SS, ) HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. 

3d Session. { I No. 344.

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

WATER-SUPPLY

AND

IERIGATION PAPERS

OF THE

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

No. 4

A KECONNOISSANCE IN SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON.

WASHINGTON

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1897
UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

CHARLES D. WALCOTT, DIKBCTOE,

A RECONNOISSANCE IN SODTHEASTERN WASHINGTON

BY

ISRAEL COOK RUSSELL

WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

1897
CONTENTS.

Introduction _.__.._._._._.._._..__..--_.______--_--,-____-.-----._------- . 9

The region examined -___-..__.__._-.._.-___.--._--._.-.-.---- 9

Mode of travel-__.__.____.._..-___.-___...._._-----..-- ..... 10

Climate-__--_._--.____.__----_._-.._.__-_..___--_.._..__.._.._..._--.---- 10

Vegetation. __.___.________..__.___.______.__.-____...___-_-.----.---..--- 12

Topography and drainage. ---_-.--....___ .._._.._.-. -_..-----.------,,--- 14

Prevailing topographic features.....-...' ...................... 14

General characteristics of the drainage ___.__.-.-----.--.-.- -- 18

Snake River.....................................-..--........ 19

WallaWallaRiver..-..............-.-.:-.....-... ...-...-.- 21

Tokanon River _...,.-..............-.-.....-.-.---. -..--...-. 23

Deadman Creek ____.__________-___.-___ .-_.--_ .............. 24

Alpowa and Asotin creeks ...................... ............. 24

Grande Ronde River-.---.---.-.-._--_-----------.-- -------- 25

Palouse River...____.______________-._--__.__..- .-..---.--.. 26

Sj)okane River......................... ... ----------------- 27

Precipitation formerly more abundant than now. ------------- 28

Geological formations _._ _....__.___.____._-..__-__--.-_.--_----.-.------- 29

Metamorphic rocks..._.._.__.._.-__ .--____-__--_.-_--..---.--------- 30

Gneiss at Granite Point ---..-...-----------.--.-.--.------'--. 30

Schists at Buffalo Rock _.--_ ...........-. _......-..-.-...- 31

Schists at Wild Goose Creek ............_.. ..-........---.--- 32

Granite, schist, quartzite, etc., north of Snake River.......... 36

KamiackButte.--.-.-.----.----.-.------..-----.-------_------ 37

SteptoeButte..---__---.--__..--_..----.--.:.. .....-.----.i-.- 38

Kittitas system.........................._....:.....-.,.-.-.-....-.._.- 40

Columbia lava...-...._-...-.....-....--..-.-.--. _ _. _.---_-.----.-. 40

Origin........._.........-...-......,-....-...-...--.-.-...-.- 40

Extent........-......---....-......-...--.-------..-.-------- 42

Thickness..................................................... 43

Character of the rock..............-.....-.-.----..--------..- 43

Columnar structure.......-..............-..--....--.-..-..-.- 44

Scoriaceous surfaces and amygdaloids..... .........._. ...... 46

Extent and thickness of individual sheets.---..---------------- 48

Ntimber of overflows............ -.-...--..---...-.---.-.-..-. 48

Geological age................... ...--...-...-.-.---.---.---- 49

Road material......................... .. ..-.---....---..... 49

Artesian wells--_.......-...__ ............................... " 49

Clay and gravel interstratified with the Columbia lava....---..---...-- 50

Yakima Valley .....................,............^............ 50

Southeastern Washington......._.............-.....-..-.-....- 50

Walla "Walla Valley.-.-.-.....-,.-.-..-.--.----...-...---....- 51

Asotin country..---...................--...--...---------.--- 51

5
6 CONTENTS.

Geological formations Continued. Page. 

Clay and gravel interstratified with the Columbia lava Continued.

Palouse country..-.-__.___________._.__.____................. 51

Spokane _______.__________._________._._._____-____._._..____. 51

Deposits of volcanic dust and lapilli.........1................. 54

Resume ......._............_....-_......_.....---....---.-...- 55

John Day system. ...................................^................ 55

River terraces..................._....................-..........-...- 56

Soils _._-.__._.....___.___.._..__.___...___.__________.-...-....._.__- 57

Origin of soils..........._..._...,..-.... .........-.--.--.-......- 57

Soils of the valleys and canyons..--.------.-.-------.----.--.--.-. 58

Soil of the wheat lands... _.........--..-..........-----....---.. 58

Topography of the wheat lands. _.---.-----.-.....--.-....-..---., 64

Irrigation ................................................................ 69

Region south of Snake River.._____._._________-.___--.._._... 69

Snake River Canyon............_---__.-.-_...---...-.--.-.-.- 73

The Palouse country ..................-........-....._........ 75

A topographic map.----.--.-.-.----.----.--..---..----.--.--- 75

Artesian water supply..........................----.......-.--.----.. .-.. 75

General conditions _-----,_____._.--_---_--.------_---_-.-------.. 75

Local conditions...............................-..-----..-----.... 78

Existing wells.......---............---..-....--..--.-------...-.- 79

Well sat Pullman... ......................................... 79

Wells at Moscow, Idaho..._...--..-..--.......--.-.--..-..-.- 81

Wells at Palouse _.____................. .................... 81

Wellat Garfield..._---_____._..--..---------.---------._-.__- 82

James Walter's well...... ................................... 82

Other wells.-...-.--.-..---....--..---......---.-----.--... .... 82

Artesian conditions south of Snake River ........r ................ 83

Wells in alluvium_....._.-........--.------..--.-..--...-..--.-.. 85

Waterworksat Walla WaUa.-...-.--------.-.-..-.--..-.-------.- 86

Conclusions _______.__._______.__._._____-___:...__----__---.--___. 87

An outline sketch of the geological history of southeastern Washington... - 88

ILLUSTRATIONS

PLATE I. Sketch map of southeastern Washington........-.--.-.-........ 10

II. Topography of basaltic plateau near Pullman .......... ........ 14

III. Wheat lands near Moscow --.--..--.._----.-....__...--......-.. 58

IV. View of Pullman from agricultural college building -.-.--.---.. 60

V. Water wheel lifting water for irrigation _-.......-...-.......-.. 74

VI. Artesian well at Pullman ________.._-----.-_.__._.____-_._._..__ 80

VII. Views on Lewiston irrigation canal ..--.........------.-........ 90

FIG. 1. Section of lava flow and lake beds at Spokane....--....------...- 53

2. Ideal section of an artesian basin............................ .... 77

3. Ideal section showing the thinning of a porous stratum _____.__. 77
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, 

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY,

DIVISION OF HYDROGRAPHY,

Washington, February 17, 1897.

SIR: I have the honor to transmit herewith a paper entitled "A 

Reconnoissance in Southeastern Washington," by I. C. Russell, professor of geology at the University of Michigan, and to recommend 

that it be published in the series of pamphlets upon water supply and 

irrigation. During his long, connection with this Survey Professor 

Russell obtained such familiarity with the western part of the United 

States that it seemed desirable to secure his services in the continuation of the examination of the water resources. He has already 

published in Bulletin No. 108 a description of the geologic structure 

in and adjacent to the drainage basin of Yakima River, Washington, 

and the great plains of the Columbia to the east of this area, giving 

especial attention to the occurrence of artesian waters. The field 

work of the last season was to a certain extent a continuation of this 

examination still farther to the east and south, covering areas in 

southeastern Washington, northeastern Oregon, and adjacent portions of Idaho. The. region, though not arid, depends for its development upon more complete methods of utilizing the water supply, and 

this in turn rests upon a thorough knowledge of the underground 

structure. The latter, therefore, has been examined and described 

at some length, as preliminary to a discussion of the employment of 

the water resources.

Very respectfully, F. H. NEWELL,

Hydrograplier in Charge. 

Hon. CHARLES D. WALCOTT,

D-irector United States Geological Survey.

7
A RECONNOISSANCE IN SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON.

BY ISRAEL C. RUSSELL

I INTRODUCTION.

Acting under the instructions of Mr. F. H. Newell, hydrographer 

of the United States Geological Survey, I made an examination of 

the geology of the southeastern portion of the State of Washington 

in the summer of 1896 for the purpose of ascertaining how far the 

nature and position of the rocks of that region favor the hope of 

obtaining artesian water. The time devoted to field work extended 

from August 11 to September 21. The region traversed embraces 

about 5,000 square miles. It will be seen at once, from the time 

available and the extent of territory examined, that nothing more 

than a general, or, perhaps more accurately, a preliminary, reconnoissance was aimed at. The conditions, however, are unusually favorable for rapid geological exploration, the region being practically 

free from forests and the rocks nearly horizontal. For these reasons 

more confidence, I think, can be placed in the results obtained than 

at first thought might seem warrantable.

The region examined. The country chosen for the commencement 

of my studies is that portion of southeastern Washington which lies 

south of Snake River. By referring to the accompanying map, it 

will be seen that a well-defined region, bordered on the south by 

Oregon, on the east by Idaho, on the north by Snake River, and on 

the west by the Columbia, may be briefly designated as lying south 

of Snake River. It is frequently spoken of as the " Walla Walla 

country," for the reason that Walla Walla is the principal town, or 

perhaps because the whole of it was formerly included in Wallawalla 

County. 1 At present this region is divided into four counties, namely, 

in their order from west to east, Wallawalla, Columbia, Garfield, and 

Asotin.

1 Wallawalla County was established in 1854, and originally embraced a much wider territory 

than is mentioned above, as it extended from the Cascade Mountains eastward to beyond the 

present eastern boundary of Washington.

9
10 A EECONNOISSANCE IN SOUTHEASTERN^ WASHINGTON. [so.4

The region bounded as described above embraces about 4,000 

square miles. In order to learn its geological history, however, it was 

found desirable to make an excursion southward into Oregon as far as 

Wallowa, about 30 miles in a straight line south of the WashingtonOregon boundary, and another northward, traveling by rail, through 

the eastern border of the "Palouse country," as far as Spokane. The 

hasty reconnoissance northward included a visit to Pullman, Palouse, 

Garfield, and Spokane. Short excursions were made from each of 

these towns, and the more general features in the geology of their 

environs were ascertained. The excursions mentioned were of much 

assistance in understanding the geology of the region south of Snake 

River, which is the portion of Washington definitely considered in this 

report.

Mode of travel. Southeastern Washington is largely a rich agricultural region. The cultivated lands are inclosed by wire fences, 

and roads have been laid out through the greater portion of it in a 

rectangular system governed by section lines. Farmhouses are 

numerous, except in the more arid western portion and in the Blue 

Mountains. The geological traveler has to take account of these 

conditions in planning his journey.

To facilitate my work and to be able to reach all parts of the region 

to be examined, I chose to "camp out." At Walla Walla I hired two 

men, Messrs. F. W. De Forest and A. C. Rud, to act as cook and 

teamster, respectively. We had a two-horse farm wagon, a saddle 

horse, tents, cooking utensils, etc. To one familiar with the vicissitudes of exploration in unsettled regions, camp life in southeastern 

Washington offers but few attractions. Nearly every night we 

camped near a farmhouse, and obtained hay for our horses from the 

farmer's barns, and in many instances wood for our camp fire from 

his wood pile. Our camps were of necessity at localities that could 

be reached with a wagon, but by making side trips with a saddle 

horse or on foot I was enabled to visit practically all localities that 

seemed to offer opportunities for gaining information concerning the 

geology of the country.

The accompanying map (PL I), on which the routes followed are 

shown in a general way, will serve to indicate to some extent how 

much of this report is based on actual observation and what degree 

of confidence can be placed in it.

CLIMATE.

The climate of south-central Washington, in the region about Pasco, 

for example, is decidedly arid. The annual rainfall, judging from 

weather records in neighboring towns, as Kennewick, Sunnyside, etc., 

must be less than 5 inches. To the east and west of this arid region 

a gradual increase in humidity is shown by changes in the character 

of the vegetation. The nature of the climate on the eastern portion
U. 8. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 4 PL. I

10

SCALE

ZO 3O 4O 50 MILES

SKETCH MAP OF SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON.
RUSSELL.] CLIMATE. 11

of the plateau which occupies nearly all of southeastern Washington 

is shown to some extent by the following weather records: 1

Mean precipitation and temperatures for 1S95.

Locality.

Pullman _____ ______ _____..

Rosalia _. .___ _ ____._.___

Spokane _ . ..-_.... ______

Walla WaUa.____-__-_--_-._.

Precipitation.

Inches.

7.37

15.00

13.69

13.46

14.89

Temperature.

o ~n*

45.6

48.1

53.1

The mean annual precipitation at Spokane for a period of fourteen 

years was 17.94 inches, the summer average being 6.77 and the winter 

average 11.17 inches. At Walla Walla, for a period of eight years, 

the mean annual precipitation was 16.80 inches, of which 5.96 inches 

fell in the summer season and 10.84 inches in winter.

The average annual rainfall throughout the eastern portion of 

Washington, over a belt of country about 50 miles broad and extending southward from Spokane River to the Blue Mountains, may probably be taken at 15 to 17 inches. Some years it is considerably less 

than this, as is shown by the records given above for 1895, and again 

may exceed this amount, which is assumed as a general average. 

Westward from this belt a gradual decrease is shown by the character 

of the natural vegetation, and by a decrease and final cessation of 

agriculture.

An interesting feature in the precipitation is the manner in which 

it is distributed throughout the year, and the nature of the rain and 

snowfall. Precipitation is greatest in December and January, and is 

then principally in the form of snow; July, August, and September are 

particularly rainless months. The rain usually falls gently. At no 

time, I have been informed, is it torrential, except at wide intervals, 

when what are termed " cloudbursts " occur. The fact that precipitation is normally in the form of gentle showers or snow is of vast 

importance to agriculture. The meteoric waters are absorbed and 

retained by the fine, deep soils, and do not gather in rills, except 

when the ground is frozen.

In winter, when the land is snow-covered, warm southwest winds, 

termed " chinook "winds, sometimes blow, and the snow evaporates 

and disappears rapidly without melting. This is unfavorable to agriculture, as much moisture is thus lost which would be absorbed by the 

soil if the snow were melted slowly. Again, in spring and summer,

1 Compiled from the First Annual Report of the Bureau of Statistics, Agriculture, and Immigration [of the State of Washington], by J. H. Price, Olympia, 1896, pp. 22-S4.
12 A EECONNOISSANCE IN SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON. [NO.4.

"hot winds" sometimes wither the grain, and then immense damage 

is done.

No measures of the rain and snow falling on the Blue Mountains 

have been made, but the precipitation in that section is known to be 

much more abundant than on the lower plateau to the ndrth. I have 

been informed by persons familiar with the Blue Mountains' that the 

snowfall in their higher portions frequently has a depth of 12 to 15 

feet. In deep gulches and under the shelter of the forest it remains 

unmelted until late in the spring. It is this abundant snowfall that 

insures the permanency of the many creeks which flow from the mountains. Evidently, in a region where there is such a delicate balance 

between climatic conditions that admit of profitable agriculture and 

those that are accompanied by a failure of crops, care should be taken 

to preserve the forests on the mountains, for the reason, if for no 

other, that they prevent the blowing away of snow, and by sheltering 

it from the sun delay its melting.

The range in temperature and precipitation of southeastern Washington is shown by the following averages, by counties: l

Temperature and precipitation, by counties.

County.

Columbia - - -

Garfleld-..-.

Lincoln . ... 

Spokane .... 

Wallawalla -

Whitman ... 

Douglas.....

Locality,

Snake River 

Valley. 

.... .do. 

.....do-.-.....

" Big Bend". -

East........... 

Snake River 

VaUey.

"Big Bend" ..

General elevation cultivated ofportions.

1,685

1,600 

1,600 

1,900 

930

3,400

Length of record, in 

years.

6

0

4 

10 

14 

10

5 

5

00

0

1

a3

1 

1

1 

1 

1 

1

3

0

Temperature.

Mean 

annual.

49.1

53.1

47.4 

47.5 

53.1

46.0 

47.4

Highest on 

record.

109

113

100 

105 

103 

108

98 

104

Lowest on 

record.

 15

 1 

 3 

-31 

 30 

-17

 19 

 30

Precipitation 

( rain and melted 

snow; inches and 

hundredths).

Average 

annual.

37.77

9.70 

13.93 

13.06 

17.94 

16.80

18.31 

13.70

Summer

average.

9.13

5.80

6.77 

5.96

6.73

Winter 

average.

18.65

8.13

11.17 

10.84

11.48

VEGETATION.

In the western portion of the area represented on the accompanying 

map (PI. I) the vegetation has the desert-like character found so commonly between the Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada-Cascade 

uplifts. Sage brush (Artemisia) growing in scattered clumps gives a 

monotonous, grayish-green tone to the desolate, treeless landscape. 

Of brighter green is the common greasewood, which is also familiar to

'First Annual Report of the Bureau of Statistics, Agriculture, and Immigration [of the State 

of Washington], by J. H. Price, Olympia, Washington, 1896, p. S3.
BTOBBLL.I VEGETATION. 13

every traveler in the more arid portions of the West. Beneath these 

desert shrubs bunch grasses grow abundantly, unless eaten off by 

stock, and in early spring the ground is beautified by many lovely 

blossoms.

As one travels eastward and gradually rises to the summit of the 

basaltic plateau which forms the greater part of eastern Washington, 

the desert shrubs disappear and the hillsides and valleys alike are 

clothed with bunch grasses and are destitute of trees and shrubs. In 

recent years cattle and horses ranging over these seemingly boundless pastures have eaten off the nutritious herbage and made the land 

practically a desert.

Before the plateau of southeastern Washington was cultivated, the 

bunch grasses extended all the way to the mountains of Idaho. The 

surface of the plateau was then one vast, rolling prairie. The Palouse 

River, which drains a portion of the plateau, derives its name, it is 

understood, from the French word "pelouse," meaning greensward, 

lawn, etc., and is descriptive of the region as it existed for many 

years after the coming of the white man.

The forests still retain the regions they originally occupied, although 

inroads have been made with the ax. The Blue Mountains are covered with a varied and beautiful open forest of pines, spruces, and 

tamaracks, which are valuable for lumber. With these more important trees grow cedars, mountain ash, the haw, and a multitude of 

wild roses and berry bushes. Similar vegetation clothes the mountains of Idaho and extends down the water courses that enter the 

plateau region between Spokane and Snake rivers. A few of the 

buttes in the "Palouse country," which rise like islands through 

the basalt of the plateau, are also scantily clothed with pines and 

spruces.

Along some of the streams there are scattered growths of cottonwood, alders, elders, willows, and roses growing in dense thickets. 

The cottonwood, however, seldom reaches the large size and picturesque development that is seen along the Yellowstone and on the 

border of many other streams in the Rocky Mountains. The canyon 

of Snake River, like the valley of the Columbia in its middle course, 

is treeless. Above Lewiston, however, cottonwood and occasionally 

a pine appears, and in the canyon of Grande Ronde groves of pine 

along the river's banks and on islands in midstream, as well as in 

lateral gorges, give an additional charm to that wild and picturesque 

region.

Over nearly all of the agricultural portions of southeastern Washington wood of any kind is wanting, and all supplies for buildings, 

fences, fires, etc., are brought with much labor from the mountains. 

Wood and water are each highly prized in most of the agricultural 

regions. Water is frequently carried in tank wagons for a distance of 

10 or 15 miles and stored in cisterns for domestic use and the watering
14 A RECONNOISSANCE IN SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON. [NO. 4.

of stock. The conditions that have given large portions of Washington wonderfully rich and easily cultivated soils have been less favorable to man in other directions.

TOPOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE.

Prevailing topographic features. The portion of Washington lying 

to the south of Spokane River, together with what is termed the "Big 

Bend country " a region in the central part of the State, bounded on 

the north and west by Columbia River is, when minor features are 

disregarded, a great plateau. This plateau has been moderately disturbed by movements in the earth's crust which have caused elevations at certain localities and depressions at others; the uniformity of 

the surface has also been broken by stream erosion, and great canyons 

have been formed. The plateau is lowest in its southwestern portion, 

where the elevation above the sea, as at Pasco, is but 386 feet, and 

rises, particularly on its eastern border, to a general level of between 

2,000 and 2,500 feet. The general slope in the region between Spokane River and the Blue Mountains is westward. In the absence of 

accurate topographical surveys, it is impossible to state just what is 

the slope of the general plateau surface, but from such information 

as is in hand a broad belt adjacent to the Washington-Idaho boundary appears to be but gently inclined. The chief portion of the 

descent from the eastern border to the depressed central region near 

the Columbia is due largely to erosion.

An exception to this general and very gentle westerly inclination of 

the plateau's surface occurs in the extreme south-central portion of 

Washington, beginning a mile or two south of Wallula, on the Columbia, and extending far into Oregon. In that region a large block of 

the originally level plateau has been tilted so as to incline gently 

southeastward. The Columbia below Wallula has cut a steep-walled 

canyon some 600 or 800 feet deep through this upraised region. Again, 

in what may be designated as the southeast corner of Washington, 

and extending far southward into Oregon, there has been another 

upheaval which has formed the Blue Mountains. These so-called 

mountains are essentially a low, flat dome, elevated about 2,000 feet 

above the general plateau surface. The uplift is so broad in comparison with its height that it is in reality a plateau, although now deeply 

dissected by stream erosion.

The reader will be greatly assisted as he reads the following pages 

if he will bear in mind that southeastern Washington, northward 

from the gentle uplift just mentioned, all the way to Spokane River, 

is a nearly uniform plateau, the general surface of which is inclined 

very gently westward. Over much of this vast region, embracing 

fully 25,000 square miles, and particularly in its eastern half, the 

country is so nearly level that no one on looking over it could distinguish any departure of the general surface from a plain. This
BASALTIC PLATEAU NEAR PULLMAN, WASHINGTON. 

Showing characteristic topography of the wheat lands.
RUSSELL.] TOPOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE. 15

plateau is, as will be explained later, the surface of a series of horizontal basaltic lava sheets, and will for convenience be spoken, of as 

the "basaltic plateau." On the east this plateau is bordered by the 

mountains of Idaho. The junction of the plateau with the mountains coincides in a general way, from Snake River northward, with 

the Washington-Idaho boundary.

The basaltic plateau is crossed from east to west by Snake River, 

which flows through a deep, steep-walled canyon. There are several 

streams that rise in the mountains of Idaho and in the Blue Mountains 

of Washington and Oregon which traverse the plateau in deep, narrow, trench-like valleys, which in fact are true canyons. There are 

also a few small streams which have their sources on the nearly level 

plateau and flow through deep valleys, which again are frequently 

canyon-like. Although the plateau has been deeply cut by the streams 

flowing across it, yet broad, flat-topped interstream spaces still remain 

to show what would have been the character of the entire region if it 

had not been deeply dissected.

Standing on the plateau between the branches of the various streams 

that have sunk their channels deeply into the rocks, the valleys, canyons, and ravines are concealed from- view, and a limitless plain 

extends away to the horizon in all directions, or to the bordering 

mountains. In some regions, particularly in the "Palouse country," 

the surface of the plateau is roughened by short, rounded hills 50 

to 80 feet high; but in a.general view none of the hills are prominent, 

and they do not detract from the impression that the surface is essentially level. If one tries to travel in a straight line in any direction 

across the plateau, one soon learns that it has characteristics which 

are in marked contrast to its level surface. One may travel through 

the deeply sunken valleys and canyons for scores of mUes, and in the 

case of Snake River Canyon for over 150 miles continuously, and be 

shut in at all times by walls of rock that seem like mountain ranges 

on either hand.

On the plateau's surface solid rock is not in view unless it is in the 

walls of some neighboring canyon. The soil is fine and deep, and not 

a pebble is to be seen. In the canyons the somber walls on either side 

are formed of the edges of thick sheets of basalt, and frequently 

columnar precipices rise tier above tier, each step being from 50 to 

100 feet or more in height. The walls of the smaller canyons are in 

numerous instances from 500 to 1,000 feet high. The lateral canyons 

that join Snake River-have a depth of 2,000 feet, that being the general depth to which that master stream has dissected the plateau from 

Lewiston nearly to its junction with the Columbia.

The views beheld on the uplands and in the valleys are thus as 

strongly contrasted as if they belonged to .entirely different regions. 

As the railroads usually follow the valleys, a traveler is impressed 

with the prevalence of black basaltic rocks. In crossing the uplands,
16 A RECONNOISSANCE IN SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON. [NO.*.

the total absence of rock exposures over broad areas frequently leads 

one to wonder if solid rock actually exists at a moderate depth below 

the fine soil of the surface.

Where the general plateau rises to make the lower slopes of the Blue 

Mountains, and throughout that more elevated portion of the plateau, 

deep erosion has taken place, as well as deep rock disintegration and 

decay. The foothills of the Blue Mountains are rounded, and have 

beautifully curving outlines and contours. The first impression one 

gets on seeing these mountains from the north and west, as from the 

vicinity of Walla Walla, for example, is that they are composed of 

soft, easily eroded rocks. The similarity of the hills in slopes and 

general features to the forms assumed by elevations composed of 

unconsolidated clay or easily eroded shales, as they waste away 

beneath the beating of rain and are cut by rivulets and brooks, is so 

striking that one is astonished when one learns that the Blue Mountains are in reality composed of layer on layer of horizontally bedded 

basalt, a rock that is among the most resistant to mechanical wear of 

those commonly found on the earth's surface. As the reader will learn 

later, the basalt, although hard and resistant to forces tending to 

abrade it, yet yields with comparative rapidity to agencies which lead 

to disintegration and decay. The basalt in the region here considered 

weathers readily, and the loose products of disintegration are not carried away so rapidly as they are formed. A fine, soft, residual soil 

covers the land and imparts to nearly all its minor features the characteristic flowing outlines and gentle curves so common in regions 

where soft rocks alone occur. It is only in the canyons, even in the 

elevated and most completely dissected portion of the plateau forming 

the Blue Mountains, that the angular forms due to solid rock exposure 

attract attention.

The prevailing colors in the landscape to be seen on the plateau's 

surface, when not due to vegetation, are light yellowish-gray in the 

western part and dark brown the color of rich humus soil in the eastern portion. The bright reds and yellows so common in many regions 

of deep rock decay, especially where the climate is humid, nowhere 

meet the eye. Not a trace of the deep red so characteristic of the 

soils of Virginia, and of the southern Appalachian region generally, 

can be found in all of the deeply decayed surface of the basaltic 

plateau.

In a far-reaching view during the summer season over the surface 

of the plateau surrounding the 'Blue Mountains, except on the east, 

and also northward through Whitman and Spokane counties to Spokane River, the universal colors are brown and yellow the brown of 

plowed land and the golden of wheat fields. The wheat lands as a 

rule are sown but every other year, so that practically half of the 

land lies fallow each summer. After the harvest, when the stubble 

fields are plowed and the soil is moistened with rain, the fields become
TOPOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE. 17

dark brown and appear almost black. In the canyons, where one is 

overshadowed and shut in by walls of basalt, the tone of the landscape is always somber, and frequently oppressive. The black walls 

of rock find but little contrast in the scant vegetation. The polished 

and shining stems of the bunch grass, however, which grows on every 

jutting ledge and smooth talus slope, frequently clothe the dark 

precipices with a silken garment of pearly gray.

Throughout the entire region from the Blue Mountains northward 

to Spokane River, and westward from the mountains of Idaho for 100 

miles or more, the general features of the land are the same. The 

topography is young. The streams have not advanced far in their 

task of cutting away the rocks forming the plateau and of reducing 

the land to sea level. This appointed task, although well begun, has 

been delayed, and over the central and western portions of the plateau 

has been entirely checked by a decrease in rainfall. It is a relief to 

leave this region of broad plateau surface and narrow trench-like 

valleys not only of young but infantile drainage and visit the 

extreme southeastern corner of Washington, where a similar work 

has been carried on more energetically. The Snake River has there 

cut through the eastern flank of the Blue Mountain uplift and excavated a canyon about 4,000 feet deep and not less than 15 miles broad 

from brink to brink. An important tributary river, the Grande 

Ronde, rising in many branches in the Blue Mountains, has excavated 

an intricate, series of branching canyons, the main trunk of which is 

as deeply sunken in the rocks as the magnificent gorge of the master 

river. In this region the topographic features were originally the 

same as in the less completely dissected portions of the lava-covered 

country, but for certain reasons the work of the streams is further 

advanced. The spaces between the streams are no longer flat-topped 

remnants of the plateau's surface, but the entire region bristles with 

sharp-crested ridges and is diversified in a wonderful manner with 

spires and pinnacles.

If a person climbs to the summit of one of the higher ridges and 

gains an elevation of about 3,000 feet above the canyons on either 

side, he will see that many other ridges rise to approximately the same 

heights and that what appears to be a group of sharp, angular mountains, separated by a labyrinth of canyons with silvery threads of 

water in their bottoms, is in reality a deeply dissected plateau. The 

topography is still young, although approaching maturity. The 

streams have not yet widened their valleys materially, but rapid 

decay has crumbled the walls between. The region treated in this 

report thus furnishes splendid examples of the various stages in the 

process by which a plateau is eaten away by streams. If space permitted, it would be instructive to take the reader to the mountains of 

ancient crystalline rock surrounding the basaltic plateau on the east
18 A RECONNOISSANCE IN SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON. [NO.4.

and north and point out the characteristics of a region that has long 

been exposed to the rain, sunshine, and frost, and from which the* 

streams have been carrying their burdens of disintegrated rock for 

geological ages. We could thus learn what is meant by the term old 

topography. The forms of the original uplifts are lost, and only the 

remnants of once lofty mountains remain.

The bases of the old mountains were partially submerged by the 

overflow of molten lava that formed the plateau of southeastern 

Washington. The lava entered the valleys and gave them level floors 

of rock. Mountain spurs project into the plateau, like headlands 

along the ocean shore. Some of the old mountains, separated by 

erosion from their neighbors, were completely surrounded by the inundations of lava and riow rise as islands above its surface. Steptoe 

Butte is an example of these ancient peaks which project through the 

lava of the plateau. These interesting features in the topography of 

the border land between Washington and Idaho will be better understood, however, after the character and origin of the basaltic rock of 

that region are discussed.

General characteristics of the drainage. All of the lines of drainage in the portion of Washington here treated lead to Columbia River. 

The principal stream is Snake River, which flows across southeastern 

Washington from east to west in a deep canyon, which is the strongest natural boundary in the region. South of Snake River, all of the 

perennial streams rise in the Blue Mountains and flow in all directions, 

their courses being determined by the original slopes of the uplift. 'In 

the language of the geographer, these are "consequent" streams. All 

of them, as was stated in describing the general topographic features 

of the region, traverse deep gorges in the flanks of the Blue Mountain uplift, and in numerous instances, on gaining the less undisturbed 

plateau surrounding it, flow through deep canyons. The streams 

from the Blue Mountains, which are tributary to Snake River, join 

that stream in canyons that at their mouths are as deeply cut as the 

canyon of the main river.

Throughout the basaltic plateau north of Snake River the principal 

streams rise in the mountains of Idaho, and, with the exception of 

Spovo,ne River, have their sources near the Washington-Idaho boundary. In crossing the basaltic plateau, the valleys and canyons of 

these streams sink deeper and deeper. The minor streams from the 

mountain are tributary to two rivers the Palouse, which empties into 

Snake River, and the Spokane, which joins the Columbia before it 

makes its wide detour to the westward.

Besides the streams mentioned which, however, include nearly all 

the perennial surface water in the portion of the basaltic plateau 

under consideration there are minor streams, mere brooks, in fact, 

which rise in valleys excavated in the plateau when the rainfall was 

more abundant than at present, and are fed mainly by springs and the
RUSSELL.] TOPOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE. 19

general seepage from soil and rocks. The channels of many of the 

small streams are dry in summer, or their water may flow for a short 

distance, but fail to reach the main rivers. Some of these trunkless 

branches are indicated in the accompanying map (PL I), but as they 

are sensitive to minor climatic changes they vary materially in length 

from month to month, and almost from day to day, and can not be 

accurately plotted.

Snake River. As already stated, the principal river of the southeastern portioji of Washington is Snake River. With the exception 

of the Columbia, this is the only navigable river in Washington east of 

the Cascade Mountains. It has its source far to the eastward, in the 

vicinity of the Yellowstone National Park, and flows through southern Idaho. In what may be termed its middle course, for about 35 

miles, it forms the boundary between Washington and Idaho, and 

then bends abruptly westward, where Lewiston is situated, and for 130 

miles flows in a deep trench in the basaltic plateau to the Columbia.

At the southeast corner of Washington the canyon of Snake River 

is fully 4,000 feet deep, but below Asotin the height of its walls 

decreases, and thence to near its mouth it has a nearly uniform depth 

of 2,000 feet. The walls of the canyon are precipitous throughout, and 

in numerous instances are nearly vertical for a large portion of their 

height. This great gash in the rocks, of which the 160- miles below 

Mount Wilson is but a portion, has been worn by the river in dense, 

resistant rocks. The canyon walls throughout the region treated in 

this report are, with slight exceptions, formed entirely of the edges 

of horizontally bedded basalt. The weathering of the edges of the 

basaltic sheets has caused them to recede unequally and form steps 

or terraces in the faces of the precipices. Where the walls are steepest they present a series of narrow steps covered with soil and clothed 

with grasses, separating vertical rises of bare and frequently columnar 

rock, varying in height in most instances from 50 to 125 feet.

The canyon walls, to an observer from below, frequently appear to 

be nearly vertical, but the impression of their steepness gained from 

such a view is usually much exaggerated. Owing to talus slopes on 

the shelves and the fact that the escarpments of solid rock are frequently broken by side gulches, I think it is safe to say that nowhere 

is there a space half a mile in length up which one might not climb. 

Cattle and horses graze on the canyon walls in many places. Experience has made these animals nearly as sure-footed as goats, but 

bleached bones at the base of the precipice show that occasionally 

accidents happen to them.

The walls of the canyon are scored by steep lateral gulches, with 

buttress-like ridges standing between. Many tributary streams enter 

the canyon at the level of the river, and have curved and branching 

lateral canyons and gorges which extend away from the river 10 miles 

or more before gaining the surface of the plateau. The work performed by flowing water in excavating the numerous canyons and
20 A RECONNOISSANCE IN SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON. [NO.4.

valleys is impressive, and most striking examples of stream erosion 

meet one on every hand.

Snake River is a swift stream, the descent in the portion below 

Lewiston, as determined by*the United States Engineer Corps, being 

2.48 feet per mile, and is still engaged in corrading the bottom of its 

channel. Rapids due to solid rock occur at numerous localities. 1 

Many of these obstructions have been removed for the purpose of 

facilitating navigation, but at low-water stages danger still exists. 

Steamboats have ascended the river from its mouth to Wild Goose 

Rapids, a distance of about 170 miles; but owing to numerous rocks 

and shoals below Riparia, where a branch of the Union Pacific Railroad now crosses the river, navigation is practically confined to the 

portion of the river which lies between Riparia and Lewiston. Other 

navigable reaches of the river occur above Wild Goose Rapids, but 

they are beyond the region under consideration.

Measurements of the volume of Snake River are not necessary to 

impress the beholder with the fact that it is an important stream. 

Its broad, swift current assures one that the waters of a vast region 

are there journeying to the sea. At the lowest stages the river is in 

general about 1,000 feet broad. Measurements made by officers of 

the United State's Engineer Corps at Texas Rapids show that 26,000 

cubic feet of water flow past during each second. When the snow is 

melting on the mountains of Idaho and Wyoming the river rises from 

20 to 30 feet above its summer stage, and becomes a wild, rushing 

flood of muddy water. Its volume at such times must be in excess of 

100,000 cubic feet per second.

As has been stated, the river is still deepening its channel. But 

little lateral erosion has taken place, and no general flood plain borders its shores. Where the river forms sharp bends, more. particularly in the portion below Lewiston, there are frequently deposits of 

sand which rise a few feet above ordinary high-water stages. These 

"bars," as they are termed, are in some instances 200 or 300 acres in 

area. When planted with fruit trees and properly irrigated these 

light, sandy lands yield splendid crops of peaches, apricots, plums, 

grapes, etc. The warm climate of the canyon is especially favorable 

for fruit raising. Above Lewiston, where the canyon is deeper, and 

where certain changes occur in the character of the rocks inclosing 

it, the gorge is wider than where it crosses the basaltic plateau in its 

westward course, and the terr"aee-like lands in its bottom are of greater 

extent, although nowhere more than a few hundred feet broad.

An interesting episode in the history of Snake River Canyon is 

recorded by fragments of a high gravel terrace that occur in it. At

1 In connection with the fact that Snake River is still deepening its channel, it is of interest 

to note that Columbia River is engaged in a similar task. At the head of the steep-walled canyon through which the Columbia flows, below Wallula, ledges of basalt cross the stream, but 

steamers can generally traverse the deeper channels. This obstruction is due to movements, 

apparently still in progress, in a large block of the basaltic plateau which has been uplifted 

across the course of the stream, and for a time caused it to spread out and form a large lake.
HUSSEIN.] TOPOGEAPHY AND DKAINAGE. 21

almost any locality on the bank of the canyon an observer will have 

in view, usually on the concave side of a curve in the river course, a 

terrace of coarse gravel and sand, the surface of which is about 360 

feet above the stream. The descent from the flat surface of the terrace to the river is usually a smooth slope with an inclination of from 

18 to 22 degrees. The canyon was at one time filled from side to side 

with deposits of the character shown in the terrace and to a depth 

recorded by the level of the deposits remaining. The river has since 

reexcavated its canyon, leaving fragments, of the former filling at 

localities from which the current was deflected. The gravel and sand 

referred to show that the river, after excavating its canyon to its present depth, was checked in its rate of flow or so greatly overloaded 

that it could not carry away all the debris brought to it, and deposited 

its excess of load so as to raise its bed 360 feet. Subsequently, renewed energy, or a decrease in the supply of debris delivered to the 

river by its tributaries, allowed the stream to carry away the greater 

part of the material deposited.

The gravel deposit referred to extends into each tributary canyon. 

In such situations the lateral streams have cut modern channels 

through it, leaving terraces as in the main canyon. These gravel 

deposits are composed in part of worn and rounded fragments of 

basalt, but consist principally of quartzite, granite, and igneous rocks 

of older date than the basalt. The nature of this material shows that 

it was brought by Snake River from far up its course. The gravel 

was carried from the main canyon in some instances for several miles 

up the tributary canyons, as may be seen especially along Tokanon 

River at Starbuck, and checked the flow of the lateral streams. Small 

lakes were formed in some instances in the side canyons, owing to the 

abundant deposition of material at their mouths.

Terraces similar to the great terrace in Snake River Canyon occur 

along the upper Columbia on the border of Spokane River, and to a 

less marked degree in the canyons and valleys of the streams flowing 

from the Blue Mountains, showing that the widely extended influence 

which caused the streams to deposit a part of their loads affected a 

very large portion and probably the whole of the hydrographic basin 

of Columbia River at a comparatively recent date. The nature of 

the change which caused so many streams to partially fill their channels and then reexcavate them will be discussed later.

Walla WaUa Hiver. This is one of the few streams having riverlike proportions which rise within the region covered by the Columbia 

lava. Its various branches head in the northern and northwestern 

portions of the Blue Mountains and follow westerly courses. Their 

united waters, which enter the Columbia at Wallula, form a stream 

that in late summer has an average width of 50 to 60 feet, and discharges by estimate from 100 to 150 cubic feet per second. During 

higH-water stages their volume is increased many fold.
22 A RECONNOISSANCE IN SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON. [NO.4.

Iii common with all other streams in southeastern Washington, the 

Walla Walla is clear except after rains, and furnishes wholesome 

water for domestic use. Where the many branches of the river leave 

the mountains they are especially clear, for the reason that they are 

supplied by infiltration, and all matter in suspension has been 

removed. The Walla Walla and its branches furnish instructive 

examples of what geographers term "consequent" streams that is, 

streams which are directed in their course by the original surface 

slope of the land. As has been stated, the Blue Mountains are an 

upraised portion of the basaltic plateau. The uplift has the form, at 

the north at least, of a low, flat-topped dome, in which the rocks are 

horizontal except about the gently inclined margins. The general 

plateau surface to the northward, as already stated, slopes gently 

westward. The streams from the mountains radiate in all directions, 

but those which reach the lower plateau change their courses in 

obedience to the general slope of the surface in which they have 

sunken their channels. This is seen especially in Touchet River, 

the principal tributary of the Walla Walla from the north. This 

stream is formed by the union of several branches which start on the 

north side of the Blue Mountains and flow northward down the gentle 

slope of that uplift until the lower plateau is reached and then bend 

westward. The trunk stream of the Touchet has its direction determined by the westward slope of the plateau it traverses for 20 miles. 

This slope is not continued to the Columbia, however, but an upheaval 

of another portion of the tableland lying principally to the west of 

that river, and briefly described in the next paragraph, changes the 

direction of the Touchet and causes, it to flow southward for about 12 

miles before joining the Walla Walla.

Immediately south of Wallula is another block of the Columbia 

lava, which, as previously stated, has been gently tilted. The tilting 

is so moderate and affects such a large area that the edges of the lava 

sheets appear horizontal. The upraised area is bounded on the north 

by a line of cliffs-near the Columbia. When followed eastward, these 

cliffs lose the precipitous character and change to hill slopes which 

die away, some at a distance of 20 or 25 miles. This line of abrupt 

change in slope probably indicates the presence of a break and the 

upheaval of the rocks on its southern border that is, the uplift has 

been by faulting. In looking westward from the Blue Mountains, it 

is evident that the uplift just described has given a southeasterly 

slope to the surface of the country, which extends far southward into 

Oregon.

The Walla Walla River on leaving the Blue Mountains flows westward in a deep canyon, the direction of which was determined by the 

slope of the uplift. At the foot of the mountain it emerges as a surface stream, and is turned northward by the slope produced by the 

upheaval south of Wallula. Not-only does the branch of the Walla
RUSSELL.] TOPOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE. * . 23

Walla, for which the name of the trunk stream is retained, behave in 

the manner described, but several other branches, of which Cottonwood, Russell, and Mill creeks are the most important, also become 

surface streams on leaving the mountains. These various branches, 

where they come together in the vicinity of Whitman, about 6 miles 

west of Walla Walla, are depositing the loads they carry during floods 

and building up their channels and flood plains. On account of the 

filling that is in progress, some of the branches, notably Mill Creek, 

divide, after the manner of a stream on its delta, and contribute their 

waters to the Walla Walla through two or more mouths. As one continues on down the Walla Walla to its junction with the Columbia, 

its channel grows gradually deeper and deeper, and below the mouth 

of the Touchet and near Wallula is certainly 50 or 60 feet below the 

general surface.

This abnormal behavior of the Walla Walla and its branches has 

led to legislative enactments which determine what proportion of the 

waters should be allowed to flow through certain of the bifurcating 

channels.

The manner in which the streams near Whitman are raising their 

channels so as to allow their waters to divide is a matter of much geographical interest, as it indicates that movements in the basaltic plateau are still in progress. The depressed region between the Blue 

Mountains and the smaller uplift to the west is probably slowly sinking. The rate of this subsidence is such that the streams are barely 

able to keep pace with it by grading up their beds. During highwater stages, I have been informed, expansions of the streams occur 

which resemble lakes. The expanded waters of the creeks are then 

united and much of the individuality of the various channels is lost.

The several branches of the Walla Walla furnish excellent sources 

of supply for town water and for irrigating purposes. In another 

section of this report the manner in which Mill Creek is utilized at 

the city of Walla Walla will be described. For purposes of irrigation, 

in order to make full use of the natural conditions, it will be necessary 

to store the winter run-off in the canyons of the Blue Mountains and 

hold it for summer use. If this can be done economically, a very 

large portion of the rich lands along the Walla Walla and its tributaries 

can be made many times more productive than they are at present.

Tokanon River. This so-called river and its principal branch, the 

Pataha, rise on the north side of the Blue Mountains and enter Snake 

River through a deep canyon. The Tokanon and Pataha flow northward in their upper courses, their direction having been determined 

in their infancy by the slope of the surface, but before uniting they 

curve westward, in obedience to the gentle westward inclination of the 

plateau into which they have carved their channels. After the Pataha 

joins the Tokanon the latter flows west for 6 miles and then turns at 

a right angle on entering a gorge which leads it to Snake River, A
24 -A RECONNOISSANCE IN SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON. [N0.4.

careful survey would probably show that the Tokanon in its youth 

continued to flow westward and became tributary to the Touchet, but 

that it was diverted at the present site of Starbuck by a small highgrade stream that flowed to the Snake.

The Tokanon at its mouth is but a brook in summer, across which 

one may step on the larger stones strewn along its channel without 

wetting one's feet. The Pataha was dry in its lower course when I 

visited its valley in August, and had shrunk back as far as Pomeroy. The canyons and valleys through which these two streams flow 

are deep and out of all proportion to the streams that occupy them. 

In its lower course the Tokanon is nearly 2,000 feet below the general 

level of the adjacent plateau. Many other examples of this nature 

indicate that the streams of the basaltic plateau were formerly larger 

and more numerous than at present.

Deadman Creek. The creek with this doleful name, which, however, is suggestive of its own nearly terminated existence, is an 

exception to most of the streams of the basaltic plateau, for the 

reason that it does not rise in an elevated region, but is supplied in a 

feeble manner by the rains falling on a portion of the plateau that is 

almost completely cut off by deep canyons from all other portions. 

The deep, canyon-like valley through which it flows has a steep grade 

and many branches, some of which are now dry. Its catchment 

basin when the drainage was most vigorous was about 100 square 

miles in area, and the development of the streams had progressed 

until its numerous branches furnished a convenient avenue of escape 

for the waters that fell on every part. The stream in its days of vigor 

cut down its channel nearly to the present level of Snake River that 

is, to a depth of about 2,000 feet in the solid basalt. At present, as 

already stated, many of the once tributary valleys are dry and desolate, and the trunk stream is shrunken during the summer season to 

a mere rill. The soil throughout the valley is deep and rich, but 

there is no water for irrigation. The hillsides and the remnants of 

the plateau surface are also fertile, and fortunately absorb sufficient 

moisture from the light rains and winter snow to admit of their cultivation for wheat.

Alpowa and Asotin creeks. The drainage from the northeastern 

slope of the Blue Mountains in Washington is conducted to Snake 

River through two channels, known as Alpowa and Asotin creeks. 

Each of these creeks rises in many branches on the slopes of the 

mountains, and all at first are surface streams, but on account of 

the cutting down of Snake River Canyon, into which they discharge, 

they have sunk deeply into the plateau and near their mouths have 

lowered their channels as rapidly as the master river. The Alpowa is 

little more than a brook in summer, but its waters serve to irrigate 

some 300 acres of orchard lands near where it joins the Snake. The 

Asotin is large and brings a never-failing supply of pure water to the
RUSSELL.] TOPOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE. 25

little town of Asotin. A costly irrigating canal is now being built 

for the purpose of conducting its water to a broad area of bottom land 

in Snake River Valley opposite Lewiston. Some account of this bold 

undertaking will be given on another page.

Grande Ronde River. On the east side of the Blue Mountains the 

drainage is through a deep, wild canyon, which furnishes the finest 

scenery that can be found in southeastern Washington. The river 

that excavated this canyon is the Grande Ronde or, as it is usually 

called by the inhabitants of that region, the "Grand Round" a 

bright, swift, winding stream that is walled in on either side by precipices and mountain-like slopes 3,000 feet high. The canyon is not a 

narrow gash, for the upper portion of its inclosing walls have receded, 

and side streams, most of them temporary rills, have cut a multitude 

of steep, lateral gorges, between which outstanding buttresses extend 

far into the main gorge. In many places ridges that descend the opposite sides of the canyon overlap in its bottom and the stream makes 

sharp curves in order to pass around their extremities. The main tributaries of the Grande Ronde, like Joseph Creek, which is indicated on 

the accompanying map, have also sunk deeply into the basaltic tableland, as has each branch of these secondary streams. A great region 

that, but for the excavating power of the streams draining it, would 

be a flat-topped plateau, has been transformed into an intricate, 

branching system of sharp-crested ridges, with profound gorges and 

canyons between. The general height of the land has thus been 

reduced about 1,000 feet, but the sharp, angular mountains that have 

been sculptured out of the upraised block are so steep and their crests 

so narrow that their loss in actual elevation is scarcely appreciated.

The canyon of Grande Ronde throughout the lower 20 or 30 miles 

of its course is in general 2,700 feet deep. The distance between the 

"rim rocks" bordering its walls is from 8 to 10 miles. The great 

buttresses that start from the main walls, however, extend far out 

into the canyon and make its width seem much less than it really is. 

Throughout the entire region drained by the Grande Ronde the 

rock, as in the lower plateau to the north of the Blue Mountains, is 

basalt in horizontal sheets. Everywhere throughout the rugged walls 

that remain the horizontal courses of black basalt may be distinctly 

followed. A magnificent example is thus furnished of the dissection 

of an elevated plateau consisting of horizontal layers of hard rock by 

the slow process of weathering and stream erosion.

A peculiar feature in the topography of the canyon of the Grande 

Ronde, and one which adds greatly to the interest of its wild scenery, 

is the manner in which the spurs from the bordering mountain 

walls project into the gorge and overlap or dovetail. These lateral 

ridges decrease in height from the borders of the canyon toward its 

bottom until a height of about 1,000 feet above the river is reached; 

they are then prolonged at about the same level nearly across the
26 A RECONNOISSANCE IN SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON. [NO.4.

bottom of the canyon. The crests of the lateral spurs where they 

project far into the canyon are sharp and serrated and end in precipices. Between these interlocking spurs the river makes long bends 

and flows about these steep extremities iii abrupt curves. The sharp, 

serrate ridges projecting from the north wall of the canyon frequently 

extend almost completely across the canyon and enter reentrant 

angles in the south wall. Between the cliffs forming the ends of 

these spurs and the precipitous and frequently apparently vertical 

south wall the river flows in a narrow, rocky channel.

It is impossible to describe briefly the peculiar topography of Grande 

Ronde Canyon so as to convey an idea of its ruggedness and of the 

many peculiarities due to the interlocking of lateral ridges just mentioned ; but if we imagine the canyon as having been excavated to a 

depth about. 1,000 feet less than at present and widened so as to be 

about 3 miles broad at the bottom, we shall have the general character 

of the upper gorge in mind. If over the nearly level floor of this widebottomed gorge we see the river winding from side to side, and at the 

ends of the southward curves cutting at the base of the cliffs bordering 

the valley on that side, and then fancy the region elevated a thousand 

feet, so as to give the stream renewed energy and allow it to cut a 

tortuous gorge in the bottom of the older valley, the ridges between 

the abrupt bends weathering to sharp crests and pinnacles, we shall be 

able to appreciate not only the characteristic features I have attempted 

to describe, but their mode of origin.

Two roads cross the canyon of Grande Ronde from north to south, 

but the excessive ruggedness of the canyon's bottom has thus far prevented the construction of even a safe bridle trail from east to west 

along the river.

Next to Snake River, Grande Ronde is the largest stream in southeastern Washington; but owing to the almost complete absence of 

bottom, lands throughout that portion of its course which lies in Washington and for many miles south of the boundary, its waters can not 

be utilized for irrigation. Far south in Oregon the topography is 

different. Broad bottom lands there exist and the conditions are 

favorable for agriculture. Luxuriant bunch grass abounds, however, 

throughout the Blue Mountains and on the steep canyon sides. Stock 

raising is there the natural industry, but excellent fruit can be grown 

in all of the deeper valleys and gorges. In the gardens about the few 

houses and cabins that have been built by stockmen in the canyons 

of Grande Ronde and Joseph Creek vegetables of many kinds grow 

luxuriantly when properly irrigated, and tobacco plants as large and 

fine as any in Virginia or the Carolinas are now raised for domestic use.

Pdlouse River. North of Snake River are a number of streams that 

head in the mountains of Idaho and flow westward in channels which 

increase progressively in depth, and finally become steep-sided canyons. The generally westward direction taken by these streams in
RUSSELL.] TOPOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE.

their infancy and retained as they excavated their valleys and canyons in nearly horizontal sheets of basalt was determined by the gentle westward inclination of the plateau that is, they are consequent 

streams. 1 These streams unite to form Palouse River, a tributary of 

Snake River. This river was not examined during the reconnoissance 

which furnished the basis of this report, but is understood to be comparable with the Walla Walla in size. Symons states, in the report 

just referred to, that "the falls of the Palouse form another of the interesting objects of this section. In the lower portion of its course the 

Palouse flows through a deep fissure in the basaltic rocks, portions of 

which take fantastic forms, as towering pinnacles. At the falls the 

river descends perpendicularly for about 120 feet into a narrow basin, 

from which it flows off through its deep canyon for about 9 miles to the 

Snake River." The fall in the Palouse, whatever may be its history, is 

a marked exception to the even grade established by, I think, all associated streams, excepting Spokane River, and should claim attention, 

not only from geographers, but from those interested practically in 

water power and irrigation. The abrupt change from a westerly to 

a southerly direction that the Palouse makes in its lower course is 

perhaps due to a diversion of the river by the cutting back of a small 

high-grade stream flowing to Snake River. I fancy the falls have 

some connection with such a capture of the low-grade and comparatively sluggish river by a smaller but more energetic rival.

Owing to the presence of sheets of clay and sand interleaved with 

the basalt in much of the region drained by the Palouse, springs are 

numerous along its branches, and supplement in an important manner 

the drainage from the mountains.

The broad plateau surface adjacent to the "Palouse country" on 

the south and west has not been visited by me, but, as shown on the 

maps of the United States land survey, it drains westward. The 

feeble streams are frequently interrupted and small lakes are formed. 

The origin of these lakes has not been explained, but the suggestion 

is made that the streams occupy old drainage channels that have been 

partially filled with sand and soil derived from the adjacent portions 

of the plateau. These lakelets are apparently similar in many ways 

to Moses Lake, in the Big Bend country, which is held by a dam 

formed of drifted sand. 2

Spokane River. Like the Snake, this river heads in the mountains, well to the east of the basaltic plateau of southeastern Washington, and flows across it, much of the way in a deep canyon that 

has been excavated in horizontal sheets of basalt. As in the case of

x lt has been suggested by T. W. Symons, in a Report on the Upper Columbia Elver, Washington, 1882, p. 116, that the streams here referred to have had their courses determined by 

glaciers which* moved in the general direction that they follow. My observations failed to sustain this suggestion, as no evidence of the former presence of glacial ice was found anywhere in 

southeastern Washington.

a Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No. 108,1893, p. 96.
28 A RECONNOISSANCE IN SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON. [NO. 4.

Snake River, also, the canyon of Spokane River was deeply filled with 

gravel at a recent episode in its history, and has since reexcavated 

its channel in part, making an inner steep-sided gorge in the gravels 

that fill the older and wider valley tip to a certain level. When the 

stream renewed its work of excavation it did not flow in a straight 

course over its gravelly bed, but in curves. As the channel was 

deepened, projecting spurs of solid rock in the buried valley were 

discovered and had to be cut through before the modern gorge could 

be extended upstream. Some of the ledges of basalt that the stream 

met with as it progressed with its task of reexcavating have been cut 

through, but work is still in progress at one of them, as is shown at 

Spokane City. A curve in the course of the stream, when it began 

to clear out the gravels it had previously deposited, carried it across 

a buried ledge. This accident, as it may be termed, led to the growth 

of the thriving and beautiful city of Spokane.

A gauging station was established on this river at Spokane, Washington, in October, 1896, the gauge being at the bridge of the Oregon 

Railway and Navigation Company. The drainage area at this point 

is 4,005 square miles. A measurement made on August 27, 1896, by 

Mr. Cyrus C. Babb, when the water stood at a height of 2 feet, gave 

a discharge of 2,937 second-feet (cubic feet per second), while a later 

measurement, on October 17,1896, at a gauge height of 1.46 feet, gave 

a discharge of 1,722 second-feet.

Precipitation formerly more abundant than now. Throughout 

southeastern Washington there is abundant evidence that the rainfall was formerly greater than at present, and that the streams were 

larger and more numerous than we now find them. This is shown 

particularly in those portions of the plateau which are not crossed by 

streams flowing from the mountains to the eastward, as, for example, 

in the region with slopes leading to Deadman Creek, and over still 

larger portions of the plateau situated to the west and north of 

Palouse River. The valleys and canyons in the districts mentioned, 

while without question due to stream erosion, are disproportionally 

deep and wide in reference to the streams now occupying them. In 

many instances deep, trench-like valleys, such as streams are known 

to make, and which lead to similar valleys now occupied by water 

courses, are flat bottomed from side to side and entirely without 

drainage channels. Evidently in such instances there has been no 

surface drainage for a long term of years All tne rain that falls is 

at once absorbed by the thirsty soil.

Similar evidence of a former period of greater humidity than the 

country now enjoys can be had throughout the basaltic region of 

southeastern and central Washington, as lias been stated in a previous report. 1

The time of the abundant precipitation, when the most marked of

»Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No. 108.
RUSSELL.] GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS. 29

what may be termed the secondary topographic features of the basaltic plateau came into existence, may for several reasons be considered as the Glacial epoch, when the higher mountains of Washington 

and Idaho were occupied by extensive snow fields and glaciers.

GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS.

The geological problems presented in southeastern Washington are 

simple and easily understood. The rocks in this region fall conveniently in eight divisions. These are, briefly:

1. Crystalline and metamorphic rocks of unknown geological age, 

consisting principally of schists, gneisses, granites, and quartzites.

2. Dikes of igneous rock, which break through and are intimately 

associated with the metamorphic terranes just mentioned.

3. Coal-bearing sandstones and shales of Tertiary age, which form 

the surface at the eastern base of the Cascade Mountains and extend 

indefinitely eastward, may occur in southeastern Washington beneath 

the lava which forms the next group of rocks here enumerated.

4. Vast basaltic overflows, which cover all of the plateau region of 

central and southeastern Washington and extend widely into neighboring States. These rocks were poured out in a molten condition 

during what is known as the Tertiary period of geological history. 

This formation has been named the Columbia lava.

5. Interbedded with the sheets of basaltic rock composing the Columbia lava are beds of clay, sand, volcanic dust, and lapilli, which were 

deposited in part by streams and in part in lakes during intervals 

between the lava flows.

6. Above the Columbia lava in certain localities there are thick 

deposits of gravel, clay, and volcanic dust, constituting what is termed 

the John Day system. The rocks of this system were deposited in a 

Tertiary lake named Lake John Day.

7. In the canyons of Snake and Spokane rivers and along several 

of the more important secondary streams there are deposits of gravel 

and sand which were laid down by these streams after they had 

excavated their channels to their present depth.

8. As important as any of the rock groups just enumerated, but not 

usually classed as an independent geological formation, are the soils. 

Reference is here made especially to the deep, rich soils that mantle 

practically the entire surface of the Columbia lava. These soils are 

almost entirely a product of the disintegration and decay of the underlying basalt and represent what are termed residual soils. Mingled 

with the'residue left by the decay and partial solution of the basalt is 

a minor quantity of volcanic dust which was blown out by some distant volcano and scattered widely over the land by the wind.

Each of the rock groups briefly enumerated extends far beyond the 

region treated in this report, and in part has been described in a previous publication. 1

i Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No. 108.
30 A EECONNOISSANCE IN SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON. [NO. 4.

METAMORPHIC ROCKS.

In the report on a geological reconnoissaiice in central Washington, 

just referred to, there is a. brief description of the crystalline rocks 

occurring in the mountainous region north of the Big Bend of the 

Columbia. From what little is known of the geology of northern 

Washington and western Idaho, it seems evident that this same great 

system of granites, schists, quartzites, etc., not only forms the mountains bordering the basaltic plateau, but to a considerable extent the 

floor beneath it. These ancient crystalline rocks were elevated into 

mountains and deeply eroded before the Columbia lava was poured 

out. The deep trench carved in the basaltic plateau by Snake River 

has revealed the underlying rocks at three localities.

Q-neiss* at Granite Point. The first exposure of metamorphic rock 

met with on ascending Snake River is about 24 miles below Lewiston 

and is known as Granite Point. The rock in the bottom of the canyon 

at this locality is granitic in character and is what is known commercially as "granite." More strictly speaking, however, it is a gneiss 

that is, a rock having the same mineralogical composition as granite, 

but in which the minerals are arranged in bands and folia. The rock 

is dark in color, owing to the abundance of black mica scattered through 

it in irregular bands.

At Granite Point this rock is exposed on each side of the river for a 

distance of about 1,500 feet and rises to a height of 160 feet above the 

water. The canyon walls, rising fully 2,000 feet above the gneiss, are 

composed of the edges of horizontal sheets of basalt, and show the 

minimum depth to which the summit of the ancient hill, perhaps a 

prominent feature in old topography, was buried by the basaltic 

overflows.

The gneiss has been opened by quarrying to a depth of a few feet, 

but it is of dark color, of rather coarse texture, and has a foliated 

structure, which will probably preclude its use as a building stone 

except for rough masonry, such as the abutments of bridges, foundations, etc. The rock is fresh in appearance, and no products of disintegration mantle its surface. Evidently the portion exposed is the 

summit of an elevation from which, previous to the inundation of 

basalt, loosened fragments were carried away as rapidly as they originated. Both up and down stream from Granite Point for scores of 

miles the walls of the canyon are composed from bottom to top of horizontally bedded basalt. Downstream, however, especially on the left 

bank of the river, a westerly dip in the lower sheets of basalt, amounting to perhaps 2 degrees, can be detected. This is one of the few 

instances throughout the basaltic plateau to the north of the Blue

1 The designation of this rock as a gneiss is from field notes and is provisional. There are 

reasons for believing it to b3 a quartz-diorite, and therefore igneous and not metamorphic in 

origin. This same remark applies also to the rock occurring at Granite Point, a few miles south 

of Pullman, mentioned on page 37.
RUSSELL.] GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS. 31

Mountains in which, any departure of the lava sheets from a horizontal position has been observed.

Schists at Buffalo Sock. About 15 miles up the Snake River from 

the town of Asotin there is a locality known as Buffalo Rock, 1 which is 

of special geological interest. This locality can be reached conveniently from Asotin by following a road recently opened along the west 

side of the river and at the bases of the great precipices of basalt that 

form the canyon walls. Above Asotin the canyon of Snake River is 

deeper than below that locality and furnishes many striking exposures 

of columnar basalt, which rise tier on ibier to a height of over 3,000 

feet. In the neighborhood of Buffalo Rock, however, an important 

change occurs. The metamorphic rocks which formed the surface of 

the country before the vast inundation of molten lava took place 

again appear above the level of Snake River and rise at least 2,000 

feet into the horizontally bedded basalt. The river has cut its gorge 

across a buried mountain so as to expose the rocks composing it for 

about a mile on each side of the stream. The horizontal layers of 

basalt abut against the steep sides of the old mountain and show no 

evidence of disturbance at the contact. It is evident that the lower 

rocks have not been forced upward into the basalt, but that the latter was poured out in successive sheets and flowed about a mountain of schist and finally overtopped its summit and buried it from 

sight. Additional overflows of the same character were spread over 

the site of the buried mountain and reached a thickness of fully 1,000 

to 1,500 feet above its summit before Snake River began to excavate 

its canyon.

The sides of the buried mountain, where they first appear above the 

river, are steep and without talus slopes or other products of disintegration. Although 3,000 feet of horizontally bedded basalt are exposed 

in the canyon walls adjacent to the outcrops of schist, it is evident 

that the valleys of the old land lie below the level to which Snake 

River has corraded its channel.

Where the schists rise from the river and form the lower portion of 

the canyon walls, marked changes occur in the topography of the profound gorge. The horizontal lines and bands formed by the edges of 

lava sheets give place to apparently structureless walls, which are 

extremely precipitous. The schist is more resistant to atmospheric 

agencies than the basalt, and the gorge cut in it is narrow. Vertically 

above the schist the canyon widens, so as to make reentrant angles in 

its general course. This increase in the width of the gorge above the 

schist is especiaEy conspicuous when viewed from its borders.

The rocks which cause these important changes in the character of 

the canyon are mostly greenish, spotted schists, and are evidently

1 The name, I have been informed, refers to certain rock inscriptions made by Indians, some of 

which are thought to represent buffalo. A large rock on the west side of the river is covered 

with figures made by pounding the-surface with a dull instrument, probably a pebble. Similar 

designs are said to occur also on the rocks of the opposite shore.
32 A RECONNOISSANCE IN SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON. [NO. 4.

of sedimentary origin, as well-rounded pebbles and angular masses of 

rock may still be recognized in them. Samples may be collected showing a transition from conglomerate, in which the pebbles are still 

prominent, through schistose rock containing flattened and elongated 

pebbles, to greenish schist with spots and blotches due to altered pebbles, and from these, again, to fine, even-grained, silky schists of uniform color. Near the southern end of the exposure there are rocks of 

plutonic origin 1 which appear to be dikes breaking through the schist, 

but as a similar rock occurs as pebbles in the schist, it is evident that 

at least some of the intrusives were formed before the material since 

metamorphosed was deposited.

The schists are traversed by small veins of quartz, which are probably gold bearing, as gold is obtained by placer mining in the gravels 

and talus slope bordering the river. What success has attended these 

mining operations I was unable to learn during my brief visit. No 

true fissure veins were seen in the schists, and from such examinations 

as I was able to make it seems doubtful if quartz mining will ever be 

profitable.

Schists at Wild Q-oose Creek. Upstream from Buffalo Rock one may 

follow the river by a bridle trail to beyond the mouth of Grande Ronde 

River, a distance of about 8 miles. Throughout this portion of the 

canyon the walls are precipitous, frequently rising in sheer cliffs, and 

are composed from base to summit of horizontally bedded basalt. The 

canyon walls increase in height as we ascend the river, and at the 

mouth of the Grande Ronde are about 4,000 feet high. The actual 

margins of the canyon, however, recede from the river, and it is only 

when one gains a commanding point on the rim of the vast gorge, like 

the summit of Mount Wilson, for example, that its full grandeur is 

revealed.

Just above the mouth of the Grande Ronde metamorphic rocks 

again rise above the level of the river and form a large part of the 

canyon walls for at least a score of miles. The full extent of this fine 

exposure is not known, but it is prolonged far to the south of the 

southern boundary of Washington. The metamorphic rocks appear 

suddenly above the level of the river at a locality about a mile south 

of the mouth of the Grande Ronde, and rise from the water in what 

appear to be vertical precipices to a height of approximately 2,500 

feet.

The leading phenomena presented at Granite Point and Buffalo 

Rock are here repeated, but on a grander scale. The horizontal 

basalt abuts against cliffs of schist, and shows no change at the contact. The sides of the buried mountain range, as seen in section in 

the canyon walls, are precipitous. On the east side of the river, 

where ,the schist first appears as one journeys upstream, the buried

1 Thin sections of this rock have been examined by Mr. J. S. Diller, who states that it is a porphyry, composed chiefly of granular quartz with much biotite, forming a groundmass in whicb 

are embedded phenocrysts of quarta and feldspar, chiefly plagioclase.
BTISSELL.] GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS. 33

mountain side slopes about 45°, and is free of debris. The base 

of the mountain is evidently far below the level of Snake River. 

Each successive layer of basalt extended farther and farther over the 

metamorphic rocks, until at a height of about 2,500 feet the summit of 

the range is covered. The horizontally bedded lava above the highest 

peak of the buried mountain is not less than 1,500 feet thick. A 

clear section of fully 4,000 feet of horizontally bedded lava sheets is 

there exposed, but the base of the pile is not seen.

The metamorphic rocks that appear beneath the basalt between the 

mouth of-Grande Ronde River and "Wild Goose Creek were only 

hastily examined, and attention can only be given at this time to their 

more general features.

The rocks are plainly of sedimentary origin, as their stratification 

is prominent. They have a thickness of several thousand feet. The 

strata in the northern part of the section are inclined northward at 

an angle of 40° to 45°, and in places are nearly vertical. A great 

dome of ancient rocks has been cut through. The upper layers of 

the dome are thin-bedded siliceous limestone containing indefinite 

fossils;1 beneath this are thick layers of thinly laminate, granular 

limestone, containing some silt and organic? matter, which appear in 

conspicuous white ledges. This rests on schists that show a diversity 

of colors, varying from green to red, and are frequently fine and 

silky in appearance. Marked contrasts are apparent in the schists, 

some layers being schistose conglomerates or breccias, while others 

resemble the finest roofing slate. The schist has great thickness, and 

is believed to rest on granite. The lower contact of the schist was 

not seen, but granite occurs abundantly in the pebbles along Snake 

River, and is reported by miners to come to the surface a short distance above "Wild Goose Creek. The topography in that region bears 

out this statement.

No more than a hasty outline of the character of the rocks here 

referred to is possible at this time, as my opportunities for observation were, for several reasons, very limited. It seems evident, however, that a broad uplift, with a granite core, passing upward into 

schist and then again into but moderately altered limestones, was 

buried beneath the basalt and again exposed and deeply dissected by 

erosion. The geologic age of the schists and limestone is unknown, 

but a careful search in the limestone would very likely reveal fossils 

by which it might be determined.

Standing on the summit of Mount Wilson, which is a remnant of 

the basaltic plateau left isolated by the cutting of the canyon of Snake

1 Samples of this limestone have been studied by Mr. J. S. Diller, who reports that thin sections examined under the microscope " do not show fossil forms nearly so distinctly as the 

weathered surfaces. The specimen was shown to Mr. G. H. Girty, and he agrees with me not 

only that the fossils are crinoids, but that one of them has a pentagonal stem. Crinoids with 

stems of this sort are not definitely known to be older than the Permian, and it is probable 

that this one is considerably later.. The specimens examined look very much like the Triassic 

limestone of California, in which fossils are abundant." 

IRK 4 3
34 A EECONNOISSANCE IN SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON. [NO.4.

River and the much narrower but nearly as deep gorges of Joseph 

Creek and Grande Ronde River, one may command a far-reaching 

view of the deeply dissected region about, and may read the leading 

facts in its geological history as plainly as from a printed page.

Eastward from Mount Wilson one beholds the deepest and wildest 

portion of Snake River Canyon. Fully 50 miles of the great gorge are 

in full view. To one familiar with the narrow, tr-ench-like character 

of the same canyon for 100 miles or more below Lewistoii, it is at once 

apparent that marked variations in nearly all its features accompany 

the change produced by the unearthing of the buried mountain range 

already briefly described. The canyon is deeper, also, than farther 

downstream, for the reason that Snake River has here cut across the 

flank of the Blue Mountain uplift. Where the metamorphic rocks 

form a large portion of the canyon walls the excavation is probably 

four or five times as wide as where it is cut wholly in basalt. The 

distance from the remnant of the old plate'au surface forming Mount 

Wilson across the canyon to the fringe of pines growing on the crest 

of the opposite wall is, by estimate, fully 15 miles. In this interval 

there is what seems at first a bewildering maze of mountain-like ridges, 

palisades, towers, and battlements. Many of the forms are strikingly 

architectural in appearance. Vast buttresses of schistose rock, rising 

precipitously from the depths of the canyon, form the basements of 

huge castle-like masses of basalt, in which the horizontal bedding resembles courses of cyclopean masonry. The student of topographic 

forms sees at a glance that not only the more prominent features 

of the rugged landscape, but the details in the sculpturing of the 

seeming castles and palaces conform to well-known laws of erosion, 

weathering, and rock structure. In the upper portion of the canyon 

walls the horizontal bands formed by the edge of lava sheets may be 

traced on either hand as far as the eye can reach. Many of the lava 

sheets are columnar. The long colonnades, lessening in perspective, 

may be followed into each alcove and lateral gorge, and far out on 

the buttressing ridges. At the ends of many of the spurs there are 

groups of towers and pinnacles formed of the ruins of isolated masses 

of columnar rock.

Below the basalt are sharp crests and ridges rising between lateral 

gorges that lead down from the battlements above to the silvery 

thread formed by the river in the depths below. In the lower portions of the canyon walls, where schists and granite are exposed, the 

prevailing lines are vertical, and are due to the erosion of lateral 

streams and rills. Where the lateral ridges approach the river they 

end in precipices, which frequently descend nearly vertically for a 

thousand feet to the water's edge. At such localities there is no 

room for one to pass between the river and the towering cliffs. It is 

the abruptness with which the lateral spurs plunge down to the river 

that gives the vast gorge much of its canyon-like character.
RUSSELL.] GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS. 35

In breadth and depth and in the multitude of details this canyon 

is comparable with the greatest of all canyons in North America, 

namely, the Grand Canyon of the Colorado. One of the greatest 

charms in the wonderful scenery of the Colorado, however, is wanting 

in Snake River Canyon, namely, the varied and brilliant coloring. 

The canyon of Snake River is dark and somber. The black and 

brown of weathered basalt and the dull gray of schist and granite find 

scarcely any relief from brighter colors. The pleasing tints imparted 

to the scenery of many regions by the iron oxides in residual soils 

are absent. The vegetation is too scanty to mask the angular forms 

or enliven the somber tones of the rocks, although the massive cliffs 

are in places veneered with yellow lichens, and in the lateral gorges, 

where springs well out, there are faint lines of verdure. In autumn 

these thickets of willow, haw, and roses assume brilliant hues. The 

talus slopes between the horizontal cliffs of basalt, as well as the 

surfaces of the ridges and domes of schist and granite, are clothed 

with bunch grass, which gives to them a silvery sheen that is ever 

changing when the wind blows.

On looking across Snake River Canyon from the summit of Mount 

Wilson, the junction of the horizontally bedded basalt with the schists 

and granite beneath can be distinctly'traced for a score of miles. The 

crest line of the buried mountain is rugged and serrate. The gorges 

between the higher crests and spires are filled with horizontal sheets 

of basalt, showing that the fiery flood flowed about the ancient peaks, 

leaving them for a time as islands in a sea of molten rock, and then 

overtopped their summits and completely buried them from sight. 

This impressive spectacle of what was once a sharp-crested mountain 

range, rising at least 2,500 feet and probably more than 3,000 feet 

above the adjacent valleys, and subsequently buried beneath horizontal sheets of molten rocks, and ages later revealed by the slow downcutting of a river canyon, is one of the most instructive lessons that 

the student of geology and geography will find anywhere in the world.

Glancing westward from Mount Wilson into the magnificent canyon 

of Grande Ronde, which has been excavated in the Blue Mountain 

uplift, one sees at least a thousand feet of horizontally bedded basalt 

which lies above the level of the summit on which one stands. The 

Columbia lava is, therefore, not less than 5,000 feet thick. Of its 

maximum thickness we have as yet no measure.

But to return to the metamorphic rock. No granite was found by 

me in the canyon of Snake River; but, as already stated, it is 

reported to occur a little above the mouth of Wild Goose Creek 

that is, to the south of the point where the Washington-Oregon 

boundary meets the river. In the canyon walls, as we have seen, 

the basalt is clearly distinguishable from the rocks beneath it. 

The schists also have topographic forms of their own, in which the 

bedding, now highly inclined, and the joint planes play an important
36 A RECONNOISSANCE IN SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON. [NO.4.

part. As the eye ranges along the cliffs bordering Snake River 

upstream from the mouth of Grande Ronde, a marked change is 

apparent in the sculpturing of the older rock-series a few miles south 

of Mount Wilson. The sharp crests and steeply inclined bedding 

planes of the schist there give place to rounded domes and hillocks. 

The immediate banks of the river are precipitous, but at a height of 

perhaps a thousand feet above the water the slopes are more gentle, 

and a rude terrace with rounded curves and flowing outlines, some 3 

or 4 miles broad, leads to the cliffs of basalt which define the upper 

margin of the canyon. The forms seen on the terrace-like slopes are 

such as are familiar in many localities where granite is the surface 

rock and where weathering is far advanced. Further exploration in 

this interesting region will probably show that the series of limestone, 

schist, etc., already briefly described, rests on granite, and that for 

many miles along the boundary between Oregon and Idaho this rock 

will be found in the immediate banks of Snake River. I have spoken 

of the rocks beneath the basalt as belonging mainly to the metamorphic series, but whether this granite is a sedimentary rock changed 

by heat and pressure or is of igneous origin I leave others to discover.

The schists exposed in Snake River Canyon, like the similar rocks a 

few miles farther downstream, are traversed in every direction by small 

segregated quartz veins, which have been reported to be gold bearing. 

Several mining claims have been located along the canyon wall on 

each side of the river, but whether any of these will repay mining is 

not known. Prom a knowledge of similar rocks elsewhere the value 

of these mines seems doubtful. In the alluvial deposits along Snake 

River at the mouths of lateral gorges in the schists, placer mining has 

been carried on from time to time for several years. Hydraulic mining on a small scale has been attempted, but with what success I am 

unable to state..

Granite, schist, quartzite, etc., north of Snake River. The eastern 

boundary of Washington to the north of Snake River cuts across the 

foothills of the mountains of Idaho, leaving some of the ridges and 

outstanding buttes to the west of the line. . The geology of western 

Idaho is as yet unwritten, but, as shown by the sand and gravel in the 

steeams which enter Washington, the rocks to the eastward include 

granite, gneiss, quartzite, diorite, etc. Mountains consisting largely 

of these rocks form the eastern limit of the overflows of Columbia lava 

in the region here considered. The great basaltic plateau meets the 

mountains in a sinuous line which in a general way coincides with the 

interstate boundary. The mountains along this boundary resemble 

a rugged coast line, but the sea is replaced by the plateau of lava. 

Rounded and weather-beaten capes and promontories on the shore of 

the lava sea project into the wheat lands of the plateau and.a few 

islands of quartzite break the monotony of its surface.

To term the rolling prairie lands of the " Palouse country" a sea and 

the hills to the eastward its rugged shore is not entirely a rhetorical
RUSSELL.] .GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS. 37

figure. The basalt forming the vast plateau was once molten and 

flowed over the land in successive inundations of liquid rock. The 

plateau was then arsea of fire. As sheet after sheet of molten rock 

was spread out, the floods rose higher and higher on the rock-bound 

coast. Valleys and embayments in the mountains were flooded and 

now have level floors of basalt. The eastern limit of the region covered by these fiery inundations is sharply defined not only by the 

topography but by the junction of the wheat fields which flourish on 

the soil formed by the decay of the -lava with the uncultivated 

uplands.

The lavas are less deep in the neighborhood of the mountains than 

farther westward, and at one locality at least have been cut through 

by stream erosion so as to expose the granitic rocks beneath. At what 

is known as Granite Point, on the Northern Pacific Railroad, about 

8 miles southeast of Pullman, in township 13, range 6, a few hundred 

square feet of gneiss (?) may be seen in the bottom of a shallow valley. 

This rock has been quarried in a small way and found serviceable for 

rough masonry. It is somewhat weathered, but the usual products" 

of long-continued disintegration and decay are absent. The shape of 

the rock surface exposed and the absence of debris on it suggest that 

it is the summit of a hill from which all loose material had been 

removed before the floods of lava buried it from sight. The rock at 

this locality is of the same character as that already mentioned as 

occurring at Granite Point, in Snake River Canyon, about 10 miles distant. The difference in elevation between these two exposures of the 

old land surface.beneath the basalt is approximately 2,000 feet. This 

is one of many observations which indicate the roughness of much of 

the country which was changed to a level plateau by the basaltic 

overflows.

The most striking evidence, however, of the ruggedness of the 

topography of the buried land and of the ocean-like character of the 

inundation of molten rock that flowed over it is furnished by the old 

mountain peaks, that now rise as islands above the yellow wheat lands. 

These islands are within a few miles of the border of the basaltic overflows. All of the old landmarks where the basalt is deepest are completely buried. Islands of granite surrounded by basalt, near the 

northern border of the plateau, in the neighborhood of the Grand 

Coulee, in the Big Bend country, were described in a previous report 1 

but far more impressive examples of the same general character are 

furnished by Kamiack and Steptoe buttes in the Palouse country.

Kamiack Butte. In Whitman County, 9 miles north of the town of 

Pullman, there stands a picturesque hill of quartzite and of quartzose 

conglomerate rising 500 or 600 feet above the surface of the surrounding basaltic plateau. This is the summit of a bold hill that was completely surrounded by the inundations of molten rock.

i Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No. 108,1893, p. 90.
38 A RECONNOISSANCE IN SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON. [No.4.

The soil on Kamiack Butte is sandy and was derived from the disintegration of the underlying rock. It differs in a marked way from 

the soil of the adjacent wheat lands. There is no evidence to show 

that the basalt ever covered the butte, although it rose between 100 

and 200 feet higher than the present plateau surface. The lowering 

of the surface of the plateau is due to the disintegration and decay 

of the basalt and the removal by stream and wind erosion of some of 

the fine soil thus produced. It is an instructive fact, as will be noted 

in advance in considering the origin of the low hills of the originally 

level plateau surface, that the soil of the plateau has not been blown 

over the rocks forming the butte.

To the southwest of Kamiack Butte and about 2 miles distant is 

another but lower elevation of the same character. To the eastward, 

also, there is a range of hills, apparently composed of quartzite, which 

extends into Idaho, and is of the nature of a cape projecting into the 

sea of formerly molten rock. The extremity of this ancient headland 

is separated from Kamiack Butte by 2 or 3 miles of basalt.

Steptoe Butte. This remarkable feature in the relief of eastern 

Washington is situated in Whitman County, 8 miles west of the town 

of Garfield, and 10 or 12 miles from the hills which bound the basaltic 

plateau on the east. It rises between 1,000 and 1,100 feet above the 

plateau which surrounds it on all sides. From every direction, over 

a wide extent of country, the butte is a prominent landmark, and from 

whatever point of view it is seen it appears as a steep-sided and sharppointed pyramid. When viewed from the eastward, its southern 

slope makes an angle of 18° and its northern sides an angle of 19° or 

20° with a vertical line. Each side is gently concave and gives to the 

eminence the appearance of a volcanic cone. The slopes 011 all sides 

except the west, which is easiest of ascent, are about as steep as is 

shown by the measurements just given.

Steptoe Butte, like its lesser companion described above, is composed mainly of quartzite, but at the summit the rock has the character of a quartz-schist. Its sides are not encumbered with loose debris, 

and but little soil has formed from the disintegration of the hard, 

resistant rock. It is plainly the summit of a bold mountain peak, the 

base of which was deeply buried by the overflows of lava that surrounded it and left it as an island.

The instructive panorama spread before an observer on Steptoe 

Butte leads naturally to a digression from the study of the geology of 

the butte itself. From this commanding summit we can with advantage, I think, review some of the leading features in the geography of 

the region under consideration.

To accommodate tourists, a commodious hotel has been built on the 

apex of the great pyramid. From about the hotel we may in an hour 

obtain a far more graphic idea of the characteristics of the surrounding region than days of travel across the plateau and over the neigh-
BTISSELL.] GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS; 39

boring mountains would furnish. In all directions from the base of 

the butte extend the vast wheat lands of the basaltic plateau, which 

are seemingly as level as the sea. The short hills and level-floored 

depressions on the surface of the plateau enhance rather than detract 

from this resemblance. It is a stormy sea, but none of the wave-like 

hills rise above a certain general level. The distant horizon is undulating, like the sky line, on the ocean after a storm. The view to the 

north, west, and southwest is limitless. Not a single landmark rises 

above the general level of the roughened plain. Far away to the 

south a long, low arch, forming a silhouette in blue against the sky, 

reveals the outline of the Blue Mountains. The base line of the arch 

is 30 or 40 miles long, and the height of its crest not over 1,200 or 

1,500 feet above the general level of the intervening plateau. We 

know that in the vast plain that extends to the Blue Mountains there 

is a deep canyon through which Snake River flows, but it is only 

under exceptionally favorable conditions of the atmosphere that its 

course, easily mistaken for the shadow of a passing cloud, can be 

traced through the yellow wheat fields. To the eastward one sees the 

dark forest-covered hills and mountains of Idaho, and can trace 

the sinuous line formed by the junction of the intervening plateau 

with the highlands that determine its border. Each level-floored inlet 

and embayment is yellow with grain and each headland dark with 

pines. These and other features of the border of the once molten 

sea of lava can be as easily recognized as the inlets and headlands of 

the coast of Maine when viewed from the summit of Mount Desert 

Island.

Before the rich soil of southeastern Washington was furrowed by 

the plow it was covered with bunch grass, but destitute of trees and 

shrubs. At present practically every acre of the plateau surface is 

under cultivation. The observer on the summit of Steptoe Butte 

looks down on a limitless patchwork of brown and yellow. The 

brown is the soil of fallow land, the yellow the golden of the wheat 

fields. It is the custom to take but one crop from the land in two 

years, so that each summer practically half of the land lies fallow., 

The yellow grain fields and the brown, plowed lands are interspersed 

with each other as far away over the plateau as the eye can reach. 

Although there are thousands of farmhouses in the field of view, they 

are nestled in valleys and hollows, and only a few near the immediate 

base of the butte are in sight.

Next to the boundless expanse of the level plateau, the most interesting feature of the landscape is furnished by the wave-like hills and 

streamless depressions that give diversity to the grain fields. When 

I visited Steptoe Butte late in September the wheat had been harvested, and the paths of the reapers surrounded the hills like the 

contour lines on a map and served to accent the peculiarities of their 

forms. The origin of the hills, however, and the nature of the deep,
40 A RECONNOISSANCE IN SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON. . [NO. 4.

rich soil of which they are composed can be better understood from 

a nearer inspection and will be discussed later. Let us now return 

to our study of the ancient crystalline rocks.

The .uplands, consisting largely of quartzite and granitic rocks 

which occur north of Snake River along the general course of the 

Washington-Idaho boundary, swing westward near Spokane and form 

the mountainous region of northeastern and northern Washington. 

This region is known in an indefinite way as the " Okanogan country." 

As described in Bulletin No. 108, the Columbia River in making its 

wide detour termed the '' Big Bend " follows the base of the mountains 

that determine the northern border of the basaltic plateau. The 

same great series of crystalline rocks is continued westward and forms 

the mountain about Lake Chelan and the northern part of the Cascade range. Much of this region of crj^stalline rocks is rich in minerals, and excellent building stone abounds. This most promising field 

for geological study awaits exploration.

KITTITAS SYSTEM.

In west-central Washington, notably in Kittitas County and crossing the Columbia at Wenatchee, there is an important system of sandstones and shales carrying valuable beds of coal, which rests on the 

series of ancient crystalline rocks described above, and is covered in 

part by the lavas next to claim attention. The coal mines at Roslyn 

are in this system.

In Bulletin No. 108 I have proposed the name of Kittitas system 

for these coal-bearing rocks, for the reason that they form the surface 

over a large part of Kittitas County. The rocks of this system have 

not been studied and their boundaries are unknown, but in the central part of Kittitas County they pass beneath the series of lava 

sheets forming the basaltic plateau of central and southeastern 

Washington, and may possibly extend beneath the region described 

in this report. No outcrops of the rocks of the Kittitas system are 

known, however, east of the Columbia, except in the neighborhood of 

Wenatchee, but it is not improbable that they extend somewhat 

widely beneath the lava rock of the central, basin.,

COLUMBIA LAVA.

As already stated, the great basin between the mountains of Idaho 

and the Cascade range, including what is known as the "Big Bend 

country," or the Great Plains of the Columbia, and all of the southeastern portion of Washington, is covered with what is termed, in a 

general way, lava rock. Since a convenient geographical name for 

this lava is desirable, I have suggested the term "Columbia lava," 

for the reason that much of the country covered by it is drained by 

the Columbia River and its branches. 1

Origin. The Columbia lava was poured out from openings in the

i Bull. U. S. Geological Survey No. 108,1893, p. 21.
GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS. 41

earth's crust in a molten condition, in mucli the same manner that 

volcanoes at the present day are discharging similar material. It 

probably came from fissures in the earth's crust, however, instead of 

from individual vents, as in the case of Mount Rainier, for example, 

and spread away from the fissure in highly liquid sheets, whieh 

flowed rapidly.

As is shown wherever canyons have been cut in the Columbia lava, 

it is not one vast flow, but is composed of many beds, frequently from 

50 to more than 150 feet in thickness, which are separated by seoriaceous layers and other partings. The surfaces of flows which cooled 

before the next sheet above was poured out are frequently rough and 

of a cellular or scoriaceous character and are occasionally covered 

with lapilli, as well as with widely extended layers of clay and sand 

and old soils.

The statement that the lava was poured out through fissures is based 

in part upon an hypothesis which is held for the reason that the features characteristic of volcanoes are absent and no plausible account 

of the origin of the lava, except by "fissure eruptions," has been suggested. The fissures through which the lava is supposed to have 

reached the surface would be filled with similar material and would 

give origin on cooling to what are known as dikes. At one locality in 

Kittitas Couaty, where the rocks beneath the lava have been exposed 

by erosion, large dikes of this nature have been seen. 1 This observation is in direct support of the fissure-eruption hypothesis. The 

large number of separate sheets of lava, however, demand under the 

hypothesis mentioned that the earlier overflow should have been 

broken by fissures, in order to admit of the escape from below of the 

molten material which rose and overflowed the surface so as to form 

the later sheets. Dikes should therefore be expected to occur in the 

lower sheets of lava leading up to the superior layers. Although 

the Columbia lava has been deeply dissected by stream erosion, only 

three or four dikes cutting across the layers have been seen. These 

are situated in the walls of Grande Ronde canyon and are all small, 

the largest being only about 30 feet thick. Whether these dikes lead 

to lava sheets higher in the canyon wall and indicate the fissures 

from which material forming the superior sheets was derived is not 

certain, for the reason that disintegration has obscured the upward 

extension of the dikes and made it impossible to trace them for more 

than a few hundred feet above the present level of Grande Ronde 

River.

Throughout the hundreds of miles of cliffs formed by the walls of 

stream channels through the Columbia lava that have come under 

my notice, with the exception of the locality just mentioned, dikes are 

absent. There is thus seemingly a weakness in the evidence which 

should be looked for in support of the fissure-eruption hypothesis,

i Bull. U. 8. Gteol. Survey No. 108, 1893, pp. 67-68.
42 A RECONNOISSANCE IN SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON. [NO.4.

but this may be removed when the region covered by the Columbia lava, especially in the vicinity of the Cascade Mountains, is more 

extensively examined.

Extent. The Columbia lava is by far the most extensive of the 

geological formations in the far Northwest. It is also the most 

important from an economic point of view, since by the disintegration and decay of its surface layers it has furnished the wonderfully 

rich soil on which a large portion of the grain of Washington and 

adjacent States is raised.

The boundary of this great series of volcanic overflows in eastern 

Washington, from Snake River northward to Spokane River, and 

thence westward along the Columbia, has already been briefly 

described. The Columbia lava occurs also in the Cascade Mountains 

of Washington and Oregon, and extends southward into California. 

To the east of the Cascade Mountains it occupies much of Oregon 

and large portions of southern Idaho. Although its boundaries have 

not been mapped, it is known to occupy an area of not less than 

200,000, and possibly as much as 250,000, square miles.

Thickness. The Columbia lava, as already stated, was poured out 

in a molten condition and spread over the country like a series of 

fiery inundations. The surfaces of the various sheets were originally 

practically horizontal, but the surface of the inundate' country was 

uneven and, in part at least, mountainous. The depth of the hardened lava at various localities would therefore depend on the character of the topography of the region it covers. The original thickness 

has been decreased by erosion, but, except in the canyon, this is not 

great. The loss from the surface of those portions which have not 

been upraised or tilted is, under the most liberal estimate, n'ot over a 

few hundred feet.

The maximum thickness of the lava, or, considering it as a congealed 

sea of molten rock, the deepest sounding, is not known. About the 

margin of the basaltic flows along the Columbia River, in the "Big 

Bend country," canyons 300 or 400 feet in depth reveal the granite 

beneath. Along Snake River Canyon for over 100 miles from its 

mouth 2,000 feet of lava is in sight. Where Snake River and the 

Grande Ronde cut into the Blue Mountain uplift, between 4,000 and 

5,000 feet of horizontally bedded lava is exposed. This is the deepest 

section yet discovered, but even there the base of the series is not 

seen. It seems safe to-conclude that the maximum thickness is in 

excess of 5,000 feet. In the Cascade Mountains, according to Prof. 

Joseph Le Conte, 3,700 feet of lava is to be seen. From my own 

observations in that region, however, I should not be surprised if much 

greater thicknesses are discovered. The average thickness for the 

Columbia lava in the State of Washington was thought by Lieutenant 

Symons 1 to be not far from 2,000 feet. In a former report I was dis1 Bull. U. S. Qeol. Survey No. 108, 1893, p. 21.
RUSSELL.] ' GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS. 43

posed to agree with, this estimate, but observations since made along 

Snake River certainly indicate that the average thickness over large 

areas must be much in excess of the amount stated. Estimates of the 

average thickness can at present have but little value, however, as 

even single measurements of the total thickness are lacking, except 

near the borders of the lava-covered region.

Character of the rock. The general appearance of the rock forming 

the widely extended formation under discussion is familiar to everyone in southeastern Washington. It is the common black rock of the 

country. It underlies all of the wheat lands, and is splendidly 

exposed in the canyons of the Grande Ronde, Snake, Palouse, and 

Spokane rivers, and along nearly all of their branches west of the 

Washington-Idaho boundary. To the geologist this rock is known as 

basalt. 1 It is dark, usually black, in color, but various tints of 

gray, green, brown, and red are not uncommon. Most of the variations from the normal black or nearly black color are due to weathering. The upper surfaces of some of the sheets, however, are red, 

owing to the oxidation of the iron in the rock while it was yet highly 

heated.

One of the latest lava flows in the great series here considered occurs 

in Yakima County, between Cowiche and Natches creeks, and differs 

from all other portions of the Columbia lava now known. The lava 

sheet referred to consists of what is termed hypersthene-andesite, and 

contains prominent crystals of the mineral hypersthene. 2 When the 

Columbia lava is critically studied, it is probable that other rocks 

nearly related to basalt, but differing from it in chemical and mineral ogical composition, will be discovered.

Except when the molten magma cooled with excessive rapidity, as 

on coming in contact with water, or flowed over wet sands and clays, 

the material composing it became crystallized. The slower the cooling, the larger the crystals that were formed. The central portions 

of the various sheets are for this reason usually coarser in texture 

than their surfaces. In a few instances the bottom of a layer is 

almost glassy for an inch or two in thickness, owing to sudden cooling. 

Fragmental material, sometimes found in sheets between the layers, 

and probably formed by the disintegration of the highly heated rock 

on coming in contact with water, is also excessively fine grained and 

vitreous in luster.

The crystals of which the basalt is composed can seldom be seen by 

the unaided eye, but when thin sections of the rock are studied with

1 A characteristic sample of this rock from Mill Creek, near Walla Walla, has been examined 

by Mr. J. S. Diller, who reports as follows concerning it: " The rock is a characteristic basalt, 

composed of plagioclase feldspar, augite, olivine, and magnetite, with considerable globulitic 

base. The feldspars are well developed, with crystallographic boundaries. The augite is less 

well developed and is generally granular, as is also the olivine. The magnetite is mostly in octahedral crystals, which for the most part are arranged in groups made up of lines perpendicular 

to one another. The rock is perfectly fresh and unaltered."

a Bull. TJ. S. GeoL Survey No. 108,1893, pp. 64-^65.
44 A KECONNOISSANCE IN SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON. [NO.4.

the assistance of a microscope their nature is clearly shown. The 

minerals which make up the bulk of the rock are feldspar, augite, 

olivine, and magnetite, and crystals of other minerals are scattered 

thickly through uncrystallized portions of the magma, which forms a 

glassy groundmass. The minerals mentioned are silicates of alumina, magnesia, soda, potash, lime, iron, etc., and when the rock 

decomposes on weathering these substances are more or less perfectly 

liberated.

Chemical analyses of basalt show that in general it contains from 

46 to 57 per cent of silica and from 11 to 22 per cent of alumina, 

together with lime, magnesia, potash, etc., in proportions varying 

from a small fraction of 1 per cent to over 10 per cent. It is the presence of lime, potash, and phosphoric acid in the basalt that gives the 

soils formed from its decay much of their richness for agricultural 

purposes.

Columnar structure. The columnar structure of many of the lava 

sheets gives interesting details to the massive architecture of the 

canyon walls at many localities. This structure, as is well known, is 

due to the shrinking of the rocks on cooling. The columns have their 

longer axes at right angles to the cooling surfaces, and consequently, 

in horizontal sheets, are vertical. When a canyon is cut through a 

series of beds having this columnar structure, the section of each 

layer presents the appearance of a long colonnade of closely set vertical shafts.

The columns are most commonly hexagonal in cross section, although 

other forms, with sides ranging from three to eight, may be found 

They are frequently 3 or 4 feet in diameter, but sometimes larger, 

and from a few feet to 30 feet or more in height. The larger columns 

are not usually sharply defined, as their sides are apt to be irregular. 

The most perfect examples have usually a diameter of from 15 to 25 

inches. One of the best displays of columnar structure that I have 

seen occurs on the left bank of Snake River, about 3 miles above the 

mouth of Alpowa Creek. A long colonnade is there exposed, forming 

a vertical wall 30 to 40 feet high, in which the shafts are remarkably 

even and of uniform size. The columns are mostly six-sided and 

about 14 inches in diameter. Beneath this columnar layer is a bed 

of pure-white volcanic dust. The removal of this soft layer by the 

river has led to the undermining of the heavy sheet of basalt resting 

on it and the breaking away of the jointed rock, so as to form the wall 

in which the columnar structure is so well displayed.

The breaking of the basalt into columns is due, as stated above, to 

shrinkage on cooling. Breaks in the rock, termed joints, are thus 

formed. These are best developed when cooling is slow, and for this 

reason the central portions of lava sheets are frequently regularly 

jointed that is, divided into well-defined columns while the top 

and bottom portions of the sheets are confusedly jointed, and sepa-
RUSSELL.] " GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS. 45

rate into blocks of all shapes and many sizes. The irregularly jointed 

rock does not fall apart so readily as that in which the joints are parallel and well developed. It is for this reason that the rows of columns 

exposed in the canyon walls so frequently rise from a projecting base 

and support ,an overhanging cornice above.

In some localities, particularly where the basaltic columns are of 

large size, their surfaces present a network of grooves looking like 

the cracks formed in the surface of mud on drying. The origin of 

these peculiar markings was not apparent until weathered surfaces 

were examined. It was then found that the columns frequently 

have a well-defined internal structure. They are formed of small 

columns similar in form to the main shafts, but usually only an inch 

or two in diameter. These secondary columns radiate from a confusedly jointed central core and terminate in more or less regularly 

shaped prisms at the surface of the main column. It is the junction 

of the bounding planes of the secondary columns with the surface of 

the main shafts that gives rise to the peculiar figures mentioned above. 

These figures, frequently six-sided, but usually irregular, are best 

seen when the surfaces of the main columns are somewhat weathered. 

The cracks or planes of jointing that define the sides of the large columns are, as already stated, at right angles to the cooling surfaces. 

The secondary columns are at right angles to the master joints, which 

determined the cooling surfaces of the material forming the columns 

bounded by them.

The best locality for studying this secondary columnar structure 

that I have noticed, is on the left bank of Snake River, about 6 miles 

above Asotin, where an excavation for a road has recently been made 

at the base of a great precipice.

The sides of the columns into which the Columbia lava has so frequently been broken seldom present plane surfaces, but are irregular 

in many ways. The convexities on the side of one column fit accurately into depressions in the sides of the adjacent columns and serve 

to lock the columns together, and thus admit of their standing in 

vertical precipices. The columns in the face of a cliff are frequently 

so loose that one can move them with the hand, but the interlocking 

of their irregular sides with their neighbors holds them in place.

The series of vertical joints which divide the horizontal sheets of 

basalt into columns are frequently crossed by other joints or breaks, 

which are horizontal. There are at least two classes of these horizontal 

joints, one of which affects individual columns, while the other runs 

through a large series of columns.

The cross joints which affect individual columns break them into 

sections from a few inches to perhaps 3 or 4 feet in length. The summit of each section is commonly concave, or depressed, so as to form 

a saucer-shaped hollow, into which fit the rounded ends of the sections next above. It is seldom, however, that this ball-and-socket
46 A RECONNOISSANCE IN SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON. [NO.4.

arrangement, so well displayed at the Giant's Causeway, Ireland, on 

the Isle of Staffa, Scotland, and in other classical exposures of basaltic 

rock, is characteristically exhibited in the Columbia lava.

The other variety of horizontal jointing, of which mention was 

made above, extends for long distances, and frequently affects a 

series of vertical columns several miles in length. These breaks make 

important division planes in the canyon walls. While in general 

horizontal, they sometimes make sharp downward bends, but when 

this occurs the columns still maintain a direction at right angles to 

the breaks that is, the joints are parallel with the cooling surfaces 

that controlled the arrangement of the columns. When the horizontal 

division planes make a sharp downward curve, the columns radiate 

from a center situated above. When two or more generally horizontal 

division planes have been developed, they are strictly parallel with 

each other and have similar downward curves where groups of radiated columns occur. The vertical distance between two well-defined 

planes is in some instances not over 3 or 4 feet; at other times the 

interval is 20 or 30 feet.

The widely extended horizontal joints just described may be distinguished from bedding planes by the fact that the generally vertical 

columns cross them without change in direction, and also by the fact 

that they are narrow and sharply defined; and again, for the reason 

that the rocks above and below are not scoriaceous and have none of 

the features that characterize the surface and basal portions of lava 

flows.

So far as I am aware, these widely extended horizontal joints have 

never been explained, but their parallelism with the surfaces of the 

lava sheets suggest that they are due to the shrinking of the rock as 

cooling progressed from the surface downward.

While the systems of vertical columns and frequent presence of 

horizontal joint planes make the regular jointing conspicuous, the fact 

is not to be overlooked that the rock, where this systematic arrangement is not pronounced, is also broken in a similar way, but without regularity. This becomes especially evident when apparently 

solid cliffs crumble on weathering, and an irregular series of joints is 

developed.

Scoriaceous surfaces and amygdaloids. The surfaces of the various 

flows of Columbia lava are usually cellular or scoriaceous, while at a 

depth usually of a few feet the rock is compact and practically without 

cavities. As is well known from the study of modern lava streams, 

the oval holes and blebs, sometimes drawn out by the flow of the still 

plastic rock so as to be greatly elongated, are due to the expansion of 

steam and gases within the highly heated and still pasty material. 

On account of the action of the oxygen of the air on these rocks while 

still heated, or afterwards as they cooled and weathered, the iron contained in them was usually oxidized and the rocks acquired a red 

color. The scoriaceous layers are therefore frequently red.
RUSSELL.] GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS. 47

The upper surfaces of the various sheets are characterized especially 

by a cellular or scoriaceous condition; the under surfaces also have 

the same characteristics, although usually not so well marked. As a 

lava stream advances, its surface becomes cooled and forms a scoriaceous crust, which may be sustained for a time on the still moving and 

highly liquid lava beneath. A hardened crust also forms on the extremity of the moving sheet, and is rolled under as the sheet advances. 

Scoriaceous rock is thus transferred from the surface to the base of a 

lava stream. Where sheet has succeeded sheet, each formed by an 

outpouring of molten rock, it is frequently difficult to say just where 

the junction plane separating them is located, for the reason that the 

rough, scoriaceous surface of the lower sheet is involved and embedded 

in similar material, which was poured out over it.

The basal portions of lava sheets, especially when they rest upon 

soft deposits like clay, are sometimes smooth, and have- a dense outer 

rind with a glassy structure, due to rapid cooling. An instance of this 

nature observed at Spokane is described on page 53.

The cavities in scoriaceous lava frequently become filled with mineral matter, and on breaking open the rock that has undergone this 

change kernel-like grains are found instead of cavities. The mineral 

matter in such instances, most frequently some form of quartz, has 

been deposited from solution by percolating water since the rock 

hardened. Rocks containing cavities which have been filled in this 

way are termed amygd-aloids, from the resemblance of the kernels to 

almonds. The kernels or amygdules may be of any shape, however, 

and not infrequently in the Columbia lava are very irregular. In 

some of the layers of the lava, as was observed especially in the canyon of the Grande Ronde, the cavities are not completely filled, but 

each one has a thin lining of quartz. As the rocks weather the small 

hollow kernels are liberated and occur scattered through the soil.

Larger cavities in the lava at times become filled with a form of 

silica known as chalcedony, which has a yellow color and looks like 

bright yellow resin. When this mineral presents bands or layers of 

different color, 'it is known as onyx. The presence of this mineral in 

the Columbia lava has led to crude mining at a few localities with the 

hope of discovering beds of onyx, but thus far little if any material 

of commercial value has been found.

Another form of silica, known as opal, also occurs as amygdules in 

the Columbia lava, and very beautiful stones having bright colors 

have been obtained. These stones are of the variety known as harlequin opals, and are frequently of great brilliancy and in every way of 

excellent quality. Opal mining has been carried on in a small way 

at Moscow and a few other localities in Idaho, and the conditions seem 

favorable for continuing this industry. Common opal, of a milkywhite color and without the gorgeous play of colors that makes the 

harlequin opal one of the most beautiful of gems, occurs at very many 

horizons, and so long as we do not know the precise conditions that
48 A RECONNOISSANCE IN SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON. [NO. 4.

cause the variations in the character of the silica deposited in cavities in the lava, one may hope to find the variety having brilliant 

colors at almost any locality.

Extent and thickness of individual sheets. In the walls of many of 

the canyons that have been excavated in the balsatic plateau, and 

especially in Snake River Canyon and along Spokane and Columbia 

rivers, individual layers of lava may be traced for miles, and even for 

scores of miles, without notable variation in thickness or in general 

characteristics. I have not made continuous journeys of more than 

25 or 30 miles through the canyons, but have entered them at various 

places. Localities on their brinks frequently command a view of 10 

or 15 miles of the opposite wall, and from exceptionally favorable 

localities for observation, like the summit of Mount Wilson, the edges 

of the lava sheets may be seen clearly exposed for not less than 40 

miles. In no instance have I seen a lava sheet thin out or in fact 

present any marked variations. It is evident that the lava was highly 

fluid at the time of its extrusion, and that it spread widely over the 

country in horizontal sheets of remarkably uniform thickness. Few 

exact measures of the thickness of individual sheets have been made, 

but by eye estimates it is safe to say that many sheets are from 40 to 

60 feet thick, and not infrequently layers of more than double these 

amounts occur. The average thickness, I should judge, would be 60 

or 80 feet.

Number of overflows. In almost any view of the walls of Snake 

River Canyon, which furnishes the best section known of the Columbia, 50 or 60 well-defined bands may be seen, *which at first sight 

appear to be the edges of individual lava sheets. A closer examination will show, however, that some of even the most conspicuous horizontal partings do not mark the junction of separate lava sheets, but 

are due to the horizontal jointing already described. Some of the 

bands, too, are due to the columnar structure of the central portion 

of the various sheets adjacent to other portions of the same flows 

which are confusedly jointed. For these reasons, and also because 

the terraces or steps in the canyon walls are covered with loose rocks 

and soil, banked high against the cliffs above, it is difficult to determine how many individual lava sheets have been cut through in order 

to form the canyon. Reliable evidence of the vertical extent of the 

individual sheets of lava is sometimes furnished by interbedded layers 

of sedimentary origin, like sand and clay, and also by sheets of fragmental material, termed lapilli and volcanic dust. It is infrequent, 

however, in eastern Washington that evidence of this nature can be 

had. Usually, the only safe method of distinguishing the individual 

flow is by noting the occurrence of scoriaceous bands.

On counting the numbers of scoriaceous band«s exposed in the walls 

of Snake River Canyon, I found that at least -eight lava sheets had been 

cut through to form the canyon where it is 3,000 feet deep. I am by
BUSSELL.J .GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS. . 49

no means confident, however, that this is the total number of sheets 

in sight. Although the cany on .walls appear to offer abundant facilities for learning the number of individual flows exposed in them, yet 

difficulties arise when one attempts to measure an actual section, for 

the reason that large portions of the cliffs are concealed by talus 

slopes. I must confess that I did not make such a detailed study of 

the canyon walls as I had hoped to do, for the reason, in part, that I 

delayed the task until the most favorable locality should be found. 

The best localities for such a detailed study are in Snake River Canyon, 

above Asotin, but when in that section my time was too limited to 

do all the work I desired to accomplish.

Geological age. Beneath the Columbia lava in Kittitas County 

there are coal-bearing rocks, termed the Kittitas system, which, as 

shown by their abundant plant remains, are probably of Eocene age, 

the oldest of the principal divisions of the Tertiary. Besting on the 

lavas in the same general region, and in part interbedded with them, 

is another series of beds which have been referred to the Miocene, or 

the middle portion of the Tertiary. This evidence seems conclusive 

that the Columbia lava was poured out somewhere near the middle 

of the Tertiary period.

Road material. The basalt will probably never be in demand for 

architectural purposes, for the reason that it is too hard to be smoothed 

or polished economically, and also because of its dark color. It is of 

value, however, for rough masonry, as, for example, the foundations of 

buildings, abutments of bridges, etc. When crushed, it furnishes a 

most excellent material for macadamizing roads and streets or ballasting railroad tracks.

The fine soil of central and eastern Washington makes poor roads, 

as it wears easily, rises in dust when dry, and is soft and slippery 

when wet. At present the country roads and even the streets in the 

towns have but little attention given to them. But as the State 

grows in wealth and culture better roads will be demanded. The 

basalt will then furnish a limitless supply of material for their improvement. 1

Artesian ivetts. The artesian wells at Pullman, Palouse, and other 

places in Whitman County and adjacent portions of Idaho have been 

drilled in the Columbia lava. If other similar wells are to be had in 

southeastern Washington, they will have to penetrate the same series

1 In Walla Walla and some other towns the practice prevails of covering the dusty streets to 

a depth of 5 or 6 Inches with wheat straw. This temporary expedient is an improvement, but 

should not be allowed to delay the making of solid and practically dustless roadbeds with 

broken stone, on the macadam plan.

The country roads throughout southeastern Washington are frequently impassable for loaded 

wagons during wet weather, and, besides, follow section lines, without reference to hills or valleys. Economy, if no higher principle, demands that the rectangular road system should be 

abandoned in many regions and an effort made to give the roads gentle grades and smooth, 

hard surfaces.

The improvement of country roads, especially by the macadam process, is discussed by Prof. 

N. S. Shaler in the Sixteenth Annual'Report of the United States Geological Survey.

IEE4 i
50 A RECONNOISSANCE IN SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON. [NO.*.

of lava flows. In dealing with the artesian problem it is necessary to 

consider various conditions besides th.e character of the lava, and this 

discussion will therefore be postponed to a later portion of this report.

3»

CLAY AND GRAVEL INTERSTRATIFIED WITH THE COLUMBIA

LAVA.

Ydkima VaUey. In the region occupied .by the Columbia lava in 

central Washington, to the west of Columbia River, and described in 

a previous report, 1 there are several widely spread sheets of clay, 

gravel, sand, etc., of sedimentary origin, interleaved with the lava 

sheets. The brief account given in the report referred to, of the relation of the lava to these interbedded deposits, is as follows:

Near the upper surface of the Columbia lava, in the Yakima region, there is a 

thin layer of clay formed as a sediment in a Tertiary lake, and subsequently 

covered by a lava flow a hundred feet thick. Above this bed of basalt and resting 

evenly on its surface are gravels and fine, evenly bedded lacustral sediments, having a thickness of 125 feet; then comes an inter/stratified sheet of columnar basalt, 

from 40 to 100 feet thick, which may be traced from the hills about Ellensburg 

eastward to Columbia Biver and which appears again in the eastern portion of 

Saddle Mountain. Above this layer there are other lacustral deposits, belonging 

to the John Day system. Besides the widely spread interstratified sheets of basalt 

there are others more local and less well known; one of these was penetrated while 

drilling the artesian wells in Moxee Valley.

SoutJieastern Washington. The examination made of the geology 

of southeastern Washington failed to show that deposits of aqueous 

origin, interstratified with the Columbia lava, are there as numerous as in the region mentioned above, to the west of the Columbia. 

This is an important matter, as it has a direct bearing on the question 

of artesian water supply. The localities where sedimentary beds 

occur interleaved with the basalt to the east of the Columbia are 

mostly near the eastern boundary of the basaltic plateau, in Spokane, 

Whitman, and Asotin counties.

A possible reason for the fact that a greater number of sedimentary 

beds interstratified with the basalt have been recognized in the region 

west of the Columbia than in the country having a similar geological 

history to the east of that river may be that in the western area the 

lavas and interbedded deposits have been disturbed from their original 

horizontal position and the vast blocks bounded by faults have been 

upraised so as to expose the edges of the strata composing them and to 

allow the weathering out of the soft beds, in part, in such a manner as 

to reveal their presence in the topography. In southeastern Washington the rocks are, for the most part, still horizontal, and the only sections exposed to view are in canyon walls. Unless the escarpments 

are unusually steep, the soft beds are apt to be concealed by talus 

slopes and soil, and their presence masked. A more detailed study of

1 Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No. 108,1893, p. 32.
BUSSELL.] GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS. 51

the geology of this region will perhaps reveal a greater number of sedimentary beds in the basaltic area than is at present known.

Walla Walla Valley. At a locality on the south side of Walla 

Walla Valley, about midway between Walla Walla and Wallula, the 

upper portion of a bed of line clay beneath basalt is open to view for 

a short distance. The thickness of this bed that is exposed to view 

is only about 4 feet, but its total thickness is unknown.

Asotin country. Near Asotin, on each side of Asotin Creek and 

less clearly exposed in the neighboring portion of Snake River Canyon, 

there are two horizons, one about 360 and the other approximately 700 

feet above the town of Asotin, at which light-colored, evenly stratified 

clays appear between thick layers of basalt. The lower bed of clay 

is in the neighborhood of 40 feet thick; the upper one is certainly 

much thicker, but has not been measured. These sheets of clay are 

probably of wide extent, but owing to the manner in which comparatively thin, soft layers in a great series of hard beds became concealed 

at their outcrops in canyon walls by debris and soil, their presence 

was not clearly recognized in the bluffs and precipices bordering Snake 

River.

Palouse country. At Pullman the upper portion of a bed of heavy 

clay is exposed near the bottom of the steep-sided valley in which the 

business portion of the town is located. This bed, as shown in railroad cuts northwest from the town, and in part by well borings, is 

about 30 feet thick. Its upper portion, to the depth of from 4 to 6 

feet, has been baked and hardened by the heat of the lava that flowed 

over it, and is frequently dark, almost black, in color. At the 

immediate junction the clay is so much altered that it is difficult in 

small exposures to distinguish it from the overlying basalt, especially 

when the latter is somewhat weathered and disintegrated. Numerous 

vertical joints in the altered clay also increase its resemblance to 

igneous rock. This hardened surface portion of the stratum of 'clay, 

when traced downward, changes to unaltered clay, which in some 

places is yellow, light colored, and sandy. The thickness of basalt 

above this stratum is not less than 150 or 200 feet.

About 60 feet below the clay layer just described there is a second 

bed of sedimentary origin, composed of light-colored, unconsoliclated 

quartz-sand and gravel, containing an abundance of mica. The 

rock intervening between these two sedimentary layers is compact, 

black basalt. The stratum of sand and gravel referred to has been 

revealed in drilling artesian wells, and has been penetrated to the 

depth of a few feet, but its thickness is unknown. It is abundantly 

water bearing.

The upper sedimentary bed at Pullman is plainly the sediment of a 

lake that existed on the basaltic plateau during an interval between 

the outpourings of lava. The layer of gravel and sand, 60 feet below, 

is of the nature of a stream deposit, or possibly the shore formation
52 A RECONNOTSSANCE IN SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON. [NO.4.

of a lake, and was derived mainly from the disintegration of the granitic hills bordering the basaltic plateau on the east. The distance 

from Pullman to the nearest granitic hills to the eastward that rise 

above the present surface of the plateau is only about 8 miles.

In drilling a well at Palouse, 12 miles northeast of Pullman, a 

water-bearing stratum of sand and gravel similar to that beneath 

Pullman was reached at a depth of about 100 feet below the. surface. 

Palouse is, by aneroid measurements' 100 feet higher than Pullman, 

hence the water-bearing beds at these two localities are not the same. 

The gravels and sands at a depth of 100 feet at Palouse may represent the clay layers exposed in the streets of Pullman.

At Garfield a drilled well was put down to a depth of about 300 

feet, but so far as I can learn no sedimentary deposits were reached. 

Three miles northeast of Garfield, however, on the farm of James 

Walters, a drilled well, 113 feet deep, passed through basalt for 65 

feet from the surface and entered clay 14 to 15 feet deep, beneath 

which water-bearing sand was reached, from which water rose and 

overflowed at the surface.

In a north-and-south belt of country in general, some 8 or 10 miles 

wide, beginning about 4 miles south of Pullman and extending to 

beyond Rosalia, there are reported to be 40 or 50 wells that penetrate 

water-bearing strata interbedded with the, sheets of basalt. The 

records of these wells are not all available, and in general the level of 

the ground at the surface where they are located is not accurately 

known. For these reasons it is impracticable at this time to construct 

a section of the rocks of the region.

A mile south of Palouse, and again about a mile west of Garfield, 

deposits of sandy clay and of pure white kaolin have been opened. 

At the first-mentioned locality the clays are used for making fire brick 

and pottery. These deposits are evenly stratified and evidently of 

lacustral origin, but the depth of soil about them renders it uncertain 

whether or not they are interbedded with basalt. There is Ifrttle doubt, 

however, that they represent lake deposits that were covered with 

basaltic overflows, and that they were revealed at a later period by 

the erosion of stream channels. These deposits are similar to certain 

clays in Spokane, described later, that are covered with thick sheets 

of basalt; a fact which lends support to the hypothesis just stated.

The conditions described in a general way as existing from Pullman 

northward to Rosalia are probably continued northward to Spokane, 

but this tract of country was not examined. At Spokane I spent two 

days in making a hasty study of the exceedingly interesting geological 

features there well displayed.

Spokane. Excavations made in the southern part of the city of 

Spokane have revealed important beds of coarse gravel and sandy clay 

with a thick sheet of Columbia lava above. Similar beds of basalt 

occur beneath the sedimentary layer, as is shown by other excava-
RUSSELL.] GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS. 53

tions, as well as along the adjacent portions of Spokane River. The 

most instructive of the excavations referred to is near the south end 

of Barnard street, now graded, where an electric-car line leaves the 

street and curves abruptly eastward. This cut is in general about 20 

feet deep and approximately 150 feet long. For about 130 feet from 

Barnard street thin-bedded' sandy clays with much mica and containing fossil leaves are exposed. A thickness of 10 or 12 feet of this 

deposit is in sight, but its bottom is nowhere revealed.

Resting in an irregular manner on the micaceous clays are coarse, 

uncemented gravels and water-worn bowlders. Above the gravel lies 

the covering of basalt, which, as shown in neighboring cliffs, is not 

less than 50 or 75 feet thick. An interesting feature of the basal portion of the covering sheet of basalt is the irregularity of its lower surface. The bottom of the basaltic sheet, has rounded, smooth-surfaced 

protuberances or corrugations, between which the gravel and bowlders, together with detached fragments of the micaceous clay, frequently 12 to 16 inches in diameter, extend upward for 8 or 10 feet. 

Fragments of the micaceous clay in contact with the basalt show evidences, in their compactness and reddish color, of the effect of the 

heat of the lava which came in contact with them.

A rough sketch of the exposure described above, as seen in the 

north wall of the cut, is here reproduced from my note-book:

 'Y? \r^~ V>^V VN -

 :o^^Cl^^:Q# "«. * .-O-.v.O^v.

:®^ '..ro.-ro--.--

^^ 

^^ : : o".

^/V3.^-^.^

\o:°-:&?:^

^^5v - -n^^-p-^- rg^vS-^^-tef*::- 

.. 0 . 0.- 

:'A'

Af/caceous c/ay

FIG. 1, Section of lava flow and lake beds at Spokane.

The surface of the basalt is not only smooth, but when broken was 

found to be exceedingly dense and hard. The rock to a depth of about 

2 inches has a vitreous luster and is almost a glass. Evidently this 

surface layer was cooled quickly.

The explanation of the peculiar relation of the basalt to the gravel 

and clays beneath it seems to be that the lava in a molten condition 

flowed over the deposits on which it rests in a direction from left to 

right, as shown in the above section. The loose deposits were disturbed and forced along in front of the flowing lava until the resistance 

became sufficient to check its progress, and at the same time the lava
54 A RECONNOISSANCE IN SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON. [NO.*.

became cool and rigid. Still liquid lava broke out from the face of the 

arrested flow and advanced beyond the previously cooled border, overflowed the accumulation of stones and fragments of the micaceous 

clay, and again forced up a ridge of the loose material. This process 

was repeated several times in the portion of the flow exposed, and 

accounts for the marked inequalities in the under surface of the 

basaltic sheet and the manner in which confused masses of gravel and 

detached fragments of clay extend upward into the basalt.

The explanation just suggested is in harmony with the manner in 

which lava flows are known to advance. In describing the flow of lava 

streams on the Island of Hawaii, Button says: 1

After running some miles it [the molten lava] reaches more level ground, where 

it spreads out in great lakes or fields. It also cools on the surface, which gradually freezes over. But it is still hot within, and beneath its hardened covering the 

liquid rivers are still running, and at the edges and along the front of the great 

sheet the liquid lava constantly breaks forth, pushing out fiery rivulets in advance 

and laterally.

The lava that covers the lake beds and gravel deposit in Spokane 

appears to have advanced into a shallow lake, the bottom of which 

was disturbed and forced up in ridges. The contact of the lava with 

the water caused it to congeal rapidly and to form a glassy outer 

layer.

Near Spokane there are deposits of kaolin, similar to that already 

mentioned as occurring near Palouse, but remarkably fine and pure. 

I have not visited the pits from which thfls material is obtained, but 

from its character it appears to belong to the series of deposits under 

consideration.

Deposits of volcanic dust and lapilli. On a previous page mention 

has been made of a layer of pure-white volcanic dust beneath a thick 

sheet of columnar basalt in Snake River Canyon, above the mouth of 

Alpowa Creek. This deposit owes its origin to a violent volcanic 

eruption, the location of which is unknown, that blew great quantities of exceedingly fine dust high in the air. The dust was carried 

by the wind to great distances and spread as a sheet over the land. 

This eruption occurred during one of the later intervals in the outpouring of the Columbia lava-and the deposit was buried by the next 

succeeding lava overflow. The stratigraphic relation of this bed of 

volcanic dust to the overflow of Columbia lava is similar to that of the 

interbedded lacustral clays and stream-deposited sand.

In excavating for an irrigating canal on the side of Snake River 

Canyon at Pigeon Rock, below Asotin, a bed of coarse, yellowish, 

fragmental volcanic material over 10 feet in thickness was exposed. 

This deposit has compact lava sheets above and below, and owes its 

origin to the deposition of fragments of volcanic rock, frequently 2

'C. E. Button, The Hawaiian Islands and People; a lecture delivered at the United States 

National Museum, 1884, p. 13.
RUSSELL.] GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS. 55

inches in diameter, which w< sre blown out by a volcano, or perhaps 

formed by molten lava coming in contact with water. The fragments 

composing this lapilli sheet are of the same character as the dense, vitreous layers already described as forming the under surface of a lava 

sheet at Spokane. These lapilli deposits, unlike the sheet of white 

volcanic dust mentioned above, belong to the eruptions that poured 

out the Columbia lava, and are not, therefore, of distant origin.

Resume. Interleaved with the sheets of basalt forming the series 

named the Columbia lava, there are, as just shown, sheets of lacustral 

clay and of stream-borne gravel and sand, and layers of volcanic dust 

and of volcanic fragments termed lapilli. The lake beds appear to 

occur mostly near the border of the lava-covered country, for the 

reason that, in eastern Washington at least, the lava sheets flowed 

toward the mountains, and on congealing dammed their draining 

streams. The surface of the cooled and hardened lava flows must 

have had a slight slope in the direction of flow. The supposed absence 

of lake beds over the more central portions of the lava may be due to 

a lack of information, but seems to be a necessary result of the manner 

in which the lava sheets encroached on the mountains and blocked 

their draining streams. Shallow lakes were probably formed on the 

surfaces of the cooled lava sheets far from the mountains, but being 

at a distance from highlands that could furnish debris, they would 

not be deeply filled, and records of their ,existence would not be 

conspicuous.

The layers of volcanic dust, from the nature of their origin, should 

be widely spread, but -up to the present time they have been observed 

at but few localities. Sheets of lapilli have been noted in the Big 

Bend country and near Asotin, but whether they are extensive or not 

remains to be determined. These various deposits found between the 

layers of Columbia lava at different horizons not only record interesting episodes in the history of the basaltic inundations, but, as will be 

shown later, have a direct and important bearing on the question of 

artesian water supply.

JOHN DAY SYSTEM.

In my report of a reconnoissance in central Washington, already 

cited, certain lacustral deposits are described which rest on the surface of the latest extensive lava flow of the Columbia system. This 

series of lake sediments consists principally of stratified clays, with 

thick strata of white volcanic dust, and in certain localities contains 

beds of coarse conglomerate. It is termed the John Day system, for 

the reason that it is thought to be an extension of a similar formation 

which occurs in John Day Valley, Oregon. The connection between 

these two areas has not been actually traced, however, and the correlation just suggested must be considered as provisional.

Beds of light-colored clay and of white volcanic dust, which have 

been referred to the John Day system, occur at the White Bluffs
56 A RECONNOISSANCE IN SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON. [NO.4.

of the Columbia, 30 miles above Pasco, and are also well exposed in 

Naches Valley and near Ellensburg, in Yakima County. At these 

localities the impressions of the leaves of a large variety of plants 

and the bones of extinct animals have been obtained. The plant 

remains indicate that the shores of the ancient lake into which they 

were blown or washed by tributary streams were clothed in a varied 

and beautiful flora, resembling, in a general way at least, the vegetation of the South Atlantic and Gulf States at the present day. In 

the ancient forest and about the shores of the old lake, now known 

as Lake John Day, a veritable menagerie of strange and in part 

gigantic beasts found a congenial home.

From the White Bluffs of the Columbia southward to the region 

described in this report there are no barriers, but the surface of the 

country rises gradually from the broad valley of the Columbia to the 

basaltic plateau of northeastern Washington. From studies made 

along the Columbia in 1892, I was led to the conclusion that Lake 

John Day extended far eastward and covered nearly all of southeastern Washington, even to the base of the Blue Mountains. This view 

is now known to have been in part erroneous. The sediments of 

Lake John Day are but poorly exposed to the east of Pasco and 

Wallula, and their extent in that direction, although not clearly 

shown, is certainly far short of the Blue Mountains and of the Idaho 

boundary. They cover % the Eureka flats, however, as is shown by a 

well 198 feet deep at Eureka Junction, which is all in strata similar 

to those exposed in the White Bluffs of the Columbia, but does not 

reach the bottom of the formation. Fossil leaves were found in the 

rock removed in digging the well similar to those obtained from other 

portions of the John Day system. With the exception of the rocks 

found at Eureka Junction, no exposures of the Lake John Day system have been recognized in the region treated in this report. The 

sediment of the old lake does not occur above the Columbia lava in 

the vicinity of Walla Walla, Dayton, and Starbuck, and its eastern 

shore must have been to the west of these localities.

The lacustral deposits described in the preceding section as being 

interbedded with the Columbia lava are of about the same age as the 

John Day system and were accumulated under similar conditions. 

They should perhaps be included in the same system, but further 

study is necessary before a conclusion in this connection can be 

reached.

RIVER TERRACES.

In describing the canyons of Snake, Spokane, and other rivers in a 

preceding section mention was made of gravel terraces which occur 

in them. Little remains to be said in reference to these terraces* 

except to indicate their place in the geological history of the region 

where they occur. That they are younger than the Columbia lava 

and the lake beds, either interleaved with, them or resting on their
GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS. 57

surface, is shown by the fact that they occur in canyons that have 

been excavated in these formations. The canyon of Snake River, for 

example, was cut to its present depth before the gravels forming the 

great banks which occur at certain localities within it were deposited. 

The canyon was filled in with gravel from side to side to the depth 

of 360 'feet and then reexcavated. Since the river cut through this 

gravel deposit, removing by far the greater portion of it, but little if 

any progress has been made in deepening its bed in the solid rock 

below. Evidently the gravel deposit belongs to a comparatively modern episode in the history of the great gorge. Several considerations 

lead to the conclusion that the canyon was excavated to its present 

depth in late Tertiary times, and was filled in with gravel during the 

Glacial period. If this inference is correct, the amount of excavation 

done since the Glacial period is trifling in comparison with the work 

performed by the river previous to that period.

SOILS.

ORIGIN OF SOILS.

Soils in general consist of more or less thoroughly disintegrated and 

decomposed rock. The surface layer usually contains organic matter 

termed humus, derived from the partial decay or chemical alteration 

of organic matter, principally of vegetable origin.

In many regions the breaking down of the rock supplies more 

material for soil making than is removed by streams or blown away 

by the wind. Again, denudation may keep pace with disintegration 

and decay and all of the loosened soil material be removed, so as-to 

leave bare rock surfaces. Much of the soil material removed from 

one area is redeposited in another area, and hence it is convenient to 

recognize two kinds of soils, classified in reference to whether they 

have been removed from their place of origin or not. These two 

general classes are residual soils and transported soils. Under each 

of these divisions many minor subdivisions, dependent on chemical 

or mechanical composition, have been recognized.

The residual soils are such as originate from the disintegration and 

decay of the rocks on which they rest. They are the residue left 

after a long process of weathering and leaching by percolating water, 

which has removed most of the more easily soluble constituents. 

Some movements in the soil cap probably always attend this change, 

but the residue remains practically on the area where it was formed. 

In recognition of this fact the term " sedentary soil" is sometimes used 

instead of the one here employed.

The transported soils consist of the products of rock disintegration 

and decay and of rock abrasion, which have been removed from the 

area where they were produced, usually through the agencies of 

streams, glaciers, or the winds, and redeposited. A familiar example
58 A RECONNO1SSANCE IN SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON. FNo.4.

of soils of this class is furnished by the silts, sands, and clays forming the flood plains of streams.

In the region represented on the accompanying map not only are 

both transported and residual soils abundantly represented, but several varieties of each, dependent on mechanical and chemical differences, may be easily recognized.

SOILS OP THE VALLEYS AND CANYONS.

The soils in the valley bottoms in southeastern Washington, more 

especially in the smaller valleys and along the borders of the smaller 

streams, although belonging strictly to the transported soils, are frequently of the same character as the soils of the adjacent uplands, 

or plateau surface, and have been removed but short distances from 

their place of origin.

The bottom lands adjacent to Walla Walla River and the sand bars 

in Snake River Canyon, in the valley of Spokane River and elsewhere, are typical examples of transported soil. The mineral and 

rock fragments composing these soils are, in general, more varied in 

character than the grains in the residual soils, and have been brought 

to the localities where we now find them by stream transportation.

About Wallula and Pasco the country is covered over large areas 

with sand and dust. The surface coverings of this desert-like region 

represent another variety of transported soils, in which wind is the 

transporting agency.

The transported soils in the region under discussion may be easily 

recognized, particularly on account of their topographic relations and 

the heterogeneity of the rock fragments contained in them, and need 

not be considered further at this time.

SOIL OP THE WHEAT LANDS.

The deep, rich soil covering the broad basaltic plateau of southeastern Washington and extending widely into Oregon and southwestern Idaho is a residual soil formed by the disintegration and decay 

of the lava rocks on which it rests. . This is the justly celebrated 

soil of the wheat lands.

To the residual material left by the breaking down and partial 

solution of the lava have been added minor quantities of terrestrial 

and. volcanic matter; and cosmic dust, or the particles derived from 

meteors which come to the earth from space, should also be mentioned 

in this connection.

The plateau is covered nearly everywhere with a rich soil that is 

unusually fine and porous and free from stones and obstructions of 

every kind. To the plow it offers scarcely more resistance than so 

much meal. The surfaces of plowed fields are of a dark-brown, 

almost black color, due to organic matter or humus. This humus is 

in part an inheritance from the centuries during which the rolling
U. 6. GEOLOGICAL SURVEV WAtER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 4 PL. Ill

WHEAT LANDS NEAR MOSCOW, IDAHO.
BtJSSELL.] GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS. 59

uplands were covered with bunch grass, and in part has been derived 

from the decay of the stubble of wheat fields. At a depth usually of 

5 to 8 feet below the surface the dark color fades away and the subsoil, equally fine and homogeneous, and having the same mineral 

composition, but of a light and usually a yellowish color, is revealed. 

The subsoil varies in depth with the relief of the surface and with 

the topography of the underlying hard-rock surface, but is nearly 

always deep. Systematic measurements are wanting, but judging 

from the thickness of superficial material revealed in wells, railroad 

cuts, and other excavations, the subsoil has an average depth of 

between 50 and 80 feet. Many natural and artificial sections that 

were examined revealed a depth of 40 to 50 feet, usually without 

exposing the underlying rock.

In all sections of the subsoil it appears as a fine, homogeneous, 

unstratified formation, having a uniform light-yellow color. 1 There 

are frequently indications of vertical joints, or narrow dividing planes, 

but whether these have developed in the soil, or are possibly an inheritance from the basalt from which it was derived, is an open question. 

Traversing the subsoil from top to bottom are innumerable minute 

and almost capillary tubes. These are, in a general way, vertical, 

but they are curved and otherwise irregular. A single tube can seldom be traced for more than ,3 or 4 inches, and their extremities are 

seldom discoverable, but scarcely a cubic inch of the subsoil is without a number of them. In the humus layer, however, they are absent.

Geologists will, I think, at once recognize, from the above description, the close similarity of this deep subsoil to loess deposits. Thisresemblance includes the color, the dust-like fineness of the material, 

the absence of stratification, and the presence of minute and nearly

'A characteristic sample of the soil of the wheat lands has been submitted to a mechanical 

analysis made by Milton Whitney, chief of the division of soils in the United States Department 

of Agriculture, with the following results:

Mechanical analysis of soil from near Pullman, Washington.

Diameter

(in millimeters).

3 to 1 

1 to .5 

.5 to .35 

.35 to .1 

.1 to .05 

.05 to .01 

.01 to .005 

.005 to .0001

Total mineral m 

Loss at 110° C .

Loss on ignition 

Total

Conventional 

name.

Fine gravel.- 

Coarse sand _.._. 

Medium sand

Very fine sand. - . 

Silt ..............

Fine silt... .......

Clay.. 

Per ct.

0.00 

0.04 

0.16 

1.31 

53. 72 

36.29 

2.97 

8.58

93.07 

2.45 

5.30 

100.72
60 A RECONNOISSANCE IN SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON. [so.4.

vertical tubes. These features also characterize the adobe deposits of 

arid regions. 1

The close similarity between the soils of the basaltic plateau and 

the loess of China, which is supposed by many to consist of winddeposited dust, has led some careful observers to conclude that the 

soil of eastern Washington is really a deposit of dust that has been 

drifted from a distance by the prevailing winds. The minute tubes 

referred to are considered under this explanation to be due to the 

rootlets or stems of grasses about which the dust was deposited, the 

plants continuing to grow as the dust accumulated. There are several objections to this hypothesis, however, as will be shown below.

In numerous sections the surface of the basalt beneath the subsoil 

has been examined and always found to be deeply decayed. A gradual change can be traced from hard, black basalt, which reveals no 

signs of weathering, upward through yellow and partially disintegrated portions of the same layer, to rock fragments that are soft and 

much decayed, and from this, again, to fine soil containing recognizable rock fragments, and finally to the exceedingly fine porous subsoil. Scores of localities where this gradual change is exhibited have 

been examined, and the number might easily be increased to hundreds.

Chemical analyses of a large number of soils from various localities 

in Washington and Idaho, including samples from the basaltic plateau, 

have been made by the chemists of the agricultural experiment stations at Pullman and Moscow.2 These analyses show that the chemical composition of the soil on the basaltic plateau is such as might be 

 expected to result from the weathering of the solid rocks beneath.

The disintegration of rocks is usually accomplished in part by changes 

of temperature and by the expansion of water held in crevices and 

absorbed by pores and capillary passages, on freezing, and in part by 

the solvent action of percolating waters and, as recently determined 

by GL P. Merrill, the expansion of minerals in changing to a hydrated 

condition. Changes of temperature which cause the minerals composing a rock to expand and contract unequally and the freezing of 

absorbed water are important agencies tending to fracture rocks 

which are exposed to the air or but thinly covered with soil. A depth 

of a few feet of soil, however, checks this action, so that the deep 

decay so frequently to be observed can be safely ascribed to the chemical action of percolating water. The process is hastened by the 

presence in the water of organic acids, derived principally from the 

humus of the surface soil. The disintegration and decay of rocks 

that are sheltered from changes of temperature is brought about to a

1 1. C. Russell, Subaerial deposits of the arid region of the United States: Geol. Mag. (London), 

Vol. VI, 1889, pp. 289-395, 343-350.

2 Washington State Agricultural College and School of Science, Experiment Station, Pullman, 

Washington, Bulletin 13, 1894, by Elton Pulmer and C, C Fletcher. University of Idaho Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 9,1894, by C.-W. McCurdy.
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 4 PL. IV

VIEW OF PULLMAN FROM THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, LOOKING NORTHWEST,
EUSSELL.] GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS. 61

considerable extent by the removal of some of their constituents in 

solution. This process allows the grains and crystals which remain 

unaltered or are but moderately changed to fall apart. We should 

expect, therefore, that residual soils would contain less of soluble 

constituents than the parent rock, and consequently a higher percentage of the more insoluble constituents.

Samples of the basalt and of the subsoil and soil resting on it were 

collected by the writer and submitted to George P. Merrill, curator 

of the department of geology in the United States National Museum, 

for special study. Chemical analyses of three of the samples are 

presented below. The analysis of basalt is of a fresh and unaltered 

sample, being in fact a part of the specimen of which the mineralogical constituents are given on page 44; the subsoil is from a depth 

of 30 feet in a railroad cut near Dayton; the surface soil was taken 

from a depth of about 2 feet in a wheat field near the same locality.

Analyses of basalt, soil, and subsoil from near Dayton. 

[Analyst, George P. Merrill.]

Constituents.

Silica, SiOa ....- ............................

Alumina, A13O3

Iron oxide, FeaO3 

 Lime, CaO ....................... ....^... .-

Magnesia, MgO ....-..-_-..........--...-..

Potash, K2O. ...............................

Soda, NaaO.. ...............................

Losson ignition (principally organic matter) -

Basalt.

47.35

34.38

8.27

4.43

1.33

2.55

0.95

99.26

Surface

soil.

63.58

22.36

2.76

1.82

2.27

2.02

4.37

99.18

Subsoil.

65.89

32.19

2.36

1.85

2.36

2.08

2.60

99.33

Merrill states:

All of the material analyzed was first dried at 100° C. The analyses are not as 

detailed as I wouldjike to make them, but are all that the limited time permits. 

Perhaps the most striking fact in the analyses is the similarity in composition 

between the surface soil and that from a depth of 30 feet; almost the only essential difference being, apparently, the larger percentage of volatile matter of the 

surface soil. Not having as yet separated the iron and alumina, I am unable to 

account for the apparent loss of these constituents shown. From previous analyses I am led to suspect that the iron oxides have been very largely removed. I 

am unable as yet to account for the apparent increase in potash in the decomposed 

materials. It is possible, though hardly probable, that this is due to errors in 

analysis.

In reference to the apparent increase in potash in the decomposed 

material, I wish to state that there is no reason for supposing that
62 A RECONNOISSANCE IN SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON. lwo.4.

alkaline or other fertilizers have ever been applied. Possibly the stubble of the wheat fields may have been burned, but this would only 

return to the surface soil a part of the mineral constituents derived 

from it in the growth of the grain.

The close similarity between the composition of the subsoils, given 

above, and of the rock beneath it, is striking. All of the constituents 

of the rock except the silica and alumina are classed among the more 

soluble of the substances present in the earth's crust. The readiness 

with which they may be removed from rock by the process of solution 

is influenced, of course, by the manner in which they are combined, 

but the study of the* products of rock decay has shown that lime, potash, magnesia, soda, etc., are much more readily removed than silica 

and alumina. The analyses given above indicate no departure from 

this rule except in the case of the potash. The soil analyses show 

that there has been a loss in all of the constituents of the original 

rock except silica, alumina (?), and potash. The increase in the percentage of potash, a* remarked above, is surprising, and as yet unaccounted for. Organic matter and water have been added. The former may reasonably be supposed to have been derived from humus, 

while the latter indicates that some of the minerals have taken up 

water and changed to what is termed a hydrated condition. If we 

omit these added constituents and recalculate the analysis, it will 

appear that the percentage of silica in the soil is 67 per cent, a decided 

increase over the similar constituent in the rock, and that each of the 

other constituents is proportionately increased.

Several analyses of soils from the basaltic plateau, given in the bulletins of the agricultural experiment stations mentioned above, show 

that the one just quoted is typical and represents about the average 

composition of the soils of the wheat lands. The analysis of basalt 

also is of a normal sample of that rock.

The results of a chemical study of the soils and of the basalt are, 

then, in harmony with what is revealed on comparing the mineralogical 

composition of the basalt with that of the soils, and sustain the conclusion that the soil has been derived from the rock which it overlies, 

and also that the disintegration is due, in part at least, to the solution 

of the more soluble constituents of the parent rock. The loss in bulk, 

due to the removal of portions of the more soluble constituents, is counteracted to a considerable extent, however, by the hydration of some 

of the minerals and by the addition of organic matter. This is an 

interesting fact, as it indicates that there has been at most but a moderate lowering of the surface of the plateau by the removal of matter 

in solution. Indeed, as the soil is far more open and porous than the 

parent rock, there has been a tendency toward an actual increase in 

the elevation of the surface of the plateau. How much this rise of 

the surface level has been counteracted bv stream and wind erosion
RUSSELL.] GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS. 63

remains to be determined. The fact that water percolating through 

soil leads to the removal in solution of some of its constituents is well 

known, and ha^s been fully recognized in the case of the soils of Washington by Professors Fulmer and Fletcher, of the Washington State 

Agricultural College, as is shown in the following quotation : l

Results of a large number of analyses have shown almost conclusively that 

soils in a reigon of abundant rainfall contain less lime than soils in arid regions; 

providing, of course,, that neither are underlaid by or in the vicinity of limestone 

formations. [It will be shown below that this exception need not necessarily be 

made.] This fact is well verified in the case of our soils east and west of the 

Cascade Mountains, the average lime constituent of the former being three times 

that of the latter. . This is specially significant in view of the fact that nearly all 

the soils of eastern Washington are derived from black basaltic rock.

With the samples analyzed so far, it seems almost as if the lime percentages 

are inversely proportioned to the amount of annual rainfall.

For example, we find the following relations:

Lime percentages. Annual rainfall. 

1.2127) 

0.9790k --__-._-._...-.-_.-.__.________.___.___..._-___._-.-_ About 8 inches.

1.7580J * 

l.'0814

20 to 22 inches.

o 9300

JJSS}........................................:............ Winches.

0. 36251

0.4815}-..............-...................................... 48 inches.

0. 1303 J

It will be interesting to note whether future analyses will reveal this same relation between the rainfall and the lime content of our soils.

The origin of soils from the disintegration and chemical change of 

rocks is well known, and there is nothing novel, so far as general 

principles are concerned, in the interesting statements just quoted 

in reference to the relation of the chemical composition of soils to 

climatic conditions. 2

One of the most remarkable instances of the decrease in the soluble 

constituents of a rock when it passes into soil, given in the papers 

just referred to, occurs in the limestone region of the western part of 

Virginia, which, as is known to me from personal observation, is representative of a vast area in the South Atlantic States. The limestone 

referred to in general yields on decomposing about 1 per cent of insol1 Washington State Agricultural College and School of Science, Experiment Station, Bulletin 

13, pp. 39-40.

'The processes of rock disintegration and decay, the formation of soils, their variation under 

diverse climatic conditions, etc., have been discussed by the present writer in Bulletin No. 52 of 

the United States Geological Survey. A highly instructive analysis of the same phenomena, 

by George P. Merrill, of the United States National Museum, may be found in volume 4 of the 

Journal of Geology, published at the University of Chicago. References to many other papers 

on the same subject are given in these essays. See, also, A Treatise on Bocks, Rock-weathering, 

and Soils, by George P. Merrill, The Macmillan Company, 1897.
64 A EECONNOISSANCE IN SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON. [NO.4.

uble residue which is available for making soil. Analyses illustrating this are here inserted: 1

Analysis of Trenton limestone and of the residue left by its decay. 

[Analyst, R. B. Riggs.]

Constituents.

Silica, SiO2 .. ........ ......

Alumina, A12O3 . _._._---.-

Iron oxide, Fe2O3 . ........

Lime, CaO ..........

Magnesia, MgO . _ ._.--.-

Potash, K0O._ ........ -..-

Soda, Na2O... ............

Carbonic acid, COg _.-.-..

Water, H2O _._-__ ........

Total ...__......._.

Unaltered limestone.

0.44

| 0.42

54.77

Trace.------....-.

Not determined - .

Not determined . _ .

42.72

1.08

99.43

Residual clay.

43.07

j 25. 07

I 15. 16

. 0.63

0.03

2.50

1.20

0.00

13.98

100.64

The residual soil left by the nearly complete solution of limestone 

at the locality from which the sample analyzed was taken is a tenacious reddish clay, and is so poor in lime that calcined limestone is 

found to be a desirable fertilizer.

The change from basalt to residual soil on the surface of the great 

plateau of southeastern-Washington is accompanied by less change in 

chemical composition than in the case cited of the formation of soil 

from the weathering of limestone, for the reason that so large a proportion of the basalt is composed of silica.

It seems, therefore, both from a comparison of the mineralogieal 

character of the fragments composing the soil with the nature of the 

minerals composing the basalt, and from a study of the chemical composition of the unaltered rock and of the soil, that the subsoil is the 

result of the disintegration and decay of the country rock. The surface soil is of the same character as the subsoil, except that organic 

and atmospheric matter and volcanic and probably cosmic dust have 

been added.

An unexplained fact under this hypothesis is the presence in the 

subsoil of the minute and nearly vertical tubes previously described.

TOPOGEAPHY OF THE WHEAT LANDS.

The widely different ideas of the topography of southeastern Washington that one might obtain from traveling through the canyons and 

from a journey over the plateau surface have already been referred 

to. It is to the peculiar topography of much of the surface of the

1 Bull. IT. S. Geol. Survey No. 52,1889, p. 24.
GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS. 65

plateau where practically unaffected by the deep dissection accomplished* by the larger streams that attention is here directed.

The surface of the plateau in some regions is nearly as level and 

featureless as the prairies of Illinois, while in other portions it is 

diversified by hills jand. valleys, and in its native state, when covered 

with bunch grass, was a rolling prairie. South of Snake River, especially on the portions of the plateau which remain between the various 

branches of Touchet, Alpowa, and Asotin creeks1 , the flat plateauprairie lands are well displayed. North of. Snake River, in the Palouse 

country, the rolling or hilly prairie predominates over extensive 

regions.

There is a certain relation between the smoothness or roughness of 

the surface of the plateau and the arrangement of the streams, but I 

doubt if this is the sole reason for the contrast between the smooth 

surfaces of the fragments of the pla'teau between the deep canyons 

south of Snake River and that of the hill plains to the north. Where 

the streams flow across the plateau they have excavated deep canyons, 

with comparatively few lateral branches. The rain falling on the 

deep soil of the plateau is absorbed and percolated away. It is thus 

robbed of its power to erode. Under these conditions surface channels, like those so common in many regions having a clayey soil, are 

not formed. At a distance from master streams, where the subdrainage was less perfect, the soil seems to have become saturated, and 

rills and rivulets appeared on the surface and flowed to brooks, and 

these to larger streams. The soil in such regions has been carved 

into hills and ridges, with hollows and shallow valleys between. The 

hills and valleys of the rolling prairie region, as will be shown below, 

were still further modified by the wind.

When one gains a comprehensive view of the surface of the plateau ^-as, for example, from the borders of the Blue Mountain uplift 

or from the sharp summit of Steptoe Butte it is seen that the controlling features in the topography of the surrounding country are 

due to stream erosion. A map of the plateau would show that where 

the broad> level, plain-like features predominate, the land is incompletely drained. There are no rill and brook channels'ready to carry 

off the rain water, should it fall in sufficient abundance to form surface streams. In the hilly portion of the plateau, however, as in the 

Palouse country, there are countless small valleys and depressions 

that join large channels and everywhere favor the running off of surface water. The portions of the plateau's surface that have not been 

etched by stream erosion are, in the language of geographers, young 

land areas, while the roughened surface of the rolling prairies furnishes examples of youthful topography, or, in this instance, of 

arrested development in an early stage of growth.

These conclusions may not seem well founded to those who are aware 

that the portions of the .plateau between the deeply cut canyons are 

. IRK 4 5
66 A RECONNOISSANCE IN SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON. [NO.4.

without surface streams. Even where the plateau surface is hilly 

and the numerous minor valleys and depressions favor complete 

drainage, there are not only no streams at any time during the year, 

but no stream channels in the valley bottoms. There was formerly a 

time, however, when precipitation was more abundant than now, and 

the land in what is now the rolling prairie was sculptured by a multitude of rills and brooks.

The hilly prairie is characteristically developed in eastern Washington, north of Snake River, and probably extends to Spokane 

River. The most typical portion, so far as I can judge from personal 

observation, is in the region drained by Palouse River. The towns 

of Pullman and Garfield are surrounded by the characteristic hills 

here referred to, and from Kamiack and Steptoe buttes one can look 

down on tens of thousands of acres of hilly and undulating wheat 

lands, which in a state of nature formed a vast, hilly prairie.

In this region hills with smooth, even slopes and rounded tops and 

crests, rising in general from 20 to 80 feet above the adjacent depressions, occur in thousands. Many of the hills rise to one general level, 

but none reach above it. The fact that the roughened surface of the 

plateau is a broad plain is always apparent in a general view. -,

One feature of the hills which especially attracts attention is that 

they are usually steep on the northeast side and slope gently toward 

the southwest. The steeper sides frequently have a slope of 20° with 

a horizontal plane, and in many instances are slightly concave when 

seen in profile, while the more gently sloping sides descend at angles 

measuring 5° to 8°, and are frequently gently convex. These features 

maybe recognized in the photographs of characteristic portions of the 

hilly plateau forming the accompanying plates.

In many instances the extremities of ridges which present a steep 

slope to the northeast terminate at each end in tapering prolongations extending northeastward, which curve slightly toward each 

other and partially inclose a hollow. Many of these amphitheaterlike inclosures may be seen in the northeast sides of the hills about 

Pullman and Garfield.

From what has been stated, the fact will be recognized, I think, that 

many of the hills of the plateau are similar in form to the hills of 

drifted sand termed "dunes." 

The dune-like shape of many of the hills about Pullman was first 

pointed out to me by President E. A. Bryan and Prof. C. V. Piper, of 

the Washington State Agricultural College and School of Science. 

These gentlemen also stated that the prevailing winds of that section 

of the country are from the southwest. The hypothesis was thus suggested that the soil of the plateau, of which even the highest hills are 

composed, has been blown by the prevailing winds and piled up in 

part in dune-like forms. The similarity in physical properties between 

the fine soil of the wheat lands and the equally fine, dust-like deposits
BUSSBLL.I GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS. 67

in China, termed loess, and believed by some geologists to be windborne deposits, as previously suggested, seemed also to give weight 

to the hypothesis that the hills under consideration are of eolian 

origin. The idea has been suggested that the soil of the wheat lands 

has been brought by the winds from a desert region to the southwest, 

but there is no extensive desert area in that direction, and besides, 

as we have already seen, the mineralogical and chemical composition 

of the soil and its transition into disintegrated rock and finally into 

solid basalt shows that it originated in the place where we now find it.

The prevailing and characteristic dune-like shapes of the hills is 

sufficient evidence, however, that their contours have been modified 

to some extent by wind action. As already stated, the main topographic features, even where the dune-like hills are best displayed, 

are such as are produced by erosion. The partially filled depressions 

between the hills have continuous slopes, which would furnish natural 

and unbroken channels of escape should the rainfall become sufficiently abundant to initiate surface drainage.

The best explanation I can offer of the origin of the hilly topography of the less deeply dissected portions of the basaltic plateau is 

that the principal changes in the relief of the surface of the originally 

flat and featureless plateau are due to stream erosion at a time when 

the precipitation was more copious than now, and that with a decrease 

in precipitation the forms of the hills, left in relief by the excavation 

of the valley, were modified by the prevailing winds. The fine soil 

was blown from the southwest sides of the hills, which trend northwest and southeast, and accumulated on their leeward slopes. But 

this action has not been carried far enough to obliterate or to greatly 

modify the topographic forms due to previous stream erosion. In no 

instance during a careful search extending over several days was I 

able to find a single valley or depression which was not connected 

with the present lines of drainage by valleys and dells that would 

admit of complete surface drainage in the case of a heavy rainfall. 

This evidently would not have been the case if the wind had been 

the controlling agency in modeling the relief of the plateau's surface.

The steep northeast slopes of the hills, as already mentioned, frequently have concave profiles. These curved slopes suggest the profiles of volcanic cones formed of fragments blown out of a volcano 

and falling about its sides. They are the reverse of the convex 

"weather curves" produced by the removal of the surface of an 

uplift in the process of weathering. The concave sides of the hills 

have such profiles as would be formed by material blown over their 

crests and. accumulated on their lee sides; while their summits and 

southwest slopes present such profiles as normally result from 

weathering.

Excavations in the hills have in some instances shown a greater 

depth of fine, dust-like soil on the lee side of their crests than on the
68 A RECONNOISSANC'E IN SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON. [NO.!

windward side. In some cases a clayey subsoil is met with at a depth 

of a few feet on the southwest side, wjhile on the opposite side a deep 

loess-like soil prevails. This has been noticed in the college farm at 

Pullman, as I have been informed by President Bryan, where clay 

interbedded with the Columbia lava has influenced the character of 

the soil. In railroad cuts deposits of fine, dust-like soil having a depth 

of 30 or 40 feet have been observed in several instances on the northeast side of hills; while in similar cuts on the southwest slopes of 

corresponding hills they would be less thick. Rock exposures are 

perhaps more numerous; on the northern sides of canyons than on their 

southern sides, owing to the accumulation of soil in the lee of their 

southern walls, but I am not aware that there is a marked tendency 

in this direction.

I have thought, also, that a difference is observable between soil 

that has been moved and redeposited by wind and soil that remains 

in place, but the differences between the two are so slight and their 

junction so indefinite that no sharp line of division can usually be 

recognized.

It is possible that the vertical tubes described on .a previous page 

occur only in the soil that has been moved by the wind. The tubes 

referred to are certainly abundant in the soil on the northwest slopes 

of hills, but whether they are absent in soil that has not been disturbed 

remains to be proven.

T*he valleys in the surface of the hilly plateau have characteristics, 

also, which are novel to one familiar only with a well-watered country. 

The great majority, and in fact nearly all, of the valleys of the plateau, 

except such as are traversed by streams flowing from the bordering 

mountains, are flat bottomed and without stream channels. These 

valleys are usually deeply filled with fine soil of the same character 

as that forming the adjacent hills. In cross section the valleys are 

level-floored, but in longitudinal section their even surf aces, would 

show a gentle inclination toward the deeper valleys to which they 

lead, and in which there are streams flowing from the neighboring 

mountains.

As stated in connection with the description of other climatic features of eastern Washington, the precipitation is small, averaging 

about 16 inches annually. The deep, fine, porous soil absorbs the rain 

as it falls and the water formed from melting snow. It is to this fact 

that the possibility of raising wheat and other cereals on the broad 

plateau is due. All of the annual precipitation except what is returned to the atmosphere by direct evaporation, as when snow vanishes before a warm wind without melting, is not only absorbed by 

the soil, but is retained, to a great extent, near the surface. In excavations in excess of 15 or 20 feet on the plateau surface, I have been 

informed, dry soil is usually reached. 

It is a striking fact, especially on the hilly portion of the plateau,
EUSSBLL.] IRRIGATION. 69

that even the steepest slopes, in many instances having an inclination 

of from 20° to 30°, are without rill marks! This is not because there is 

a mat of roots binding the soil together and thus preserving it from 

washing, for the surfaces of the plowed hillsides are smooth and 

unscarred by gullies. It is the custom generally throughout the wheatgrowing region of eastern Washington, as already stated, to harvest 

but one crop in two years from a given area. The farmers have 

learned that by this method they can obtain, about as much grain as 

if the land were sown and harvested each year. Inquiries as to the 

reasons that make this possible have not elicited satisfactory answers. 

The suggestion has occurred to me, however, that possibly -the evaporation from a plowed field is so much less than from a field covered 

with growing grain that by plowing the land and leaving it unsown 

every other year a greater store of moisture is secured for the alternate 

years, when a crop is raised. This suggestion is in harmony with the 

well-known fact that the conditions which*are favorable or unfavorable to agriculture on the basaltic plateau, with reference especially 

to moisture, are delicately balanced. When a slight increase over the 

average annual precipitation is experienced, an abundant harvest is 

secured; but if the precipitation particularly the amount of snow 

is small, the effect is seen in a diminished harvest. This statement 

must be qualified, however, since the amount of precipitation is not 

the only important climatic factor on which the success or failure of 

the harvests depends. In winter the snow, although perhaps abundant, is sometimes evaporated by warm, dry winds, without melting, 

and therefore fails to add to the store of moisture in the soil. Hot 

winds occur sometimes also in spring and early summer, and wither 

the young grain.

The semihumid character of the climate of eastern Washington, 

shown by the conditions limiting the cultivation of cereals, leads naturally to the consideration of the possibilities of irrigation and of 

artesian water supply.

IRRIGATION. 1

Region souili of Shqke River. To a person traveling through southeastern Washington, a truly astonishing feature of the country is 

the great quantity of water flowing from the Blue Mountains. I 

have already directed attention to the fact that on what has been 

termed the wheat-land plateau all of the water that reaches the soil 

is absorbed. The same is. true among the Blue Mountains, which are 

in reality a more elevated plateau of the same general character that 

has been deeply dissected by stream erosion. This uplift furnishes 

a splendid example of mature drainage that is, a drainage system 

which has cut down its principal channels approximately to the level

*For data on water supply and irrigation from Umatilla River, see Bull. No. 131, Report of 

Progress of the Division of Hydrography, United States Geological Survey, for 1893 and 1894, 

pp. 69-73.
70 A RECONNOISSANCE IN SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON. [No.4.

of the master stream into which they discharge. The principal streams 

have developed innumerable lateral branches, so that the entire region 

is well drained. With the deepening of the stream channels there 

has been erosion of the interstream spaces, and instead of flat-topped 

tables, only sharp, serrate ridges remain. These stream channels are 

no older than the less well-developed channels on the lower plateau, 

but the advantage gained from the greater elevation of the land has 

given the flowing waters greater velocity and enabled them to progress 

with their appointed task more rapidly.

Bock disintegration and decay has kept pace with, and in recent 

times exceeded, denudation, and every depression and every shelf on 

the canyon walls is filled and covered with soil. This soil is of the 

same character as that of the wheat lands, except for the frequent 

occurrence of angular rock fragments in it. All portions of the intricate system of ridges composing the so-called mountains, except the 

actual cliffs and precipices, are thus soil covered.

Among the mountains, as on the hill slopes .of the wheat lands, 

there is an absence of rill marks. Earth slopes having a descent of 

fully 45° are usually without rill marks or scars of any kind due to 

erosion. The few miniature water courses that do occur on such 

slopes are the result of the infrequent storms known as "cloudbursts." The water absorbed by the porous soil passes down into the 

jointed and frequently scoriaceous basalt below, and by slow percolation feeds perennial streams.

As already described in the section of this report devoted to drainage, and as shown on the accompanying map, there are many creeks, 

some of them having the volume of rivers, radiating in all directions 

from the Blue Mountains. Each of these streams flows throughout 

the year and carries a never-failing flood of clear, cold water down 

to the parched valleys below. Each of these streams, with the exception of the Grande Ronde, can be utilized to its full capacity for 

irrigation.

The Grande Ronde in all of its lower course, as already shown, 

flows through such a rugged canyon that scarcely any land can be 

economically irrigated by it. Here and there along the main river, 

however, and on its branches, are small areas, some of which may be 

watered from the river itself or by lateral streams. The productive 

ness of these areas makes them especially valuable for orchards and 

gardens. It is in these sheltered recesses that fruit, vegetables, 

tobacco, etc., may be raised, while the canyon sides and much of the 

plateau surface, some 3,000 feet above, is available for stock ranges. 

Toward the headwaters of the river broad areas of the plateau surface 

still remain and are clothed with forests. This land, when cleared, 

will produce wheat, but it is to be hoped that much of it will be 

retained in nearly its natural condition as a forest preserve.

The other streams referred to, which radiate from the Blue Moun-
RUSSELL.] IRRIGATION. 71

tains of Washington and adjacent portions of Oregon, flow through 

canyons, but in most instances are bordered by narrow flood plains, 

elevated but a few feet above their channels, or by ancient terraces, as 

in the case especially of the Walla Walla and several of its branches. 

Of the streams under consideration, the ones least favorably circumstanced for [irrigation purposes are Asotin and Alpowa creeks. But 

even these can be utilized, as is shown by the canal described below, 

which leads the water from Aso'tin Creek about the face of the bluffs 

forming Snake River Canyon and delivers it to irrigable lands opposite 

Lewiston. The Alpowa flows for a large part of its course in a narrow 

gorge, but near its mouth and along the adjacent portion of Snake 

River there are lands so situated that they can be irrigated.

In the absence of a topographic survey of the Blue Mountains and 

adjacent regions, it is not practicable to designate in a report of the 

character of the one, here presented what lands can be economically 

irrigated or where storage reservoirs can be constructed to the best 

advantage. From the point of view of the engineer, however, it 

seems practicable not only to utilize for irrigation purposes all of the 

water flowing from the Blue Mountains in summer, but to store a 

large portion of the winter run-off and hold it for use during the growing season.

As is only too well known, the main obstacles to the full utilization 

of the water now running to waste in many arid regions and southeastern Washington is no exception to the rule is the rivalry of individual owners of land and of water rights. No general plan of using 

the summer flow from the Blue Mountains or of storing a part of the 

winter run-off can be carried out, however practicable it may seem to 

the engineer, until a large number of the owners of land in the region 

to be affected give their qonsent and cooperate in carrying out farreaching plans for the public good.

In writing of the possibilities for irrigation in the region to the 

north of the Blue Mountains and what has been said will apply also 

to large areas in the adjacent portion of Oregon attention has been 

directed mainly to the canyon bottoms and to the ancient stream terraces. The engineer sees possibilities, also, in the direction of irrigating some portion of the wheat-land plateau between the deeply sunken 

stream channels.

To the northward of the Blue Mountains, more especially in Garfield 

and Asotin counties, the plateau surface rises gently toward the mountains, and in some instances could be watered by diverting the streams 

near their sources and before their channels became much depressed 

below the general level of the plateau. Little attention has been 

directed to the possibility of diverting the waters of the several 

branches of the Asotin, Alpowa, and Tokanon in their upper courses, 

and conducting them into the broad areas between the deep canyons 

of the main streams lower down, but this seems feasible to one making
72 A RECONNOISSANCE IN* SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON. [NO. 4.

a hasty examination of the region, especially if storage reservoirs can 

be established. The possibilities here referred to are illustrated at 

Anatone, about 14 miles south westward from Asotin, where the water 

of George Creek, one of the tributaries of Asotin Creek, has been 

diverted with but trifling expense and carried to a nearly level area 

of rich wheat land conveniently situated for irrigation. This small 

experiment certainly suggests other possibilities in the same region. 

There is reason to believe that a careful survey would show available 

reservoir sites near the sources of several of the mountain streams, so 

situated that broad areas of the plateau could be watered from them.

At present little use is made of the water flowing from the Blue 

Mountains in comparison with what is possible from an engineering 

point of view. Small ditches have been made in a number of instances, 

particularly in the neighborhood of Walla Walla, for the purpose of 

irrigating gardens and orchards. In the lower portion of Walla Walla 

River about half a dozen water wheels arranged with buckets are in 

use. These raise the water from the river to a height of 15 feet and 

allow it to flow in ditches to orchard and garden lands. Each wheel 

is said to be capable of irrigating from 8 to 10 acres of land. In addition to these uses of the streams for irrigation by individuals a few 

attempts have been made by companies to construct irrigating canals.

What is known as the " Willis ditch," constructed by the Willis 

Land and Improvement Company, is taken out of the Walla Walla 

at the mouth of Mill Creek. The head of the ditch is in the southeast 

quarter of section 31, township 7, range 35, and extends westward 4^ 

miles, but is surveyed for 10 miles farther. This canal is 20 -feet wide 

at the top and now carries 16 to 18 inches of water, but when in full 

operation is planned to carry a stream 2 feet deep. I have been 

informed that it now irrigates about 4,000 acres of land.

The "Hawley ditch" leaves the right bank of the Walla Walla at 

Raymo, and is 8 miles long, although only 4 miles are now in operation. It is said to carry 60 cubic feet of water per second, and to 

irrigate about 1,000 acres. When completed it is estimated that it 

will irrigate between 1,500 and 1,600 acres.

On the opposite side of Walla Walla River the Walla Walla Irrigation Company has constructed a ditch, beginning farther, upstream, 

and now completed for about 4 miles, but it is not in operation. If 

the ^resent plans are carried out, this ditch, when finished, will be in 

the neighborhood of 20 miles long and capable of irrigating some 4,000 

or 5,000 acres of land.

In the canyon of Touchet River, about 4 miles above its mouth, a 

ditch has been constructed on the left bank of the stream. One and 

one-half miles below its head it is divided, one half being carried 

across the river to the left bank. Its capacity is about 60 cubic feet 

per second, and at present it is said to irrigate 2,000 acres.

Such information as is here given concerning the more comprehen-
RUSSELL.] - ' IRRIGATION. 73

sive plans that have been made for using the water of Walla Walla 

River and its branches was fumished by various gentlemen interested 

in the improvements mentioned. More detailed information could 

not be obtained, for the reason, in part, that some of the companies 

engaged in this work are involved in litigation growing out of the 

complex problem of riparian rights.

Snake River Canyon. Snake River, although a magnificent stream, 

is not available for the irrigation of the surface of the plateau through 

which it flows, for the reason, as we have already seen, that it is 

deeply sunken in the rocks of the plateau. There are several areas 

in the bottom of the canyon, however, from a few acres to 300 or 400 

acres in extent, which can be irrigated from the main river or by the 

waters of some of the tributary brooks and creeks/ The soil at the 

localities referred to is river sand, exceedingly light and porous. It 

contains much mica a*nd considerable lime, due in part to the presence 

of shells of fresh-water mollusks, and when irrigated is well adapted to 

fruit culture. Some of the finest fruit raised in Washington is grown 

on these sand bars, deep 'in the shelter of canyon walls.

The boldest scheme in the way of irrigation yet put into operation 

in southeastern Washington is one that was practically completed in 

1896 by the Lewiston Water and Power Company, on the west side of 

Snake River, be^ow Asotin. The canal referred to diverts the water 

of Asotin*Creek, and carries it along the precipitous south side of Asotin Greek Canyon, and about the face of a bluff at the junction of 

this canyon with the broader canyon of Snake River, and northward 

along the steep side of the river canyon at an elevation of approximately 600 feet above the river. The canal is designed to furnish 

water for irrigating about 3,500 acres in Asotin County, Washington, 

and also 4,000 acres in Idaho, near Lewiston. The following facts 

concerning this important enterprise have been kindly furnished by 

Messrs. C. C. Van Arsdol and E, H. Libby, of the Lewiston Water 

and Power Company:

The water is taken from. Asotin Creek about 6 miles above its junction with 

Snake River, at an approximate elevation of 665 feet above Snake Eiver, and is 

conducted 6£ miles along the north slope of Asotin Creek by a flume 6 feet wide 

and 3|- feet in depth, with a grade of 10.56 feet per mile; thence to a point north 

of Swallows Nest Bock, a distance of 8 miles by canal, 6 feet wide on bottom, 16 

feet wide on top, and 5 feet deep, with a grade of 2.12 feet per mile. Estimated 

capacity, 127 cubic feet per second. From a point near Swallows Nest Rock the 

distributing laterals diverge.

In the canyon of Snake River, above Asotin, there are narrow, 

detached strips of moderately flat land, having a width in some 

instances of 200 or 300 yards, composed of river silt and sand. These 

are nearly all on the west bank of the stream, and are bounded on one 

side by the swift-flowing waters and on the other by mountain-like 

walls of basalt from 2,000 to 3,000 feet high. A few of these narrow
74 A RECONNOISSANCE IN SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON. [NO.*.

areas are now irrigated from small streams that come down the gulches 

in the canyon wall and are supplied by springs. In this portion of 

the canyon of Snake River the water of the river itself is not used 

for irrigation.

Below Lewiston there are also several localities where silt and fine 

micaceous sand "brought down by the river has accumulated in sheltered portions of the bottom of the canyon. The largest of these areas 

now under cultivation is at the month of Wawawai Creek, which supplies water for its irrigation. At this locality about 300 acres are 

occupied by fine orchards of peaches, pears, prunes, etc. These 

orchards are wonderfully productive, and furnish fruit of large size 

and excellent quality. Between Wawawai and the mouth of Snake 

River there are about half a dozen localities at which from 8 to 14 acres 

of fruit land are under cultivation. The total amount of land in this 

section now being irrigated is in the neighborhood of 100 acres. At 

most of these localities water for irrigation is raised from the river by 

pumps operated by undershot wn,ter wheels, current wheels, located 

on rafts, as shown in PI. V. These wheels are, I believe, all of one 

pattern. They are 18 or 19 feet long by 9 to 11 feet in diameter, and 

vary in effectiveness with variations in strength of current. One, 

owned by Mr. H. Gilbert, situated in section 26, township 11, range 

33, at the time of my visit, August 19, was operating two suction 

pumps, each of which made 20 strokes per minute, and lifting about 

one-half gallon of water to a height of 27 feet at e"ach stroke. At 

more favorable stages of the river the amount of water raised is 

doubled. The water is carried away in a small flume and irrigates 

about 1,000 fruit trees.

The difficulties that have to be contended with in this comparatively 

inexpensive method of irrigation arise principally from variations in 

the height of the river. The portion of Snake River here considered 

rises during floods from 20 to 32 feet above the mean low-water stage. 

The scows carrying the water wheels and pumps have to be moved 

from time to time to suit the varying height of the water. In winter 

the scows must be removed from the river to prevent destruction by 

floating ice. Dangers from driftwood have also to be guarded against, 

especially during high water.

The river sometimes rises during floods to within 3 or 4 feet of the 

cultivated lands, and there is danger at such periods that the river 

will remove the deposits previously made and thus destroy industries 

which it has required years to establish. This danger can probably 

be counteracted in many instances by planting willows and alders 

along the river banks. The inhabitants in Snake River Canyon should 

certainly take every possible precaution against unusually high floods 

in the river, as there is but a small margin between the usual spring 

rise and the surfaces of the sand bars where orchards and houses are 

located.
II. ft. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY NO. 4 PL. V

WATER WHEEL LIFTING WATER FROM SALMON RlVER FOR IRRIGATION.
RUSSELL.] ARTESIAN WATER SUPPLY. 75

The Palou.se country. The surface of the wheat-land plateau north 

of Snake River, drained principally by Palouse River, is,-as-we have 

seen, a rolling, hilly region. Irrigation is there impracticable, except 

in the larger valley bottoms. Scarcely any irrigation is now practiced, 

and my examination of the region was too hasty to admit of an opinion 

in reference to what may there be possible. It seems probable, however, that here, as in many other portions of the arid and semihumid 

regions of the United States, the storage of water must eventually be 

.resorted to.

A topographic map. To those interested in the development of the 

many and varied industries of Washington, I venture to earnestly recommend the early completion of an accurate topographic map of the 

State. Such a map, in the sheets covering the more thickly settled 

areas, and where irrigation is desirable and practicable, should be on 

a scale of 1 mile to the inch, with contour lines showing relief of 

surface, drawn with 20-foot vertical intervals.

A knowledge of the drainage and topography or surface relief of a 

State is an important basis not only for irrigation but for planning 

country roads, railroads, canals, flumes, town water supply, etc., and 

in learning the best way to bring mines, timber, and agricultural lands 

in comnumicatkHrwith markets. It is safe to say that the cost of 

nearly all public improvements and of many private enterprises would 

be greatly reduced if an accurate map of the State were available on 

which to base plans and estimates. The educational value of such a 

map, especially to school children in giving them a knowledge of 

home geography,'is by no means the least of the useful purposes it 

would serve.

ARTESIAN WATER SUPPLY.

The small rainfall of southeastern Washington, and the fact that it 

is impossible to irrigate by far the larger part of the grain lands, or, 

in many instances, to obtain wholesome water for towns and even for 

farmhouses, from streams or ordinary surface wells, have led to the 

hope that a subterranean water supply might be discovered. In a 

number of instances marked success has attended the drilling of 

artesian wells, particularly in the eastern portion of Whitman County, 

and stimulated a desire to have similar experiments made elsewhere.

GENERAL CONDITIONS.

Before the expense incident to the drilling of deep wells is incurred 

it is desirable to give attention to at least two considerations: First, 

the conditions which render the obtaining of artesian water possible, 

and second,.the geology of the region where it is proposed to drill a 

well. After a study of these questions in reference to a given locality 

one may predict with considerable confidence what measure of success is possible.
76 A RECONNOISSANCE IN SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON. [NO.4.

What are termed '' the requisite and qualifying conditions of artesian wells "*have already been fully explained in the publications of 

the United States Geological Survey, 1 and it does not seem necessary 

to restate them at length in this report.

Briefly stated, an artesian well is one in which water rises under the 

influence of the pressure of water at higher levels. The suggestion 

that water sometimes rises in a well or boring on account of gas pressure need not be discussed at this time.

In an artesian well the water sometimes rises to the surface and 

overflows, or it may be under sufficient pressure to form a fountainlike jet above the surface; in other cases the water rises some 

distance in the well, but fails to reach the surface. In all these 

instances the well is classed as artesian. The question of surface 

flow is determined not only by the pressure acting on the water but 

by the elevation of the surface at the mouth of the well. For example, a well drilled in a valley might reach a water-charged layer of 

rock in which the water is under sufficient pressure to cause it to rise 

fountain-like above the surface; while a well drilled on a neighboring 

hill and reaching the same water-bearing layer would be only partially filled. If in such instances the casing or pipe of the lower well 

be continued upward, its top remaining open, the water will rise 

within it to the same level at which it stands in the well drilled on the 

neighboring hill; that is, the water is under the same pressure in 

each instance. I make this explanation in reply to numerous questions asked me during my field studies, as to whether an artesian 

well is necessarily a flowing well or not. In brief, an artesian well 

is one in which water rises under pressure; if the water overflows the 

surface, it is convenient to designate it as a flowing well.

In order that water may rise in a tube drilled in the earth it is 

necessary for it to be under pressure; in other words, the water must 

be confined so that it can not flow away and thus relieve the pressure. 

The most common conditions under which this happens are these: 

Certain layers of rock of loose texture, as sand and sandstone, become 

water-charged, and the water is confined in them by other layers 

above and below which are impervious to water, such as clay. If a 

water-charged layer of sand between two layers of clay is inclined, 

the water will percolate through it. If the central portion of such a 

water-charged sheet is depressed, the water in the surrounding portions will tend to flow toward the depressed central area. The water 

in the central portion will then be under the pressure of the water in 

the more elevated portions of the porous layer. Evidently, under 

such conditions, if a hole is made from the surface through the upper 

layer of clay, it will allow the water to rise to the surface, or until it 

stands as high as the lowest outlet in the rim of the basin. These

i The requisite and qualifying conditions of artesian wells, by T. C. Chamberlain: Fifth Ann. 

Kept. U. S. Geol. Survey, 1885, pp. 135-173. Residents of Washington may find it profitable to 

consult also: " General principles pertaining to artesian water," in A Geological Beconnoissance 

in Central Washington, by I. C. Bussell: Bull. U. B. Geol. Survey No. 108,1893, pp. 32-86.
BUSSELL.] ARTESIAN WATER SUPPLY. 77

conditions are illustrated in the following ideal section across an 

artesian basin:

FIG. 2. Ideal section illustrating the chief conditions of artesian wells. A, a porous stratum; 

B and C, impervious beds below and above A, acting as confining strata; F, the height of the 

water level, "artesian head," in the porous bed A, or, in other words, the height of the reservoir or fountain head; D and E, flowing wells springing from the porous water-filled bed A. 

(After T. C. Chamberlin.)

In nature we find examples of what, for convenience, may be termed 

incomplete artesian basins; as, for instance, when an inclined pervious 

bed, a layer of sand, we will say, thins out on its lower edge and allows 

the sheets of impervious rock above and below it to come together. 

An ideal example of this character is shown in the following cross 

section:

FIG. 3. Ideal section illustrating the thinning out of a porous water-bearing bed, A, inclosed 

between impervious beds, B and C, thus furnishing the necessary conditions for an artesian fountain, D. (After T. C. Chamberlin.)

If the layer of sand is penetrated by a well drilled at D, the water 

will rise in an open tube to a height regulated by the pressure of the 

water in the sand above the locality where the well reaches it.

The source of the water that rises in artesian wells is mainly the 

precipitation on the edges of the pervious beds where they come to 

the surface. In some instances the porous beds are charged in this 

way at their outcrops, hundreds of miles from where the water is liberated by drilling wells.

The height to which water rises in an artesian well, or, in the case 

of a flowing well, the height to which it would rise in a tube op'en at 

the top, if properly attached to the well, is termed the "artesian head." 

This is illustrated in the waterworks of towns, where the water rises 

in the distributing pipes to the same level as the surface of the water 

in the reservoir from which it is drawn.

From this brief outline of the leading conditions which favor the 

possibility of obtaining artesian water it will be seen that the task of 

the geologist in this connection consists in ascertaining whether alternating sheets of pervious and impervious rocks exist in the regions 

he studies, and, if the requisite succession of beds is found, whether 

the beds are so inclined as to bring a portion of the water in the pervious layers under the pressure of other portions. In addition, the 

amount of rainfall and the quantity of water brought by streams to 

the outcrop of the porous beds; whether the'impervious beds are 

broken; the changes which layers of rock undergo from one locality
78 A RECONNOISSANCE IN SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON. [so.4.

to another; the depth to which the pervious layers have been eroded 

by streams; and several other limiting and qualifying conditions have 

to be considered and investigated.

LOCAL CONDITIONS.

In southeastern Washington and adjacent portions of Oregon and 

Idaho the rocks, as already described, belong in two series: First, 

the crystalline or metamorphJLC and igneous rocks, consisting principally of granite, schist, quartzite, and diorite, forming the mountains 

of western Idaho; and second, the lava sheets and interleaved sands 

and clays forming the wheat-land plateau and the Blue Mountains.

So far as the question of obtaining artesian water is concerned, we 

may dismiss the regions where the rnetarnorphic rocks and diorite form 

the surface. The original bedding in these rocks has been almost 

entirely obliterated by the changes they have experienced, and there is 

no succession of porous and compact layers. The rocks have been 

folded and broken by joints, so that practically none of the requisite 

conditions for retaining water under pressure are present. The 

fissures and cavities in these rocks are probably, in many instances, 

water-filled, so that wells drilled at the proper localities might allow the 

water in them to rise and possibly to overflow the surface. But these 

cavities are irregular, and, as far as can be judged, seldom present the 

conditions just mentioned. It is impossible for anyone to predict 

where such water-filled cavities exist, and the drilling of a hole in the 

rocks with the hope of finding one is to take one chance in a million.

The areas where granite, schists, quartzites, and diorites are exposed 

or occur a short distance below the immediate surface are therefore 

to be avoided in all attempts to obtain artesian water.

In the region occupied by the Columbia lava the rocks, although 

for the most part of igneous origin, are in well-defined layers. Between 

the sheets of basalt, as the reader is already aware, there are layers 

of sand, volcanic dust and lapilli, and clay. This series of beds, 

although apparently horizontal over broad areas, is in reality in many 

localities slightly inclined. Conditions favorable to the hope of obtaining artesian water are thus suggested.

The basalt is not porous, except very imperfectly at the junctions of 

many of the layers, where it is scoriaceous, and it can not be considered as a pervious rock. It is traversed by innumerable joints and 

seams, and evidently could not retain water under pressure. In itself, 

therefore, the basalt presents no condition that would encourage the 

hope of finding artesian water.

When sheets of sand and clay intervene between the layers of basalt, 

and the series is slightly tilted, more hopeful conditions evidently 

result. These conditions are fulfilled in a belt of country, some 10 or 

15 miles broad, along the eastern border of Washington, north of 

Snake River, and extending at least as far as the northern boundary 

of Whitman County, and possibly all the way to Spokane River.
EUSSBLL.] ARTESIAN WATER SUPPLY. 79

The westerly inclination of the rocks in this section is extremely 

gentle, and, although not yet measured, may probably be taken at 

about 5 feet to a mile. The artesian head is consequently low, and 

it is only in the deeper valleys which, however, have not been cut 

through certain strata of clay that flowing wells can be obtained.

EXISTING WELLS.

The information here presented concerning the wells that have been 

drilled in southeastern Washington has been obtained from various 

.persons who were especially interested in the results hoped for, but 

was furnished principally by Mr. A. L. Ebersol, of Garfield, Washington. Mr. Ebersol began his work as a well driller in the oil fields 

of Pennsylvania, and has had several years' experience in piitting 

down wells under contract in Washington.

WeUs at Pullman. Pullman is situated partially in a narrow, steepsided canyon, cut in the basaltic plateau by one of the several branches 

of Palouse iiiver. The bottom of the now partially filled canyon is 

about 200 feet below the general level of the plateau. The college 

buildings situated near the summit of the hills overlooking the business portion of the town are 220 feet above the station of the Union 

Pacific Railroad, which, as shown by railroad surveys, is 2,340 feet 

above the sea.

Fifteen wells have been drilled at Pullman, some of them in the 

bottom of the canyon and others on its borders. Those in the bottom 

of the canyon, 11 in number, are flowing wells, but those on the sides 

of the canyon above an elevation of about 2,365 feet do not overflow; 

that is, the pressure on the water in the pervious stratum penetrated 

by these wells is sufficient to raise it to a level of about 25 feet above 

the canyon's bottom.

The hills bordering the canyon at Pullman are of basalt, which 

appears to be a single flow, and so far as can be ascertained by obser 

vation and the use of a pocket level is horizontal. Beneath this heavy 

sheet of basalt is a stratum of clay, 25 to 30 feet thick, the upper surface of which has been hardened and rendered dark in color by the 

heat of the basalt spread over it. Below the clay is a layer of basalt 

60 feet thick; then comes a layer of granitic sand," which has been 

penetrated to a depth of about 12 feet without reaching the bottom. 

This sand is unconsolidated and abundantly water charged.

It is reported that some of the wells furnished artesian water as soon 

as the clay layer was penetrated and that the volume increased until 

the sand was reached. This seems to indicate that the water rose 

through fissures and seams in the basalt, but not with sufficient freedom to furnish the desired supply. The impervious layer is evidently 

the clay stratum, and the pervious layer is the loose, unconsolidated 

sand. Sand is thrown out of the flowing wells, and samples collected 

show that it is-mainly quartz sand, with occasional fragments of granite and basalt and much mica. This material is mainly such as would
80 A RECONNOISSANCE IN SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON. [NO.4.

be furnished by the disintegration of the quartzite and granite forming the hills bordering the basaltic plateau on the east. With the 

quartz sand are mingled grains of basalt, which sometimes give it a 

dark color.

The first well drilled, that now supplying the Palace Hptel, as stated 

by M. C. True, the owner of the hotel, was finished in May, 1894. It 

has a total' depth of 77 feet, and reached flowing water at 65 feet. It is 

6 inches in diameter, and furnishes about 30,000 gallons per day. 

The well, beginning at the surface, passes through 12 feet of soil and 

cobblestone and 53 feet of solid basalt, and after passing through the 

basalt it reaches about 12 feet in the sand beneath. The elevation at 

the surface is that of the general level of the canyon bottom, or 2,340 

feet. The water rises in pipes about 20 feet above the mouth of the 

well.

On the opposite side of the* street from the Palace Hotel a well was 

drilled for J. R. Ruply in 1889 to a depth of 73 feet. This well is 

said to have been drilled in solid basalt, with the exception of the 

first 8 or 10 feet, which consisted of soil and loose rocks. The report 

fails to mention the stratum of clay which outcrops in the sides of the 

canyon near at hand, and which probably exists beneath the surface 

alluvium throughout the lower part of the town. 1 The Ruply well is 

6 inches in diameter. It reached a stratum of micaceous sand, and 

water rose well above the surface, as is shown in the' photograph here 

reproduced.

The well which supplies the town of Pullman was drilled in 1890, 

and is 6 inches in diameter and 84 feet deep. The surface level is 

practically the same as that of the Palace Hotel well. The section 

passed through is reported to be as follows: Surface soil, 3 feet; clay, 

10 feet; basalt, 60 feet; gravel and sand with lignite, 11 feet. The bottom of the layer of sand was not reached. Water rose in an open 

pipe 20 feet above the surface, or to a level about 2,360 feet above the 

sea. No decrease in the pressure has since been observed. The 

 water is raised by steam pumjps to a reservoir on an adjacent hill and 

from there distributed for domestic and town purposes.

The three wells just described are typical examples of the eleven 

flowing wells now in operation in the lower portion of Pullman. The 

wells on the sides of the canyon, which were begun above the artesian 

head of the water in the porous stratum, are illustrated by the one 

which supplies the college buildings. The surface level at this well, 

as shown by measurements with an aneroid barometer, is 30 feet 

above the general level of the street in the lower portion of the town, 

or 2,370 feet above the sea. The well has a total depth of 144 feet, 

and is reported by Mr. Ebersol, the contractor, to have been all in 

basalt, except about 30 feet of clay. The clay layer is reported to

1 In the report obtained of several other wells in Pullman all reference to this clay stratum was 

omitted. A possible reason for this omission is that the price of drilling is usually varied with 

the character of the material passed through.
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 4- PL. VI

ARTESIAN WELL AT PULLMAN.
ARTESIAN WATER SUPPLY. 81

have been reached at 65 feet below the surface. The section exposed 

in the valley of the canyon, however, indicates that the clay should 

have been first encountered at about 25 or 30 feet .below the surface. 

Water rises to within 6 feet of the surface and is pumped to a reservoir which supplies the college buildings, situated about 200 feet 

higher than the surface at the well.

It does not seem advisable to record at this time all of the reports 

obtained concerning the wells at Pullman, as careful records of the 

character of the rocks passed through were not kept, and in some 

instances the reports obtained are unsatisfactory for other reasons.

The wells are all 6 inches in diameter. The contract price for 

drilling in surface earth and clay was in general $1 per foot, and in 

basalt $4 per foot. The water in all cases is beautifully clear, without occluded gases, and, with the exception of the Palace Hotel well, 

is soft. * The water of the exceptional well has not been analyzed, but 

its taste suggests the presence of iron. None of the wells are cased, 

but much loss from leakage through fissures in the basalt is prevented 

by the clay stratum near the surface. The wells in the lower part of 

the town begin in the clay or in superficial deposits resting on it. It 

is to be expected that westward from Pullman, whjere the branches of 

Palouse River become deeper, the clay layer has been cut through, 

and that the conditions favorable for obtaining artesian water will be 

impaired, for the reason that basalt allows water under pressure to 

escape through fissures. In such instances it is evident that all wells 

should be cased down to the water-bearing sands.

Several of the wells at Pullman are allowed to flow, thus wasting a 

large volume of water and decreasing the pressure. If the blessings 

accompanying the discovery of an excellent water supply are to be 

maintained, all wells should be closed when not in use.

Wells at Moscow, Idaho. At Moscow, Idaho, about 9 miles east of 

Pullman and near the junction of the Columbia basalt with the granite 

hills bordering it on the east, several wells have been drilled.

I have been informed by Mr. Ebersol and others that fourteen wells 

have been drilled since 1890, and that ten of these were flowing in 1891, 

but since then the pressure has so decreased that the water now stands 

8 or 9 feet below the surface. The depth of these wells is in general 

about 100 feet, the first 50 to 60 feet being through loose material 

the alluvial filling of the valley and the remainder in,basalt. 

Whether a layer of sand was reached or not seems uncertain. The 

information available concerning these wells is meager and unsatisfactory, but it seems that the alluvium of the valley much of it fine, 

clay-like soil plays the role of an impervious layer and retains water 

under pressure in the seams and joints of the basalt, thus furnishing 

an approach to favorable artesian conditions. * Wells at Palouse. Four wells have been drilled within a radius of

1 It is probable that if these wells were properly cased a surface flow would result. 

IRR 4 6
82 A RECONNOISSANCE IN SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON. [wo.4.

about 20 feet in the business portion of Palouse, with the hope of 

obtaining a water supply for the town. The last was completed in 

1894. The town is situated principally in a valley with precipitous 

borders 280 feet high. The wells are in the bottom of the valley, 

and are said to be about 200 feet deep and to penetrate material as 

follows:

Feet.

Earth and stones. .......................................... 14

Coarse gravel ............................................... 3

Solid basalt _.___.__^__ ______.................... ......_. 100

Coarse sand. _____-__._._____________._________-___--------. 9

"Black si ate rock"... ...................................... 30

Sand, water-bearing..---....... ............................ 25 to 30

Of these four wells, the first drilled is now closed, and the remaining three discharge collectively about 10 gallons per minute. The 

wells are 8 inches in diameter at the top, but are said to decrease to 

6 inches, and again to 2 inches toward the bottom.

The wells are a failure so far as supplying the town is concerned, 

but it is evident that if casings could be introduced their efficiency 

would be increased.

Well at Grarfield, A well has been drilled at Garfielcl with the 

hope of obtaining artesian water for the town, but did not meet with 

success. The well is reported to have been drilled to a depth of about 

300 feet with a 6-inch bit, and afterwards enlarged by excavating to 

8 feet to a depth of 100 feet. From, this well water is no'w pumped 

for the supply of the town. The excavated portion of the well passed 

through earth and bowlders; apparently the upper part of this material is a stream deposit and the lower portion disintegrated basalt. 

Below the open well the drill passed through "honeycomb" rock; by 

this is probably meant much-join ted and possibly scoriaceous basalt.

Jajmes Walter's well. Three miles northeast of Garfield, at the 

residence of Mr. James Walter, a drilled well 113 feet deep was completed in 1892. This is a flowing well, and discharges a stream of 

water 1^ inches in diameter. The section passed through is reported 

by Mr. Walter as follows:

Feet.

Dirt........................................................ 16

Basalt.............._-.................................... 65

Bine clay................................................... 5 to 6

Gray clay__._.__,_.________ ................................ 5 to 6

Hard cement ............................................... 2

Bine and yellow clay, with quicksand, water-bearing......... 10 to 12

The surface of the ground at the locality where this well was drilled 

is reported to be higher than Garfield, but no measure of its elevation 

is available.

Other wells. Incomplete reports have been obtained of not fewer 

than a score of wells, in addition to those mentioned above, in a belt 

of country about 15 miles wide, extending northward from near Snake
ARTESIAN WATER SUPPLY. 83

River, along the eastern, border of Washington. The time available 

for making a personal examination of this region was so limited that 

little more than the facts here reported could be obtained.

The success which has followed a large number of the attempts 

already made to obtain artesian water in this region, and the facts 

learned concerning the nature and relations of the rocks, certainly 

indicate that artesian water can be had at a moderate depth1 over a 

wide extent of rich agricultural land.

The western border of the region in which artesian water can be 

had is indefinite. The region to the west of a north-and-south line 

passing through Garfield, including the greater part of Whitman 

County and all of Adams and Franklin counties, is geologically 

unknown, except so far as the conditions there prevailing can be 

judged from what has been seen in adjacent areas. Whether test 

wells have been put down in this region or not I have failed to learn.

There is no definite evidence in hand to show that the sands and 

clays penetrated at Pullman, Garfield, etc., extend far westward, but 

it is reasonable to suppose that such is the case. It is probable also 

that layers of clay and sand exist lower in the series than those penetrated at Pullman, which may furnish similar conditions in the region 

to the west.

Besides the presence or absence of pervious and impervious layers, 

the dip of the beds and the depth to which they have been dissected 

by streams have also to be considered. While there seems a probability that artesian wells may be had over.a wide extent of country to 

the west of the region at present explored, lack of definite information 

concerning that region makes it impossible for one to form an opinion 

in this connection.

ARTESIAN CONDITIONS SOUTH OF SNAKE RIVER.

The question of obtaining artesian wells in that portion of Washington which lies south of Snake River resolves itself into two considerations with reference to source of supply: First, can water be 

had under conditions similar to those existing at Pullman from 

strata leading westward from the mountains of Idaho ? Second, are 

there water-bearing strata dipping away from the Blue Mountains?

With reference to the first of these questions, it is to be remembered that Snake River Canyon cuts off all possible sources of supply 

to a minimum depth of about 2,000 feet below the general surface of 

the basaltic plateau. We have only indefinite evidence as to the 

nature of the rocks below the level of Snake River. As the basaltic 

layers exposed in the canyon of that river are nearly horizontal, it is 

evident that the artesian head for any porous layers which may exist 

below the horizon of the river would be low. The manner in which 

the series of horizontally'bedded basaltic sheets abuts against the 

metamorphic rocks on the east renders it extremely improbable that
84 A RECONNOISSANCE IN SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON. [NO.*.

any deeply seated porous stratum could be water-charged in such a 

manner as to make it a source of artesian water.

The considerations just indicated are of such weight that there 

seems no need of hesitation in declaring it useless to hope for success 

in drilling wells in the region south of Snake River with the view of 

obtaining water from sources similar to those which supply the wells 

in the neighborhood of Pullman.

Turning to the second possible source of artesian water suggested, 

namely, the Blue Mountains, we find that the rocks dip away from 

that uplift, and also that they are abundantly water-charged. Two 

of the primary conditions requisite for obtaining subterranean water 

under pressure are thus fulfilled. Inquiries in at least two other 

directions must be made, however, before a conclusion can be reached. 

These are: First, are there layers of clay and sand interbedded with 

the basalt? and second, have the rocks been so deeply dissected by 

streams as to allow pervious beds, if they exist, to be drained?

Beds of clay and of fragments of volcanic rock (lapilli and volcanic 

dust) interbedded with basalt occur in the neighborhood of Asotin, 

and possibly extend southwestward and westward, but no exposures 

of these layers were seen by me in the Blue Mountains. My examination, however, was not sufficiently detailed to Drove that they are 

there absent.

The material forming the clay beds referred TO was derived from the 

mountains of Idaho before the cutting of Snake River Canyon, and 

probably thin out westward. ISTo layers of sand like the one yielding 

water at Pullman are known to occur beneath the clays, and the 

strata of lapilli and volcanic dust are not sufficiently porous to be 

classed as water-bearing strata. It is thus exceedingly doubtful if 

the succession of beds in the flanks of the Blue Mountains affords the 

arrangement of pervious and impervious layers necessary for an artesian water supply.

With reference to the depth to which the rocks forming the Blue 

Mountains and the plateau extending northward from them have been 

dissected by streams, it will be remembered that deep erosion has 

occurred. In the mountains there is a veritable labyrinth of canyons 

from 2,000 to 3,000 feet deep. This deep erosion, however, is favorable to the process of charging with water any pervious layer that 

may exist in the flanks of the range, since the edges of the layers are 

exposed to the rain and to water flowing down the sides of the canyons 

or percolating through the soil that mantles the cut edges of the strata.

The canyons leading northward from the Blue Mountains soon 

increase in depth, and the plateau in the northern portions of Garfield 

and Columbia counties is deeply dissected. Evidently any porous 

strata that are cut by these canyons could not contain water under 

pressure. The only possible hope for obtaining artesian water in the 

counties just mentioned is, therefore, below the level of the canyon
BUSSELL.] ARTESIAN WATER SUPPLY. 85

bottoms. The expense of drilling wells from 500 to 2,000 feet deep 

through basalt, as would of necessity be the case on the fragments of 

the plateau remaining between the streams, even if success at these 

depths were assured, would preclude the use of water thus obtained 

for irrigation.

In the canyons there is a chance that artesian water might be reached, 

but the conditions are so uncertain that the experiment of sinking 

wells below a depth of 100 or 200 feet should not be made, except as a 

last resort. The more practical and entirely feasible method of utilizing the surface streams within the canyons makes it unwise to incur 

expense in the search for subterranean water. The possibility of 

obtaining water from the alluvium of the canyons will be referred to 

later.

In the valley of the Walla Walla, in a general way westward of a 

line connecting the cities of Walla Walla and Milton, Oregon, there 

is an absence of canyons. In this region, also, there is at least one 

clay stratum interbedded with the basalt, but no evidence of the presence of layers of sand has been obtained. This is the only region in 

Washington south of Snake River where the hasty examination I have 

been able to make suggests the possibility of obtaining artesian water 

at reasonable expense and where there are lands available for farming. 

Even in this region the certain method of utilizing the abundant surface water is much to be preferred to the uncertainty of attempting 

to obtain flowing wells. The geological conditions in the valley of the 

W,alla Walla are not such as to warrant the prediction that success 

would follow the drilling of a well, but simply that there is a possibility 

of success. The best locality for drilling a test well in this region is 

in the vicinity of Whitman. A trial made at Walla Walla would 

probably be equally decisive. At Whitman a depth of 150 to 200 feet 

of surface material would probably have to be passed through before 

rock in place would be reached, but in this upper portion of the section flowing water is likely to be met. At Walla Walla the superficial 

material the bowlder and gravel of Mill Creek is apparently not 

deep and might also yield flowing water.

In order to test the possibility of obtaining water at Walla Walla I 

should favor the project, already proposed, of drilling a well at the 

State penitentiary. To make the test conclusive, the proposed well 

should be drilled to a depth of 500 feet, if flowing water is not obtained 

nearer the surface. v

WELLS IN ALLUVIUM.

There are flowing wells of another class that require mention, but 

which are scarcely to* be classed with true artesian wells.

The deposits made in stream channels and over flood plains are 

usually composed of irregular layers of bowlder, gravel, sand, clay, 

etc., through which the stream waters percolate. The water in the 

pervious layers is sometimes under moderate pressure and will rise
86 A EECONNOISSANCE IN SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON. [NO.4.

to the surface when wells are dug. The pervious beds are usually 

irregular and of small extent, and their water supply, being furnished 

by the stream which deposited them, varies with changes in the volume 

of the stream. No one can tell, without making practical test, whether 

the percolating waters in an alluvium-filled valley will rise to the 

surface or not. The best way to search for such waters, where 

the alluvium does not contain large bowlders, is by driving pipes 

into the ground. Where bowlders 1 foot to 2 or 3 feet in diameter 

are met with, driven wells are impracticable. It is also difficult and 

expensive to drill through deposits of bowlders, so that the only practicable method seems to be to make the excavation by hand. In some 

instances, when a strong flow of water is reached, if the bottom of the 

well is covered with cement, through which a pipe is inserted leading 

to the surface, a surface flow may be obtained.

As is well known, the bottom of many of the canyons leading from 

the Blue Mountains are deeply filled with alluvium, in which water 

may be obtained. An excellent method of conducting the percolating 

water of alluvial deposits to the surface and making them available 

for use lower down the valley in which they occur, without pumping, 

is in operation at Walla Walla.

WATERWORKS AT WALLA WALLA.

Walla Walla is now supplied with water from infiltration ditches 

prepared in the coarse gravel that forms the flood plain of Mill Creek, 

about a mile above the central part of the town. The water from the 

infiltration ditches is conducted into reservoirs, from which it is distributed by gravity. The fall of Mill Creek in the vicinity of Walla 

Walla is 63 feet per mile. This rapid descent makes it possible to 

locate reservoirs near the town. The infiltration ditches are dug as 

open ditches to a depth of from 12 to 15 feet. At the bottom an 

inverted trough made of planks is placed and covered with clean 

gravel to the depth of several inches. The gravel also fills the space 

between the sides of the inverted trough and the undisturbed material 

forming the walls of the ditch. The material removed in digging the 

ditch is then replaced. The use of tiles in place of the inverted 

wooden trough would have advantages, but would be more expensive.

The infiltration ditches are located at angles of 30° to 40° with 

the direction of slope, and trend upstream. The water percolating 

through the gravel enters the inverted troughs from below and also 

flows through the loose gravel covering them, and is conducted to 

reservoirs. The length of the infiltration ditches varies. As an 

example of their efficiency I insert the following information, furnished by the superintendent of the waterworks, concerning what is 

termed "Reservoir No. 2." This reservoir is a tank excavated in 

the gravel, but not lined, and sheltered by a timber and shingle roof. 

It is rectangular, measures 51 by 90 feet on the sides, and is 10 feet
RUSSELL,.] ARTESIAN WATER SUPPLY. 87

deep. Two infiltration ditches lead to this tank, one 500 and the 

other 800 feet long. These discharge during the summer season about 

320,000 and 420,000 gallons, respectively, per day.

There are two other reservoirs of similar dimensions, supplied in 

like manner. The water reaching the reservoir is thoroughly filtered, 

and at present, as shown by sanitary analyses, is wholesome and of 

an agreeable temperature.

This method of obtaining a water supply is recommended for its 

economy, and on a smaller scale might be advisable in many instances 

for farm purposes, in place of wells now commonly in use. The 

advantages over surface wells are that the water supply may be drawn 

from a distance from sources of contamination, and when properly 

arranged the trouble and expense of pumping are avoided.

The only objection that can be suggested to this method of supplying towns or residences with water is that it comes from superficial 

deposits and is in danger of contamination from houses, stables, etc., 

situated upstream from where the infiltration ditches are located. 

In countries of small rainfall, where the streams are greatly lowered 

during the summer, the dangers from these sources are multiplied. 

For 9 or 10 miles above Walla Walla the narrow canyon-like valley 

of Mill Creek is occupied somewhat thickly by farmhouses and stables. Contamination of the city water supply from these sources is a 

constant menace.

CONCLUSIONS.

The results of the hasty examination of the geology of southeastern 

Washington here reported on, so far as the question of artesian water 

is concerned, may be briefly summed up as follows: In the Palouse 

country there are reasons for believing that the area in which artesian 

water has been found will be broadened westward. South of Snake 

River there is no evidence that success would accompany the drilling 

of wells on the uplands. In the canyon bottoms there is a possibility 

of finding artesian water, but further than this the study of the 

geology does not offer suggestions, except of an adverse character. 

The chances of failure far outbalance the chances of success. To the 

northwest and west of the Blue Mountains more definitely, in the 

valley of the Walla Walla westward from, a line joining the towns 

Walla Walla and Milton, and possibly extending some distance into 

Oregon the conditions are more favorable than elsewhere in Washington south of Snake River and warrant the drilling of a test well 

should the demand for water be great. Even in this most favorable 

area, however, I should recommend the full utilization of the streams 

and the storage of the "winter run-off before attempting to obtain artesian, water for irrigation purposes.
88 A RECONNOISSANCE IN SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON. LNO.I.

AN OUTLINE SKETCH OF THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OP 

SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON.

Of the ancient geological history of Washington but little is known. 

The northern portion of the Cascade Mountains, as shown recently 

by Bailey Willis, is largely composed of metamorphic rocks. Similar 

rocks occur about Lake Chelan and north of the Big Bend of the Columbia and of the lower portion of Spokane River. From Spokane 

the hills formed of these metamorphic rocks extend southward along 

the Washington-Idaho boundary, and from them the mountains of 

western Idaho have been sculptured.

The rocks just referred to as being of metamorphic character that 

is, greatly changed by heat and heated solutions from their original 

condition were in many instances of sedimentary origin, but are 

now granite, schist, quartzite, etc. The granites, however, may be 

in part of igneous origin that is, were once in a molten condition 

but of this no direct evidence has been observed. The place in the 

earth's history wThere these rocks belong is unknown, but their crystalline condition suggests that they are very old, and possibly belong 

to the series termed Archean. The resemblance of metamorphic 

rocks in one region to similar rocks at a distance is an uncertain 

basis for classification, however, for the reason that strata belonging 

to widely different periods, when changed by heat and heated water, 

produce granites, schists, etc., having the same characteristics. Some 

of the granites of the Pacific Coast are known to be of comparatively 

recent geological date.

The structure of the rocks of the metamorphic regions of Washington that is, the positions which the rocks occupy, whether folded, 

contorted, broken, etc. is not well known, although it is easily seen 

that those which still retain evidence of bedding, and were without 

question originally in horizontal sheets, have been upturned and bent 

into great folds. Throughout the metamorphic region the country 

is mountainous, and much of the geological history of the region is 

recorded in their forms. The valleys have been carved out of the 

upraised mountain masses, and each dome and crest has been slowly 

fashioned by rain, frost, wind, and rills into its present transient 

shape. The depth to which the valleys have been excavated and the 

forms of the bordering hills show that the mountains are old and 

have formed a land surface for geological ages.

In comparatively recent geological times the mountains of northern 

Washington and eastern Idaho, although probably higher and more 

rugged than now, had their present general outlines, but the central 

and southern portions of the Cascades, as well as the Coast Range, 

were as yet unborn. The country south of the southward-facing 

semicircle of mountains, embracing the present great plain of 

the Columbia arid southeastern Washington, was low and partially 

submerged at times beneath the sea. This vast low-lying area,
RUSSELL.] GEOLOGICAL HISTORY. 89

together with the surrounding mountains, was clothed with varied 

and beautiful forests, rssembling those of the South Atlantic States

at the present day. In this valley region, which extended far south,

there were lakes and swamps in which vegetable matter accumulated 

and was later changed to coal. Some of this coal is now mined at 

Roslyn. The luxuriant vegetation, a part of which has been preserved as coal, furnished food and shelter for a variety of animals, no 

near relatives of which are living at the present day.

This age, when almost subtropical conditions prevailed, was in the 

early Tertiary. As time passed, the lakes became filled with sediment, and much of the region sank beneath the sea. Clays and sands 

were spread. out which have since hardened into rock. Upheaval 

brought these once level sheets of rock above the sea and raised them 

into a mountain range the southern Cascade. In central Washington these early Tertiary rocks were eroded, and outbreaks of volcanic 

energy caused lava sheets to be spread over them. Fissures opened 

in the earth's crust, and molten rock was poured forth in such wondrous abundance that thousands of square miles of valley lands were 

inundated by the fiery floods. The lavas were similar to those poured 

out within the past few years by the volcanoes of the Hawaiian Islands 

and other regions. The molten rock was highly liquid, flowed rapidly, and spread out in sheets of broad extent. On cooling, it formed 

the dense, black basalt now so familiar throughout central and southeastern Washington. This is the Columbia lava, so frequently mentioned on the preceding pages.

Vast outwellings of molten rock occurred at intervals throughout 

a period embracing many hundreds and probably many thousands of 

years. The time between successive flows was sufficiently long, in 

numerous instances, to allow the surface of the cooled and hardened 

lava to crumble and decay under the action of the atmosphere and 

fiorm soils on which forests of oak and pine took root and flourished. 

In some instances abundant showers of volcanic dust, similar in character to the fine dust-like material blown out by many volcanoes in 

historic times, covered the land and buried the still erect trees. Later 

lava sheets were spread over the entombed forests, and in some localities charred the trees and changed them to charcoal. When the trees 

were so protected by their covering of volcanic dust that they were 

not directly influenced by the heat of the lava that flowed over them, 

heated waters brought silica to them in solution, and they were changed 

to stone. The stumps of these silicifled or fossilized trees, still standing as they grew, may be seen in the sides of the canyons that streams 

have cut in the thick pile of lava sheets. The replacement of the 

wood in these buried forests by silica, usually in the form known as 

opal, was so complete that not only the grain of the wood but each 

duct and cell is preserved, and when examined in thin sections under 

the microscope it appears as perfect as the wood of a living tree.

Lava flow succeeded lava flow until the vast valley region embraced
90 A KECONNOISSANCE IN SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON. [NO.*. .

in part by the mountains of northern Washington and eastern Idaho, 

thousands of square miles in extent, was covered with basalt to an 

average depth of probably 3,000 or 4,000 feet. The molten rock 

spread widely over the lowlands and about the bases of the bordering mountains and extended up the tributary valley. As sheet after 

sheet was added the hills in the lowlands became buried; outstanding spurs of the mountains became capes in the sea of molten rock; 

isolated mountain peaks were surrounded by the fiery flood and 

submerged, or left as islands rising above its surface.

 This vast inundation of lava is one of the most remarkable and, I 

may say, one of the most dramatic incidents in the geological history 

of North America. It is safe to assume that all the lava poured out 

by volcanoes within historic times, if run together, would make but 

a small fraction of the mass under which the region drained by the 

Columbia is buried.

During the lava flows streams from the bordering mountains met 

the encroaching sheets of molten rock, and many grand spectacles 

of conflict between water and fire might have been witnessed, but 

of the presence of man on this continent at the time of these Vast 

eruptions we have no records. Some of the sheets of volcanic fragments interbedded with the lava sheets appear to have been formed 

by the shattering and rapid cooling of the highly heated rocks on 

coming in contact with water.

Layers of fine, pure-white volcanic dust between the sheets of basalt 

show that distant volcanoes were in a state of violent eruption at the 

time these deposits were made, and the wind carried the dust far and 

wide over the land. That the dust did not come from the same eruptions that supplied the basalt is shown by marked differences in 

chemical and mineralogical composition. The dust is an acid rock 

that is, rich in silica while the basalt is basic.

During the intervals'between the lava flows lakes were formed on 

the surface of the cooled basalt and sheets of sediment were laid down. 

These lakes came into existence, especially about the borders of the 

lava-covered country, for the reason, in central and eastern Washington at least, that the advance of the lava was toward the mountains, 

and on cooling formed land surfaces which sloped gently toward the 

uplands and intercepted their streams. In some instances the lava 

flowed far up the valleys and gave them a nearly level floor of solid 

basalt. Sand and gravel, swept out of the mountains by swift-flowing 

streams, was spread over the lava during intervals between the fiery 

floods. Alternating sheets of basalt, sand, and clay were thus formed, 

especially about the borders of the lava-covered region, and furnished 

the requisite conditions for storing water under pressure. Artesian 

wells ages later were thus made possible.

Toward the close of the long period during which the lava sheets 

were spread over the lowlands the lakes formed on their surface
U. S. GEOLOSICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 4 PL. VII

LEWISTON IRRIGATION CANAL.

FLUME IN LEWISTON IRRIGATION CANAL.
RUSSELL.] GEOLOGICAL HISTORY. 91

 became of broad extent, but were invaded from time to time by additional layers of volcanic rock, which were buried by still younger 

lacustral deposits. At length the volcanic energy ceased and deep 

and widely extended lacustral sediments were accumulated. The 

broad lakes in which these sediments were laid down in even layers 

were probably held in basins formed by the upheaval of the Cascade 

Mountains. The light-colored and evenly bedded deposits referred to 

may now be seen at the White Bluff of the Columbia, in Wenas and 

Natches valleys in Washington, and in John Day Valley in Oregon. 

Leaves of many kinds of trees and the bones of mammals occur in 

these deposits and record the fact that after the vast outpourings of 

lava came to an end the land was again forest covered and inhabited 

by many large animals, all of which are now extinct. Thick layers 

of volcanic dust interleaved with the lacustral clays and sands bear 

evidence of violent eruption in distant volcanoes.

With the drainage of the la~kes that covered large portions of the 

lava country with sands and clays, the streams from the mountains 

flowed to the sea, and were enabled to carve canyons in the hard lavas. 

At an early stage in this epoch stream-borne gravels were carried out 

onto the basaltic plateau, and the most resistant of the stones thus 

deposited the hard quartzite may still be found in many places on 

the general plateau surface between deep canyons.

Snake River slowly carved out its channel until, at the present time, 

in the eastern flank of the Blue Mountain uplift it is an immense 

gorge some 15 miles broad at the top and about 4,000 feet deep. The 

work of stream cutting is slow. If we could study Snake River for a 

century where it flows over hard basalt, it would be difficult to determine the depth probably not over a fraction of an inch that it had 

lowered its bed. The river performs this task mainly by abrasion. 

Stones and sand swept along by the current wear the rocks over which 

they pass. Basalt is dense and hard, and, although decomposing with 

comparative rapidity when exposed to the air, yields very slowly to 

mechanical wear. The task of cutting to its present depth the magnificent canyon which now excites the wonder and admiration of all 

who behold it must have required an almost infinite time, as it appears 

to us. This task lias been performed, however, since the lava sheets 

were spread out over southeastern Washington, and for the most 

part since the lake beds containing the records of extinct floras and 

faunas resting on the lava were laid down.

There are reasons for believing that the canyon of Snake River was 

excavated to its present depth before the time in the earth's history 

known as the Glacial epoch. Space will not permit of a review of all 

the facts that lead to this conclusion, but a great gravel terrace in the 

canyon of Snake River and similar terraces in the canyons of Columbia and Spokane rivers show that after they were worn to their present depth they were filled to a height of 300 or 400 feet 360 feet in 

the case of the Snake River below Lewiston. This filling is attributed
92 A EECONNOISSANCE IN SOUTHEASTERN WASHINGTON. [wo.4.

to the overloading of the streams with debris furnished by glaciers 

and by swollen mountain streams. The cause of this change was climatic. During the Glacial epoch Washington and Idaho, in common 

with the northern half of the continent, had a colder and more humid 

climate than now. The streams flowing from the mountains were thus 

enlarged, and more earth and stones were swept into the channels of 

the main streams than they could transport.

The great climatic change which caused about one-half of the North 

American Continent to be covered with glacial ice left no records in 

southeastern Washington except those briefly referred to. Glaciers 

existed on the mountains of Idaho and Washington, but did not invade 

that portion of the basaltic plateau now included within the boundaries of Washington except locally at the northwest border of the Big 

Bend country. This advance of ice from the Okanogaii country across 

the canyon of the Columbia dammed that mighty river and caused it 

to flow across the great plain of the Columbia, through the remarkable gorge known as the Grand Coulee.

Since the Glacial epoch the streams have shrunk in volume, owing 

to the combined effects of a decrease in precipitation and an increase 

in the rate of evaporation, and in their weakened condition they have 

scarcely done more than recut their channels through the gravel a*nd 

sand previously deposited in them.

The vast amount of work performed by Snake River previous to the 

Glacial epoch, the halt in the task due to overloading, and the slow 

rate at which the weakened stream has been able to renew its task in 

recent centuries, all indicate that the time required for excavating the 

canyon has been long. We have no accurate measure of this time, 

but it is safe to say that it embraced millions of years.

The sheets of Columbia lava were essentially horizontal when they 

were spread out, and, so far as known, they were not disturbed until 

after the volcanic eruptions, to which they are due, came to an end. 

Movements in the earth's crust occurred at a later date, however, .and 

the thick series of basaltic layers were broken into blocks measuring 

many miles on their sides, and these were variously tilted. This 

breaking and tilting occurred principally to the westward. Some of 

the tilted blocks extend far up on the eastern border of the Cascade 

Mountains, showing that the central and southern portions of that 

magnificent range have been upraised since the period when the 

Columbia lava was poured out.

'In southeastern Washington the basalt has suffered but little from 

the forces producing elevations and depressions, and orer extensive 

areas the hardened lava is still horizontal. The portion of the lava 

forming the Blue Mountains has been elevated into a broad, low, flattopped dome, on the flanks of which, so far as has been learned, the 

beds of basalt dip away gently in all directions. The movements that 

have produced these more general changes in the relief of the basalt-
RUSSELL.] GEOLOGICAL HISTOEY. 93

covered country are probably still in progress, as is indicated by the 

manner in which Walla Walla River is grading up its valley at the 

western base of the Blue Mountains.

The surface of the basaltic plateau, which is by far the larger part 

of southeastern Washington", as already stated, remained nearly horizontal, and during the vast lapse of time that witnessed the excavation 

of Snake River Canyon slowly yielded to the destructive influences of 

the air and of percolating waters and crumbled to a porous soil. The 

depth of the products of disintegration and decay is in many places 

60 to 80 feet. In fact, over hundreds of square miles the average 

depth of the fine, yellowish, dust-like material forming the surface 

layer of rich agricultural districts is as great as the amount just stated.

The surface of the nearly level plateau has been roughened by 

stream erosion, but its plateau character not destroyed. Numerous 

level-floored valleys without stream channels bear evidence that the 

rainfall was formerly more abundant than now. The stream-cut canyons and valleys have been partially filled with fine soil, washed from 

the adjacent hills or blown from the uplands by the wind. The minor 

topographic features of the plateau, although due in the main to 

stream erosion, have been modified to an appreciable and sometimes 

to a marked extent by the action of the wind.

It is from the soil formed by the slow disintegration and decay of 

basaltic rocks that the millions of bushels of wheat raised each year 

in eastern Washington are obtained. The sending of wheat from 

the State of Washington to the famishing people of India, which has 

recently been done, is rendered possible because ages ago volcanic 

rocks capable of furnishing a wonderfully rich soil inundated the 

Tertiary lowlands where now "rolls the Oregon." The splendid 

water power at Spokane and the marvelous growth of that charming 

city can be traced to a climatic change which caused the valley in 

which it is situated to become deeply filled with stream deposited 

gravel. When the bright, swift-flowing waters were enabled to clear 

out their channel, they did not rediscover their former course at all 

points, but cut across rocky spurs projecting from the sides of the old 

valley. One such occurrence gave Spokane its beautiful cascade. 

Many other illustrations of the influence of events in the geological 

and geographical history of Washington which bear directly on the 

industrial and intellectual development of the present generation 

might be cited.

In closing this report of a hasty reconnoissance, I wish to state that 

the studies thus far made of the geology of Washington show that it is 

not only one of the most interesting States in the Union to the geologist and geographer, but that it is also rich in mineral and .other 

resources.
INDEX.

Page.

Alluvium, wells in .. ..... . ..

Alpowa Creek, description, of------------ 34

possibilities of irrigation from ... 71 

Amygdaloids of the Columbia lava.., . 47 

Anatone, irrigation at.--.- ........ 72

Artesian water supply... ------- .... 75-85

Artesian wells and conditions... _ 49-50,75-87 

Asotin, clay beds near _.._.__... __.._ 51 

Asotin Creek, description of......... _. - 34

irrigation and possibilities of irrigation from _-..-.... .............. 71,73

Basalt of theregion,origin, age,character,

and thickness of. 16,39,34,35,37,40-50,89-91 

rocks beneath -. ._.______.... 33

analysis of __......................_.- 61

Basaltic eruptions of it he region, age and

character of............. 29,35,40-50,89-93

Basaltic plateau of the region, features

and limits of .......... 14-16,39,40,42-50

Blue Mountains, drainage system of..... 69-71

Buffalo Rock, schists at..........._..... 31-33

Chalcedony in the Columbia lava .... __ 47

Chamberlin, T. C., cited on artesian wells. 77 

Clay and gravel interstratifled with the

Columbia lava...................... 50-55

Climate of the region _...__-... .._._ 10-13 

Columbia lava, origin, character, extent,

and thickness of...__..___..... 16,

39,34,35,37,40-50,89-91,92-93 

Columnar structure of Columbia lava.... 44-46

Deadman Creek, description of. .._..__ 34 

Dikes, occurrence of..................._ 41

Diller, J. S.,petrographic determinations

by....................... .,...., 33,33,43

Drainage of the region, characteristics of- 18-39 

Button, C.E., cited...... _.__..__._._ 54

Ebersol, A. L., welldata furnished by.. 79,80,81 

Fletcher, Professor, cited __.__ .'..... 60,63

Pulmer, Professor, cited......._........ 60,63

Garfield, wells at and near ...".._._._ 53,83 

Geological formations, description of _. 29-69 

Geological history, sketch of............. 88-93

Gilbert, H., water-wheel irrigation by... 74 

Girty, G. H., paleontologic determinations by........._.________ 33

Gneiss,exposures of....______._. 30-31

Grande Eonde River, description of.. 17,35-36

possibilities of irrigation from _..._ 70

Granite, exposures of....._.__........ 30-31

Granite Point,gneiss at..__._..._ 30-31,37 

Gravel deposits along Snake River ___... 20-21 

Gravel deposits in river valleys.......... 56-57

Gravel and clay interstratifled with the

Columbia lava.... .--- 50-55 

Hawley ditch, description of. -... 72 

Irrigation, practice and possibilities of.. 69-75 

John Day system, character and age of. 29,55-56 

Kamiack Butte, description of......... 37-38

Kittitas system of rocks. - 40 

Lava flows of the region.. 16, 

29,34,35,37,40-50,53,89-91,93-93 

Lake beds and lava flow at Spokane, figured section of .__.. ... 53 

Lewiston Water and Power Company,

irrigation works of.. . 73 

Map of Washington, need of.. . . 75 

Merrill, G.P., analysis of soil by. -- 61

cited............................. - 63

Metamorphic rocks, description of... 30-40 

Moscow, Idaho, wells at.. . . 81 

Onyx in the Columbia lava. ............ 47

Opal in the Columbia lava .......... 47-48,89

Palouse country, clay, sand, and gravel

bedsin........ .. .-- . 51-52

characterof . - -- 75 

Palouse Biver, description of.. .- 36-37 

Palouse, wells at. .......--. . - 81-82

Precipitation and temperature 12,38-39 

Pullman, artesian wells at.-------. 79-81

clay, sand, and gravel beds near 51-53 

Rainfall and temperature........... 11-13,38-29

Baymo, irrigation near ...... ...-. - 73

Biggs, B. B., chemical analyses by....... 64

River terraces.. ......-.-.-. .:... 56-57

Boad material, availability of basalt for. 49 

Rock groups of the .region, enumeration

of.. -. _. . - 29

description of . - 39-69

Buply, J. B., artesian well of............. 80

Schists, exposures of . - 31-33,34,35,36 

Snake Biver, description and history of. 19-21,

91-93

bars or sand deposits of. -. 20

fragments of gravel terrace of....... 30-21

Snake Biver Canyon, description of...... 34-36

irrigation and agriculture in .. 73-74 

Soils of the region, origin and character

of. - .. . - S7-64

analyses of.....................

unexplained minute vertical tubnter;-; 

spaces in.....................

Spokane, figured section of lava Sowaod

lake beds at- ________*_.'_ SS

gravel and clay beds at.___*. ... 53-54
t96 INDEX.

Spokane River, description of-------- _ 27-38

Steptoe Butte, prospect from ............ 38-40

Tokanon River, description of _. -1 -. _. 38-24 

Topography and drainage of the region.. 14-29 

Topographic map of Washington, need

of..................................... 75

Touchet River, irrigation from -...---.-. 72 

Trenton limestone, analysis of.__.__ 64 

True, M. C., artesian well of .-....-..__ 80

Tubular minute vertical spaces in soils,

occurrence of.................. 59,60,64,68

Vegetation........'..,...................... 13-14

Volcanic dust and lapilli, deposits of..... 54-55

Walla Walla, waterworks at -. ----- ~ 86-87

Walla Walla Irrigation Co., work of .. 73 

Walla Walla River, description of........ 21-33

irrigation on.. .................... 73

Walla Walla Valley, clay toeft ttu^........ _i

artesian prospects in.. . 85 

Walters, James, artesian well of. .-.., 83 

Water supply, artesian .-..-...--- .. 75-85 

Water wheels, irrigation by means of _ _. 74 

Waterworks at Walla Walla.... .... 86-87

Wawawai Creek, irrigation from .... 74

Wells (artesian) and well prospects _ 49-50,75-87 

Welto in alluvium.-.-..........--...... 85-86

Wheat lands, soil of --. ._.__--- .-- 58-64 

topography of ...........--- -.. ... 64-69

Whitaey, Milton, m&ekaateal analysis of

 oflby ..........-. . .- - 59

WM Goose Creek, rocks on,.............. 33-36

Willis ditch, description of .............. 73

Yakima Valley, clay and gravel sheets in. 50