Responsible 

Fatherhood 

Spotlight 

March 2008 

Take Time to Be a Dad Today 

National Responsible Fatherhood Clearinghouse  101 Lake Forest Boulevard, Suite 360  Gaithersburg, MD 20877  

Toll-free: 1 (877) 4DAD411  Fax: (301) 948-4325  www.fatherhood.gov 

Couple Relationship Quality and Father Involvement 

The quality of parents’ romantic relationship has important implications for a father’s involvement with his 

child. Both the quality of the mother-father relationship and the level and type of father involvement are 

critical for children’s positive development. 

Definitions 

Couple relationship quality refers to the quality of a relationship between two married or romantically 

involved people. A more positive relationship is characterized by low levels of hostility and conflict and by 

high levels of support and satisfaction within the relationship. 

Father involvement refers to the type and level of a father’s involvement with his children. Father 

involvement has been thought of as having three main dimensions: engagement (a father’s involvement 

in activities with his child), accessibility (a father’s availability to his child), and responsibility (the extent to 

which a father provides his child with resources, including financial support).21,22

Importance and Implications of Relationship Quality for Father Involvement 

Research on relationship quality and father involvement has generally found that better relationship 

quality is associated with better parenting, higher levels of father involvement, and increased child wellbeing. 

Implications for Fathers 

Relationship quality is associated with men’s well-being in the parenting role, as well as in other areas of 

their lives. 

• Marital happiness is associated with lower levels of parenting stress for fathers.11 High quality 

marital relationships are also associated with increased enjoyment and satisfaction in the 

parenting role – perceptions of the parent-child relationship, of how their relationship with their 

children has changed over time, and of their satisfaction with their children.11,28 

• Marital quality is associated with men’s physical and mental well-being. For example, changes in 

marital quality are associated with changes in men’s physical health,33 and marital strain and 

discord are associated with higher levels of depression.20,32

Implications of Relationship Quality for Fathers’ Involvement With Children 

• The quality of the marital relationship has been shown to “spill over” into the parent-child 

relationship.4,8

o Parents who have supportive relationships tend to be more sensitive and responsive to 

their children, whereas parents who have high levels of hostility, negativity, and conflict in 

their relationships tend to be less attentive and more negative towards their children.1,7 

o Some studies have found that this “spillover” effect is more marked for fathers than for 

mothers – that is, fathers in hostile or conflicted relationships are more likely than are 

mothers in hostile or conflicted relationships to carry these feelings into their 

parenting.6,24,26 Other research, however, has found no differences between fathers and 

mothers in this regard.4,8
Responsible Fatherhood Spotlight 

Couple Relationship Quality and Father Involvement 

1 (877)4DAD411 Page 2 of 8 www.fatherhood.gov

• Relationship quality also has implications for the overall level of men’s involvement with their 

children.9,10 

o Fathers of adolescents tend to become less emotionally and physically involved with their 

children as marital conflict increases.15 However, mothers do not become less involved 

with their children as marital conflict increases.15

o For parents of young children, fathers whose relationships are more hostile are more 

likely to withdraw from children in situations involving the mother, father, and child.18,19 

o Fathers in more hostile relationships are less likely to be involved with their children years 

later, even when marital quality is measured before a child is born.23

o Fathers may withdraw from their children in stressful or conflictual situations because the 

father’s role is less clearly defined by society than is the mother’s role. Also, a man may 

find it more difficult to differentiate between his role as a husband and his role as a father 

than a woman finds it to differentiate between being a wife and being a mother.4

 

• For both fathers and mothers, relationship quality is also associated with a number of specific 

parenting behaviors. 

o High quality romantic relationships are associated with better limit setting for children and 

warmer, more responsive parenting.12 For parents with infants, marital harmony also 

predicts fathers’ helpful and supportive parenting.11

o Fathers in distressed and hostile marriages are more intrusive and provide less positive 

feedback to young children.3,18,19

o For parents of school-aged children and adolescents, conflict is associated with less 

positive disciplinary beliefs and techniques – for example, greater use of physical 

punishment or inconsistent discipline.30 This finding is more common among fathers than 

it is among mothers. 

o For school-aged children and adolescents, marital conflict is associated with poorer 

father-child relationship quality2

 and with less involved parenting.5 

Implications for Children 

A large body of evidence suggests that the quality of the mother-father relationship is associated with 

child well-being. 

• Studies show that even children as young as two are highly aware of whether there is conflict in 

the father-mother relationship and that this perception is associated with higher levels of 

behavioral problems.13,14 

• Father-mother relationship quality is associated with a host of negative emotional and social 

outcomes. 

o For school-aged children and adolescents, marital conflict is associated with internalizing 

and externalizing behavior problems, immaturity, hostility, aggression, hyperactivity, 

impulsivity, delinquency, antisocial behavior, anxiety, depression, poor social 

competence, conduct disorder, anxiety, withdrawal, low self-esteem, and suicide.13,14,17,18 

--These outcomes are especially common among children living in households in 

which there is overt marital conflict, such as fighting in front of the children.13

o The quality of the mother-father relationship before a child’s birth is also associated with 

whether the child is securely attached to his or her parents during toddlerhood.16 

o The reasons for these poorer outcomes may differ by gender. 

--For adolescent girls living with married parents, high levels of mother-father conflict 

reduce parents’ level of warmth, which leads to higher levels of internalizing and 

externalizing behavior problems, and trouble with peers. 

--For adolescent boys living with married parents, parental warmth is less important. 

Instead, relationship conflict is directly associated with higher levels of externalizing 

behaviors, internalizing behaviors, and trouble with peers.31 

• Father-mother relationship quality is also associated with children’s and adolescents’ cognitive 

and academic development. 

o Among adolescents, hostility and conflict in the mother-father relationship are associated 15 with lower educational and employment attainment. 
Responsible Fatherhood Spotlight 

Couple Relationship Quality and Father Involvement 

1 (877)4DAD411 Page 3 of 8 www.fatherhood.gov

o Overt marital conflict is also associated with poorer cognitive competence and poorer 

GPAs.13

• Father-mother relationship quality is associated with children’s and adolescents’ physical health. 

o Among adolescents, higher quality mother-father relationships are associated with 

receiving higher quality health care.29 

o Children whose mothers report less satisfying marital relationships have poorer physical 

health.12,29 

o Teenagers in high-conflict families headed by two married parents have higher levels of 

health problems than do teenagers in low-conflict families in which parents are 

divorced.25 

Relationship Quality and Father Involvement in Early Childhood 

Figure 1 and Table 1 show that fathers have significantly higher levels of involvement with children when 

they report happier father-mother relationships. This pattern is consistent as children get older. 

Figure 1. Level of Father Involvement by Quality of Father-Mother Relationship over Time 

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

9 months

(range=0-55)

24 months

(range=0-98)

48 months

(range=0-49)

Survey Wave

Involvement

Very Happy

Not Very Happy

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month, 24-month, and Preschool data 

Table 1. Father Involvement by Quality of Father-Mother Relationship 

Survey Wave Very Happy 

Not Very 

Happy 

Possible 

Range 

9 months 36.8 35.8a 0 – 55 

24 months 51.7 48.8a 0 – 98 

48 months 26.4 24.6a 0 – 49 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B data 

a = significantly different from “very happy” 

Differences in Relationship Quality and Father Involvement by Subgroup 

The following estimates are for fathers of toddlers (24-month-old children). 

Differences by Poverty Status 

Figure 2 and Table 2 show that in households both above and below the poverty line, fathers of toddlers 

are significantly more involved if they report being in “very happy” relationships than if they are in “fairly” 
Responsible Fatherhood Spotlight 

Couple Relationship Quality and Father Involvement 

1 (877)4DAD411 Page 4 of 8 www.fatherhood.gov

or “not very” happy relationships. This pattern is slightly more noticeable among fathers in households 

with incomes below the poverty line. 

Figure 2. Level of Father Involvement by Poverty Status and Quality of Father-Mother 

Relationship 

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Poor Not Poor

Poverty Status

Father Involvement

Very Happy

Not Very Happy

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 24-month data

Table 2. Father Involvement by Poverty Status and Quality of the Father-Mother Relationship 

Poverty Status Very Happy 

Not Very 

Happy 

Possible 

Range 

Poor 55.0 50.2a 0-98 

Not Poor 51.2 48.4a 0-98 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 24-month data 

a = significantly different from “very happy” 

Differences by Educational Attainment 

Figure 3 and Table 3 show that fathers with less than a high school diploma, with a high school 

diploma/GED, or with a college degree or more are significantly more involved with their children when 

they report being in “very happy” relationships. This pattern is especially evident among fathers with less 

than a high school education or with a high school diploma/GED. 
Responsible Fatherhood Spotlight 

Couple Relationship Quality and Father Involvement 

1 (877)4DAD411 Page 5 of 8 www.fatherhood.gov

Figure 3. Level of Father Involvement by Educational Attainment and Quality 

of Father-Mother Relationship 

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Less than

High School

High

School/GED

Some College College or

More

Educational Attainment

Father Involvement

Very Happy

Not Very Happy

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 24-month data

Table 3. Father Involvement by Educational Attainment and Quality of the 

Father-Mother Relationship 

Educational Attainment Very Happy 

Not Very 

Happy 

Possible 

Range 

Less than High School 53.4 49.1a 0-98 

High School/GED 52.3 48.9a 0-98 

Some College 51.0 49.4 0-98 

College Degree or More 50.9 48.8a 0-98 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 24-month data 

a = significantly different from “very happy” 

Differences by Race/Ethnicity 

Figure 4 and Table 4 show that non-Hispanic White fathers and fathers in the “other” race /ethnicity 

category (e.g., Asian or Native American) are significantly more involved with their children when they 

report being in “very happy” relationships. Non-Hispanic Black fathers are slightly more involved with their 

children when they are in “very happy” relationships. Hispanic fathers’ involvement remains roughly the 

same whether they are in “very happy” or “not very happy” relationships. 
Responsible Fatherhood Spotlight 

Couple Relationship Quality and Father Involvement 

1 (877)4DAD411 Page 6 of 8 www.fatherhood.gov

Figure 4. Level of Father Involvement by Race/Ethnicity and Quality of 

Father-Mother Relationship 

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

White Black Hispanic Other Race

Race/Ethnicity

Father Involvement

Very Happy

Not Very Happy

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 24-

Table 4. Father Involvement by Race/Ethnicity and Quality of the Father-Mother Relationship 

Race/Ethnicity Very Happy 

Not Very 

Happy 

Possible 

Range 

White 51.4 47.8a 0-98 

Black 53.5 50.4 0-98 

Hispanic 52.1 52.2 0-98 

Other 51.2 47.2a 0-98 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 24-month data 

a = significantly different from “very happy” 

Definitions and Measurement 

Fathers who said that their relationship with their spouse or partner was “very happy” were classified as 

being in a very happy relationship, and fathers who said that their relationship was “fairly happy” or “not 

very happy” were classified as being in a “not very happy” relationship. 

Father involvement was measured by adding together scores from a series of questions about the 

frequency with which fathers take part in various activities with their children. These activities included 

reading books, singing songs, telling stories, going on errands, playing chasing games, preparing meals, 

changing diapers, giving the child a ride on shoulders, playing indoors, putting the child to sleep, bathing 

the child, playing outside, helping the child get dressed, going out to eat, helping the child eat, helping the 

child brush teeth, taking the child to religious services, soothing an upset child, staying home with an ill 

child, or taking the child to day care. 

Data Sources 

Tables and charts documenting relationship happiness and father involvement among resident fathers 

came from Child Trends’ analyses of data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study – Birth Cohort 

(ELCS-B) 9-month, 24-month, and 48-month surveys. The ECLS-B is a nationally representative 

longitudinal survey of American children born in 2001. The ECLS-B includes 10,688 children and their 

caregivers, and it follows these children from infancy until the time that they enter first grade. Data were 

collected through parent interviews, direct child assessments, birth certificate data, and interviews with 

children’s caregivers and teachers. Data were collected by the National Center for Education Statistics. 
Responsible Fatherhood Spotlight 

Couple Relationship Quality and Father Involvement 

1 (877)4DAD411 Page 7 of 8 www.fatherhood.gov

Data Limitations 

Because fathers are asked a different series of questions about involvement with children at each survey 

wave, the measure of father involvement differs slightly at each time point. 

Resources 

• The National Healthy Marriage Resource Center provides research-based information about marriage 

in the United States and about programs designed to improve relationship quality: 

http://www.healthymarriageinfo.org/ 

• The United States Department of Health and Human Services supports programs and research 

about fatherhood development and the importance of fathers for children: http://fatherhood.hhs.gov/ 

• The National Center on Fathers and Families provides research-based information on father 

involvement and child well-being aimed at improving children’s lives through the positive participation 

of their fathers: http://www.ncoff.gse.upenn.edu/ 
Responsible Fatherhood Spotlight 

Couple Relationship Quality and Father Involvement 

1 (877)4DAD411 Page 8 of 8 www.fatherhood.gov

References 

1 Almeida, D. M., Wethington, E., & Chandler, A. L. (1999). Daily transmission of tensions between marital dyads and parent-child dyads. 

Journal of Marriage and the Family, 61(1), 49-61. 2 Amato, P. R. (1986). Father involvement and the self-esteem of children and adolescents. Australian Journal of Sex, Marriage & Family, 7, 

6-16. 

3 Brody, G., Pelligrini, A., & Sigel, I. (1986). Marital quality and mother-child and father-child interactions with school-aged children. 

Developmental Psychology, 22, 291-296. 4 Coiro, M. J., & Emery, R. E. (1998). Do marriage problems affect fathering more than mothering? A quantitative and qualitative review. 

Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 1(1), 23-40. 5 Conger, R. D., Conger, K. J., Elder Jr., G. H., Lorenz, F. O., Simons, R. L., & Whitbeck, L. B. (1992). A family process model of economic 

hardship and adjustment of early adolescent boys. Child Development, 63(3), 526-541. 6 Crockenberg, S. C., & Covey, S. L. (1991). Marital conflict and externalizing behavior in children. In D. Cicchetti, & S. L. Toth (Eds.), Models 

and Integrations (Vol. Rochester Symposium on Developmental Psychopathology Volume 3, pp. 235-260). Rochester, NY: University of 

Rochester Press. 

7 Easterbrooks, M. A., & Emde, R. N. (1988). Marital and parent-child relationships: The role of affect in the family system. In R. Hinde, & J. 

Stevenson-Hinde (Eds.), Relationships within families (pp. 104-141).New York: Oxford University Press. 8 Erel, O., & Burman, B. (1995). Interrelatedness of marital relations and parent-child relations: A meta-analytic review. Psychological 

Bulletin, 118(1), 108-132. 9 Gavin, L. E., M. Black, M., Minor, S., Abel, Y., Papas, M.A., Bentley, M.E. (2002). Young, disadvantaged fathers' involvement with their 

infants: An ecological perspective. Journal of Adolescent Health,31(3), 266-276.10 Gee, C., McNerney, C., Reiter, M., & Leaman, S. (2007). 

Adolescent and young adult mothers' relationship quality during the transition to parenthood: Associations with father involvement in fragile 

families. Journal of Youth & Adolescence, 36(2), 213-224. 11 Goldberg, W. A., & Easterbrooks, M. A. (1984). The role of marital quality in toddler development. Developmental Psychology, 20, 504-

514. 

12 Gottman, J. M., & Katz, L. F. (1989). Effects of marital discord on children's peer interaction and health. Developmental Psychology, 25, 

373-381. 

13 Grych, J., & Fincham, F. (1990). Marital conflict and children's adjustment: A cognitive contextual framework. In M. Lamb (Ed.), 

Nontraditional families: Parenting and child development (pp. 233-288). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. 14 Harold, G. T., & Conger, R. D. (1997). Marital conflict and adolescent distress: The role of adolescent awareness. Child Development, 

68(2), 333-350. 15 Harris, K. M., Furstenberg, F. F., Jr., & Marmer, J. K. (1998). Paternal involvement with adolescents in intact families: The influence of 

fathers over the life course. Demography, 35, 201-216. 16 Howes, P., & Markman, H. J. (1989). Marital quality and child functioning: A longitudinal investigation. Child Development, 60, 1044-1051. 17 Katz, L., & Woodin, E. (2002). Hostility, hostile detachment, and conflict engagement in marriages: Effects on child and family functioning. 

Child Development, 73(2), 636-651. 18 Katz, L. F., & Gottman, J. M. (1993). Patterns of marital conflict predict children's internalizing and externalizing behaviors. Developmental 

Psychology, 29, 940-950. 19 Katz, L. F., & Gottman, J. M. (1996). Spillover effects of marital conflict: In search of parenting and coparenting mechanisms. New 

Directions for Child Development, 74, 57-76. 20 Keith, V. M., & Norwood, R. S. (1997). Marital strain and depressive symptoms among African Americans. African American Research 

Perspectives, 3(2), 7-11. 21 Lamb, M. E., Pleck, J. H., Charnov, E. L., & Levine, J. A. (1985). The role of the father in child development: The effects of increased 

paternal involvement. In B. B. Lahey, & A. E. Kazdin (Eds.), Advances in clinical child psychology (Vol. 8, pp. 229 - 266). New York: Plenum. 22 Lamb, M. E., Pleck, J. H., Charnov, E. L., & Levine, J. A. (1987). A biosocial perspective on paternal behavior and involvement. In J. B. 

Lancaster, J. Altman, S. Rossi, & L. R. Sherrod (Eds.), Parenting across the lifespan: Biosocial dimensions (pp. 111 - 142). New York: Aldine 

de Gruyter. 

23 Lindahl, K. M., Clements, M., & Markman, H. J. (1997). Predicting marital and parent functioning in dyads and triads: A longitudinal 

investigation of the marital processes. Journal of Family Psychology, 11, 139-151. 24 Lindahl, K. M., & Malik, N. M. (1999). Observations of marital conflict and power: Relations with parenting in the triad. Journal of Marriage 

and the Family, 61(2), 320-330. 25 Mechanic, D., & Hansell, S. (1989). Divorce, family conflict, and adolescents' well-being. Journal of Health & Social Behavior, 3, 105-116. 26 Parke, R., & Tinsley, B. (1987). Family interaction in infancy. In J. Osofsky (Ed.), Handbook of infant development (2nd ed., pp. 579-641). 

New York: John Wiley & Sons. 

27 Rogers, S. J., & May, D. C. (2003). Spillover between marital quality and job satisfaction: Long-term patterns and gender differences. 

Journal of Marriage and Family, 65(2), 482-495. 28 Rogers, S. J., & White, L. K. (1998). Satisfaction with parenting: The role of marital happiness, family structure, and parents' gender. 

Journal of Marriage and the Family, 60(2), 293-308. 29 Ross, C. E., & Duff, R. S. (1982). Medical care, living conditions, and children's well-being. Social Forces, 61(2), 456-474. 30 Stoneman, Z., Brody, G. H., & Burke, M. (1989). Marital quality, depression, and inconsistent parenting: Relationship with observed 

mother-child conflict. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 59(1), 105-117. 31 Vandewater, A. E., & Lansford, J. E. (1998). Relative influences of family structure and parental conflict on the well-being of children and 

adolescents. Family Relations, 47, 323-330. 32 Whisman, M. A., Uebelacker, L. A., Tolejko, N., Chatav, Y., & McKelvie, M. (2006). Marital discord and well-being in older adults: Is the 

association confounded by persionality? Psychology and Aging, 21, 626-631. 33 Wickrama, K. A. S., Lorenz, F. O., Conger, R. D., & Elder Jr., G. H. (1997). Marital quality and physical illness: A latent growth curve 

analysis. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 59(1), 143-155.