainous area is about 500 meters above sea 

level. There appears to be a hydraulic gradient to the southwest down 

to about 270 meters. Between the well where the piezometric level is 

about 270 meters (loc. 157/128.2) and the 23.0-meter contour in the 

foothills, there is located, near grid lines 152 to 153 East, the northsouth belt (see p. F3) in which the formations are dipping westward 

as much as 50° 2. East and west of this belt the formations dip westward much more gently. Some clay and chalk strata intervene, at 

least locally, between the upper and lower Cenomanian formations. 

The belt of steeply dipping formations is probably a zone of low permeability that impedes the westward movement of ground water and 

has caused the difference in head of more than 200 meters in a horizontal distance of about 5 kilometers. Apparently this zone of low 

permeability is related to the intense structural deformation and the 

presence of the relatively impermeable strata.

It was not possible to study the western flanks of the mountains, 

other than in the Jerusalem Corridor, to determine if the geologic 

and hydraulic conditions observed in this area are representative of 

a larger region. Professor Leo Picard of Hebrew University was 

consulted about this matter because he has made extensive studies of 

the geology of Palestine and neighboring countries (1943). According to him (oral commun., June 14,1962) the structural conditions in 

the Jerusalem Corridor, that is, the occurrence of a narrow north-south 

belt in which the Cenomanian-Turonian strata dip westward at a high 

angle, are probably more or less representative of the western flanks 

of the mountains in Jordan. If one makes this assumption, it means 

that, in general, the westward movement of ground water from the 

mountains to the foothills is impeded by a zone of low permeability 

and that much of the ground water in the report area has been derived 

from infiltration in the foothills and adjacent parts of the coastal plain.

South of grid line 150 North, the control for the piezometric map 

is so unevenly distributed that only a suggestion of the flow pattern 

can be obtained. The general direction of movement appears to be 

westerly. Pumping in a few localized areas has probably shifted the 

contours to form small troughlike depressions such as those at locations 

147/134,144/136, and 144/144.5.

3 In a written communication of May 3, 1963, Dr. Samuel Mandel states that the waterlevel altitude in a new test hole near the west edge of the belt of "sharp anticlinal dip" 

on the road to Jerusalem is about the same as that in a well a few hundred meters to the 

west (shown on pi. 2 about 4 kilometers northeast of Eshtaol).
F10 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF ASIA AND OCEANIA

In the area between grid lines 150 and 170 North, the ground-water 

development is most intense and the natural configuration of the 

piezometric surface has been modified considerably by pumping. Assuming the crests of the piezometric ridges to Be closest to the original 

surface and disregarding local undulations, there is a gentle northward 

or northwestward regional gradient of about 2 meters in 20 kilometers 

between the ridge east of Lod and the vicinity of the Yarkon Springs.

In the area bounded approximately by grid lines 180 and 205 North, 

a regional flow pattern that is northwest and piezometric contours that 

are comparatively regular in form suggest a uniform gradient. Toward the west, however, contours that appear to curve in a more 

westerly direction suggest a stronger northerly component of flow in 

this area. Locally, the regional flow pattern has been changed near 

centers of intensive pumping such as near 144/180, at Tulkarm in 

Jordan, and near 151/207. The shape of the north-south piezometric 

trough or valley produced by pumping at this last location may, in 

part, be controlled by a fault zone at approximately the same location 

(pi. 1). The fault is shown on an unpublished structure contour map 

of Israel.3

An extremely sharp northwestward gradient of the piezometric surface near location 155/210, from about 16.0 meters to 13.5 meters in a 

distance of about 1 kilometer, is probably related to a large syncline, 

the axis of which trends southwest and extends through a point near 

160/220. Only part of the southeast flank of the structure is shown 

on plate 1, but on the unpublished structure contour map referred to 

in the previous paragraph, the top of the Turonian formations is shown 

at an altitude of more than 800 meters below sea level along the axis 

of the structure. The structural trough is filled largely with SenonianPaleocene and Eocene formations (Picard, 1947), and the steep gradient of the piezometric surface is probably caused by the loss in head 

resulting from the northwesterly movement of water through the 

relatively impermeable rocks of the syncline.

The lowest piezometric level in tlie northwestern part of the report 

area is about 6.5 meters above sea level (loc. 145.5/215.5), in the vicinity 

of the Tanninim River. There also is a southwesterly component of 

flow toward this area, along the axis of the large syncline. The fact 

that in the extreme northeast corner of the map area the piezometric 

level is about 2 meters below sea level indicates a divide perhaps 

several kilometers southwest of this location.

The main discharge area for the aquifer under natural conditions 

is the Yarkon Springs, and a secondary one is through the springs

8 Greenberg, Yaacov, 1959, Israel structural contour map on top Turonian, scale 

1:250,000: The Israel National Oil Co., Ltd., Tel Aviv.
CENOMANIAN-TURONIAN AQUIFER, CENTRAL ISRAEL Fll

contributing to the Tanninim Eiver (Goldschmidt and Jacobs, 1958, 

p. 3; Mandel, 1957, p. 7, 8). The map of the piezometric surface (pi. 

2) appears to corroborate these statements although a northward component of flow could not be detected in the southern part of the area, 

south of grid line 150 North. Goldschmidt and Jacobs state that the 

average base flow of the Yarkon Eiver, downstream from the spring 

area for the period 1944-54, is about 220 million cubic meters per year. 

The monthly discharges of the Yarkon Springs for the period 1950-58 

are shown in figure 2. A pronounced difference exists in the chloride 

content of the ground water in the areas north and south of the springs. 

The apparent abruptness of this change in quality may be caused by 

the discharge of a large part of the northward or northwestward flow 

in this area. Mandel (1957, p. 7, 20) estimates the average flow of a 

Turonian limestone spring, discharging at the head of the Tanninim 

River, at 10 million cubic meters per year. On his map showing the 

direction of subsurface flow, this spring is a discharge point for water 

moving northwest.

The thick, extensive wedge of fine-grained Neogene rocks (Sakia 

Formation) that overlaps the eroded and downwarped seaward side of 

the aquifer apparently prevents any significant amount of discharge 

in that direction. However, oil wells and exploratory holes at 

129.5/128 and southwest of the report area at 120.3/117.6, where the 

bottom of the Cenomanian formations is at a depth of about 1,200 

meters, yielded water from the Cenomanian-Turonian aquifer that 

contained only 1,500 to 1,700 ppm (parts per million) chloride. This 

chloride content suggests that relatively fresh ground water is circulating in the aquifer at great depth or that it has circulated in these 

regions in the past. Owing to the absence of data on the head relationship between the aquifer and the overlying strata, it is impossible 

to state whether or not water is discharging westward through the 

Sakia Formation.

VERTICAL FLOW

Several features of the aquifer suggest that there is a significant 

vertical flow component in the system. The most obvious is the physical nature of the openings in the system a complex network of solution cavities whose geometry appears to be related to lithologicstratigraphic variations, structural deformation, and former drainage 

patterns.

The vertical temperature gradient in the aquifer and the areal distribution of chloride concentrations appear to substantiate this interpretation of the flow characteristics. In another study (Schneider, 

1964), I found that, locally, the apparent vertical temperature gradient, which is based on water temperatures in wells, is very small,
IN PRECIPITATION, 

MILLIMETERS

OF MILLIONS IN DISCHARGE, MONTHLY 

METERS CUBIC 

sxoixnaiaxNiOO ox am AOOIOSQAH &o visv CLMV 
CENOMANIAN-TURONIAN AQUIFER, CENTRAL ISRAEL F13

owing apparently to a vertical component of flow that is large enough 

to reduce the prevailing regional geothermal gradient. The flow of 

heat from the earth would be disseminated throughout the aquifer 

by the upward movement of water. Infiltration and downward movement of cool water from the surface would also lower the vertical 

temperature gradient.

Data on the chloride content of the water in the fall of 1960 (Israel 

Hydrological Service, 1962) indicate that south of grid line 172 North 

the average concentration is about 200 ppm or more, and north of this 

line the average is about 60 to TO ppm. A much more detailed study 

would have to be made to understand completely this pronounced 

difference in concentration; however, at least one important difference 

between the two areas can reasonably explain the difference in quality. 

Approximately south of grid line 152 North, the surficial formations 

in the foothills region are mostly Senonian and Eocene chalk and 

calcareous clay; north of this line the Cenomanian-Turonian rocks 

are at or near the surface (Picard, 1942,1946). Water moving downward from the land surface toward the Cenomanian-Turonian formations may have dissolved mineral matter from the overlying chalk 

and clay in the south; this source of mineral matter is absent in the 

north. In a report on the salinity (chloride content) of water in the 

Cenomanian-Turonian aquifer of central Israel (south of grid line 

140 North), Greitzer (1963, p. 9) states that the main sources of 

salinity in the upper part of the aquifer are the chalky-marly strata 

of post-Turonian age. He further observes that in the foothills of 

the Judean Mountains the salinity of the water in the upper part of 

the aquifer is higher than that in the lower part. On a schematic 

geologic cross section (following p. 1 of his report), he indicates that 

the water table in the overlying formations is higher than the piezometric surface of the aquifer and that water is moving downward from 

the Senonian formations into the aquifer.

Apparently the magnitude of vertical ground-water circulation is 

closely related to the recharge characteristics of the aquifer.

RECHARGE

The Cenomanian-Turonian aquifer could receive recharge in the 

foothills from two possible sources: One from ground water moving 

laterally westward from the mountainous outcrop areas, another from 

downward percolation of water derived from rain and streams in the 

foothills.

As previously mentioned the structural and stratigraphic conditions 

in the Jerusalem Corridor can be considered typical of those along the 

western flank of the mountains in Jordan. These conditions appear
F14 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF ASIA AND OCEANIA

to be related to the occurrence of a zone of low permeability which 

impedes the lateral movement of water. The amount of ground water 

moving westward from the mountains to the foothills is probably 

small; however, several investigators have observed that significant 

quantities of surface runoff are lost in the mountainous areas, and 

some investigators have assumed that this lost runoff is the main source 

of recharge to the aquifer in the foothills. Pereira, Shachori, and 

others (1960, p. 3, 14) studied rainfall, runoff, and soil moisture for 

three seasons in a 34-square-kilometer area underlain by CenomanianTuronian rocks in the Carmel Mountains of northern Israel. They 

observed that surface runoff is very low, probably less than 3 percent 

of the annual rainfall. They also observed a substantial deficiency 

in soil moisture during the 2- to 4-week dry intervals which may occur 

between storms in the winter rainy season. In another project, Pereira, 

Downes, and others (1960, p. 2) analyzed a 20-year record of runoff 

and rainfall for a drainage area of about 75 square kilometers near 

Jerusalem. The runoff ranged from 0 to 17 percent of the annual 

rainfall, and the mean value was 6 percent. These authors state that 

a large proportion of the streamflow is lost to deep percolation which 

is intercepted by -impermeable marl (clay) beds and delivered to 

springs; clay beds are an "unusually dominant feature" of this area.

Water percolating into the formations in the mountainous area of 

the Jerusalem Corridor must penetrate as much as 140 meters of 

unsaturated material above the water table. As noted earlier, this 

interval includes several clay and chalk horizons in addition to substantial thicknesses of carbonate rocks of low permeability. Because 

of the large thickness of the unsaturated zone and the presence of 

relatively impermeable strata above the water table, ample opportunity 

exists for the impedance and lateral diversion of downward percolating water to areas where significant amounts of ground water 

can discharge by evapotranspiration and through seeps and small 

springs.

Recharge by the downward percolation of water in the foothills area 

is possible if the artesian head in the Cenomanian-Turonian aquifer is 

lower than that in the overlying formations. On a schematic geologic 

cross section near grid line 110 North, Greitzer (1963, following p. 1) 

indicates such a relationship. The maximum difference, which occurs 

in the foothills region, is more than 300 meters. Specific data are lacking for most of the area of the present report, but, because the aquifer 

contains water under artesian pressure over practically the entire area, 

recharge from this source is characterized by more or less steady, slow 

seepage, derived primarily from rainfall.
CENOMANIAN-TURONIAN AQUIFER, CENTRAL ISRAEL F15 

SUMMARY

In general, water in the Cenomanian-Turonian aquifer is under 

artesian pressure, and hydraulic gradients are small. The net direction of movement is generally westward and northwestward, although 

locally the flow may be in other directions owing to spatial variations 

in permeability and the location of discharge areas. The permeability 

distribution appears to be related primarily to the orientation of faults 

and folds and former patterns of drainage. Discharge to the west is 

apparently restricted by the overlap of an extensive thick body of finegrained deposits on the downwarped seaward side of the aquifer.

Several features of the aquifer suggest that in places there is a large 

vertical component of flow. Most of the water in the aquifer probably 

has come from infiltration in the foothills and adjacent parts of the 

coastal plain because structural and stratigraphic conditions along the 

western side of the mountains evidently impede the westward movement of ground water.

STORAGE CHARACTERISTICS AND SOURCES OF PUMPED

WATER

In water-table aquifers, the water released from or taken into storage 

in response to a change in head can be attributed, for all practical 

purposes, to gravity drainage or refilling of the zone in which the 

water table fluctuates. However, in an artesian aquifer, a measured 

change in head represents a change in potential energy in the aquifer. 

No dewatering or refilling of the aquifer is involved, and the water 

released from or taken into storage can be attributed only to the deformation of the aquifer and overlying material and to the compressibility of the water.

A significant manifestation of the storage properties of the aquifer 

is the nature of water-level fluctuations. In general, the seasonal 

pattern of fluctuation is similar for the entire report area. The 

artesian head reaches a peak about March or April and a low about 

November. It is significant that little if any difference exists between 

the amplitude of fluctuation in areas of heavy pumping and the amplitude in areas where the pumping is light. In 1961, the average 

amplitude in the area south of grid line 180 North was about 2.2-2.3 

meters, and north of this line it was about 2.6-2.8 meters. Because 

the bulk of the water is used for irrigation, pumpage decreases drastically after the earliest rainstorm in the fall. Shortly after the last 

rainstorm in the spring, intensive pumping commences and continues 

until fall. Consequently, one of the problems in analyzing the waterlevel records is to distinguish natural fluctuations from those caused 

by pumping. To study this problem, five areas of concentrated
F16 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF ASIA AND OCEANIA

pumping were selected for which water-level records were available 

since about 1950. These areas are outlined on plate 2, and graphs 

of yearly pumpage and of the highest yearly water levels are shown 

on plate 3. A graph of the cumulative departure from an assumed 

normal value of 550 mm of precipitation is given for Jerusalem 

(unpublished data from Israel Meteorological Service). In general, 

except for area 5, all the hydrographs show a gradual net decline 

from about 1950 to 1958 and a more rapid decline from 1958 to about 

1962. With the exception of area 5, the rates of water-level decline 

in all the wells are approximately the same for the entire period of 

record, and for the period 1958-62 the rates of decline are similar for 

all the areas.

The precipitation record can be correlated with the hydrographs. 

From 1950 to 1957, precipitation was slightly below normal most of 

the time; this deficiency is reflected in the gradual water-level decline. 

From 1957 to 1962, the cumulative departure dropped at a much 

increased rate and water levels also declined at an increased rate. 

The pronounced deficiency in precipitation in water years 1955-56 

can be correlated with lowered piezometric levels in areas 1, 3, 4, and 

possibly 5; no record is available in area 2 for this period. The 

deficiency in 1951 is reflected only in the water-level records for areas 

3 and 5; no record is available for this year in area 4. It should be 

noted that the discharge from the Yarkon Springs, which has been 

measured monthly for a number of years, fluctuates with the seasonal 

rainfall pattern with little time lag (fig. 2). Perhaps the fluctuations 

in spring discharge are caused by the same factors that produce 

seasonal fluctuations in water levels.

In a few instances, changes in the annual rate of pumping can be 

correlated with water-level fluctuations in the immediate area. In 

general, however, this correlation is not nearly as clear as the correlation with the precipitation record. A comparison of the pumpage 

records and hydrographs reveals certain anomalies that are difficult 

to explain. For example, one might expect that the pronounced 

increase in pumpage from 1956 to 1957 in area 5 would be reflected 

in lowered water levels. The more or less constant increase in pumpage in areas 2, 3, and 4 does not appear to be related to the distinct 

inflection in 1958 on all the hydrographs. There is a striking contrast 

between the generally similar shape of the hydrographs and the dissimilarity in the magnitude and pattern of change of the pumpage 

graphs. The total amounts of water pumped during the period of 

record varied considerably: about 124 million cubic meters in area 1, 

42 million in area 2, 44 million in area 3, 64 million in area 4, and 

87 million in area 5. Despite these large differences in the amounts
CENOMANIAN-TURONIAN AQUIFER, CENTRAL ISRAEL F17

of water pumped, the net declines in water levels for the period of 

record did not vary widely: 6.3 meters in area 1, 5.5 in area 2, 6.4 in 

area 3,5.1 in area 4, and 4.4 in area 5.

The similarity of the main features of most of the hydrographs, the 

dissimilarity in the magnitude and pattern of pumping in the several 

areas studied, the near constancy in the amplitude of seasonal waterlevel fluctuations in the entire area, and the apparent close correlation 

between the long-term trend of the water level and the record of precipitation all suggest that changes in artesian pressure are caused 

mainly by the seasonal and long-term patterns of precipitation. Although the piezometric map shows that pumping has resulted in the 

formation of several depressions in the piezometric surface, pumping 

probably plays a relatively minor role in producing the widespread, 

uniform, seasonal fluctuations and the pattern of long-term changes 

in artesian pressure.

The mechanism by which the changes in artesian pressure occur must 

be explained because of the significance of the changes in interpreting 

the storage properties of the aquifer. The uniformity of the seasonal 

fluctuations in pressure over the entire area and their correlation with 

the precipitation pattern suggest that recharge changes the pressure 

rapidly in the aquifer. The application of a pressure change in a 

limited area (for example, the lowering of pressure in one of the areas 

of intensive pumping) apparently is localized to the extent that only 

a localized depression is produced in the piezometric surface. This 

localization suggests that the stresses responsible for widespread 

seasonal head changes in the aquifer are applied relatively uniformly 

over a large area. These stresses could be produced in two ways or 

in a combination of the two: (1) the stresses could be caused by fluctuations of the water table in the outcrop area resulting from natural 

recharge or discharge; and (2) the stresses may result from watertable fluctuations over the entire report area, which would increase or 

decrease the load on the artesian system. Matson and Sanford (1913, 

p. 238-239) discuss this phenomenon for limestone aquifers in Florida; 

they say that the results of this pressure are usually felt within a short 

time after a heavy rain and that the fluctuations in artesian pressure 

may be of either long or short duration. They mention further that 

the fluctuations may result as soon as water enters the soil and before 

it reaches the water table from the transmission of pressure by confined air.

The fact that the aquifer contains water under artesian pressure in 

the lowest parts of the depressions in the piezometric surface suggests 

that to date pumping has not unwatered the aquifer. However, the 

easterly extent of these depressions toward the outcrop areas is not
P18 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF ASIA AND OCEANIA

known. Because the depressions are shallow and the hydraulic gradients are small, if they extend to the outcrop and if there is no appreciable change in transmissibility in that direction, the amount by 

which water levels in those areas would have been lowered is very 

small. If the average coefficient of transmissibility is high, appreciable quantities of water may be moving westward under a small gradient. As noted previously, however, the westward movement of 

ground water from the mountains may be impeded by a zone of relatively low permeability. Owing to the lack of specific information on 

the hydrology and geology in the outcrop areas, this apparently anomalous situation could not be resolved.

In addition to the water derived from artesian storage, some water 

in the area of most intensive pumping, between Lod and the vicinity 

of the Yarkon Springs, moves downward and eastward from the overlying sandy and gravelly coastal-plain formations. I (Schneider, 

1964) found that the natural temperature distribution appeared to be 

modified significantly in this area, possibly by induced infiltration of 

cool water from the shallow formations.

USE OF THE AQUIFER AS A STORAGE RESERVOIR

One of the most important factors to be considered in using the 

aquifer as a storage reservoir for surplus water is the selection of 

storage areas from which most of the stored water can be recovered by 

wells during the immediately following irrigation season. In a good 

reservoir the amount of water that is discharged through natural outlets must be small. Most of the water to be stored in the aquifer 

probably will be injected through supply wells, and, in view of the 

large yields obtained, no problems should be involved in injecting 

large quantities of water. The wells will probably not be plugged by 

chemical precipitates because the wells are completed as open holes 

and the pore spaces in the aquifer are large.

Another aspect of the plan to use the aquifer as a storage reservoir 

is the injection of water of low mineral content in places where the 

aquifer water is excessively mineralized. The objective is to recover 

the water from one or more wells so as to mix the native water with 

the injected water during the pumping period in order to produce 

water with an intermediate level of mineral concentration. To accomplish this objective, the rate and direction of movement of the injected 

mass of water must be known.

The injection of large quantities of water anywhere in the aquifer 

will modify the head distribution to some extent and change the rate 

of movement. The only information available on the horizontal ground-water velocity is an order of magnitude suggested by Man-
CENOMANIAN-TURONIAN AQUIFER, CENTRAL ISRAEL F19

del (1960, p. 502) on the basis of injection tests using radioactive 

tracers in northern Israel; he suggested a velocity of 0.6 to 1 meter per 

day.

The piezometric map (pi. 2) is useful for evaluating the suitability 

of areas for the seasonal storage of water because it indicates general directions of ground-water movement. The most significant features of the piezometric surface are the spurs or ridges which were 

discussed earlier and which presumably indicate parts of the aquifer where the permeability is somewhat lower than in adjacent areas. 

Pumping probably has accentuated the height of the ridges in the 

piezometric surface by lowering the head in the intervening areas. 

These depressions may be regarded as local reservoirs insofar as the 

injection of water is concerned.

The area of the piezometric depression north of Lod appears a 

logical site for injection of water. If the piezometric surface were 

mapped as water is injected, the head distribution could be controlled, 

the depression could be preserved, and the outflow from this area 

could be minimized.

Another possible storage area is near Yarkon Springs. At least 

locally, water is moving toward the Yarkon Springs area from all directions, although pumping in the vicinity of the springs apparently 

has been a contributing factor in reducing the artesian head and 

the spring discharge. Pumping has produced a narrow irregular valley in the piezometric surface extending south from the spring area. 

The piezometric ridge at 145/174 divides the flow locally. Assuming 

that the velocity of ground-water flow is about 1 meter per day, water 

could be injected at the upgradient end of this valley and most of 

it could be recovered from wells during the irrigation season because the distance to the spring area is about 10 kilometers. As in 

the area north of Lod, the head distribution would have to be controlled to prevent the water from moving east or west toward areas 

where there are no wells. If the discharge from the springs could be 

stopped or reduced considerably by additional pumping, water possibly could be injected closer to the spring area.

Another localized depression in the piezometric surface where injection might be feasible is in the north-south valley east of Hadera. 

As in the valleylike depression south of the Yarkon Springs, water 

perhaps could be injected at the upgradient end of the valley and 

most of it could be recovered from wells because of the low velocity 

of ground-water flow.
F20 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF ASIA AND OCEANIA

REFERENCES CITED

Blake, G. S., 1939, Geological map of Palestine, Scale 1:250,000: Survey of Palestine, Jaffa. 

Bentor, Y. K., and Vroman, A., 1954, A structural contour map of Israel

(1:250,000) with remarks on its dynamical interpretation: Bull. Research

Council of Israel, v. 4, no. 2, p. 125-135. 

Goldschmidt, M. J., and Jacobs, M., 1958, Precipitation over and replenishment of

the Yarkon and Nahal Hateninim underground catchments: Israel Hydrological Service Hydrological Paper 3,8 p. 

Greitzer, Y., 1963, Groundwater salinity in the Cenomanian-Turonian aquifer of

central Israel: Water Planning for Israel, Ltd., Tel Aviv, 12 p. 

Israel Hydrological Service, 1962, Hydrological Year-Book of Israel 1959/60:

Jerusalem, 96 p. 

Issar, A., 1959, Remarks on the subsurface geology of the central foothills region

of Israel: Israel Geol. Survey Bull. 23, 5 p. 

Mandel, Samuel, 1957, Investigation of the gee-hydrology of Tanninim River

catchment area: Water Planning for Israel, Ltd., Tel Aviv, 24 p.

 1959, Porosity characteristics of carbonate rocks in Israel: Bull. Research 

Council of Israel, v. 8G, no. 4,1 p.

 1960, Hydrogeological field work with radioactive tracers in Israel up to

May 1960: Internat. Assoc. Sci. Hydrology Pub. 52, p. 497-502. 

Matson, G. C., and Sanf ord, Samuel, 1913, Geology and ground waters of Florida:

U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 319,445 p. 

Neev, D., 1960, A pre-Neogene erosion channel in the southern coastal plain of

Israel: Israel Geol. Survey Bull. 25,20 p. 

Pereira, H, C., Downes, R. G., Shachori, A. Y., and Michaeli, A., 1960, An outline

of experimental procedure to determine differences in water use between

forest, shrubs, and pasture on hill catchments in Israel: Israel Soil Conserv.

Dept, Soil Erosion Expt. Sta., 10 p. 

Pereira, H. C., Shachori, A. Y., Peranio, A., and Michaeli, A., 1960, Water use of

vegetation on pervious limestone catchment areas, 2d progress report: Israel

Soil Conserv. Dept., Soil Erosion Expt. Sta., 17 p. 

Picard, Leo, 1942, Jaffa-Tel Aviv Sheet 6, 1:100,000: Israel Geol. Survey, Geol.

Map of Israel, Central Part, ser. B.

 1943, Structure and evolution of Palestine, with comparative notes 

on neighbouring countries: Hebrew Univ. [Jerusalem], Geol. Dept v. 4, no. 

2-4, 135 p.

 1946, Ramie Sheet 9, 1:100,000: Israel Geol. Survey, Geol. Map of Israel, 

Central Part, ser. B.

 1947, Zikhron Ya'aqov Sheet 4,1:100,000: Israel Geol. Survey, Geol. Map 

of Israel, Northern Part, ser. C.

 1959, Geology and oil exploration of Israel: Bull. Research Council of

Israel, v. 8, no. 1, p. 1-30. 

f3chneider, Robert, 1962, An application of thermometry to the study of ground

water: U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 1544-B, 16 p. 

 1964, Relation of temperature distribution to ground-water movement in

carbonate rocks of central Israel: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 75, no. 3,

p. 209-216. 

Wiener, Aaron, and Wolman, Abel, 1962, Formulation of national water resources

policy in Israel: Am. Water Works Assoc. Jour., v. 54, no. 3, p. 257-263.
The U.S. Geological Survey Library has cataloged this publication as follows:

Schneider, Robert, 1921-

Cenomanian-Turonian aquifer of central Israel; its development and possible use as a storage reservoir. Washington, 

U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1964.

iii, 20 p. maps, diagrg. 24 cm. (U.S. Geological Survey. WaterSupply Paper 1608-F)

Contributions to the hydrology of Asia and Oceania.

Part of illustrative matter fold, in pocket.

Prepared in cooperation with Water Planning for Israel, Ltd. 

(TAHAL), under the auspices of the U.S. Agency for International 

Development.

(Continued on next card)

Schneider, Robert, 1921- CenomanianTuronian aquifer of central Israel; its development and 

possible use as a storage reservoir. 1964. (Card 2)

Bibliography: p. 20.

1. Water-supply Israel. 2. Water, Underground Israel. 3. Waterstorage Israel. 4. Reservoirs. I. U.S. Agency for International Development. II. Title. (Series)