INVESTIGATIONS IN FISH CONTROL

44. A Review of Literature on TFM 

(3-trifluormethyl-4-nitrophenol) 

as a Lamprey Larvicide

United States Department of the Interior

Fish and Wildlife Service 

Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife
INVESTIGATIONS IN FISH CONTROL

44. A Review of Literature on TFM 

(3-trifluormethyl-4-mtrophenol) 

as a Lamprey Larvicide

By Rosalie A. Schnick

United States Department of the Interior

Fish and Wildlife Service 

Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife

Washington, D.C. April 1972
CONTENTS

Abstract ........................ 3

History of lampricide development .......... 3

Physical and chemical properties .......... 6

Efficacy ........................ 7

Life stages .................. 7

Temperature ................. 7

Water chemistry ............... 8

Natural factors ................ 9

Management results .............. 10

Toxicity--non-target species. ............ 10

Aquatic plants ................. 10

Invertebrates ................. 10

Fishes ..................... 11

Amphibians .................. 13

Reptiles .................... 14

Birds. ..................... 14

Mammals ................... 14

Mode of action on sea lamprey ............ 14

Residues ........................ 15

Application methods .................. 16

Registration ...................... 18

Summary . ...................... 18

Acknowledgments ................... 18

References ...................... 18

Appendix A--technical data on TFM ......... 30

Appendix B--common and technical names of fishes . 31
A REVIEW OF LITERATURE ON TFM

(3-trifluormethyl-4-nitrophenol)

AS A LAMPREY LARVICIDE

By Rosalie A. Schnick, Librarian 

Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife 

Fish Control Laboratory, La Crosse, Wisconsin

Abstract. --The search for a selective toxicant to control the 

sea lamprey, scourge of Great Lakes fisheries, culminated in the 

discovery of TFM (3-trifluormethyl-4-nitrophenol) in the late 1950's. 

The research, however, had only begun on its chemical and physical properties, efficacy, toxicity to non-target and target species, 

residues, and methods. Federal, State, university, and industrial 

agencies contributed much in the effort to determine the effect of 

TFM on the environment and other organisms; however, much 

still remains to be done if TFM is to gain continued clearance by 

the Environmental Protection Agency for use as a larval lampricide in the aquatic environment.

HISTORY OF LAMPRICIDE 

DEVELOPMENT

The United States Congress directed 

the Fish and Wildlife Service in 1946 to develop measures for the control of the exotic sea lamprey_/in the Great Lakes 

(Van Oosten, 1949a). A master plan was 

prepared, and a Sea Lamprey Committee 

was organized by Dr. John Van Oosten, 

Chief of the Great Lakes Fishery Investigations. One objective of the plan was a 

study of sea lamprey physiology to determine what agents, including chemicals, 

might be used to kill the lamprey in any 

life stage (Van Oosten, 1949b).

Congress appropriated funds for research in 1949 (U. S. Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries, 1951). The 

Fish and Wildlife Service in 1950 took 

over the U. S. Coast Guard Station at 

Hammond Bay, Michigan, on the northwest 

coast of Lake Huron, and renovated the

Petromyzon marinus. See Appendix B 

for common and scientific names of 

fishes listed in the text.

facilities for research on mechanical, electrical, and chemical controls for the sea 

lamprey (Moffett, 1950).

The initial studies to find toxicants selective to the sea lamprey were assigned 

to Philip J. Sawyer, a doctoral candidate 

at the University of Michigan on a Fish and 

Wildlife Service Research Fellowship 

(Applegate, 1950; U. S. Branch of Fishery 

Biology, 1952). Sawyer experimented with 

179 compounds at the University before his 

project was terminated in 1952 (Applegate 

et al., 1952). Six of the compounds that 

were selectively toxic to larval lampreys 

had nitro groups and through hydrolysis 

yielded a nitrophenol (Sawyer, 1956). Significantly, the chemical group later considered effective against lamprey were the 

mononitrophenols of which TFM is a member. In the meantime, the Michigan Conservation Department had determined that 

rotenone was not effective on sea lamprey 

larvae in streams (U. S. Committee on 

Merchant Marine and Fisheries, 1952).

Following its early emphasis on mechanical and electrical controls for the sea
Investigations in Fish Control 44: Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife

lamprey, the Hammond Bay Laboratory 

began screening up to 50 chemicals a day 

in 1953 (Applegate, 1953; U. S. Branch of 

Fishery Biology, 1953). Over 4, 000 

selected compounds tested under a military contract at the Fish and Wildlife 

Service's Microbiological Laboratory at 

Leetown, West Virginia, were transferred 

to Hammond Bay for trials against lampreys (Applegate et al. , 1957; U. S. 

Branch of Fishery Biology, 1953). These 

compounds had been bioassayed against 

four species of fish and separated into 

three groups of very toxic, moderately 

toxic, and negative compounds (Woods, 

1953; Lennon, 1954). An additional 2, 000 

chemicals were obtained from universities, 

industries, and private individuals 

(McVeigh, 1958). The results of tests on 

compounds obtained from the National 

Academy of Sciences -National Research 

Council were reported in ~~~" Summary Tables

life Service, 1956a and 1956b).

While the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service was looking for a selective larvicide, 

investigators in Canada attempted to find 

a general toxicant that would kill lamprey 

without too much harm to other fish populations, and would be inexpensive, available, easy to use and handle, and nontoxic 

to warm-blooded animals (Kerr, 1954). 

Although they found that toxaphene killed 

70 percent of the lamprey larvae, it was 

too toxic to other fish and warm-blooded 

animals (Johnson and Tibbies, 1962).

Throughout 1954 and 1955 efforts at 

Hammond Bay centered almost exclusively 

on testing a large number of compounds 

(Applegate, 1954 and 1955). Finally, in 

1955, of the eight compounds selectively 

toxic to sea lamprey, two proved to be 

promising (Applegate, 1955). One was 

Compound No. 174, 3-bromo-4-nitrophenol, originally from the ChemicalBiological Coordination Center and the 

Leetown testing program (Applegate, 1955; 

Wood, 1953). The other was Compound

No. 3579. The restricted Compound 

No. 3579 and a Pennsalt chemical, 

O-ethyl-S-pentachlorophenyl thiolcarbonate, may be one and the same for various 

reasons. A patent for lampricidal use of 

O-ethyl-S-pentachlorophenyl thiolcarbonate 

was applied for as early as December 29, 

1955 (Neumoyer, 1960). Both compounds 

at 1 to 3 ppm (parts per million) at 55° F 

caused 100 percent mortalities among sea 

lamprey without affecting other fish 

(Applegate, 1955, 1958, and 1963). Both 

compounds were difficult to formulate and 

apply (Applegate, 1955; Howell, 1966). 

Raceway tests were still made on O-ethylS-pentachlorophenyl thiolcarbonate in 1957, 

but the compound was dropped from the 

program shortly thereafter (U. S. Bureau 

of Commercial Fisheries, 1957a; Howell, 

1966).

Applegate and Howell (1960) applied for 

a patent on Compound No. 174, 3-bromo-4- 

nitrophenol, on March 29, 1956. Whereas 

3-bromo-4-nitrophenol was soluble enough 

in water for larvicidal use, it was hard to 

synthesize and too expensive to use (Willeford, 

1956; McVeigh, 1958; Moffett, 1958a; 

Howell, 1966). Thus in 1956, the investigators at Hammond Bay turned their attention to other nitrophenols.

In response to a request, at least six 

companies supplied many nitrophenols 

(Applegate, Howell, and Smith, 1958). Of 

the six most promising compounds tested 

during 1956, five were nitrophenols and one 

was NP-1458, a Pennsalt chemical (U. S. 

Fish and Wildlife Service, 1956c and 

1956d; Applegate e-taJ., 1957). By April 11, 

1957, six mononitrophenols showed enough 

promise that Applegate and Howell (1965) 

applied for a United States patent on control 

of the sea lamprey with mononitrophenols. 

On March 18, 1958, Applegate and Howell 

(1964) applied for a Canadian patent on the 

same compounds. Pyne (1962) later applied 

for a British patent on one of the mononitrophenols, 2, 5-dichloro-4-nitrophenol. 

Testing in the field demonstrated that
Rosalie A. Schnick: A Review of Literature on TFM

nitrophenols are stable, measurable by a 

colorimeter, usable under various water 

quality conditions, harmless to domestic 

animals and wildlife at the concentrations 

used, not too toxic to other fish and invertebrates, and inexpensive enough to 

warrant further research (Moffett, 1958a).

Among nine compounds suggested by 

Dr. Clarence L. Moyle of Dow Chemical 

Corporation was one, 3, 4, 6-trichloro-2- 

nitrophenol, that showed promise (McVeigh, 1958). It was tested against lamprey larvae in raceways, for acute oral 

and dermal toxicity to mammals, and in 

drinking water for deer and dairy cows 

(U. S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, 

1957a and 1957b). Finally, the compound 

was tested in the field against larval sea 

lampreys. On October 29 to 30, 1957, 

Dowlap 30 (30 percent stock solution of 

3, 4, 6-trichloro-2-nitrophenol as a sodium 

salt), was applied to Little Billies Creek 

(Elliot Creek), Michigan, resulting in a 

96. 6 percent kill of lampreys and little 

harm to other fauna (Moffett, 1958a and 

1958b; Westerman, 1958; U. S. Bureau of 

Commercial Fisheries, 1957a and 1957b). 

Further testing was done in 1958 on Carp 

Creek, (Black Mallard Creek), Michigan, 

with Dowlap 20 (20 ppm of 3, 4, 6-trichloro2-nitrophenol), but the results disclosed 

that Dowlap 20 or 30 had to be used in 

relatively high concentrations (13 ppm) 

and did not have a high differential in 

selectivity (Anonymous, 1959; Keller, 

1966; U. S. Bureau of Commercial 

Fisheries, 1958a and 1958b).

The search continued, and promising 

compounds were tested both in the laboratory and raceways (Moffett, 1958a; U. S. 

Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, 1957a). 

A compound more effective at lower concentrations than Dowlap 30 was found - 

TFM (Moffett, 1958a).±/ "it was formu21 3-trifluormethyl-4-nitrophenol. See 

Appendix A for other names and technical data for TFM.

lated as a sodium salt, dissolved in an 

acceptable solvent, and sold to the Fish 

and Wildlife Service as Lamprecid 2770 

by the Progressive Color and Chemical 

Company of New York" (Moffett, 1958a). 

Another source listed TFM as originally 

produced by Farbwerke Hoechst of Germany as a dye intermediate and supplied 

by the U. S. outlet, Hoechst Chemical, 

under the name of Lamprecid 2770 (Anonymous, 1959). When the U. S. Bureau of 

Commercial Fisheries originally began 

dealing with Farbwerke Hoechst of Germany, the American outlet was the Progressive Color and Chemical Company and 

later the Hoechst Chemical Company. 

Farbwerke Hoechst Aktiengesellschaft 

later succeeded in obtaining patents on 

TFM for lampricidal use in the United 

States, Great Britain, Germany, and 

Canada (Scherer, Frensch, and Stabler, 

1960, 1962, and 1964).

Because TFM killed lamprey at 2 ppm, 

it was easier and cheaper to transport than 

Dowlap 30 (Keller, 1966; Johnson, 1961). 

Therefore, the U. S. Government purchased 

10, 000 pounds of TFM from Dow Chemical 

Company in 1958, 25, 000 pounds from 

Maumee Chemical Company in 1959, and 

25, 000 pounds for use in 1960 from Dow 

Chemical Company (Anonymous, 1959; 

U. S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, 

1959b). The Canadian unit obtained the 

amine salt of TFM through the Maumee 

Chemical Company for use in 1960 and 1961 

treatments (Tibbies et_al., 1961).

The first field testing of TFM was done 

on the Mosquito River, Michigan, May 14, 

1958, and on the Silver River, Michigan, 

June 11, 1958 (Moffett, 1958a). The trials 

were successful, and they marked the end 

of research efforts in the field. Control 

crews treated eight streams with two formulations in 1958. One compound contained 

45 percent active ingredient (Lamprecid 

2770), and the other contained 30 percent 

active ingredient (Dowlap F40) (U. S. Bureau 

of Commercial Fisheries, 1958b). The
Investigations in Fish Control 44: Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife

experimental field work on the Canadian 

side was completed on the Pancake River, 

Ontario, August 26 to 27, 1958, and on 

the West Davignon River, Ontario, November 5, 1958 (Johnson and Tibbies, 1962; 

Johnson, 1959; Fisheries Research Board 

of Canada, 1958). Checks were made on 

the effects of TFM on invertebrates and 

fish. In all these tests, TFM performed 

well enough to cause the Great Lakes 

Fishery Commission to authorize treatment of streams for control of sea lamprey (Moffett, 1958a).

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL 

PROPERTIES

The identification of TFM was accomplished in 1930. In the preparation and 

isolation of nitrotrifluoracetanilide, 

DeBrouwer (1930) obtained a substance 

which he identified as 1, 3, 6-nitrotrifluorcresol, or TFM. He determined the 

melting point (76°), molecular weight 

(207), position of the NO2 grouping, resistance of the radical CF3, the constant 

of ionization (4.4 x 10 ), and the preparation of its barium salt.

Applegate et al. (1961) listed several 

properties of TFM including its form at 

room temperature, color, solubility, 

stability, detoxification, and properties 

in different formulations. Smith, Applegate, and Johnson (1960) determined that 

TFM is a fairly strong acid (pK 6. 07 ± 

0. 03), that its color is at its height at 

pH 8. 0 or above, and that it has a molar 

absorbance of 13, 130 at 395 nm (nanometer). They also determined its ultraviolet, infrared, and visible spectra, and 

potentiometric tritrations (Smith, Applegate, and Johnson, 1961). Daniels £t al., 

(1965) mentioned the molecular weight, 

melting point of the free phenol and the 

impurities of TFM. Rogers and Watson 

(1968) studied the electron spin resonance 

(esr) spectra of the anion radicals of TFM.

In an attempt to determine the reason 

for the selectivity of mononitrophenols, 

especially TFM, Applegate, Johnson, and 

Smith (1966) tested phenols with nitro 

groups in the para position and the halogen 

in the meta position and discovered that 

they are generally more toxic to lampreys. 

Other related compounds were studied for 

possible selective properties, but none was 

found. A condensed version of the preceding 

report appeared a year later (Applegate, 

Smith, and Willeford, 1967).

Observations at present seem to indicate that the toxicity of TFM is related to 

the amount of free phenol present. When 

TFM is exposed to low pH (6. 8), it exists 

as a free phenol, but when exposed to high 

pH, most of the TFM exists as a phenolate 

ion (Lennon, 1971).

Information on the degradation and residues appears in the section of this report 

entitled, Residues.

Several methods for preparing TFM are 

known. Maumee Chemical Company used 

benzotrifluoride as a starting point (Anonymous, 1959). In the preparation of 2, 5- 

dihydroxybenzotrifluoride, Whalley (1949) 

found one of the derivatives to be 2-nitro5-hydroxybenzotrifluoride (C^H^FoNOo) or 

TFM. The preliminary laboratory tests 

were done with a sample recrystallized 

from benzene-petroleum ether (Applegate 

et al., 1961). Using 3- (trifluormethyl)- 

4-nitro-aniline, a diazonium was formed 

which was then hydrolyzed in a series of 

steps to yield TFM ( U. S. Rubber Company, 

1963). None of the various methods has 

produced a very pure compound. Farbwerke Hoechst produced a technical-grade 

preparation (91 percent pure) of TFM, 

which was used in raceway tests and all 

experimental stream treatments (Johnson, 

1959 and Applegate et al., 1961). Lech 

(197D discussed methods for crystallizing 

TFM, and for preparing reduced TFM
Rosalie A. Schnick: A Review of Literature on TFM

(RTFM) and tritiated TFM and RTFM. 

Synthesis of C 14 ring-labeled TFM was 

accomplished by the Mallinckrodt Chemical Works (1971).

EFFICACY

In preliminary laboratory tests at 

55±1° F, a 2 ppm concentration of TFM 

with both free phenol and sodium salts 

was effective on sea lamprey larvae 

(Applegate, Howell, and Smith, 1958). In 

preliminary field tests, an application of 

5. 5 ppm of TFM for 9 hours killed all 

lamprey larvae within 7-3/4 hours in the 

Mosquito River, Michigan, and a concentration of 2. 8 ppm applied for 13-1/2 

hours killed all lamprey larvae in the 

Silver River, Michigan (U. S. Bureau of 

Commerical Fisheries, 1958b). A range 

of 3 to 10 ppm was established for lamprey control in laboratory tests by 1962 

(Applegate and King, 1962). Taking 

various water chemistries into account, 

concentrations of 1 to 17 ppm are lethal 

to lamprey larvae (Dykstra and Lennon, 

1966).

Life stages

Applegate, Howell, and Smith (1958) 

found that TFM was effective against sea 

lamprey in the 2- to 5-year classes at 

2 ppm. Later, Applegate e^aL (1961) 

exposed larval, recently transformed, 

and adult lampreys to 1. 5 to 13 ppm of 

TFM in raceway tests at 45 to 55° F. 

The mortality of larvae was 100 percent at 

concentrations as low as 3 ppm. At 1.5 

ppm, 91. 5 percent of the larvae died. 

Adults and recently transformed lampreys 

died at concentrations as low as 3 ppm, 

Thus, treatment of streams when the 

adults are spawning in spring, or when the 

recently transformed lampreys are moving 

downstream in fall or winter could destroy 

some of the migrants. Dustin and Higginson 

(1967) observed that larvae in late stages 

of transformation (mid-summer) seem to 

be more resistant to a mixture of TFM

and Bayluscide^(a synergist used to 

duce the amount of TFM needed).

rePiavis (1962) undertook a study in 1956 

to determine whether certain selective 

larvicides would have any effect upon the 

developing embryos, prolarvae (larvae 

still bearing a yolk), and young larvae. 

He found that all Stage 18 larvae (larvae 

with gut instead of yolk) exposed to 10 ppm 

of TFM died in 1 or 2 hours. It seemed to 

Piavis that chemical treatment of earlier 

stages (blastula through hatching) delayed 

development and led to death, but that prolarvae could survive until they become 

larvae. He suggested, therefore, that 

control of the sea lamprey would be most 

effective if conducted at least 40 days after 

all spawning so that larvae would have 

reached Stage 18 in their development.

In 1962, investigators at Hammond Bay 

exposed sea lamprey at all stages of embryonic development to 10 ppm of TFM for 

24 hours. After exposure, eggs and larvae 

were washed and placed in fresh water. 

The exposure of Stages 1 through prehatching Stage 13 resulted in disintegration 

of the embryo before it reached Stage 18. 

All embryos exposed during prolarval 

stages, 14 to 17, died during or immediately following exposure. All Stage 18 

larvae died within hours after exposure 

(Erkkila, 1962).

Temperature

Preliminary work on the effects of temperature on the efficacy of TFM was done in 

the laboratory. Lamprey larvae from 3. 5 

to 5 inches long were exposed to TFM in 

water from Hammond Bay of Lake Huron 

at 35, 45, and 55° F. The results indicated 

little difference in the activity of TFM at 

these temperatures. The MLC (minimum 

lethal concentration - the concentration 

killing 100 percent of the larvae within 24 

hours) for larvae was 2 ppm, and the death 

rate slowed as the temperature decreased. 

The selectivity in toxicity between fish and
Investigations in Fish Control 44: Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife

lamprey increased when the temperature 

dropped near 32° F (Applegate et_aL, 1961; 

Keller, 1966).

When the use of TFM was extended to 

include warm-water streams, a graduate 

student at the University of Michigan 

tested American brook lamprey from 3. 5 

to 7. 5 inches long at 55, 60, and 65° F in 

Huron River water, and at 35 to 75° F 

(10-degree intervals from 35 to 55°, and 

5-degree intervals from 55 to 75°) in city 

water (Cooper, 1965). In both waters the 

time required for effective exposure increased at colder temperatures. He found 

that the minimum lethal concentration was 

5 ppm at 55°, 4 ppm at 60°, but at 65° F it 

was again 5 ppm. Cooper suggested that: 

1) results may differ if pre-control bioassays are done in water warmer than the 

stream; 2) less chemical is needed if 

treatments were postponed until streams 

warm up; and 3) large streams should not 

be treated in late fall, winter, or early 

spring. He concluded that lower temperatures slow the death of lamprey, and 

added that no data are available on the interaction of temperature and water quality.

The results observed in field operations support those obtained through research. One of the first reports of water 

temperature affecting the toxicity of TFM 

in the field was in connection with an incomplete kill of larval lamprey in the 

Sucker River, Michigan. Shortly after the 

application of TFM, the temperature 

dropped from 55 to 39° F, which apparently retarded the activity of the free 

phenol and resulted in inadequate exposure (U. S. Bureau of Commercial 

Fisheries, 1958b). A later report found 

one of the causes for lamprey surviving 

a treatment in the lower Brunsweiler, a 

tributary of the Bad River, Wisconsin, 

was a drop of 11° F in temperature which 

reduced the effectiveness of TFM (Smith 

and King, 1970). Workers also observed 

that winter treatments required too much 

chemical and resulted in mechanical

failure of equipment due to freezing (U. S. 

Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, 1961). 

In addition, winter treatments made 

traveling, sampling, and observations 

difficult because of the ice and snow 

(Tibbies et_aL, 1961).

Water chemistry

Water from 16 streams in the Lakes 

Huron, Michigan, and Superior watersheds 

was used in bioassays at 55° F in the 

laboratory to check the effects of pH, conductivity, alkalinity, and turbidity on TFM. 

The chemical is most effective in soft, acid 

waters where the minimum lethal concentration is as low as 0. 5 ppm. The hardest 

and most alkaline waters require 8 ppm. 

Turbidity caused no change in toxicity in a 

few simulated stream trials (Applegate et al», 

1961). The dissolved oxygen was not checked 

because most streams to be treated have 

high oxygen concentrations.

The biological activity of TFM is 

generally best at about pH 7. 1, but is reduced below 7. 0 and as alkalinity increases. 

Attempts to change pH of streams have not 

been effective (U. S. Bureau of Commercial 

Fisheries, 1960b and 1960c). Lamprey 

larvae were exposed to six concentrations 

of TFM (1, 2, 3, 9, 11, and 13 ppm) for 

20 hours at four pH values (6. 6, 7. 2, 7. 8, 

and 8.4). All larvae died when exposed to 

2 and 3 ppm of TFM at pH 6. 6 to 7. 8. 

Above pH 7. 8, complete kills were not 

attained even at concentrations of 13 ppm 

(LeMaire, 1961).

In testing for comparative toxicity of 

TFM, Applegate and King (1962) selected 

water from three different sources which 

encompassed nearly all conditions in 

streams of Lakes Huron and Michigan. 

At pH 7. 8, methyl orange alkalinity of 

95.4 ppm, CO2 of 1. 6 ppm, and conductivity 

of 176.3 micromhos (at 18° C), the MLC 

of TFM was 4 ppm in 9 of 11 tests; at pH 

7. 7, methyl orange alkalinity of 141. 7 ppm, 

CO2 of 3. 2 ppm, and conductivity of 219. 1
Rosalie A. Schnick: A Review of Literature on TFM 9

micromhos, the MLC of TFM was 6 ppm 

in 6 of 11 tests, and at pH 7. 7, methyl 

orange alkalinity of 203. 3 ppm, CO2 of 

5. 1 ppm, and conductivity of 338. 7 micromhos, the MLC of TFM was 9 ppm in 

5 of 10 tests. Thus, TFM is more toxic 

in waters having low alkalinity and conductivity.

Kanayama (1963) worked on a method 

to define the minimum lethal concentration 

of TFM. He measured alkalinity in tributaries of Lakes Superior and Michigan, and 

tested TFM at the various levels. The 

MLC of TFM ranged from 1 ppm at 10 to 

19 ppm of CaCO3 to 6. 7 ppm at 160 to 169 

ppm of CaCOg. He tested conductivity 

values from 40 to 279 micromhos (at 20° 

C), and found the MLC of TFM ranges 

from 1 ppm at 40 to 59 micromhos to 

5. 7 ppm at 260 to 279 micromhos. His results confirmed the fact that TFM is more 

toxic to lampreys at low levels of alkalinity 

and conductivity.

An investigation was made on the water 

quality of streams tributary to Lakes 

Superior and Michigan to determine the 

natural levels and seasonal fluctuations in 

concentrations of aluminum, copper, iron, 

magnesium, calcium, chloride, nitrate, 

nitrite, silica, sulfate, tannin-like and 

lignin-like compounds, phenolphthalein 

alkalinity, total alkalinity, total hardness, 

pH, and conductivity. This was done to 

facilitate determination of the minimum 

lethal concentrations of TFM to larval 

lamprey (Zimmerman, 1965; Smith, 1966).

A need to correlate these constituents 

with the biological activity of TFM has 

been demonstrated many times in field 

situations. Thus, investigators in Canada 

used water from various streams in bioassays, and analyzed the water at the 

same time. In addition to the constituents 

evaluated by Zimmerman (1965), they 

measured oxygen consumed, chemical 

oxygen demand, carbon dioxide, color, 

turbidity, suspended matter, residue on

evaporation, loss on ignition, manganese, 

zinc, sodium, potassium, ammonia, fluoride, 

and phosphate. No single constituent was 

linked consistently with the results of bioassays in the three streams tested; thus, 

no one factor was completely responsible 

for change in activity. More work needs to 

be done in this area (Johnson, 1970).

A few management experiences illustrate 

the problems related to differences in water 

chemistry. On one occasion when the concentration of dissolved oxygen in the Kalamazoo River, Michigan, was low (0. 6 ppm 

to 2. 4 PpmK 4 ppm of TFM and 2 percent 

Bayluscide©'' were required to get a complete kill of lamprey, but numbers of 

northern pike, carp, white sucker, and 

channel catfish were killed. In southern 

tributaries of Lake Michigan, 10 to 12 ppm 

of TFM were needed oecause of the water 

quality (Smith, 1967a). Manion (1969) found 

that effective concentrations of TFM range 

from 6 to 9 ppm and exposures range from 

7 to 8 hours in waters of 4 to 10° C, 49 to 

56 ppm of CaCOg, and 109 to 113 micromhos.

Natural factors

Certain physical and meteorological 

conditions can reduce the effectiveness of 

TFM treatments. Lamprey control crews 

have observed the following: 1) dilution of 

chemical concentration caused by excessive 

rain, merging streams, melting snow, and 

other volumetric increases; 2) high and low 

water levels interfere with distribution of 

the toxicant; 3) unless the sample is filtered, 

turbidity makes measurement of concentration difficult; 4) any naturally occurring 

substance or pollutant absorbing light at 395 

nm may interfere with the determination of 

TFM; 5) escape of lampreys from TFM by 

burrowing deeper into the mud or traveling 

into untreated areas; 6) variation in chemical characteristics of the stream water, 

especially pH, which changes the biological 

activity of TFM; and 7) natural formations 

such as beaver dams which obstruct dispersion of the chemical (U. S. Bureau of
10 Investigations in Fish Control 44: Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife

Commercial Fisheries, 1959a and 1961; 

Smith and King, 1969; Smith 1967a; 

Fisheries Research Board of Canada, 

1959).

Management results

Control of the sea lamprey has been 

the greatest fish control endeavor ever 

attempted (Bardach, 1964). The success 

of this program is evidenced in the number of self-sustaining populations of game 

and food fish which are not seriously 

threatened by lamprey predation (Baldwin, 

1968). Great recoveries of valuable fish 

stocks have been noted in Lake Michigan 

and Lake Superior (Crowe, 1965; Lennon 

_et a_L, 1970; Tody, 1966; Wiegert, 1966). 

Observations by experts attribute this 

success to the reduction in numbers of 

sea lamprey to 10 percent of their precontrol abundance (Lawrie, 1970; Anonymous, 1967).

Indications are that the sea lamprey 

will be reduced further by improved survey and treatment techniques and by complete treatment of lamprey-producing 

tributaries of all Great Lakes. The total 

benefits to be derived from the control 

program greatly exceed the cost of research and management that must continue in order to suppress and maintain 

the sea lamprey at low numbers (Brinser 

_etL al., 1968; Lawrie, 1970; Lennon et al., 

1970).

TOXICITY-- 

NON-TARGET SPECIES

Aquatic plants

At the concentrations used, TFM does 

not appear to affect adversely either algae 

or higher aquatic plants (Howell, 1966). 

However, TFM and its salts applied at 

concentrations from 15 to 100 ppm control 

rooted aquatic plants (Josephs, 1961). The 

lower doses are used in standing waters 

while the higher concentrations are needed

in moving waters. Each concentration requires about 2 hours of exposure. TFM 

and its salts and esters in liquid or dust 

form have also been used to protect seeds 

and make them resistant to attack by organisms causing damping off, seed rot, 

and root rot (Baker, 1962).

Haas (1970) treated streams with 1 and 

4 ppm of TFM to determine the effect on 

periphyton. He weighed the standing crops 

before and after treatment, and found no 

significant difference in the growth rates 

of the two groups.

Invertebrates

Scherer, Stahler, and Frensch (1957) 

and Schrader (1961) studied the toxicity of 

the phosphoric acid ester of TFM to the 

common house fly, Musca domestica. They 

found that this compound is nontoxic to 

warm-blooded animals.

Scherer, Frensch, and Stahler (1960 

and 1964) observed during field studies that 

lower aquatic organisms such as leeches 

(Hemiclepsis spp. and Glossiphonia^spp. ) 

and tubificids are affected at 3 to 7. 5 mg/1 

(milligrams per liter) of TFM. On the 

other hand, fish-food forms such as 

Daphnidae, Coleoptera, Odonata, Notonectidae, and Gammaridae are not affected by 

TFM until concentrations reach 20 to 24 mg/1.

The Great Lakes Biological Laboratory 

(1963) reported a German study on the 

effect of TFM on invertebrates. This 

study determined that animals with a strong 

exoskeleton are not affected by a concentration of 10 ppm for 5 days. Gammarids 

tolerated 8 ppm and some insect larvae 

6 ppm. Thin-shelled invertebrates died 

readily at the same concentrations. 

Leeches, Tubifex, and Daphnia tolerated 

1. 5, 3. 75, and 3. 75 to 4. 0 ppm, respectively.

Applegate _et_ al_(1961) in their preliminary field tests of TFM noticed premature
Rosalie A. Schnick: A Review of Literature on TFM 11

emergence of mayfly nymphs, but treatments do not appear to seriously affect 

other groups of invertebrates.

To gain further knowledge on effects 

of TFM to common aquatic invertebrates, 

assays were completed with 14 groups 

representing five phyla and using 2 to 20 

ppm of the toxicant for each species. 

Mortality was insignificant in exposures 

to 20 ppm among isopods, gammarids, 

crayfish, dragonflies, water boatmen, 

and case-building caddisflies. Concentrations below 10 ppm were harmless to 

leeches in the family Glossiphonidae, 

stoneflies, bloodworms, and snails, but 

mortalities for this group were 10 to 55 

percent at concentrations between 10 to 

20 ppm. Mortality was signficant with 

Hydra at 2 ppm, leeches (Herpobdellidae) 

at 8 ppm, burrowing mayflies at 6 ppm, 

net-building caddisflies at 13 ppm, blackflies at 3 ppm, and clams at 8 ppm 

(Erkkila, 1962). These results were 

much the same as those obtained in Germany, excluding the fact that the leeches 

tolerated 1. 5 ppm there and 20 ppm here 

(Erkkila, 1964).

Smith (1967) tested invertebrates in the 

laboratory, and found that 100 percent of 

the hydras, turbellarians, and blackflies 

were affected when exposed to 10 ppm of 

TFM for an extended period. Other invertebrates such as burrowing mayflies would 

be reduced by 99 percent, Herpobdellidae 

by 89 percent and clams by 50 percent.

In the field, freshwater scud (Gammarus spp), burrowing mayflies, aquatic 

earthworms, and clams have been found 

dead in significant numbers after certain 

TFM treatments (U. S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, 1958b, 1959b, 1960b, 

and 1961).

In field tests in five tributaries of Lake 

Superior and four tributaries of Lake 

Michigan, Torblaa (1968) noted that one 

week after treatment 77 percent of the

invertebrate groups present in sand and 

detritus areas had decreased, 17 percent 

increased, and 6 percent showed no change. 

In riffle areas 64 percent had decreased, 

19 percent increased, and 17 percent showed 

no change. In two untreated riffle areas 

33 percent had decreased, 50 percent increased, and 17 percent showed no change. 

Elmidae and Helidae declined in sand areas, 

and Trichoptera, Coleoptera, Ephemeroptera, and Diptera declined in riffle areas. 

Six weeks after treatment, the numbers of 

organisms increased in three streams, 

were partially restored in another, and 

were reduced in one. In one year, complete 

recoveries were made (Smith, 1966).

Haas (1970) evaluated the effect of TFM 

on bottom fauna. He selected 12 taxa from 

riffle fauna and 8 taxa from pool fauna, and 

treated the stream with 1 ppm and 4 ppm of 

the lampricide. No change in riffle or pool 

fauna was observed from a TFM treatment 

at 1 ppm. All taxa, except two, decreased 

in numbers in the experimental riffle area, 

and all taxa decreased in the pool at 4 ppm 

of TFM. However, the bottom fauna varied 

greatly even without TFM, so it was not 

possible to determine the exact effect of 

TFM on bottom fauna.

TFM does not have molluscidal properties at levels used against sea lamprey, 

but at 15 mg/1 for 6 hours the sodium salt 

of TFM (Eelicide--TFM) had a LC 99. 5 

rating (lethal concentration - concentration 

producing a 99. 5 percent mortality within 

a specified period of time) for the snail 

(Australorbis glabratus) that is an intermediate host of schistosomiasis. At that 

level it was not toxic to the guppy and other 

small fish tested (Jobin and Unrau, 1967).

Fishes

European species were not affected by 

TFM until levels of 15 to 18 mg/1 were 

reached (Scherer, Frensch, and Stahler, 

1964). In preliminary tests in the United 

States TFM as a free phenol was toxic to
12 Investigations in Fish Control 44: Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife

brown trout at 7 ppm and to rainbow trout 

at 9 ppm. Rainbow trout were affected at 

a 7 ppm concentration of the sodium salt 

of TFM (Applegate, Howell, and Smith, 

1958; McKee and Wolf, 1963). Raceway 

studies included 15 species of fish, TFM 

at 1. 5 to 13 ppm, and temperatures from 

45 to 55° F. Brown trout, brook trout, 

and panfish tolerated TFM as well as did 

rainbow trout. Brown trout and rock bass 

were affected at a concentration of 9 ppm, 

adult white sucker and yellow perch above 

7 ppm, logperch at 5 ppm, and bullheads 

above 3 ppm (Apple gate ert_al., 1961).

Applegate et_al_(1961) observed in field 

trials that only a few species were affected 

adversely by TFM. Of 25 species of fish 

and four species of native lamprey in Silver River, Michigan, only logperch were 

killed in large numbers. Among 18 species 

of bony fishes only sculpins suffered great 

mortalities in the Pancake River system, 

Ontario.

Because lamprey control was extended 

to streams containing large numbers of 

warm-water fishes, toxic levels of TFM 

had to be established for bluntnose minnow, fathead minnow, white sucker, yellow bullhead, pumpkinseed, bluegill, 

smallmouth bass, largemouth bass, yellow 

perch, and walleye (U. S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, 1960a and 1960b). 

Lethal concentrations were established in 

three dilution waters for all of the above 

species except the bluntnose minnow and 

pumpkinseed. Tolerances also were 

established for golden shiner and blacknose shiner. TFM is as toxic to cyprinids 

as it is to rainbow trout. Centrarchids 

are more tolerant than the cyprinids. 

White sucker, yellow bullhead, yellow 

perch, and walleye are relatively susceptible, with the walleye the least tolerant. 

The MAC (maximum allowable concentration - concentration killing 25 percent 

of the specimens within 24 hours) ranges 

from 5 to 44 ppm depending upon the species of fishes present and the water quality

conditions at the time of application 

(Applegate and King, 1962).

Recent toxicity studies were performed 

at the Fish Control Laboratory, La Crosse, 

Wisconsin, on fingerling-size fish of 12 

species. Using standard reconstituted 

water Marking (1971) found that the toxicity 

ranged from 1. 39 to 16. 2 ppm in 96-hour 

static exposures. Green sunfish and bluegill were the most resistant, and channel 

catfish were the most sensitive. The toxicity easily defined at 1, 3, and 6 hours 

of exposure. In tests to determine the 

effect of temperature on the biological activity of TFM, yellow perch were exposed 

to 12, 17, and 22° C, but very little difference was observed. On the other hand, 

in tests with rainbow trout TFM was found 

to be more toxic at 17° C than at 12 or 7° C 

(Lennon, 1971). Changes in toxicity did 

occur in different water qualities with TFM 

being more toxic in soft water. The LC50 

for yellow perch ranges from 2. 28 ppm in 

soft water (10 ppm total hardness) to 

28.4 ppm in hard water (300 ppm total 

hardness) at 96-hour exposures. Also, 

TFM is more toxic to fish in water with 

low pH than high pH (Lennon, 1971).

In stream treatments several workers 

have observed fish mortalities when the 

water temperatures increased or changed 

drastically. A rapid rise in temperature 

of 8° F in the Muskegon River, Michigan, 

and variable temperatures in the Au Gres 

River, Michigan, possibly contributed to 

fish mortalities (Smith and King, 1969 and 

1970). During the treatment of the Nottawasaga River, Ontario in June 1968, extreme water temperatures stressed the fish 

enough that normally safe TFM dosages

caused fish mortalities (Lamsa, Dustin, and 

Davis, 1969; Davis and Shera, 1969).

The physiological effects of TFM on bony 

fishes differ in some respects from those 

in lamprey. Both bony fishes and lamprey 

accumulate a large amount of fluid in the 

tissue between the respiratory epithelium
Rosalie A. Schnick: A Review of Literature on TFM 13

and the vascular endothelium. Both exhibit mucous accumulation and vasodilation. However, their activity response 

differs in that lamprey become narcotized and hemorrhage, but in contrast 

rainbow trout surface, not hemorrhaging, 

but suffocating (Christie and Battle, 1963; 

Keller, 1966). Plasma concentrations of 

potassium, calcium, magnesium, lactic 

acid, and glucose increased, but sodium 

declined when adult white suckers were 

exposed to 5 ppm of TFM (Hunn, 1971; 

Lennon, 1971). Preliminary studies seem 

to indicate that the mode of action of TFM 

involves the release of potassium and the 

blocking of glucose utilization, resulting 

in increased plasma concentrations of 

lactic acid and glucose (Lennon, 1971).

Toxicity of TFM mixed with 2 percent 

of Bayluscide© to fishes changes somewhat, as compared to TFM alone. In the 

hard-water streams of Lake Michigan the 

mixture of toxicants increases the mortality of fish (Smith, 1967a;U. S. Bureau 

of Commercial Fisheries, 1965). If the 

amount of Bayluscide*^ is increased, the 

selectivity to lampreys over fish decreases (Smith, 1967b; Lamsa, 1968). In 

waters with high alkalinity, the toxicity of 

the mixture to fish increases (Smith, 1968).

Tests were performed on chinook salmon and coho salmon to determine the 

comparative effects of TFM and TFM with 

1 percent of Bayluscide® (TFM- IB). The 

mixture was less toxic than TFM to both 

salmons. Coho salmon were affected less 

than chinook salmon by either compound. 

Care should be taken, however, not to 

treat streams when jack chinook salmon 

are running (Smith and King, 1969).

The toxicity of TFM to different fishes 

as reported from actual treatments varies 

according to conditions, but generally the 

species cited most as being affected by 

TFM are central mudminnow, white sucker, bullheads, stonecat, trout-perch, 

logperch, walleye, and sculpins. Occasionally brown trout are susceptible, mainly 

because treatments are made in September 

and October when they are spawning (U. S. 

Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, 1959b 

and 1960b; Erkkila, 1964; Smith, 1967a; 

Johnson, 1959). Ho well (1966) found that 

native lamprey of the genera Lampetra 

and Ichthyomyzon are affected almost as 

much as the sea lamprey in stream treatments.

Davis and Wilson (1965) compared the 

susceptibility of Ichthyomyzon spp. and 

American brook lamprey in field bioassays 

of TFM and TFM plus Bayluscide® at three 

exposure times on three rivers. The lethal 

concentrations using only TFM ranged from 

0. 9 to 4. 8 ppm at 9 hours, 2. 7 to 3. 7 ppm 

at 12 hours, and 1. 8 to 2. 5 at 18 hours. 

Canadian investigators found that TFM is 

more toxic to sea lamprey than native 

lampreys; therefore, bioassays against 

native lampreys tend to indicate too high a 

concentration for safe use in streams 

(Great Lakes Fishery Commission, 1970; 

Davis, 1970). Furthermore, Davis (1970) 

contends that no simple correction factor 

is available which would provide accurate 

concentration determinations from tests 

with native lamprey genera.

Amphibians

There are no records of laboratory 

tests of TFM on amphibians. Observations 

in the field have shown that amphibians 

generally are not affected by TFM treatments 

in streams. In the post-treatment operations 

on the Pancake River in 1958, Johnson (1959) 

found dead only one each of tadpoles and 

Necturus. Howell (1966) states that 

Necturus maculosus seems to be as susceptible as lamprey to TFM. According 

to tests run in a 0. 1-acre pond by the 

Fish Farming Experimental Station, Stuttgart, 

Arkansas, a complete kill of tadpoles is 

possible with an application of 12 ppm or 

more of TFM (Anonymous, 1964).
14 Investigations in Fish Control 44: 

Reptiles

Small numbers of turtles were exposed 

to 3, 5, and 10 ppm at temperatures of 

7.7, 7.2, and 6.4° C, respectively, causing no mortalities (Scherer, Frensch, and 

Stahler, 1960). Chrysemys picta and 

Chelydra serpentina were exposed to the 

same dosages of TFM at temperatures 

from 43 to 45° F with none dying (ApplegateetaL, 1961). No observations of 

dead reptiles have been recorded from the 

field.

Birds

No laboratory or field data exist for 

the effects of TFM on birds. Currently, 

the Denver Wildlife Research Center is 

investigating the oral toxicity of TFM to 

waterfowl and upland gamebirds (Lennon, 

1971).

Mammals

Scherer, Frensch, and Stahler (1964) 

state that TFM, like other halogenated 

mononitrophenols, is toxic to warmblooded animals at certain concentrations, 

and requires care in transporting and 

applying. Pure TFM has an oral LD50 

(lethal dose that produces a 50 percent 

mortality within a specified period of 

time) of 30 mg/kg (milligram per kilogram) for the rat when injected intraperitoneally, but formulations consisting 

either of 50 percent of the sodium salt of 

TFM or 51 percent of TFM have LDSO's 

of 300 mg/kg and 200 mg/kg to rats, 

respectively. According to Scherer, 

Frensch, and Stahler (1964), TFM in a 

free phenol formulation becomes very 

toxic orally and dermally.

Tests made by the Wisconsin Alumni 

Research Foundation on a 20 percent by 

weight formulation of TFM showed an 

acute oral LD50 for rabbit of 0. 16 g/kg 

(grams per kilogram) and dermal LC50 

of 1. 6 g/kg. TFM is harmless to the

Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife

eyes at concentrations of 1 to 9 ppm but 

care should be taken in handling concentrated forms (Applegate_et al_., 1961; U.S. 

Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, 1957b).

Lech (1971) injected rats with TFM 

in 0. 9 percent saline and found no signs of 

toxicity at 18 mg/kg, but toxic effects 

appeared at 24 mg/kg and mortality at 

40 mg/kg.

The oral LD50 ranges recorded by 

Frear (1969) were from 0. 5 to 1. 0 g/kg 

of body weight for rats.

To determine the effects that TFM 

might have on mammals, the Michigan 

Conservation Department administered TFM 

in the drinking water given to four whitetail deer. According to the author, two 

deer had their water contaminated with the 

maximum of the chemical that would be used 

in the stream work. After 6 weeks no 

effects were observed although all four'had 

drunk freely of treated and non-treated 

water (Johnson, 1957). Six 1, 000-pound 

cows and four calves were exposed to water 

containing 13 ppm of TFM. Again no harmful effects were observed, and no phenol was 

detected in the milk of the animals (Applegate js^ah , 1961).

When higher concentrations of TFM up 

to 11 ppm were used in Lake Michigan 

tributaries, the Wisconsin Alumni Research 

Foundation found that they were not toxic to 

mammals (Erkkila, 1964).

In 1971, the WARF Institute, Inc. was 

awarded a contract to conduct acute and 90- 

day studies on the oral toxicity of TFM to 

laboratory animals (Lennon, 1971).

MODE OF ACTION 

ON SEA LAMPREY

The biological activity of TFM is affected 

by various factors which cause minimum 

lethal concentrations to range from 0. 5 ppm 

to 12 ppm. The lower concentrations are
Rosalie A. Schnick: A Review of Literature on TFM 15

effective in soft, acid waters, and the 

higher doses are needed for hard, a^aline waters (Applegate^t al., 1961; Scherer 

Frensch, and Stahler, 1964; Applegate 

and King, 1962).

The physiological effects of TFM or 

the sea lamprey are not completely understood. The nervous tissue, cardiac musculature, notocord, alimentary canal, and 

mesonephros do not seem to be affected, 

but the gills, circulatory system, liver, 

and skeletal musculature are. In particular, the gills hemorrhage and become 

covered with mucous (Christie and Battle, 

1963). Keller (1966) proposed that death 

was due to circulatory failure and suffocatio i. Applegate, Smith, and Willeford 

(196'i) think lamprey die of a combination 

of circulatory and respiratory failure. 

One of the symptoms is a state of hypotension. The theory that death was due to 

anoxia was tested by Agris (1966 and 1967). 

He found that the electrophysiological 

events in the heart differ from those observed following anoxia. In another test 

he observed that lamprey killed with TFM 

did not have the methemoglobin which is 

present with anoxia. Smith and King 

(1969) found that oxygen consumption incrfeased in lamprey exposed to TFM and 'F? 

Bayluscide1^'. Recently Dr. John Lech at

the Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, reported that the toxic 

action may be related to catecholamine 

metabolism. This theory is being tested 

by the use of the drug, Dibenzylene® (Fish 

Control Laboratories, 1971a).

RESIDUES

Federal regulations on the use of pesticides require that residue levels of TFM 

be determined in natural waters, bottom 

sediments, fish and other organisms exposed to the lampricide. Index streams 

were selected for observation of any longterm effects and toxic residues which 

might build up in the stream fauna (Erkkila, 1964). Analytical procedures for

separating, concentrating, and detecting 

these residues had to be developed. The 

first method studied involved the adsorption 

on activated carbon of TFM residues from 

natural waters. The water quality, temperature, and site of sample were believed to 

have some effect on the quantitative measurement. Thus, the whole procedure needed 

more study and was finally considered inadequate to detect lampricide residues 

(Daniels e^aL, 1963 and 1965).

The next method made use of ion-exchange resin and solvent extraction of 

residues from natural waters, fish tissue, 

and bottom sediments (Daniels £t_cLL, 1965). 

Colorimetric methods were available to 

detect TFM in natural waters, but only 

concentrations of 0. 1 ppm or greater could 

be measured. Therefore, ion-exchange 

resins were used to separate TFM residues. These compounds tnen could be recovered as concentrates by elution with 

selective solvent mixtures. TFM was 

removed from the whole fish by three extraction methods. At that time only the 

colored isomeric compounds, which absorb 

light at 395 nm, could be detected and 

measured (Daniels et al., 1965). These 

methods were not effective for detecting 

TFM in fish, bottom sediments, and water 

exposed to normal concentrations of the 

toxicant (Smith, 1966; Billy_et al., 1965). 

By using an infrared recording spectrophotometer, various amounts of TFM residues were recovered from green sunfish 

exposed to extremely high concentrations of 

TFM. The value of this method is limited 

because only high concentrations of TFM 

can be detected (Smith, 1966).

Magadanz and Kempe (1968) observed 

that TFM disappeared in 2 weeks from 

natural waters that were in contact with 

bottom sediments. The rapid rate of re - 

moval is decreased if phenol is added to the 

bottom sediment. The residues in the bottom 

sediment apparently degrade, liberating the 

fluoride ion. With TFM in water alone, 

no color loss was observed.
16 Investigations in Fish Control 44: Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife

In further studies on the removal of 

TFM by river muds, Button (1970) found 

that high temperature and organic content 

increase the rate of removal. Phenol 

stops the removal process by destroying 

the bacteria which degrade TFM. In a 

test to determine the toxicity of the degradation products of TFM, a concentration of 30 ppm of TFM was allowed to 

degrade 3 months. It was tested then 

against goldfish and lampreys, but none of 

them died.

In a related study Kempe (in review) 

reported on his attempts to determine 

whether TFM remains in the aquatic environment or is degraded to simpler compounds. Apparently, TFM degrades in 

bottom muds due to the action of bacteria, 

probably Pseudomonas spp. The products 

of this degradation, when tested against 

sea lamprey and goldfish, are not toxic. 

Only one-fourth of the fluorine added was 

recovered, according to other tests.

Lech (1971) has attempted to define metabolites of TFM in rats so that 

analytical methods may be developed for 

residues in organisms and the environment. The major metabolite appears to 

be 3-trifluormethyl-4-aminophenol (RTFM). 

Both TFM and RTFM are excreted in the 

urine as polar derivatives, some of which 

appear to be glucuronides. Dr. Lech is 

being assisted by the Fish-Pesticide Research Laboratory, Columbia, Missouri, 

in the identification of TFM metabolites 

through mass spectrometry (Lennon, 

1971).

In an effort to develop methods for detection of TFM in the ppb (parts per 

billion) range, the Gene'ral Electrics Company (1971) is investigating the analysis of 

TFM by luminescence spectrophotometry. 

If successful, the method will enable simple and rapid detection of small amounts 

of TFM in water, bottom sediments and 

field organisms. The Fish Control 

Laboratories are investigating the use of

gas chromatographic methods to detect 

and measure residues of TFM in fish 

tissue (Hunn, 1971). The method utilizing 

solvent extraction, acid-base partitioning, 

and gas chromatography, is sensitive to 

0. 005 ppm of TFM or less, and preliminary studies indicate excellent recovery 

(Fish Control Laboratories, 1971b).

APPLICATION METHODS

Successful application of TFM requires 

good equipment, proper formulations, and 

trained men using proven techniques. Many 

procedures were developed during the first 

three treatments of experimental streams 

in 1958. These included: 1) preliminary 

survey of lamprey distribution, of kinds 

and abundance of lampreys, fishes, and 

other fauna, and of potential treatment 

points; 2) pre-treatment analyses to determine the amount and exposure to TFM 

needed as influenced by discharge and 

velocity of water, and the chemical and 

physical properties of the water; 3) actual 

application techniques such as operating 

the controlled pumping system and measuring 

the concentration of TFM in the streams; 

and, 4) post -treatment surveys of dead 

fauna (Applegate et. ai., 1961; Johnson, 

1959 and 1961; Kanayama, 1963; Baldwin, 

1964; Wadden, 1968; Schneider, 1969). 

Smith, Applegate, and Johnson (1960 and 

1961) used a colorimetric method to detect 

the distribution and concentration of TFM 

as it traveled downstream. The intense 

yellow color of TFM in an alkaline solution 

was measured and analyzed.

Several years were required to develop 

adequate equipment for survey and treatment procedures. A light, portable shocker 

was developed to survey the abundance and 

distribution of ammocoetes in inaccessible 

areas (Braem and Ebel, 1961). An anchor 

dredge was modified by Thomas (1960) to 

sample the larvae populations at the mouths 

of rivers. Marking larval lamprey with 

cadmium sulfide and mercuric sulfide 

yielded population statistics (Smith and
Rosalie A. Schnick: A Review of Literature on TFM 17

McLain, 1962; Hansen and Stauffer, 1964). 

Electrical barriers have been installed at 

various streams to determine the reduction of lamprey populations by TFM treatments (Tibbies, 1965). Portable metering devices (gravity, fuel, and electric) 

were developed to add precise volumes of 

liquid TFM into streams (Anderson, 1962). 

A pour-portioner drum meter, for example, was adapted to improve application of 

small volumes of TFM into streams 

(Tibbies, Lamsa, and Johnson, 1970; 

Dustin, 1970). Mobile wet laboratories 

were developed to facilitate bioassays in 

the field (Howell and Marquette, 1962). 

A photoelectric amplifier was modified for 

use as a dye detector to determine water 

movement (Ebel, 1962). It provided a 

continuous record of the duration and intensity of the tracer dye in a stream 

(U. S. Bureau of Commerical Fisheries, 

1961).

Various compounds that might augment 

the activity of TFM were tested with the 

intent of reducing the amount of TFM 

needed. The most successful of these was 

Bayluscide© (5, 2'-dichloro-4'-nitrosalicylanilide). Addition of 2 percent by 

weight of this compound to the toxicant 

mixture reduced the amount of TFM 

needed by 50 percent (Howell Jt_aL, 1964; 

Johnson and Lamsa, 1964; Howell and 

King, 1966a). Unfortunately the mixture 

had several disadvantages that TFM alone 

did not have. It was barely soluble in 

water, clogged the feeder apparatus, and 

caused more fish kills when applied in 

lower Michigan streams by standard 

methods and in other areas from aircraft 

(Johnson and Lamsa, 1964; Smith, 1966 

and 1967b; Lamsa, 1968; Smith and King, 

1970).

Granular Bayluscide® and other nitrosalicylanilides have been tried alone as 

sea lamprey larvicides in deep water as 

bottom poisons, lamprey irritants, and 

survey tools, but many of these substances do not have a wide enough safety

margin for fish and invertebrates, are 

influenced strongly by water quality, or 

information on their residues is lacking 

(Jacob, 1966; Marking e^ aL , 1970; French 

and Swartz, 1968; Howell and King, 1966b; 

Starkey and Howell, 1966; Taborsky, 1970; 

Morman, 1969; King and Howell, 1970; 

Lennone^aL, 1970).

Another compound, toxaphene, was 

reconsidered for treatment of lakes and 

estuaries after being tested by the Canadians. Although a large number of ammocoetes were killed at 100 ppb and most fish 

populations recovered within 1 year, the 

use of toxaphene was discontinued by the 

U. S. Bureau of Commerical Fisheries and 

the Great Lakes Fishery Commission 

(Gaylord and Smith, 1966).

A registered fish toxicant, antimycin, 

may offer a possible solution to treating 

selectively such difficult areas as oxbows, 

estuaries, and bays off the mouths of 

rivers. Ayerst Laboratories, Inc., is 

experimenting with various formulations 

that would allow the toxicant to perform 

as desired (Lennon, 1971).

Because TFM is less toxic in hard 

waters than soft, a group of compounds was 

tested to find a chelating agent that would 

suppress the ionization of interfering 

divalent metal ion (Johnson, 1970). Although the results proved that divalent 

metal ions cause a decrease in activity of 

TFM, the amount of chelating agent needed 

to offset the decrease would be too expensive.

The experiences of the men in the field 

brought about recommendations and changes 

in field procedures. Johnson (1963 and 

1964) reported details of bioassays performed 

from 1958 to 1962, and changed the design 

and interpretation of bioassays to suit 

management .needs. Observations by control crews indicated a need for consideration 

of the following factors: 1) synchronization 

of serial applications of TFM in a stream 

through accurate measurement of stream
18 Investigations in Fish Control 44 Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife

velocity and of changes in velocity; 2) improved efficiency of control in areas of 

difficult access by spot treatments, longer 

treatments, and multiple applications of 

TFM; and, 3) acclimatization of healthy 

bioassay animals in proper habitats 

(Johnson, 1959; Johnson and Tibbies, 1962).

The need for a multifaceted, flexible, 

evolving system for suppressing sea 

lamprey may bring about integrated controls that include both chemical and biological components (Hanson, 1970).

REGISTRATION

The U. S. Bureau of Commerical 

Fisheries obtained registration of TFM on 

August 21, 1964, for limited use as a sea 

lamprey larvicide. Use was restricted to 

trained operators and authorized personnel 

only. On May 13, 1970, the U.S. Department of the Interior was notified that the 

registration was to be cancelled by the 

Environmental Protection Agency on 

December 31, 1970, because no tolerances 

for TFM ~n fish and water has been established (Fish Control Laboratory, 1971). 

An application for extension until December 31, 1971, however, was granted to the 

Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife in 

order that additional data on methodology 

and toxicology may be obtained (Anonymous, 1970). An outline of the research 

needed on the chemical and physical properties, toxicity, efficacy, and residues was 

prepared, and assignments of contracts 

for the research were executed early in 1971 

(Fish Control Laboratory, 1971). Hopefully, the research will be sufficient to reregister TFM as a badly needed lampricide.

SUMMARY

TFM is a halogenated mononitrophenol 

that was developed and registered as a 

selective toxicant for the sea lamprey. Its 

biological activity'against the sea lamprey 

is affected only slightly by temperature, 

but it is affected by high alkalinity and

conductivity and by pH's below 7. 0 and 

above 7. 8. Generally, aquatic organisms 

are not affected adversely by stream treatments, except when concentrations have 

to be increased because conditions interfere 

with the chemical activity. TFM does not 

harm mammals at concentrations used in 

stream treatments. Various methods have 

been employed to detect TFM residues in 

water, organisms, and bottom sediments, 

but no method at present detects TFM in 

the ppb range. Methods of application and 

equipment have been improved through observations in the field and research. There 

are still many unanswered questions regarding TFM, but research in progress 

may answer them sufficiently for TFM to 

remain registered as a lampricide.

A C K NOW L E D GME N TS

Special thanks are due to Mrs. Ruth 

Rehfus, Librarian, Great Lakes Research 

Laboratory, Ann Arbor, Michigan; Mr. Lee 

Hanson, Fishery Biologist, Hammond Bay 

Biological Station, Millersburg, Michigan; 

the late Mr. Norman Baldwin, former 

Executive Secretary, Great Lakes Fishery 

Commission, Ann Arbor, Michigan; and 

Miss Sandy Hamilton, Librarian, Regional 

Office, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and 

Wildlife, Minneapolis, Minnesota, for 

technical assistance. Appreciation is also 

due Dr. J. James Tibbies, Director, Sea 

Lamprey Control Experiment, Sault Ste. 

Marie, Ontario; Mr. John A, Howell, 

Chief, Hamrnond Bay Biological Station, 

Millersburg, Michigan; Mr. Robert W. 

Saalfeld, Executive Secretary, Great Lakes 

Fishery Commission, Ann Arbor, Michigan; 

and Mr. Ralph M. Burress, Chief, 

Southeastern Fish Control Laboratory, 

Warm Springs, Georgia, for review of the 

manuscript.

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Fisheries Research Board of Canada, 

17(4):59TT4~ "

Tibbies, J. J.

1965. Preparation for the advance of 

sea lamprey control from Lake Superior 

into the lower Great Lakes. Fisheries 

Research Board of Canada, Biological 

Station and Technological Unit, London, 

Ontario, Circular, No. 7:21-26.

, B. G. H. Johnson, A. Lamsa,

E. Cormack, S. Dustin, and R. Bams.

1961. Streams treated with lampricide, 

Lakes Superior and Huron, 1960, 

Appendix 5, p. 29-47. In Great 

Lakes Fishery Commission, Report 

of annual meeting, Ann Arbor, Michigan, June 22-23, 1961.

________, A. K. Lamsa, and B. G. H.

Johnson.

1970. Lamprey control in Canada, 

Appendix D, p. 41-47. In Great 

Lakes Fishery Commission, Annual 

report for the year 1969, Ann Arbor, 

Michigan.

Tody, W. H.

1966. Great Lakes Victory. 

Conservation, 35(6):2-8.

Michigan

Torblaa, R. L.

1968. Effects of lamprey larvicides on 

invertebrates in streams. U. S. Fish 

and Wildlife Service, ppecial Scient i f ic 

Report-Fisheries, No7~5727I- 13.

U. S. Branch of Fishery Biology.

1952. Fishery research projects and 

their objectives, 1952-1953. U.S.
28 Investigations in Fish Control 44 : Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife

Fish and Wildlife Service, Branch of 

Fishery Biology, Washington, D. C. 

57 p.

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1953. Annual report for the fiscal 

year 1953 (July 1, 1952, through 

June 30, 1953). U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Branch of Fishery 

Biology. Washington, D. C. 78 p.

U. S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries. 

1957a. Great Lakes Fishery Investigations, p. 41-57. In Upper Great 

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1957b. Lamprey control and research 

in the United States, p. 35-46. _In 

Great Lakes Fishery Commission, 

Annual report for the year 1957, Ann 

Arbor, Michigan.

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1958b. Lamprey control and research 

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Great Lakes Fishery Commission, 

Annual Report for the year 1958, Ann 

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1960a. Sea lamprey research, p. 12- 

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Toronto, Ontario, Dec. 4, 1960.

1960b. Lamprey control and research 

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in the United States in 1960, Appendix 

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Rosalie A. Schnick: A Review of Literature on TFM 29

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"No. 559:T^TE
30 Investigations in Fish Control 44 : Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife

APPENDIX A - TECHNICAL DATA ON TFM

Alter native name s:_

3 - tr if luor methyl- 4 - nitrophenol ( Be ilstein

1966)

3 - trif luor omethyl- 4- nitrophenol ( Smith,

1967)

aao, -trifluoro-4-nitro-m-cresol (Frear,

1969) ~

1, 3, 6-nitrotrifluorocresol (DeBrouwer,

1930)

acca -trifluoro-4-nitro-metacresol (Baker,

1962)

2-nitro- 5-hydroxybenzotrifluoride (Whalley,

1949)

6-nitro-3-hydroxy- 1- trif luor methyl- benzol

(Beilstein, 1966)

a'aa - trifluor - 6 - nitro - 3 - hydroxy- toluol

(Beilstein, 1966)

Lamprecid 2770 (Moffett, 1958a)

Dowlap F40 (U. S. Bureau of Commercial

Fisheries, 1958b)

Dowlap&'F (Frear, 1969)

Eelicide - TFM (Jobin and Unrau, 1967)

Chem leal names:

OH (Rose and Rose, 1966) 

C 7 H4 F3 NO 3 (Beilstein, 1966)

F o r mu 1 at i o n s :

Crystalline solid, liquid ( Apple gate _et al_.

1961; Rose and Rose, 1966)

Pri mar y us e^

Selective toxicant for larvae of sea lamprey; Re- registration of lampricide in 

progress (Fish Control Laboratory, 1971)

_Secondary uses:

Dye intermediate (Anonymous, 1959) 

Snail control (Jobin and Unrau, 1967) 

Housefly control with phosphoric ester of

TFM (Scherer, Stahler, and Frensch,

1957)

Seed protectants (Baker, 1962)

Aquatic weed control (Josephs, 1961)

Toxicity to fish:

MAC25^ to 44 ppm (Applegate and King,

1962)

Toxicity to birds: 

Not tested

Toxicity to mammals :

No acute effects in deer and dairy cattle; '

acute oral LD50 for rabbit is 0. 16 g/kg,

acute dermal LD50 at 1. 6 g/kg (Applegate

e^aL, 1961)

Oral LD50 for rat is 0. 5 to 1.0 g/kg of body

weight (Frear, 1969)

Pure TFM LD50 for rat is 30 mg/kg

(Scherer, Frensch, and Stahler, 1964)

50 percent of sodium salt of TFM oral

LD50 for rat is 300 mg/kg (Scherer, Frensch,

and Stahler, 1964)

51 percent of TFM LD50 for rat is 200. mg/ 

kg (Scherer, Frensch, and Stahler, 1964)

Extreme care needed in handling concentrated 

forms of toxicant; protective clothing, 

rubber gloves, and face masks recommended 

(Applegate et_aL, 1961)

Persistence in environment: 

Non~persIstentTB illy etal., 1965; 

Magadanz and Kempe, 1968; Sutton, 1970)
Rosalie A. Schnick: A Review of Literature on TFM 

APPENDIX B - COMMON AND TECHNICAL NAMES OF FISHES

The following fish classification was obtained by utilizing Bailey (1970).

31

Common name Technical name Common name

LAMPREYS

American brook 

lamprey 

Sea lamprey

TROUTS 

Coho salmon

Chinook salmon

Rainbow trout 

Brown trout 

Brook trout

MUDM'NNOWS 

Central mudminnow

PIKES 

Northern pike

MINNOWS AND 

CARPS 

Goldfish 

Carp 

Golden shiner

Blacknose shiner 

Bluntnose minnow 

Fathead minnow

SUCKERS 

White sucker

PETROMYTZONTIDAE 

Ichthyomyzon spp 

Lampetra spp

Lampetra lamottei

Petromyzon marinus

SALMONIDAE 

Oncorhynchus

kisutch

Oncorhynchus

tshawytscha

Salmo gairdneri

Salmo trutta

Salvelinus fontinalis

UMBRIDAE 

Umbra limi

ESOCIDAE 

Esox lucius

CYPRINIDAE 

Carassius auratus

Cyprinus carpio

Notemigonus

crysoleucas

Notropis heterolepis

Pimephales notatus

Pimephales promelas

CATOSTOMIDAE 

Catostomus commersoni

FRESHWATER 

CATFISHES 

Bullheads 

Yellow bullhead 

Channel catfishes 

Stonecat

TROUTPERCHES 

Trout-perch

LIVEBEARERS 

Guppy

SUNFISHES 

Rock bass

Green sunfish

Pumpkinseed 

Bluegill

Smallmouth bass 

Largemouth bass

PERCHES 

Yellow perch 

Logperch 

Walleye

SCULPINS

Technical name 

ICTALURIDAE

Ictalurus spp 

Ictalurus natalis 

Ictalurus punctatus

Noturus flavus

PERCOPSIDAE 

Percopsis

omiscomaycus

POECILIIDAE

Poecilia reticulata

CENTRARCHIDAE 

Ambloplites

rupestris 

Lepomis

cyaneilus 

Lepomig gibbosus 

Lepomrs

macrochirus 

Micropterus

dolomieui 

Micropterus

salmoides

PERCIDAE

Perca flavescens 

Percina caprodes 

Stizostedion

vitreum vitreum

COTTIDAE

6U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1972 721-422/416 1-3
As the Nation's principal conservation agency, the Department 

of the Interior has basic responsibilities for water, fish, wildlife, 

mineral, land, park, and recreational resources. Indian and Territorial affairs are other major concerns of this department of 

natural resources.

The Department works to assure the wisest choice in managing 

all our resources so that each shall make its full contribution to 

a better United States now and in the future.

UNITED STATES 

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE

BUREAU OF SPORT FISHERIES AND WILDLIFE 

WASHINGTON. D. C. 2O24O