U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Vanadium Recycling in the United States in 2004

By Thomas G. Goonan

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CIRCULAR 1196–S

FLOW STUDIES FOR RECYCLING METAL COMMODITIES IN THE UNITED STATES
U.S. Department of the Interior

KEN SALAZAR, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Marcia K. McNutt, Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2011

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Suggested citation:

Goonan, T.G., 2011, Vanadium recycling in the United States in 2004, chap. S of Sibley, S.F., ed., Flow studies for recycling metal commodities in the United States: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1196, p. S1–S17, available only online.
III

FOREWORD

As world population increases and the world economy expands, so does the demand 

for natural resources. An accurate assessment of the Nation’s mineral resources must 

include not only the resources available in the ground but also those that become available 

through recycling. Supplying this information to decisionmakers is an essential part 

of the USGS commitment to providing the science that society needs to meet natural 

resource and environmental challenges.

The U.S. Geological Survey is authorized by Congress to collect, analyze, and 

disseminate data on the domestic and international supply of and demand for minerals 

essential to the U.S. economy and national security. This information on mineral 

occurrence, production, use, and recycling helps policymakers manage resources wisely.

USGS Circular 1196, “Flow Studies for Recycling Metal Commodities in the 

United States,” presents the results of flow studies for recycling 26 metal commodities, 

from aluminum to zinc. These metals are a key component of the U.S. economy. Overall, 

recycling accounts for more than half of the U.S. metal supply by weight and roughly 

40 percent by value. 

Marcia K. McNutt

Director
IV

CONTENTS

Foreword .......................................................................................................................III

Abstract.........................................................................................................................S1

Introduction.....................................................................................................................1

Global Geologic Occurrence of Vanadium ................................................................3

Vanadium Industry Structure......................................................................................3

World Production .......................................................................................................5

Production Processes..................................................................................................5

Vanadium Recovery Processes..............................................................................5

Acid Leach Process ..........................................................................................5

Caustic Leach Process......................................................................................5

Salt Roast Process.............................................................................................5

Vanadium Reduction Processes.............................................................................7

Aluminothermic Reduction, Direct Electro-Aluminothermic Reduction, 

and Electro-Aluminothermic Reduction ........................................................7

Carbon Reduction.............................................................................................7

Direct Electro-Silicothermic Reduction ...........................................................7

U.S. Vanadium Demand.............................................................................................7

Prices..........................................................................................................................8

Sources and Disposition of Vanadium Scrap..................................................................8

Old Scrap....................................................................................................................9

Old Scrap Generated ...........................................................................................10

Old Scrap Unrecovered .......................................................................................12

Old Scrap Recovered and Reused .......................................................................12

New Scrap ................................................................................................................12

Processing of Vanadium Scrap......................................................................................12

Vanadium Scrap Trade ..................................................................................................12

Outlook .........................................................................................................................12

References Cited ...........................................................................................................13

Appendix—Definitions.................................................................................................16
V

FIGURES

 1. Diagram showing the flow of vanadium contained in various forms 

in the United States in 2004 ............................................................................S2

 2. Pie chart showing world production of vanadium from concentrates, 

ores, petroleum-refining residues, and slag by country in 2004 .......................5

 3. Diagram showing the production flows of vanadium from source 

through placement into end-use service ...........................................................6

 4. Pie chart showing world production of vanadium by source of 

vanadium in 2004 .............................................................................................7

 5. Pie chart showing vanadium metal demand by end use in the 

United States in 2004 ........................................................................................8

 6. Graph showing vanadium pentoxide (V2O5) prices, in nominal and 

constant dollars, in the United States in 1960 through 2010 ............................9

 7. Graph showing unit values of vanadium pentoxide (V2O5) contained 

in ashes and residues and slag and the market price of V2O5 as a 

salable product for the years 1990 through 2007 ...........................................10

 8. Pie chart showing estimated U.S. imports of old vanadium scrap 

by country in 2004 ..........................................................................................12

 9. Pie chart showing estimated U.S. exports of old vanadium scrap 

by country in 2004 ..........................................................................................13

TABLES

 1. Salient statistics for U.S. vanadium scrap in 2004 .........................................S3

 2. Vanadium industry structure in 2008 ................................................................4

 3. The development of the estimate for old alloy scrap generated in the 

United States in 2004 ......................................................................................11

CONVERSION FACTORS

Multiply By To obtain

Mass

kilogram (kg) 2.205 pound avoirdupois (lb)

metric ton (t, 1,000 kg) 1.102 short ton (2,000 lb)

S1

FLOW STUDIES FOR RECYCLING METAL COMMODITIES IN THE UNITED STATES

Vanadium Recycling in the United States in 2004

By Thomas G. Goonan

ABSTRACT

As one of a series of reports that describe the recycling 

of metal commodities in the United States, this report discusses the flow of vanadium in the U.S. economy in 2004. 

This report includes a description of vanadium supply and 

demand in the United States and illustrates the extent of vanadium recycling and recycling trends.

In 2004, apparent vanadium consumption, by end use, 

in the United States was 3,820 metric tons (t) in steelmaking 

and 232 t in manufacturing, of which 17 t was for the production of superalloys and 215 t was for the production of other 

alloys, cast iron, catalysts, and chemicals. Vanadium use in 

steel is almost entirely dissipative because recovery of vanadium from steel scrap is chemically impeded under the oxidizing conditions in steelmaking furnaces. The greatest amount 

of vanadium recycling is in the superalloy, other-alloy, and 

catalyst sectors of the vanadium market. Vanadium-bearing 

catalysts are associated with hydrocarbon recovery and refining in the oil industry.

In 2004, 2,850 t of vanadium contained in alloy scrap 

and spent catalysts was recycled, which amounted to about 

44 percent of U.S. domestic production. About 94 percent of 

vanadium use in the United States was dissipative (3,820 t in 

steel/4,050 t in steel+fabricated products).

INTRODUCTION

Vanadium-containing mineral deposits are found in 

many parts of the world, usually associated with other elements, such as iron, phosphorus, and uranium. Vanadium is 

also recovered from petroleum-refining residues, vanadiferous slag from iron and steelmaking operations that process 

materials with high vanadium contents, and wastes such as 

dusts collected in air-pollution-control devices and systems. 

In addition, vanadium is being recycled by processing of 

spent catalysts and nonsteel vanadium-containing alloys. In 

2004, world vanadium production from ores, concentrates, 

petroleum-refining residues, and slag was 51,900 metric tons 

(t) of contained vanadium. The principal producing countries 

(in descending order of amount produced) were South Africa, 

45 percent; China, 31 percent; Russia, 21 percent; and other 

countries, 3 percent (Magyar, 2007b).

This report describes a snapshot of the flow through the 

U.S. economy of vanadium (contained in various forms) in 

2004, which is shown in figure 1. It identifies sources and 

distribution of the U.S. vanadium supply and describes recycling trends. The selection of 2004 for the year of the study 

was made so that this report would be consistent with some 

other chapters in U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1196; 

although the chapters in this series were prepared during 

a long time period, the subject years were limited to 1998, 

2000, and 2004. Vanadium recycling did not change significantly between 2004 and 2010, when this report was written. For completeness, the section on the vanadium industry 

structure and table 2 reflect the situation at the end of 2008, 

figure 6 shows prices through 2010, and figure 7 shows values through 2007.

The leading source of vanadium for the production of 

semifabricated and manufactured vanadium-containing products is vanadium pentoxide (V2O5), which is separated and 

recovered as a byproduct from such sources as ores of aluminum, iron, phosphate, and uranium; petroleum-refining residues; and recycled spent-catalyst scrap.

In 2004, the U.S. steel industry reported vanadium consumption of about 3,820 t of vanadium (contained mostly in 

ferrovanadium), which was about 94 percent of total U.S. 

reported vanadium consumption. Vanadium-containing steel 

alloys generally contain less than 1 percent vanadium. Steel 

scrap processing occurs mostly in electric arc furnaces under 

oxidizing conditions, where vanadium is readily oxidized and 

is chemically redistributed to the slag and airborne dust. The 

vanadium concentration in such slag is not sufficient for economic recovery. Vanadium is recovered from the dust.

The remaining 6 percent of U.S. reported consumption of 

vanadium (232 t) was used to manufacture superalloys, other 

alloys (many for aerospace applications), and chemicals (for 

catalyst, ceramic, electronic, glass, and metallurgical applications). Vanadium-containing alloys and spent catalysts are 

the primary source of recyclable vanadium. More than 2,700 

t of vanadium is annually recovered in the United States from 

spent catalysts (Vanadium Technology Partnership, 2009). 

Vanadium recovery from alloys is generally undertaken by 
Release of stocks: Ferrovanadium.................−107 V2O5 .......................................... 0 Other...................................... 23 Total...............................−84 84 Imports: Aluminum-vanadium............. 7 Ferrovanadium................ 3,020 V2O5 ................................... 1,040 Vanadium metal ................... 14 Other oxides ....................... 120 Ash, residue .................... 1,760 Slag...................................... 610 Sulfates ................................... 1 Vanadates............................. 75 Total............................ 6,650 3,040 3,610 6,410 Domestic production...6,410 712 660 2,850

Production losses...712

Domestic ash, residues...660

Scrap exports...58

Unrecovered scrap...176

58

176

Scrap supply...3,080

3,010 69 3

Old scrap generated:

Alloy scrap..............288Spent catalyst .....2,720

Total................3,010

3,010

Vanadium products in reservoir, net change...−2,860

9,360

Exports:

AluminumVanadium FerrovanaV2O5 .........

Other........

Total..

5,3103,820

232

154

Fabricatio

SuperalOther...

Tota

69 

New scrap generated...69

Old scrap imports...3 3,82

Dissipative use in t

Carbon steel ......Full-alloy steel...High-strength, loStainless, heat-rTool steel............

Total..............

DOMESTIC SUPPLY OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY VANADIUM DISTRIBUTION OF DOMES

w of vanadium contained in various forms in the United States in 2004. Values are in metric tons of cont

wing to independent rounding. Data have been rounded to three significant figures. Stocks refer to produ

e

e 1. Figur Diagram showing the flo

of the parts may not equal the totals o

ernment stocks involv 2Oed. V 5, vanadium pentoxide. Sources: GoldInsider (2006), Matos and Magyar (2006), Magyar (2007b), Vanadium T
VANADIUM RECYCLING IN THE UNITED STATES IN 2004 S3

the industries that provide the other alloying element. For 

example, the aluminum industry may recover vanadium from 

aluminum-vanadium alloys.

In 2004, the U.S. vanadium supply, net of stock increases, 

was 9,360 t of vanadium. The sources for this supply included 

imports (6,650 t of vanadium) and recycled materials (3,510 

t of vanadium), less production losses (712 t of vanadium). 

In 2004, this supply was distributed as follows: 3,820 t was 

consumed by the U.S. steel industry; 232 t was consumed in 

the production of cast iron, vanadium alloys, and vanadium 

chemicals; and 5,310 t was contained in exported material.

The amount of vanadium contained in imported product 

assemblies that embody vanadium-containing alloys, steel 

alloys, and other products is not known. In 2004, the U.S. 

vanadium metals product reservoir theoretically generated 

288 t of vanadium as old alloy scrap and 2,720 t of vanadium 

contained in spent catalysts for a total of 3,010 t of vanadium 

in old scrap generated. Recycling efficiency for 2004 was calculated to be 94 percent. The recycling rate was 70 percent, 

and the new-to-old-scrap consumption ratio was 2:98. Salient 

statistics for U.S. vanadium scrap in 2004 are summarized in 

table 1.

Some generalizations that can be made about vanadium 

scrap handling in the United States (Magyar, 2005b) include 

the following:

•	 Vanadium use in steel alloys, especially in alloys having 

low vanadium concentrations (less than 1 percent), is 

essentially dissipative, because the vanadium separates 

to the slag and dust-collection system during scrap 

remelting and is discarded with the slag or dust.

•	 The principal focus of vanadium recycling is catalyst 

material, which is recycled into new catalyst materials.

•	 Probably a few alloys having high vanadium concentrations can be economically vacuum arc remelted; 

however, little information is available.

GLOBAL GEOLOGIC OCCURRENCE OF 

VANADIUM

The abundance of vanadium in the Earth’s crust is 

about 160 parts per million (ppm), and that in seawater is about 0.0014 ppm. Among 65 minerals that contain 

vanadium, the most common vanadium minerals include 

patronite (VS4), vanadinite [Pb5(VO4)3Cl], and carnotite 

[K2(UO2)2(VO4)2•3H2O] (Barbalace, 2007). Vanadium is also 

found in bauxite, phosphate rock, and certain iron ores and 

is present in the form of organic complexes in some carboncontaining deposits, such as coal, crude oils (particularly 

those of Venezuela), oil shale, and tar sands (Spectrum Laboratories Inc., 2007).

The role of vanadium during the formation of fossil fuels 

is obscure. The ratio of vanadium to nickel in crude oil is a 

Table 1. Salient statistics for U.S. vanadium scrap in 2004.

[Values are in metric tons of contained vanadium, unless otherwise specified. Definitions for selected terms are in the appendix]

Old scrap:

Generated1.......................................................... 3,010

Consumed2 ......................................................... 2,780

Value of scrap consumed........................................ $20,800,000 

Recycling efficiency3............................................. 94 percent

Supply4 .............................................................. 3,010

Unrecovered5....................................................... 176

New scrap consumed6 ................................................. 69

New-to-old-scrap ratio7 ............................................... 2:98

Recycling rate8 .......................................................... 70 percent

U.S. net imports of scrap9

............................................. 54

Value of U.S. net imports of scrap .................................. $1,190,000

1

Vanadium content of products theoretically becoming obsolete in the 

United States in 2004. Dissipative uses were excluded.

2

Vanadium content of products that were recycled in the United States in 

2004.

3

Defined as (old scrap consumed plus old scrap exported) divided by (old 

scrap generated plus old scrap imported, adjusted for stock changes, which, 

in this case, are unknown).

4

Old scrap generated plus old scrap imported.

5

Old scrap supply minus old scrap consumed minus old scrap exported, 

adjusted for stock changes, which, in this case, are unknown.

6

New scrap includes prompt industrial scrap but excludes home scrap.

7

Ratio of quantities consumed, in percent.

8

Fraction of the vanadium apparent supply that is scrap on an annual 

basis. It is defined as (consumption of old scrap plus consumption of new 

scrap) divided by apparent supply, measured in weight and expressed as a 

percentage.

9

Trade in scrap is assumed to be principally in old scrap. Net exports are 

exports of old scrap minus imports of old scrap.

function of the oxidation-reduction potential (Eh), the hydrogen ion activity (pH), and the sulfide activity of the environment in which the source rocks of the crude oil were deposited. The two metals form stable metallo-organic complexes 

in the high-molecular-weight fractions of crude oil (Lewan, 

1984).

VANADIUM INDUSTRY STRUCTURE

The world vanadium industry has undergone many ownership changes in recent years. Table 2 shows the status of the 

industry at the end of 2008. The principal vanadium recyclers 

in the United States are Gulf Chemical and Metallurgical 

Corporation, Freeport, Tex.; Metallurg Vanadium Corporation, Cambridge, Ohio; and Stratcor, Inc., Hot Springs, Ark.
S4 FLOW STUDIES FOR RECYCLING METAL COMMODITIES IN THE UNITED STATES

Table 2. Vanadium industry structure in 2008.

[---, unknown; NA, not applicable; V2O5, vanadium pentoxide. Sources: Highveld Steel and Vanadium Corporation Limited (2005), Evraz Group S.A. 

(2007), Tamlin and Smith (2007), Aurox Resources Limited (2009), Gulf Chemical and Metallurgical Corporation (2009), Metallurg Vanadium Corporation (2009), Precious Metals Australia Ltd. (2009), Strategic Minerals Corporation (2009), Xstrata (2009a,b), Zhuyu Group (2009a,b)]

Entity Location Interest, 

in percent

Annual capacity, in 

metric tons of V2O5

Business function or 

source of vanadium

AMG Advanced Metallurgical Group 

N.V.

Wayne, Pa., United States NA --- Corporate governance.1

Metallurg Vanadium Corporation Cambridge, Ohio, United States 100 --- Catalyst recycling.

Aurox Resources Limited Perth, Western Australia, Australia NA 9,900 Corporate governance.

Balla Balla Balla Balla, Western Australia, 

Australia

100 9,900 Ore, developing mine.

Eramet Group Paris, France NA --- Group governance.

Gulf Chemical and Metallurgical 

Corporation

Freeport, Tex., United States 100 --- Catalyst recycling.

Bear Metallurgical Company Butler, Pa., United States 100 --- Catalyst recycling.

Fort Saskatchewan Plant Fort Saskatchewan, Alberta, Canada 100 --- Catalyst recycling.

Evraz Group, S.A. Luxembourg, Luxembourg NA 22,300 Group governance.

Highveld Steel and Vanadium 

Corporation

Witbank, Mpumalanga Province, 

South Africa

81 11,000 Slag from steel and iron.

Nikom Mnisek pod Brdy, Czech Republic 100 --- Manufacturing 

ferrovanadium.

Strategic Minerals Corporation Danbury, Conn., United States 73 11,300 Corporate governance.

Stratcor, Inc. Hot Springs, Ark., United States 100 5,500 Catalyst recycling.

Butler Plant2 Butler, Pa., United States 100 6,400 Catalyst recycling.

Vametco Minerals Corporation Brits, North West Province, South 

Africa

100 4,800 Slag from steel and iron.

Windimurra Vanadium, Ltd. Perth, Western Australia, Australia 90 8,100 Ore, developing mine.

Xstrata PLC Zug, Switzerland NA 13,400 Corporate governance.

Rhovan Brits, South Africa 74 10,000 Slag from steel and iron.

Swazi Vanadium Maloma, Swaziland 100 3,400 Residues from coal.

Zhuyu Group Chengdu, Sichuan, China NA 10,600 Group governance.

Chengde Xinxin Vanadium and 

Titanium Stock Company, Ltd.

Chengdu, Sichuan, China 100 7,100 Slag from steel and iron.

Panzhihua New Steel and Vanadium Company, Ltd.Panzhihua, Sichuan, China 100 3,500 Slag from steel and iron.

1

Governance means corporate functions, as opposed to production operations.

2

The Butler Plant was formerly owned by Bear Metallurgical Company.
VANADIUM RECYCLING IN THE UNITED STATES IN 2004 S5

WORLD PRODUCTION

China, Russia, and South Africa accounted for more than 

97 percent (50,200 t) of the world’s contained vanadium produced from concentrates, ores, petroleum-refining residues, 

and slag in 2004 (fig. 2). An estimated 40 percent of China’s 

production was from vanadiferous slag. Russian and South 

African production was almost entirely from vanadiferous 

slag. Australia’s production capacity exceeded 3,000 t of 

vanadium per year, but actual production in 2004 was 150 t 

due to poor market conditions. Japan reported 560 t of vanadium production from petroleum-refining residues (Magyar, 

2007b, table 7).

PRODUCTION PROCESSES

This section of the report describes the details of the 

many vanadium production processes, which taken together 

(fig. 3) transform vanadium-containing materials into valueadded products.

Other 

1,710 t (3%)

South Africa 

23,300 t (45%)

China 

16,000 t (31%)

Russia 

10,900 t (21%)

Figure 2. Pie chart showing world production of vanadium from 

concentrates, ores, petroleum-refining residues, and slag by country in 2004. Values are in metric tons (t) of contained vanadium 

(rounded to three significant figures) and percentage of total production (rounded to zero decimal places). Production for U.S. and 

European producers is not included, being withheld from reporting. 

Data from Magyar (2007b, table 7).

VANADIUM RECOVERY PROCESSES

Vanadium can be recovered from mineral deposits, 

particularly as a byproduct of bauxite, phosphate, and uranium processing; however, these are not the most important 

sources. Vanadium is recovered in large quantities from slag 

that is collected from the processing of vanadiferous magnetite ores where iron and steel are the principal products. The 

processing of gas and petroleum products is also an important source of vanadium, which is recovered both from the 

raw material (ashes and residues) and from the recycling of 

vanadium-bearing catalysts used in the process (fig. 4).

Vanadium-bearing catalysts are used in hydrocarbon 

processing to remove nickel and vanadium from the process 

stream. The material recovered (residue) is processed for the 

metal content, and the spent catalysts are recycled. A typical spent catalyst contains 5 to 16 percent sulfur, 1 to 8 percent molybdenum, 1 to 13 percent vanadium, 1 to 3 percent 

nickel, 10 to 30 percent carbon, and 20 to 30 percent aluminum (Wernick and Themelis, 1998).

The principal vanadium recovery processes include 

acid and caustic leaching and salt roasting. The intermediate 

products from these processes are vanadic acid and vanadium 

pentoxide (V2O5).

ACID LEACH PROCESS

The acid leach process (using sulfuric acid) treats spent 

catalysts, uranium-vanadium ore, and vanadium-bearing 

boiler residues and fly ash. The products of the process are 

both vanadic acid and V2O5. The purpose of acid leaching 

is to dissolve vanadium-bearing compounds into a solution. 

The solution may contain other soluble elements, in which 

case, it must be further treated with vanadium-selective solvent extraction chemicals to separate the vanadium products 

(Ye, 2006, p. 14).

CAUSTIC LEACH PROCESS

The caustic leach process (using sodium-based alkali) 

treats ores, spent-catalysts, and vanadium-bearing boiler bottom and fly ash. The product of the process is V2O5. The purpose of caustic leaching is to selectively dissolve vanadiumbearing compounds into a solution from which V2O5 can be 

extracted (Ye, 2006, p. 14).

SALT ROAST PROCESS

The vanadium winning process once used at the Windimurra Mine in Western Australia is illustrative of the 

salt roast process. Vanadiferous titanomagnetite ore processed at the mine had a grade of 0.47 percent V2O5 (Raja, 

2007). Prior to salt roasting, the vanadiferous titanomagnetite ore was smelted into a pig iron that contained about 

0.5 to 1 percent vanadium. The pig iron was transferred to 

steelmaking furnaces, where oxidation removed carbon to 
Vanadium recovery processes Vanadium intermediate products Reduction processes 

Acid leach process Feedstocks: • Boiler residues • Fly ash • Ores • Spent catalysts Caustic leach process Feedstocks: • Boiler residues • Fly ash • Ores • Spent catalysts Salt roast process Feedstocks: • Aluminum sludge • Boiler residues • Fly ash • Ores • Petroleum coke • Spent catalysts • Vanadium-bearing slag Vanadic acid Vanadium pentoxide Carbon Electro-aluminothermic Aluminothermic Direct electro-silicothermic Feedstocks: • Boiler residues • Vanadium-bearing slag Direct electro-aluminothermic

Feedstocks:• Boiler residues• Vanadium-bearing slag

Figure 3. Diagram showing the production flows of vanadium from source through placement into end-use service. Modified from Hilliard (1994
VANADIUM RECYCLING IN THE UNITED STATES IN 2004 S7

Steel slag 

45,500 t (55%)

Vanadium ore 

20,000 t (24%)

Oil residue 

10,100 t (12%)

Spent catalyst 

7,770 t (9%)

Figure 4. Pie chart showing world production of vanadium by 

source of vanadium in 2004. Values are in metric tons (t) of contained vanadium pentoxide and percentage of total. Data from Bunting (2004, fig. 10).

make steel and transferred about 90 percent of the vanadium 

from the metal (steel) to the steelmaking slag as FeO•V2O3. 

The steelmaking slag was crushed and milled, and the magnetic particles (entrained iron from the melt/slag interface) 

were magnetically separated. The slag was mixed with 

sodium sulfate or sodium carbonate and heated in a kiln (salt 

roasted in an oxidizing environment), producing a calcine 

that contained sodium vanadate. The calcine was cooled, and 

water was used to leach the sodium vanadate. The resulting 

solution was treated with ammonium sulfate to precipitate 

ammonium polyvanadate. The precipitate was dewatered 

and heated to drive off the ammonia and to leave V2O5 (Raja, 

2007).

The salt roast process can be used for feedstocks other 

than ore and slag, such as aluminum sludge, boiler bottom 

and fly ash, petroleum coke, and spent catalysts.

VANADIUM REDUCTION PROCESSES

The most used vanadium products are ferrovanadium 

(steel industry), vanadium carbides and carbonitrides (abrasives industry), and vanadium-aluminum master alloys (aerospace industry). These products are obtained from the reduction of V2O5 and vanadic acid by using different reductants 

and processes.

ALUMINOTHERMIC REDUCTION, 

DIRECT ELECTRO-ALUMINOTHERMIC REDUCTION, AND 

ELECTRO-ALUMINOTHERMIC REDUCTION

Aluminothermic reduction, for the processing of V2O5

into ferrovanadium, begins with mixing pure V2O5, aluminum, iron cuttings, lime, fluorspar, and a priming mixture 

(either sodium nitrate and aluminum powder and turnings or 

fused barium pentoxide and aluminum/magnesium powder), 

which is ignited by red hot iron or electric spark. The resulting product is ferrovanadium having a vanadium content 

up to 97 percent (Raja, 2007). Aluminothermic vanadium 

reduction, without the presence of iron, can be used to make 

vanadium-aluminum master alloys, which will be processed 

by others into aluminum-titanium-vanadium alloys for application in the aerospace industry.

Direct electro-aluminothermic reduction is accomplished in an electric smelting furnace. Aluminum is added 

to vanadium-containing slag to produce ferrovanadium alloys 

having vanadium contents ranging from 40 to 50 percent.

Electro-aluminothermic reduction differs from direct 

electro-aluminothermic reduction by the nature of the feedstocks to each. The former handles purer feedstocks (V2O5

and vanadic acid), and the latter handles impure vanadiumcontaining materials (directly).

CARBON REDUCTION

Carbon is a common reductant used for converting metal 

oxides to metals. In the case of vanadium, which is a carbideforming element, carbon reduction of vanadic acid yields 

vanadium carbide or vanadium carbonitride, alloys containing up to 6 percent carbon, which are used in the manufacture 

of high-carbon steel (limited application) (Raja, 2007).

DIRECT ELECTRO-SILICOTHERMIC REDUCTION

The best method for bulk production of vanadiumsilicon-iron alloy is the direct electro-silicothermic reduction 

of V2O5. The process is carried out in an electric smelting 

furnace. The raw materials required are melted V2O5, ferrosilicon, soft iron cuttings, and lime. The silicon content of 

the alloy is carefully controlled by incrementally adding aluminum to the slag that is generated in the electric smelting 

furnace. The amount of the aluminum addition controls the 

vanadium flux across the interface of the slag (floating on 

top of the alloy melt) and the alloy (melt beneath the slag). 

The resulting vanadium-silicon-iron alloy is used in the steel 

industry, usually as a ladle addition, to control steel composition with regard to the final vanadium and silicon content of 

the steel (Raja, 2007).

U.S. VANADIUM DEMAND

Vanadium pentoxide is the starting point for the development of products that have commercial application. 
S8 FLOW STUDIES FOR RECYCLING METAL COMMODITIES IN THE UNITED STATES

Figure 5 shows vanadium metal demand by end use in the 

United States in 2004.

In 2004, 94 percent of vanadium metal demand in the 

United States was for steelmaking end uses. About 87 percent of the steelmaking use was fairly evenly split among the 

production of three classes of common steel alloys (carbon, 

full-alloy, and high-strength, low-alloy steel). Stainless and 

heat-resisting steel and tool steel accounted for 7 percent of 

the vanadium demand in 2004. Superalloys, other alloys, and 

chemicals accounted for about 5 percent of total U.S. vanadium demand in 2004. Vanadium chemicals, which made 

up less than 1 percent of U.S. vanadium demand in 2004, 

include catalysts, dietary supplements, dyes, glass, pigments, 

and plastic.

PRICES

Historically, the price of vanadium has shown peaks and 

valleys, with long periods of low prices followed by brief 

price spikes. Large vanadium producers (which produce 

byproduct and coproduct vanadium) are generally supply 

inelastic, and they continue to produce through periods of 

low vanadium demand (GoldInsider, 2006).

Figure 6 shows market prices for vanadium pentoxide 

for the period 1960 through 2010. For the period, the constant 

Miscellaneous and unspecified 

215 t (5%)

Carbon steel 

1,300 t (32%)

Full-alloy steel 

1,060 t (26%)

High-strength, 

low-alloy steel 

1,160 t (29%)

Stainless and 

heat-resisting steel 

60 t (1%)

Tool steel 

239 t (6%) Superalloys 

17 t (<1%)

Figure 5. Pie chart showing vanadium metal demand by end use 

in the United States in 2004. Values are in metric tons (t) of contained vanadium and percentage of total. Data from Magyar (2007b, 

table 2).

dollar price of vanadium pentoxide showed several peaks and 

valleys and declined by about 1.13 percent per year, on average. During the same period, reported U.S. consumption of 

vanadium in the United States increased by about 0.10 percent per year.

Ashes and residues from petroleum processing may contain as much as 34 percent V2O5. Slag from iron and steelmaking in countries processing vanadium-containing ore 

may contain between 6 and 24 percent V2O5. Figure 7 shows 

the unit values (based on values of imports for consumption) 

of V2O5 contained in ashes and residues and slag and the 

market price of V2O5 as a salable product for the years 1990 

through 2007.

Figure 7 illustrates expected relationships, such as (1) 

the value of V2O5 contained in source materials is less than 

the value of purified V2O5 and (2) the relative values track 

the market. One unexpected observation is that, in 1999 and 

thereafter, the value of V2O5 contained in ashes and residues 

exceeded the value of V2O5 contained in slag.

The principal vanadium scrap that is actually recycled 

is catalyst scrap. Companies that process this type of scrap 

make offers to buy it and make contracts for supply; however, 

there is no compilation of prices enabling one to determine 

an industry-wide vanadium scrap price for a given moment 

in time.

SOURCES AND DISPOSITION OF 

VANADIUM SCRAP

There are two necessary conditions for recycling to 

occur—a supply of material and the ability to collect, process, and recover the desired material at a profit. Many materials dissipate with use and cannot be recycled; for example, 

the vanadium content of the bulk of steel alloys is lost to the 

slag or dust that develops when those alloys are recycled for 

their iron content. The slag (containing the vanadium) that 

develops when these alloys are recycled may be recovered 

for use as some type of aggregate, but the vanadium content 

is lost. It is possible to recover vanadium in some tool steels, 

which can contain up to 5 percent vanadium, if the tool steel 

is recycled by melting under vacuum or is otherwise processed under reducing conditions. The amount of tool steel 

so processed is undocumented, and this is not a large business 

sector.

Vanadium-bearing catalysts lose economic utility with 

use but little or none of their mass. These are candidates for 

recycling, and there is a ready supply. Spent-catalyst recyclers recover not just vanadium but also aluminum, cobalt, 

molybdenum, nickel, and platinum-group metals. Avoidance 

of the cost of disposing of spent catalysts as a hazardous 

waste is also a driver of catalyst recycling.

In 2004, about 3,010 t of vanadium (contained in old 

scrap) was generated from the vanadium-product reservoir in 
VANADIUM RECYCLING IN THE UNITED STATES IN 2004 S9

19601965197019751980198519901995200020052010

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Nominal price

Constant dollar (base 2000) price

Linear (constant dollar, base 2000) price

EXPLANATION

PRICE, IN DOLLARS PER KILOGRAM OF VANADIUM PENTOXIDE

YEAR

Average rate of decline 

= 1.13 percent per year

Study year 2004

Figure 6. Graph showing vanadium pentoxide (V2O5) prices, in nominal and constant dollars, in the United States in 1960 through 2010. 

Values are in dollars per kilogram of V2O5. For the years 1960 through 1998, the nominal price is taken as the producer price for V2O5 as 

extracted from Metal Bulletin and reported by U.S. Geological Survey publications (see sources below). Constant dollars are based on discounting nominal dollar prices using the Consumer Price Index (2000 basis). Sources: Reese (1999a), Magyar (2003, 2004, 2005a, 2007a, 

2008, 2009), U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics (2010).

the United States; this amount consisted of 288 t of vanadium 

alloys and 2,720 t of spent catalysts. In addition, roughly 69 t 

of vanadium was recovered as new scrap.

OLD SCRAP

In the United States, the primary source of vanadium is 

spent catalysts from chemical processing plants, and each 

year about 2,700 t of vanadium is recycled from spent catalysts (Vanadium Technology Partnership, 2009). Also, other 

industries with priorities other than vanadium (aluminum, 

steel) would be the most likely recyclers of vanadium from 

vanadium-containing alloys, recovering it in pyrometallurgical operations under non-oxidizing conditions.

The leading vanadium-catalyst recyclers in the United 

States are Gulf Chemical and Metallurgical Corporation, 

Freeport, Tex. (with subsidiary plants in Butler, Pa., and Fort 

Saskatchewan, Canada); Metallurg Vanadium Corporation, 

Cambridge, Ohio; and Stratcor, Inc., Hot Springs, Ark. These 

plants service the tar sands processing industries of Canada 

and the oil refining industries along the Gulf of Mexico 

Coast. Other industries use vanadium-containing catalysts; 

for example, the food industry uses catalysts for carbolic and 

sulfuric acid production and for fat hydrogenation.

In 2004, 11 percent of world vanadium production 

was from residues and ashes associated with processing of 

carbon-based fuel (coal, petroleum, tar sands), and 8 percent 

was attributable to recycling of vanadium from spent catalysts, most of which were used to catalyze the production of 

the residues. The U.S. fraction of world production from 

these sources, which was processed by the companies named 

above, has been withheld to preserve company confidentiality.

Old scrap recycling efficiency is defined as the amount of 

old scrap recovered and reused relative to the amount available to be recovered and reused; that is, [consumption of old 

scrap (COS) plus exports of old scrap (OSE)] divided by [old 

scrap generated (OSG) plus imports of old scrap (OSI) plus 

a decrease in old scrap stocks (OSS) or minus an increase 

in OSS], measured in weight and expressed as a percentage. 
S10 FLOW STUDIES FOR RECYCLING METAL COMMODITIES IN THE UNITED STATES

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Vanadium pentoxide (nominal market price)

Ashes and residues (unit value of imports)

Slag (unit value of imports)

EXPLANATION

VANADIUM PENTOXIDE PRICE OR UNIT VALUE OF I

MPORTS,

IN DOLLARS PER KILOGRAM OF VANADIUM PENTOXIDE

Study year 2004

YEAR

Figure 7. Graph showing unit values of vanadium pentoxide (V2O5) contained in ashes and residues and slag and the market price of V2O5

as a salable product for the years 1990 through 2007. Unit values are based on reported values of imports for consumption. The nominal 

price of V2O5 is taken as the producer price for V2O5 as extracted from Metal Bulletin and reported by U.S. Geological Survey publications: 

Hilliard (1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998), Reese (1999a,b, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003), Magyar (2003, 2004, 2005a, 2007a, 2008, 2009), and 

Polyak (2009).

In 2004, the domestic old scrap recycling efficiency for vanadium metal was about 94 percent. The specific values for the 

calculation follow: [2,780 t (COS) + 58 t (OSE)] divided by 

[3,010 t (OSG) + 3 t (OSI) + 0 (assumed value for decrease 

in OSS)].

The recycling rate is that fraction of annual apparent 

vanadium supply that is derived from scrap. It is defined as 

[consumption of old scrap (COS) plus consumption of new 

scrap (CNS)] divided by apparent vanadium supply (AS), 

measured in weight and expressed as a percentage. In 2004, 

the recycling rate for vanadium was estimated to be 70 percent of apparent vanadium supply.

The new-to-old-scrap ratio in the United States is the 

ratio of the percentage of vanadium contained in new scrap 

recovered to the percentage of vanadium contained in old 

scrap recovered. In 2004, the new-to-old-scrap ratio was estimated to be 2:98, with spent catalysts prevailing as the source 

of vanadium in old scrap. This ratio for vanadium is low compared to that for other metals; for example, aluminum, 60:40 

(Plunkert, 2006, table 1); copper, 76:24 (Goonan, 2010, table 

1); and nickel, 12:88 (Goonan, 2009, table 1).

OLD SCRAP GENERATED

The U.S. Geological Survey estimated that 288 t of vanadium contained in old alloy scrap and 2,720 t of vanadium 

contained in spent catalysts were generated in 2004 as endof-life material from the in-service reservoir of vanadium 

products in the United States. The development of the estimate for the alloy fraction is shown in table 3, which has data 

for the distribution of vanadium metal to the superalloys sector and the other-alloys sector with yearly variance included; 

an estimate for average life of products within each sector; 

and an assumption (in conformance with common practice) 

that the Gaussian distribution (a normal-like distribution; see 

appendix) closely approximates the actual decay of economic 

utility.

In table 3, the method for estimating old alloy scrap generated is shown completely for the superalloys sector and 
VANADIUM RECYCLING IN THE UNITED STATES IN 2004 S11

Table 3. The development of the estimate for old alloy scrap generated in the United States in 2004.

[Years in column 1 are nominal years. Values for alloys placed in service and old scrap generated, columns 2, 4, 5, and 7, are in metric tons (t) of contained 

vanadium. Gaussian factors in columns 3 and 6 are unitless. The estimates for old scrap generated (through 2003, and available for 2004), by sector, are at 

the bottom of the table. The author estimates the average life of superalloys and other alloys at 10 years. Placed-in-service data are derived, using estimates 

for material recovery in semifabrication and manufacturing processes, from apparent consumption data reported by Matos and Magyar (2006). NA, not 

available]

Year

Superalloys Other alloys

Placed in 

service (t)

Gaussian 

factor

Old scrap 

generated (t)

Placed in 

service (t)

Gaussian 

factor

Old scrap 

generated (t)

1985 7 0.0000 0 524 0.0001 0

1986 5 0.0001 0 445 0.0003 0

1987 4 0.0004 0 465 0.0014 1

1988 4 0.0022 0 526 0.0051 3

1989 18 0.0088 0 576 0.0151 9

1990 20 0.0271 1 423 0.0366 15

1991 8 0.0649 0 254 0.0731 19

1992 7 0.1213 1 318 0.1198 38

1993 7 0.1765 1 224 0.1611 36

1994 8 0.2000 2 232 0.1778 41

1995 10 0.1765 2 225 0.1611 36

1996 11 0.1213 1 281 0.1198 34

1997 11 0.0649 1 361 0.0731 26

1998 72 0.0271 2 363 0.0366 13

1999 6 0.0088 0 290 0.0151 4

2000 29 0.0022 0 285 0.0051 1

2001 78 0.0004 0 311 0.0014 0

2002 6 0.0001 0 241 0.0003 0

2003 6 0.0000 0 132 0.0001 0

2004 NA NA 11 NA NA 277

the other-alloys sector. The Gaussian distribution is a device 

that is overlain on a series of historical consumption data to 

estimate the contribution of old scrap (having experienced 

decay of utility in service) for a given year of service life. 

For this analysis, the historical sector consumption data from 

Matos and Magyar (2006) were transformed by the author 

into placed-in-service estimates. The average life estimates 

for the sectors were made by the author.

It is estimated that 11 t of vanadium metal contained in 

old alloy scrap was theoretically generated in 2004 by the 

superalloy sector from material that had been placed in service during the period 1985 through 2003. The average life 

for the sector was assumed to be 10 years, and the data spread 

(distribution about the average) was assumed to be 8 years. 

In like manner, the consumption dataset for the other-alloys 

sector was superimposed with a Gaussian distribution to estimate the vanadium contribution from that sector (for 2004, 

277 t of vanadium). The total estimate was 288 t of vanadium 

for both sectors.

Uncertainties in the estimate for old scrap theoretically generated can arise from several factors, including the 

following:

•	 Average life and spread (distribution about the average) 

are estimates.

•	 The datasets for sector consumption of vanadium metal 

are underestimated by the amount of vanadium metal 

contained in net imports of finished goods that contain 

semifinished materials containing vanadium.

•	 The datasets may be underreported as is.

•	 The Gaussian distribution, while useful, may not be the 

best distribution to apply.
S12 FLOW STUDIES FOR RECYCLING METAL COMMODITIES IN THE UNITED STATES

OLD SCRAP UNRECOVERED

Old scrap unrecovered could be in several places. It 

could be abandoned in place (hibernating) pending suitable 

economic incentives (scrap prices) to warrant collection and 

processing. It might have been placed in landfills, which 

would potentially conserve it for a time of better prices. It 

might have been dissipated during use. Lastly, the method for 

estimating old scrap generated might be wrong.

In figure 1, the arrow directed to “Unrecovered [old] 

scrap” is the amount that would close the material balance 

after summing inputs and outputs. It is, therefore, an artifact 

of the materials flow accounting process. Vanadium contained 

in unrecovered old scrap in 2004 was estimated to be 176 t.

OLD SCRAP RECOVERED AND REUSED

Old scrap recovered and reused for metals is generally 

based on data that are reported to the U.S. Geological Survey; 

however, no such reports are received for vanadium metal. 

Therefore, the author’s estimate consists of two parts. First, 

the author assumes that 20 percent of the vanadium alloy 

scrap was returned to U.S. vanadium production (the low 

number is in deference to known concerns about the quality of vanadium alloy scrap for use in demanding aerospace 

applications). Secondly, the estimate for catalyst use is taken 

from Vanadium Technology Partnership (2009).

NEW SCRAP

Figure 1 shows 69 t of vanadium returning to the U.S. 

scrap supply in 2004. New scrap is generated from semifabrication of superalloys and other alloys and from the assembly of these alloys into end-use items such as airframes and 

engines. In 2004, new scrap generated from semifabrication 

and manufacturing (taken together and reported as “Fabrication” in fig. 1) was estimated to contain about 10 t of vanadium, and new scrap from assembly-manufacturing, about 60 

t of vanadium—a total of about 69 t, as shown in figure 1.

PROCESSING OF VANADIUM SCRAP

The collection and handling of new vanadium-containing 

metal scrap are fairly straightforward. New scrap is generated 

during semifabrication and manufacturing operations and 

consists of items such as clippings, stampings, and turnings. 

These are usually segregated by material specification and 

returned to controlled-atmosphere induction furnace operations, where the scrap is matched and melted into a product 

having the desired chemistry. Some new scrap enters the open 

market, but the major portion is returned to U.S. producers of 

steel or aluminum alloys through purchase agreements.

Old (obsolete) scrap originates when products that are 

within the reservoir of products in service undergo decay of 

economic utility. In the past, old vanadium scrap has had a 

tendency to hibernate because the stringency of vanadium 

metal and alloy specifications deterred its use. In recent 

years, more old scrap has been recovered, but reporting is 

not reliable.

VANADIUM SCRAP TRADE

Vanadium contained in various forms and mixtures flows 

through the international scrap trade. The vanadium content of the U.S. scrap trade in 2004 was 58 t of vanadium 

in exports and 3 t of vanadium in imports; thus, net exports 

contained 54 t of vanadium. Figure 8 shows countries that 

were sources of vanadium-containing old scrap imported by 

the United States in 2004. Figure 9 shows the country-bycountry data for vanadium scrap exports.

OUTLOOK

Although vanadium prices show volatility over the 

long run (1960–2010), this volatility has more to do with 

the management of production capacity than the availability 

of vanadium supply sources. There are large vanadium ore 

reserves in Australia, which seem to be always on the brink of 

development. Vanadium contained in titaniferous magnetite 

Germany 

2.58 t (75%)

Other 

0.10 t (3%)

Russia 

0.76 t (22%)

Figure 8. Pie chart showing estimated U.S. imports of old vanadium scrap by country in 2004. Values are in metric tons (t) and 

percentage of total imports. Derived from data in Magyar (2007b).
VANADIUM RECYCLING IN THE UNITED STATES IN 2004 S13

iron ores, which are a major source of byproduct vanadium 

through slag processing, may be under stress as a reliable 

source in the future because these ores, which derive their 

economic utility from the iron content, are relatively expensive to process compared to the typically higher grade ores 

processed elsewhere in the world. When these deposits are 

depleted or become uncompetitive in the iron market, then 

they will not be processed just for the vanadium content.

The fact that vanadium is found in petroleum and tar 

sands ensures that there will be vanadium coproduction from 

those sources and continued recycling of the vanadiumbearing catalysts that help to separate vanadium from the 

hydrocarbons. Vanadium supply, while subject to the volatility of short-term bottleneck challenges, is not constrained by 

lack of resources or reserves.

On the demand side, the superior strength-to-weight 

characteristic of vanadium-treated steel ensures that vanadium will continue to serve its leading use as a steel alloying element on a worldwide basis. The demand for steel will 

govern the demand for vanadium.

Titanium-vanadium alloys (vanadium content at 5 to 6 

percent), are used extensively in the growing aerospace sector. New-generation commercial aircraft will contain much 

larger quantities (70 to 90 t of alloy per plane) of this alloy 

than previous generations (Tamlin and Smith, 2007). The 

Senegal 

22.3 t (39%)

Japan 

14.9 t (26%)

Other 

1.16 t (2%)

Germany 

1.77 t (3%)

United Kingdom 

17.4 t (30%)

Figure 9. Pie chart showing estimated U.S. exports of old vanadium scrap by country in 2004. Values are in metric tons (t) and 

percentage of total exports. Derived from data in Magyar (2007b).

commercialization of vanadium is only about 60 years old. 

Research directed at new uses will likely expand the vanadium market, and the present uses in steel strengthening 

and high-temperature alloy performance are not likely to 

diminish.

It is expected that vanadium recycling from spent catalysts will continue and perhaps increase as more North American hydrocarbon resources (which contain vanadium) are 

utilized. If the price of V2O5 were to increase due to supply 

pressure of some kind, then steps could be taken to recover 

vanadium from steelmaking slag, which is now the greatest 

avenue for dissipative losses of vanadium.

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S16 FLOW STUDIES FOR RECYCLING METAL COMMODITIES IN THE UNITED STATES

APPENDIX—DEFINITIONS

apparent consumption. Primary refined production plus 

secondary production (old scrap) plus imports minus 

exports plus adjustments for Government and industry 

stock changes. For vanadium, no Government stocks 

exist.

apparent supply. Apparent consumption plus secondary 

production (new scrap).

Gaussian distribution. A statistical tool that is used by analysts of alloy life cycles to spread end-of-life estimates 

about the average value to a selected number of years.

hibernating scrap. Material at the end of its service life that 

could be recovered and recycled if prices and other economic factors warranted.

home scrap. Scrap generated as process or runaround scrap 

and consumed in the same plant where generated. It does 

not enter into trade and is not considered in this study.

hydrometallurgy. A process of separating desired metals 

from aqueous solutions.

master alloys (of vanadium). Alloys containing more than 

10 percent by weight vanadium. They serve as an intermediate material source in the manufacture of other 

placed-in-service alloys or as deoxidants and desulfurizers. The vanadium content ranges between 30 and 90 

percent in master alloys.

new scrap (prompt scrap). Scrap that is produced during 

the manufacture of metals and articles for both intermediate and ultimate consumption, including all defective 

finished or semifinished articles that must be reworked, 

and that is obtained from a facility separate from the 

recycling refiner, smelter, or processor. Examples of new 

scrap are borings, castings, clippings, drosses, skims, 

and turnings. Excluded from new scrap is home scrap 

that is generated as process scrap and used in the same 

plant.

new-to-old-scrap ratio. New scrap consumption compared 

with old scrap consumption in the United States, measured in weight and expressed as a ratio of new scrap to 

old scrap; for example, 2:98.

nominal price. The price at the time of sale.

obsolete (end-of-service-life). Material removed from service either because it is no longer serviceable or for any 

other reason.

old scrap. Scrap including (but not limited to) metal articles 

that have been discarded after serving a useful purpose. 

Typical examples of old scrap are electrical wiring, leadacid batteries, silver from photographic materials, metals from shredded cars and appliances, used aluminum 

beverage cans, spent catalysts, and tool bits. “Old scrap” 

is also referred to as postconsumer scrap and may originate from industry or the general public. Expended and 

obsolete materials used dissipatively, such as paints and 

fertilizers, are not included.

old scrap exports. The amount of old scrap exported from 

the United States in a subject year.

old scrap generated. The metal content of obsolete products from the U.S. product reservoir that theoretically 

becomes available for recycling in a subject year. This 

definition excludes dissipative uses.

old scrap imports. The amount of old scrap imported to the 

United States in a subject year.

old scrap recovered and used. Equals old scrap reported as 

recovered.

old scrap recycling efficiency. The amount of old scrap 

recovered and reused relative to the amount available to 

be recovered and reused. Defined as [consumption of old 

scrap (COS) plus exports of old scrap (OSE)] divided 

by [old scrap generated (OSG) plus imports of old scrap 

(OSI) plus a decrease in old scrap stocks (OSS) or minus 

an increase in old scrap stocks], measured in weight and 

expressed as a percentage:

COS + OSE 100

OSG + OSI + decrease in OSS or - increase in OSS

×

old scrap unrecovered. Scrap that might have been abandoned in place (hibernating scrap), sent to a landfill, or 

dissipated during use. The amount of old scrap unrecovered is the difference between theoretical scrap generated and actual scrap collected and processed for sale to 

the global pool of manufacturers.

product reservoir. The stock of vanadium-bearing materials 

serving consumer needs. It is otherwise known as “inservice” stock.

pyrometallurgy. A process of separating desired metals 

from materials under conditions of high heat.
VANADIUM RECYCLING IN THE UNITED STATES IN 2004 S17

recycling. The process of recovering a metal in usable form 

from scrap or waste. Recovery products can be alloys, 

mixtures, or compounds that are useful. Vanadium can 

be recovered by recycling of alloys such as aluminumvanadium, vanadium catalyst material, and tool steel 

scrap.

recycling rate. Fraction of the apparent metal supply that is 

scrap on an annual basis. It is defined as [consumption of 

old scrap (COS) plus consumption of new scrap (CNS)] 

divided by apparent supply (AS), measured in weight 

and expressed as a percentage:

COS + CNS

AS

×100

scrap consumption. Scrap added to the production flow of a 

metal or metal product.

supply of recoverable vanadium. The sum of new (prompt) 

scrap, old scrap recovered, old scrap imports, and old 

scrap stock decrease. This supply serves the domestic 

and foreign demand for scrap.

vanadiferous slag. Slag processed during iron and steelmaking from iron ores with high vanadium content. The iron 

partitions to the metal bath, and the vanadium partitions 

to the slag as an oxide, thereby concentrating vanadium 

sufficiently to permit its economic recovery.