NCES 2013-313 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

Characteristics of Public and Private 

Elementary and Secondary School 

Principals in the United States: 

Results From the 2011–12 Schools and Staffing Survey

First Look
Characteristics of Public and Private

Elementary and Secondary School 

Principals in the United States:

Results From the 2011–12 Schools and Staffing Survey

First Look

August 2013 

Amy Bitterman

Rebecca Goldring

Lucinda Gray

Westat

Stephen Broughman

Project Officer

National Center for Education Statistics

NCES 2013-313

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
U.S. Department of Education

Arne Duncan

Secretary

Institute of Education Sciences

John Q. Easton

Director

National Center for Education Statistics

Jack Buckley

Commissioner

Elementary/Secondary and Library Studies Division

Jeffrey Owings

Associate Commissioner

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Suggested Citation

Bitterman, A., Goldring, R., and Gray, L. (2013). Characteristics of Public and Private Elementary and Secondary School 

Principals in the United States: Results From the 2011–12 Schools and Staffing Survey (NCES 2013-313). U.S. 

Department of Education. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved [date] from 

http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch. 

Content Contact

Stephen Broughman

(202) 502-7315

stephen.broughman@ed.gov
Contents 

Page

List of Tables ....................................................................................................................... iv

Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 1 

Selected Findings ................................................................................................................. 3 

References ............................................................................................................................ 4 

Estimate Tables .................................................................................................................... 5 

Appendix A: Standard Error Tables .................................................................................... A-1 

Appendix B: Methodology and Technical Notes.................................................................. B-1 

Appendix C: Description of Data Files ................................................................................. C-1 

Appendix D: Description of Variables ................................................................................. D-1 

iii
List of Tables

Table Page

1. Total number of school principals and percentage distribution of school 

principals, by race/ethnicity, school type, and selected school 

characteristics: 2011–12 .......................................................................................... 6 

2. Average and median age of school principals, and percentage distribution 

of principals, by age category, sex, school type, and selected school 

characteristics: 2011–12 .......................................................................................... 8 

3. Percentage distribution of school principals, by highest degree earned, 

school type, and selected school characteristics: 2011–12 ..................................... 10 

4. Average annual salary for school principals, by years of experience as a 

principal, school type, and selected school characteristics: 2011–12 ..................... 12 

5. Average hours per week that school principals spent on all school-related 

activities and interacting with students, by school type and selected school 

characteristics: 2011–12 .......................................................................................... 14 

6. Average total years of experience as a school principal, average years as a 

principal at current school, and percentage distribution of principals, 

by reported years of experience as a principal at current school, school 

type, and selected school characteristics: 2011–12 ................................................. 16 

7. Percentage of school principals who thought they had a major influence 

on decisions concerning various activities at their school, by school type 

and selected school characteristics: 2011–12 .......................................................... 18 

Appendix A: Standard Error Tables

A-1. Standard errors for Table 1: Total number of school principals and 

percentage distribution of school principals, by race/ethnicity, school type, 

and selected school characteristics: 2011–12 .......................................................... A-2 

A-2. Standard errors for Table 2: Average and median age of school principals, 

and percentage distribution of principals, by age category, sex, school 

type, and selected school characteristics: 2011–12 ................................................. A-4 

A-3. Standard errors for Table 3: Percentage distribution of school principals, 

by highest degree earned, school type, and selected school characteristics: 

2011–12 ................................................................................................................... A-6 

A-4. Standard errors for Table 4: Average annual salary for school principals, 

by years of experience as a principal, school type, and selected school 

characteristics: 2011–12 .......................................................................................... A-8 

A-5. Standard errors for Table 5: Average hours per week that school 

principals spent on all school-related activities and interacting with 

students, by school type and selected school characteristics: 2011–12 .................. A-10 

iv
Table Page

A-6. Standard errors for Table 6: Average total years of experience as a school 

principal, average years as a principal at current school, and percentage 

distribution of principals, by reported years of experience as a principal at 

current school, school type, and selected school characteristics: 

2011–12.................................................................................................................... A-12 

A-7. Standard errors for Table 7: Percentage of school principals who thought 

they had a major influence on decisions concerning various activities at 

their school, by school type and selected school characteristics: 2011–12 ............. A-14 

Appendix B: Methodology and Technical Notes

B-1. Weighted unit and overall response rates using initial base weight, by 

survey: 2011–12 ....................................................................................................... B-6 

B-2. Indication of potential sources of bias for public school principal data at 

the national level based on comparisons between frame distribution and 

base-weighted or nonresponse-adjusted respondent distributions: 2011–12 ........... B-8 

B-3. Indication of potential sources of bias for private school principal data at 

the national level based on comparisons between frame distribution and 

base-weighted or nonresponse-adjusted respondent distributions: 2011–12 ........... B-8 

B-4. Summary of weighted item response rates, by survey: 2011–12 ............................. B-9 

Appendix C: Description of Data Files

C-1. Names of data files and the questionnaires from which the data were 

drawn: 2011–12 ....................................................................................................... C-2 

C-2. The number of cases in the Public School District Data File, by 

respondent and source of data: 2011–12 ................................................................. C-3 

Appendix D: Description of Variables

D-1. Variables used in the Characteristics of Public and Private Elementary 

and Secondary School Principals in the United States: Results From the 

Schools and Staffing Survey report: 2011–12 ......................................................... D-2 

v 
Introduction 

This report presents selected findings from the Public School Principal and Private School Principal Data 

Files of the 2011–12 Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS). SASS is a nationally representative sample 

survey of public1 and private K–12 schools, principals, and teachers in the 50 states and the District of 

Columbia. School districts associated with public schools and library media centers in public schools are 

also part of SASS. Developed by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) of the Institute of 

Education Sciences within the U.S. Department of Education and conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau, 

SASS was first conducted in school year 1987–88. Since then, SASS has been conducted six times: in 

school years 1990–91, 1993–94, 1999–2000, 2003–04, 2007–08, and, most recently, 2011–12. 

The purpose of SASS is to collect information that can provide a detailed picture of U.S. elementary and 

secondary schools and their staff. This information is collected through the following surveys: district, 

school, principal, teacher, and library media center. Information from all the surveys can be linked. For 

more information about surveys and data files, see appendix C. The SASS questionnaires can be found at 

http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/sass/questionnaire.asp. 

The 2011–12 SASS uses a school-based sample of public and private schools. Because SASS uses a 

school-based sample design, districts, principals, and library media centers associated with public schools 

were included, as were principals associated with private schools. Teachers associated with a selected 

school were sampled from a teacher list provided by the school or district. The selected samples include 

about 11,000 traditional and charter public schools, public school principals, and public school library 

media centers; 5,800 public school districts; 51,100 public school teachers; 3,000 private schools and 

their principals; and 7,100 private school teachers. The samples were drawn to support estimates by 

geography, grade span, and charter school status for public schools, and by geography, grade span, and 

affiliation group for private schools for a wide range of topics. The reader is referred to the Survey 

Documentation for the 2011–12 Schools and Staffing Survey (Chambers et al. forthcoming) for details 

about these estimation domains and their precision criteria. 

The data were collected via mailed questionnaires with telephone and in-person field follow-up. The first 

questionnaires were mailed in October 2011, and data collection ended in June 2012. The weighted unit 

response rates varied from 65 percent for private school principals to 81 percent for public school 

districts. For information about response rates, bias analysis results, methodology, and design of the 

2011–12 SASS, please see the technical notes of this report in appendix B or the Survey Documentation 

for the 2011–12 Schools and Staffing Survey (Chambers et al. forthcoming). 

The purpose of this First Look is to introduce new data through the presentation of tables containing 

descriptive information. Selected findings chosen for this report demonstrate the range of information 

available on the 2011–12 SASS Public School Principal and Private School Principal Data Files. The 

selected findings do not represent a complete review of all observed differences in the data and are not 

meant to emphasize any particular issue. This First Look report highlights findings from the SASS public 

and private principal surveys. Findings from the district, school, teacher, and library media center files 

will be presented in four companion First Look reports: 

• Characteristics of Public School Districts in the United States: Results From the 2011–12 

Schools and Staffing Survey (NCES 2013-311);

1 Public schools include traditional public and charter schools.

1 

 
• Characteristics of Public and Private Elementary and Secondary Schools in the United 

States: Results From the 2011–12 Schools and Staffing Survey (NCES 2013-312);

• Characteristics of Public and Private Elementary and Secondary School Teachers in the 

United States: Results From the 2011–12 Schools and Staffing Survey (NCES 2013-314); 

and 

• Characteristics of Public Elementary and Secondary School Library Media Centers in the 

United States: Results From the 2011–12 Schools and Staffing Survey (NCES 2013-315).

The tables in this report contain counts and percentages demonstrating bivariate relationships. All of the 

results have been weighted to reflect the sample design and to account for nonresponse and other 

adjustments. Comparisons drawn in the selected findings have been tested for statistical significance at 

the .05 level using Student’s t statistics to ensure that the differences are larger than those that might be 

expected due to sampling variation. No adjustments were made for multiple comparisons. Many of the 

variables examined are related to one another, and complex interactions and relationships have not been 

explored. Statistical Analysis Software (SAS 9.3) and SUDAAN (10.0) were used to compute the 

statistics for this report. Tables of standard errors are provided in appendix A. Detailed information about 

the survey methodology is provided in appendix B. Appendix C contains a description of the survey data 

files, and appendix D contains a description of the variables used in this report. 

More information about the SASS can be found at http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/sass. 

2 
Selected Findings

• During the 2011–12 school year, there were an estimated 115,540 principals of K–12 schools in the 

United States; 89,810 were public school principals and 25,730 were private school principals 

(table 1). Among public school principals, 80 percent were non-Hispanic White, 10 percent were nonHispanic Black or African American, 7 percent were Hispanic, and 3 percent were another 

race/ethnicity.

2 Among private school principals, 87 percent were non-Hispanic White, 7 percent 

were non-Hispanic Black or African American, 3 percent were Hispanic, and 3 percent were another 

race/ethnicity. 

• The percentage of public school principals who were female was 52 percent overall, 64 percent in 

primary schools, 42 percent in middle schools, 30 percent in high schools, and 40 percent in 

combined schools (table 2). The percentage of private school principals who were female was 

55 percent overall, 75 percent in Catholic schools, 41 percent in other religious schools, and 

62 percent in nonsectarian schools. The average age of public and private school principals was 48 

and 52, respectively. 

• Among public schools, more principals held a master’s degree (62 percent) as their highest degree 

than a bachelor’s degree or less (2 percent), an education specialist/professional diploma3

 (26 percent) 

or a doctorate/first professional degree (10 percent) (table 3). Among private schools, more principals 

held a master’s degree (50 percent) as their highest degree earned, compared to those with a

bachelor’s degree or less (31 percent), an education specialist/professional diploma (10 percent), or a 

doctorate/first professional degree (9 percent). 

• The average annual salary of public school principals was $90,500 (table 4).

4 Principals in public 

high schools earned more ($97,000) than principals in public middle schools ($91,900), public 

primary schools ($89,200) and public combined schools ($80,800). Among private school principals, 

the average annual salary was $65,300. Principals in private secondary schools earned more 

($84,900) than principals in private elementary schools ($60,400) and in private combined schools 

($66,900). 

• On average, public school principals spent 58.1 hours per week on all school-related activities,5

including 22.5 hours per week interacting with students (table 5). Private school principals, on 

average, spent 53.2 hours per week on all school-related activities, including 21.2 hours per week 

interacting with students.

• Public school principals had, on average, 7.2 years of experience as a principal, of which 4.2 years 

were spent in their current school (table 6). Principals in traditional public schools had 7.2 years of 

experience and principals in charter schools had 5.9 years of experience. Private school principals 

had, on average, 10.8 years of experience as a principal, of which 7.4 years were spent in their current 

school. Principals in private Catholic, other religious, and nonsectarian schools had 10.5, 10.1, and 

12.7 years of experience, respectively. 

• Public and private school principals reported having a major influence on decisions concerning 

evaluating teachers (96 and 84 percent, respectively), hiring new full-time teachers (85 and 

86 percent, respectively), and setting discipline policy (80 and 82 percent, respectively) (table 7). 

2 Hispanic includes Latino. Other race/ethnicity includes American Indian/Alaska Native, non-Hispanic; Asian, non-Hispanic; Native Hawaiian 

or Other Pacific Islander, non-Hispanic; and two or more races, non-Hispanic. 3 At least 1 year beyond the master’s level.

4 Principals who reported an annual salary of zero were excluded from the calculation of average salary. 5 Includes hours spent during the school day, before and after school, and on the weekends.

3 

 
References 

Chambers, L., Graham, S., Parmer, R., Stern, S., Strizek, G., and Thomas, T. (forthcoming). Survey 

Documentation for the 2011–12 Schools and Staffing Survey. U.S. Department of Education. Washington, 

DC: National Center for Education Statistics. 

Cochran, W.G. (1977). Sampling Techniques. New York: John Wiley & Sons. 

Goldring, R., Taie, S., Rizzo, L., Colby, D., and Fraser, A. (2013). User’s Manual for the 2011–12 

Schools and Staffing Survey Volumes 1–6. (NCES 2013-330 through 2013-335). U.S. Department of 

Education. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2003). NCES Statistical 

Standards (NCES 2003-601). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 

4 
Estimate Tables

5 
6

Table 1. Total number of school principals and percentage distribution of school principals, by race/ethnicity, school type, and selected school characteristics: 2011–12

School type and selected 

school characteristic

Total number of 

principals

Percent of principals by race/ethnicity

Hispanic, 

regardless 

of race

White, 

non-Hispanic

Black or

African American, 

non-Hispanic Other1

All schools 115,540 6.0 81.8 9.4 2.7

All public schools 89,810 6.8 80.3 10.1 2.8

School classification

Traditional public 85,350 6.6 81.0 9.7 2.7

Charter school 4,460 11.7 65.0 18.3 5.0!

Community type

City 23,440 11.9 63.4 20.8 3.9

Suburban 24,520 7.0 81.5 9.2 2.2

Town 12,330 5.4 86.1 5.4 3.1

Rural 29,520 3.2 90.1 4.4 2.2

School level 

Primary 50,210 7.9 79.4 10.1 2.6

Middle 13,930 5.9 79.7 11.6 2.9

High 18,390 6.0 82.6 8.8 2.6

Combined 7,280 3.5! 81.1 11.2 4.2

Student enrollment

Less than 100 6,600 4.3 83.4 9.1 3.3

100–199 6,480 3.7 85.8 7.4 3.1!

200–499 37,140 6.6 78.9 11.5 3.0

500–749 21,830 6.8 81.1 9.3 2.8

750–999 8,680 9.6 79.8 9.1 1.5

1,000 or more 9,080 9.2 78.0 10.3 2.5

Percent of K–12 students who were

 approved for free or reduced-price

lunches

0–34 26,840 2.6 91.7 3.4 2.3

35–49 14,850 4.1 88.0 6.1 1.8

50–74 23,010 4.8 82.4 10.1 2.7

75 or more 22,020 16.3 57.8 22.0 3.9

School did not participate in free 

or reduced-price lunch program 3,090 4.0 87.7 3.6 4.7!

See notes at end of table. 
7

Table 1. Total number of school principals and percentage distribution of school principals, by race/ethnicity, school type, and selected school characteristics: 

2011–12–Continued

School type and selected 

school characteristic

Total number of 

principals

Percent of principals by race/ethnicity

Hispanic, 

regardless 

of race

White, 

non-Hispanic

Black or

African American, 

non-Hispanic Other1

All private schools 25,730 3.3 87.3 6.8 2.5

School classification

Catholic 6,760 4.3 90.4 3.2 2.1!

Other religious 12,590 2.6 86.2 8.5 2.6

Nonsectarian 6,380 3.7! 86.2 7.2 2.9!

Community type

City 8,590 5.1 79.6 11.0 4.3

Suburban 8,110 3.1 89.0 5.7 2.1!

Town 2,630 ‡ 93.6 5.1! ‡

Rural 6,390 2.1! 92.9 3.3! 1.7!

School level

Elementary 14,510 3.6 86.6 7.0 2.8

Secondary 2,660 4.8 90.3 2.4! ‡

Combined 8,570 2.4! 87.6 7.9 2.1!

Student enrollment

Less than 100 12,740 3.0 83.7 10.1 3.2

100–199 5,060 4.8 87.8 5.1 2.3!

200–499 6,150 3.2! 92.1 2.6! 2.1!

500–749 1,090 ‡ 95.4 ‡ ‡

750 or more 690 ‡ 94.9 ‡ #

# Rounds to zero.

! Interpret data with caution. The coefficient of variation (CV) for this estimate is between 30 percent and 50 percent (i.e., the standard error is at least 30 percent and less than 50 percent of the 

estimate).

‡ Reporting standards not met. The coefficient of variation (CV) for this estimate is 50 percent or greater (i.e., the standard error is 50 percent or more of the estimate).

1 Other includes American Indian/Alaska Native, non-Hispanic; Asian, non-Hispanic; Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, non-Hispanic; and two or more races, non-Hispanic. 

NOTE: Hispanic includes Latino. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS), “Public School Principal and Private School Principal Data Files,” 

2011–12.
8

Table 2. Average and median age of school principals, and percentage distribution of principals, by age category, sex, school type, and selected school characteristics: 

2011–12

School type and selected 

school characteristic

Average age of 

principals

Median age of 

principals

Percent of principals by

Age Sex

Less than 45 

years 45–54 years

55 years or 

more Male Female

All schools 49 48 37.4 31.1 31.6 47.6 52.4

All public schools 48 47 39.7 33.1 27.1 48.4 51.6

School classification

Traditional public 48 47 39.3 33.5 27.2 48.5 51.5

Charter school 46 45 47.9 27.1 25.0 46.5 53.5

Community type

City 48 47 40.4 31.0 28.6 40.5 59.5

Suburban 48 47 40.5 32.2 27.3 45.1 54.9

Town 48 47 39.0 34.9 26.2 51.5 48.5

Rural 48 47 38.9 34.9 26.2 56.0 44.0

School level 

Primary 48 47 39.6 32.2 28.1 36.2 63.8

Middle 47 46 44.4 34.2 21.5 57.7 42.3

High 49 48 36.8 35.5 27.8 69.9 30.1

Combined 48 47 39.1 31.7 29.3 60.4 39.6

Student enrollment

Less than 100 50 50 35.3 31.1 33.6 51.2 48.8

100–199 48 47 35.3 38.0 26.6 56.3 43.7

200–499 48 47 41.1 32.3 26.6 45.9 54.1

500–749 48 47 39.4 34.1 26.5 42.8 57.2

750–999 48 47 41.8 32.0 26.3 46.5 53.5

1,000 or more 48 47 39.4 33.5 27.1 65.9 34.1

Percent of K–12 students who were

 approved for free or reduced-price

lunches

0–34 48 47 41.0 32.9 26.1 52.6 47.4

35–49 48 48 38.7 33.8 27.5 54.0 46.0

50–74 48 47 38.5 34.4 27.1 45.7 54.3

75 or more 48 47 40.9 31.8 27.4 42.1 57.9

School did not participate in free 

or reduced-price lunch program 49 48 35.3 32.5 32.2 50.1 49.9

See notes at end of table.
9

Table 2. Average and median age of school principals, and percentage distribution of principals, by age category, sex, school type, and selected school characteristics: 

2011–12—Continued

School type and selected 

school characteristic

Average age of 

principals

Median age of 

principals

Percent of principals by

Age Sex

Less than 45 

years 45–54 years

55 years or 

more Male Female

All private schools 52 53 29.1 23.7 47.1 44.6 55.4

School classification

Catholic 54 56 17.7 27.1 55.2 25.1 74.9

Other religious 50 50 36.5 22.6 40.9 58.6 41.4

Nonsectarian 53 54 26.6 22.4 51.0 37.7 62.3

Community type

City 53 54 24.6 25.2 50.2 39.1 60.9

Suburban 53 55 22.6 24.7 52.7 37.2 62.8

Town 51 51 28.9 26.6 44.5 37.4 62.6

Rural 48 47 43.6 19.4 37.0 64.6 35.4

School level 

Elementary 52 52 28.5 25.2 46.3 34.9 65.1

Secondary 53 55 23.1 25.5 51.3 57.1 42.9

Combined 51 53 32.0 20.8 47.2 57.3 42.7

Student enrollment

Less than 100 49 49 38.4 21.9 39.6 43.1 56.9

100–199 53 55 20.7 26.2 53.1 38.0 62.0

200–499 54 55 20.3 25.2 54.5 46.0 54.0

500–749 55 57 12.8 27.6 59.7 65.1 34.9

750 or more 54 55 23.6 21.0 55.4 77.4 22.6

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS), “Public School Principal and Private School Principal Data Files,” 

2011–12.
10

Table 3. Percentage distribution of school principals, by highest degree earned, school type, and selected school characteristics: 2011–12

School type and selected 

school characteristic Bachelor’s degree or less Master’s degree

Education specialist or 

professional diploma1

Doctorate or 

first professional degree

All schools 8.6 59.0 22.7 9.7

All public schools 2.2 61.7 26.2 9.9

School classification

Traditional public 1.4 61.8 26.8 10.0

Charter school 16.5 59.2 16.4 8.0

Community type

City 3.6 59.4 24.7 12.3

Suburban 1.2 59.0 26.9 12.9

Town 2.5! 61.4 29.1 7.0

Rural 1.7 65.9 25.8 6.6

School level 

Primary 1.7 62.8 26.1 9.3

Middle 1.8 62.6 26.2 9.4

High 2.3 58.3 27.0 12.4

Combined 5.7 61.1 25.2 8.1

Student enrollment

Less than 100 8.7 59.1 26.0 6.2

100–199 4.8 67.7 23.9 3.7

200–499 1.8 64.0 25.8 8.4

500–749 ‡ 59.6 26.7 12.8

750–999 1.6! 59.3 28.5 10.6

1,000 or more 0.8! 57.3 26.4 15.5

Percent of K–12 students who were

 approved for free or reduced-price

lunches

0–34 0.9 59.1 28.2 11.8

35–49 1.6! 63.8 27.9 6.7

50–74 1.0! 65.1 25.4 8.6

75 or more 4.3 61.2 23.1 11.5

School did not participate in free 

or reduced-price lunch program 10.1 52.9 30.3 6.7

See notes at end of table. 
11

Table 3. Percentage distribution of school principals, by highest degree earned, school type, and selected school characteristics: 2011–12—Continued 

School type and selected 

school characteristic Bachelor’s degree or less Master’s degree

Education specialist or 

professional diploma1

Doctorate or 

first professional degree

All private schools 31.0 49.7 10.1 9.1

School classification

Catholic 7.9 72.5 13.5 6.1

Other religious 46.2 37.0 7.5 9.4

Nonsectarian 25.6 50.9 11.8 11.7

Community type

City 20.9 56.7 10.1 12.3

Suburban 26.3 52.4 11.1 10.2

Town 38.2 47.6 9.5! 4.8!

Rural 47.7 37.8 9.3 5.1

School level 

Elementary 34.8 50.3 9.2 5.7

Secondary 9.1 57.1 15.4 18.3

Combined 31.5 46.6 10.0 11.9

Student enrollment

Less than 100 49.7 34.8 8.5 7.0

100–199 20.0 60.7 10.8 8.5

200–499 8.8 67.3 12.9 11.0

500–749 ‡ 64.0 11.2 20.1

750 or more 7.8! 67.2 8.9! 16.1!

! Interpret data with caution. The coefficient of variation (CV) for this estimate is between 30 percent and 50 percent (i.e., the standard error is at least 30 percent and less than 50 percent 

of the estimate).

‡ Reporting standards not met. The coefficient of variation (CV) for this estimate is 50 percent or greater (i.e., the standard error is 50 percent or more of the estimate).

1 At least 1 year beyond the master’s level.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS), “Public School Principal and Private School Principal Data Files,” 

2011–12.
12

Table 4. Average annual salary for school principals, by years of experience as a principal, school type, and selected school characteristics: 2011–12 

School type and selected 

school characteristic Average annual salary

Average annual salary for principals by years of experience

Less than 3 years 3 to 9 years 10 years or more

All schools $85,400 $78,300 $87,100 $88,300

All public schools 90,500 83,500 90,900 96,000

School classification

Traditional public 91,100 84,000 91,500 96,300

Charter school 80,100 76,800 79,800 86,200

Community type

City 95,900 89,000 97,800 99,200

Suburban 101,600 93,800 101,200 108,900

Town 82,900 78,100 81,500 89,300

Rural 80,200 72,400 80,800 85,800

School level 

Primary 89,200 82,600 89,100 94,800

Middle 91,900 86,100 93,200 95,800

High 97,000 88,500 97,300 103,100

Combined 80,800 74,100 81,200 86,900

Student enrollment

Less than 100 76,200 67,200 77,300 83,900

100–199 77,800 71,800 78,000 83,400

200–499 88,600 83,000 88,500 93,800

500–749 93,000 86,000 92,400 98,800

750–999 96,300 90,200 97,800 100,200

1,000 or more 106,400 97,900 107,000 112,300

Percent of K–12 students who were

 approved for free or reduced-price

lunches

0–34 98,100 89,800 98,100 103,500

35–49 88,800 83,100 88,000 95,300

50–74 84,800 80,300 85,000 88,600

75 or more 89,400 82,700 91,200 93,700

School did not participate in free 

or reduced-price lunch program 83,400 72,900 84,600 92,200

See notes at end of table. 
13

Table 4. Average annual salary for school principals, by years of experience as a principal, school type, and selected school characteristics: 2011–12—Continued

School type and selected 

school characteristic Average annual salary

Average annual salary for principals by years of experience

Less than 3 years 3 to 9 years 10 years or more

All private schools $65,300 $53,100 $64,300 $70,900

School classification

Catholic 63,800 59,300 64,200 65,400

Other religious 52,700 38,800 50,900 60,600

Nonsectarian 88,000 76,800 88,800 90,800

Community type

City 72,500 61,100 71,100 78,200

Suburban 68,000 58,300 67,500 71,700

Town 45,100 40,900 49,400 43,900

Rural 58,000 38,000 55,100 67,600

School level 

Elementary 60,400 52,900 58,300 65,000

Secondary 84,900 70,000 82,100 91,400

Combined 66,900 49,500 68,000 73,700

Student enrollment

Less than 100 47,700 39,900 49,200 50,900

100–199 60,800 54,100 62,100 62,600

200–499 85,000 78,400 81,200 88,700

500–749 100,300 82,200 100,200 103,400

750 or more 121,600 124,100 113,400 126,800

NOTE: Principals who reported an annual salary of zero are excluded from the table.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS), “Public School Principal and Private School Principal Data Files,” 

2011–12.
14

Table 5. Average hours per week that school principals spent on all school-related activities and interacting with students, by school type and selected school 

characteristics: 2011–12 

School type and selected 

school characteristic

Average hours per week1

All school-related activities Interacting with students

All schools 57.0 22.2

All public schools 58.1 22.5

School classification

Traditional public 58.0 22.4

Charter school 59.2 23.2

Community type

City 59.5 23.3

Suburban 58.0 20.8

Town 58.2 23.9

Rural 56.9 22.6

School level 

Primary 57.7 21.1

Middle 58.3 23.1

High 59.8 25.3

Combined 55.7 23.6

Student enrollment

Less than 100 50.4 20.8

100–199 55.1 23.4

200–499 58.2 22.7

500–749 58.7 22.2

750–999 59.8 21.7

1,000 or more 61.8 23.2

Percent of K–12 students who were

 approved for free or reduced-price

lunches

0–34 58.1 20.4

35–49 58.9 23.2

50–74 57.6 23.3

75 or more 58.9 24.1

School did not participate in free 

or reduced-price lunch program 50.8 19.2

See notes at end of table. 
15

Table 5. Average hours per week that school principals spent on all school-related activities and interacting with students, by school type and selected school 

characteristics: 2011–12—Continued

School type and selected 

school characteristic

Average hours per week1

All school-related activities Interacting with students

All private schools 53.2 21.2

School classification

Catholic 56.7 19.6

Other religious 51.8 22.8

Nonsectarian 52.3 19.6

Community type

City 55.1 19.4

Suburban 54.1 21.0

Town 50.9 22.0

Rural 50.5 23.5

School level 

Elementary 53.4 20.8

Secondary 56.1 22.1

Combined 52.0 21.4

Student enrollment

Less than 100 49.6 23.7

100–199 54.9 20.3

200–499 57.8 18.1

500–749 57.7 15.1

750 or more 60.2 16.9 1 Includes hours spent during the school day, before and after school, and on the weekends.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS), “Public School Principal and Private School Principal Data Files,” 

2011–12.
16

Table 6. Average total years of experience as a school principal, average years as a principal at current school, and percentage distribution of principals, by reported

years of experience as a principal at current school, school type, and selected school characteristics: 2011–12

Percent of principals by reported years of experience at current school

School type and selected 

school characteristic

Average total years of 

experience

Average years at 

current school Less than 2 years 2–3 years 4–9 years 10 years or more

All schools 8.0 4.9 30.8 21.6 32.5 15.2

All public schools 7.2 4.2 32.5 22.8 33.5 11.2

School classification

Traditional public 7.2 4.2 32.1 22.7 33.9 11.4

Charter school 5.9 3.3 40.4 24.8 27.2 7.6

Community type

City 6.8 3.9 36.1 22.0 31.9 10.1

Suburban 7.3 4.2 31.2 22.2 36.6 10.0

Town 7.3 4.6 29.8 24.0 31.5 14.6

Rural 7.3 4.3 31.8 23.4 33.2 11.6

School level 

Primary 7.3 4.3 30.5 22.9 35.0 11.6

Middle 6.5 4.0 35.3 21.1 34.0 9.6

High 7.2 4.0 34.1 24.7 30.9 10.3

Combined 7.0 4.2 36.7 20.5 29.3 13.5

Student enrollment

Less than 100 7.3 3.8 41.2 23.1 25.3 10.5

100–199 7.1 4.6 30.9 22.0 34.1 13.0

200–499 7.1 4.3 32.5 23.0 32.6 11.9

500–749 7.4 4.2 30.3 22.3 36.2 11.2

750–999 6.7 4.0 33.2 23.6 32.9 10.3

1,000 or more 7.1 3.9 32.1 22.6 37.2 8.2

Percent of K–12 students who were

 approved for free or reduced-price

lunches

0–34 7.7 4.4 28.5 22.6 37.0 11.8

35–49 7.2 4.3 30.9 22.6 35.1 11.4

50–74 7.2 4.3 32.6 24.4 30.7 12.4

75 or more 6.5 3.7 37.6 21.5 32.1 8.8

School did not participate in free 

or reduced-price lunch program 7.0 4.2 38.3 22.1 26.6 12.9

See notes at end of table. 
17

Table 6. Average total years of experience as a school principal, average years as a principal at current school, and percentage distribution of principals, by reported

years of experience as a principal at current school, school type, and selected school characteristics: 2011–12—Continued 

Percent of principals by reported years of experience at current school

School type and selected 

school characteristic

Average total years of 

experience

Average years at 

current school Less than 2 years 2–3 years 4–9 years 10 years or more

All private schools 10.8 7.4 24.7 17.5 28.8 29.1

School classification

Catholic 10.5 6.3 25.1 20.1 31.5 23.4

Other religious 10.1 6.9 28.2 17.9 26.4 27.6

Nonsectarian 12.7 9.5 17.4 13.8 30.7 38.1

Community type

City 11.0 7.6 22.0 17.7 29.8 30.5

Suburban 11.8 8.2 22.8 15.5 30.8 30.9

Town 10.2 6.4 28.0 17.8 29.2 25.0

Rural 9.7 6.5 29.4 19.5 24.6 26.5

School level 

Elementary 10.6 7.0 26.4 19.1 29.1 25.4

Secondary 11.0 7.6 22.8 13.4 ! 32.2 31.6

Combined 11.2 8.0 22.4 16.0 27.2 34.5

Student enrollment

Less than 100 9.9 7.4 27.1 18.1 26.3 28.5

100–199 10.5 6.5 23.7 18.7 31.6 26.1

200–499 12.3 7.6 22.9 15.1 31.5 30.5

500–749 13.7 9.2 20.0 13.5 28.6 37.8

750 or more 13.4 8.2 10.7! 23.8 29.7 35.8

! Interpret data with caution. The coefficient of variation (CV) for this estimate is between 30 percent and 50 percent (i.e., the standard error is at least 30 percent and less than 50 percent of the 

estimate).

NOTE: Years of experience do not include the current school year. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS), “Public School Principal and Private School Principal Data Files,” 

2011–12.
18

Table 7. Percentage of school principals who thought they had a major influence on decisions concerning various activities at their school, by school type and selected 

school characteristics: 2011–12

School type and selected 

school characteristic

Setting 

performance 

standards for 

students

Establishing 

curriculum

Determining the 

content of 

in-service 

professional 

development 

programs 

for teachers

Evaluating 

teachers 

Hiring new 

full-time 

teachers

Setting 

discipline 

policy

Deciding how 

their school

budget will be 

spent

All schools 75.2 49.2 71.6 93.5 85.3 80.3 64.0

All public schools 73.6 43.2 69.8 96.2 85.1 79.8 64.1

School classification

Traditional public 72.9 42.1 69.3 96.4 84.9 79.7 64.7

Charter school 87.0 64.2 77.7 92.8 88.6 81.1 53.2

Community type

City 77.3 38.9 73.6 95.7 82.0 78.8 69.1

Suburban 71.7 36.2 66.8 95.3 83.3 80.5 64.5

Town 71.9 47.2 68.0 96.3 88.1 80.6 64.2

Rural 73.1 50.6 69.9 97.4 87.8 79.6 59.9

School level 

Primary 73.1 39.5 69.7 96.6 83.5 81.1 66.8

Middle 76.3 39.7 68.7 96.8 88.8 80.6 66.3

High 73.3 49.3 69.8 95.5 87.5 77.6 60.7

Combined 72.9 59.1 72.3 94.1 83.0 74.7 50.3

Student enrollment

Less than 100 69.4 56.4 65.7 94.1 79.9 74.9 60.6

100–199 76.7 59.7 71.7 96.3 91.4 84.0 57.8

200–499 74.6 43.0 68.6 97.3 84.9 80.5 63.5

500–749 72.6 36.7 70.5 96.0 83.2 79.8 64.1

750–999 75.1 40.3 73.0 95.8 87.1 80.8 70.1

1,000 or more 71.6 40.6 70.9 94.3 87.8 76.6 68.1

Percent of K–12 students who were

 approved for free or reduced-price

lunches

0–34 72.6 40.4 70.7 96.7 87.0 81.2 64.5

35–49 70.6 41.3 69.4 96.8 87.4 80.1 63.1

50–74 73.2 43.2 69.6 96.6 87.2 79.8 64.1

75 or more 76.8 46.2 68.4 95.0 78.7 79.0 63.2

School did not participate in free 

or reduced-price lunch program 78.5 54.7 74.7 95.8 88.0 71.4 72.5

See notes at end of table. 
19

Table 7. Percentage of school principals who thought they had a major influence on decisions concerning various activities at their school, by school type and selected 

school characteristics: 2011–12—Continued

School type and selected 

school characteristic

Setting 

performance 

standards for 

students

Establishing 

curriculum

Determining the 

content of 

in-service 

professional 

development 

programs 

for teachers

Evaluating 

teachers 

Hiring new 

full-time 

teachers

Setting 

discipline 

policy

Deciding how 

their school

budget will be 

spent

All private schools 80.6 70.4 78.5 83.7 85.8 81.9 63.4

School classification

Catholic 86.2 70.2 84.6 94.3 97.6 90.6 67.1

Other religious 75.5 68.7 73.5 77.5 76.1 77.5 55.3

Nonsectarian 84.9 73.8 81.0 84.4 91.8 81.2 75.0

Community type

City 88.0 76.5 79.6 87.7 89.9 85.4 65.4

Suburban 86.8 75.3 84.3 88.5 91.2 88.9 65.8

Town 77.7 68.4 73.9 85.2 88.2 82.0 66.8

Rural 64.2 56.6 70.2 70.8 71.6 68.0 56.1

School level 

Elementary 77.5 65.8 77.5 84.6 85.8 82.5 61.8

Secondary 87.8 75.8 77.1 84.2 92.3 82.9 71.2

Combined 83.7 76.4 80.7 82.1 83.8 80.5 63.6

Student enrollment

Less than 100 73.3 66.6 72.6 80.1 78.4 76.8 58.5

100–199 85.2 71.8 80.7 91.8 91.2 89.1 64.1

200–499 88.7 74.6 86.0 86.2 94.9 85.9 72.7

500–749 91.5 76.6 86.1 80.2 93.4 91.2 63.7

750 or more 93.0 81.8 82.0 72.6 86.7 70.8 62.1

NOTE: Response options included “no influence,” “minor influence,” “moderate influence,” “major influence,” and “not applicable.” Principals who reported “not applicable” are excluded from the 

table.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS), “Public School Principal and Private School Principal Data Files,” 

2011–12.
Appendix A: Standard Error Tables

A-1 
A-2

Table A-1. Standard errors for Table 1: Total number of school principals and percentage distribution of school principals, by race/ethnicity, school type, and selected 

school characteristics: 2011–12

School type and selected 

school characteristic

Total number of 

principals

Percent of principals by race/ethnicity

Hispanic, 

regardless 

of race

White, 

non-Hispanic

Black or

African American, 

non-Hispanic Other

All schools 789 0.39 0.56 0.35 0.26

All public schools 406 0.46 0.66 0.43 0.29

School classification

Traditional public 306 0.46 0.66 0.42 0.30

Charter school 214 3.02 3.11 2.66 1.71

Community type

City 274 1.30 1.77 1.36 0.75

Suburban 356 0.75 1.23 0.92 0.50

Town 341 1.13 1.27 0.79 0.77

Rural 430 0.44 0.67 0.46 0.33

School level 

Primary 417 0.72 0.96 0.67 0.44

Middle 177 0.57 1.08 0.85 0.46

High 477 0.61 0.92 0.70 0.44

Combined 631 1.70 1.91 1.18 0.97

Student enrollment

Less than 100 402 0.92 1.73 1.51 0.97

100–199 355 1.07 2.08 1.44 1.11

200–499 682 0.78 1.12 0.82 0.55

500–749 599 0.94 1.19 0.95 0.49

750–999 446 1.51 1.75 1.19 0.41

1,000 or more 352 1.27 1.80 1.07 0.52

Percent of K–12 students who were

 approved for free or reduced-price

lunches

0–34 649 0.44 0.72 0.42 0.40

35–49 554 0.90 1.38 0.92 0.41

50–74 541 0.84 1.31 1.07 0.56

75 or more 643 1.56 1.85 1.40 0.78

School did not participate in free 

or reduced-price lunch program 259 1.11 2.45 0.97 1.65

See notes at end of table. 
A-3

Table A-1. Standard errors for Table 1: Total number of school principals and percentage distribution of school principals, by race/ethnicity, school type, and selected 

school characteristics: 2011–12—Continued

School type and selected 

school characteristic

Total number of 

principals

Percent of principals by race/ethnicity

Hispanic, 

regardless 

of race

White, 

non-Hispanic

Black or

African American, 

non-Hispanic Other

All private schools 605 0.56 1.08 0.75 0.50

School classification

Catholic 39 1.08 1.60 0.93 0.82

Other religious 605 0.71 1.51 1.12 0.72

Nonsectarian 72 1.25 2.15 1.46 1.04

Community type

City 267 1.16 2.04 1.42 1.08

Suburban 298 0.92 1.69 1.11 0.71

Town 323 † 2.86 2.54 †

Rural 510 0.90 1.45 1.16 0.71

School level 

Elementary 505 0.70 1.28 0.88 0.66

Secondary 138 1.40 2.14 1.20 †

Combined 210 0.83 1.94 1.57 0.80

Student enrollment

Less than 100 575 0.80 1.71 1.27 0.82

100–199 277 1.34 1.83 1.21 1.07

200–499 241 0.99 1.43 0.84 0.78

500–749 118 † 1.89 † †

750 or more 75 † 2.75 † †

† Not applicable.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS), “Public School Principal and Private School Principal Data Files,” 

2011–12.
A-4

Table A-2. Standard errors for Table 2: Average and median age of school principals, and percentage distribution of principals, by age category, sex, school type, and 

selected school characteristics: 2011–12

School type and selected 

school characteristic

Average age of 

principals

Median age of 

principals

Percent of principals by

Age Sex

Less than 45 

years 45–54 years

55 years or 

more Male Female

All schools 0.1 0.2 0.67 0.71 0.63 0.81 0.81

All public schools 0.1 0.2 0.79 0.89 0.74 0.92 0.92

School classification

Traditional public 0.1 0.2 0.80 0.87 0.77 0.89 0.89

Charter school 0.6 0.8 3.79 4.52 2.59 4.78 4.78

Community type

City 0.3 0.5 1.90 2.09 1.88 1.97 1.97

Suburban 0.3 0.5 1.63 1.61 1.63 1.77 1.77

Town 0.3 0.5 1.96 1.89 1.70 1.92 1.92

Rural 0.2 0.4 1.28 1.19 1.09 1.21 1.21

School level 

Primary 0.2 0.4 1.30 1.33 1.23 1.33 1.33

Middle 0.2 0.4 1.34 1.45 1.18 1.35 1.35

High 0.2 0.4 1.18 1.28 1.32 1.29 1.29

Combined 0.5 1.0 2.56 2.72 1.94 2.98 2.98

Student enrollment

Less than 100 0.7 1.2 3.37 2.94 3.19 3.26 3.26

100–199 0.5 1.0 3.08 3.31 2.55 3.06 3.06

200–499 0.2 0.4 1.39 1.43 1.13 1.35 1.35

500–749 0.3 0.4 1.56 1.76 1.53 1.64 1.64

750–999 0.4 0.8 2.32 1.83 2.10 2.55 2.55

1,000 or more 0.3 0.5 1.70 1.72 1.45 1.55 1.55

Percent of K–12 students who were

 approved for free or reduced-price

lunches

0–34 0.2 0.4 1.39 1.45 1.15 1.50 1.50

35–49 0.3 0.6 1.61 1.68 1.30 1.80 1.80

50–74 0.3 0.4 1.43 1.48 1.46 1.64 1.64

75 or more 0.3 0.6 1.85 1.81 1.60 1.98 1.98

School did not participate in free 

or reduced-price lunch program 0.9 1.5 5.96 6.68 3.66 5.81 5.81

See notes at end of table. 
A-5

Table A-2. Standard errors for Table 2: Average and median age of school principals, and percentage distribution of principals, by age category, sex, school type, and 

selected school characteristics: 2011–12—Continued

School type and selected 

school characteristic

Average age of 

principals

Median age of 

principals

Percent of principals by

Age Sex

Less than 45 

years 45–54 years

55 years or 

more Male Female

All private schools 0.4 0.6 1.60 1.36 1.66 1.48 1.48

School classification

Catholic 0.5 0.7 1.85 2.58 2.57 2.14 2.14

Other religious 0.6 0.9 2.55 2.06 2.37 2.41 2.41

Nonsectarian 0.8 0.9 2.50 2.01 3.11 2.67 2.67

Community type

City 0.5 0.8 2.23 2.22 2.35 2.31 2.31

Suburban 0.6 0.7 2.30 2.26 2.65 2.48 2.48

Town 1.1 2.0 5.32 4.73 5.55 4.81 4.81

Rural 1.1 2.0 4.95 2.89 4.36 3.29 3.29

School level 

Elementary 0.6 0.9 2.26 1.75 2.13 2.42 2.42

Secondary 0.7 1.5 4.23 4.04 4.10 4.17 4.17

Combined 0.6 0.9 2.69 2.08 2.66 2.78 2.78

Student enrollment

Less than 100 0.7 1.1 2.94 2.02 2.81 2.39 2.39

100–199 0.6 0.7 2.31 2.86 3.11 2.73 2.73

200–499 0.6 0.7 2.44 2.32 2.79 2.55 2.55

500–749 0.8 1.4 3.80 4.56 5.01 4.75 4.75

750 or more 1.2 1.7 5.27 5.38 6.26 5.55 5.55

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS), “Public School Principal and Private School Principal Data Files,” 

2011–12.
A-6

Table A-3. Standard errors for Table 3: Percentage distribution of school principals, by highest degree earned, school type, and selected school characteristics: 

2011–12

School type and selected 

school characteristic Bachelor’s degree or less Master’s degree

Education specialist or 

professional diploma

Doctorate or 

first professional degree

All schools 0.52 0.63 0.45 0.44

All public schools 0.30 0.71 0.54 0.49

School classification

Traditional public 0.24 0.71 0.57 0.51

Charter school 3.26 3.65 2.79 1.85

Community type

City 0.76 1.76 1.42 1.15

Suburban 0.27 1.42 1.15 0.99

Town 0.79 1.94 1.74 0.81

Rural 0.33 0.99 0.91 0.66

School level 

Primary 0.35 1.08 0.81 0.82

Middle 0.45 1.18 1.06 0.77

High 0.45 1.25 1.15 0.88

Combined 1.58 2.40 2.28 1.58

Student enrollment

Less than 100 1.87 2.62 2.02 1.22

100–199 1.09 2.68 2.42 0.77

200–499 0.41 1.14 1.07 0.77

500–749 † 1.59 1.35 1.17

750–999 0.71 2.38 2.14 1.54

1,000 or more 0.26 1.80 1.44 1.23

Percent of K–12 students who were

 approved for free or reduced-price

lunches

0–34 0.23 1.23 1.13 0.92

35–49 0.62 1.84 1.80 0.69

50–74 0.33 1.28 1.18 0.85

75 or more 0.87 1.88 1.28 1.10

School did not participate in free 

or reduced-price lunch program 2.98 5.14 4.22 1.31

See notes at end of table. 
A-7

Table A-3. Standard errors for Table 3: Percentage distribution of school principals, by highest degree earned, school type, and selected school characteristics: 

2011–12—Continued

School type and selected 

school characteristic Bachelor’s degree or less Master’s degree

Education specialist or 

professional diploma

Doctorate or 

first professional degree

All private schools 1.73 1.49 0.80 0.87

School classification

Catholic 1.71 2.45 1.67 1.11

Other religious 2.75 2.08 1.18 1.47

Nonsectarian 2.43 3.04 1.72 1.55

Community type

City 2.16 2.60 1.39 2.05

Suburban 2.27 2.20 1.34 1.94

Town 5.31 5.43 3.17 2.19

Rural 3.97 3.29 1.77 1.18

School level 

Elementary 2.23 1.92 1.06 0.80

Secondary 2.19 4.60 2.71 4.83

Combined 2.43 2.33 1.65 1.42

Student enrollment

Less than 100 2.70 2.27 1.25 1.44

100–199 2.61 3.04 2.10 1.45

200–499 1.70 2.94 1.68 2.45

500–749 † 4.86 3.05 4.79

750 or more 3.14 5.71 3.47 5.08

† Not applicable.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS), “Public School Principal and Private School Principal Data Files,” 

2011–12.
A-8

Table A-4. Standard errors for Table 4: Average annual salary for school principals, by years of experience as a principal, school type, and selected school 

characteristics: 2011–12 

School type and selected 

school characteristic Average annual salary

Average annual salary for principals by years of experience

Less than 3 years 3 to 9 years 10 years or more

All schools 330 870 570 770

All public schools 250 790 440 690

School classification

Traditional public 230 720 470 720

Charter school 2,220 4,140 2,380 3,520

Community type

City 570 1,640 850 1,450

Suburban 460 1,080 820 1,180

Town 550 1,670 690 1,170

Rural 360 810 660 940

School level 

Primary 370 940 660 1,150

Middle 420 880 610 1,170

High 680 1,220 990 1,170

Combined 1,470 3,590 1,600 1,400

Student enrollment

Less than 100 1,240 2,430 1,730 2,870

100–199 1,170 2,780 1,290 3,070

200–499 360 1,010 680 1,060

500–749 640 1,330 860 1,190

750–999 870 2,170 1,380 1,440

1,000 or more 590 1,380 970 1,430

Percent of K–12 students who were

 approved for free or reduced-price

lunches

0–34 490 1,080 740 1,110

35–49 640 1,490 1,020 1,080

50–74 640 1,390 830 1,380

75 or more 700 1,720 960 1,540

School did not participate in free 

or reduced-price lunch program 2,360 3,740 3,760 4,820

See notes at end of table. 
A-9

Table A-4. Standard errors for Table 4: Average annual salary for school principals, by years of experience as a principal, school type, and selected school 

characteristics: 2011–12—Continued

School type and selected 

school characteristic Average annual salary

Average annual salary for principals by years of experience

Less than 3 years 3 to 9 years 10 years or more

All private schools 1,160 2,470 2,890 1,770

School classification

Catholic 920 1,720 1,960 1,670

Other religious 2,010 2,390 5,330 3,440

Nonsectarian 2,780 6,860 5,610 4,310

Community type

City 2,090 3,510 3,520 4,140

Suburban 2,450 3,380 6,570 2,450

Town 2,290 5,810 3,770 3,850

Rural 2,710 3,880 6,640 4,420

School level 

Elementary 1,160 2,480 1,840 1,900

Secondary 6,940 5,840 15,060 8,840

Combined 2,290 5,180 5,140 3,470

Student enrollment

Less than 100 1,070 2,430 2,250 1,760

100–199 1,570 3,370 2,550 2,590

200–499 3,230 4,840 9,670 5,080

500–749 6,360 5,550 16,890 7,540

750 or more 7,750 20,970 15,810 12,450

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS), “Public School Principal and Private School Principal Data Files,” 

2011–12.
A-10

Table A-5. Standard errors for Table 5: Average hours per week that school principals spent on all school-related activities and interacting with students, by school type 

and selected school characteristics: 2011–12 

School type and selected 

school characteristic

Average hours per week

All school-related activities Interacting with students

All schools 0.20 0.20

All public schools 0.23 0.23

School classification

Traditional public 0.23 0.22

Charter school 1.28 1.22

Community type

City 0.63 0.52

Suburban 0.34 0.41

Town 0.54 0.63

Rural 0.32 0.33

School level 

Primary 0.34 0.33

Middle 0.29 0.38

High 0.41 0.46

Combined 0.88 0.99

Student enrollment

Less than 100 0.89 0.95

100–199 0.87 0.75

200–499 0.42 0.39

500–749 0.42 0.44

750–999 0.51 0.58

1,000 or more 0.39 0.54

Percent of K–12 students who were

 approved for free or reduced-price

lunches

0–34 0.33 0.32

35–49 0.48 0.56

50–74 0.36 0.42

75 or more 0.56 0.61

School did not participate in free 

or reduced-price lunch program 1.97 1.78

See notes at end of table. 
A-11

Table A-5. Standard errors for Table 5: Average hours per week that school principals spent on all school-related activities and interacting with students, by school type 

and selected school characteristics: 2011–12—Continued 

School type and selected 

school characteristic

Average hours per week

All school-related activities Interacting with students

All private schools 0.51 0.43

School classification

Catholic 0.49 0.69

Other religious 0.85 0.66

Nonsectarian 0.84 0.87

Community type

City 0.49 0.59

Suburban 0.66 0.73

Town 1.45 1.63

Rural 1.40 1.28

School level 

Elementary 0.64 0.56

Secondary 0.95 1.36

Combined 0.80 0.70

Student enrollment

Less than 100 0.88 0.73

100–199 0.68 0.92

200–499 0.56 0.61

500–749 1.24 1.53

750 or more 1.93 1.69

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS), “Public School Principal and Private School Principal Data Files,” 

2011–12.
A-12

Table A-6. Standard errors for Table 6: Average total years of experience as a school principal, average years as a principal at current school, and percentage distribution 

of principals, by reported years of experience as a principal at current school, school type, and selected school characteristics: 2011–12

Percent of principals by reported years of experience at current school

School type and selected 

school characteristic

Average total years 

of experience

Average years at 

current school Less than 2 years 2–3 years 4–9 years 10 years or more

All schools 0.09 0.07 0.72 0.51 0.71 0.52

All public schools 0.09 0.07 0.78 0.59 0.76 0.54

School classification

Traditional public 0.09 0.07 0.84 0.60 0.80 0.55

Charter school 0.39 0.27 4.98 4.11 2.66 1.93

Community type

City 0.21 0.15 1.79 1.54 1.59 1.17

Suburban 0.21 0.14 1.73 1.21 1.51 0.86

Town 0.24 0.16 2.11 1.87 1.71 1.25

Rural 0.15 0.12 1.25 1.04 1.24 0.86

School level 

Primary 0.15 0.11 1.22 0.93 1.27 0.84

Middle 0.15 0.10 1.21 1.02 1.33 0.75

High 0.18 0.11 1.27 1.00 0.96 0.80

Combined 0.29 0.21 2.78 2.57 2.25 1.56

Student enrollment

Less than 100 0.46 0.27 2.89 2.12 2.49 1.66

100–199 0.44 0.38 2.64 2.73 3.17 2.21

200–499 0.17 0.13 1.48 1.13 1.31 0.92

500–749 0.20 0.12 1.55 1.37 1.68 1.02

750–999 0.26 0.18 2.34 1.93 2.06 1.30

1,000 or more 0.19 0.12 1.59 1.54 1.75 0.85

Percent of K–12 students who were

 approved for free or reduced-price

lunches

0–34 0.18 0.12 1.31 1.14 1.32 0.92

35–49 0.21 0.15 1.89 1.39 1.88 1.14

50–74 0.21 0.17 1.68 1.31 1.55 1.08

75 or more 0.20 0.13 1.48 1.23 1.55 1.04

School did not participate in free 

or reduced-price lunch program 0.58 0.40 5.79 5.04 4.48 2.62

See notes at end of table. 
A-13

Table A-6. Standard errors for Table 6: Average total years of experience as a school principal, average years as a principal at current school, and percentage distribution 

of principals, by reported years of experience as a principal at current school, school type, and selected school characteristics: 2011–12—Continued

Percent of principals by reported years of experience at current school

School type and selected 

school characteristic

Average total years 

of experience

Average years at 

current school Less than 2 years 2–3 years 4–9 years 10 years or more

All private schools 0.31 0.25 1.41 1.38 1.53 1.57

School classification

Catholic 0.47 0.36 2.30 2.26 2.30 2.56

Other religious 0.47 0.40 2.29 2.03 2.20 2.34

Nonsectarian 0.64 0.53 2.04 1.78 2.65 2.68

Community type

City 0.53 0.43 1.66 1.80 2.61 2.59

Suburban 0.49 0.39 2.00 1.95 2.49 2.12

Town 1.00 0.73 5.21 4.08 5.38 4.63

Rural 0.76 0.62 4.31 3.70 3.19 3.46

School level 

Elementary 0.39 0.33 1.81 2.06 1.96 2.08

Secondary 0.89 0.55 3.43 4.31 4.25 4.26

Combined 0.57 0.47 2.24 1.86 2.09 2.71

Student enrollment

Less than 100 0.50 0.43 2.52 2.21 2.38 2.41

100–199 0.49 0.42 2.63 2.53 2.96 3.09

200–499 0.59 0.42 2.13 2.52 3.13 2.56

500–749 0.96 0.92 4.49 3.56 5.61 5.63

750 or more 1.25 0.98 4.79 5.43 5.93 6.21

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS), “Public School Principal and Private School Principal Data Files,” 

2011–12.
A-14

Table A-7. Standard errors for Table 7: Percentage of school principals who thought they had a major influence on decisions concerning various activities at their school, 

by school type and selected school characteristics: 2011–12

School type and selected 

school characteristic

Setting 

performance 

standards for 

students

Establishing 

curriculum

Determining the 

content of 

in-service 

professional 

development 

programs 

for teachers

Evaluating 

teachers 

Hiring new 

full-time 

teachers

Setting 

discipline 

policy

Deciding how 

their school

budget will be 

spent

All schools 0.69 0.69 0.78 0.40 0.59 0.63 0.68

All public schools 0.74 0.83 0.79 0.26 0.53 0.66 0.75

School classification

Traditional public 0.76 0.79 0.76 0.24 0.54 0.68 0.75

Charter school 2.59 4.61 4.69 1.91 3.86 2.95 6.72

Community type

City 1.59 1.85 1.63 0.62 1.15 1.52 1.71

Suburban 1.63 1.71 1.29 0.65 1.13 1.22 1.49

Town 1.74 1.80 2.24 0.88 1.93 1.59 1.87

Rural 1.08 1.39 1.31 0.39 0.99 1.02 1.12

School level 

Primary 1.15 1.24 1.15 0.40 0.76 0.95 1.23

Middle 1.07 1.37 1.28 0.52 0.94 0.93 1.47

High 1.16 1.36 1.11 0.51 0.79 1.08 0.98

Combined 2.67 2.72 3.12 1.58 2.62 2.92 4.29

Student enrollment

Less than 100 2.66 3.08 2.78 1.79 2.63 2.57 2.71

100–199 2.14 3.00 2.71 0.99 1.18 2.00 3.02

200–499 1.10 1.22 1.16 0.36 0.98 1.03 1.19

500–749 1.58 1.55 1.68 0.69 1.24 1.41 1.70

750–999 1.95 2.42 2.12 0.92 1.81 1.69 2.60

1,000 or more 1.51 1.81 1.78 0.71 1.17 1.55 1.48

Percent of K–12 students who were

 approved for free or reduced-price

lunches

0–34 1.37 1.33 1.11 0.46 0.90 0.96 1.27

35–49 1.90 1.98 1.76 0.54 1.42 1.78 1.62

50–74 1.34 1.68 1.43 0.61 1.02 1.20 1.48

75 or more 1.51 1.81 1.47 0.83 1.48 1.47 1.51

School did not participate in free 

or reduced-price lunch program 2.80 6.28 4.68 1.39 5.59 4.87 4.60

See notes at end of table. 
A-15

Table A-7. Standard errors for Table 7: Percentage of school principals who thought they had a major influence on decisions concerning various activities at their school, 

by school type and selected school characteristics: 2011–12—Continued

School type and selected 

school characteristic

Setting 

performance 

standards for 

students

Establishing 

curriculum

Determining the 

content of 

in-service 

professional 

development 

programs 

for teachers

Evaluating 

teachers 

Hiring new 

full-time 

teachers

Setting 

discipline 

policy

Deciding how 

their school

budget will be 

spent

All private schools 1.50 1.71 1.52 1.44 1.55 1.33 1.49

School classification

Catholic 1.91 2.55 1.94 1.08 0.87 1.45 2.34

Other religious 2.67 2.79 2.59 2.64 2.78 2.43 2.45

Nonsectarian 1.86 2.83 1.99 2.01 1.68 2.34 2.46

Community type

City 1.54 2.04 2.28 2.10 1.71 1.62 2.04

Suburban 1.39 1.73 1.62 1.35 1.29 1.46 2.39

Town 4.31 5.61 5.22 3.50 3.50 3.68 4.48

Rural 4.22 3.95 4.09 3.71 4.21 3.26 4.04

School level 

Elementary 2.27 2.24 2.07 2.01 2.04 1.79 2.13

Secondary 2.24 3.92 3.91 4.47 3.34 3.95 3.30

Combined 2.21 2.58 2.47 1.91 2.26 2.24 2.47

Student enrollment

Less than 100 2.58 2.60 2.52 2.34 2.59 2.36 2.71

100–199 2.05 2.43 2.82 1.49 1.44 1.98 2.75

200–499 1.63 2.64 2.33 2.62 1.61 2.38 2.47

500–749 2.88 4.40 3.72 4.14 2.53 3.43 4.70

750 or more 3.52 4.22 4.75 4.98 4.50 6.22 5.95

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS), “Public School Principal and Private School Principal Data Files,” 

2011–12.
Appendix B: Methodology and Technical Notes

B-1 
Overview of the Schools and Staffing Survey

The Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS) is sponsored by the National Center for Education Statistics 

(NCES) of the Institute of Education Sciences within the U.S. Department of Education and is conducted 

by the U.S. Census Bureau. SASS is a nationally representative sample survey of public and private K–12 

schools, principals, and teachers in the 50 states and the District of Columbia. School districts associated 

with public schools and library media centers in public schools are also part of SASS. SASS has been 

conducted seven times: in school years 1987–88, 1990–91, 1993–94, 1999–2000, 2003–04, 2007–08, and 

2011–12. 

The 2011–12 SASS consisted of questionnaires for five types of respondents: school districts (public), 

schools (public and private), principals (public and private), teachers (public and private), and school 

library media centers (public). Modified versions of the public school principal, public school, and public 

school teacher questionnaires that incorporated wording and questions appropriate for private school 

settings were sent to private schools. Charter schools and schools in single-school districts received a 

modified public school questionnaire that included both district and school items. 

For public schools, information can be linked across teachers and their principals, schools, library media 

centers, and districts. For private schools, information can be linked across teachers and their principals 

and schools. For the content of the questionnaires, see http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/sass/questionnaire.asp. 

Appendix C of this report provides information about how the SASS data files used to produce this report 

were created.

SASS was designed to produce national, regional, and state estimates for public elementary and 

secondary schools, school districts, principals, teachers, and school library media centers; and national 

and regional estimates for public charter schools, as well as principals, teachers, and school library media 

centers within these schools. For private schools, the sample supports national, regional, and affiliation 

strata estimates for schools, principals, and teachers. Comparisons between public and private schools and 

their principals and teachers are possible only at the regional and national levels, because private schools 

were selected for sampling by affiliation strata and region rather than by state. 

The teacher survey was designed to support comparisons between new and experienced teachers (3 years 

or less of experience vs. more than 3 years of experience) at the state level for public school teachers and 

at the regional or affiliation strata level for private school teachers. 

This appendix includes information on all components of SASS. For additional information on the 

specific SASS-related topics discussed in this appendix, consult the Survey Documentation for the 

2011–12 Schools and Staffing Survey (Chambers et al. forthcoming) or the User’s Manual for the 

2011–12 Schools and Staffing Survey Volumes 1–6 (Goldring et al. 2013). To access additional 

general information on SASS or for electronic copies of the questionnaires, go to the SASS home 

page (http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/sass).

Sampling Frames and Sample Selection

Public schools. The starting point for the 2011–12 SASS public school sampling frame was the 

preliminary 2009–10 Common Core of Data (CCD) Nonfiscal School Universe data file.1 The sampling 

frame was adjusted from the CCD in order to fit the definition of a school eligible for SASS. To be 

eligible for SASS, a school was defined as an institution or part of an institution that provides classroom 

1 For more information about the CCD, see http://nces.ed.gov/ccd/. 

B-2 

 
instruction to students, has one or more teachers to provide instruction, serves students in one or more of 

grades 1–12 or the ungraded equivalent, and is located in one or more buildings apart from a private 

home. It was possible for two or more schools to share the same building; in that case, they were treated 

as different schools if they had different administrators (i.e., principal or school head). 

The SASS 2011–12 universe of schools is confined to the 50 states plus the District of Columbia and 

excludes the other jurisdictions, Department of Defense overseas schools, Bureau of Indian Education 

schools, and CCD schools that do not offer teacher-provided classroom instruction in grades 1–12 or the 

ungraded equivalent. This last group includes schools that are essentially administrative units that may 

oversee entities that provide classroom instruction or may only provide funding and oversight. 

The SASS definition of a school is generally similar to the CCD definition, with some exceptions. 

Because SASS allows schools to define themselves, Census Bureau staff observed that schools generally 

report as one entity in situations where the administration of two or more schools reported separately on 

CCD is the same. Thus, CCD schools with the same location, address, and phone number were collapsed 

during the SASS frame building on the assumption that the respondent would consider them to be one 

school. A set of rules was applied in certain states to determine in which instances school records should 

be collapsed together. When school records were collapsed together, the student and teacher counts, grade 

ranges, and names as reported to CCD were all modified to reflect the change.

Finally, additional school records were added to the sampling frame. Most of these records were for 

alternative, special education, or juvenile justice facilities in California, Pennsylvania, and New York.2

For a detailed list of frame modifications, see the Survey Documentation for the 2011–12 Schools and 

Staffing Survey (Chambers et al. forthcoming). After deleting, collapsing, and adding school records, the 

SASS public school sampling frame consisted of about 90,530 traditional public schools and 5,080 public 

charter schools.

SASS uses a stratified, probability proportionate to size (PPS) sample (for an explanation of PPS 

sampling, see Cochran, 1977). The first level of stratification was school type: (1) schools in a subset of 

the states where counties are the school districts (Florida, Maryland, Nevada, and West Virginia) so that 

each of these districts had school(s) selected; (2) public charter schools; and (3) all other traditional public 

schools. The second-level stratification was state and school district for type 1 schools, and states or 

groups of states for type 2 and 3 schools. Each of the school types was then stratified by grade level 

(elementary, secondary, and combined for public charter schools; primary, middle, high, and combined 

for traditional public schools). Within each stratum, schools were sorted prior to sampling by state, 

community type (12 categories), collapsed ZIP code, percent free or reduced-price lunch (2 categories), 

highest grade in the school, percent minority enrollment (4 categories), and enrollment. The measure of 

size used for the schools was the square root of the number of full-time-equivalent teachers reported or 

imputed for each school during sampling frame development. If a school’s measure of size was greater 

than the sampling interval, the school was included in the sample with certainty. Each stratum was 

assigned a sample size to meet the defined precision goals of the survey. For example, for public primary 

schools, the goal was 15 percent or lower for coefficient of variation (CV) for national, regional, and state 

estimates for key characteristics. These sampling procedures resulted in a total public school sample of 

about 10,250 traditional public schools and 750 public charter schools. 

Private schools. The 2011–12 SASS private school frame was based on the 2009–10 Private School 

Universe Survey (PSS) as updated for the 2011–12 PSS.3

 That update is conducted prior to each 

2 In the 2007–08 SASS, records for Career Technical Centers (CTCs) were added to the frame because they were believed to be underrepresented 

in CCD. In 2011–12 SASS, special handling of CTCs was not deemed necessary. However, CTCs listed in CCD that met the SASS eligibility 

criteria were included on the SASS sampling frame.

3 For more information about the PSS, see http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/pss. 

B-3 

 
administration of PSS by collecting membership lists from private school associations and religious 

denominations, as well as private school lists from state education departments. The 2011–12 SASS 

private school frame was further augmented by the inclusion of additional schools that were identified 

through the 2009–10 PSS area frame data collection; these area frame schools were included in the SASS 

sample survey with certainty. Schools with kindergarten as the highest grade level were deleted from the 

frame to fit the SASS definition. After these changes, the private school sampling frame consisted of 

about 28,490 private schools.

Private schools were stratified by affiliation strata, grade level (elementary, secondary, and combined), 

and Census region (Northeast, Midwest, South, and West). The 11 affiliation strata included 3 strata for 

Catholic (parochial, diocesan, and private); Baptist; Jewish; Lutheran; Seventh-day Adventist; other 

religious; and 3 strata for nonsectarian (regular, special emphasis, and special education). Within each 

stratum, private schools in the list frame were sorted prior to sampling by: state, highest grade in the 

school, community type (12 categories), ZIP code, and enrollment. The measure of size and PPS 

procedures described for public schools were used for private schools as well. Of the 3,000 private 

schools sampled for the 2011–12 SASS, about 2,750 were from the list frame and about 250 were from 

the 2009–10 PSS area frame.

Public school districts. Since the SASS sample design calls for schools to be selected first, the public 

school district sample consists of the districts that were associated with the schools in the public school 

sample. This provides the linkage between the district and the school. In Florida, Maryland, Nevada, and 

West Virginia, school sampling was done in such a way that all districts were taken with certainty. About 

5,800 public school districts were pulled into the sample by being associated with sampled public schools. 

Teachers. Teachers are defined as staff members who teach regularly scheduled classes to students in any 

of grades K–12. Teacher Listing Forms (i.e., teacher rosters) were collected from sampled schools and 

districts, primarily by mail, and compiled at the Census Bureau. This compilation was done on an 

ongoing basis throughout the roster collection period. Along with the names of teachers, sampled schools 

were asked to provide information about each teacher’s teaching experience (1st year, 2–3 years, 4–19 

years, and 20 or more years), teaching status (full or part time), and subject matter taught (special 

education, general elementary, math, science, English/language arts, social studies, vocational/technical, 

or other). 

Sampling was also done on an ongoing basis throughout the roster collection period. The Census Bureau 

first stratified teachers into four teacher strata: (1) beginning teachers (in their first year of teaching); (2) 

early-career teachers (in their second or third years of teaching), (3) mid-career teachers (in their 4th 

through 19th years of teaching), and (4) experienced teachers (in their 20th or later years of teaching). 

Beginning and early-career teachers were oversampled to improve the survey estimates for this 

subpopulation. Teachers within a school were sorted by the teacher stratum code, the subject matter taught, and 

the teacher line number code. The teacher line number is a unique number assigned to identify the individual 

within the teacher list. Within each teacher stratum in each school, teachers were selected systematically with 

equal probability.

So that a school would not be overburdened by sampling too large a proportion of its teachers, the 

maximum number of teachers per school was set at 20. About 20 percent of the eligible public schools 

and 28 percent of the eligible private schools did not provide teacher lists that could be used for sampling 

teachers. For these schools, no teachers were selected. About 51,100 public schools teachers and 7,100 

private school teachers were sampled.

B-4 
Principals. The principal of each sampled school was selected. About 14,000 school principals were 

sampled (10,250 traditional public school principals, 750 public charter school principals, and 3,000 

private school principals).

Library media centers. A library media center in each sampled public school was also selected. Private 

schools were not included in the library media center survey. About 10,250 traditional public school and 

750 public charter school library media centers were sampled.

For details on sampling at all levels, see the Survey Documentation for the 2011–12 Schools and Staffing 

Survey (Chambers et al. forthcoming).

Data Collection Procedures

In 2011–12, SASS employed a mail-based survey approach with subsequent telephone and in-person field 

follow-up. Prior to the beginning of data collection, research applications were submitted to public school 

districts that required applications to conduct research in their schools. Starting in June 2011, all districts 

were contacted by telephone to verify or collect the information about the district and sampled school(s) 

needed for data collection, identify the best person to receive the district questionnaire, and determine if 

the district would provide an electronic teacher list for sampled school(s). Survey packages were mailed 

to districts in October 2011.4

 Follow-up was conducted sequentially by mail, telephone, and in person to 

districts that did not provide the requested questionnaire and/or teacher list.

In preparation for school-level data collection, advance letters were mailed to the sampled schools in June 

2011 to verify their addresses. School packages were mailed in October 2011.5

 Next, schools were 

telephoned using a computer-assisted telephone-interviewing instrument to verify school information, 

establish a survey coordinator (who became the main contact person at the school for subsequent 

communication), and follow up on the Teacher Listing Form if the school district had not already 

provided an electronic teacher list. Teacher questionnaires were mailed to schools on a flow basis as 

teachers were sampled on an ongoing basis from the data provided on the Teacher Listing Form or 

electronic teacher list. The field follow-up period was preceded by phone calls from the telephone centers 

to remind the survey coordinators to have staff complete and return all forms. Individual survey 

respondents (principal, librarian, and teachers) were also called from the telephone centers and asked to 

complete the questionnaire by phone. Data collection ended in June 2012. 

Data Processing and Imputation

The Census Bureau used both central processing and headquarters staff to check returned questionnaires, 

key the data, and implement quality control procedures. Questionnaires that had a preliminary 

classification of a complete interview were submitted to a series of computer edits consisting of a range 

check, a consistency edit, a blanking edit,6

 and a logic edit. After these edits were run and reviewed by 

analysts, the records were put through another edit to make a final determination as to whether the case 

4 The SASS district package contained a cover letter, the School District Questionnaire, and postage-paid return envelope. Districts that indicated 

they would provide electronic list(s) of teachers for their selected school(s) received a letter that explained the purpose of the teacher list and 

provided instructions for uploading the file. In districts with only one school, the school received the Public School Questionnaire (With District 

Items) in lieu of the School District Questionnaire and School Questionnaire.

5 The SASS school package contained a cover letter to the principal, a cover letter to the survey coordinator, the Teacher Listing Form if the 

district could not provide it, the Public School Principal Questionnaire or Private School Principal Questionnaire, the Public School Questionnaire 

or Public School Questionnaire (With District Items) or Private School Questionnaire, the School Library Media Center Questionnaire (for public 

schools only), postage-paid return envelopes, and the Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2011 CD. 6 Blanking edits delete answers to questions that should not have been filled in (e.g., if a respondent followed a wrong skip pattern).

B-5 

 
was eligible for the survey and whether sufficient data had been collected for the case to be classified as a 

complete interview.

After the final edits were run, cases with “not-answered” values for items remained. Values were imputed 

using two main approaches. Donor respondent methods, such as hot-deck imputation, were used. If no 

suitable donor case could be matched, the few remaining items were imputed using mean or mode from 

groups of similar cases to impute a value to the item with missing data. After each stage of imputation, 

computer edits were run again to verify that the imputed data were consistent with the existing 

questionnaire data. If that was not the case, an imputed value was blanked out by one of these computer 

edits due to inconsistency with other data within the same questionnaire or because it was out of the range 

of acceptable values. In these situations, Census Bureau analysts looked at the items and tried to 

determine an appropriate value. Edit and imputation flags, indicating which edit or imputation method 

was used, were assigned to each relevant survey variable. For further information, see the sections on data 

processing and imputation in the Survey Documentation for the 2011–12 Schools and Staffing Survey 

(Chambers et al. forthcoming). 

Response Rates

Unit response rates. The unit response rate indicates the percentage of sampled cases that met the 

definition of a complete interview. The weighted SASS unit response rate was produced by dividing the 

weighted number of respondents who completed questionnaires by the weighted number of eligible 

sampled cases, using the initial base weight (the inverse of the probability of selection).7 Table B-1 

summarizes the weighted unit response rates for each survey type. Because response rates vary between 

surveys, it is possible to not have information for all the components related to a particular school. For 

example, it is possible that a district does not have a corresponding school record or there may not be a 

principal record for every school.

Table B-1. Weighted unit and overall response rates using initial base weight, by survey: 

2011–12 

Survey

Unit response rate

(percent)

Overall response 

rate (percent)

Public School Teacher Listing Form 79.6 †

Private School Teacher Listing Form 71.6 †

Public School District 80.6 †

Public School 72.5 †

Private School 65.7 †

Public School Principal 72.7 †

Private School Principal 64.7 †

Public School Teacher 77.7 61.8

Private School Teacher 69.9 50.1

Public School Library Media Center 72.9 †

† Not applicable.

NOTE: Response rates were weighted using the inverse of the probability of selection (initial base weight). 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS), “Public 

School and Private School Teacher Listing Forms; Public School District, Public School, Private School, Public School Principal, 

Private School Principal, Public School Teacher, Private School Teacher, and Public School Library Media Center 

Documentation Data Files,” 2011–12.

7 For the formula used to calculate the unit response rate, see NCES Statistical Standards (U.S. Department of Education 2003).

B-6 

 
Overall response rates. The overall response rate represents the response rate to the survey taking into 

consideration each stage of the survey. For teachers, the overall response rate is calculated as the product 

of the response rate to two stages: the Teacher Listing Form and the teacher questionnaire.8 The weighted 

overall response rate using the initial base weight for public school teachers was 61.8 percent; and for 

private school teachers, 50.1 percent. For the other surveys, the overall and unit response rates are the 

same since these surveys have only one sampling stage.

Unit nonresponse bias analysis. Because the NCES Statistical Standards (4-4) require analysis of 

nonresponse bias for any survey stage with a base-weighted response rate less than 85 percent, all SASS 

files were evaluated for potential bias. For each survey, national-level estimates were first examined for 

potential bias. For public schools, principals, teachers, and library media centers, these national-level 

estimates were evaluated within charter and noncharter schools. Next, the base-weighted9

 unit response 

rate was calculated by state or affiliation strata depending on the sector (public and private, respectively). 

If the base-weighted response rate for any state or affiliation stratum was below 85 percent, a detailed 

comparison of respondents to the frame population was conducted by examining characteristics. These 

characteristics were enrollment, community type, and school level for public school principals; school 

level and region for private school principals. A difference between the frame and respondent population 

was considered noteworthy if the difference was statistically significant and the following three 

conditions were met: 

• The relative difference between the frame and respondent population was greater than 10 

percent; 

• The absolute difference was greater than one percentage point; and 

• The cell for each subpopulation contained at least 30 interviews. 

As shown in table B-1, the weighted response rate using the initial base weight was 80.6 percent for 

public school districts. The weighted response rate using the initial base weight was 72.5 percent for 

public schools and 65.7 percent for private schools. The weighted response rate using the initial base 

weight was 72.7 percent for public school principals and 64.7 percent for private school principals. Table 

B-2 contains a list of the comparisons between the frame and the weighted distribution where evidence of 

potential bias was found for national-level data on the public school principal file. Table B-3 contains a 

similar list for national-level data on the private school principal file. The weighted response rate using 

the initial base weight for the teacher listing form was 79.6 for public schools and 71.6 for private 

schools. The weighted questionnaire response rate using the initial base weight for the teacher survey was 

77.7 percent for public school teachers and 69.9 percent for private school teachers. The weighted 

response rate using the initial base weight was 72.9 percent for public school library media centers. 

Nonresponse adjustments were designed to reduce or eliminate nonresponse bias. The nonresponseadjusted comparisons to the frame shown in tables B-2 and B-3 reflect the nonresponse adjustment. These 

tables show that there is no evidence of potential bias after nonresponse adjustments were made for the 

national-level items included in the analysis. For further information on unit response rates and 

nonresponse bias analysis, see the Survey Documentation for the 2011–12 Schools and Staffing Survey 

(Chambers et al. forthcoming). 

8 For the formula used to calculate the overall response rate, see NCES Statistical Standards (U.S. Department of Education 2003). 9 Unit nonresponse bias analysis was conducted using the base weight, defined as the product of the initial base weight (the inverse of the 

probability of selection) and the sampling adjustment factor. The sampling adjustment factor is an adjustment that accounts for circumstances that 

affect the school’s probability of selection that are identified after the data collection has begun, such as a merger, duplication, or incorrect 

building-level collapsing (i.e., a junior high school and a senior high school merge to become a junior/senior high school).

B-7 

 
Table B-2. Indication of potential sources of bias for public school principal data at the national

level based on comparisons between frame distribution and base-weighted or 

nonresponse-adjusted respondent distributions: 2011–12 

Potential source of bias

Base-weighted 

respondent 

distribution

Nonresponseadjusted

respondent 

Estimate level distribution

School type 

(traditional or 

charter) Characteristic Value

National Traditional Community type (City) x

National Traditional Community type (Town) x

National Traditional Community type (Rural) x

National Traditional Enrollment (1000 or more) x

National Traditional Percent free lunch eligible (75% or more) x

National Traditional Percent non-White (5–9%) x

National Traditional Percent non-White (10–19%) x

National Traditional Percent non-White (50% or more) x

National Traditional Number of teachers (50–74) x

NOTE: x denotes comparisons that are a potential source of bias.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS), “Public 

School Principal Documentation Data Files,” 2011–12.

Table B-3. Indication of potential sources of bias for private school principal data at the national

level based on comparisons between frame distribution and base-weighted or 

nonresponse-adjusted respondent distributions: 2011–12 

Potential source of bias

Base-weighted 

respondent 

distribution

Nonresponse

-adjusted

respondent 

Estimate level Characteristic Value distribution

National Number of teachers (30–49) x

National School level (Combined) x

National Affiliation (Catholic, Parochial) x

National Affiliation (Catholic, Diocesan) x

National Affiliation (Lutheran) x

National Affiliation (Nonsectarian, Regular) x

National Affiliation (Nonsectarian, Special Education) x

National Affiliation (Other Religious) x

NOTE: x denotes comparisons that are a potential source of bias.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS), 

“Private School Principal Documentation Data Files,” 2011–12.

Item response rates. The item response rate indicates the percentage of respondents who answered a 

given survey question or item. The weighted SASS item response rate is calculated by dividing the 

weighted number of respondents who provided an answer to an item by the weighted number of 

respondents who were eligible to answer that item.10 Table B-4 provides a brief summary of the weighted 

item response rates for each questionnaire. For the public and private school principal data, all survey 

items included in this report have item response rates of 85 percent or more.

10 For the formula to calculate the item response rate, see NCES Statistical Standards (U.S. Department of Education 2003).

B-8 

 
Table B-4. Summary of weighted item response rates, by survey: 2011–12 

Survey

Percent of items with a 

response rate of 

85 percent or more

Percent of items with a 

response rate of 

less than 85 percent

Public School District 100.0 0.0

Public School 96.2 3.8

Private School1 93.5 6.1

Public School Principal 98.9 1.1

Private School Principal 98.3 1.7

Public School Teacher 94.2 5.8

Private School Teacher 92.5 7.5

Public School Library Media Center 100.0 0.0

1 There was one item on the Private School Questionnaire that had 0 eligible respondents; thus, the response rate could not be 

calculated. For this reason, the percentages on this row do not sum to 100. 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS), “Public 

School and Private School Teacher Listing Forms; Public School District, Public School, Private School, Public School Principal, 

Private School Principal, Public School Teacher, Private School Teacher, and Public School Library Media Center 

Documentation Data Files,” 2011–12.

Weighting

The general purpose of weighting is to scale up the sample estimates to represent the target survey 

population. For SASS, a base weight is used as the starting point. In some cases, this base weight is the 

simple reciprocal of the unit’s probability of selection on the frame (the initial base weight), and in other 

cases, adjustments are made to this frame base weight to reflect multiple chances of selection from the 

frame or other situations such as subsampling. 

Next, a series of nonresponse adjustment factors are calculated and applied based on a weighting cell 

adjustment. Weighting cells are developed using tree search algorithms. These cells are selected to be 

homogeneous in response propensity within cells and heterogeneous in response propensity across cells 

(response propensity is the underlying “chance” that a particular sample unit will respond by completing 

the questionnaire: its individual response rate). The adjustment is the inverse of the weighted response 

rate within each cell, and each respondent in the cell receives this adjustment. Nonrespondents are given 

weights of zero: the respondents are reweighted to represent the nonrespondents.

Finally, for some files, a ratio-adjustment factor is calculated and applied to the sample to adjust the 

sample totals to the frame totals. This improves the precision of survey estimates. 

The product of these factors is the final weight for each SASS respondent, which appears as DFNLWGT 

on the SASS Public School District Data File, AFNLWGT on all SASS Principal Data Files, SFNLWGT 

on all SASS School Data Files, TFNLWGT on all SASS Teacher Data Files, and MFNLWGT on the 

SASS Library Media Center Data File.

The counts in table 1 (in the Estimate Tables section) do not necessarily match the frame counts because 

some cases in the frame were found to be ineligible (i.e., out of scope) and because not all data files (e.g., 

principal or library media center) are post-stratified to match the frame counts.

B-9 
Variance Estimation

In surveys with complex sample designs, such as SASS, direct estimates of sampling errors that assume a 

simple random sample typically underestimate the variability in the estimates. The SASS sample design 

and estimation include procedures that deviate from the assumption of simple random sampling, such as 

stratifying the school sample, oversampling new teachers, and sampling with differential probabilities.

One method of calculating sampling errors of complex sample designs is replication. Replication methods 

involve constructing a number of subsamples (i.e., replicates) from the full sample and computing the 

statistic of interest for each replicate. The mean square error of the replicate estimates around the full 

sample estimate provides an estimate of the variance of the statistic. Each SASS data file includes a set of 

88 replicate weights designed to produce variance estimates. The set of replicate weights for each file 

should be applied to the respondents in that file. The replicate weights for SASS respondents are 

DREPWT1–DREPWT88 for districts, AREPWT1–AREPWT88 for principals, SREPWT1–SREPWT88 

for schools, TREPWT1–TREPWT88 for teachers, and MREPWT1–MREPWT88 for library media 

centers.

Reliability of Data

SASS estimates are based on samples. The sample estimates may differ somewhat from the values that 

would be obtained from the universe of respondents using the same questionnaire, instructions, and field 

representatives. The difference occurs because a sample survey estimate is subject to two types of errors: 

nonsampling and sampling. Estimates of the magnitude of sampling error for SASS data can be derived or 

calculated. Nonsampling errors are attributed to many sources, including definitional difficulties, the 

inability or unwillingness of respondents to provide correct information, differences in the interpretation 

of questions, an inability to recall information, errors made in collection (e.g., in recording or coding the 

data), errors made in processing the data, and errors made in estimating values for missing data. Quality 

control and edit procedures were used to reduce errors made by respondents, coders, and interviewers.

Caution Concerning Changes in Estimates

Care must be taken in estimating change over time in a SASS data element, because some of the 

measured change may not be attributable to a change in the education system.

Some of the change may be due to changes in the sampling frame, changes in questionnaire item wording, 

or other changes. For example, the definition of locale codes has undergone major changes since the 2000 

Decennial Census. The first major change was an improvement in geocoding technology, which improved 

the assignment of specific addresses to physical locations. In 2005, a new locale code for CCD was 

implemented based on the new urban-centric method of classifying locale. Changes in how areas and, 

thus, schools are categorized may account for at least some changes that are noted from previous 

administrations.

B-10 
Appendix C: Description of Data Files

C-1 
Description of Data Files

The 2011–12 Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS) data are being released in eight restricted-use data 

files. Those data files were created from nine survey questionnaires: the School District Questionnaire, 

School Questionnaire (public), Public School Questionnaire (With District Items),1 Private School 

Questionnaire, Principal Questionnaire (public), Private School Principal Questionnaire, Teacher 

Questionnaire (public), Private School Teacher Questionnaire, and Library Media Center Questionnaire 

(public). Table C-1 identifies each data file and the questionnaire data used to build the file.

Table C-1. Names of data files and the questionnaires from which the data were drawn: 

2011–12 

Data file Questionnaire source

School district School District Questionnaire, Public School Questionnaire (With District Items)

Public school School Questionnaire, Public School Questionnaire (With District Items) 

Private school Private School Questionnaire 

Public school principal Principal Questionnaire 

Private school principal Private School Principal Questionnaire

Public school teacher Teacher Questionnaire 

Private school teacher Private School Teacher Questionnaire

Public school library media center Library Media Center Questionnaire 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS), 

2011–12.

For the most part, there is a separate data file for each type of respondent (district, school, principal, 

teacher, and library media center) for each school sector (public2

 and private). There are two exceptions: 

1) there is no district file for private schools, and 2) there is no library media center file for private 

schools.

The Public School District Data File includes responses from school districts to the School District 

Questionnaire along with the “district items” taken from the Public School Questionnaire (With District 

Items) completed by the subset of public schools that were not associated with “traditional” school 

districts. These schools include state-run schools, traditional public schools in single-school districts, and 

independent charter schools. Rather than ask these public schools to complete two questionnaires, School 

and School District, the National Center for Education Statistics created the Public School Questionnaire 

(With District Items) to capture district data from these schools. Table C-2 shows the different 

respondents and questionnaires used to create the Public School District Data File. The “district items” 

gathered from the Public School Questionnaire (With District Items) were not placed on the Public 

School Data File.

1 The School Questionnaire (With District Items) is an expanded version of the Public School Questionnaire that includes items from the School

District Questionnaire. 2 Public includes traditional public and public charter.

C-2 

 
Table C-2. The number of cases in the Public School District Data File, by respondent and 

source of data: 2011–12 

Respondent Source of data in the district file Number of cases

Total 4,640

Regular districts School District Questionnaire 4,000

State-run schools1 Public School Questionnaire (With District Items) 50

Schools in single-school districts Public School Questionnaire (With District Items) 330

Independent charter schools Public School Questionnaire (With District Items) 200

Dependent charter schools in charter school 

districts Public School Questionnaire (With District Items) 60

1 These include schools for the blind, career and technical centers, and schools in detention centers run by a state. 

NOTE: Rounded, unweighted number of respondents in the data file. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS), 

“Public School District and Public School Documentation Data Files,” 2011–12.

C-3 
Appendix D: Description of Variables

D-1 
Description of Variables

The variables that are included in this report are listed in table D-1. Those with variable names that begin 

with “A” and are followed by four digits are survey variables that come from items on the principal

questionnaires. For survey variables, the numeric part of the variable name can be found in the 

questionnaires to the left of the corresponding question. The variables without the letter plus four digit 

names are “created variables,” meaning they were created using survey variables, frame variables 

(variables taken from the sampling frame), other created variables, or a combination of these. They are 

frequently used in National Center for Education Statistics publications and have been added to the data 

files to facilitate data analysis. The definitions for the created variables follow table D-1. The variables 

without a variable name were created for the analyses in this report and are not on the data files.

Table D-1. Variables used in the Characteristics of Public and Private Elementary and Secondary 

School Principals in the United States: Results From the Schools and Staffing Survey

report: 2011–12 

Variable

Variable name in 

data file

Annual salary A0335

Charter school identifier1 CHARFLAG

Four-category school level1 SCHLEVE2

Highest degree earned A0058

Hours spent per week interacting with students A0241

Hours spent per week on all school-related activities A0240

Influence deciding how the school budget will be spent2 A0089

Influence determining content of in-service professional development programs for teachers2 A0085

Influence establishing curriculum2 A0084

Influence evaluating teachers2 A0086

Influence hiring new full-time teachers2 A0087

Influence setting discipline policy2 A0088

Influence setting performance standards for students2 A0083

Percentage of students in the school approved for the National School Lunch Program1 NSLAPP_S

Principal’s age1 AGE_P

Principal’s race/ethnicity1 Not in file

Principal’s sex A0320

Student enrollment in K–12 and ungraded1 SCHSIZE

Three-category private school typology1 RELIG

See notes at end of table. 

D-2 
Table D-1. Variables used in the Characteristics of Public and Private Elementary and Secondary 

School Principals in the United States: Results From the Schools and Staffing Survey 

report: 2011–12—Continued

Variable

Variable name in 

data file

Three-category school level1 SCHLEVEL

Total years of experience as a school principal A0025

Total years of experience as a school principal at current school A0026

Urban-centric school locale code1 URBANS12

1 The definition for this variable can be found below.

2 Response categories include, “no influence,” “minor influence,” “moderate influence,” “major influence,” and “not applicable.” 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS), “Public 

School Principal and Private School Principal Data Files,” 2011–12.

Charter school identifier (CHARFLAG): A flag variable taken from the Public School Data File that 

identifies charter schools. 1 = School is a public charter school, 2 = School is a traditional public school. 

A charter school is a public school that, in accordance with an enabling state statute, has been granted a 

charter exempting it from selected state or local rules and regulation. CHARFLAG is based on S0290 

from the public school. 

Four-category school level (SCHLEVE2): Taken from the Public School Data File, SCHLEVE2 is a 

four-category variable based on grades reported by the school: primary, middle, high, and combined. 

Primary schools are those with at least one grade lower than 5 and no grade higher than 8. Middle schools 

have no grade lower than 5 and no grade higher than 8. High schools have no grade lower than 7 and at 

least one grade higher than 8. Combined schools are those with at least one grade lower than 7 and at least 

one grade higher than 8, or with all students in ungraded classrooms. 

Principal’s age (AGE_P): A variable based on a respondent’s reported year of birth. AGE_P is a 

continuous variable that was created by subtracting the principal’s reported year of birth (A0330) from the 

year of data collection (2011).

Principal’s race/ethnicity: A variable created for this analysis based on A0321— whether or not the 

principal is of Hispanic or Latino origin and A0322–A0326—the principal’s race. The following 

categories were created for analysis. 

• Hispanic, regardless of race: the principal indicates he/she is of Hispanic or Latino origin 

(A0321 = 1). 

• White, non-Hispanic: the principal indicates he/she is White (A0322 = 1), not of Hispanic or 

Latino origin (A0321=2), and does not consider him/herself to be any other race.

• Black or African-American, non-Hispanic: the principal indicates he/she is Black or AfricanAmerican (A0323 = 1), not of Hispanic or Latino origin (A0321=2), and does not consider 

him/herself to be any other race.

• Other: the principal indicates he/she is Asian, Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, or 

American Indian or Alaska Native (A0324 = 1 or A0325 = 1 or A0326 = 1), or considers 

him/herself to be more than one race, and not of Hispanic or Latino origin (A0321=2). 

D-3 
Percentage of students in school approved for the National School Lunch Program (NSLAPP_S):

Taken from the Public School Data File, NSLAPP_S is a continuous variable created by dividing the 

number of K–12 and ungraded students approved for free or reduced-price lunches (S0273) by the total 

number of K–12 and ungraded students enrolled (S0039) among schools that participated in the National 

School Lunch Program (NSLP) (S0272=1). Schools that did not participate in the NSLP have valid skip 

values. For this report, NSLAPP_S is recoded as a categorical variable describing the proportion of 

students approved for free or reduced-price lunches.

Student enrollment in K–12 and ungraded (SCHSIZE): Taken from the Public and Private School 

Data Files, SCHSIZE is a categorical variable based on the number of K–12 and ungraded students 

enrolled in the school (S0039). For this report, SCHSIZE was recoded into six categories for public 

schools and five categories for private schools.

Three-category private school typology (RELIG): Taken from the Private School Data File, RELIG is 

a three-category variable based on the variables that identify the religious or nonreligious orientation of a 

private school (S0738–S0762): Catholic, Other religious, or Nonsectarian. 

Three-category school level (SCHLEVEL): Taken from the Public and Private School Data Files, 

SCHLEVEL is a three-category variable based on grades reported by the school: Elementary, secondary, 

and combined. Elementary schools are those with any of grades K–6 and none of grades 9–12. Secondary 

schools have any of grades 7–12 and none of grades K–6. Combined schools are those schools with grade 

levels in both elementary and secondary grade levels, or with all students in ungraded classrooms. 

Urban-centric school locale code (URBANS12): Taken from the Public and Private School Data Files, 

URBANS12 is a created variable collapsed from the 12 category urban-centric school locale code 

(SLOCP12) which was assigned using the 2000 Decennial Census data and recoded into four categories: 

city, suburban, town, and rural. 

D-4