GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CIRCULAR 757

fc?

Coal Geology and the Future 

Symposium Abstracts and Selected References
Coal Geology and the Future 

Symposium Abstracts and Selected References

Edited by C. R. Meissner, Jr., C. B. Cecil, 

and G. D. Stricker

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CIRCULAR 757

Abstracts presented at a symposium sponsored by the

US. Geological Survey, September 27-28,1976 in Reston, Va.

1977
United States Department of the Interior

CECIL D. ANDRUS, Secretary

Geological Survey

V. E. McKelvey, Director

Free on application to Branch of Distribution, U.S. Geological Survey 

1200 South Eads Street, Arlington, Va. 22202
PREFACE

A symposium titled "Coal Geology and the Future," sponsored by the 

U.S. Geological Survey, was held in Reston, Va., September 27-28, 1976. 

The primary purpose of this meeting was to identify present and future 

geological research requirements in coal exploration, mining, and utilization in response to the ever-expanding demand for coal to meet the Nation's energy needs. In order to accomplish this objective, leading research 

scientists from State and Federal agencies, industry, and universities were 

invited to present results of their investigations emphasizing problem 

areas and further research needs. The abstracts, with selected references, 

included in this circular should serve as a valuable summary and reference 

source for those who wish to pursue any or all facets of the topics covered.

The program was structured to encompass both theoretical and applied 

geological research from the origin of coal to ultimate utilization. The 

first technical session considered the general geology of coal from the peatforming environment through the genesis of bituminous and anthracite 

coal. The second session was devoted to geology as applied to coal exploration, coal mining, and reclamation of mined land. Geological science as 

applied to utilization of coal in the generation of electricity, coke manufacture, gasification, and liquefaction was the focus of the third session. 

Finally, the various programs in coal geology of the U.S. Geological Survey 

(U.S.G.S.) were considered. The abstracts and selected references which 

follow are in the order in which they were presented during the symposium 

and represent the views of the individual speakers. Panel discussions related to the four technical sessions were then held in order that participants could comment and question speakers and panelists.

The 2-day meeting was of international interest and was well received. 

The abstracts and selected references indicate the breadth of ideas presented and exchanged as well as the integration of various geologic and 

related scientific and engineering disciplines.

C. R. Meissner, Jr. 

C. B. Cecil 

G. D. Stricker 

Editors

III
CONTENTS

Preface __________________________

Technical Session I Geology of coal _______

Coal environments, by J. M. Coleman and 

T. Whelan III, Louisiana State University ____________________

Stratigraphy and tectonics of western coals, 

by Robert J. Weimer, Colorado School of 

Mines, and C. B. Land, Consulting 

Geologist ___________________

Geology and eastern coal, by Jack A. Simon, 

Illinois State Geological Survey _________

Coalification, by Irving A. Breger, U.S. 

Geological Survey _______________

Expanding horizons in coal petrology, by 

William Spackman, Jr., Pennsylvania State 

University ______________

Major, minor, and trace elements in U.S. 

coal, by J. H. Medlin, V. E. Swanson, 

J. R. Hatch, and S. L. Coleman, 

U.S. Geological Survey ________________

Technical Session II Coal exploration, development, and reclamation ______________

Coal-mining geology, by A. M. Clarke and 

J. M. Slater, National Coal Board, 

London, England ___________________

Improved mining techniques as related to 

geology, by William B. Schmidt and John 

W. Corwine, U.S. Bureau of Mines ____

The role of geology in coal mining, by C. 

Richard Dunrud, U.S. Geological Survey

Geophysics in coal exploration and development, by Wilfred P. Hasbrouck, U.S. 

Geological Survey _____________________

Hydrologic aspects of the rehabilitation 

potential of surface-minable coal lands

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Technical Session II Coal exploration, 

development, and reclamation Continued 

in the West, by Lynn M. Shown, U.S. 

Geological Survey _________ ___

Reclamation of eastern surface mines, by 

B. V. Cooper, Virginia Surface Mining 

and Reclamation Association, Inc. _____ 

Technical Session III Utilization of coal: Synfuels, petrochemicals, metallurgical coke, 

electricity generation _____ _ ___

Characteristics of coal relative to synfuels, 

by G. Alex Mills, Energy Research and 

Development Administration __________

Coal science related to utilization, by 

Richard C. Neavel, Exxon Research and 

Engineering Company _ _ __

Coal as a chemical resource, by Peter H. 

Spitz, Chem Systems, Inc. ____________

Selection of coals for coke making, by R. J. 

Gray, United States Steel Corporation _

Electric utility industry strategy for research in coal geology, by Richard A. 

Schmidt, Electric Power Research Institute ____________________________

The National Coal Resources Data System, 

by M. D. Carter and Gordon H. Wood, 

Jr., U.S. Geological Survey _________

Technical Session IV U.S. Geological Survey 

Coal Programs _______ 

U.S. Geological Survey projects in western 

coal geology, by W. J. Mapel, U.S. Geological Survey _ _ 

U.S. Geological Survey projects in coal 

geology of the Eastern United States, by 

K. J. Englund, U.S. Geological Survey _

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TECHNICAL SESSION I-GEOLOGY OF COAL

COAL ENVIRONMENTS

By J. M. Coleman and T. Whelan III

Louisiana State University

Baton Rouge, La.

ABSTRACT

Organic materials are buried as peat deposits 

in coastal plains and deltaic settings that span 

the climatic regions of the globe. Upon burial, 

diagenesis, and passage of geologic time, peat 

is converted to coal and lignite, and an understanding of the environments of deposition in 

which peat accumulates is critical in order to 

exploit existing coal reserves efficiently. Floristic composition, peat geochemistry, lateral 

and vertical geometry of peats, and the relationships of the peat deposits to nonorganic 

sediments are functions of depositional conditions such as climate, tectonics of the depositional basin, sediment yield and dispersal patterns, and riverine and nearshore coastal dynamic processes. Depositional models are produced in which deposits rich in organic material form a significant part of the sediments 

and have distinct vertical and lateral interfingering relationships with the coastal plain deposits.

In arctic settings (North Slope, Alaska), 

peats are composed primarily of sedges, 

grasses, and mosses and form thick deposits 

that cap channel and beach sands and interfinger laterally with lagoon and lacustrine silts 

and clays rich in organic material. Supratidal 

sediments, evaporites, and sandy channel deposits interfinger with erratically distributed 

woody peat layers in the arid deltaic setting of 

northeast Australia. Deposits rich in organic 

material accumulate in saline mangrove environments, and often, a wide variety of early 

diagenetic products is formed in underlying deposits.

In the temperate climate of the Mississippi 

River Delta, peat deposits are highly variable

in thickness and have a wide range of floristic 

composition and organic content. Fresh-water 

peat in the alluvial valley is normally thick (2- 

5m) and woody and has low lateral continuity. 

Pyrite and vivianite are common inclusions in 

the peat, and iron and calcium carbonate are 

diagenetically produced in the underlying clay. 

Brackish and saline coastal peat is normally 

thin (<2 m), but each bed has wide lateral 

continuity. Marshy nonwoody components contribute significantly to total organic content, 

and early diagenetic products are common 

within and beneath the peat layers.

In the tropical Klang River Delta, thick 

widespread peat deposits (5-15 m thick) overlie lower deltaic silty and clayey tidal-flat deposits, and the peat interfingers laterally with 

river-channel sand. Early cementation of the 

peat is common; excessive leaching of the underlying clay is often present.

Thick fresh- and saline-water peats accumulate in a large (60,000 km2 ) coastal plain of 

Surinam and the Guianas, along the northern 

coast of South America. Many peat deposits exceed 40 m in thickness and interfinger locally 

with sandy beach deposits. Sand bound by organic matter (humate) is abundant, and diagenetic components are common both within 

the peat and in adjacent deposits.

SELECTED REFERENCES

Alien, J. R. L., 1965, A review of the origin and 

characteristics of Recent alluvial sediments: Sedimentology, v. 5, no. 2, p. 91-191.

Coleman, J. M., 1966, Recent coastal sedimentation 

central Louisiana coast: Louisiana State Univ. 

Studies Coastal Studies Series No. 17, 73 p.

Coleman, J. M., Gagliano, S. M., and Smith, W. G., 

1970, Sedimentation in a Malaysian high tide 

tropical delta, in Morgan, J. P., ed., Deltaic sedimentation; modern and ancient: Soc. Econ. Paleontologists and Mineralogists Spec. Pub. 15, p. 185- 

197.

Coleman, J. M., and Wright, L. D., 1973, Deformation 

processes in river-mouth bars [abs]: Geol. Soc. 

America Abs. with Programs, v. 5, no. 7, p. 580.
Fisk, H. N., 1944, Geological investigation of the alluvial valley of the lower Mississippi River: Vicksburg, Miss., Mississippi River Comm., 78 p.

Fisk, H. N., and McFarlan, Edward, Jr., 1955, Late 

Quaternary deltaic deposits of the Mississippi 

River [La.] local sedimentation and basin tectonics, in Poldervaart, Arie, ed., Crust of the 

earth a symposium: Geol. Soc. America Spec. 

Paper 62, p. 279-302.

Frazier, D. E., and Osanik, Alex, 1969, Recent peat 

deposits Louisiana coastal plain, in Dapples, E. 

C., and Hopkins, M. E., eds., Environments of 

coal deposition: Geol. Soc. America Spec. Paper 

114, p. 63-85.

Morgan, J. P., Coleman, J. M., and Gagliano, S. M., 

1963, Mudlumps at the mouth of South Pass, Mississippi River; sedimentology, paleontology, structure, origin, and relation to deltaic processes: 

Louisiana State Univ. Studies Coastal Studies 

Series No. 10, 190 p.

STRATIGRAPHY AND TECTONICS OF 

WESTERN COALS

By Robert J. Weimer

Colorado School of Mines

Golden, Colo.

and

C. B. Land

Consulting Geologist

Bismarck, N.D.

ABSTRACT

The Cretaceous and Tertiary strata of the 

Rocky Mountain region contain extensive coal 

deposits that accumulated in coastal-plain and 

alluvial environments. The common swamp and 

marsh environments of "in situ" coal are channel-margin swamps, coastal marshes, and channel-fill swamps. Channel-margin coal environments are of two general types: (1) areally 

restricted back-levee swamps which parallel 

channels and are also the site of deposition of 

light-colored leached kaolinitic claystone; and 

(2) more extensive flood-basin swamps which 

are commonly associated with lacustrine deposits. Thin lenticular coals, derived from the 

accumulation of transported organic material, 

can be found in both nonmarine and shallow 

marine environments.

The critical factors necessary for the formation of commercial thicknesses of coal are: (1) 

fresh clear water, (2) accumulation of landderived organic material only, (3) balance between ground-water table and depositional interface, (4) favorable climate, and (5) persistence of conditions in time and space and a 

favorable basin-wide and (or) local tectonic influence on sedimentation. These conditions are 

most commonly found in alluvial- and deltaplain depositional environments.

The occurrence of penecontemporaneous 

(growth) faults may influence swamp environments and control the thickness of peat accumulation. Detailed geological and geophysical 

investigations along the west margin of the 

Denver basin indicate that two types of growth 

faults are present in an Upper Cretaceous deltaic sequence: (1) deep-seated basement faults, 

and (2) shallow listric normal faults. The latter type was a primary control on sedimentation in the coal-bearing Laramie Formation 

and determined whether or not the coal beds 

are of commercial thickness. The lateral continuity of coal in the Laramie is interrupted by 

growth faults; most of the minable thicknesses 

of coal are found only in graben structures.

SELECTED REFERENCES

Bruce, C. H., 1973, Pressured shale and related sediment deformation mechanism for development of 

regional contemporaneous faults: Am. Assoc. 

Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 57, no. 5, p. 878- 

886.

Camacho, R., 1969, Stratigraphy of the upper Pierre 

Shale, Fox Hills Sandstone, and lower Laramie 

Formation (Upper Cretaceous), Leyden Gulch 

area, Jefferson County, Colorado: Golden, Colo., 

Colorado School Mines, unpub. MS thesis, 84 p.

Coleman, J. M., 1966, Ecological changes in a massive 

fresh-water clay sequence: Gulf Coast Assoc. 

Geol. Socs. Trans., v. 16, p. 159-174.

Coleman, J. M., Gagliano, S. M., and Smith, W. G., 

1970, Sedimentation in a Malaysian high tide 

tropical delta, in Morgan, J. P., ed., Deltaic sedimentation; modern and ancient: Soc. Econ. Paleontologists and Mineralogists Spec. Pub. 15, p. 185- 

197.

Colton, R. B., and Lowrie, R. L., 1973, Map showing 

mined areas of the Boulder-Weld coal field, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Field Studies Map 

MF-513, scale 1:24,000.

Curtis, D. M., 1970, Miocene deltaic sedimentation, 

Louisiana Gulf Coast, in Morgan, J. P., ed., Deltaic 

sedimentation; modern and ancient: Soc. Econ. 

Paleontologists and Mineralogists Spec. Pub. 15, 

p. 293-308.

Da vis, T. L., 1975, Seismic investigation of Late Creeaceous faulting along the east flank of central 

Front Range, Colorado: Golden, Colo., Colorado 

School Mines, unpub. Ph.D. thesis, 65 p.
Davis, T. L., and Weimer, R. J., 1976, Late Cretaceous 

growth faulting, Denver basin, Colorado, in Epis, 

R. C., and Weimer, R. J., eds., Studies in Colorado 

field geology: Colorado School Mines Prof. Contr. 

8, p. 280-300.

Donaldson, A. C., Martin, R. H., and Kanes, W. H., 

1970, Holocene Guadalupe delta of Texas Gulf 

Coast, in Morgan, J. P., ed., Deltaic sedimentation; 

modern and ancient: Soc. Econ. Paleontologists 

and Mineralogists Spec. Pub. 15, p. 107-137.

Frazier, D. E., and Osanik, Alex, 1969, Recent peat 

deposits Louisiana coastal plain, in Dapples, E. 

C., and Hopkins, M. E., eds., Environments of coal 

deposition: Geol. Soc. America Spec. Paper 114, 

p. 63-85.

Gagliano, S. M., and Mclntire, W. G., 1968, Reports 

on the Mekong River Delta: Louisiana State 

Univ. Coastal Studies Inst. Tech. Rept. 57, 143 p.

Gill, J. R., and Cobban, W. A., 1966, The Red Bird 

section of the Upper Cretaceous Pierre Shale in 

Wyoming: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 393-A, p. 

A1-A73.

LeRoy, L. W., and Weimer, R. J., 1971, Geology of the 

Interstate 70 road cut, Jefferson County, Colorado: Colorado School Mines Prof. Contr. 7, 1 

sheet.

Rahmanian, V. D., 1975, Deltaic sedimentation and 

structure of the Fox Hills and Laramie Formations, Upper Cretaceous, southeast of Boulder, 

Colorado: Golden, Colo., Colorado School Mines, 

unpub. MS thesis, 83 p.

Spencer, F. D., 1961, Bedrock geology of the Louisville 

quadrangle, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Geol. 

Quad, Map GQ-151, scale 1:24,000.

Ting, F. T. C., ed., 1972, Depositional environments of 

the lignite-bearing strata in western North Dakota: North Dakota Geol. Survey Misc. Ser. 50, 

134 p.

Weimer, R. J., 1960, Upper Cretaceous stratigraphy, 

Rocky Mountain area: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 44, no. 1, p. 1-20.

 1970, Rates of deltaic sedimentation and intrabasin deformation, Upper Cretaceous of Rocky 

Mountain Region, in Morgan, J. P., ed., Deltaic 

sedimentation, modern and ancient: Soc. Econ. 

Paleontologists and Mineralogists Spec. Pub. 15, p. 

270-292.

 1973, A guide to uppermost Cretaceous stratigraphy, central Front Range, Colorado deltaic 

sedimentation, growth faulting and early Laramide 

crustal movement: Mtn. Geologist, v. 10, no. 3, p. 

53-97.

 1976, Cretaceous stratigraphy, tectonics and 

energy resources, western Denver basin, in Epis, 

R. C., and Weimer, R. J., eds., Studies in Colorado 

field geology: Colorado School Mines Prof. Contr. 

8, p. 180-227.

Weimer, R. J., and Land, C. B., 1975, Maestrichtian 

deltaic and interdeltaic sedimentation in the Rocky 

Mountain region of the United States, in Caldwell, 

W. G. E., ed., The Cretaceous system in the Western Interior of North America: Geol. Assoc. 

Canada Spec. Paper 13, p. 633-666. 

Young, R. G., 1955, Sedimentary facies and intertonguing in the Upper Cretaceous of the Book Cliffs, 

Utah-Colorado: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 66, no. 

2, p. 177-202.

GEOLOGY AND EASTERN COAL

By Jack A. Simon

Illinois State Geological Survey

Urbana, 111.

ABSTRACT

Most coal resources in the eastern half of 

the United States are found in strata of Pennsylvania age. The complex stratigraphy resulting from depositional environments that were 

dominated by deltaic sedimentation and influenced by many marine incursions needs to 

be known in detail for the mapping of coal resources and reserves, particularly for coal at 

great depths and in less well known areas. 

Geologic study methods (including geophysical 

techniques) that are similar in character to 

those used to locate oil and gas are now receiving much attention in the search for new 

coal resources and the tracing of regional 

trends of coal quality.

The important minable coals in the Eastern 

United States range in rank from high-volatile 

C bituminous to anthracite. Studies of geologic 

controls on the regional distribution and mineral form of coal and on the composition of 

mineral constituents in coal are becoming of 

great interest as coal is increasingly viewed as 

a raw feed for various chemical processes, including liquefaction and gasification.

Application of geology to the mining of coal 

is of special significance in the Eastern United 

States where most past mining has been underground and where future significant increases 

in coal production must take place. Development of much new mining technology, as well 

as improvements in existing technology to increase productivity, will require a particularly 

detailed knowledge of the rock materials of 

mine roof and floor.

Geology also has increasing applications in 

coal utilization, particularly in eastern areas 

where the major coal deposits have a broad 

range of coal characteristics. The higher ranks
of coal close to major markets will be in greater 

demand not only for generation of electric 

energy but also for other chemical and physical 

conversion processes. Knowledge of chemical 

and physical properties of coal, including those 

discovered by coal-petrology techniques, will 

find wide application in the utilization of eastern coals.

Land-use problems associated with mining 

also require wise use of available geologic data.

SELECTED REFERENCES

Averitt, Paul, 1975, Coal resources of the United 

States, January 1, 1974: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 

1412,131 p.

Gluskoter, H. J., 1975, Mineral matter and trace elements in coal, in Babu, S. P., ed., Trace elements 

in fuel: Washington, D.C., American Chem. Soc., 

p. 1-22.

McKee, E. D., and Crosby, E. J., 1975, coordinators, 

Part I. Introduction and regional analyses of the 

Pennsylvanian System, in Paleotectonic investigations of the Pennsylvanian System in the United 

States: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 853, 349 p.

National Coal Association, 1975, Bituminous coal data, 

1974 edition: Washington, D.C., 151 p.

Simon, J. A., and Hopkins, M. E., 1973, Geology of 

coal, in Cassidy, S. M., ed., Elements of practical 

coal mining: New York, Am. Inst. Mining, Metall. 

and Petroleum Engineers, Soc. Mining Engineers, 

p. 11-39.

Smith, W. H., and Stall, J. B., 1975, Coal and water resources for coal conversion in Illinois: Illinois 

State Water Survey Illinois State Geol. Survey 

Cooperative Resources Report 4, 79 p.

Thompson, R. O., and York, H. P., 1975, The reserve 

base of U.S. coals by sulfur content (in two parts). 

1. The Eastern States: U.S. Bur. Mines Inf. Circ. 

8680,537 p.

Trumbull, J. V. A., 1959, Coal fields of the United 

States Sheet I: Washington, D.C., U.S. Geol. 

Survey, scale 1:5,000,000.

U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1971, Strippable reserves of 

bituminous coal and lignite in the United States: 

U.S. Bur. Mines Inf. Circ. 8531, 148 p.

COALIFICATION

By Irving A. Breger

U.S. Geological Survey

Reston, Va.

ABSTRACT

Coalification denotes the transformation of 

plant debris under reducing conditions into a 

continuous series of products having increasing percentages of carbon and diminishing percentages of oxygen and hydrogen. Initial conversions, those from peat through subbituminous or high-volatile bituminous coal, are essentially biochemical and chemical, require 

minimal input of energy, an involve the elimination of carbon dioxide and water. Subsequent changes, from medium-volatile bituminous coal to anthracite and ultimately to material approaching graphite, are both physical 

and chemical and require more intense sources 

of energy, such as may be provided by moderate increase in temperature or by shear. 

These transformations are accompanied by 

elimination of methane and gaseous hydrogen. 

The chemical and physical properties of a coal 

at any particular stage of coalification are defined by the rank of the coal.

Coalification may be described geochemically 

as: (1) microbiological degradation of cellulose 

of the initial plant material, (2) conversion of 

lignin of the plants into humic substances, and 

(3) condensation of these humic substances 

into larger coal molecules. As they increase 

in size, these coal molecules assume the properties of a thermoplastic resin, at which point 

they melt and decompose when heated. At this 

stage coals assume coking properties. As coalification continues, the coal molecules become so 

large that they no longer melt before decomposing.

Unbiased data are needed to determine the 

fate of certain organically bound elements and 

minerals as coalification advances. Such information, soon to be available through the National Coal Resources Data System (a computerized information file being prepared by 

the U.S. Geological Survey), may serve as a 

guide in the search for high-quality coals. Also, 

intensive investigations for more than half a 

century have failed to yield a clear picture of 

the chemical structure of coal. Imaginative, but 

not necessarily sophisticated, studies are 

needed to obtain structural information basic 

to the conversion of coals to synthetic fuels. 

From a geochemical point of view, information 

on the distribution of forms of organically 

bound sulfur in coals from a particular basin 

may serve as an indicator of sedimentological 

conditions that prevailed in the early stages of 

coalification and may direct attention to coals 

of highest quality.
SELECTED REFERENCES

American Chemical Society, 1966, American conference on coal science, University Park, Pa., 1964, 

P. H. Given, conf. chairman: Washington, D.C., 

743 p.

Breger, I. A., ed., 1963, Organic geochemistry: Oxford, 

Pergamon Press, 658 p. (see especially p. 50-86, 

183-247).

Manskaya, S. M., and Drozdova, T. V., 1968, Geochemistry of organic substances. Translated and edited 

by Leonard Shapiro and I. A. Breger. 1st ed.: 

Oxford, Pergamon Press, 347 p. (see especially p. 

345).

EXPANDING HORIZONS IN COAL 

PETROLOGY

By William Spackman, Jr.

The Pennsylvania State Unversity

University Park, Pa.

ABSTRACT

Eight facets of the science of coal petrology 

will, or should, change significantly in the immediate future.

1. The limited scope of concerns that is currently associated with the science must be expanded. The petrologist concerned with igneous or sedimentary rocks is not solely concerned 

with the proportions of minerals in his granite 

or limestone. Instead, he has found it essential 

to be concerned with the full gamut of physical 

properties and chemical characteristics of 

rocks; he uses these properties and characteristics as the basis for understanding a rock's 

origin, evolution, and behavior in the situations 

in which man uses it. For the same reasons, 

the coal petrographer must, and will, be concerned with the complete task of characterizing 

the properties and composition of the rock 

called coal.

2. Our concept of coal composition also must 

expand. In particular, fluorescence microscopy 

must become a routinely used analytical tool. 

Failure to use fluorescence microscopy gives inaccurate compositional data on the hydrogenrich macerals.

3. Because of vastly increased interest, we 

need to expand our concepts and analytical procedures relating to low-rank coal. The simple 

extension of the descriptive procedures used 

for bituminous and anthracite coal to subbituminous coal and lignite will be inadequate for 

the practical application of petrography in coal 

utilization.

4. Coal petrography must be used in connection with coal-conversion technology, especially in the field of coal cleaning, preparation, and 

beneficiation, where management of feedstock 

composition will become increasingly important.

5. The increased practical use of petrographic data will result in the increased automation of analytical methods. Systems are now 

being devised that can rapidly assess the mode 

of occurrence of pyrite as a means of evaluating sulfur reduction problems; still other systems are being devised as industrial tools to 

monitor feedstock compositions on a routine 

basis.

6. The possibility of predicting coal liquefaction yields and product qualities was revealed 

decades ago through the work of the U.S. 

Bureau of Mines, and the prospects for making 

such predictions are excellent.

7. The application of the petrographer's 

techniques to the study of liquefaction residues 

is providing considerable insight into the effects 

of varying process conditions and into the compositions of both normal and abnormal residues.

8. The field of coal carbonization can similarly benefit from the application of petrographic 

techniques to the carbonaceous residue as it 

is produced in the coke oven. Coke microscopy 

is actively pursued in some steel industry 

laboratories, and recognition of its merits will 

result in expanded use.

SELECTED REFERENCES

Benedict, L. G., and Thompson, R. R., 1976, Selection 

of coals and coal mixes to avoid excessive coking 

pressure: Ironmaking Conf. Proc. v. 35, p. 276-288.

Davis, A., and Vastola, F. J., 1977, Developments in 

automated reflectance miscroscopy of coal: Jour. 

Microscopy, v. 109, pt. 1, p. 3-12.

Davis, Alan, Spackman, William, and Given, P. H., 

1976, The influence of the properties of coals on 

their conversion into clean fuels: Energy Sources, 

v. 3, no. 1, p. 55-81.

Spackman, William, Davis, Alan, and Mitchell, G. D., 

1976, The fluorescence of liptinite macerals: Brigham Young Univ. Geology Studies, v. 22, pt. 3, p. 

59-75.

Stach, Erich, Taylor, G. H., Mackowsky, M.-th., 

Chandra, D., Teichmiiller, M., and Teichmiiller, R., 

1975, Stach's textbook of coal petrology. Translation and English revision by D. G. Marchison, G. 

H. Taylor, and F. Zierke. 2d. rev. ed.: Berlin, 

Gebriider Borntraeger, 428 p.
MAJOR, MINOR, AND TRACE ELEMENTS 

IN U.S. COAL

By J. H. Medlin,1 V. E. Swanson,2 J. R. Hatch,2 and

S. L. Coleman1, U.S. Geological Survey

^eston, Va., and 2 Denver, Colo.

ABSTRACT

The current coal geochemistry program of 

the U.S. Geological Survey is a cooperative 

effort involving Federal and State agencies, 

university groups, and private companies. It 

encompasses all coal-bearing States and coal 

provinces, and, in many regions, each of the 

many major coal beds. A major goal of the 

program is to quantify those quality parameters needed for resource assessment as relates 

to technology, environmental, byproduct, and 

chemical usages.

Started in 1971, the program has been responsible for complete chemical analysis of 

more than 3,200 channel or borehole samples 

of coal and associated rock. The analyses include quantitative determinations of the 

amounts of 24 major, minor, and trace elements (including Al, As, Cd, Cu, F, Hg, Mn, 

Na, Pb, Se, U, and Zn) and semiquantitative 

determinations of the concentration of 15 to 20 

additional trace elements (including B, Be, Cr, 

Ge, Mo, Ni, and V). In addition, the U.S. Bureau of Mines provides proximate and ultimate 

analyses, Btu and forms-of-sulfur determinations, and the ash fusibility and free-swelling 

index on the coal samples.

Statistical summaries of analyses for 799 

samples completed in 1975 (Swanson and

others, 1976) indicate that the average coal in 

the United States contains 11.3 percent ash, 

10.0 percent moisture, and 2.0 percent sulfur, 

and has 11,180 Btu per pound on an as-received 

basis. Of the 10 major oxides determined on the 

525°C ash, the Si02 concentration is 38 percent ; A12 03 , 20 percent; and Na2 0, 0.67 percent. 

The average Cd content is 7.3 ppm (range <1 

to 580 ppm) ; Pb, 114 ppm (range 13 to 2,700 

ppm) ; and Zn, 151 ppm (range 1 ppm to 6.0 

percent). As determined on the raw coal, the 

average Hg content is 0.18 ppm (range <0.01 

to 3.3 ppm), Se content, 4.1 ppm (range <0.1 

to 150 ppm) ; and U content, 1.8 ppm (range 

<0.2 to 42.9 ppm).

Other components of the coal-composition 

program to date include detailed coal petrography and mineralogy studies of selected samples derived from economically important Appalachian and interior provinces coal beds. All 

of these geochemical, coal-petrographic, and 

mineralogical data aid in the evaluation of coal 

resources for environmental implication?;, technological and chemical resource assessments, 

byproduct recovery feasibility, and the definition of geologic factors that control the differences in, and permit a prediction of, the variable chemical and physical properties of coal.

REFERENCE CITED

Swanson, V. E., Medlin, J. H., Hatch, J. R., Coleman, 

S. L., Wood, G. H., Jr., Woodruff, S. D., and Hildebrand, R. T., 1976, Collection, chemical analysis, 

and evaluation of coal samples in 1975: U.S. Geol. 

Survey open-file rept. 76-468, 503 p., 9 figs.
TECHNICAL SESSION II-COAL EXPLORATION, DEVELOPMENT, AND RECLAMATION

COAL-MINING GEOLOGY

By A. M. Clarke and J. M. Slater

National Coal Board

London, England

ABSTRACT

Coal-mining geology, or more properly geotechnology, differs from the geology of coal 

fields and the geologic aspects of coal-science, 

both in its primary purpose, to serve the objectives of coal undertakings, and also in being 

in a "downstream" but complementary position relative to the other geologic sciences. In 

Great Britain, the year 1947 brought to a head 

misunderstandings due to the differences in 

primary objectives between what was then the 

Geological Survey of Great Britain and the 

British coal-mining industry. Wartime overall 

undercapitalizations of what had always been 

a highly competitive multicorporation coal industry, still enjoying a twofold price advantage 

over oil, combined with its critical position underpinning all future plans for peace-time economic growth, enforced nationalization of the 

industry and the formation of the National 

Coal Board.

Since then, what is now coal-mining geology 

has emerged through the process of training 

geological scientists to get inside the mind of 

the coal-mining engineer and to identify the 

significant aspects of their geology from his 

standpoint, and with what would be his priorities in mind, in any mining situation. In Britain, because outcrop coal has been worked 

from Roman times onwards, recently 85 to 90 

percent of the 130 million-180 million tons/yr. 

output has had to be from deep mines rather 

than from surface mines.

In modern highly capitalized deep mining, 

the vast bulk of the revenue from the day to 

day output of the coal mine is required to offset labor costs and fixed capital and interest 

charges. Any profit comes from the total revenue obtained from the marginal output above 

a high "break-even" figure. Any form of unexpected natural (rather than induced) geologic disturbance to the planned continuity of 

production, such as a change within the sedimentary framework or the tectonic setting of 

the coal seam being worked, has an effect on 

profit in proportion to the proceeds per ton 

lost from the planned production.

In these circumstances, apart from being 

what underpins rarely occurring decisions involved in choosing the best seams to work 

first, and starting to mine in the best direction, 

the geological conditions are solely the "unexpected geological disturbances" (to the planned 

continuity of mining).

Geology is considered part of the mining 

condition. Efficient exploration is that part 

of the mining undertakings' total activity that 

contributes to finding "disturbances," and 

other changes in the geologic conditions, in just 

sufficient time to provide the replacement capacity necessary to preserve continuity of 

planned output (i.e. within the minimum response time of the local system to change).

At the single-mine level, exploration by productive methods must commonly play a greater 

part in achieving an efficient balance of mining effort than the familiar nonproductive 

methods of exploration (drilling, mapping, geophysical surveying). More knowledge of the 

sedimentary framework and tectonic setting of 

the seam can be achieved by altering the pattern and degree of costly dispersion (or departure from the cheapest, most concentrated 

layout) and the degree of costly development 

to be created and maintained in advance of 

(assumed uninterrupted) production needs. A 

hand simulation and gaming method is used to 

test the best balance between (1) the cost of 

any exploration (productive and nonproductive) ; (2) the insurance costs, partly in the 

form of spare shift capacity, for geologic
phenomena that cannot be proved within the 

exploration costs; and (3) the costs of residual 

"unexpected" geologic disturbance whose presence and pattern of occurrence can be extrapolated and interpolated although the actual locations of the elements constituting the pattern 

cannot be inferred.

At the multimine level, if the definition of 

the reserves is productivity sensitive and the 

reserves of the year are equivalent to the sum 

of the annual outputs, then if overall conditions remain unchanged, the trend shown by 

annual reserves assessment performs the same 

function as does productive exploration assessment at the single-mine level in the mining industry. Both can be used by the geologist to 

find the appropriate level of nonproductive exploration necessary for minimum annual cost 

and maximum annual proceeds at any level in 

any particluar mining and geological circumstances. The latter (multimine) method stems 

from its place in balancing exploration for 

more reserves, current reserves trend, current 

capacity, and the market outlook (within the 

response time of the undertaking to market 

change) and the time necessary to find and to 

bring on to "full-stream" a new mine, or to 

close the least profitable existing mine.

None of these techniques for matching the 

needs of the coal mining industry to the geological conditions under which it must, perforce, operate, could have been developed solely from the principles of either geological science or mining engineering. The new geological 

discipline of coal-mining geology is halfway 

between the two and depends on both.

IMPROVED MINING TECHNIQUES AS 

RELATED TO GEOLOGY

By William B. Schmidt and John W. Corwine

U.S. Bureau of Mines

Washington, B.C.

ABSTRACT

The U.S. Bureau of Mines has two major 

goals relative to coal mining; the maximization of coal production, and the maintenance 

and upgrading of health and safety conditions 

during the mining operation. The role of applied geology in our research program differs 

from the usual geological investigations because we are concerned with the engineering 

aspects of the resource. The definition of geologic features as they relate to the coal-mining 

process and of their potential hazards forms 

the basis of the Bureau's geologic investigations, both in-house and contractual. The major 

program areas using applied geology information are: (1) Advanced Mining System Development, where premining geologic conditions regulate the type and method of extraction technology; (2) Ground Control, where 

the potential hazards of the structural geologic 

features are identified and corrective measures 

are applied to insure safe production environments; (3) Subsidence Program, which involves the prediction of ground movement response from the geologic conditions; and (4) 

Methane Control, where geologic information 

is used for planning mine layouts to minimize 

outflow and outburst phenomena. Specific geologic features under study by the Bureau include premining definition of sand channels and 

want areas by geophysical and sedimentological studies, prediction of roof-fall areas by 

geologic prediction models, and cataloging of 

known potential hazardous features for each 

major coal seam in the United States.

THE ROLE OF GEOLOGY IN COAL 

MINING

By C. Richard Dunrud

U.S. Geological Survey

Denver, Colo.

ABSTRACT

Geology plays an important role in both underground and surface coal mining. In underground mining, the lithology, structure, and 

ground-water conditions of rocks above and 

below the coal affect the behavior of these 

rocks in response to mining in three important 

ways: First, structure and lithology control 

the rate and direction of erosion, which, in 

turn, govern the thickness, depth, and configuration of the overburden and consequently control those stress conditions in the coal, roof 

rock, and floor rock that are related to topography. Faults, joints, and ground water tend 

to weaken rocks above the coal and to increase 

the rate and amount of subsidence above mine

8
workings. Second, any active orogenic stresses 

can change the magnitudes and directions of 

the stresses produced by topography. Third, the 

lithology and the primary and secondary structures such as bedding, crossbedding, organic 

structures, channel sandstones, dikes, joints, 

and faults in the rocks above and below the 

coal influence stability of the mine roof and 

floor in various ways. Knowledge of the ways 

in which these structures affect the stability 

of mine roofs is very important, because statistics indicate that roof falls are the primary 

hazard to coal miners.

Short- and long-term stability of highwalls 

and spoil piles in surface-mining operations 

also is controlled by the structure and lithology 

of the bedrock, by local surface-water and 

ground-water conditions, and by climatic conditions. The depth limit and benching requirements for stripping overburden, for example, 

are governed to a large extent by the shortterm strength of the unweathered bedrock, 

which is in turn controlled both by its structure and lithology and by the local distribution 

of surface and ground water. Final grading 

specifications for the last cut on the highwall 

of a surface mine depend upon the long-term 

slope stability of the weathered bedrock. 

Chemical weathering and leaching of spoil 

piles, as well as the stability of the slopes and 

the settlement characteristics of the regraded 

materials, also are affected by the lithology 

and structure of the unweathered and undisturbed bedrock or surficial material, as well as 

the climatic conditions in the mining area. 

These factors, therefore, are important to wellplanned and efficient mining and surface-restoration operations.

Basic geologic studies are important to planning mining activities from resource assessment through the mine-development and landrestoration stages. The map products from 

these studies should be at scales ranging from 

a national scale, to a coal-field scale, to perhaps 

even a local area scale, because various aspects 

of planning and implementation of mining 

projects by private companies or by government agencies commonly are conducted on national, regional, and areal scales. Maps at several scales are needed for evaluating the environmental effects as well as for analyzing 

and appraising the resource.

Types of maps that show geologic features 

that are important to planning and implementing mining activities from resource appraisal 

to restoration are listed below at suggested 

scales:

1. National Overview Series; scale 1:5,000,000 

to 1:7,500,000; for use in determining 

target coal field and appropriate mining 

method within selected coal fields; a series 

of maps is recommended, showing: 

a. Location, coal thickness, and tonnage of 

coal deposits that can be mined by (1) 

surface and (2) underground methods, 

b. Coal rank and type, sulfur and ash content, and abundance of trace elements, 

c. Other economic deposits that may be affected by coal mining activities, 

d. Surface relief; surface drainage and 

lakes, subsurface water quantity and 

quality.

e. Overburden thickness, type, lithology, 

strength, and structure; tectonic framework, 

f. Surface and underground land use and

ownership.

g. Areas previously mined by (1) underground and (2) surface methods; effects 

of past mining.

2. Coal Field Series; scale 1:50,000 to 1:- 

500,000, depending on areal extent of coal 

field; for use in appraising coal resources, 

in planning general drilling programs, and 

in determining best mining sites, mining 

procedures, general environmental effects 

of mining. Maps should show same elements 

as in National Overview Series but should 

be more specific and more detailed.

3. Mining Area Series; scale 1:2,500 to 1: - 

25,000, depending on size of mine area and 

detail needed; maps for use in (a) resource 

appraisal; (b) design of mining operations; 

(c) analyses of effects on the ground surface, ground water, and surface water; (d) 

design of drilling studies; and (e) restoration of mined lands. The maps in this series 

commonly would be compiled by private 

companies and would portray the same 

features as the National Overview Series,
except in much greater detail. Other specialuse maps, such as forecast maps of mining 

conditions for underground mining activities, probably will be needed.

SELECTED REFERENCES

Dunrud, C. R., 1976, Some engineering geologic factors controlling coal mine subsidence in Utah and 

Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 969, 39 p.

Great Britain, National Coal Board, Mining Dept., 

1975, Subsidence engineers handbook: 111 p.

Maberry, J. 0., 1971, Sedimentary features of the 

Blackhawk formation (Cretaceous) in the Sunnyside district, Carbon County, Utah: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 688, 44 p., 3 pis.

Sargent, K. A., and Hansen, D. E., compilers, 1976, 

General geology and mineral resources of the coal 

area of south-central Utah: U.S. Geol. Survey 

open-file rept. 76-811, 122 p., 4 pis., 24 figs.

GEOPHYSICS IN COAL EXPLORATION 

AND DEVELOPMENT

By Wilfred P. Hasbrouck

U.S. Geological Survey

Denver, Colo.

ABSTRACT

Geophysical methods have wide technical 

application in almost every phase of coal mining from exploration within large structural 

basins for potential coal deposits to prediction 

of rock conditions only a few meters ahead of 

the continuous-mining machine. However, only 

in recent years, spurred by the rapid increase 

in coal demand and coupled with the steady 

rise in labor and exploratory drilling costs, has 

coal geophysics become economically attractive. 

Its principal applications today are in borehole 

logging for determining the depth and thickness of seams and for obtaining a measure of 

coal quality, in high-resolution seismic prospecting for isolating technically disturbed 

areas within which mechanized mining would 

be unprofitable or unsafe, in seismic seam-wave 

probing for certifying seam continuity and for 

detecting minor faulting, and in gravity and 

magnetic surveys for delimiting coal resources. 

These successful demonstrations of the cost 

effectiveness of coal geophysics will accelerate 

the application of existing methods and motivate the development of new techniques, a 

trend already evident in the amount and variety 

of ongoing research.

In addition to refining proven techniques, 

research is being directed to the following 

problem areas: (1) delineation of old, inaccessible underground workings, (2) location of 

very old mine shafts, (3) determination of the 

continuity of coal beds, (4) prediction of 

ground conditions immediately ahead of the 

advancing longwall, (5) detection of lenticular 

coal deposits at strippable depths, (6) mapping 

of channel cutouts, (7) development of borehole assaying methods for sulfur, (8) location 

of igneous dikes and clay seams within coal 

measures, (9) determination of overburden 

and roof-rock strengths, and (10) improvement in the safety of mining operations.

SELECTED REFERENCES

Clarke, A. M., 1976, Seismic surveying and mine planning; their relationship and application, in Muir, 

W. L. G., ed., Coal exploration; Proceedings of 

the First International Coal Exploration Symposium, London, England, May 18-21, 1976: San 

Francisco, Miller Freeman Pubs., p. 158-191.

Daly, T. E., and Hagemann, R. F., 1976, Seismic methods for the delineation of coal deposits, in Muir, 

W. L. G., ed., Coal exploration; Proceedings of the 

First International Coal Exploration Symposium, 

London, England, May 18-21, 1976: San Francisco, 

Miller Freeman Pubs., p. 192-226.

Hasbrouck, W. P., and Hadsell, F. A., 1976, Geophysical 

exploration techniques applied to Western United 

States coal deposits, in Muir, W. L. G., ed., 

Coal exploration; Proceedings of the First International Coal Exploration Symposium, London, 

England, May 18-21, 1976: San Francisco, Miller 

Freeman Pubs., p. 256-287.

Krey, T. C., 1976, In-seam seismic exploration techniques, in Muir, W. L. G., ed., Coal exploration; 

Proceedings of the First International Coal Exploration Symposium, London, England, May 18- 

21, 1976: San Francisco, Miller Freeman Pubs., 

p. 227-255.

HYDROLOGIC ASPECTS OF THE

REHABILITATION POTENTIAL OF

SURFACE-MINABLE COAL LANDS IN THE

WEST

By Lynn M. Shown

U.S. Geological Survey

Denver, Colo.

ABSTRACT

Climate, topography, and geology are the 

three major factors that cause variations in the 

vegetation, soils, and hydrology of coal lands in 

the Western United States. Therefore, each is

10
among the important factors that determine 

the rehabilitation potential of any specific area 

where mining is proposed.

Rehabilitation potential is the probability 

for returning the land to a usable form and 

maximum feasible productivity by applying 

reasonable procedures in conformance with a 

land use plan. The goals of rehabilitation are 

to develop a stable ecology, to minimize environmental deterioration, and to provide consistence with surrounding aesthetic values.

In order to evaluate rehabilitation potential 

more accurately, we need research on several 

formidable problems associated with surface 

mining of western coal lands:

(1) The effects of changing land use after 

mining- and changes caused by construction of 

transportation corridors and urban and recreational areas need to be defined. Potential effects 

indude changes in (a) annual volume of runoff water, (b) frequency and magnitude of 

peak flows, (c) soil erosion, (d) chemical and 

biological quality and sediment loads of streamflows, and (e) ground-water recharge and discharge. (2) Alternative procedures designed 

to preserve the forage-production capability 

and water-quality values of alluvial valleys 

need to be intensively evaluated, (a) Technology exists for stabilization of highwalls or 

other knick points where they intersect stream 

channels, but specific applications need to be 

designed, (b) Methods of backfilling that minimize compaction or means for draining ground 

water through compacted fill need to be devised to prevent the mixing of good-quality 

surface water with poorer quality ground 

water. (3) The effects of closed depressions 

in the postmining topography on the regional 

hydrology in areas of thick coal beds need 

investigation, and plans for rerouting, regrading, and maintaining the flows of throughflowing streams must be designed. (4) Additional knowledge is required about the effects 

on the quality of ground water and surface 

water of vertical leaching and horizontal flushing of backfill materials.

In addition, long-term (perhaps two decades 

or more) monitoring or applied research is 

needed to determine how long it takes for the 

soil to reaggregate, for vegetation to reach 

equilibrium, and for ground-water levels and

ground-water quality to stabilize after mining 

and rehabilitation.

Research is progressing in other aspects of 

rehabilitation that have influences on the hydrology of mining areas such as: (1) determination of overburden members that are suitable for vegetation growth media in areas of 

thin or unsuitable topsoil; (2) depth of topsoil 

or growth media needed for given surface materials, subsurface materials, adapted vegetation, climate, and topography; (3) need for 

temporary irrigation to expedite vegetation 

establishment and the programming of the 

irrigation; (4) adaptation of vegetation species 

and planting methods; (5) mechanical treatments to rehabilitated surfaces to promote 

vegetation growth and minimize erosion; and 

(6) disposal of refuse including potentially 

toxic substances.

SELECTED REFERENCES

Environmental Studies Board, Study Committee on the 

Potential for Rehabilitating Lands Surface Mined 

for Coal in the Western United States, 1974, Rehabilitation potential of western coal lands*; a report to the Energy Policy Project 0:* the Ford 

Foundation: Cambridge, Mass., Ballinger Pub. Co., 

198 p. (see especially p. 10).

Grim, E. C., and Hill, R. D., 1974, Environmental protection in surface mining of coal: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Protection Technology Series EPA-670/2-74-093, 292 p. 

(also available from U.S. Dept. Commerce, Nat. 

Tech. Inf. Service, PB-238 538/3BE).

Hadley, R. F., and Keefer, W. R., 1975, Map showing 

some potential effects of surface mining of the 

Wyodak-Anderson coal, Gillette area, Campbell 

County, Wyoming: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Inv. 

Map I-848-F, scale 1:125,000.

Keefer, W. R., and Hadley, R. F., 1976, Land and natural resource information and some potential environmental effects of surface mining of coal in 

the Gillette area, Wyoming: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Circ. 743, 27 p.

Lusby, G. C., and Toy, T. J., 1976, An evaluation of 

surface-mine spoils area restoration in Wyoming 

using rainfall simulation: Earth Surface Processes, v. 1, no. 4, p. 375-386.

Persse, F. H., 1975, Strip-mining techniques to minimize environmental damage in the Upper Missouri 

River basin States: U.S. Bur. Mines Inf. Circ. 

8685, 53 p.

Vories, K. C., ed., 1976, Reclamation of western surface-mined lands, in Workshop Proc. Mar. 1-3, 

1976: Ft. Collins, Colo., Ecol. Consultants, 152 p.

11
Wall, M. K., erf., 1973, Some environmental aspects of 

strip mining in North Dakota: North Dakota Geol. 

Survey Educ. Ser. 5, 121 p.

 1975, Practices and problems of land reclamation in Western North America: Grand Forks, 

N.D., Univ. North Dakota Press, 196 p.

RECLAMATION OF EASTERN SURFACE 

MINES

By B. V. Cooper

Virginia Surface Mining and Reclamation

Association, Inc.

Norton, Va.

ABSTRACT

The mountains of southern Appalachia contain some of our Nation's most valuable surface 

minable coal, but the area is one of the most 

difficult to reclaim properly after mining. Steep 

slopes, thick overburden, generally poor soils, 

highly variable rainfall, and extreme winter 

temperatures provide a constant challenge.

In recent years, tremendous progress has 

been made by State enforcement agencies and 

the surface-mining industry in planning1 , mining, and reclaiming, and in utilizing reclaimed 

areas. This presentation describes these facets 

of the coal surface-mining industry in southwest Virginia. The problems encountered and 

the solutions are, however, typical of those in 

several other southern Appalachian States.

In a region where the average slope of areas 

being mined exceeds 25°, even getting equipment to the job site posses special problems. 

Water control and management take on special 

significance.

During the entire mining operation, the ultimate reclamation of the site must be an overriding consideration. Material management is 

critical. The operator must be sure that he has 

available enough suitable material to sustain 

vegetation and that he can physically stabilize 

the area.

His choice of seed, fertilizer, mulch, and application methods will also be extremely important. Soil types and available plant nutrients 

vary widely, and occasional problems with acidity increase chances of unsatisfactory reclamation results unless every action is carefully 

planned and executed.

With better reclamation has come an increased public awareness of the great potential 

of reclaimed surface mines. Already, these 

areas are being used for recreation, airports, 

shopping centers, housing developments, school 

sites, and agriculture.

In addition to these factors, this presentation 

covers the effects of existing surface-mining 

legislation, the probable effects of certain pending bills, and the outlook for Appalachian coal 

surface mining.

12
TECHNICAL SESSION HI-UTILIZATION OF COAL: SYNFUELS, PETROCHEMICALS, 

METALLURGICAL COKE, ELECTRICITY GENERATION

CHARACTERISTICS OF COAL RELATIVE 

TO SYNFUELS

By G. Alex Mills

Energy Research and Development Administration 

Washington, B.C.

ABSTRACT

Various degrees of coalification and the accompanying chemical and physical changes result in the formation of coals of different characteristics. These characteristics influence the 

chemical processes used to convert coal to synthetic gaseous and liquid fuels. Various conversion processes exist pyrolysis, solvent extraction, catalytic hydroliquefaction, gasification. Consequently, although certain general 

and specific properties of coal have been identified that bear on the suitability of coals for 

synthetic fuels, no single set of suitability criteria has been found.

Coal rank is based mainly on volatile content, 

which is related to elemental composition. Geologically younger coals generally are more 

chemically reactive than older coals, and vitrain 

is known to be more reactive than fusain. High 

hydrogen content is desirable in coal to be used 

in synfuels production, but oxygen, sulfur, and 

nitrogen are not desirable and must be removed. Caking tendencies of coal cause operating problems in the preheaters and reactors of 

synfuels processors.

The petrography and mineral matter of coal 

have been identified as factors affecting synfuels processes. Many chemical elements in the 

mineral matter are active catalysts in the hydroliquefaction and gasification of coals. Specifically, iron compounds catalytically accelerate 

hydroliquefaction, whereas sodium speeds up 

gasification. Ash from the mineral matter left 

after the chemical reaction taking place during 

the production of synfuels is responsible for 

problems in the solid separation of the heavy

residue produced by coal hydroliquefaction. In 

the synfuels production methods, ash causes 

difficulties in slag removal and in other operations in the large-scale coal-combustion equipment and slagging-type coal gasifiers. Complete 

removal of mineral matter in the feed for synfuels processes is not economically feasible 

nor, in certain processes, desirable.

Successful in-situ gasification depends on the 

nature of the local coal deposits, on an adequate 

water supply, and on an appropriate local 

topography.

Research is needed to establish relationships 

among characteristics of coal, its petrographic 

components, the synfuels processes, and the 

quality of products. Research is also needed to 

study kinetics of gasification and hydroliquefaction of petrographic components; to clarify the 

mechanisms of synfuels conversion with relation to the chemical structure of coal (including forms of sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen, and 

mineral water) and to its petrographic components; and possibly also to devise methods for 

large-scale treatment of petrographic components for synfuels production.

Recent highlights of the ERDA program in 

studying characteristics of coals relative to synfuels conversion are summarized.

COAL SCIENCE RELATED TO 

UTILIZATION

By Richard C. Neavel

Exxon Research and Engineering Company 

Baytown, Tex.

ABSTRACT

Coal can be defined succinctly as a sedimentary rock that is composed principally of macerals and subordinately of minerals and that 

contains water in submicroscopic pores. Coals 

originated as peat deposits formed in swamps 

through the accumulation of physically discrete

13
and chemically distinctive plant substances 

(and minor proportions of inorganic substances). The distinctive organic components 

of peat were converted (metamorphosed) to 

distinctive coal constituents (macerals) (1) by 

compaction beneath subsequently deposited 

detrital sediments and (2) by heat from subterranean sources.

Wood was the dominant plant material in 

typical peat swamps; therefore, typical coals 

consist predominantly of the wood-derived maceral vitrinite. All coals can be ranked by measuring one or more of the vitrinite properties 

(i.e., carbon content, volatile matter) that reflect the severity of the metamorphic processes 

that affected the region containing the coals. 

Identification of the rank of a coal provides a 

key, through established correlations, to many 

of the physical and chemical properties of the 

vitrinite. Characterization of the coal type according to its content of nonvitrinitic macerals 

and minerals provides insight into the expectable deviations of whole-coal properties from 

the properties of vitrinite of that rank.

Thus, to compare and to contrast (that is, to 

classify) coals optimally, both the coal rank, 

reflecting the stage of metamorphic alteration, 

and the coal type, reflecting the heterogeneity 

inherited from the diverse source materials, 

must be recognized.

The utility (grade) of coal for any use is 

reduced in direct proportion to its content of 

included impurities (moisture and ash-forming 

inorganic material). Additionally, for each 

process in which coal is used, specific criteria 

(other than purity) exist by which the coal 

is valued or graded. As shown in the table below, each of these grade criteria is affected 

directly by (1) the rank, (2) the type (petrographic constitution), or (3) both rank and 

type.

I estimate that about 75-85 percent of the 

variability in coal properties critical to grade 

(other than content of nonorganic impurities) 

is attributable to variations in rank. This is 

largely due to the fact that, because most coals 

are vitrinite rich, the metamorphically induced 

vitrinite properties dominate. However, as 

shown in the table, variations attributable to 

depositionally related coal-type factors can influence coal grade. For some applications, even

Process Principal grade criteria

Controlling

fundamental

coal 

property

( 1 , dominant;

2, secondary)

Rank Type

Mining,

preparation.

Combustion __

Pyrolysis

(exmetcoke)

Metcoke _____

Grindability, hardness,

abrasiveness _______ --_. -._.

Formation of unique particles ..

 Calorific ._ ._ 

Combustibility, swelling _ ____

Ash properties _ .

..Yield structure 

Agglomeration . -

_ Coke strength _ _ ._

Coke yield -__-____-____ ___ __

Contraction, pressure _ _ _________

Impurities in coke 

Liquefaction .Gas + liquids yield _ -

Gas/liquids ratio __ - __ ___

Liquid properties ________________

Autocatalysis, exchanged ions .._ __

Autocatalysis, minerals _ .

Gasification -----Reactivity - _ __________ _ _ -__-_

Autocatalysis, exchanged ions _ _ __

1

1

1 .

1 _.

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

 _ 2

... 1

... 2

.__ 1

 2

.. 2

.. 2

... 1

 2

... 1

where the rank is right, the type may preclude 

the use of a coal completely.

On the bases of the foregoing, I conclude that 

planning for the optimal use of our Nation's 

coals requires that:

1. Our Nation's coals be defined adequately 

in terms of their rank and type (petrographic constitution).

2. Research programs be instigated that 

quantify the specific correlations between 

the principal grade criteria (especially 

for synthetic fuels uses) and the fundamental properties that define rank and 

type.

COAL AS A CHEMICAL RESOURCE

By Peter H. Spitz

Chem Systems Inc.

New York, N.Y.

ABSTRACT

Originally the base for many organic chemicals (from "coal tar"), coal has almost ceased 

to be a chemical raw material because of the 

availability of low-cost hydrocarbons from natural gas and petroleum sources. However, the 

large U.S. coal resource base and its likely longterm cost relative to that of petroleum are 

causing government and industry to project a 

resurgence of chemicals production from coal 

before the end of the century.

Chemicals that can be made from coal by 

developing technologies include olefins, aro14
matics, oxygenated intermediates, and ammonia. The effect of coal rank and characteristics and of various gasifier or liquefaction technologies on light-hydrocarbon and chemical 

yields are discussed. Economics for production 

of certain chemicals from coal are covered in 

a general manner.

SELECTED REFERENCES

Chem Systems Inc., 1975, Chemicals from coal and 

shale: a research and development for National 

Science Foundation: U.S. Dept. Commerce, Nat. 

Tech. Inf. Service PB-234 393, 60 p.

Seamans, R. C., Jr., and White, P. C., 1976, Fossil 

energy program report, 1975-1976: Energy Research and Devel. Admin., 76-10, 384 p., (see especially p. 49-55).

Fieldner, A. C., and Davis, J. D., 1934, Gas-, coke-, and 

byproduct-making properties of American coals 

and their determination: U.S. Bur. Mines Mon. 5, 

164 p.

Wender, Irving, Friedel, R. A., and Orchin, Milton, 

1951, Ethanol from methanol: Science, v. 113, no. 

2930, p. 206-207.

SELECTION OF COALS FOR COKE 

MAKING

By R. J. Gray

United States Steel Corporation 

Monroeville, Pa.

ABSTRACT

Coke making is one of the oldest coal-conversion processes. Some coals, heated in the absence of air, produce a porous carbon residue 

called coke. As the demands for charcoal for 

the blast furnace depleted the forests, these 

coals were substituted for wood in the charcoal 

oven, and the coking industry was born. The 

dome-shape beehive oven was one of the earliest 

permanent structures used for coke making. 

Late in the 19th century, the Europeans developed byproduct ovens which, for the first time, 

enabled collection of the valuable distillation 

products. The byproduct oven is the dominant 

type used today; however, an effort to commercialize continuous coking is growing.

Coking coals are loosely defined as those producing acceptable coke. However, coking coals 

possess the unique property of softening, fusing, and resolidifying to form a porous carbon 

structure when carbonized. When coking coals 

are heated, the complex organic molecules break

down into simpler primary volatile gaseous and 

liquid compounds. Some primary products react 

to form secondary products. The solid residue 

is coke and the gas, light oil, tars, and ammonium are by-products.

Coke for the blast furnace must be strong 

and low in impurities that could adversely affect performance or metal quality. Coke 

strength is measured by the amount of degradation induced by shatter or tumbling tests, and 

purity is measured in terms of volatile matter, 

ash, sulfur, phosphorous, and alkalies.

To meet coke quality specifications, the 

proper coals must be selected. A narrow group 

of coals in the lignite-to-anthracite series possesses properties that distinguish them as coking coals. These coals are called bituminous and 

consist of high, medium, and low volatile 

bituminous. Medium volatile coals are the best 

coking. The tests used to select coking coals 

measure chemical, rheological, petrographic, 

and carbonization properties. The most common chemical analyses are proximate and 

sulfur; however, phosphorous, alkali, and 

chlorine content are frequently determined. 

Commonly used rheological tests are Gieseler 

plastometer and free-swelling index. Petrographic analysis measures maceral composition 

and vitrinoid reflectance which serve to define 

coal type and rank, and these data can be used 

in predicting carbonization characteristics. 

Carbonization tests measure pressure and volume change and produce a coke that is tested 

for strength such as hardness and stability. 

Carbonization variables that affect strength 

are coal pulverization level, heating rate, and 

bulk density.

Most coking coals contain 15-40 percent 

volatile matter, 4-7 percent ashes, and 0.6-1.0 

percent sulfurs. Alkali, phosphorous, and chlorine content should be as low as possible. 

Gieseler fluidity should be on the high end of 

the range for each of the coal ranks considered. 

The free-swelling index should be a minimum 

of 4. Ash softening temperature should be 

greater than 2500° F. On the basis of petrography, the vitrinoids should have reflectances 

between 0.7 and 1.8 percent, and a large amount 

of reactive macerals is desirable. Better coking 

coals are in the middle of the reflectance range: 

a blend reflectance of 1.1 to 1.2 percent is desir15
able when more than one coal is blended for 

making coke. The coal or coal blends must not 

produce pressures in excess of 2 pounds per 

square inch on oven walls, contraction should 

be 8 percent or more, and the coke should have 

a stability of 50 or greater. Small blast furnaces can use weaker coke than large furnaces. 

A stability of 58 or more is required for large 

blast furnaces. Limited availability of better 

coking coals necessitates blending of coals to 

obtain high-strength coke.

SELECTED REFERENCES

Agroskin, A. A., 1966, Chemistry and technology of 

coal. Translated from Russian by N. Kaner.: 

Jerusalem, Israel Program Sci. Translation, 234 p.

American Society for Testing and Materials, 1976, 1976 

Annual book of ASTM standards, Part 26, Gaseous 

fuels; coal and coke; atmospheric analysis: Philadelphia, Pa. 800 p.

Clendenin, J. D., 1969, Coal and coke, in Strassburger, 

J. H., ed., Blast furnace theory and practice: New 

York, Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, v. 1, 

p. 325-436.

National Research Council, Committee on Chemical 

Utilization of Coal, 1945, 1963, Chemistry of coal 

utilization. H. H. Lowry, chairman [and editor]: 

New York, John Wiley and Sons, 2 v. (1945); Supplementary volume, 1142 p. (1963).

Schapiro, N., Gray, R. J., and Eusner, G. R., 1961, 

Recent developments in coal petrography: Am. 

Inst. Mining, Metall. and Petroleum Engineers, 

Iron and Steel Division, Blast Furnace, Coke Oven, 

and Raw Materials Committee Proc., v. 20, p. 89- 

112.

Stach, Erich, Taylor, G. H., Mackowsky, M.-th, 

Chandra, D, Teichmuller, M., and Teichmiiller, R., 

1975, Stach's textbook of coal petrology. Translation and English revision by D. G. Murchison, G. 

H. Taylor, and F. Zierke, 2d. rev. ed.: Berlin, 

Gebriider Borntraeger, 428 p.

U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1967, Methods of analyzing and 

testing coal and coke: U.S. Bur. Mines Bull. 638, 

82 p., 50 figs.

Wilson, P. J., Jr., and Wells, J. H., 1950, Coal, coke, 

and coal chemicals: New York, McGraw-Hill Book 

Co., 509 p.

ELECTRIC UTILITY INDUSTRY STRATEGY 

FOR RESEARCH IN COAL GEOLOGY

By Richard A. Schmidt

Electric Power Research Institute

Palo Alto, Calif.

ABSTRACT

The electric utility industry is the largest 

single consumer of U.S. coal; it uses roughly

two-thirds of total annual production. In the 

future, coal will continue to be an essential fuel 

in existing utility facilities, in those converted 

from fluid hydrocarbon fuels, and in new power 

plants.

For the most part, particularly for the remainder of the 20th century, coal will be burned 

to raise steam for power generation. Accordingly, the electric utility industry's objectives 

for research on coal concern all factors pertaining to coal utilization.

Coal-fired electric-power generating facilities 

may require about 820 million tons of coal in 

1985 and roughly 1600 million tons in the year 

2000. Although the United States is endowed 

with substantial coal resources, not all these resources constitute reserves, and not all reserves 

can be recovered for use. The remaining measured and indicated recoverable reserves are estimated to be only about 8 percent of the total 

National coal resource.

Cumulative coal-production statistics are assumed to represent recoverable reserves that 

have already been recovered. Together with 

estimated remaining recoverable reserves, these 

data permit an estimate of the stage of coal 

development by State. Extensive coal mining 

has taken place in the Appalachian region; only 

about one-third of the measured and indicated 

recoverable reserves remain in Alabama and 

Tennessee, and only about half these reserves 

remain in Pennsylvania, Maryand, and Virginia. In contrast, the remaining recoverable reserves from measured and indicated deposits in 

the States west of the Mississippi River are 

essentially intact. The estimate of remaining 

recoverable reserves is increased by inclusion 

of less well known 'inferred" deposits; their inclusion extends the estimated reserve lifetime, 

especially at the higher production levels projected for 1985.

Electric utilities are concerned with the quantity of recoverable coal reserves, their quality 

in various utilization systems, and environmental effects of production and consumption. 

Historically, utilities could concentrate on the 

engineering aspects of individual coals in specific facilities for optimum power generation, 

and a wealth of empirical data was acquired. 

The present situation, in which concern over 

environmental pollutants influences coal selec16
tion and utilization, creates an opportunity for 

placing unprecedented emphasis on the availability of comprehensive geological data on coal 

properties and characteristics to guide engineering efforts for pollution control while maintaining operational efficiency. Considerable 

effort will be required to place present engineering data about coal use on a firm theoretical 

base that will enable performance assessments 

to be prepared in advance of utilization.

Research on coal geology needs to be directed 

toward obtaining information to guide resource 

conservation and characterization of coal properties for efficient utilization. Goals for research on coal geology in the remaining years 

of the 1970's and beyond are suggested, as follows:

1. Before the end of the 1970's, compile and 

analyze data on coal deposits for the remaining States according to a computer procedure 

similar to that developed by the Illinois 

State Geological Survey (ILLIMAP).

2. Before the end of the 1970's, perfect and deploy a means for rapid nondestructive comprehensive analysis of representative coal 

samples as an integral part of production, 

preparation, and utilization operations.

3. Before the end of the 1970's, establish and 

utilize a means of correlating coal properties 

and utilization conditions so as to facilitate 

beneficiation/blending to meet performance 

requirements within pollution-control limits.

4. By 1980, rejuvenate curricula and instructional materials on coal geology at both 

undergraduate and graduate levels.

5. Within the next decade, pursue the integration of results in coal geology research with 

those from other sectors of the earth sciences to contribute to a better understanding of the evolution of the earth and its 

environment.

Specific research activities directed toward 

attainment of these goals include:

a. Compilation of available data on coal reresource and recoverable reserves,

b. Investigation of inferred resources,

c. In-mine geological mapping,

d. Determination of properties of associated 

strata,

e. Resource exploration,

f. Perfecting a means for rapid non-destructive

analysis of coal, 

g. Determination of engineering properties of

coal, 

h. Basic research on coal characteristics and

origin, and 

i. Rejuvenation of curricula and instructional

materials related to coal geology.

Geologists who are knowledgeable about coal 

must become more involved in planning and implementing coal research and development if 

the nation is to derive full advantage from its 

deposits.

SELECTED REFERENCES

Attig, R. C., and Duzy, A. F., 1969, Cole ash deposition 

studies and application to boiler design: Am. 

Power Conf. Proc., v. 31, p. 290-300.

Averitt, Paul, 1973, Coal, in Brobst, D. A., and Pratt, 

W. P., eds., United States mineral resources: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 820, p. 133-142.

 1975, Coal resources of the United States, January 1, 1974: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1412, 131 p.

Deurbrouck, A. W., 1972, Sulfur reduction potential 

of the coals of the United States: U.S. Bur. Mines 

Rept. Inv. 7633, 289 p., 122 figs.

Kissell, F. N., Banfield, J. L., Dalzell, R. W., and 

Zabetakis, M. G., 1974, Peak methane concentrations during coal mining, an analysis: U.S. Bur. 

Mines Rept. Inv. 7885, 17 p., 7 figs.

Leonard, J. W., and Mitchell, D. R., eds., 1968, Coal 

preparation. 3d ed.: New York, Am. Inst. Mining, 

Metall. and Petroleum Engineers, variously paged, 

(see especially Chap. 7)

Mining Informational Services, 1974, 1974 Keystone 

coal industry manual: New York, McGraw Hill 

Mining Pubs., 859 p. (see especially p. 199)

National Electric Reliability Council, 1976, Fossil and 

nuclear fuel for electric utility generating Requirements and constraints 1976-1985: Princeton, 

N.J., 27 p.

Nielsen, G. F., 1976, Coal mine development survey 

shows 492.6 million tons of new capacity by 1985: 

Coal Age, v. 81, no. 2, p. 106-112.

Schmidt, R. L., Engelman, W. H., and Fumanti, R. R., 

1972, A comparison of borer, ripper, and conventional mining products in Illinois No. 6 seam coal: 

U.S. Bur. Mines Rept. Inv. 7687, 18 p., 14 figs.

Smith, W. H., and Stall, J. B., 1975, Coal and water 

resources for coal conversion in Illinois: Illinois 

State Water Survey and Illinois State Geol. Survey Coop. Resources Rept. 4, 79 p.

Stutzer, Otto, 1940, Geology of coal. Translated and 

revised by A. C. Noe.: Chicago, Univ. Chicago 

Press, 461 p. (see especially p. 261)

17
U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1971, Strippable reserves of 

bituminous coal and lignite in the United States: 

U.S. Bur. Mines Inf. Circ. 8531, 148 p., 6 figs.

 1974, Demonstrated coal reserve base of the 

United States on January 1, 1974: U.S. Bur. Mines 

Min. Industry Survey, 6 p.

Winegartner, E. C., ed., 1974, Coal fouling and slagging 

parameters: New York, Am. Soc. Mech. Engineers, 

Research Comm. on Corrosion and Deposits from 

Combustion Gases, 34 p.

Winegartner, E. C., and Ubbens, A. A., 1975, Understanding coal ash quality parameters: New York, 

Am. Inst. Mining, Metall. and Petroleum Engineers, Soc. Mining Engineers Preprint 75-F-32, 

14 p.

THE NATIONAL COAL RESOURCES 

DATA SYSTEM

By M. D. Carter and Gordon H. Wood, Jr.

U.S. Geological Survey

Reston, Va.

ABSTRACT

A computer-based coal-resource data system 

has been developed by the U.S. Geological Survey (U.S.G.S.). This interactive conversational 

query system allows access to the data by any 

interested party, either by request through the 

Geological Survey or by independent remote access through any standard computer terminal. 

Development of the system has been in two 

phases to accommodate the availability and 

complexity of the data.

Phase I, which is currently available but for 

which data entry is not yet complete, contains 

published resource and chemical data on an

areal basis, such as State, county, township, or 

field. The user can retrieve and tabulate aggregated coal-resource-related data from the area 

file to compile local, regional, or national sumary reports.

Phase II will store, retrieve, and manipulate 

basic point-source coal data from, for example, 

field observations and drill-hole logs. The data 

will include geodetic location; bed thickness; 

depth of burial; moisture, ash, sulfur, major-, 

minor-, and trace-element content; heat 

value; and characteristics of overburden, roof, 

and floor rocks. The computer system may be 

used interactively to generate structure-contour, isopach, or isoline maps of the physical 

and chemical characteristics of a coal bed or to 

calculate coal resources.

Coal-resource-related data from ongoing 

U.S.G.S. programs, as well as from other Federal, State, university, and industrial groups, 

will be entered into the system to provide comprehensive national coverage.

All data should be available to all users of the 

system. However, where essential, confidentiality will be preserved, and the general user will 

be provided with aggregated data only.

SELECTED REFERENCES

Cargill, S. M., Olson, A. C., Medlin, A. L., and Carter, 

M. D., 1976, PACER Data entry, retrieval, and 

update for the National Coal Resources Data System (Phase I): U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 

978,107 p.

Carter, M. D., 1976, The National Coal-Resources Data 

System of the U.S. Geological Survey: Computers 

and Geosciences, v. 2, no. 3, p. 331-340.

18
TECHNICAL SESSION IV-U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY COAL PROGRAMS

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROJECTS IN 

WESTERN COAL GEOLOGY

By W. J. Mapel

U.S. Geological Survey

Denver, Colo.

ABSTRACT

The present work of about 150 U.S. Geological Survvey geologists, hydrologists, geophysicists, chemists, and engineers is devoted to 

studies of Western U.S. coal geology, including 

geologic mapping, stratigraphic studies, mineral classification, coal resource evaluation, geochemical studies, and coal hydrology. Programs 

dealing with these topics are largely concentrated in the Rocky Mountain and Great Plains 

States of North Dakota, Montana, Wyoming, 

Colorado, Utah, and New Mexico. For the sixState region, ownership of coal lands and coal 

rights by the Federal Government ranges from 

an estimated 82 percent of the total coal lands 

and coal rights in Utah to 25 percent in North 

Dakota; it is about 60 percent for the region as 

a whole.

Priority areas of investigation are the lignite 

area of western North Dakota, subbituminous 

coal areas of the eastern and northern Powder 

River Basin of Montana and Wyoming, and 

subbituminous and bituminous coal areas of 

the Yampa River and Danforth Hills fields of 

northwest Colorado, the Hanna Basin and Rock 

Springs uplift of southern Wyoming, and the 

Wasatch Plateau of central Utah. Exploratory 

drilling is being done in most areas being 

studied. About 1,000 holes, totalling about 

415,000 feet, will be drilled in 1975-76.

Objectives of the work of the U.S. Geological 

Survey are to determine the continuity of the 

coal beds, refine coal-bed correlations, locate 

more accurately the position of coal beds that 

were originally mapped on inadequate base 

maps, determine the locations and tonnages of 

coal in thick beds under shallow cover, and

establish regional and local geochemical variations in surficial deposits, coal-bearing rocks, 

and selected vegetation types in selected coal 

basins additional objectives are to provide estimates of water availability and water quality 

from streamflow and ground water; this information will be used to help plan for increased 

coal production and related developments such 

as coal-slurry pipelines. Studies have been designed for selected small stream basins to determine, in detail, the relations of the coal beds 

to the hydrologic system and the hydrologic 

effects of coal mining and land reclamation.

Site-specific evaluations are being undertaken 

in cooperation with the U.S. Bureau of Land 

Management at several localities in the Western 

States in a coordinated approach to analysis and 

interpretation of soil, water, overburden, and 

coal-resource data in prospective mining areas.

Geochemical studies include work on chemical variations in soils and on variability of selected elements in stream sediments in the 

Northern Great Plains, mineralogic and chemical variations in overburden rocks in the Fort 

Union Formation, and element concentrations 

in soils and vegetation near certain power 

plants and on reclaimed soils in the Great 

Plains region.

Studies in the Western U.S. coal fields are 

providing information needed to regulate the 

leasing and mining of Federally owned coal; 

they provide information useful for classifying 

coal resources in greater detail than has been 

done before; they enhance our ability to predict 

and monitor the geologic effects of coal mining; 

and, finally, they provide a better understanding of the coal-forming processes and coalforming environments in Cretaceous and early 

Tertiary time in the Western Interior region.

SELECTED REFERENCES

Averitt, Paul, and Lopez, Lorreda, 1972, Bibliography 

and index of U.S. Geological Survey publications

19
relating to coal, 1882-1970: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Bull. 1377, 173 p.

Walker, F. K., 1976, Bibliography and index of U.S. 

Geological Survey publications relating to coal, 

1971-1975: U.S. Geol. Survey Circ. 742, 32 p.

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROJECTS IN

COAL GEOLOGY OF THE EASTERN

UNITED STATES

By K. J. Englund

U.S. Geological Survey

Reston, Va.

ABSTRACT

The geologic aspects of Eastern United 

States coal deposits are covered by research 

projects ranging from studies of the initial accumulation of organic matter in modern swamp 

environments, through various phases of coalresource mapping and assessment, to the investigation of the characteristics and compositions 

of ash and other emissions in the final utilization of the coal.

Modern swamp studies are focused primarily 

on the Everglade basin, Florida, where geologic 

mapping, coring, and geochemical analysis are 

in progress to investigate the genesis of coal 

and the geologic controls on coal deposition. Because of the demand for low-sulfur coal, Virginia, West Virginia, and eastern Kentucky are 

priority areas for assessing the magnitude and 

quality of coal deposits. These studies involve 

geologic mapping, core drilling, sampling, petrographic description, and depositional-environment determinations. A complementary project the Pennsylvanian System Stratotype 

Study is a stratigraphic and paleontologic 

effort to establish a standard section for the 

Pennsylvania System, so that regional and 

worldwide correlations may be made of these 

economically important coal-bearing rocks. Possible environmental effects from the consumption of eastern coals and trace-element concentrations are being investigated by the detailed 

sampling and analysis of in-place coal, cleaned 

and blended coal, and the ash and flue gases resulting from the commercial utilization of coal. 

Newly acquired data from the ongoing projects, as well as currently available information 

on Eastern U.S. coal beds, are being computerized for the National Coal Resources Data System, which is being prepared by the U.S. Geological Survey.

SELECTED REFERENCES

Altschuler, Z. S., Zen, C. S., and Medlin, J. H., 1976, 

Holocene facies progression and peat occurrence 

in the southeast Everglades, Florida: Geol. Soc. 

America Abs. with Programs, v. 8, no. 2, p. 123.

Coleman, S. L., Medlin, J. H., Meissner, C. R., Trent, 

V. A., Windolph, J. F., and Englund, K. J., 1975, 

Environmental consideration of the distribution of 

trace elements in selected low-surfur bituminous 

coal, and anthracite beds of the Appalachian 

basin [abs.] : Geol. Soc. America Abs. with Programs, v. 7, no. 7, p. 1032-1033.

Englund, K. J., Cecil, C. B., Stricker, G. D,, and Warlow, R. C., 1976, Guidebook to Carboniferous stratigraphy of southwestern Virginia and southern 

West Virginia: Geol. Soc. America, NortheastSoutheast Sees. Joint Mtg., Arlington, Va., March 

1976, Field trip guidebook 3, 40 p.

Englund, K. J., Roen, J. B., Schweinfurth, S. P., and 

Arndt, H. H., 1974, Description and preliminary 

report of the Pennsylvanian System Stratotype 

Study [abs.] : Geol. Soc. America Abs. with Programs, v. 6, no. 7, p. 722.

Johnston, J. E., Miller, R. L., and Englund, K. J., 

1975, Applications of remote sensing to structural 

interpretations in the southern Appalachians: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Jour. Research, v. 3, no. 3, p. 285- 

293.

Medlin, J. H., Coleman, S. L., Englund, K. J., and 

Huffman, C., Jr., 1975, Inorganic geochemistry of 

low- to medium-sulfur coal beds in southwestern 

Virginia-southeastern West Virginia [abs.] : EOS 

(Am. Geophys. Union Trans.), v. 56, no. 6, p. 458.

Schweinfurth, S. P., Arndt, H. H., and Englund, K. J., 

1976, Descriptions of core from three U.S. Geological Survey core holes in Carboniferous rocks 

of West Virginia: U.S. Geol. Survey open-file rept. 

76-159, 62 p., 5 figs.

20