GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CIRCULAR 702 

Movement and Effects of 

Spilled Oil Over the 

Outer Continental ShelfInadequacy of Existent Data For the 

Baltimore Canyon Trough Area 
• 
Movement and Effects of 

Spilled Oil Over the 

Outer Continental ShelfInadequacy of Existent Data For the 

Baltimore Canyon Trough Area 

By H. J. Knebel 

G E 0 L 0 G I C A L 5 U R V E Y C I R C U L A R 702 

1974 
United States Department of the Interior 

ROGERS C. B. MORTON, Secretary 

Geological Survey 

V. E. McKelvey, Director 

Free on application to the U.S. Geological Survey, National Center, Reston, Virginia 22092 
CONTENTS 

Abstract 

Page 

1 

Introduction -------------------~----------------------------------------- 1 

Approach --------------------------------------------------------------- 3 Previous work ______ ------------ __________________________ -.- _______ --- _ __ 5 

Adequacy of existent data ------------------------------------------------ 7 

Summary and implications for future research ----------------------------- 13 

References cited __________ ---------------------------------- _ ------------ 15 

FIGURE 1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

ILLUSTRATIONS 

Location map and cross section of the Baltimore Canyon Trough __ 

Map showing limits and location of the Baltimore Oanyon Trough 

area ------------------------------------------------------- Graphic outline of deductive approach to problem of determining 

movement and ·effects of spilled oil over the Outer Continental 

Shelf ------------------------------------------------------ Sketch map showing locations of lightship stations and one-degree 

quadrangles for surface and seabed drifter census ------------

TABLES 

TABLE 1. Average relationship between the observed currents and winds at 

Page 

2 

3 

4 

6 

Page 

Atlantic coast lightship stations ------------------------------ 9 

2. Number of drifters released on the shelf of the Middle Atlantic 

Bight and percentage recovered from North American shores ____ 12 

III 

Movement and Effects of Spilled Oil Over the Outer Continental 

Shelf-Inadequacy of Existent Data for the 

Baltimore Canyon Trough Area 

By H. J. KNEBEL 

ABSTRACT 

A deductive approach to the problem of determining 

the movement and effects of spilled oil over the Outer 

Continental Shelf requires that the potential paths of 

oil be determined first, in order that critical subareas 

may be defined for later studies. The paths of spilled 

oil, in turn, dep·end primarily on the temporal and spatial variability of four factors: the thermohaline structure of the waters, the circulation of the water, the 

winds, and the distribution of suspended matter. A 

review of the existent data concerning these factors for 

the Baltimore Canyon Trough area (a relatively well 

studied segment of the Continental Shelf) reveals that 

the movement and dispersal of potential oil spills cannot be reliably predicted. Variations in the thermohaline structure of waters and in the distribution of 

suspended matter are adequately known; the uncertainty is due to insufficient wind and storm statistics 

and to the lack of quantitative understanding of the 

relationship between the nontidal drift and its basic 

driving mechanisms. Similar inadequacies should be 

anticipated for other potentially leasable areas of the 

shelf because an understanding of the movement of 

spilled oil has not been the underlying aim of most 

previous studies. 

INTRODUCTION 

Many are:as of the Continental Shelf of the 

United States are likely to be considered for 

petroleum exploration (and possibly production) in the near future. Ac-cording to the National Environmental Policy Act of 1970, the 

decision to lease any of these areas for exploitation must be accompanied by statements on 

the environmental impact of petroleum-related 

activities. The movement and effects of oil that 

may be spilled during drilling and transfer operations should be a major topic of the environ1 

mental assess.ment because (1) the sources of 

oil spills are numerous (including losses from 

waterborne traffic and pipe.Iines as well as from 

submarine drilling operations), (2) oil spills 

are tangible phenomena to a relatively large 

segment of the population of the United States, 

and (3) a knowledge of this aspect is essential 

to related social, political and economic studies. 

This study considers the existent data in relation to the movement and effects of potential 

oil spills within the Baltimore Canyon Trough 

area. The Baltimore Canyon Trough is a depression in the basement rocks beneath the 

shelf off the coasts of New Jersey, Del a ware, 

and Maryland (t'lhher, 1965; Maher and Applin, 1971) (fig. 1). This depression, as outlined by the 10,000-foot (3,048-meter) structural contour, parallels the shelf edge for 

approximately 150 miles (240 kilometers) and 

extends southward from about lat 40°N. to lat 

38°N., where it crosses the shelf break, to the 

Continental Slope. Near its axis, the trough 

contains more than 16,000 feet (4,876 meters) 

of sedimentary rocks, which are mainly Cretaceous marine beds (fig. 1). 

The Baltimore Canyon Trough area as us.ed 

herein is bounded by lines that extend orthogonally across the shelf off northern New Jersey 

and Cape Charles, Va., on the north and south, 

respectively, by the shelf break on the east, and 

by the coastline (exclusive of Delaware Bay) 

on the west (fig. 2). These limits encompass 

not only the part of the shelf directly over the 

Baltimore Canyon Trough but some of the sur-
40•N 

35•N 

25•N 

A 

FALL LINE 

85•w 

+ 

+ 

0 50 100 150 MILES I I I I I I I I 

8o·w 

0 100 200 KILOMETERS 

+ 

COASTAL PLAIN 

75•w 

} f BALTIMORE 

// CANYON 

{.;' TROUGH : •. 

u 

~ : 

~if- « /{' ~'v ./if ATLANTIC C:J~ / .. !f ~ 

v ..... / /} 

~ 

"~ ,. ; .· ,- ... ~~,· {! .t-" ( H CONTINENTAL 

0

0 ( t:( SLOPE / \~:::_ ...... + 

{LBLAKE ;/ 

\\PLATEAU i\ 

\ ·\~· .. \ : ·. \ ~:~;~ .. : \ ·~K ;: 

~ 

+ 

B 

l

:f 

COASTLINE SHELF - 0 t111~-E-•------ WILMINGTO v; TERTIARY ROCKS CANYON 

RISE 

SEA LEVEL 

- .,.._-:=,==--=-...:;---...:-_-.,.,:-_-__;-=---- _0:£./fj-CRET'A'C"fo'iis''fi(j(:'i(s'···~ ••. 

ME~CKS ~R CRETACEOUS ROCKS 

l1HOIFFERENTIATED MIOGEOSYNCLINE 

MARYLAND 

0 40 80 MILES w 

C> EUGEOSYNCLINE 

I 

I I I I I BALTIMORE CANYON~ 

0 40 80 120 KILOMETERS TROUGH ~ w 

:I: 

V) 

c 

----1 

l

:o.=· 

20,000' 

30,000' 

FIGURE 1.-Location map and cross section of the Baltimore Canyon Trough. Modified from figure 6 and plate 

5 in Maher and Applin (1971). 

2 
rounding region as well. The inclusion of this 

peripheral area in the study area was necessary 

because the boundary conditions for the currents and the winds must be known. 

The purposes of this paper are to outline a 

deductive approach for assessing the movement 

and effects of oil that m.ay be spilled over the 

Outer Continental Shelf, to deduce the adequacy 

of the existent data for the Baltimore Canyon 

Trough area, and to determine what implications this evaluation may have for future re75' 

r 

41'~ 

40'1-

0 

search either within or outside the area. 

I greatly appreciate the helpful criticism of 

Dr. Donald V. Hansen, National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration, Miami, Fla., and 

Dr. Robert H. Meade, U.S. Geological Survey, 

Woods Hole, Mass. 

APPROACH 

A deductive approach to the problem of determining the movement and effect of spilled 

-I41'N 

~40'N 

75"W 70"W 

-i38"N 

-f37"N 

0 200 400 MILES 

_.l_ 

n·w 

I I 11 1

1 I I 0 200 400 KILOMETERS 

50 100 MILES 

I I I I I I I I I 

I I I I I I 1 I I I I I I I 0 50 100 150 KILOMETERS 

CONTOUR INTERVALS 4 AND 200 METERS 

FIGURE 2.-Limits and location of the Baltimore Canyon Trough area as defined for this study. The coastline, 

exclusive of Delaware Bay, delimits the western boundary of the area. Bathymetry from U chupi ( 1970). 

3 
OBTAIN NECESSARY 

ENVIRONMENTAL DATA 

OBTAIN NECESSARY 

ENVIRONMENTAL DATA 

NO 

NO 

MOVEMENT AND EFFECTS OF OIL 

SPILLED OVER THE CONTINENTAL 

SHELF 

DEFINITION OF AREA 

REVIEW OF PREVIOUS 

OCEANOGRAPHIC AND 

METEOROLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS 

IN A SELECTED AREA 

YES 

COMPUTATION OF POTENTIAL OIL 

SPILL TRAJECTORIES 

YES 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF OIL 

SPILLED WITHIN A SELECTED 

AREA 

FIGURE 3.-0utline of deductive approach to the problem of determining the movement and effects of spilled oil over the Outer Continental Shelf. Each step is summarized within either a rectangle 

or a parallelog!'lam, and the progression is from top to bottom 

along lines that connect adjacent steps. Rectangles indicate explicit steps, wher,eas those that involve decisions are enclosed in 

parallelograms. Mutually exclusive paths proceed from those steps 

which involve decisions because of the two possible outcomes. 

4 
oil over the Outer Continental Shelf is outlined 

in figure 3. The paths of the oil must be dHtermined first, in order that critical subareas may 

be defined for later study. Subsequent baseline 

studies within explicit subareas should focus on 

the environmental aspects that might be affected by the oil. If, at any stage of the investigation, the existent data proves to be inadequate, then new information will have to be 

obtained before either the paths or the effects 

of the oil can be determined (fig. 3). Thus, for 

any subarea of the Outer Continental Shelf, the 

first step in an evaluation of the adequacy of 

existent data is to find out whether or not the 

potential paths of spilled oil can be reliably 

predicted. 

Over the outer shelf, the paths of spilled oil 

depend on the following dispe-rsive processes: 

dissolution, evaporation, emulsification, spreading, drifting, and sinking (Zobell, 1964; Pilpel, 

1968). The degrees of dissolution, evaporation, 

and emulsification are determined primarily by 

the kind of spilled oil and its physical state; 

water temperature, wind, and surface mixing 

are secondary factors. The processes of spreading and drifting, on the other hand, depend 

largely on the quantity of spilled oil, the horizontal and vertical water movements, and the 

duration and velocity of the winds. Moreover, 

oil sinks after its density is increased by the 

los,s of the volatile and light fractions or by the 

inclusion of suspended solids; the rate and the 

depth of descent may be affected by the thermohaline structure of the water. Thus, aside from 

the chemical composition and the quantity of 

spilled oil, the dispersive processes depend on 

the temporal and spatial variability of ( 1) the 

thermohal:ine structure of the waters, (2) the 

circulation of the water, (3) the winds, and 

( 4) the distribution of suspended matter. These 

aspects must be considered, initially, for the 

Baltimore Canyon Trough area. 

PREVIOUS WORK 

The'rmohaline structure 

Short-term measurements of temperature 

and salinity from the Baltimore Canyon Trough 

area are found in reports that deal either with 

isolated aspects of the thermohaline circulation 

or with routine observations. Hydrographic 

measurements that were made to evaluate the 

surface coastal circulation during the change 

5 

from spring to summer conditions were reported by Miller ( 1952a, b). Temperature and 

salinity data that were obtained during the 

summer and early winter months were used by 

Howe (1962) to evaluate the density-induced 

surface drift over the central and outer parts 

of the shelf. Daily determinations of temperature and salinity that were made during the 

years 1956 to 1970 at lightship stations over the 

inner shelf (fig. 4) have been tabulated by 

Bumpus (1957b), Day (1959a and b, 1960, 

1963), and Chase (1964, 1965, 1966, 1967, 

1969a and b, 1971a-c, 1972). Observations from 

eight inner-shelf traverses north of Cape 

Charles have been reported by Nichols and 

Lynch (1964). Nearly synoptic charts of the 

surface temperature of shelf waters have been 

drawn monthly since 1966 from data collected 

on temperature-measuring flights by aircraft; 

they are available from the U.S. Coast Guard 

Oceanographic Unit, Washington, D.C. 

Compilations of thermohaline measurements, 

on the other hand, have been used to describe 

and explain the variability of waters within the 

area. Comprehensive descriptions of the annual 

cycles of temperature and salinity have been 

presented by Bigelow ( 1933) and Bigelow and 

Sears (1935), respectively. Charts, diagrams, 

and tables that show temperature or salinity 

statistics of surface and subsurface waters by 

month, season, or year can be found in Fuglister 

(1947), Bumpus (1957a), Pyle (1962), Stearns 

(1964, 1965), Emery (1966), Schroeder 

(1966), Walford and Wicklund (1968), and 

Emery and Uchupi (1972, p. 259-269). Some 

effects of runoff and winds on the hydrography 

of shelf waters have been discussed by Ketchum 

(1953), Ketchum and Keen (1955), Chase 

(1959, 1969c), Bumpus and Chase (1965), and 

Harrison and others (1967). 

CiTculation of water 

Tidal currents are the horizontal movements 

of water that are produced by the periodic motion of the tidal cycle. Tidal currents within the 

Baltimore Canyon Trough area have been discussed in reports by Haight (1942), McClennen 

(1973), and Redfield (1958). Tide and tidalcurrent tables are published annually for the 

east coast of North America (for example, U.S. 

Department of Commerce, 1973a, b) and can be 

used to determine the tidal characteristics at 

any desired location near the coast. 
r-------------------'"1 40"N 

BARNEGAT • ,__ 

" ) 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

• U.S.S. FALCON / 

~--•• ~N~O~Rm~ErrAs«T~~N~~~-------~V~~~-/~/ ______ V~72.~"N 

• FIVE FATHOM BANK 

• FENWICK ISLAND SHOAL 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

;r-----t--------_.::,.IV..:....,....:../ _______ _;1:;,;:1~1 38.N 

• WINTER QUARTER SHOAL 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

/ 

I 

I 

73"W 

EXPLANATION 

Approximate shelf break 

• CAPE CHARLES 

Lightship stations 

.U.S.S. 8RAi( =---------___;1~1:.1.-..---~----....!JI 37"N 76"W 75"W I 74"W 

• CAPE CHARLES 

0 

I 

20 40 MILES 

I I I 

I I I I 

I 0 20 40 60 KILOMETERS 

FIGURE 4.-Sketch map showing the Baltimore Canyon Trough area with locations of lightship stations from 

Haight (1942) and the definition of one-degree quadrangles (Roman numerals) of latitude and longitude 

from Bumpus (1974) for the surface and seabed drifter census presented in table 2. 

The nontidal residual drift over the Baltimore Canyon Trough area has been studied by 

following the movement of waters with time 

(Lagrangian measurements), by determining 

the flow at fixed locations (Eulerian measurements), and by examining the effects of various environmental factors. Lagrangian measurements within the surface waters include 

those made by means of drift bottles (Bumpus, 

6 

1963, 1969a and b, 197 4; Bumpus and Chase, 

1965; Bumpus and Lauzier, 1965; Bumpus and 

others, 1973; Harrison and others, 1967; 

Ketchum, 1953; and Miller, 1952a) and drogued 

transponder buoys (Howe, 1962). Eulerian 

measurements that were made at lightship stations near the coast have been reported by 

Haight (1942). The effects of winds, runoff, 

and the density distribution on the surface cir-
culation pattern have been discussed by Bumpus (1969a and b, 1974), Bumpus and Chase 

(1965), Bumpus and others (1973), Emery and 

Uchupi (1972), Haight (1942), Harrison and 

others (1967), Howe (1962), Ketchum (1953), 

Miller (1952a), and Schroeder (1966). 

The residual drift of subsurface waters in 

this area has been investigated primarily with 

the aid of sea-bed drifters (Bumpus, 1964, 

1965, 1974; Bumpus and others, 1973; Harrison and others, 1967). McClennen (1973), however, recently measured the near-bottom drift 

at several locations over the central and outer 

shelf by means of moored current m,eters. 

Bumpus (1965, 1974), Bumpus and others 

(1973), Chase (1959), Harrison and others 

(1967), and McClennen (1973) discussed some 

changes in the subsurface circulation that were 

due to the winds and the thermohaline structure of the waters. 

Winds 

Wind data from the Baltimore Canyon 

Trough area can be found in publications that 

deal with the interaction between the sea and 

the atmosphere as well as in reports of weather 

statistics. Papers by Chase (1959), Emery 

(1965), Haight (1942), Harrison and others 

(1967), Miller (1957), and Redfield and Miller 

(1957) are included in the first category of 

publications, whereas wind statistics have been 

reported by the Chief of Naval Operations 

(1955), U.S. Department of Commerce (1959), 

U.S. Naval Oecanographic Office (1963), and 

the U.S. Naval Weather Service Command 

(1970). In addition to these reports, wind records from coastal weather stations and from 

ships in the area are available from the N ationa! Climatic Center in Asheville, N.C. 

Suspended matter 

The suspended matter within the water column over the Baltimore Canyon Trough area 

has been measured during two seasons. Manheim and others (1970) reported measurements 

that were obtained during the spring, whereas 

Meade and others (1970, 1974) discussed measurements that were obtained during the early 

part of the fall. Meade (1972) considered the 

sources and fate of suspended matter over this 

part of the Atlantic continental shelf. 

7 

ADEQUACY OF EXISTENT DATA 

Tlzennohaline structure 

Knowledge of the monthly or seasonal thermohaline structure is probably most useful for 

predicting the movement and effects of spilled 

oil. Within the water column, the sinking rate 

and the concentration of oily debris may be 

controlled by pronounced pycnoclines, the locations of which, in turn, can be estimated from 

the mean thermohaline structure of the waters. 

In the Baltimore Canyon Trough area, the 

thermohaline structure is determined primarily 

by seasonal changes in solar insolation, winds, 

runoff, and indrafts of slope water (Bigelow, 

1933; Bigelow and Sears, 1935). 

In the Baltimore Canyon Trough area, the 

monthly and seasonal variability of the thermohaline structure of waters is known from existent hydrographic data. Bigelow ( 1933), for example, in his classic description of the cycle of 

temperature, used most of the data that were 

available before 1933. For the Baltimore Canyon Trough area, these data were largely serial 

observations that were made by the U.S. Bureau 

of Fisheries and the Woods Hole Oceanographic 

Institution while studying various fisheries 

problems. As a result, observations were available for all seasons and over several years. 

Moreover, the serial measurements were made 

on sample's that were obtained across the entire 

shelf and throughout the water column to 200 

meters. 

Monthly isothermal charts and diagrams for 

waters over the Baltimore Canyon Trough area 

can be found in Fuglister (1947), Pyle (1962), 

Schroeder (1966), and Walford and Wicklund 

(1968). The marine environment atlas folio by 

Walford and Wicklund (1968) is especially informative because it is based on a comprehensive collection of observations that span a 50-

year period (1914-64) and it outlines the meantemperature structure of both the surface and 

subsurface waters. The quantity and distribution of observations were such that averages for 

15-minute squares were used to position the 

isotherms. 

The annual cycle of salinity in this area is 

best described by Bigelow and Sears ( 1935) 

and Chase ( 1969c). The account by Bigelow 

and Sears ( 1935) is a sequel to the description 
of the temperature cycle by Bigelow (1933) 

and, like its predecessor, is based primarily on 

serial observations that were made throughout 

the year over many years (1913-32). It considers the water column over the entire Baltimore Canyon Trough area. Chase ( 1969c), on 

the other hand, discussed only the surface 

salinity over the inner part of the shelf. This 

study is significant, however, because it used 

daily salinity determinations that were made at 

lightship locations over a period of 12 years. 

From these data, Chase ( 1969c) was able to 

relate the coastal salinity distribution to the 

discharge and proximity of rivers. 

Circulation of water 

Tidal currents are relatively unimportant in 

determining the net drift of spilled oil within 

the Baltimore Canyon Trough area. Over this 

part of the shelf, tidal currents are semidiurnal 

and generally attain speeds no greater than 13 

centimeters per second (Redfield, 1958). Maximum speeds develop about 3 hours before high 

and low water and, at these times, the flow is 

directed approximately normal to the trend of 

the shelf (Haight, 1942; Redfield, 1958). During the remainder of the tidal cycle, the components of motion paralle,l to the coast are 

small (Redfield, 1958). Thus, because of their 

oscillatory nature, low speed, and limited net 

transport, these currents are probably secondary to nontidal currents in the movement of 

waterborne oil. It should be remembered, however, that tidal currents may aid in the spreading and in the continued suspension of oil 

within tid1al excursion limit1s and that they may 

be important agents in the resuspension of oily 

debris from the bottom. 

The nontidal residual drift over the Baltimore Canyon Trough area is controlled by the 

winds, the pressure gradient induced by the 

runoff, and the geostrophic effects of the temperature and salinity distributions (Bumpus 

and others, 1973). In order to predict the potential paths of spilled oil in this area, therefore, one must know the correlations between 

these factors and the net drift. 

The only direct current measurements that 

have been reported from this region are the 

drift-pole observations of Haight (1942), the 

parachute-drogue experiments of Howe (1962), 

8 

and the current-meter records of McClennen 

( 1973). Haight ( 1942) computed the nontidal 

component of the observed surface currents 

that were measured at nine lightship stations 

over the inner and central parts of the shelf 

(fig. 4). At four of the inner-shelf stations, 

from which a year's or more than a year's record of hourly data were available, he compared 

the nontidal currents to estimates (made simultaneously) of the directions and speeds of the 

winds. The average relationships that were derived from the exercise are shown in table 1. 

The attempt by Haight (1942) to deduce the 

effect of the winds on the residual drift is recognized, but other nontidal effects are included 

as well in his current-velocity data. In fact, the 

capricious and negative deviations of currents 

to the right of the winds (table 1) show that 

other factors had an effect on the flow. The 

utility of these data in understanding the circulation over the Baltimore Canyon Trough 

area therefore is limited not only because the 

driving forces were not resolved but because 

(1) only the surface currents were measured, 

(2) data from the outer shelf are lacking, and 

(3) the observations at many of the stations 

were sporadic, discontinuous, and short-term 

(3-5 months). 

Howe (1962) compared nontidal-drift velocities over the central and outer parts of the 

shelf to density gradients that were determined 

from nearby hydrographic sections; from data 

that were obtained during calm periods in summer and autumn, he discerned a high degree of 

correlation between the two parameters. Regression equations were derived, consequently, 

from which the residual drift could be estimated 

from differences in the mean density between 

stations. 

The observations and equations of Howe 

(1962) may be useful for predicting, under 

limited conditions, the movements of spilled oil 

within the Baltimore Canyon Trough area. 

Most notably, the results are applicable only to 

the eastern part of the area because no measurements were made over the inner part of the 

shelf. Moreover, the correlations pertain only 

to two seasons of the year; data are lacking for 

the winter and spring when wind mixing and 

runoff are likely to have the greatest effects on 

the density structure of the waters. 
TABLE 1.-Average relationship between the observed currents and winds at Atlantic coast lightship stations (from Haight, 1942) 

AVERAGE RATIO OF CURRENT VELOCITY IN KNOTS AVERAGE DEVIATION OF CURRENT DIRECTION TO 

TO WIND VELOCITY IN STATUTE MILES PER HOUR RIGHT OF WIND DIRECTION IN DEGREES 

WINTER- WINTERNORTHEAST QUARTER NORTHEAST QUARTER 

WIND FROM- BARNEGAT END OVERFALLS SHOAL AVERAGE BARNEGAT END OVERFALLS SHOAL AVERAGE 

N 0.010 0.021 0.015 0.015 0.015 6 30 31 18 21 

NNE .011 .022 .016 .018 .017 5 14 -23 -1 -1 

NE .009 .021 .016 .022 .017 -13 -3 -1 -5 -6 

ENE .010 .024 .026 .016 .019 -9 -11 14 -21 -7 

E .006 .016 .015 .013 .013 -16 -20 -58 -27 -30 

ESE .003 .013 .016 .012 .011 -7 -31 -58 -35 -33 

c.o SE .004 .013 .012 .005 .009 33 -42 -61 -19 -22 

SSE .007 .012 .024 .009 .013 54 -28 -18 31 10 

s .008 .010 .011 .010 .010 55 37 51 23 41 

ssw .011 .008 .008 .013 .010 30 44 11 20 26 

SW .010 .016 .010 .015 .013 14 25 18 4 15 

WSW .008 .015 .019 .015 .014 8 18 51 14 23 

w .008 .011 .004 .011 .009 0 7 17 9 8 

WNW .005 .014 .019 .010 .010 -5 16 28 8 12 

NW .005 .009 .006 .012 .008 21 25 15 28 22 

NNW .008 .013 .008 .014 . 011 29 18 56 27 33 

AVERAGE ,008 .015 .014 .013 13 6 5 5 
McClennen (1973) measured the currents at 

four locations across the shelf off southern New 

Jersey with instruments that were set within 2 

meters of the sea floor. Data on bottom currents 

were obtained over periods of 9-11 days at 

each station during the late spring of either 

1970 or 1971 in water depths of 30, 59, 7 4, and 

143 meters. For each station, the energy spectrum of the currents was examined for tidal 

effec:ts, and the periodicity and timing of tbe 

tide:s and winds were compared to the net drift 

as determined from progressive vector plots. 

Off Ne,w Jersey, McClennen (1973) compared the 7 :00 a.m. coasta,l winds (measured at 

shore stations) to the daily net drift that was 

determined from his ~current-meter data. He 

found that the coastal winds seemed to be correlated with ~the nea.r .... bottom water movement 

that occurred over the inner and central parts 

of the shelf but that the winds did not necessarily correspond with the bottom drift over 

the outer shelf. These qualitative comparisons 

were made because insufficient wind data were 

taken at sea near the current-meter stations. 

Although the comparisons indicate that wind 

effects may or may not be recognized within 

the bottom flow across this part of the shelf, 

they are no substitutes for a, quantHJative correlation that can be used to estimate the effects 

of local winds on the bottom drift. The lack of 

such a correlation limits the usefulness of the 

current-meter data of McClennen (1973) in 

predicting the net movement of oil-tainted material along the bottom. 

Most of what has been pubUshed about the 

nontidal drift over the Baltimore Canyon 

Trough area has been inferred from indirect 

current measurements involving surface and 

seabed drifters. The most comprehensive reports tha,t deal with such measurements are 

those by Bumpus and Lauzier (1965) and 

Bumpus (1974). Bumpus and Lauzier (1965) 

described the surface drift in this area on the 

basis of all drift bottle data that were available 

from 1948 through 1962. Included in their folio 

are monthly charts that show, on a 30-minute 

rectangular grid, where the drift bottles were 

released, the percentage of recovery on the 

North Amel'ican seaboard from each rectangle, 

and the drift velocities through those rectangles 

from which the bottles originated. The seasonal 

10 

circulation patterns were portrayed on four 

summary charts. 

Bumpus (1974) subsequently reviewed the 

surface circulation pattern in this area in light 

of drift-bottle data that were obtained from 

1961 to 1970 and also described the bottom flow 

from coeval seabed-drifter data. His report included charts of the general surface and bottom 

drift (averaged for each month) over the 10-

year period ,as weH as month-by-month charts 

of surface drift for the years 1968 and 1969. 

Charts of the surface drift on a month-to-month 

basis for the years 1960 to 1967 had already 

been published by Bumpus (1969b). All the 

charts show the locations at which the drifters 

were released and the directions of inferred 

drift; speeds were estimated only for the surface flow. General flow patterns were determined by averaging the azimuths between 

launch positions and the recovery sites. 

The essence of the drifter data reported for 

the Middle Atlantic Bight by Bumpus and 

Lauzier (1965), Bumpus (1974), and others 

can be summarized by the following passage 

from Bumpus and others ( 1973). They report: 

... we see the circulation over the continental shelf of 

the Middle Atlantic Bight as a surface drift with the 

land on the right at speeds on the order of 10 miles per 

day. There may be a shoreward component of this drift 

during the warm half of the year and an offshore component during the cold half carrying a flux of fresh 

water away from the estuaries. The surface drift, fundamentally the result of the temperature-salinity distribution, may be modified by the wind. A persistent 

bottom drift, at speeds of tenths of miles per day, extends from just beyond mid-shelf toward the coast and 

eventually into the estuaries, providing a flux of salt. 

Along the outer edge of the shelf, the bottom drift is 

less well defined. 

This summary by Bumpus and others exemplifies the dubious as well as the more substantial aspects of the drifter dat~a that were obtained over and around the Baltimore Canyon 

Trough area. Although the general nature and 

causes of the residual flow have been inferred 

from drifters, specific predictions of water 

movements cannot be made with any degree of 

confidence. This vagueness is due, in part, to 

the difficulty in inferring trajectories from a 

knowledge of only the launch and recovery locations, from a biased estimate of the travel 

time between these locations, and from the 

small percentage of drifters that are ultimately 
recovered, especially those from the outer shelf 

and during the fall and winter (table 2; fig. 4). 

Moreover, drifters probably could never fully 

define (even with statistical models) the nontidal circulation over this part of the shelf because the temporal and spatiai scales of the 

velocity field are, in general, small compared to 

the times of drift and the distances travelled 

(Bumpus, 1974; Bumpus and others, 1H73; 

Haight, 1942; Howe, 1962; McClennen, 1973). 

Also, the relationship of drifter data to the flow 

at middepth is uncertain. 

Winds 

In order to forecast the movement and dispersal of spilled oil over the Baitimore Canyon 

Trough area, one must know that, in the event 

of a spill, wind stress would not only modify 

the water circulation but would act on the surface oil film directly. Thus, two sets of wind 

data are required. One set must be obtained 

along with simultaneous accurate measurements of water currents in order to establish 

the correlation between the w,inds and the nontidal drift. The second set, which may be derived from past observations, must define the 

variability (direction, magnitude, and duration) of the wind stress. The adequacy of the 

existent information should be evaluated in 

terms of the requirements of the latter set. 

The definition of the variability of the wind 

velocity (hence wind stress) over the Balti1nore 

Canyon Trough area depends on data that outline both the temporal and spatial scales of the 

velocity field. Measurements of short duration 

or over limited parts of the area, such as those 

included in reports listed earlier that deal with 

sea-air interaction, clearly do not meet these 

criteria. Likewise, wind statistics, such as those 

published by the Chief of Naval Operations 

(1955), the U.S. Department of Comn1erce 

(1959) and the U.S. Naval Oceanographic 

Office (1963), describe only average conditions 

whereas modeling the winds requires data that 

can characterize the random behavior of the 

wind, particularly the deviations from the 

mean, over the entire region. 

The compendium by the U.S. Naval Weather 

Service Command ( 1970) comes closest to lneeting the requirements for wind data. This compendium summarizes the surface-wind observa11 

tions that have been made aboard vessels since 

the late 1800's within discrete areas off the 

North American coast. Volume 2, in particular, 

treats those observations for a subarea bounded 

by latitudes 38° and 40°N., by longitude 72°W., 

and by the coast (fig. 2), a subarea which includes most of the Baltimore Canyon Trough 

area. For this subarea (and others a:s well), the 

percentage frequency of wind direction by 

speed and by hour are given on a monthly 

basis. Thus, wind direction, wind magnitude, 

and time are correlated. As a result, one can 

determine the probability of observing a wind 

from a given direction, within a specified speed 

range, at a specified hour during a particular 

month. 

The compendium by the U.S. Naval Weather 

Service Command (1970), however, has several 

shortcomings. First, the basic wind observations are probably biased toward lower values; 

whenever possible, ships in transit avoid bad 

weather, the result being that fewer wind observations are made within storm areas than 

in areas with more clement conditions. Second, 

the compendium does not give statistics on the 

frequency, size, .and history of storms ; during 

storms, the movement of oil on the sea surface 

is likely to be the greatest. Finally, the duration of the winds cannot be evaluated from 

these data. Because oil spills are likely to last 

for days (and even weeks), any evaluation of 

surface motion is incomplete without estimates 

of the persistence of winds from different directions and of the turning of the winds with 

time. 

Suspended M atte'i' 

The movement and dispersai of spilled oil 

may be aided by the inclus,ion of suspended matter; the density of oil may be increased by the 

incorporation of particles at sea surface, and, 

consequently, oily debris may sink to intermediate water depths or to the sea floor. Whether 

or not suspended matter is a viable dispersive 

agent wihin a particular area depends on its 

concentrations and composition within the surface waters. 

Over most of the Baltimore Canyon Trough 

area the concentrations of suspended matter 

are rather low. Manheim and others (1970) 

studied the distribution of suspended solids 
...,.a. 

~ 

TABLE 2.-Number of drifters released on the shelf of the Middle Atlantic Bight (column A) and percentage recovered from North American 

shores (column B), 1961-70 (from Bumpus, 1974) 

QUADRANGLE LOCATION 

LAT0 N LONG0 W 

37-38 74-75 

II 37-38 75-76 

III 38-39 73-74 

~ 

A B 

115 0 

233 9 

95 0 

~ 

A B 

137 0 

227 6 

156 0 

IV 38-39 74-75 1050 0 1050 

v 39-40 72-73 177 0 230 0 

VI 39-40 73-74 711 639 

VII 39-40 74-75 65 0 50 0 

37-38 74-75 125 13 95 

II 37-38 75-76 155 25 160 17 

III 38-39 73-74 95 4 95 4 

IV 38-39 74-75 165 18 125 14 

v 39-40 72-73 70 17 140 12 

VI 39-40 73-74 160 3 135 2 

VII 39-40 74-75 70 29 40 30 

MAR 

A B 

115 2 

234 10 

185 0 

APR 

A B 

MAY 

A B 

DRIFT BOTTLES 

145 2 178 

318 8 276 12 

85 0 171 3 

JUN 

A B 

193 

353 8 

85 

JUL 

A B 

245 8 

359 11 

171 5 

AUG 

A B 

82 10 

228 29 

169 8 

SEP 

A B 

202 3 

366 17 

195 

OCT 

TB 

124 2 

199 1l:l 

244 0 

~335 4 1165 11 1360 22 1154 11 1160 13 1279 23 1304 19 1285 

346 0 168 3 196 175 294 2 274 4 331 0 299 0 

859 5 554 23 644 12 615 15 866 13 823 18 896 14 511 5 

125 4 40 15 70 39 65 14 66 29 131 24 160 22 120 l3 

SEABED DRIFTERS 

85 142 6 70 120 3 135 67 15 179 11 110 6 

130 26 161 11 115 17 185 11 220 15 207 14 253 18 200 28 

159 6 85 5 185 180 4 100 5 260 5 258 6 135 9 

296 21 85 24 210 21 170 21 165 35 311 24 280 23 243 39 

140 4 94 5 96 4 90 2 205 5 225 9 215 9 160 10 

265 25 125 6 150 27 135 36 185 30 245 40 310 36 220 31 

149 26 40 25 70 43 65 54 65 60 125 50 160 46 110 53 

J'iQY_ 

A B 

138 0 

259 

12) 0 

1251 

221 0 

784 

127 l:l 

lULl 22 

135 33 

85 11 

155 35 

1b0 8 

165 28 

70 50 

DEC 

A 1:1 

9Ll 0 

181 u 

lL) I) 

1091 u 

163 u 

703 0 

l:lU U 

l:l5 l3 

95 38 

6) 1:> 

75 31 

120 lU 

8) 4Ll 

40 30 
along three well-s.am1pled longitudinal lines over 

the inner, central, and outer parts of the shelf 

in this area. They found (for May and June) 

that areas having appreciable amounts of suspended matter in the surface waters were restricted to within a few kilometers of the coast. 

The total concentrations over the inner shelf 

ranged between 0.125 and 1.00 mg/1 (millig.ram 

per liter), whereas those over the central and 

outer shelf were less than 0.125 mg/1. Similar 

concentrations were found across the area during September (Meade and others, 1970, 197 4). 

The par~ticulate matter in this area is dominated by biogenic detritus produced by shelf 

organisms (Meade, 1972). During the MayJune sampling period, combustible organic matter accounted for 40 to 60 percent (by weight) 

of the suspensate in the surface waters over the 

inner shelf, whereas the proportion of organic 

matter was even ,gr·eater ( 60 to 90 percent) 

further offshore (Manheim and others, 1970). 

Meade and others (1974) observed a similar 

change across the shelf during Se,ptember, although the combustible organic fraction in the 

surface waters over the inner shelf at that time 

was usually between 60 and 80 percent. Micros·copic examination of samples that were obtained in the spring reve,aled that mineral 

grains coarser than 4 micrometers constituted 

less than 3 percent of the total suspended matter in the surface waters seaward of the longshore zone (Manhe1im and others, 1970). 

The concentrations and compositions that 

have been observed indic,arte that suspended 

matter is not likely to have an .appreciable effect on the movement and dispersion of oil that 

may be spilled over the Baltimore Canyon 

Trough .area. The measurements by Manheim 

and others (1970), in particular, show that low 

concentrations prevail throughout the area even 

during the spring phytoplankton bloom. The 

small terrigenous component within the suspensate throughout the year is due to the nearshore-estuarine circulation which transports the 

small amount of fine-grained river sediments 

that escapes the estuaries back into the estuaries and coastal wetlands ; only a small percentage of the total river sediment input crosses 

this part of the shelf into the deep sea (Meade, 

1972). Moreover, because of the lack of terrigenous sediments and the predominance of 

biogenic detritus, the average density of the 

suspended matter in this area is probably quite 

low. Thus, even with greater concentrations, the 

suspended matter would probably not have a 

pronounced effect on the sinking rate of spilled 

oil. No measurements of suspended matter, 

however, have been made in this ar·ea after the 

passage of large storms or hurricanes. Such 

measurements have been made for the surface 

waters across the shelf off Cape Lookout, N.C.; 

the concentrations of the suspended matter over 

the inner shelf were increased significantly, 

whereas changes over the central and outer 

shelf were small (Rodolfo and others, 1971). 

A similar condition can be expected within the 

Baltimore Canyon Trough area. 

13 

SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS FOR 

FUTURE RESEARCH 

The adequacy of the existent data differs for 

each of the factors that have been considered 

for the Baltimore Canyon Trough area. The 

mean thermohaline structure is p·erhaps the 

most accur•ately defined factor because of the 

adequate number of temperature and salinity 

observations in tim·e as well as over areal extent. Across this part of the shelf both the 

monthly and seasonal variations are known 

from existent data. In view of the rather long 

time required for pronounced changes, a determination of the average thermohaline structure for shorter periods of time seems unwarranted. 

The circulation of the water, on the other 

hand, is poorly known. Drifter data have provided general estimates of the surface and nearbottom flow across the Baltimore Canyon 

Trough area but without due regard to smallscale changes in the velocity field. Only a few 

direct current measurements have been made 

within this area, and these are restricted with 

regard to time, location over the shelf, and 

position within the water column. The greatest 

deficiency, however, is the lack of quantitative 

understanding of the relationship between the 

nontidal drift and its basic driving mechanisms. 

Studies by Haight (1942), Howe (1962), and 

McClennen (1973) have shown that the effects 

of the winds and the pressure gradient (due 

to the runoff and the thermohaline structure) 
can be recognized within the measured flow, but 

the exact contribution of each force to the net 

drift has not been determined. 

Quantitative correlations are possible only if 

accurate measurements of the nontidal drift 

and its basic driving mechanisms can be made 

simultaneously and in such a way that the 

spatial and temporal scales of the velocity field 

are included. In order to determine such correlations, the net flow throughout the water 

column should be measured at strategic locations across the shelf during all seasons and 

under storm as well as calm conditions. Presently, Eulerian methods (possibly moored current-·meter arrays) can be used to measure subsurface drift, whereas both Eulerian and Lagrangian methods (possibly transmitting or 

responding drogues) can be employed to determine the surface flow. Concurrently, the 

te~mperature and salinity should be determined 

in sections across the shelf near whe:re direct 

current measurements are being made, in order 

to assess the flux of fresh and saline water. 

With simultaneous observations of the ambient 

weather conditions, the wind--induced component of the net drift can be defined (and subsequently estimated). 

The variations in the winds and the wind 

stress are also inadequately known for the Baltimore Canyon Trough area. The compendium 

by the U.S. Naval Weather Service Command 

( 1970) outlines the relationships between wind 

direction, wind magnitude, and time, but it 

does not give statistics on the frequency, magnitude, and history of storms or the persistence 

of the winds from various directions. Moreover, 

the basic wind observations that were used in 

this study are probably biased towards lower 

values because reporting ships usually try to 

avoid storms. 

The necessary information on wind patterns 

within the Baltimore Canyon Trough area may 

be obtained by re,examining the historical data. 

The records that should be used in this case 

(because of the spatial and temporal coverage) 

are all the ship weather reports that have been 

made for this area since the 1800's and that 

have been archived at the National Climatic 

Center in Asheville, N.C. These observations, 

which can be purchased on reels of magnetic 

tape, should be edited for gross errors, cor14 

rected for bias toward fair weather, and then 

sorted by subare~a and time. After this process, 

statistical parameters that might characterize 

the variability of the winds and wind stress 

(including time series) could be computed. 

Suspended matter is probably not an important dispersive agent for spilled oil in the Baltimore Canyon Trough area be~cause of its low 

concentrations and biogenic composition (characterized by low density) within the surface 

waters. The characteristics of the suspended 

solids change very little throughout the year, 

especially over the central and outer parts of 

the shelf, because of the nearshore-estuarine 

circulation along this stretch of the coast. Although the suspended matter after the passage 

of large storms has not been studied in this 

area, the resultant changes are likely to be small 

and localized. 

Of those factors that may effect or influence 

the movement and dispersal of spilled oil, the 

winds and the circulation of the water are inadequately defined by the existent data. Therefore the movement of potential oil spills in this 

area cannot be reliably predicted. According to 

the deductive approach outlined earlier (fig. 3), 

this deficiency, in turn, means that subareas for 

intensive (baseline) studies cannot now be delineated. Although one might argue that baseline studies should not be so restricted and 

should encompass the entire area, the size of 

this region renders this argument impractical. 

The main result of this study is to point out 

that inadequacie,s exist in the data even for 

those sections of the Continental Shelf toward 

which a relatively great deal of previous research has been directed. The inadequacies of 

the existent data in the Baltimore Canyon 

Trough area are partly caused by a previous 

lack of technology, the complexity and variability of the shelf circulation and its driving 

mechanisms, and the tremendous amounts of 

time, money, and effort that are required for 

the collection and synthesis of this type of data. 

Above all, we are now addressing ourselves to 

a new problem resulting from man's interaction 

with his environment. As the data indicate, 

most of the previous studies in this area were 

directed toward different goals; thus, it would 

have been fortuitous if the existent data had 

fulfilled the new requirements. 
These inadequacies are not likely to be either 

quickly or easily rectified. Direct current measurements in the Baltimore Canyon Trough area, 

for example, should be made, at the very least, 

for a full year and during times of inclement 

weather conditions when the chances of obtaining reliable data are uncertain. Lead times to 

obtain the necessary data for decisions on petroleum exploration and production on the Outer 

Continental Shelf should be anticipated. 

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16 

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{: IJ.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1974-543-586/ 148 

17