Responsible 

 Fatherhood  Spotlight 

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 Toll-free: 1 (877) 4DAD411  Fax: (301) 948-4325  www.fatherhood.gov 

Fathers in the Military Military fathers and their families face extraordinary stress before, during, and after deployment. Although the physical and 

active combat for soldiers are well known, the implications of deployment for soldiers’ partners and their children have not bwidely. 

Definitions Military personnel include members on active duty, in the Coast Guard, and in the Reserves, as well as civilian personnel employed by the Department of Defense. For the purposes of this brief, the term military fathers is used to refer to men in the military with 

children under the age of 23 who are or who have previously been deployed to active duty. 

Importance and Implications of Military Fatherhood The United States converted its military to an all-volunteer force in 1972. Since then, the armed services has transitioned from a body largely comprised of unattached men without family obligations to a force that is now the province of both men and women, more than half of whom have family commitments. This change has broad implications for military parents, their children, and their partners. Implications for FathersAll military personnel who are deployed to combat regions are at risk for several negative outcomes, but military personnel who are parents constitute an especially vulnerable group, due to their complex commitments to the families that they leave behind. 

 For example, approximately 16 percent of military personnel 

who faced combat in Iraq demonstrated symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder,icompared with 9 percent 

experiencing this disorder before deployment. 

 Military veterans are also at increase

anxiety, and continuing high stress leafter deployment than are civilians.ii

 Although marriage rates are higher a

populations than among civilians in thare divorce rates. Higher divorce ratevariety of factors, including the youngamong military personnel, elevated ssurrounding issues of deployment an

Implications for Fathers’ Involvement With ChThe Department of Defense estimates that 59service members have children under the age of these military parents are fathers.iv The gro

parents in the military since the 1970s has cothe number of children who experience separmilitary parents on a regular basis. 

 Separation due to deployment has be

children’s behavior problems both duservice. In cases in which mothers redisruption and distress as a result of 

behavior problems are heightened.v

 Teachers report that children whose 

because of military service experiencadjustment problems.vi
 Behavior and developmental problems associated with 

fathers’ deployment are particularly salient for boys. Studies have found that young boys of military fathers regularly 

demonstrate poorer peer relations, elevated unhappiness, and increased conduct problems.vii

 In the long term, researchers have found that adolescent 

children of combat veterans are at risk for poorer attitudes towards school and parents, as well as increased depressive symptoms and anxiety.viii, ix

Implications for Fathers’ Spouses/PartnersFathers’ deployment for active duty in the military has implications for partners, especially during the periods just before and just after deployment. 

 Findings are mixed about the influence of deployment on 

relationships and marital satisfaction for the partners of military fathers. Whereas some studies have found that separation has no significant effect on marital satisfaction for either partner, other studies have shown that some negative changes do occur.x,xi

 Declines in marital satisfaction generally occur immediately 

before and during deployment but tend to stabilize after soldiers return to civilian life.xii

 Markers of stress shown by the partners of military fathers 

due to the men’s deployment include increased depressive symptoms, sexual frustration, and mood disorders.xiii

 Rates of severe spousal aggression have been found to be 

significantly higher for military husbands than for civilian husbands, and the probability of spousal violence tends to increase with the length of men’s deployment.xiv

 Cohesion among military spouses through support groups 

and interactions can be important for women whose husbands are deployed. Such vehicles can reinforce partners’ positive outlook on the military lifestyle and help with coping and adjustment during deployment.xv

Trends in Military Fatherhood Over TimTotal Military PopulationFigure 1 shows that the vast majority of activpersonnel are male. Although the percentage duty population increased from 11.5 percent approximately 15 percent in 2005, men continlargest portion of active duty members. Figure 1. Percentage of Male and Female A(2005) 

Total Number of Active Duty Memb

85%

15%

Source: Department of Defense 2006 Dem

Total Military Population by Gender and Race Table 1 shows the proportion of active duty mdependent children as of 2002 by gender and groups, a higher percentage of men in the mido their female counterparts. Enlisted black mgroup to have dependent children, followed bAsian/Pacific Islanders, Hispanics, and finallymen in the other or mixed race category, 50 pchildren.xvi

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Table 1. Percentage of Military Personnel with Dependent 

Children by Gender and Race/Ethnicity (2002) 

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Percentage with Dependent Children 

Male Female 

White 44 33 

Black 53 52 

Hispanic 42 34 

American Indian 34 33 

Asian/Pac. Islander 43 34 

Multiracial/Other 50 40 

Source: Defense Manpower Data Center, 2002

Differences by Subgroup Differences by Marital StatusTable 2 shows the percentage of active military personnel who are married by gender. Across service type, men in the military are more likely to be married than are women. 

Table 2. Marital Status of Military Personnel by Gender and Service (2002) 

Percentage Married 

Enlisted Officer 

Male 50 71 

Female 42 51 

Source: Defense Manpower Data Center, 2002 

Differences by Race/EthnicityTable 3 shows that the majority of active duty male military members 

identify themselves as white (64 percent), followed by African American (20 percent), and Hispanic (10 percent). Individuals who identify themselves as of other or mixed race make up the final 6 percent. 

Table 3. Race/Ethnicity of Active Duty Men 

Percentage 

White 64% 

Black 20% 

Hispanic 10% 

Multiracial/Other 6% 

Source: Department of Defense 2006 Demographics Re

Center, 2002 

Differences by Education Level Figure 2 shows that the educational levels of military personnel are, overall, higher than the the general population in the United States. S99.2 percent of enlisted male military personnat least high school diploma or GED, less thain the general population had achieved that s

Figure 2. Percentage of Military Personnel 18-24 With High School Diplomas or GEDs Race/Ethnicity (2002) 

Military Civilia

Source: Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Population Representation in the Military Services Repo
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 Toll-free: 1 (877) 4DAD411  Fax: (301) 948-4325  www.fatherhood.gov 

Differences by Age Table 4 shows that the average age of military fathers when their first child is born is about the same as that of men in the total U.S. population who have ever fathered a child. Across both genders, the average age of having a first child is slightly younger in the military than it is in the total population. Table 4. Average Age at First Birth for United States Military and Total Populations of Individuals who Have Ever Had a Child (2000-2006) 

Average Age at Birth of First Child 

Active Duty Military 

(2005) 

Total United States 

(2002) 

Male 25.0 25.1 

Female 23.6 25.1 

Total 24.8 25.1 

Source: National Survey of Family Growth, 2002; Department of Defense 2006 

Demographics Report; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center 

for Health Statistics. VitalStats, 2000. 

Definitions and Measurement Unless otherwise indicated, statistics about military personnel in this brief reflect data gathered in 2005 and are representative of the full population of active duty members serving in the military in the United States. These data do not include members serving in reserve or civilian forces. Interpretation of statistics comparing military members to the United States population as a whole should be undertaken with caution, because the age, gender, and socioeconomic background of military personnel are not representative of the entire U.S. population. Data Limitations Information about the parental status of men serving in the military is not collected regularly in studies on the military, and this information, when it exists, often is incomplete and lacking in detail.xvii Available 

data on military fathers is also sketchy. Thus, most of the statistical information presented in this brief is reflective of military members and military parents as whole, rather than primarily of fathers. 

Data Sources Data documenting trends and demographic c

members were summarized from the 2005 Dpublished by Office of the Deputy Under Sec(Military Community and Family Policy), undean ICF Consulting Company. Additional data demographics as a whole were analyzed from Census, through the National Center for HeaStatistics Cooperative Program; reports from 

Cycle 6 of the National Survey of Family Growsummaries from the Social Explorer online da(www.socialexplorer.com). 

Resources 

 The Military Family Research Instit

University both conducts and acts as research on issues concerning militapartners, and their children: http://www.cfs.purdue.edu/mfri/pages

 Military OneSource offers a Web sit

help military members and their familissues, including child care, personal and emotional support during deployother topics: www.militaryonesource.

 Military Home Front is the official D

Web site designed to help troops and and service providers improve the qumembers and their families: 

http://www.militaryhomefront.dod.mil/
National Responsible Fatherhood Clearinghouse  101 Lake Forest Boulevard, Suite 360  Gaithersburg, MD 208

 Toll-free: 1 (877) 4DAD411  Fax: (301) 948-4325  www.fatherhood.gov 

References: i Hoge, C. W., Castro, C. A., Messer, S. C., McGurk, D., Cotting, D. I., & Koffman, R. L. (2004). Combat duty in Iraq and Afghanistan, mental health proble

New England Journal of Medicine, 351(1), 13-22. ii Stretch, R. H., Bliese, P. D., Marlowe, D., & Wright, K. M. (1996). Psychological health of Gulf War-era military personnel. Military Medicine, 161(5), 257

iii Adler-Baeder, F., Pittman, J. F., Taylor, L., & Pasley, K. (2005). Marital transitions in military families: Their prevalence and their relevance for adaptatio

Auburn University Department of Human Development and Family Studies. iv Department of Defense 2006 Demographics Report. (2006). Washington, DC: Office of the Deputy Under Secretary of Defense. 

v Medway, F. J., Davis, K. E., Cafferty, T. P., Chappell, K. D., & O'Hearn, R. E. (1995). Family disruption and adult attachment correlates of spouse and c

and reunion due to Operation Desert Storm. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 14(2), 97-118. vi Chok, C. H. (1992). Separated by their work: Families with fathers living apart. Environment and Behavior, 24(2), 206-225. vii Applewhite, L. W., & Mays, R. A. (1996). Parent-child separation: A comparison of maternally and paternally separated children in military families. Chil

Journal, 13(1), 23-39. viii Dansby, V. S., & Marinelli, R. P. Adolescent children of Vietnam combat veteran fathers: A population at risk. Journal of Adolescence, 22(3), 329. ix Applewhite, L. W., & Mays, R. A. (1996). Parent-child separation: A comparison of maternally and paternally separated children in military families. Child 

Journal, 13(1), 23-39. 

x Nice, D. S. (1981). A longitudinal analysis of Navy family separation. San Diego, CA: Navy Personnel Research and Development Center. xi Shumm, W. R., Hemesath, K., Bell, D. B., Palmer-Johnson, C. E., & Elig, T. (1996). Did Desert Storm reduce marital satisfaction among Army enlisted p

Reports, 78, 1241-1242. xii Shumm, W. R., Bell, D. B., & Gade, P. A. (2000). Effects of a military overseas peacekeeping deployment on marital quality, satisfaction, and stability. P

815-821. 

xiii Frankel, H., Snowden, L. R., & Nelson, L. S. (1993). Wives' adjustment to military deployment: An empirical evaluation of a family stress model. Interna

the Family, 23(1), 89-115. xiv McCarroll, J. E., Ursano, R. J., Liu, X., Thayer, L. E., Newby, J. H., Norwood, A. E., et al. (2000). Deployment and the probability of spousal aggression 

Military Medicine, 165(1), 41-44. 

xv Pittman, J. F., Kerpelman, J. L., & McFadyen, J. M. (2004). Internal and external adaptation in Army families: Lessons from operations Desert Shield an

Relations, 53(3), 249-260. 

xvi Segal, D. R., & Segal, M. W. (2004). America's military population. Washington, DC: Population Reference Bureau. xvii Bachrach, C. A., & Sonenstein, F. (1998). Report of the Working Group on Male Fertility and Family Formation. In Nurturing fatherhood: Improving data 

fertility, family formation, and fatherhood. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.