Responsible 

 Fatherhood  Spotlight 

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Fathers and Depressive Disorders Researchers estimate that in any given one-year period in the United States, depressive illnesses affect nearly 7 percent o

million men).i In addition to gender differences in the incidence of depression, the incidence varies by race/ethnicity, educa

socioeconomic status, and marital status. Not only does depression have negative effects for fathers, but also for partners 

also negatively affect behavioral, emotional, and academic outcomes for children. 

Definitions What is a Depressive Disorder? A depressive disorder is an illness that involves the body, mood, and thoughts, and that lasts longer than a passing mood or temporary feelings of sadness. There are three common types of depressive disorders: major depressive disorder, dysthymia, and bipolar disorder.ii Within these 

types, variations exist in the number of symptoms, their severity, and persistence. An episode of major depression may occur only once but more commonly occurs multiple times in an individual’s lifetime. 

Major depression is characterized by an individual exhibiting several 

of the following symptoms for a period of two weeks or longer: iii

 Persistent sad, anxious, or "empty" mood  Feelings of hopelessness, pessimism  Feelings of guilt, worthlessness, helplessness  Loss of interest or pleasure in hobbies and activities that were 

once enjoyed, including sex 

 Decreased energy, fatigue, being "slowed down"  Difficulty concentrating, remembering, making decisions  Insomnia, early-morning awakening, or oversleeping  Appetite and/or weight loss or overeating and weight gain  Thoughts of death or suicide; suicide attempts  Restlessness, irritability  Persistent physical symptoms, such as headaches, digestive 

disorders, and chronic pain, that do not respond to treatment 

Dysthymia is a less severe type of depressio

term, chronic symptoms and often keeps a pwell or from feeling good.iv Dysthymia can oc

conjunction with episodes of major depressioof dysthymia is a low or sad mood nearly eveyears. Symptoms that characterize major dewith dysthymia, but they are less severe. 

Bipolar Disorder, while less common, is char

mood changes with severe highs (mania) an

When in the depressed cycle, an individual cthe symptoms of a depressive disorder. Whethe individual may be overactive, overtalkativdeal of energy. Mania often affects thinking, behavior in ways that may cause serious proa manic phase may feel elated and full of grarange from unwise business decisions to romleft untreated, may worsen into a psychotic s
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What Causes Depression? Often, a combination of genetic, cognitive, and environmental factors is involved in the onset of a depressive disorder.vi Trauma, hardship, loss of a 

loved one, a difficult relationship, a financial problem, or any stressful change in life patterns, whether the change is unwelcome or desired, can trigger a depressive episode in individuals. Later episodes of depression may occur without an obvious cause.

Importance and Implications of Depression Current research on depression suggests that depression is associated with negative outcomes not only for the individual experiencing depressive symptoms, but also for children and for partners or spouses. It is noteworthy that depression can both cause and reflect life difficulties. Although depressive disorders are treatable, many men do not seek treatment for depression and may not even be aware that they are suffering from it. Implications for Men and for Fathers 

 Although men may develop the standard symptoms of depression, they 

often have a different experience of depression with different ways of coping than do women. For example, depressed men are more likely to use drugs and/or alcohol, to work excessive hours, or to engage in reckless behavior.vii,viii Other signs of depression in men include 

irritability, anger, and frustration.ix Men are also less likely to seek 

social support or professional help for depression than are women.x

Four times as many men as women die by suicide in the United States, even though women make more suicide attempts during their lives.xi

 The effects of major depression on men and on fathers include poorer 

social relationships, interference with long-term cognitive functions,xii

and less positive interactions with family members.xiii,xiv

Implications for Children 

 A growing body of research indicates that fathers play a significant role 

in determining child well-being,xv,xvi and poor parental mental health 

has been shown to be associated with an increased risk for the development of emotional and behavioral problems and depressive symptoms in children.xvii

 Children whose fathers may be depressed may experience less 

responsiveness or even hostility from their fathers.xviii This reduction of 

father-child engagement can negatively affect not only the father-child relationship, but also a child’s schoolwork and his or her relationship with others.xix, , xx xxi Research suggests that many children of depressed 

parents will develop major depression b

difficult to tease out the genetic influenc

 Furthermore, depressed fathers have b

as weaker, less demanding, less cuddlyattentive, and may hold negative stereo

Implications for Fathers’ Partners 

 Depression in one member of the famil

system, including partners or spouses. increase the likelihood of marital separaaffect a partner two or three years follow

depressed couples tend to rate their maareas of functioning than do nondepresactivities, financial worries, feelings of isocial support may all contribute to a dequality.xxv, , xxvi xxvii

 Some studies have found that fathers a

depression themselves when their spou

further impair parenting ability in a fami

mothers with depressed partners/spousparenting behaviors in an effort to protenegative effects of paternal depression

Trends in Depression Over Time Overall, as shown in Table 1, men consistentdepression than do women. This trend has bethe National Comorbidity Survey Baseline andiscussed previously, men and women often depression, which may lead to fewer men seeTable 1: Percentage of Major Depressive (

Percentage of I

Gender National Comorbidity 

Survey-Baseline 

1990-1992 

Men 6.1 Women 11.0 Source: Child Trends’ analyses of the National ComorbidNational Comorbidity Survey-Replication 2001-2003 
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Differences in Depression by Subgroup Depression can vary by demographic characteristics, such as age, income, educational level, employment status, race, and marital status,xxx xxxias well 

as by other factors such as substance use and criminal history. The following charts examine these differences. It should be noted that the factors that increase the risk of depression may differ from the factors leading to reporting and diagnosis. Cause-and-effect is complex, and further research is needed. 

Differences by Race/Ethnicity There is some evidence that depression may be more common among individuals who are members of racial/ethnic minority groups. However, when taking into account such factors as socioeconomic status, researchers have found similar rates of depression among non-Hispanic white and nonHispanic black men.xxxii, , xxxiii xxxiv

Table 2: Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) by Race/Ethnicity 

Percentage of men with 

MDD 

Percentage of fathers of 

newborns with MDD 

Race/Ethnicity 

National 

Comorbidity 

SurveyBaseline 

1990-1992 

National 

Comorbidity 

SurveyReplication 

2001-2003 

Fragile Families and Child 

Wellbeing Study 

1998-2000 

Non-Hispanic White 6.1 4.8 6.8 Non-Hispanic Black 4.3 3.6 7.0 Hispanic 6.5 4.4 7.7 

Source: Child Trends’ analyses of the National Comorbidity Survey-Baseline, the National Comorbidity Survey-Replication, and the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, 12-Month Father Surveys (Bronte-Tinkew et al., 2007) Differences by Socioeconomic Status Although the literature is not entirely consistent, major depressive disorder tends to be more frequent among individuals of lower socioeconomic status.xxxv Table 3 shows that that major depression tends to be more 

frequent among those living below the poverty line among men surveyed in 

the National Comorbidity Study-Baseline and among fathers surveyed in the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study.

Table 3: Major Depressive Disorder (

Percentage of men with 

MDD 

Poverty Level 

National Comorbidity 

Survey -Baseline 

1990-1992 

Below poverty line (100%) 9.1 Above poverty line 5.8 

Source: Child Trends’ analyses of the National ComorbidComorbidity Survey- Replication, and the Fragile FamilieFather Surveys (Bronte-Tinkew et al., 2007) Differences by Marital Status Depression is higher in persons who are sepa

shown in Table 4, there is a lower reported pmen, as well as among fathers, who are marrare not married.xxxvii

Table 4: Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) 

Percentage of men wi

Marital Status 

National 

Comorbidity 

Survey-Baseline 

1990-1992 

N

Co

S

Re

20

Separated/ Divorced 11.8 Married/ Cohabitating 5.1 Never married 7.0 

Source: Child Trends’ analyses of the National ComorbidComorbidity Survey-Replication, and the Fragile FamilieFather Surveys (Bronte-Tinkew et al., 2007) 
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Differences by Employment Status Table 5 shows that a greater percentage of unemployed men and fathers experience major depressive disorder. 

Table 5: Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) by Employment Status 

Percentage of men with 

MDD 

Percentage of fathers 

of newborns with MDD 

Employment Status 

National 

Comorbidity 

SurveyBaseline 

1990-1992 

National 

Comorbidity 

SurveyReplication 

2001-2003 

Fragile Families and 

Child Wellbeing Study 

1998-2000 

Employed 5.8 4.3 8.3 Unemployed  Student  Homemaker  Retired  Other

4.7 

0 

NA 

12.0 

4.4 

27.1 

2.1 

12.2 

14.3 

Source: Child Trends’ analyses of the National Comorbidity Survey-Baseline, the National Comorbidity Survey-Replication, and the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, 12-Month Father Surveys (Bronte-Tinkew et al., 2007) Differences by Age of Father Findings on depression and age are inconsistent. Some studies suggest that depression is rare before adolescencexxxviii and tends to decline in middle 

age or old age. Other studies suggest that the younger age groups are more at risk for the development of depression.xxxix Table 6 shows inconsistent 

differences in depression by age. 

Table 6: Major Depressive Diso

Percentage of 

men with 

MDD 

Age (years) 

National 

Comorbidity 

SurveyBaseline 

1990-1992 

Age (

15-24 years old 7.3 17-24 y25-34 years old 6.7 25-29 y35-44 years old 6.1 30-44 y45-54 years old 3.7 45 or 

Source: Child Trends’ analyses of the National ComorbidComorbidity Survey-Replication, and the Fragile FamilieFather Surveys (Bronte-Tinkew et al., 2007) Differences by Educational Level The highest estimated prevalence of mental dtends to be among respondents with the loweattainment,xl although some research has fou

shows that men and fathers with lower levels major depressive disorder more often; but the 

Table 6: Major Depressive Disorder (M

Percentage of men with M

Number of 

Years of 

Education National Comorbidity 

Survey-Baseline 

1990-1992 

Natio

Como

Surv

Replic

2001-

0-11 6.0 4.

12 5.7 4.

13-15 6.4 5.

16+ 7.0 3.

Source: Child Trends’ analyses of the National ComorbidComorbidity Survey-Replication, and the Fragile FamilieFather Surveys (Bronte-Tinkew et al., 2007). 
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 Toll-free: 1 (877) 4DAD411  Fax: (301) 948-4325  www.fatherhood.gov 

Differences by Substance Use (Drugs and Alcohol) People with alcohol-use disorders are twice as likely as those without such a disorder to suffer from major depression.xli Substance use disorders also 

commonly occur along with depression in men. Several studies indicate that men are more likely to develop depression as a result of a substance abuse problem, whereas for women, depression more often precedes substance use.xlii, , xliii xliv

Table 8 shows that men and fathers who used drugs and alcohol have a higher percentage of major depression, than those who do not use drugs or alcohol. 

Table 8: Major Depressive Disorder by Substance Use 

Percentage of men with 

MDD 

Percentage of fathers of newborns

Substance with MDD Use National 

Comorbidity 

SurveyBaseline 

1990-1992 

National 

Comorbidity 

SurveyReplication 

2001-2003 

Fragile 

Families and 

Child 

Wellbeing 

Study 

1998-2000 

Drug Abuse 

8.8 12.1 Used 

marijuana 

17.1 

No drug abuse 

6.1 4.6 Did not use 

marijuana 

6.0 

Alcohol abuse 

5.2 11.8 Used 

alcohol 

15.1 

No alcohol abuse 

6.2 4.4 Did not use 

alcohol 

5.5 

Source: Child Trends’ analyses of the National Comorbidity Survey-Baseline, the National Comorbidity Survey-Replication, and the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, 12-Month Father Surveys (Bronte-Tinkew et al., 2007) History of Incarceration A history of criminal conviction has also been found to be associated with paternal depression. A criminal conviction may prevent fathers from obtaining jobs, especially because employment applications often inquire about prior convictions. Table 9 shows that a history of criminal conviction is linked to 

higher percentages of major depressive disorder. 

Table 15: Major Depressive Disorder (

Percen

new

Criminal History Fragile 

W

Spent time in jail 

Did not spend time in 

jail 

 Source: The Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing StudyTinkew et al., 2007) Definition of Measures Symptoms of major depression were measurthe Composite International Diagnostic Intervfor major depression in the Diagnostic and StDisorders (DSM-III-R; American Psychiatric AComorbidity Survey-Baseline (NCS-1) used a 

Composite International Diagnostic Interview 

Comorbidity Survey-Replication (NCS-R) use

Diagnostic Interview (CIDI). The Fragile Fam

(Fragile Families) Father Surveys, Baseline – 

Composite International Diagnostic Interview

CIDI-SF asked respondents about seven symtired, change in weight, trouble with sleep, trodown, and thoughts about death. 

Data Limitations Due to the limited research on fathers and depresented here are taken from a relatively limnewborns, and these results may not be reprresearch on fathers and major depressive disunderstand the disorder, how it differs by demaffects families.Data Sources Men and Depression The National Comorbidity Survey-Baseline (Nindividuals aged 15-54 between 1990 and 19structured psychiatric interview to a nationally National Comorbidity Survey-Replication (NCbetween 2001 and 2003, included two parts. 
National Responsible Fatherhood Clearinghouse  101 Lake Forest Boulevard, Suite 360  Gaithersburg, MD 20877 

 Toll-free: 1 (877) 4DAD411  Fax: (301) 948-4325  www.fatherhood.gov 

diagnostic assessment of 9,282 individuals aged 18 and over, and Part II was administered to 5,692 of the 9,282 respondents and included questions about risk factors, consequences, other correlates, and additional disorders. Fathers and Depression Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing (Fragile Families) Father Surveys, Baseline – Age 3 Follow-Up surveyed the biological parents of nearly 5,000 newborn infants born in 20 cities between 1998 and 2000. Parents were again surveyed one year and three years after the child’s birth. Fragile Families, which oversamples unmarried couples, is designed to provide a representative portrait of unmarried couples in American cities with populations over 200,000. Resources 

 To learn more about depression in men, the signs and symptoms of 

depression, the treatments available, and ways to get help, go to 

http://menanddepression.nimh.nih.gov/. 

 If you are thinking about harming yourself or attempting suicide, tell 

someone who can help right away: 

o Call your doctor's office. o Call 911 for emergency services. o Go to the nearest hospital emergency room. o Call the toll-free, 24-hour hotline of the National Suicide 

Prevention Lifeline 1-800-273-TALK (1-800-273-8255); TTY: 1-800-799-4TTY (4889) to be connected to a trained counselor at a suicide crisis center nearest you
National Responsible Fatherhood Clearinghouse  101 Lake Forest Boulevard, Suite 360  Gaithersburg, MD 208

 Toll-free: 1 (877) 4DAD411  Fax: (301) 948-4325  www.fatherhood.gov 

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National Responsible Fatherhood Clearinghouse  101 Lake Forest Boulevard, Suite 360  Gaithersburg, MD 208

 Toll-free: 1 (877) 4DAD411  Fax: (301) 948-4325  www.fatherhood.gov 

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