PLAN OF STUDY TO DEFINE 

HYDROGEOLOGIC CHARACTERISTICS 

OF THE MADERA LIMESTONE IN THE 

EAST MOUNTAIN AREA OF CENTRAL 

NEW MEXICO

By Dale R. Rankin

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

Open-File Report 99-201

Prepared in cooperation with the

BERNALILLO COUNTY ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH DEPARTMENT

Albuquerque, New Mexico 

1999
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

BRUCE BABBITT, Secretary

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Charles G. Groat, Director

The use of firm, trade, and brand names in this report is for identification purposes only and does 

not constitute endorsement by the U.S. Geological Survey.

For additional information write to:

District Chief 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Water Resources Division 

5338 Montgomery NE, Suite 400 

Albuquerque, NM 87109-1311

Copies of this report can be purchased 

from:

U.S. Geological Survey 

Branch of Information Services 

Box 25286 

Denver, CO 80225-0286
CONTENTS

Page

Executive summary............................................................................................................................................................... 1

Abstract..............................................................^ 2

Introduction............................................................................................................................_^ 2

Purpose and scope ....................................................................................................................................................... 4

Previous investigations................................................................................................................................................ 4

Acknowledgments............................................................................................................................................. 5

Hydrogeologic characteristics of the Madera Limestone...................................................................................................... 5

Geologic framework of the Madera Group ................................................................................................................. 7

Nomenclature and stratigraphy.......................................................................................................................... 7

Areal extent and thickness................................................................................................................................. 7

Depositional history, lithology, and structure.................................................................................................... 7

Hydrologic framework of the Madera Limestone....................................................................................................... 9

Aquifer type....................................................................................................................................................... 12

Hydraulic heads................................................................................................................................................. 12

Hydraulic properties.......................................................................................................................................... 12

Water quality..................................................................................................................................................... 14

Overview of fracture flow................................................................................................................................. 15

Ground-water flow direction ............................................................................................................................. 20

Ground-water withdrawal and depletion........................................................................................................ 20

Streamflow and springs ..................................................................................................................................... 20

Recharge................................................................................................................................................... 25

Septic-field effluent....................................................................................................................................... 25

Imported water.................................................................................................................................... 25

Plan of study...................................................................................................................................................... 25

Essential information and activities.......................................................................................................................... 25

Consolidate and evaluate existing information ................................................................................................. 25

Expand the well network.................-............................-........... ................................................................... 28

Domestic wells ........................................................................................................................................ 28

Unused wells..................................................................................................................................... 28

Piezometers........................................................................................................................................... 29

Boreholes.......................-...........-............ ........................................................................................... 29

Quantify recharge to the Madera Limestone..................................................................................................... 29

Define areas that contribute recharge ...................................................................................................... 29

Quantify recharge from surface water and precipitation......................................................................... 29

Quantify recharge from septic-field effluent and imported water........................................................ 30

Quantify discharge from the Madera Limestone............................................................................................... 30

Quantify withdrawal from domestic wells and public-supply systems................................................ 30

Quantify evapotranspiration.................................................................................................................... 30

Quantify and sample springflow............................................................................................................. 31

Define hydraulic properties of the Madera Limestone...................................................................................... 31

Establish hydrogeologic boundaries........................................................................................................ 31

Determine thickness and depth to the base...................................................................................... 31

Conduct and analyze aquifer tests ........................................................................................................... 31

Characterize ground-water flow in the Madera Limestone.............................-...............-... ...............-.....- 31

Characterize the fracture system............................................................................................................. 31

Determine the direction of ground-water flow........................................................................................ 32

Conduct and analyze borehole and surface geophysics.................................. ..................................... 32

iii
Page

Conduct and analyze tracer tests............................................................................................................. 33

Determine the age of ground water......................................................................................................... 33

Conduct isotope sampling for all components of the hydrologic cycle.................................................. 35

Develop a regional ground-water-flow model........................................................................................ 35

Useful information and activities................................................................................................................................ 35

Conduct remote sensing.................................................................................................................................... 35

Develop a water budget by aquifer................................................................................................................... 35

Consolidate geographic information system data............................................................................................. 35

Improve drilling records.................................................................................................................................... 36

Use U.S. Geological Survey databases for storage and retrieval of information............................................. 36

Update "Ground water in the Sandia and northern Manzano Mountains, New Mexico" (Titus, 1980)........... 39

Involve neighborhood associations and residents with data collection............................................................ 39

References.........................................................^ 39

Supplemental information................................................... 42

FIGURES

1. Map showing areal extent of the Madera Limestone and/or Madera Group within the study area, and location

of other bedrock aquifers...................................................................................................................................... 3

2. Index map of 7.5-minute STATEMAP geologic quadrangles.................................................................................. 6

3. Geologic sketch map of the Manzano-Sandia Mountains, 1907.............................................................................. 8

4. Diagram showing stratigraphy of the Madera Group............................................................................................... 10

5. Map showing location of faults in and near the study area...................................................................................... 11

6. Map showing well network in the study area........................................................................................................... 13

7. Photograph showing fractured Madera Group in a road cut in Cedro Canyon........................................................ 16

8-10. Diagrams showing:

8. Conceptual model of radial flow in a porous medium....................................................................................... 17

9. Conceptual model of linear flow in a fractured medium................................................................................... 18

10. Projection of fractures identified on acoustic-televiewer logs for a series of five boreholes ............................ 19

11-13. Maps showing:

11. Direction of ground-water flow in the San Antonito and upper Tijeras Canyon area....................................... 21

12. Water-level contours and direction of ground-water flow in the study area, 1984-85....................................... 22

13. Selected springs in the study area...................................................................................................................... 24

14. Diagram showing straddle packer configuration...................................................................................................... 34

15. Diagram showing components of a water budget.................................................................................................... 36

16. Well record form used by the Office of the State Engineer...................................................................................... 37

TABLES

1. Summary of water consumption rates for Albuquerque and east mountain area water systems..................................... 23

2. Prioritized plan of study to define hydrogeologic characteristics of the Madera Limestone in the

east mountain area........................................................................................................................................................ 26

iv
CONVERSION FACTORS AND VERTICAL DATUM

Multiply By To obtain

Length

inch 

foot 

mile

25.4 

0.3048 

1.609

millimeter 

meter 

kilometer

Area

square mile 2.590 square kilometer

Volume

gallon 

acre-foot

3.785 

1,233

liter 

cubic meter

Flow rate

gallon per minute 0.06309 liter per second

Transmissivity

foot squared per day 0.09290 meter squared per day

Temperature in degrees Celsius (°C) may be converted to degrees Fahrenheit (°F) as follows:

°F = (1.8x°C) + 32

Sea level: In this report, "sea level" refers to the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 a 

geodetic datum derived from a general adjustment of the first-order level nets of the United States 

and Canada, formerly called Sea Level Datum of 1929.
PLAN OF STUDY TO DEFINE HYDROGEOLOGIC 

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MADERA LIMESTONE IN THE 

EAST MOUNTAIN AREA OF CENTRAL NEW MEXICO

By Dale R. Rankin 

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The east mountain area, located along the eastern 

slopes of the northern Manzano and Sandia Mountains, 

is a forested, rural, and scenic region that covers 

approximately 320 square miles, and includes parts of 

Bernalillo, Sandoval, Santa Fe, and Torrance Counties. 

The east mountain area has experienced dramatic 

growth in population and development over the past 20 

years, and this trend is continuing. Limited groundwater supplies are the sole source of water for 

domestic, municipal, industrial, and agricultural uses 

throughout the area. Because the east mountain area is 

geologically complex and hydrologically variable, 

water quality and water quantity can differ markedly 

from one location to the next. Thin soils and 

unconsolidated alluvial deposits overlie fractured 

bedrock throughout the area. The fracturing in the 

bedrock strongly affects the hydrologic characteristics 

of the region and is the most significant and 

problematic aspect in characterizing ground-water 

flow.

County officials, residents, and others are 

concerned about the regional water supply because of 

an increasing population, variable and limited groundwater supplies, and the complicated geologic terrain 

that controls the hydrologic characteristics of the 

region. County officials recognize their role in regional 

water-resource planning and management. To fulfill 

this role, a variety of essential hydrologic datacollection activities and interpretive studies are needed 

to better define ground-water flow and hydraulic 

properties of the Madera Limestone, the principal 

aquifer in the east mountain area.

Most previous studies have been short-term, sitespecific investigations of the hydrology, geology, and 

water quality in the area. Coordinated, comprehensive 

planning for regional water-resource management of 

the east mountain area requires technical data from 

long-term, regional hydrologic studies.

Bernalillo County has contributed substantially 

in developing the current base of geohydrologic

information about water resources in the east mountain 

area. Much of this information has been gained through 

cooperative investigations with the U.S. Geological 

Survey (USGS). In March 1997, the USGS proposed 

development of a plan to guide long-term hydrologic 

studies in the east mountain area to the Bernalillo 

County Environmental Gross Receipts Tax Advisory 

Board. In accordance with the proposal, a meeting was 

held in December 1997 to discuss problems related to 

the region's water resources. The meeting consisted of 

representatives from the Bernalillo County 

Environmental Health Department, the New Mexico 

Office of the State Engineer, the New Mexico Bureau 

of Mines and Mineral Resources, the University of 

New Mexico Department of Earth and Planetary 

Sciences and the Department of Civil Engineering, the 

Waste-Management Education and Research 

Consortium, private consultants, and the USGS. The 

participants (see the "Acknowledgments" section of 

this report for the names of individuals) represented a 

variety of disciplines, and provided the needed 

expertise to effectively discuss data-collection 

activities and studies to improve understanding of 

ground-water flow and hydraulic properties of the 

Madera Limestone. This report is the result of that 

meeting.

The hydrogeologic characteristics of the Madera 

Limestone are divided into two parts in the report. The 

section titled "Geologic framework of the Madera 

Group" describes nomenclature and stratigraphy, areal 

extent and thickness, and depositional history, 

lithology, and structure. The section titled "Hydrologic 

framework of the Madera Limestone" describes the 

aquifer type, hydraulic heads, hydraulic properties, and 

water quality. This section also provides an overview 

of ground-water flow and discusses ground-water flow 

direction, ground-water withdrawal and depletion, 

streamflow and springs, recharge, septic-field effluent, 

and imported water.
This report presents a prioritized, comprehensive 

plan of study to define hydrogeologic characteristics of 

the Madera Limestone in the east mountain area. To 

prioritize the study elements outlined in the "Plan of 

study" section, data-collection activities and studies are 

categorized as "essential" or "useful." Information that 

is necessary to improve the understanding of or 

quantifies an element is prioritized as essential. 

Information that could add additional understanding, 

but is not necessary to quantify a study element, is 

prioritized as useful.

Essential Information and Activities

Consolidate and evaluate existing information 

Expand the well network 

Quantify recharge to the Madera Limestone 

Quantify discharge from the Madera Limestone 

Define hydraulic properties of the Madera 

Limestone

 Characterize ground-water flow in the Madera 

Limestone

Useful Information and Activities

 Conduct remote sensing

 Develop a water budget by aquifer

 Consolidate geographical information system data

 Improve drilling records

 Use USGS data bases for storage and retrieval of 

information

 Update "Ground water in the Sandia and northern 

Manzano Mountains, New Mexico" (Titus, 1980)

 Involve neighborhood associations and residents 

with data collection

Abstract

The east mountain area of central New 

Mexico includes the eastern one-third of 

Bernalillo County and portions of Sandoval, Santa 

Fe, and Torrance Counties. The area covers about 

320 square miles.

The Madera Limestone, the principal 

aquifer in the east mountain area, is the sole source 

of water for domestic, municipal, industrial, and 

agricultural uses for many residents. Some water 

is imported from wells near Edgewood by the 

Entranosa Water Cooperative, which serves a

population of approximately 3,300. The remaining 

population is served by small water systems that 

derive supplies locally or by individually owned 

domestic wells.

The population of the east mountain area 

has increased dramatically over the past 20 years. 

In 1970, the population of the east mountain area 

was about 4,000. Demographic projections 

suggest that approximately 1,000 people per year 

are moving into the area, and with a growth rate of 

3.0 percent the population will be 16,700 in 2000. 

Consequently, ground-water withdrawals have 

increased substantially over the past 20 years, and 

will continue to increase.

Little is known about the flow 

characteristics and hydrogeologic properties of the 

Madera Limestone. This report describes existing 

information about the geologic and hydrologic 

framework and flow characteristics of the Madera 

Limestone, and presents a plan of study for datacollection activities and interpretive studies that 

could be conducted to better define the 

hydrogeologic characteristics of the Madera 

Limestone.

Data-collection activities and interpretive 

studies related to the hydrogeologic components 

of the Madera Limestone are prioritized. 

Activities that are necessary to improve the 

quantification of a component are prioritized as 

essential. Activities that could add additional 

understanding of a component, but would not be 

necessary to improve the quantification of a 

component, are prioritized as useful.

INTRODUCTION

The east mountain area includes the eastern onethird of Bernalillo County and portions of Sandoval, 

Santa Fe, and Torrance Counties. The area covers about 

320 square miles and is defined by the crest line of the 

Sandia and Manzano Mountains to the west, the 

termination of the Sandia Mountains to the north, the 

community of Edgewood to the east, and the 

Bernalillo/Torrance County line to the south (fig. 1).
106°22'30" 106°15' 106°07'30"

x x / / /

EXPLANATION

- DRAINAGE

5 MILES

MADERA LIMESTONE -- 

AND/OR MADERA 

GROUP OUTCROPS _ _ _ _ 7.5-MINUTE

OTHER BEDROCK nnnAPV 

AQUIFERS BOUNDARY

CHILILI QUADRANGLE NAME

SURFACE-WATER 

GAGING STATION

I I I 

1 1 

12345 KILOMETERS

 <J>- CLIMATOLOGICAL STATION

s~

LOCATION OF STRATIGRAPHIC 

COLUMN SHOWN IN FIGURE 4

Figure 1 .--Areal extent of the Madera Limestone and/or Madera Group withi 

the study area, and location of other bedrock aquifers.

3

Map^ 

area

ljEW
The population of the east mountain area has 

increased dramatically over the past 20 years. In 

eastern Bernalillo County alone, the population 

increased from approximately 4,000 to more than 

12,000 from 1970 to 1990 (Summers, 1991, p. 59). 

Demographic projections provided by the East 

Mountain Area Plan (City of Albuquerque, 1992) 

suggest that approximately 1,000 people per year are 

moving into the area, and with a growth rate of 3.0 

percent the population will be 16,700 in 2000. Situated 

along the eastern slopes of the Manzano and Sandia 

Mountains, the area offers a rural and forested setting 

enjoyed by a diverse population located in old, 

established communities and new developments. Most 

development consists of single-family dwellings with 

individual wells and septic systems.

Ground water is the sole source of water for 

domestic, municipal, industrial, and agricultural uses 

throughout the east mountain area. Most ground-water 

supplies come from aquifers within the east mountain 

area, but some water is imported from wells near 

Edgewood by the Entranosa Water Cooperative, which 

serves a population of approximately 3,300 (Wilson 

and Lucero, 1997). The remaining population is served 

by small water systems that derive supplies locally or 

by individually owned domestic wells.

The Madera Limestone is the principal aquifer in 

the east mountains, subcropping or cropping out over 

200 square miles, or about two-thirds of the area (fig. 

1). Water is obtained from a variety of other bedrock 

aquifers in a hydrogeologically complex area north of 

Interstate 40 (fig. 1). Water supplies in the east 

mountain area are limited and variable. Titus (1980) 

concluded that approximately 20 percent of wells 

drilled in the Madera Limestone are dry holes or wells 

with limited yields. Discussing limestone units in the 

east mountain area, Kues (1990, p. 1) stated "Groundwater availability depends on the lithology of the 

water-yielding unit and proximity to faults."

Purpose and Scope

This report presents a prioritized, comprehensive 

plan of study to define hydrogeologic characteristics of 

the Madera Limestone in the east mountain area in 

central New Mexico. The Madera Limestone is the 

focus of this report because it is the most areally 

extensive aquifer in the study area, and, as such, is 

regarded as the principal aquifer in the study area 

(Titus, 1980). The Madera Limestone also represents a

relatively straightforward geologic and hydrologic 

environment for implementation of the data-collection 

activities and studies described in this report. The 

appropriate location for the data-collection activities 

and interpretive studies is where the Madera Limestone 

crops out at land surface or where water supplies are 

accessible.

The anthropogenic, climatologic, geologic, and 

hydrologic factors that influence the hydrogeologic 

characteristics of the Madera Limestone are considered 

within the scope of this report. No study can be 

proposed that would result in a complete understanding 

of the area's water supply. The geologic and hydrologic 

complexity and variability of the area, coupled with 

limited financial resources at the local, State, and 

Federal levels, preclude the possibility of evaluating 

site-specific determinations of ground-water 

availability. The study elements proposed in this report, 

however, are realistic objectives that would provide a 

better understanding of the hydrogeologic 

characteristics of the Madera Limestone.

County officials are aware that management 

decisions related to growth and development in the east 

mountain area must be based on reliable, timely, and 

impartial information. The interpretive studies and 

data-collection activities described in this report will 

provide hydrologic information that would help 

planners and managers make informed decisions 

regarding future growth and development in the east 

mountain area. This report was prepared in cooperation 

with the Bernalillo County Environmental Health 

Department (BCEHD).

Previous Investigations

Limited geologic and hydrologic investigations 

have been conducted in the east mountain area. Smith 

(1957) studied the geology and water resources of 

Torrance County. Kelley (1963) produced a geologic 

map of the Sandia Mountains and vicinity, and Myers 

mapped the Tajique (1966) and Escabosa (1969) 

quadrangles. Myers and McKay mapped the Mount 

Washington (1970) and Bosque Peak (1971) 

quadrangles. Kelley and Northrop (1975) discussed the 

geology of the Sandia Mountains and vicinity, and 

Hudson (1978, 1980) monitored ground-water levels, 

spring discharge, and surface-water discharge in parts 

of Tijeras Canyon.

Titus (1980) described ground-water conditions 

in the Sandia and northern Manzano Mountains, and
Kues (1990) reported ground-water availability and 

quality in eastern Bernalillo County and vicinity. 

Turner (1992a, b) studied the geology and hydrology of 

eastern Bernalillo and southern Santa Fe Counties and 

reported on the geophysical and ground-water 

hydrodynamic, hydrogeothermal, and 

hydrogeochemical analysis of eastern Bernalillo, 

southern Santa Fe, and northern Torrance Counties. 

White (1994) studied the hydrology of the Estancia 

Basin. Kues and Garcia (1995) summarized groundwater-quality and ground-water-level data in Bernalillo 

County, and Rankin (1996) tabulated water-quality and 

ground-water-level data in Bernalillo County. 

Blanchard and Kues (in press) investigated the effects 

of domestic wastewater in eastern Bernalillo County. 

Geologists at the New Mexico Bureau of Mines and 

Mineral Resources (NMBMMR), under the 

STATEMAP program, are currently (1999) producing 

7.5-minute geologic quadrangles for portions of the 

study area as part of the Middle Rio Grande Basin 

Study (fig. 2) (Bauer, 1998).

In addition to conducting local investigations, 

the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) has studied the 

hydrology of fractured systems in locations across the 

country and been involved with development of studies 

similar to the plan presented in this report. Driscoll 

(1992) authored a plan of study to assess the quantity, 

quality, and distribution of surface and ground water in 

the Black Hills area of South Dakota. Greene (1993) 

conducted a study of the hydraulic properties of the 

Madison aquifer system in the Rapid City, South 

Dakota, area. Kyllonen and Peter (1987) investigated 

the geohydrology and water quality of the northern 

Black Hills, South Dakota, and the Bear Lodge 

Mountains of Wyoming. In 1990, the USGS began 

investigating the bedrock in the Mirror Lake 

watershed, New Hampshire, to develop and evaluate 

field techniques and interpretive methods to 

characterize ground-water flow and chemical transport 

in fractured rock terrain (A.M. Shapiro, U.S. 

Geological Survey, written commun., 1998), and 

Paillet and Kapucu (1989) characterized fractures and 

fracture permeability in the Mirror Lake watershed. 

Heisig (1999) studied fractured bedrock in the 

Windham area, Greene County, New York.

Masters theses and Doctoral dissertations deal 

with geology and hydrology of the east mountain area. 

For example, Caprio (1960) authored a thesis that 

discussed water resources of the Sandia Mountains.

Consultants, including Clay Kilmer and 

Associates, Ltd., have conducted hydrologic studies in 

the east mountain area. These data could be 

consolidated with other information and used to 

evaluate hydrogeologic characteristics.

Acknowledgments

The author acknowledges the contribution by 

Bernalillo County in developing much of the current 

base of hydrogeologic information for the east 

mountain area.

As a result of a proposal by the USGS to the 

Bernalillo County Environmental Gross Receipts Tax 

Advisory Board (BCEGRTAB), a meeting was held in 

Albuquerque, New Mexico, during December 2-3, 

1997 (see "Supplemental Information" section of this 

report). The purpose of this meeting was to identify 

data-collection activities and interpretive studies that 

could be conducted to learn more about ground-water 

flow and hydraulic properties of the Madera 

Limestone. Many of the information needs, datacollection activities, and interpretive studies described 

in this report are a result of suggestions and ideas 

presented at this meeting. The author thanks the 

meeting participants and gratefully acknowledges their 

participation in the study plan development. Those 

individuals are: Jeffrey Peterson, environmental health 

scientist and geohydrologist, BCEHD; Frank Titus, 

ground-water scientist and special scientific advisor to 

the New Mexico Office of the State Engineer 

(NMOSE); Paul Bauer, senior field geologist and 

STATEMAP manager, NMBMMR; Andy Core, water 

resources engineering specialist, NMOSE; Glen 

Hammock, consulting hydrologist; Gwinn Hall, 

graduate student, Department of Civil Engineering, 

and Mike Campana, professor of hydrology, 

Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, 

University of New Mexico; and Alien Shapiro, Dave 

Wilkins, and Dennis Woodward, USGS hydrologists.

HYDROGEOLOGIC CHARACTERISTICS 

OF THE MADERA LIMESTONE

The hydrogeologic characteristics of the Madera 

Limestone are divided into two broad topics: (1) the 

geologic framework of the Madera Group, which 

includes nomenclature and stratigraphy, areal extent
AQUA

BELEN 1:100,000 

80CORRO 1:100,000

EXPLANATION

NMBMMR STATEMAP QUADRANGLES

D STATEMAP quads 

proposed, 1009-2000

I "I STATEMAP quads in 

|_>| progress. 1608-1999

STATEMAP quads 

IHl comPleted 1094-1008

U8G8 MRGB QUADRANGLES

I I EDMAP QUADRANGLES

NMBMMR PUBLISHED 

GEOLOGIC MATS

NMBMMR, New Mexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral ResourcesUSGS, U.S. Geological Survey;

MRGB, Middle Rio Grande Basin;

EDMAP, Geologic Education through Mapping

Figure 2.-Index map of 7.5-minute STATEMAP 

geologic quadrangles 

(modified from Bauer, 1998).
and thickness, and depositional history, lithology, and 

structure; and (2) the hydrologic framework of the 

Madera Limestone, which includes aquifer type, 

hydraulic heads, hydraulic properties, water quality, an 

overview of fracture flow, ground-water flow direction, 

ground-water withdrawal and depletion, streamflow 

and springs, recharge, septic-field effluent, and 

imported water.

Geologic Framework of the Madera Group

The understanding of the geology in the east 

mountains has improved substantially since W.G. Tight 

sketched his map in 1907 (fig. 3) (Kelley and Northrop, 

1975). NMBMMR is now in the fifth year of a 

program, New Mexico STATEMAP, designed to 

produce and distribute state-of-the-art, detailed, digital 

geologic quadrangle maps of population centers along 

the Rio Grande watershed. Part of the National 

Cooperative Geologic Mapping Program, these 

multipurpose maps "help identify ground-water 

aquifers, aid in locating water-supply wells, and assist 

in locating potential polluting operations, such as 

landfills, safely away from the aquifer" (Bauer, 1998, 

p. 1). Relevant east mountain geologic quadrangles 

include Sandia Crest, Sandia Park, San Pedro, Tijeras, 

Sedillo, Edgewood, Escabosa, and Chilili (fig. 1).

Nomenclature and Stratigraphy

Previous investigators have referred to the 

Middle and Late Pennsylvanian and Early Permian 

Madera unit as the Madera Group (Myers, 1973,1982), 

the Madera Formation (Kelley and Northrop, 1975), 

and the Madera Limestone (Titus, 1980). In 

conformance with Myers (1982) and White (1994), 

"Madera Group" refers to the rock unit, and, in 

conformance with local usage, "Madera Limestone" 

refers to the aquifer discussed in this report.

In the study area, the Madera Group consists of 

two formations: the Los Moyos Limestone and the 

Wild Cow Formation, which is composed of three 

members (Myers, 1982; fig. 4). Outside the study area 

in the southern Manzanos, the overlying Bursum 

Formation, where present, is included as part of the 

Madera Group. The Los Moyos Limestone is 

composed of cliff-forming layers of gray limestone, 

dark shales, and minor amounts of siltstone, sandstone, 

and conglomerate. The overlying Wild Cow Formation 

is a sequence of alternating layers of sandstone, 

conglomerate, siltstone, shale, and thin- to thickbedded gray limestone. Where present, the Bursum 

Formation is a sequence of red sandstone, red and 

green shale and siltstone, and gray limestone (Myers, 

1973, 1982).

Areal Extent and Thickness

The Madera Group crops out over all the east 

slope of the Manzano Mountains and more than half 

the east slope of the Sandia Mountains. Approximately 

two-thirds of the east mountain area, or about 200 

square miles, is overlain by the Madera Group. The 

thickness of the Madera Group generally ranges from 

about 1,300 to 1,400 feet (Titus, 1980). Read and 

others (1944) described two complete sections of the 

Madera Group, one near Monte Largo and another in 

the Tejano Canyon area (fig. 1), of 1,275 and 1,305 feet 

in thickness, respectively. In the Cedro Peak area, 

Brown (1962) pieced together a measured section 

1,375 feet in thickness. Titus (1980) stated that 

measurements inferred from drilling records indicate 

an eastward thickening of the Madera Group to 

approximately 2,000 feet. In addition, the thickness of 

the Madera Group has been estimated from 

stratigraphic sections presented in geologic quadrangle 

maps by Myers (1966, 1969) and Myers and McKay 

(1970, 1971); from structural sections by Kelley 

(Kelley and Northrop, 1975); and from geologic 

sections provided by Titus (1980).

Depositional History, Lithology, and Structure

The Paleozoic Era began approximately 570 

million years ago with regional downwarping of flat, 

nearly featureless Precambrian strata. This subsidence 

allowed shallow seas to spread across much of New 

Mexico. For about 240 million years, carbonate mud 

and sand were deposited, except in central New 

Mexico; the absence of these deposits in central New 

Mexico suggests that the Sandia area was 

topographically above the seas and undergoing 

erosion.

With the beginning of Pennsylvanian time, 

approximately 330 million years ago, the entire area 

subsided, allowing the seas to spread across central 

New Mexico. For the next 40 million years, subsidence 

continued, allowing the ancient seas to remain and 

deposit lime mud, sand, and argillaceous mud; the 

Madera Group was deposited during this time (Kelley 

and Northrop, 1975).
Sketch

Sandia ID

jjfoX

Beds

Figure 3.-Geologic sketch map of the Manzano-Sandia Mountains, 1907 

(from Kelley and Northrop, 1975).
Lithologically, the Madera Group is a mixed 

sequence of medium- to thick-bedded, light-gray 

limestone and greenish to tan and rarely reddish arkose 

and feldspathic siltstones. Dark mudstone intervals 

with variable amounts of thin-bedded black micrites 

are also present. Limestones, which vary in thickness 

from 0.7 to 65 feet, dominate the formation. The 

arkosic sandstones are typically coarse to medium 

grained. Fossils include crinoid stems, brachiopods, 

corals, and bryozoans (Ferguson and others, 1996).

Structurally, the Madera Group was deposited as 

horizontal, laminar beds. The Precambrian surface on 

which the underlying Sandia Formation (fig. 4) was 

deposited was a peneplain (a low, featureless, gently 

undulating surface of considerable area). Until 60-70 

million years ago, the only structure in the Sandia area 

had been produced in the Precambrian basement 

orogenies; the Sandia area was a low plain, underlain 

by flat-lying Paleozoic/Mesozoic strata, with some 

slight deformation as a result of subsidence-related 

tilting (Kelley and Northrop, 1975). The major 

deformations in the Madera Group in the east mountain 

area are primarily the result of crustal extension and the 

Sandia-Manzano Uplifts over the past 60 million years. 

Although the Sandia and Manzano Mountains are 

separate physiographic entities, they are both formed 

by a major east-tilted fault block. Topographically, the 

Sandia and Manzano Mountains are separated by 

Tijeras Canyon; structurally, they are separated by a 

major fault system formed by the Tijeras and Gutierrez 

Faults (fig. 5). The junction of these faults is located 

near the village of Tijeras. Trending northeast from 

their junction, the faults are roughly parallel and bound 

a 1.5- to 2.5-mile slice that is downdropped at the 

southwest end and uplifted on the northeast (Titus, 

1980). The east slope of the Sandias has relatively 

steeply dipping Pennsylvanian strata at angles 

averaging 15-20 degrees (Kelley and Northrop, 1975); 

the east slope of the Manzanos, in contrast, dips 3-4 

degrees (Titus, 1980).

A geologic map of the Sandia Mountains (Kelley 

and Northrop, 1975) shows high-angle faults trending 

west, northwest, north, and northeast, with numerous 

subparallel and transverse faults forming a 

"complicated and varied pattern." Woodward (1982) 

suggested that high-angle reverse faulting in the 

southeastern part of the Sandias formed in response to 

a local compressional stress field in the hinge of the 

eastward-tilted Sandia fault block in the late Cenozoic. 

Titus (1980) concurred with Kelly and Northrop's

description, stating that the east side of the Sandias has 

been "intensely faulted." Charles Ferguson, research 

associate with NMBMMR and chief mapper of the 

Sandia Park quadrangle (fig. 1), reports that the Madera 

Group is "more folded than faulted" with a high degree 

of fracturing associated with the folding (written 

commun., 1998). In Ferguson's opinion, there are 

significantly fewer faults within the Madera Group 

along the dip slope of the Sandias than depicted by 

Kelley and Northrop (1975). The faults that Kelley and 

Northrop mapped are, to a large degree, based on aerial 

photograph interpretation.

Geologic maps of the Manzano Mountains by 

Myers (1966, 1969) and Myers and McKay (1970, 

1971) show numerous north- and northeast-trending, 

high-angle faults along the crest line and dip slope. 

Titus (1980) described faulting in the Madera Group on 

the eastern slope of the Manzano Mountains as aligned 

in a northeast to southwest pattern. Faults mapped by 

Adam Read (NMBMMR), chief mapper of the Tijeras 

and Sedillo quadrangles (fig. 1), are often quite 

different from those mapped by Myers and McKay, and 

Read's fault density is equal to or somewhat less than 

that depicted by those authors. Difficulties in 

recognition, vegetation cover, and burial suggest many 

as yet undiscovered faults. Read stated that "there are 

likely many unmapped (and unrecognizable) fracture 

zones within the Madera that could be very important 

from a hydrological standpoint" (written commun., 

1998).

Hydrologic Framework of the Madera 

Limestone

The understanding of the hydrology in the east 

mountain area has not increased substantially since the 

NMBMMR published "Ground water in the Sandia and 

northern Manzano Mountains, New Mexico" (Titus, 

1980). Many of the results published in that report were 

interpreted from data collected in the early 1960's: the 

water-table or potentiometric-surface map (Titus, 

1980, fig. 4), for example, was constructed using data 

collected in 1962-63. The increase in population over 

the last 40 years has undoubtedly changed the watersupply potential of the Madera Limestone.

The following sections discuss aquifer type, 

hydraulic heads, and hydraulic properties, including 

storage coefficient, permeability, hydraulic 

conductivity, and transmissivity. These properties help
-400

-600

EXPLANATION

CONGLOMERATE

ARKOSE

SANDSTONE

SILTSTONE

CALCAREOUS SILTSTONE

CALCAREOUS SHALE

GYPS I FERGUS SHALE

LIMESTONE

SHALEY LIMESTONE

CHERTY LIMESTONE

POORLY EXPOSED

CONCEALED

LOCATION SHOWN 

IN FIGURE 1

Figure 4.-Stratigraphy of the Madera Group (modified from Myers, 1982, p. 235).

10
106 °30' 106°22'30" 106°15' 106°07'30"

! SANf A FE COUNTY 

TORRANCE COUNTY STUDY AREA 

BOUNDARY

34(

52' R-4E.

30"

R. 5E.

2345 MILES

I I I I

I I I I I I

01 2345 KILOMETERS

R. 6E. R. 7E. 

EXPLANATION

/ FAULTS

\. 8E.

Figure 5.--Faults in and near the study area (modified from Kelley and Northrop, 1975, map 3).

11
predict long-term availability of ground-water supplies 

and effects from development. Also included within 

the hydrologic framework of the Madera Limestone are 

sections about fracture flow, ground-water flow 

direction, withdrawal and depletion, streamflow and 

springs, recharge, septic-field effluent, and imported 

water.

Aquifer Type

Aquifers are often defined in terms of existing 

under either confined or unconfined conditions. A 

confined aquifer, also called an artesian aquifer, is 

overlain by an impermeable, confining layer. An 

unconfined aquifer has no confining beds between the 

zone of saturation and the land surface. Large 

fluctuations in water levels in wells caused by 

barometric-pressure changes, which are normally seen 

under confined conditions, are commonly observed in 

the Madera Limestone (Clay Kilmer, Clay Kilmer and 

Associates, Ltd., oral commun., 1998).

Hydraulic Heads

The distribution of hydraulic head in an aquifer 

system represents the flow conditions and effects of 

stresses imposed on the aquifer. Although some aquifer 

characteristics can only be inferred by analyzing 

changes in hydraulic head, hydraulic head can be 

measured directly. Vertical and horizontal components 

of the hydraulic-head gradient can change throughout 

an aquifer system, especially in areas of recharge and 

discharge. In areas of ground-water flow dominated by 

fractures, hydraulic head can vary a great deal over 

small distances.

Hydraulic-head data, or water-level data, are 

used to develop potentiometric-surface maps that 

indicate the altitude of a ground-water surface. The 

potentiometric-surface map of the east mountain area 

by Titus (1980) represents conditions in the early 

1960's, and the water-level contours in the Madera 

Limestone were constructed based on few data.

The USGS, in cooperation with BCEHD, has 

established a network of 75 privately owned, domestic 

wells (fig. 6) used for water-quality and water-level 

data collection. Since 1995, water-quality samples 

have been collected at least once from each well. 

Forty-eight of these 75 wells have water-level data 

collected at the time of sample collection. Twentyseven of these 75 wells are known to be completed in 

the Madera Limestone. These data are not sufficient to

define the potentiometric surface; additional waterlevel data are needed for wells completed in the 

Madera Limestone.

Hydraulic Properties

The storage coefficient is the volume of water 

that an aquifer takes into or releases from storage per 

unit surface area of aquifer per unit change in hydraulic 

head. The coefficient is a dimensionless quantity; in 

most confined aquifers, storage coefficient typically 

ranges from 10~5 to 10~3 (Freeze and Cherry, 1979). 

Kilmer (1998) conducted an aquifer test in the Madera 

Limestone near the Cedro Peak area (fig. 1); his 

analysis of test data shows storage coefficients ranging 

from 1(T4 to 10'2.

Permeability is a characteristic of the rock and is 

essentially a description of the interconnectedness of 

openings in the rock. Permeability in the Madera 

Limestone is expected to be highly variable. Values of 

permeability in a karst limestone (Freeze and Cherry, 

1979) are expected to range from 0.000108 to 1.08 feet 

squared, or about four orders of magnitude. Fractures 

and fracture zones within the Madera Limestone are 

highly permeable and account for permeability in the 

aquifer. According to Shapiro and others (1995), 

fractures are the principal conduits for water movement 

in limestones. Titus (1980) recognized that fracturing 

and dissolution in the Madera Limestone had created 

permeable zones through which water can move. 

During their investigation of permeability in fractured 

bedrock in the Mirror Lake watershed, New 

Hampshire, Paillet and Kapucu (1989) estimated the 

vertical and horizontal distribution of fracture 

permeability using geophysical logging methods. 

They concluded that permeability in rock containing 

multiple intersecting fractures is dependent on the 

aperture, orientation, and interconnection of fractures. 

A primary structural feature that also must be 

considered in characterizing permeability is bedding. 

Bedding originates during the formation of rocks 

through depositional processes, and bedding planes 

often represent pathways for ground-water flow. In the 

Madera Limestone, for example, bedding plane 

separations in shales provide additional permeability 

(Titus, 1980).

Hydraulic conductivity is the rate at which water 

moves through a permeable rock and is characteristic 

of the fluid and the rock. Typical values of hydraulic 

conductivity in a limestone are extremely variable, 

ranging from less than 1 to more than 3,000 feet/day

12
106 °30' 106°22'30" 106°15' 106°07'30"

STUDY AREA 

BOUNDARY

)

I

) 1

1

I

I 

2

2

|

I 

3

I 

4

3

I

I 

5

4

I

5 to

I

KILOMETERS

MILES

R. 6E.

EXPLANATION 

WATER-QUALITY DATA

R.7E. R. 8E.

O

A

WATER-QUALITY AND 

WATER-LEVEL DATA

WATER-QUALITY DATA; 

WELL FINISHED IN THE 

MADERA LIMESTONE

A WATER-QUALITY AND

WATER-LEVEL DAT A; 

WELL FINISHED IN THE 

MADERA LIMESTONE

Figure 6.-Well network in the study area.

13
(Spitz and Moreno, 1996); Shapiro and others (1995) 

noted that hydraulic conductivity in a fractured 

medium can have a range of more than 10 orders of 

magnitude and that aquifers with larger values are able 

to transmit more water.

Transmissivity is the rate at which water is 

transmitted through a unit width of an aquifer under a 

unit hydraulic gradient, or the hydraulic conductivity 

multiplied by the saturated thickness. Transmissivity 

varies significantly in a fractured limestone aquifer; if 

a saturated aquifer thickness of 200 feet is assumed, 

typical values of transmissivity range from about 8,000 

to about 270,000 feet squared per day (Spitz and 

Moreno, 1996). Results from the aquifer test conducted 

by Kilmer (1998) demonstrate this variability. 

Analysis of test data shows transmissivities ranging 

from about 20 to about 2,000 feet squared per day. 

Kilmer concluded that "the Madera aquifer is highly 

variable," and suggested that the larger value of 

transmissivity is a result of preferential flow along 

fractures (Kilmer, 1998, p. 8).

Data about storage coefficient, specific yield, 

permeability, hydraulic conductivity, and 

transmissivity are used in conjunction with other data 

to predict long-term availability of ground-water 

supplies and effects from development. These terms 

can be related to one another; for example, 

transmissivity is a two-dimensional concept the 

hydraulic conductivity multiplied by the aquifer 

thickness; permeability can be related to hydraulic 

conductivity by incorporating fluid properties (A.M. 

Shapiro, written cornmun., 1998).

Water Quality

The quality of water depends on a variety of 

factors, including climate, geologic effects, 

composition of atmospheric precipitation, and the 

effect of development. To be considered potable, water 

must be free from disease-causing organisms and 

minerals, organic substances, and chemicals that could 

produce adverse physiological effects. Additionally, 

drinking water should be aesthetically pleasing, free 

from turbidity, odor, color, or objectionable taste, and 

have a reasonable temperature (Cotruvo and Vogt, 

1990).

Previous investigations by Titus (1980), Kues 

(1990), Kues and Garcia (1995), and Rankin (1996) 

indicate that ground-water supplies in the Madera 

Limestone are generally potable, with some notable 

exceptions. Titus (1980) found fluoride concentrations

exceeding the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 

(USEPA) maximum contaminant level (MCL) of 4.0 

milligrams per liter (mg/L) in two water samples from 

the Madera Limestone. An MCL is an enforceable 

standard related to health risks (Cotruvo and Vogt, 

1990). Excessive fluoride in drinking water can result 

in dental fluorosis, a staining or pitting of permanent 

teeth (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1986). 

Kues and Garcia (1995) found nitrate concentrations 

exceeding the USEPA MCL of 10.0 mg/L in one water 

sample from the Madera Limestone; excessive nitrate 

in drinking water is potentially more serious, causing 

blue-baby syndrome, or methemoglobinemia, and can 

be fatal (Health and Environment Digest, 1991). Kues 

and Garcia (1995) and Rankin (1996) found 

concentrations exceeding the USEPA secondary 

maximum contaminant level (SMCL) for chloride (250 

mg/L), iron (0.3 mg/L), sulfate (250 mg/L), or 

dissolved solids (500 mg/L) in some of the water 

samples from the Madera Limestone. An SMCL is a 

non-enforceable standard related to the aesthetic 

quality of water (Cotruvo and Vogt, 1990). Excessive 

concentrations of these constituents can affect the odor, 

color, and taste of drinking water. USEPA regulations 

concerning MCL's and SMCL's apply to public water 

systems, not individual domestic wells.

The hardness of water, defined as the ability of 

water to precipitate soap (Tate and Arnold, 1990), is 

another measure of the aesthetic quality of water. 

Because hardness is not attributed to a single 

constituent, it is often expressed in terms of an 

equivalent amount of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). 

Durfor and Becker (1964) established a method of 

classifying hardness: water with concentrations greater 

than 180 mg/L as CaCO3 is considered to be very hard. 

In 1995 and 1997, the author collected water samples 

from 27 wells completed in the Madera Limestone (fig. 

6). In these samples hardness values (CaCO3) ranged 

from 52 to 820 mg/L; the average value was 410 mg/L, 

and 23 of the 27 samples exceeded 180 mg/L. 

Although USEPA MCL's do not specify values for 

hardness, the World Health Organization has suggested 

an upper limit of 500 mg/L as CaCO3 (Hem, 1985). 

Specific conductance, the ability of water to 

conduct an electrical charge, has a direct relation to the 

concentration of dissolved solids in the water (Hem, 

1985, p. 67); a specific conductance of 800 

microsiemens per centimeter (p,S/cm) at 25 degrees 

Celsius is equivalent to a dissolved-solids 

concentration of about 520 mg/L. In samples the author

14
collected in 1995 (Rankin, 1996) and 1997 

(unpublished data), specific conductance ranged from 

630 to 2,090 (j,S/cm; the average value was 1,100 

(j,S/cm, and 18 of the 25 samples exceeded 800 jj,S/cm.

Overview of Fracture Flow

Secondary structural features such as fractures 

can control the movement of ground water. Fracture is 

a general term for any break in a rock, whether or not it 

causes displacement, due to mechanical failure by 

stress. Fractures include faults, joints, cracks, and 

fissures (Bates and Jackson, 1980, p. 244). Fractures 

exist in many geologic formations and are evident in 

exposures of the Madera Group (fig. 7). Although 

fractures are produced naturally under a variety of 

geologic processes, they primarily are a result of the 

deformation of rocks and soil. Once a fracture is 

formed, permeability can be enhanced by continued 

deformation or by solution channeling (Doe, 1997), a 

process whereby channels are formed by the solution 

of carbonate rock (Bates and Jackson, 1980, p. 595). 

Conversely, permeability may decrease because of 

mechanical closure, chemical precipitation, or 

fracture-wall alteration (Doe, 1997).

Fractures in bedrock aquifers are the principal 

conduits for ground-water flow (Shapiro and others, 

1995). The term "fracture flow" as used in this report 

refers to ground-water flow dominated by faults, joints, 

cracks, and fissures, collectively known as fractures. 

Fracture flow is different from flow in a porous 

medium such as sand or gravel; the most important 

distinction is that in a porous medium, all points are 

connected by straight-line paths; in a fractured 

medium, flow follows distinct, discrete pathways (Doe, 

1997). In general, the manner in which ground water 

flows to a pumped well in a porous medium can be 

quite different from that in a fractured medium. 

Radial-flow conditions in a porous medium consist of 

a discharging well that causes a cone of depression in 

the surrounding aquifer and drawdown that decreases 

with distance away from the well. Flow lines from all 

directions converge at the well, and equipotential lines 

are concentric around the well (fig. 8). In a porous 

medium, however, radial flow does not always occur; 

in many instances, there is nonradial flow in the 

vicinity of the pumped well. Linear-flow conditions in 

a fractured medium consist of a discharging well that 

causes flow into the fracture from the aquifer; the open 

fracture is a planar surface that forms an extended well 

(fig. 9). In a fractured medium, drawdown is a function 

of the perpendicular distance away from the extended

well (Jenkins and Prentice, 1982). Flow in a fractured 

rock does not have to be linear; however, linear-flow 

regimes are not the only type of hydraulic conditions 

encountered during aquifer tests in fractured rock 

(A.M. Shapiro, written commun., 1998).

In fractured formations such as the Madera 

Group, hydraulic properties can vary considerably, 

depending on the degree of fracture connection and 

related characteristics of the fractures, such as aperture, 

density, frequency, spacing, length, orientation, wall 

roughness, and the presence of filling material within 

the fracture. Over the past 20 years, new and improved 

techniques and tools have been developed to help 

define the characteristics of fracture flow. Surface 

geophysics offers a variety of methods used in groundwater investigations including electrical, 

electromagnetic, seismic, gravimetric, and magnetic 

surveys (Zohdy and others, 1974), and radar 

technology is being developed that will help define 

fracturing (A.M. Shapiro, written commun., 1998). 

Advances in geophysical imaging techniques include 

borehole television, the borehole formation 

microscanner (FMS), and the borehole acoustic 

televiewer (ATV). Borehole television can provide an 

undistorted, color image of an entire borehole wall; 

fracture information is then analyzed from the image. 

The FMS measures the resistivity of rock material and 

has proven effective in detecting fractures (Doe, 1997). 

Paillet and Kapucu (1989) have used borehole 

geophysical methods to estimate the distribution of 

fracture permeability in bedrock in the Mirror Lake 

watershed, New Hampshire, and they were able to 

determine fracture orientation in a series of boreholes 

using ATV technology (fig. 10).

New technologies for determining the hydraulic 

characteristics of fractures include the borehole heatpulse flowmeter (HPFM) and the electromagnetic 

flowmeter (EMFM). By using data derived from these 

methods, the vertical components and directions of 

hydraulic-head gradients can be determined (Doe, 

1997). Water-yielding fractures can be defined using 

more conventional geophysical logging methods as 

well. Heisig (1999) was able to identify fractures in the 

Batavia Kill Valley, New York, using gamma, fluidconductance, temperature, and caliper logs. New 

methods that use transient water-level data have been 

developed to estimate the actual direction of groundwater flow in fractured bedrock. Rophe and others 

(1992) analyzed subsurface flow and formation 

anisotropy, calculated from equipotential surfaces.

15
Figure 7.--Fractured Madera Group in a road cut in Cedro Canyon.

16
Figure 8.-Conceptual model of radial flow in a porous medium.

17
Equipotential 

lines

/ \

Flow 

lines

2-DIMENSIONALVIEW

Flow lines

3-DIMENSIONALVIEW

Land surface

Center of well

Equipotential 

lines

Fracture 

surface

Figure 9. Conceptual model of linear flow in a fractured medium 

(modified from Jenkins and Prentice, 1982, fig.1).

18
800 -

- 600

- 500

- 400

- 300

- 200

- 100

Figure 10.--Projection of fractures identified on acoustic-televiewer logs for a series of five boreholes 

(modified from Paillet and Kapucu, 1989).

19
The past 20 years of research have significantly 

advanced the conceptual understanding of fracture 

networks and provided practical tools for solving 

fracture-flow problems. Although assuming that the 

intricate geometry of a fracture network can be 

accurately determined is unrealistic, fracture 

information, complemented by direct measurements of 

hydraulic properties, can be used to effectively 

characterize fracture flow.

Ground-Water Flow Direction

Previous investigators (Titus, 1980; Kues, 1990) 

have presented maps of ground-water flow direction 

(figs. 11 and 12, respectively). These maps are based on 

hydraulic gradients indicated by water-level contours. 

Titus (1980) constructed his flow directions using 

hydraulic-head data collected in the early 1960's. Kues 

(1990) constructed flow directions using hydraulichead data collected in 1984-85. The ground-water flow 

lines on both maps are generally in agreement with 

each other. However, more water-level data are needed 

to better establish the direction of ground-water flow. 

Confirming the flow direction of ground water in the 

east mountain area and throughout the Madera 

Limestone with greater control is essential.

Ground-Water Withdrawal and Depletion

The NMOSE defines withdrawal as "the quantity 

of water taken from a ground- or surface-water 

source;" depletion is defined as "that part of 

withdrawal that has been evaporated, transpired, 

incorporated into crops or products, consumed by man 

or livestock, or otherwise removed from the water 

environment" (Wilson and Lucero, 1997). To estimate 

withdrawals for the self-supplied domestic population 

(single or multifamily dwellings with wells permitted 

by the NMOSE), Wilson and Lucero (1997) used an 

areawide average of 80 gallons per capita per day. If the 

current (1999) self-supplied population of the east 

mountain area is conservatively estimated at 20,000 

people, ground-water withdrawal is approximately 584 

million gallons, or about 1,800 acre-feet, per year.'A 

number of water systems (table 1) provide an 

additional 475 million gallons, or about 1,500 acrefeet, per year from aquifers in the east mountain area. 

Wilson and Lucero (1997) estimated depletion by 

multiplying withdrawal by a depletion factor that 

ranges from 0.45 to 0.50; if the total withdrawal of 

ground water from aquifers in the east mountain area is 

approximately 1 billion gallons, or 3,300 acre-feet, per 

year, depletion is approximately 500 million gallons, or 

about 1,650 acre-feet.

Although these estimates provide some idea of 

water use, Brian Wilson (New Mexico Office of the 

State Engineer, oral commun., 1998) acknowledges 

that data provided to the NMOSE are not always 

complete or accurate. Furthermore, many smaller 

community water systems fail to report water use. The 

majority of water users in the east mountain area are 

classified in the self-supplied domestic population and 

are not required to provide water-use information to the 

NMOSE. No information is available regarding 

depletion of ground water from a specific aquifer in the 

east mountain area (Andy Core, New Mexico Office of 

the State Engineer, oral commun., 1998).

Streamflow and Springs

With few exceptions, the east mountain area has 

no perennial streamflow. Perennial discharge from two 

springs flows into the Acequia Madre de San Antonio 

(fig. 13) and is used by residents of San Antonio (Gary 

Hefkin, Acequia Madre de San Antonio Community 

Ditch Association, oral commun., 1998). From 

samples collected in 1997, water-quality data for both 

springs are available from the USGS (Rankin, 1996); 

White and Kues (1992, p. 23) reported yields of 50-75 

and 3 gallons per minute (gal/min), respectively, from 

these springs.

Approximately 150 miles of stream channels 

cross the Madera Limestone in the study area (fig. 1); 

however, flow only occurs in response to snowmelt or 

precipitation. These drainages are ungaged. A USGS 

gaging station (fig. 1) at Tijeras Arroyo above the Four 

Hills Bridge was operated from 1989 to 1991 (Ortiz 

and Lange, 1996), but the temporary nature of the 

installation might preclude the usefulness of 

streamflow data collected at this site. A "rule of thumb" 

states that a gaging station must operate for at least 5 

years for the data to be statistically valid.

White and Kues (1992) published an inventory 

of springs in New Mexico. The authors identified 11 

springs in the study area whose source is the Madera 

Limestone. Information regarding the physical 

characteristics of these 11 springs include yield 

estimates for each based on observations made in the 

early 1960's. Kues and White (1992) indicated that 

water-quality data for three of the springs are available 

(fig. 13). Whether these springs are permanent or 

ephemeral is unknown. Presumably more than 11 

springs issue from the Madera Limestone in the study 

area; Kilmer (1998) referred to two springs, not 

included in the 1992 inventory, in the Cedro Peak area 

(fig. 13) that were flowing in June 1998 and noted that 

these springs become dry during dry periods.

20
106°30' 106°22'30" 106°15' 106°07'30"

SANDOyAL COUNTY

BERNALILLO COUNTY 

I

STUDYAREA 

BOUNDARY

--4-- v - .. ;-

MOUA/T 

_- - ; WASHINGTON

VALENCIA COUNTY

012345 KILOMETERS

EXPLANATION 

X, DIRECTION OF GROUND-WATER FLOW

/ MAJOR GROUND-WATER DRAIN 

- GROUND-WATER DIVIDE

Figure 11 .-Direction of ground-water flow in the San Antonito and 

upper Tijeras Canyon area (from Titus, 1980). 

21
°30' 106°22'30" 106°15' 106°07'30"

STUDY AREA 

BOUNDARY

5 MILES

WATER-LEVEL CONTOUR-Shows altitude 

at which water level would have stood 

in tightly cased wells,1984-85. Contour 

interval 200 feet. Datum is sea level

DIRECTION OF GROUND-WATER FLOW

1 T

2345 KILOMETERS

Figure 12.-Water-level contours and direction of ground-water flow in the study area, 1984-85 

(modified from Kues, 1990, fig.6).

22
Table 1. Summary of water consumption rates for Albuquerque and east mountain area water

systems (modified from Kilmer, 1998)

[gpd, gallons per day; du, dwelling unit; cap, capita; , no data. Water consumption rates

presented in table 1 do not necessarily agree with those presented by Wilson and

Lucero (1997) because of different reporting periods]

Average

total Average Persons 

system Average use per

use use (gpd/ dwelling Source 

System name Connections (gpd) (gpd/du) cap) unit of data

Albuquerque City Water System

Edge wood Water, Inc.

Entranosa Water Cooperative

Forest Park Property Owners Assoc.

Melody Ranch Water Company

Mountain view Tijeras MH Park

Quail Hollow Water Users Assoc.

Riviera de Sandia MH Park

Sandia Knolls Water Co.

Sandia Peak Utility

Sierra Vista Utilidades Cooperative

Tijeras Land Estates

Tranquillo Pines Water Users Coop.

Bernalillo County (population/housing)

--

1,506

561

64

76

54

11

117

335

1,807

110

14

240

--

--

389,802

152,000

10,000

14,060

13,100

2,700

18,000

70,000

567,398

1 9,900

4,300

41,400

--

--

259

271

156

185

243

245

154

209

314

181

307

173

--

150

104

126

65

75

101

100

70

93

121

83

128

72

--

--

2.50

2.15

2.40

2.50

2.40

2.45

2.20

2.25

2.59

2.18

2.40

2.40

2.59

1

9

1,2,4,5

1,2,4,5

8

1,2,4,5

1,2,4,5

1,2,4,5

1,2,4,5

3

1,2,4,5

1,2,4,5

1,2,4,5

6,7

Sources of data:

1. Molzen-Corbin & Associates, Inc., 1990, Bernalillo County east mountain area water system feasibility study draft final 

report: Consultant report to Bernalillo County.

2. Molzen-Corbin & Associates, Inc., 1991, Village of Tijeras water system master plan consultant report to the New 

Mexico Environment Department: Rural Infrastructure Special Appropriation Project No. 77-L(3)-GF.

3. Bill Baker, Superintendent, Sandia Peak Utilities, 1995 current numbers for Sandia Peak Water Utility, personal 

commun.

4. Bureau of Business and Economic Research, 1989, Socioeconomic projections for Albuquerque, 1980-2000: University 

of New Mexico.

5. Albuquerque/Bernalillo County Comprehensive Plan, 1988: Albuquerque/Bernalillo County Planning Division.

6. United States Bureau of the Census, 1980, Minor census divisions, Census of population: General population 

characteristics, Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C.

7. United States Bureau of the Census, 1980, Detailed housing characteristics: Summary Tape File 3, Department of 

Commerce, Washington, D.C.

8. Clay Kilmer & Associates, Ltd., 1996, Geohydrologic report for Blazing Saddle Ranch Subdivision, Torrance County, 

New Mexico: Consultant report to Associated Development, Inc., Moriarty, New Mexico.

9. Clay Kilmer & Associates, Ltd., 1996, Geohydrologic report for Prairie Hills Subdivision, Santa Fe County, New 

Mexico.

23
106°30' 

35

106°22'30" 106°15' 106°07'30"

- /SANDOVAL COUNTY

.BERNAJJLLO COUNTY !'' I -""" 

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/ SANDIAPARK

OOD

^ Edgewood <;344r^- -.- ' '

 SANTA FE COUNTY

TOR RANGE COUNTY STUDYAREA 

BOUNDARY

WASHINGTON

VALEN-CJArCOUNTY'V 

s

012345 MILES 

 I I C\_ SPRING

R.6E.

EXPLANATION

R. 7E. R.8E.

i i i r i r

01 2345 KILOMETERS

PQ, SPRING WITH PERENNIAL

DISCHARGE AND 

SPRING WITH WATER QUALITY 

WATER-QUALITY DATA

Figure 13.-Selected springs in the study area.

24
Recharge PLAN OF STUDY

The volume of water that recharges an aquifer is 

determined by three factors: (1) the volume of 

precipitation not lost by free-water evaporation, plant 

transpiration, soil-moisture evaporation, and runoff 

and therefore available for recharge; (2) the vertical 

hydraulic conductivity of surficial deposits and other 

strata in the recharge area of the aquifer; and (3) the 

transmissivity of the aquifer and potentiometric 

gradient, which determine how much water can move 

away from the recharge area (Fetter, 1988).

Presently (1998), the volume of water recharged 

to the Madera Limestone is unknown. Areas of 

recharge, spatial and temporal distribution of 

precipitation, evapotranspiration rates, potential 

recharge from precipitation, vertical hydraulic 

conductivity of surficial deposits, aquifer 

transmissivity, and potentiometric gradients are, to a 

lesser or greater extent, undetermined.

Septic-Field Effluent

Effluent from septic drain fields that reaches the 

water table is recharge to an aquifer (McAda, 1996). 

Septic-field effluent in the east mountain area was 

estimated by Summers (1991) to be about 65 acre-feet 

per year, or about 21 million gallons. Summers 

acknowledged that the volume of septic-tank effluent 

discharged is a crude estimate; his estimate assumes 

effluent discharge at the national average rate of 45 

gallons per day per person.

Imported Water

The Entranosa Water Cooperative annually 

delivers an estimated 332 acre-feet of water to a 

population of about 3,262 to various locations in 

eastern Bernalillo County (Wilson and Lucero, 1997). 

Because this water crosses the Santa Fe/Bernalillo 

County line, the NMOSE considers the water to be 

imported. Although it does contribute to aquifer 

recharge, the ultimate fate of the water and the effect of 

its importation on the ground-water system in the east 

mountains are unknown. Titus (1980) stated that "If 

water were imported, distributed to customers, and 

then disposed of through the present individual septic 

tanks, the inevitable result would be a rise in the water 

levels in wells in the affected areas." Presently, no data 

are available to confirm Titus' statement.

Essential Information and Activities

The information and activities considered to be 

essential to improve the understanding of fracture flow 

in the Madera Limestone and to help quantify aquifer 

characteristics of the Madera Limestone are (1) 

consolidate and evaluate existing information; (2) 

expand the observation-well network; (3) quantify 

recharge to the Madera Limestone; (4) quantify 

discharge from the Madera Limestone; (5) define 

hydraulic properties of the Madera Limestone; and (6) 

characterize ground-water flow in the Madera 

Limestone. This section expands on the information 

and activities, and table 2 summarizes the priority and 

estimated duration of essential and useful activities.

Consolidate and Evaluate Existing Information

Despite the absence of long-term, 

comprehensive studies of water resources within the 

study area, limited investigations of the hydrology and 

geology of the east mountain area have been done. The 

results of many of these investigations are widely 

distributed and recognized by the scientific community 

(see the "Previous investigations" section of this 

report); however, the results of all studies pertaining to 

the hydrology and geology of the east mountain area 

need to be consolidated and evaluated. These data 

could then be incorporated into ongoing studies.

Drilling and well records and well permit 

applications are on file at the NMOSE. These contain 

information regarding well location, yield, depth and 

completion data, lithologic descriptions, and other 

pertinent material that need to be consolidated and 

evaluated. Data also probably are available from sitespecific studies, aquifer tests, and hydrologic 

investigations conducted for subdivision approval in 

the study area. Doctoral dissertations and Masters 

theses represent a potential source of information. In 

addition, the USGS and Bernalillo County maintain 

geographical information systems (GIS) coverages/ 

data sets for hydrologic and geologic information, land 

use, soil types and distribution, precipitation patterns, 

housing and population density, and a variety of other 

topics. Consolidating the information contained in 

these systems would be useful.

25
Table 2. Prioritized plan of study to define hydrogeologic characteristics of the Madera Limestone 

EXPLANATION

Component addressed: component for which information will be gained from the study element. FFS, f

aquifer characteristics; HH, hydraulic heads; WQ, water quality; R, recharge; D, dischar

Priority: usefulness of the information obtained by the study. E, will yield essential information; U, will 

Estimated time: estimated range of time to complete the study element. Continuous indicates data shou

basis 

GIS, geographical information systems; USGS, U.S. Geological Survey

Study element

Consolidate and evaluate existing information

Expand the well network

Define areas that contribute recharge

Quantify recharge from surface water and precipitation

Quantify recharge from septic-field effluent and imported water

Quantify withdrawal from domestic wells and public-supply systems

Quantify evapotranspiration

Quantify and sample springflow

Establish hydrogeologic boundaries

Determine thickness and depth to the base

Conduct and analyze aquifer tests

Characterize the fracture system

Determine the direction of ground- water flow

Conduct and analyze borehole and surface geophysics

Conduct and analyze tracer tests

Determine the age of ground water

Conduct isotope sampling for all components of the hydrologic cycle

Component 

addressed

FFS,AC,HH,WQ,R,D

FFS,AC,HH,WQ

R

R

R

D

D

D,WQ

AC

AC

AC,HH

FFS

FFS,AC

FFS,AC

FFS,AC

FFS,R

FFS,R

Priority

E

E

E

E

E

E

E

E

E

E

E

E

E

E

E

E

E
Table 2. Prioritized plan of study to define hydrogeologic characteristics of the Madera Limestone 

Concluded

Study element Component 

addressed

Priority 

Develop a regional ground-water-flow model

Conduct remote sensing

Develop a water budget by aquifer

Consolidate GIS data

Improve drilling records

Use USGS data bases for storage and retrieval of information

Update Titus (1980) report

Involve neighborhood associations and residents with data collection

FFS,AC,HH,WQ,R,D E

FFS U

R,D U

FFS,AC,HH,WQ,R,D U

FFS,AC,HH,WQ,R,D U

FFS,AC,HH,WQ,R,D U

FFS,AC,HH,WQ,R,D U

HH,WQ U
It is evident that potentially useful information is 

available, though scattered. Therefore, consolidating 

and evaluating this information would be essential for 

several reasons: (1) to identify wells, piezometers, and 

boreholes that could be included in the expanded 

monitoring-well network and possibly used as 

dedicated sites for sampling, water-level data 

collection, aquifer testing, or geophysical logging; (2) 

to avoid duplication of effort; (3) to save time and 

reduce costs; and (4) to establish a starting point for 

needed activities.

Expand the Well Network

The USGS, in cooperation with the BCEHD, has 

established a network of privately owned, domestic 

wells (fig. 6) used for water-quality and water-level 

data collection. Twenty wells were sampled monthly 

from January 1990 through 1993 (Kues and Garcia, 

1995). In 1995, the network was expanded; the original 

20 wells were sampled once in the summer of 1995, 

and an additional 32 wells were added to the network 

and sampled once (Rankin 1996). In 1997, the network 

was again expanded; 7 of the original 20 wells were 

sampled once; 5 of the additional 32 wells sampled in 

1995 were sampled again, and an additional 23 wells 

were added to the network and sampled once, bringing 

the total number of wells to 75 that have been sampled 

at least once since 1995. During the period of operation 

of the network, water-level measurements could not be 

made in all wells when samples were collected. Fortyeight of the wells that were sampled have associated 

water-level data.

In selected areas of the northern part of the 

Escabosa and Sedillo quadrangles and the southern part 

of the Sandia Park quadrangle (fig. 6), the density of 

these wells is about 1 per square mile. In some areas, 

the density is greater than 1 per square mile. The 

observation-well network needs to be expanded in 

some parts of the study area. A density of one well per 

2 to 4 square miles would be adequate for 

characterizing regional flow in the Madera Limestone, 

but would not provide the detailed information needed 

to examine local characteristics about a given supply 

well or well field. Presently, the wells in the waterquality-sampling and water-level data-collection 

network are privately owned domestic wells because 

dedicated observation wells are currently unavailable. 

The proposed expansion would include the addition of 

domestic wells, unused wells, piezometers, and 

boreholes.

Expanding the monitoring-well network is 

essential to collect water-quality samples from wells 

completed in the Madera Limestone, identify areas of 

changes in ground-water quality, and discern possible 

trends in water quality. Because of their large values of 

hydraulic conductivity, fractured carbonate aquifers 

such as the Madera Limestone are particularly 

susceptible to contamination. This was noted by Kues 

(1990, p. 50) who, referring to the Madera Limestone, 

stated "contaminants mixed with ground water * * * 

will move into and through the system rapidly. Wells 

commonly are located on or near faults, especially in 

areas where carbonate rock crops out."

Domestic Wells

Domestic wells are privately owned, cased wells 

used for domestic supply. Using domestic wells for the 

collection of water-quality samples can be 

problematic: obtaining permission is required and is 

sometimes difficult; water conditioners are often 

installed in the homeowner's water system, and care 

must be taken to obtain a sample prior to treatment. 

Many residents are unwilling or unable to disconnect 

these conditioners. The chemistry of water that is 

"softened" or otherwise treated does not accurately 

reflect the chemistry of water residing in the aquifer.

Using domestic wells for the collection of waterlevel data also is difficult; the homeowner may have 

recently pumped the well, and the resulting water level 

may be significantly lower than a water level measured 

under static, or nonpumping, conditions. Furthermore, 

domestic wells are sometimes not accessible.

Despite the drawbacks, using domestic wells has 

some advantages: domestic wells are available, widely 

distributed, and have no fee associated with their use. 

Domestic wells would, therefore, be included in 

expansion of the observation-well network, if they 

meet specified criteria for inclusion: location, depth, 

permission, accessibility, and well construction.

Unused Wells

Unused wells are existing cased wells not 

presently used for water supply. These wells may be 

owned privately or by other entities such as the State 

Highway and Transportation Department. Ownership 

would need to be determined and the necessary 

permission obtained for their use.

Unused wells would be inventoried and added 

to the network if they are found to be suitable for 

(1) measuring hydraulic heads at specific depths;

28
(2) aquifer testing; or (3) sampling ground water at 

discrete intervals and if they meet the same criteria as 

domestic wells for inclusion in the network. Unused 

wells would be used as dedicated monitoring sites-that 

is, sites used exclusively for monitoring purposes. 

These would be equipped with transducers and 

recording devices that measure hydraulic head 

continuously. These wells would be more easily 

accessible than domestic supply wells for water-level 

data collection and other data-collection activities, 

including aquifer tests.

Piezometers

A piezometer is a nonpumping well, generally of 

small diameter, that is used to measure the altitude of 

the water table or potentiometric surface. A piezometer 

generally has a short well-screen interval through 

which water can enter (Fetter, 1988). Piezometers 

would be installed where measurements of hydraulic 

head at different depths in the aquifer are needed and 

suitable existing wells are not available. Where 

possible, these piezometers would also be used for 

water sample collection.

Boreholes

Boreholes, or uncased wells, are needed for 

geophysical logging activities. Existing boreholes 

would be inventoried and added to the network if they 

are found to be suitable for these activities. Dedicated 

boreholes, used exclusively for geophysical data 

collection, would be drilled in selected locations and 

configured for maximum usefulness. The boreholes 

would be logged prior to casing. Boreholes are 

essential not only for geophysical logging activities, 

but also for packer, aquifer, and tracer testing. The 

NMOSE makes provisions for permitting this type of 

monitoring well (Charles Wohlenberg, New Mexico 

Office of the State Engineer, oral commun., 1998).

Quantify Recharge to the Madera Limestone

The volume of water that recharges the Madera 

Limestone is unknown. Estimates of the availability 

and sustainability of ground-water supplies in the 

Madera Limestone are dependent on reliable estimates 

of recharge. A number of data-collection activities 

would be undertaken that would help quantify recharge 

to the Madera Limestone. These activities include 

defining areas that contribute to recharge, quantifying 

recharge from surface water and precipitation, and 

quantifying recharge from imported water and septicfield effluent; they are discussed in the following 

sections.

Define Areas that Contribute Recharge

Areas of potential recharge need to be defined. 

The uncertainty in defining recharge areas increases 

with the complexity of the ground-water system; 

complex geometry of hydrogeologic units, aquifers 

with well-developed solution channels and fracturing, 

and areal recharge that varies considerably in space are 

some of the factors that contribute to that complexity. 

The USGS plays an active role in studies involving the 

identification of areas that contribute recharge to wells 

and provides analytical tools for such studies (Franke 

and others, 1998).

Quantify Recharge from Surface Water and Precipitation

A reliable estimate of the quantity of streamflow 

available for potential recharge to aquifers is important 

in hydrologic studies (Waltemeyer, 1994). Streamflow 

can be monitored with gaging stations where 

hydrologic data are systematically collected. This 

method requires installation and periodic maintenance 

of gaging stations; the data collected at the gages are 

supplemented with instantaneous streamflow 

measurements.

Mean annual streamflow, or average streamflow, 

can be estimated using methods reported by 

Waltemeyer (1994). In one method, estimates of 

average streamflow are obtained using basin and 

climatic characteristics. In a second method, estimates 

of average streamflow are obtained using channelgeometry measurements.

White (1994) described gain-and-loss 

measurements made in Tajique and Torreon Arroyos in 

Torrance County, in 1985 and 1987, respectively, to 

determine changes in streamflow. The measurements 

were made by locating the beginning of flow in each 

stream and making periodic measurements 

downstream until flow ceased. White stated that 

although "some of the streamflow * * * is lost to 

evapotranspiration, most of it likely recharges the 

aquifer."

There are many small arroyos and creeks 

throughout the east mountain area (fig. 1). Major 

drainages flowing across the outcrop of the Madera 

Limestone would be selected and streamflow 

monitored in one of the manners described above, so 

that water-loss zones could be identified and recharge 

to the Madera Limestone from streamflow could be 

estimated.

29
Precipitation is the primary source of recharge to 

the aquifers in the east mountain area. The National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration maintains a 

climatological station at Sandia Park (fig. 1) where 

precipitation is monitored (National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration, 1997). Precipitation data 

are also collected by many residents throughout the 

east mountains.

Rain gages would be installed at selected 

locations throughout the area to monitor rainfall and 

provide a better understanding of the spatial 

distribution of rainfall patterns. The water equivalent 

of snowfall would be calculated from measurements of 

snowpack in the Sandia and Manzano Mountains.

Because quantification of ground-water recharge 

requires both streamflow and precipitation data, a 

network of snow and rain gages is essential for 

delineating precipitation patterns within the study area. 

The correlation between the drainage pattern and the 

fracture pattern in the study area must be established; 

in some parts of the study area, drainage patterns are 

consistent with fracture patterns, as the upper reach of 

Cedro Canyon (fig. 5) illustrates. This correlation is 

important because it implies that flow in the alluvial 

deposits of canyon floors overlies major faults or fault 

zones and is more readily available as recharge. A 

stream channel above the water table loses a portion of 

its flow by infiltration through the channel bed (Titus, 

1980). The portion of runoff lost to infiltration is pulled 

downward by gravity and eventually recharges ground 

water.

Quantify Recharge from Septic-Field Effluent and 

Imported Water

Septic-field effluent and imported water were 

discussed previously in the section "Hydrologic 

framework of the Madera Limestone." Although the 

volume of water that recharges the Madera Limestone 

from these sources is presumably small compared with 

recharge from surface water and precipitation, 

estimating recharge contributed by these two factors 

must be considered in estimating total recharge.

Quantify Discharge from the Madera Limestone

The volume of water discharged from the 

Madera Limestone is unknown; quantifying this 

discharge is essential. Estimates of the availability and 

sustainability of ground-water supplies in the Madera 

Limestone are dependent on reliable estimates of 

discharge. Activities that would help quantify

discharge include quantifying withdrawal from 

domestic wells and public-supply systems, quantifying 

evapotranspiration (ET), and quantifying and sampling 

springflow. These activities are discussed in the 

following sections.

Quantify Withdrawal from Domestic Wells and PublicSupply Systems

Estimates of withdrawal and subsequent 

depletion from domestic wells and public-supply 

systems were presented in the section "Ground-water 

withdrawal and depletion." The volume of withdrawals 

from these sources represents the largest portion of 

ground water discharged from the Madera Limestone. 

Estimates of withdrawal need to be refined.

Quantify Evapotranspiration

Evapotranspiration (ET) is the loss of ground 

water from a land area through evaporation from soils 

and surface-water bodies and transpiration of plants 

(Bates and Jackson, 1980, p. 215). ET always 

represents a source of ground-water discharge; the 

quantity of discharge depends primarily on the amount 

and type of vegetation, temperature, humidity, soil type 

and moisture, and the depth to ground water.

ET may account for a significant portion of 

ground-water discharge from the Madera Limestone. 

Rainfall and soil moisture evaporate; ground water is 

removed through the roots of trees that are sufficiently 

developed to reach the saturated portion of the aquifer 

and through the roots of shrubs and plants within the 

unsaturated zone.

The USGS has developed a method to measure 

actual ET through the use of a portable field chamber 

(Stannard, 1998); the chamber has been used in the 

Albuquerque area (Thomas, 1995). The Penman 

equation (Ayra, 1988, p. 192-194) has been used to 

obtain estimates of potential ET from trees and large 

shrubs and plants.

Because the amount of ground water removed 

through ET is potentially large, it must be quantified. 

Otherwise, estimations of available ground-water 

supplies will be too great.

30
Quantify and Sample Springflow

Because springs represent points of discharge 

from an aquifer, conducting a comprehensive 

inventory of springs in the study area and monitoring 

yields and water quality from these springs are 

essential. The inventory of New Mexico springs by 

White and Kues (1992) contains information about the 

physical characteristics of springs, including yield 

measurements and estimates. According to the authors 

a few of these springs have associated chemical-quality 

data, including analyses of major ions and trace 

elements; none of the springs were tested for bacterial 

contamination. Titus (1980) presented similar data for 

selected springs in the east mountain area. Selected 

springs would be monitored for discharge and sampled 

for total coliform bacteria, a group of bacteria that are 

used as indicators of possible sewage contamination 

(Ortiz and Lange, 1996).

Define Hydraulic Properties of the Madera 

Limestone

This section begins with a discussion concerning 

the hydrogeologic boundaries of the Madera 

Limestone. It goes on to describe the need for 

determining the thickness and depth to the base of the 

Madera Limestone and the importance of aquifer 

testing.

Establish Hydrogeologic Boundaries

A hydrogeologic boundary is based on the 

physical attributes of an aquifer; the boundary can be a 

region of recharge where the aquifer is replenished (a 

recharge boundary) or the edge of the aquifer, where it 

terminates by either thinning or erosion (a barrier 

boundary) (Fetter, 1988). Establishing hydrogeologic 

boundaries of the study area is essential to define the 

scope of subsequent activities suggested in this plan of 

study.

Determine Thickness and Depth to the Base

Knowing the thickness and depth to the base of 

the Madera Limestone is essential because (1) 

hydraulic-conductivity values, when derived from 

transmissivity values, are based on calculations that 

require thickness; (2) the information is needed for 

subsequent modeling efforts; and (3) the information is 

needed for GIS applications, such as developing threedimensional perspectives of the aquifer.

Conduct and Analyze Aquifer Tests

An aquifer test is a controlled field experiment 

made to determine the hydraulic properties of wateryielding and associated rocks (Stallman, 1971). These 

properties include storage coefficient, hydraulic 

conductivity, and transmissivity. Two types of aquifer 

tests are pumping and slug tests. A pumping test is 

made by pumping a well for a period of time and 

observing the change in hydraulic head in the aquifer; 

a slug test is made by instantaneously inducing a 

change in water level in the well, then observing the 

time taken for the water to recover to its original level.

Because of the extreme variability of fractures 

and hydraulic properties within a fractured limestone, 

attempting to quantify the regional hydraulic properties 

of the Madera Limestone with a few large-scale aquifer 

tests will not provide an adequate characterization of 

the entire aquifer. Numerous, evenly distributed tests 

and integration of the resulting data will provide a more 

accurate characterization of the whole aquifer.

Characterize Ground-Water Flow in the Madera 

Limestone

This section describes the essential activities 

needed to characterize ground-water flow in the 

Madera Limestone. These activities include 

characterization of the fracture system and the 

direction of ground-water flow, borehole and surface 

geophysical and tracer test analysis, ground-water 

aging, isotope sampling, and modeling.

Characterize the Fracture System

To characterize the fracture system in the 

Madera Limestone, three attributes of the fracture 

system need to be defined. These are fracture density, 

fracture orientation, and fracture aperture (collectively 

known as fracture geometry).

Fracture density is an important physical 

characteristic of fracturing because closely spaced 

fractures in fault zones increase permeability (Davis, 

1984). Ground-water flow across distances greater than 

a few meters usually involves multiple fractures or 

fracture networks (Doe, 1997). Fracture density 

presumably is greatest where fault networks are 

present. Geologists at the NMBMMR have identified 

major fault networks in the study area through their 

mapping efforts. For example, Adam Read (written 

commun., 1998) mapped a significant fault network in 

Otero Canyon near Cedro (fig. 5). Fracture zones and

31
fault networks have important hydrologic implications; 

aquifer properties within these areas will be 

significantly different from areas within the same 

aquifer where fracture density is not as great. These 

high-density areas would be identified as having 

potentially high permeability. Geologic maps, used in 

association with geophysical methods described in a 

later section, would be used to identify and locate areas 

with potentially higher permeability.

Fracture orientation is another important 

physical characteristic of fracturing. Fractures often 

display preferred orientations that will significantly 

affect the direction of ground-water flow, imparting an 

overall anisotropy or enhanced direction of flow (Doe, 

1997). Orientation would be defined by the 

geophysical methods described in the "Conduct and 

analyze borehole and surface geophysics" section of 

this report.

Fracture aperture, the third important property of 

a fracture, refers to the size of the opening of the 

fracture. The flow capacity of a fracture varies 

exponentially: a small difference in the opening 

between fractures can result in very large differences in 

flow capacity (Doe, 1997). Aperture would be defined 

by the geophysical methods described in the "Conduct 

and analyze borehole and surface geophysics" section.

Determine the Direction of Ground-Water Flow

The direction of ground-water flow in the 

Madera Limestone must be determined for several 

reasons. Chemical and contaminant transport are 

dependent on the direction of ground-water flow. 

Availability of ground-water supplies is, to a large 

degree, based on the movement of ground water.

To better determine the direction of groundwater flow, more data are needed so that ground-waterlevel contours can be constructed. The proposed 

expansion of the observation-well network would 

provide the needed data, and the proposed tracer 

studies would help to further define the direction of 

ground-water movement.

Conduct and Analyze Borehole and Surface Geophysics

Throughout the east mountain area, water is 

withdrawn from bedrock formations, including the 

Madera Limestone, where faults, cracks, fissures, and 

joints (collectively referred to as fractures) and solution 

channels are the principal conduits of ground-water 

flow. Fractures and solution channels cannot be 

observed directly except in boreholes. Adam Read

(written commun., 1998) suspects the existence of 

many unrecognized, and therefore unmapped, fracture 

zones within the Madera Limestone that could be "very 

important from a hydrological standpoint." Fractures 

expressed surficially may not be representative of 

fractures underground; furthermore, fracture 

characteristics may differ due to changes in lithology. 

A significant portion of the Madera Limestone is 

composed of shale and arkose. Comparing the fracture 

characteristics of these rock types and determining 

whether fractures in a limestone layer continue through 

adjacent shale and arkose layers would be useful 

because of the effect on ground-water movement (Paul 

Bauer, written commun., 1998).

Geophysical borehole techniques currently 

available include portable, personal computer-based 

geophysical loggers specifically designed for groundwater applications; television cameras used to view 

fractures directly that allow interactive determination 

of fracture and bedding orientation; acoustic 

televiewers that provide a magnetically oriented, 360- 

degree, photographlike image of the acoustic 

reflectivity of the borehole wall that allows interactive 

determination of fracture and bedding orientation 

(Williams and Lane, 1998); and the colloidal 

borescope, which provides direct measurements of 

flow velocity and direction from wells completed in 

fractures (Jeffrey Peterson, Bernalillo County 

Environmental Health Department, written commun., 

1998). Bedrock exposed on borehole walls, however, 

represents only a small portion of the total volume of 

fractured rock; thus, geophysical methods that image 

fractures away from boreholes are being developed and 

tested. One of these methods, known as tomography, or 

borehole radar, uses seismic or radar signals 

transmitted from one borehole and received and 

monitored in an adjacent borehole (Shapiro and others, 

1995). These methods are useful for describing the 

physical attributes of fractures-density, orientation, 

and aperture. Hydraulic characteristics of fractures also 

can be tested using the heat pulse flowmeter and the 

electromagnetic flowmeter. By using data collected by 

these instruments, vertical components and directions 

of hydraulic-head gradient can be defined; under 

pumping conditions, the flowmeter measurements can 

locate specific conducting features and define their 

hydraulic properties (Doe, 1997). Standard borehole 

geophysics used to develop fracture and lithologic 

information include gamma, fluid-conductance, 

temperature, and caliper logs (A.M. Shapiro, written 

commun., 1998).

32
Borehole testing often involves the use of 

packers. A packer consists of an inflatable bladder that 

is deployed downhole and inflated to form a seal. A 

packer system enables the hydrologist to isolate a 

portion of the borehole or well for sampling, evaluate 

the effects of fractures, and test aquifer properties. 

Packer testing can be performed in boreholes or wells 

using a packer string, in a straddle configuration (fig. 

14), or multiple strings (Patrick Mills and James 

Rauman, U.S. Geological Survey, and Douglas Yeskis, 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, written 

commun., 1998).

Surface geophysical methods that use radar, 

seismic, and electrical signals generated at land surface 

to identify major water-yielding features, such as fault 

zones that may extend over thousands of feet, are being 

developed and tested at the USGS Mirror Lake 

Fractured-Rock Research Site in New Hampshire. In 

addition, surface geophysical methods are being 

developed to identify the principal orientation of 

smaller, more numerous fractures (Shapiro and others, 

1995).

Conduct and Analyze Tracer Tests

Tracer tests are used to determine a variety of 

hydrologic processes. For example, the most direct 

method for determining ground-water velocity consists 

of introducing a tracer at one point in the flow field and 

observing its arrival time at other points. A method for 

determining velocity at a single well is the borehole 

dilution test, conducted by placing a known initial 

concentration of a tracer in a borehole and monitoring 

that tracer's concentration over time. The change in the 

tracer concentration is then related to the velocity of the 

formation using a simple mixing model (Freeze and 

Cherry, 1979). In fractured rock aquifers, it is 

necessary to isolate a short section of the open borehole 

using packers (A.M. Shapiro, written commun., 1998). 

Different types of tracers have been used, including 

table salt and baker's yeast, and present a negligible 

health hazard (Davis and others, 1980). Fluorescent 

dyes, freon, chlorofluorocarbons (CFC's), and 

radioisotopes, such as tritium ( H), have been used as 

well (Freeze and Cherry, 1979). A tracer test using 3H 

was designed to provide information on the nature of 

flow through fractures in a known fracture zone at the 

Savannah River Plant in South Carolina (Webster and 

others, 1970). Tracer tests, conducted under controlled 

hydraulic conditions, would be performed in the study

area to determine time of travel, dispersion effects, and 

ground-water flow direction.

Determine the Age of Ground Water

In studies of ground-water quality, it is of 

considerable value to supplement water-quality data 

with ground-water age dating, which is useful in 

defining direction and velocity of ground-water flow as 

well as defining areas of recharge and discharge. The 

age of the water refers to the time that has passed since 

the water recharged the aquifer. Water recharged within 

the last 50 years ("young" ground water) is dated using 

two classes of environmental tracers: (1) those that 

indicate a particular event, such as tritium, which was 

used to mark atmospheric nuclear testing in the 1950's 

and early 1960's and (2) those present globally as a 

result of continuous, known atmospheric inputs over a 

period of time, such as CFC's (Plummer and others, 

1993).

Busenberg and Plummer (1992) described a new 

method developed for sampling ground waters for trace 

concentrations of CFC's that has been successfully 

used in the Albuquerque Basin. Advantages of this 

method include reduced costs for sample collection and 

analysis, elimination of transporting sensitive 

equipment into the field for on-site determinations, and 

the longevity of samples, which can be stored for many 

months. In addition to CFC sampling and analysis, 

other constituents were sampled and analyzed to age 

date waters older than 50 years; carbon-14 ( 14C), for 

example, can be used to date water between 2,000 and 

35,000 years old. However, 14C can be used to age date 

water only if the major ions 3H and carbon-13 ( 13C) 

also are analyzed (Laura Bexfield, U.S. Geological 

Survey, oral commun., 1998).

33
2" standpipefor lowering and raising packer system

Land surface

Isolated 

portion

of

borehole 

orwell

Fractured 

limestone

Figure 14.--Straddle packer configuration.

34
Conduct Isotope Sampling for All Components of the 

Hydrologic Cycle

In fractured systems, stable isotopes can be used 

to determine (1) the origin of the water by using the 

decrease in oxygen-18 ( 18O) and deuterium (2H) with 

increasing altitude; (2) the degree of mixing within a 

fractured system by looking at spatial and temporal 

variation in 2H, 18O, and 3H; (3) the flow rate and 

residence time in small watersheds by using the

10 }

seasonal variation'in O and H content; and (4) the

^

average age and type of flow using H concentrations 

(Coplen, 1993). Stable isotope sampling in ground 

water, surface water, and precipitation would be an 

essential study element. Isotopic values of evaporated 

water, for example, can be used in recharge studies to 

discriminate between summer and winter precipitation 

(Coplen, 1993).

Develop a Regional Ground-Water-Flow Model

Ground-water-flow models are used to simulate 

a flow system. Past, present, or future conditions can be 

simulated. Physical and hydraulic parameters are used 

to first develop a conceptual model of the system; the 

conceptual model is then translated into a mathematical 

model. Regional-scale ground-water modeling will be 

needed at some point in the east mountain area to 

characterize regional-scale properties. The datacollection activities and studies described in this report 

would provide the information needed to develop a 

model of ground-water flow.

Useful Information and Activities

Information that could provide additional 

understanding of the hydrogeologic system in the east 

mountain area but would not be essential to improve 

the understanding of ground-water flow or hydraulic 

properties of the Madera Limestone is prioritized as 

useful. Useful information and activities include the 

following:

Conduct Remote Sensing

Because of the importance of faults in 

understanding ground-water flow and well yield, 

additional mapping may be necessary to characterize 

faults in the east mountain area. The mapping 

conducted by NMBMMR personnel may be sufficient; 

however, conducting and interpreting aerial

photography and satellite imagery to fully characterize 

the fracture system would be useful.

Develop a Water Budget by Aquifer

A detailed hydrologic budget has not been 

published for aquifers in the east mountain area. A 

hydrologic budget, or water budget, represents an 

evaluation of all sources of supply to and 

corresponding discharges from an aquifer (Fetter, 

1988). The basic principle of a water budget is that the 

difference between inflow and outflow is equal to the 

change in aquifer storage. A water budget would 

consider inflow (recharge) from ground water, surface 

water, precipitation, septic-field effluent and imported 

water, and outflow (discharge) from well withdrawals, 

evapotranspiration, ground water, springs, and surface 

water (fig. 15).

The quantities of inflow and outflow needed for 

a hydrologic budget for aquifers in the east mountain 

area are as yet undefined. Results from the studies and 

activities described in this report could be used to 

develop a budget for the Madera Limestone and other 

aquifers. Should an attempt be made to balance the 

additions to and depletions from the water supply of the 

area, however, the results would only be as accurate as 

the measurements or estimations of the inflows and 

outflows.

Consolidate Geographic Information System Data

A GIS is an organized collection of computer 

hardware, software, and geographic data designed to 

efficiently store, update, manipulate, analyze, and 

display all forms of geographically referenced 

information. A GIS is used to link spatial data with 

geographic information concerning a particular feature 

on a map (Environmental Systems Research Institute, 

Inc., 1992).

The USGS has data that are used to describe 

various geographic, hydrologic, geologic, biologic, 

and demographic features within the study area (J.M. 

Kernodle, U.S. Geological Survey, oral cornmun., 

1998). Bernalillo County has collected similar 

information; consolidating the USGS GIS data with the 

Bernalillo County GIS data would be useful. The 

combination of the individual data sets would provide 

additional information than the individual data sets.

35
Withdrawal Springs Evapotranspiration

Surface 

water

Ground 

water

Outflow

Aquifer storage

Inflow

Surface 

water

Ground 

water

Recharge 

(precipitation)

Imported water and 

septic-field effluent

Figure 15.-Components of a water budget (modified from Thorn and others, 1993).

Improve Drilling Records

A drilling record or well record (fig. 16), 

completed by the driller, provides information 

concerning the location, construction, lithology, depth, 

and yield of a well. The record is then filed with the 

NMOSE.

The information contained in a drilling record 

can be used for a variety of purposes. For example, 

location information can be used to plot well sites in a 

GIS, lithologic descriptions can be used to refine 

stratigraphic relations, depth information can be used 

to identify aquifers, and yield information can be used 

to help determine the suitability of various sites for 

development. The reliability of these subsequent 

activities depends on the completeness and accuracy of 

the information gathered by the driller.

Suggestions to improve drilling record data 

include the use of global positioning system (GPS) 

units to determine the well location in terms of latitude 

and longitude in addition to the legal description of the 

property that is presently required. A diagram of the 

finished well, including construction and completion 

data, would enhance the written description provided 

by the driller. Determination of actual rather than 

estimated yields would better characterize the 

availability of ground water in an area.

Typically, a drilling record represents all that is 

known about a well. A complete drilling record that 

includes geographical coordinates, a sketch showing 

well construction, and reliable yield information would 

benefit residents, developers, and local officials who 

make decisions based on the driller's information.

Use U.S. Geological Survey Data Bases for 

Storage and Retrieval of Information

The USGS National Water Information System 

(NWIS) provides a convenient method for the storage 

and retrieval of information. Components of the NWIS 

include (1) the Water-Quality System, commonly 

referred to as QWDATA, a water-quality data storage 

and retrieval system (Maddy and others, 1989); (2) the 

Ground-Water Site-Inventory (GWSI) System, a 

ground-water-site data storage and retrieval system 

(Mathey, 1989); and (3) the Automated Data 

Processing System (ADAPS), developed for the 

processing, storage, and retrieval of water data 

(Dempster, 1990). These data bases, developed by the 

USGS, provide for entry of new sites and updates of 

existing sites within the local system. Placing the 

additional information gained through studies and 

activities described in this report in QWDATA, GWSI, 

or ADAPS would be useful.

36
STATE ENGINEER OFFICE

WELL RECORD 

Section 1. GENERAL INFORMATION

(A) Owner of well. Owner's Well No.

Street or Post Office Address. 

City and State________

Well was drilled under Permit No._ 

a. 1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4 of Section

_and is located in the: 

Township_____ _Range_ J.M.P.M.

b. Tract No. _ofMapNo._ of the

c. Lot No.____ 

Subdivision, recorded in__

d. X =_______feet, Y=

the_______________

of Block No._ of the

.County

_feet, N.M. Coordinate System. _Zone in 

_Grant.

(B) Drilling Contractor. 

Address_______________

License No.

Drilling Began. .Completed. _Type tools_ Size of hole

Elevation of land surface or. 

Completed well is

at well is _ft. Total depth of well.

shallow artesian. Depth to water upon completion of well. 

Section 2. PRINCIPAL WATER-BEARING STRATA

ft.

Depth in feet

From To

Thickness in Estimated yield 

feet Description of water-bearing formation (gallons per minute)

Section 3. RECORD OF CASING

Diameter 

(inches)

Pounds 

per foot

1

rhrrads Depth in feet . ^

per in. Top Bottom (feet) Type of shoe From To

Section 4. RECORD OF MUDDING AND CEMENTING

Depth in feet

From To

Hole Sacks Cubic feet 

diameter of mud of cement Method of placement

Figure 16.-Well record form used by the Office of the State Engineer.

37
Section 5. PLUGGING RECORD

Plugging contractor

Address

Plucgine method

Date well plugged

Pluecine approved by

State Engineer Representative

No.

1

2

2

4

Depth in feet

Top Bottom

Cubic feet 

of cement

FOR USE OF STATE ENGINEER ONLY

Date Received 

Quad FWL FSL

File No. Use Location No.

Sections. LOG OF HOLE

Depth in feet

From To

Thickness 

infect Color and type of material encountered

Section 7. REMARKS AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

The undersigned herby certifies that, to the best of his knowledge and belief, the foregoing is a true and correct 

record of the above described hole.

Driller

INSTRUCTIONS: This form should be executed in triplicate, preferably typewritten, and submitted to the appropriate district office of the State Engineer. All sections, except Section 5, shall be answered as completely and accurately as possible when any well is drilled, repaired, or deepened. Then this form is used as a plugging record only 

Section 1 (a) and Section 5 need be completed.

Figure 16b.--Well record form used by the Office of the State Engineer-Concluded,

38
Update "Ground Water in the Sandia and Northern 

Manzano Mountains, New Mexico" (Titus, 1980)

Frank Titus (oral commun., 1997) has suggested 

updating his 1980 report "Ground water in the Sandia 

and northern Manzano Mountains, New Mexico," a 

NMBMMR publication. Although most of the 

information contained in the report is useful today, the 

potentiometric surface Titus described (1980, fig. 4), 

which was based on water-level data collected in 1962- 

63, needs to be updated and the ground-water flow 

lines at the potentiometric surface need to be adjusted.

Involve Neighborhood Associations and 

Residents with Data Collection

The quantity and quality of water supplies in the 

east mountain area are issues of great interest and 

concern among residents. Ground water is commonly 

stored in large plastic or metal tanks; elaborate systems 

for the collection and storage of precipitation, used to 

supplement ground-water supplies, are not uncommon. 

Some residents measure ground-water levels in their 

well and gage rainfall on a regular basis. Involving 

neighborhood associations with certain types of data 

collection could be useful. Properly trained and 

equipped, residents could collect water-level and 

precipitation data. These data would be tagged for 

inclusion in the appropriate data base.

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40
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41
SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION

Activities and information needed to define the hydrogeologic characteristics of the

Madera Limestone in the east mountain area. 

Modified from minutes of the meeting held in Albuquerque, New Mexico, December 2-3, 1997

Needs and Concerns 

Water Budget

1. Watershed modeling.

2. Basic data collection.

3. Geohydrologic modeling.

4. Isotope studies relating to ground-water chemistry.

5. Spring inventory with discharge and water-quality information.

6. Flow and water quality of streams.

7. Quantification of recharge.

8. Determination of septic-system return flow.

9. Determination of domestic pumpage.

10. Quantification of imported water.

11. Water-level monitoring.

12. Determination of sources and sinks.

13. Ground-water flow.

14. Contamination transport.

15. Evaluation of water budgets according to geologic units.

16. Isotope analysis for all parts of the hydrologic cycle.

17. Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) sampling.

18. Precipitation data (rainfall, snowfall, weather observers, radar).

19. Development of a small test area.

20. Definition of geohydrologic processes.

GIS Coverages / Applications

1. Faults.

2. Surficial geology.

3. Wells (including location and completion data).

4. Septic tanks (including location and density data).

5. Roads.

6. Residential developments.

7. Aquifer/pump tests.

8. Water-quality analysis.

9. Land use.

10. Soil types.

11. Topography.

12. Drainages/streams.

13. Land cover.

14. Compilation of reasonable coverages.

42
Data Consolidation

1. Well locations.

2. Water-level data.

3. Water-quality data.

4. Hydraulic property data.

5. Geohydrologic data.

Geology / Matrix / Framework

1. Determination of the depth of the base of the Madera Limestone.

2. Determination of the thickness of the Madera Limestone.

3. Development of site-selection criteria for dedicated monitoring wells 

and nested piezometers.

4. Installation of dedicated monitoring wells and nested piezometers.

5. Better geologic records on drilling.

6. Detailed geologic mapping for small-scale hydrologic studies.

7. Identification of major fractures.

8. Determination of fracture density.

9. Development of geologic cross sections.

10. Geologic mapping by NMBMMR.

11. Geophysical borehole logging.

12. Surface geophysics.

Recharge / Discharge

1. Determination of spatial and temporal distribution of rainfall.

2. Determination of spatial and temporal distribution of snowfall.

3. Determination of septic-system return flow.

4. Determination of return flow from imported water.

5. Measurement of discharge in drainages.

6. Determination of evaporation and ET.

7. Inventory of springs.

8. Measurement of discharge from springs.

9. Determination of domestic pumpage.

Water Levels

1. Water-level monitoring in domestic wells.

2. Water-level monitoring in University of New Mexico/BCEHD piezometers.

3. Water-level monitoring in unused wells.

4. Water-level monitoring in additional dedicated wells.

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Water Quality

1. Determination/modification of criteria for selection of sampling sites.

2. Water-quality sampling from drainages.

3. Water-quality sampling from springs.

4. Water-quality sampling from domestic wells.

5. CFC/isotope sampling from selected wells.

6. Water-quality sampling in areas unaffected by domestic sewage.

7. Water-quality sampling from University of New Mexico/BCEHD piezometers.

8. Development of a three-dimensional perspective of nitrate contamination 

and migration.

9. Isotope analysis for all parts of the hydrologic cycle. 

10. Compilation and evaluation of existing water-quality data.

Aquifer Parameters and Characteristics

1. Determination of permeability distribution (including fractures and solution 

channels).

2. Tracer tests to determine fracturing.

3. Installation of dedicated monitoring wells for aquifer testing.

4. Determination of storage coefficient.

5. Investigation of the hydraulic significance of fault zones.

6. Evaluation of aquifer-test analysis methods in different geologic units.

7. Pump tests.

8. Slug tests as initial aquifer tests (prior to aquifer testing).

9. Evaluation of specific-capacity data for initial T values, then determination

of spatial distribution. 

10. Aquifer characterization.

Miscellaneous

1. Early modeling.

2. Possible development and management of data bases.

3. Update of 1980 Titus report ("Ground water in the Sandia and northern 

Manzano Mountains, New Mexico").

4. Satellite imagery and (declassified) intelligence products.

5. Adjustment of boundaries of study area.

6. Incorporation/use of NMOSE model.

7. Suggested NMBMMR mapping priorities.

8. Involvement of neighborhood associations with data collection 

(water levels, well locations, and septic systems).

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 & U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1999 775-433 / 05005 Region No. 8