International Institute of Tropical Forestry 

2011 Accomplishment Report 
Cover image: view of the Luquillo Experimental Forest. Photo by Tana Wood. 

Image on page 4: elfin forest scenery, 900 meters elevation in the Luquillo Experimental Forest. These 

short, gnarled trees are among the few species endemic to these summits. 

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Contents
 

Vision.................................................................................................................................................. 1
 

Mission............................................................................................................................................... 1
 

Editor’s Message .............................................................................................................................. 2
 

A Message From the Director......................................................................................................... 3
 

A Look at the International Institute of Tropical Forestry........................................................... 5

The Setting .............................................................................................................................................................................. 5
 

New Experimental Forests ..................................................................................................................................................... 6
 

Description of the Institute’s Facilities ..................................................................................................................................... 7
 

Headquarters...........................................................................................................................................................................................................7
 

Sabana Field Research Station...............................................................................................................................................................................8
 

Support and Administration ........................................................................................................... 9

Finances and Workforce.......................................................................................................................................................... 9
 

Incoming Funding....................................................................................................................................................................................................9
 

Distribution of Funds ...............................................................................................................................................................................................9
 

Workforce Statistics.................................................................................................................................................................................................9
 

Funding Partners for FY 2011 ......................................................................................................10

Cooperators Who Received Funding From the Institute ....................................................................................................... 10
 

Cooperators Who Provided Funds to the Institute ................................................................................................................ 10
 

American Recovery and Reinvestment Act................................................................................11

Hurricane and Fire Prevention and Mitigation Projects ......................................................................................................... 11
 

Puerto Rico Hurricane and Hazardous Fuel Mitigation Project ............................................................................................................................. 11
 

St. Croix, USVI, Hurricane and Hazardous Fuel Mitigation Project....................................................................................................................... 11
 

Prescribed Fire on Puerto Rico State and Private Forestry Lands........................................................................................................................12
 

Capital Investments and Maintenance .................................................................................................................................. 12
 

Sabana Dormitory .................................................................................................................................................................................................12
 

Workshop Renovation ...........................................................................................................................................................................................13
 

Employment ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................13
 

Awards and Training.......................................................................................................................14

Awards ............................................................................................................................................................................... 14
 

Guaynabo School Celebrates Earth Week with Tree Nursery Inauguration..........................................................................................................14
 

Magaly Figueroa—Publically Recognized at the Caguas Arbor Day Delebration .................................................................................................14
 

Carlos Domínguez—Gifford Pinchot Excellence in Interpretation and Conservation Award.................................................................................14
 

Magaly Figueroa—Chief’s Award for Conserving Open Space.............................................................................................................................15
 

Training ............................................................................................................................................................................... 15
 

Senior Leadership Program ..................................................................................................................................................................................15
 

Middle Leadership Program ..................................................................................................................................................................................15
 

Research and Development .........................................................................................................16

Network Science—Collaborative Programs .......................................................................................................................... 16
 

Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) ......................................................................................................................................................................16
 

Luquillo Long Term Ecological Research (LUQ) ..................................................................................................................................................17
 

The National Ecological Observatory Network (NEON) ........................................................................................................................................17
 

San Juan ULTRA-Ex: Understanding the Socio-Ecology, Sustainability, and Future of the City...........................................................................18
 

Luquillo Critical Zone Observatory (LCZO) ...........................................................................................................................................................19
 

Caribbean Landscape Conservation Cooperative (CLCC) ...................................................................................................................................21
 

Research Highlights By Scientist .......................................................................................................................................... 22
 

I. Tropical Ecosystem Dynamics ...........................................................................................................................................................................22
 

II. Global Change ..................................................................................................................................................................................................28
 

III. Working Lands .................................................................................................................................................................................................37
 
State and Private Forestry.............................................................................................................39

Forest History ...................................................................................................................................................................... 39
 

Conservation Education ........................................................................................................................................................ 39
 

More Kids in the Woods: Kids Discovering the Santa Ana Forest......................................................................................... 40
 

Forest Health ........................................................................................................................................................................ 41
 

Urban and Community Forestry Program: All About Capacity Building ................................................................................ 42
 

Forest Stewardship Program in Puerto Rico ......................................................................................................................... 43
 

Humacao Joint Priority Landscape........................................................................................................................................................................43
 

The Guánica-Maricao Joint Priority Landscape ....................................................................................................................................................44
 

Knowledge and Perception of Forest Benefits and Drivers of Ecosystem Change: The Case of the Northern Karst 

and the Río Piedras Watershed............................................................................................................................. 44
 

Río Piedras Watershed .........................................................................................................................................................................................45
 

Communities in the Northern Karst .......................................................................................................................................................................45
 

International Cooperation .............................................................................................................46

Global Activities ..................................................................................................................................................................... 46
 

Regional Activities ................................................................................................................................................................. 46
 

Nicaragua Activities ............................................................................................................................................................... 46
 

Dominican Republic Activities ............................................................................................................................................... 47
 

Publications — Fiscal Year 2011 ..................................................................................................49
 

References Cited ............................................................................................................................54
 
IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

Vision 

We are a center for excellence where creativity and accomplishments result in 

timely products and services that anticipate the needs of society as it mitigates 

and adapts to environmental change. 

Mission 

Our mission is to develop and disseminate scientifically based knowledge 

that contributes to the conservation of forests, wildlife, and watersheds of the 

American Tropics in the context of environmental change. 

1

Photo: G. Bauer 
2

IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report Photo: G. Bauer 

Grizelle González 

Editor’s Message 

Fiscal year (FY) 2011 was one of renovation at the 

Institute. I have had the honor of editing this first edition 

of our Accomplishment Report, which includes all of 

the Institute’s units. I hope you enjoy learning what we 

accomplished during FY 2011. Happy reading! 

Grizelle González 

Acting Project Leader, Research Unit 
3

IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

A Message From the Director
 

An essential responsibility of any 

government organization, particularly 

one dedicated to research, is reporting 

the results of its activities to the 

public. The Institute serves all tropical 

America and from its establishment 

in 1939 its mission included research, 

education, and the transfer of 

information to the region (Wadsworth 

1995). Between 1940 and 1964, the 

Institute published the Caribbean 

Forester, a forestry journal that served 

the region by disseminating 200 

research articles from Puerto Rico and 

foreign tropical areas. Afterwards and 

until today, the Institute disseminated 

its research findings through the 

Annual Letter, which we mailed to an 

extensive list of stakeholders, clients, 

and collaborators. We also continue to 

publish Acta Científica, a journal for 

science teachers now in its 23rd year 

of publication. With this publication 

we turn another page in our history of 

communicating results to the public. 

The Accomplishment Report aims at 

presenting a more holistic view of the 

programs at the Institute. In the past 

we focused mostly on our research 

program, but since 1993 the Institute 

programs have expanded to include 

State and Private Forestry as well as 

International Cooperation. We also 

established an Administration unit to 

support the expanded program. While 

remaining a small organization within 

the U.S. Forest Service, the Institute 

is now a more complex organization 

than in the past, with a wider span 

of coverage encompassing its many 

forestry programs and an expanded 

number of facilities and specialized 

laboratories. Not everything that we 

do is included in this report, but the 

report is inclusive of the kinds of 

things we do. We are quite excited 

about this new format, which will 

allow all our friends and collaborators 

to better understand the scope of our 

activities. We invite reactions and 

suggestions to this report so that we 

can continue to improve its content 

and allow us to better address the 

needs of the community of interests 

that we serve. 

Ariel E. Lugo 

Institute Director 

Ariel E. Lugo 

Photo: G. Bauer . Wood Photo: T

Panoramic view of El Yunque National Forest (also known as the Luquillo Experimental Forest). 
Photo: P.L. Weaver 
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IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

A Look at the International Institute of Tropical Forestry

The Setting

The International Institute of Tropical Forestry (the Institute) is a tropical forestry research and technology 

transfer institute. It is located in Río Piedras, Puerto Rico (Fig. 1), and has a long and productive history. 

Created in 1939 as the Tropical Forest Experiment Station in cooperation with the University of Puerto Rico, 

the Institute has been in operation continually for 72 years. The Institute serves as a focal point for bringing external 

research and educational resources to bear on issues affecting tropical forests and grasslands. Because of the high 

diversity of tropical landscapes and the multicultural and multilingual user base, Institute employees must have 

specialized knowledge and skills in several fields. Our assets include an exceptional cadre of bilingual and trilingual 

scientists, natural resources managers, professionals, technicians, state-of-the-art facilities, laboratories, experimental research forests, an excellent tropical forestry library, a long tradition of collaborations, and constituents who are 

highly supportive of our mission and programs. 

Figure 1. Experimental forests and facilities of the International Institute of Tropical Forestry. 
IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

A Look at the International Institute of Tropical Forestry

New Experimental Forests 

On June 30, 2010, the Institute became 

the custodian of two new properties 

transferred from the USDA Farm Service 

Administration. These properties are now 

known as the Guayama Experimental 

Forest and the Manatí Experimental 

Forest. 

The Guayama Experimental Forest 

is located on the south side of Puerto 

Rico where the Guayama, Cayey, and 

Salinas municipalities meet (Fig. 2). This 

property has an area of approximately 

141 hectares with steep topography 

which translates to diverse vegetation in 

the area. Quebrada del Palo crosses the 

Guayama Experimental Forest from east 

to west. There are several intermittent 

streams that feed Quebrada del Palo 

inside this experimental forest. The 

property has a small network of old, 

unpaved farm roads that provide access 

from its east side. The internal unpaved 

roads will be useful for supporting future 

research programs at this experimental 

forest. There is also an unpaved road 

north of the property through Cayey 

that provides access to the Guayama 

Experimental Forest. The property is 

currently being surveyed. 

The Manatí Experimental Forest is a 

27-hectare property located along the 

boundary of the Manatí and Florida 

municipalities. The property is located 

in the northern part of the island’s 

karsts area (Fig. 3). Surveys of this area 

will be scheduled once the Guayama 

Experimental Forest survey work is 

complete. We have not explored this 

property but aerial and satellite photos 

show closed secondary forest cover. 

This land will provide a location to 

study secondary moist forest on karst 

in contrast with karstic dry forests in 

Guánica and secondary forests on other 

substrates in the Luquillo Experimental 

Forest. 

Contact: Carlos D. Rodríguez Pedraza, 

crodriguez@fs.fed.us 

Figure 2. Guayama Experimental Forest. 

Figure 3. Manatí Experimental Forest. 

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IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

A Look at the International Institute of Tropical Forestry

Description of the Institute’s 

Facilities 

Headquarters 

The Institute Headquarters has 50,000 square feet 

of modern, state-of-the-art facilities that are secure, 

functional, accessible, and which service the scientific 

community of the Institute and its collaborators. The 

Headquarters complex is located in Río Piedras, Puerto 

Rico, and houses: 

•	1The Institute’s Headquarters building—an historical 

building currently under full restoration and modernization including conversion into a high performance sustainable building. 

Photo: J.F. Vissepó

Chemistry laboratory in the Headquarters Complex. 

Photo: G. Bauer 

Gisel Reyes, technical information specialist, 

working at the Forest Service National Library 

at the Headquarters Complex. 

•	1A Forest Service National Library recently remodeled, containing major publications in English and 

Spanish on forestry, ecology, management, and utilization of tropical forests as well as other documents 

and materials related to tropical forests around the 

world. 

•	1A Chemistry Laboratory focusing on analytical 

chemistry of plant tissues, water, soils, and air. In a 

typical year, about 50,000 analyses on samples collected from tropical ecosystems around the world are 

completed by laboratory personnel. 

Photo: M. Rivera 

Conference center in the Headquarters Complex. 

Photo: G. Bauer 

Storage of water samples. 

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IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

A Look at the International Institute of Tropical Forestry

•	1A Remote Sensing Laboratory to study landscape ecology using Geographic Information Systems (GIS), remote sensing, and field studies. This laboratory develops information, methods, and products using spatial 

data and analyses at multiple scales, which are made 

available through maps, publications, and training. 

•	1A technology transfer conference center with capabilities for multiple use combinations for meetings, trainings, and conferences. This facility has a food serving 

area and accessible restrooms. 

•	1A multipurpose building that houses a dormitory, a 

gym, general storage area, office space, and lunch area. 

•	1An area for sample preparation and long-term storage 

Photo: G. Bauer 

Institute personnel working in the GIS and Remote 

Sensing Laboratory in the Headquarter Complex. From 

area; 

•	1Dormitory building, with restrooms, kitchen, living 

and balcony areas; and 

•	1Mycology laboratory. 

Contact: Miriam Salgado Herrera, msalgado@fs.fed.us 

Photo: J.M. Bynum 

of samples. 

•	1Three back-up generators to ensure that electrical power is available for continuous operation during power 

blackouts, and a 3,400-gallon potable water tank that 

can provide drinking water during water shortages. 

Sabana Field Research Station 

The Sabana Field Research Station is a short drive from 

the Bisley Long-term Ecological Research watersheds and 

about a 1-hour drive from the Headquarters complex in Río 

Piedras. The Sabana Station includes nine buildings: 

•	1Administrative building housing all administrative 

support;
 

•	1Laboratory building for water analyses; 

•	1Storage building; 

•	1Back-up generator to ensure that electrical power 

is available for continuous operation during power 

blackout, and two potable water tanks that can provide 

drinking water during water shortages; 

• Office building for scientists and technicians; 

•	1Communications and physical security building; 

• Multipurpose building that includes office space, 

laboratory space, oven room, sample preparation room, 

storage areas, laundry room, and flammable storage 

left to right: William A. Gould, Gary Potts, Maya Quiñones, 

Maria I. Herrera, Patricia Rincón, Olga M. Ramos, Carlos 

D. Rodríguez, Mariano Solórzano, and Suhey Ortíz. 

The Sabana River is adjacent to the Sabana Field Research 

Station, located in Luquillo, Puerto Rico. 

8
 

IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

Support and Administration

Professional, technical, and administrative employees support Research and Development and other programs 

at the Institute. Our professional and technical staffs include biologists, foresters, ecologists, chemists, technicians, and other specialists who work with our scientists and provide assistance to field and laboratory studies. Administrative and support staffs include: Budget, Engineering, Contracting and Procurement, Facilities and 

Property Management, Grants and Agreements, and Reception. 

Administrative Specialist: Adolfo Menéndez, amenendez@fs.fed.us 

Workforce Statistics Finances and Workforce •	1Total Institute workforce: 69 The funding allocation for the Institute not only supports 

the workforce, but also its functions, programs, and • Permanent workforce: 44 

operations. The numbers that follow are for fiscal year 2011 •	1Temporary workforce: 25 (October 1, 2010, to September 30, 2011): 

•	1Of the total workforce: 9 (13 percent) are scientists 

Incoming Funding	 25 

•	1Research and Development Appropriations: $ 4.05 million 20 Number of Employees 15 

10 

5 

0 

Research State and Private International Administration $ in millions Forestry Cooperation Institute's Core Programs 

• State and Private : $1.9 million 

• International Cooperation: $550,000 Permanent 

Temporary 

• Administration: $1.45 million Scientists 

• Total Funding: $7.95 million 

4.5
 

4
 Figure 5. Number of Institute employees. 

3.5
 

3
 

2.5
 

2
 

$ in millions
 

1
 

1.5 

0.5
 

0
 

Research State and International Administration
 

Private Cooperation
 

Forestry
 

Figure 4. FY2011 Institute Funding. 

Distribution of Funds 

• Salaries: $3.99 million (50 percent) 

• Support and Operations: $2.07 million (26 percent) Support and administrative personnel stationed at IITF, 

• Distributed to Cooperators: $1.88 million (24 percent) Headquarters Complex. From left to right: Mildred Alayón, 

Photo: G. Bauer 

*Does not include American Recovery and Reinvestment Maricarmen Parrilla, Amelia Dávila, Adolfo Menéndez, Janet 

Act (ARRA) funds. Rivera, Sharleen M. Ortíz, Rosa Y. Ávila, and Lía Sánchez. 

9
IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

Funding Partners for FY 2011

Cooperators Who Received 

Funding From the Institute 

Non-Governmental Organizations 

•	1Centro Para La Conservación del Paisaje 

•	1Consejo Asesor para la Forestación Urbana y de Comunidades de Puerto Rico, Inc. 

•	1Ciudadanos del Karso 

•	1El Caribe Resource Conservation and Development 

•	1International Society of Tropical Foresters 

•	1Mesoamerica Ecotourism Alliance 

•	1Misión Industrial 

•	1National Ecological Observatory Network 

• Paso Pacífico 

•	1Puerto Rico Conservation Foundation 

•	1Puerto Rico Conservation Trust Foundation 

•	1Southern Group of State Foresters 

•	1Sustainable Alliances, Inc. DBA Alianza Mesoamericana 

de Ecoturismo 

•	1The Natural History Society of Puerto Rico 

•	1The Research Foundation of State University of New 

York
 

•	1University of Georgia Research Foundation Inc. 

•	1Winrock International 

•	1Virgin Islands Resource Conservation and Development 

Council, Inc. 

Private Industry and Individuals 

•	1 The Greenleaf Group, Inc. 

•	1 Dr. James Grogan 

Universities 

•	1 Ave Maria University 

•	1 Colorado State University 

•	1 Duke University 

•	1 Florida International University 

•	1 Indiana University 

•	1 Miami University at Ohio 

•	1 Oregon State University 

•	1 Southern Illinois University 

•	1 Universidad Metropolitana 

•	1 University of California - Berkeley 

•	1 University of Idaho 

•	1 University of Indiana 

•	1 University of Missouri 

•	1 University of New Hampshire 

•	1 University of Pennsylvania 

•	1 University of Puerto Rico–Agricultural Extension 

Service 

•	1 University of Puerto Rico–Research Division 

•	1 University of Rhode Island 

State Government 

•	1 Puerto Rico Department of Natural and Environmental 

Resources 

•	1 Puerto Rico Department of Transportation and Public 

Works* 

•	1 Puerto Rico Fire Department* 

•	1 U.S. Virgin Islands Department of Agriculture 

•	1 Virgin Islands Fire Service 

*These partners received ARRA Funds. 

Cooperators Who Provided Funds 

to the Institute 

•	1 Environmental Management Authority, Trinidad and 

Tobago 

•	1 La Romana Bayahibe Hotel Association 

•	1 National Ecological Observatory Network 

•	1 National Park Service 

•	1 Puerto Rico Department of Natural and Environmental 

Resources 

•	1 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 

•	1 U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

•	1 U.S. Geological Survey 

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IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

American Recovery and Reinvestment Act

The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act 2009 (Recovery Act) was signed on February 17, 2009 by President Barack Obama. The Recovery Act is an effort to preserve and create jobs and promote economic recovery through a variety of measures. The Institute received funds for 11 projects totaling about $7.4 million. Of 

this, $4.138 million was dedicated to hurricane and fire prevention and mitigation projects and $3.765 million was 

dedicated to capital investments and maintenance. An estimated 125 people have been employed with funds that the 

Institute has provided to contractors and cooperators. From the total recovery funding obligations, 45.3 percent have 

been spent. 

The islands of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands (USVI) are subject to hurricanes and tropical storms and 

wildfires. Fallen trees and broken branches cause downed power lines, flooding in storm sewers and streams, and a 

variety of physical safety hazards. Wildfires can affect human health and safety, cause property damage, and increased erosion and sedimentation. The State and Private Forestry unit is administering three projects to mitigate 

these impacts. Two Institute Economic Recovery Act projects are focused on reducing risks along roadsides and a 

third focuses on fuels reduction in fire-prone landscapes. 

Hurricane and Fire Prevention 

and Mitigation Projects 

Puerto Rico Hurricane and Hazardous 

Fuel Mitigation Project 

The State and Private Forestry unit is administering a 

grant of $1,167,000 to the Puerto Rico Department of 

Transportation and Public Works (DTOP) to implement 

the Puerto Rico Hurricane and Hazardous Fuel Mitigation 

Project. The project involves training, roadside tree 

inventory, management planning, and plan implementation. 

The management plan will address existing risks, retention 

of structurally sound trees, and species selection to meet site 

objectives. Implementation activities will include pruning 

to improve tree health and structural conditions, removal of 

hazard trees, and tree planting. 

The project is intended to extend across 2,169 kilometers 

of secondary roadways. Roads were selected based on 

the degree to which they provide access to municipalities 

or emergency facilities, or whether they have a history of 

public safety incidents such as trees falling and endangering 

people or property. Research and empirical evidence from 

other locations has established that proactive roadside tree 

planting and its management help communities achieve a 

more effective allocation of resources and reduce costs and 

inconvenience following storms or other natural disasters. 

A unique aspect of this project is that DTOP helped 

to establish Cooperativa Vías Lindas, a cooperative of 

employees displaced by Government Attrition. A training 

plan was worked on by DTOP, the Institute, and the 

Cooperative to expand the knowledge and skills of the 

members. To date, 18 members have taken training in 20 

topics including chainsaw operation, safety, tree biology, 

soils, tree identification, inventory techniques, planting 

and establishment, street tree maintenance, and business 

management. Once the project is completed, the cooperative 

will have a workforce with the professional and technical 

skills needed to participate fully in today’s marketplace. 

Contact: Magaly Figueroa, mafigueroa@fs.fed.us 

Photo: B. Daley 

Tree inventory along St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands roads. 

St. Croix, USVI, Hurricane and 

Hazardous Fuel Mitigation Project 

The State and Private Forestry unit is also administering 

a grant of $404,000 to the Virgin Islands Resource 

Conservation and Development Council to implement the 

St. Croix Hurricane and Hazardous Fuel Mitigation Project. 

The main objective is to reduce hurricane- and fire-related 

risks along roads on the island of St. Croix, U.S. Virgin 

Islands. A GIS data-base is being created from roadside 

11
 
IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

American Recovery and Reinvestment Act

inventories. A management plan will be developed and 

trees are being grown to demonstrate principles of proper 

tree and site selection. 

The GIS database captures attributes of individual trees 

such as species, diameter, canopy, distance to the road, 

and location, and an assessment of tree health based on 

the condition of the tree canopy, stems, roots, and presence 

of insects or disease. Tree proximity to power lines, poles, 

utilities, and roads is recorded to establish the risk of the 

tree becoming a hazard. Utility pole locations and the power 

line heights facilitate the development of a comprehensive 

roadside tree management plan. The inventory is 75 percent 

completed. To date, 416 kilometers of roadsides have been 

assessed and 4,778 trees are included in the inventory. 

Trees are grown for inplanting demonstrations, and 

training has been provided to public and private employees 

to improve the pool of skilled workers in hazard tree 

evaluation and tree management practices such as pruning, 

tree removal and safety, GIS, GPS, and planning. 

Contact: Constance Carpenter, conniecarpenter@fs.fed.us 

Photo: C. Carpenter 

Puerto Rico fire crews “mop up” after fires to ensure no 

burning embers can reignite fires once they leave. 

Prescribed Fire on Puerto Rico State and 

Private Forestry Lands 

The State and Private Forestry unit granted $2,064,000 to 

the Puerto Rico Fire Service to employ, equip, and train two 

new wildland firefighting crews for about 2 years. The Fire 

Service has historically cross-trained structural firefighters 

in wildland firefighting techniques. This project represents 

their first effort to stand up crews to work exclusively on 

wildland firefighting, fire prevention, and mitigation. 

The ultimate goal is to reduce the acreage of burned 

land. This is accomplished by educating people on fire 

prevention, reducing fuel loads before they are ignited, and 

ensuring that manpower is available to suppress fires before 

they are able to spread. Other benefits are a reduction in the 

use of emergency funds to suppress fires, and a reduction in 

funds needed to mitigate fire effects on agricultural land, or 

to restore natural and protected areas affected by fire. 

Training for crew members meets national interagency 

standards for wildland fire fighting that entail both 

classroom and experiential requirements. Participants have 

received training in the incident command system, safety, 

fire behavior, basic and intermediate fire fighting, and 

other topics. Several individuals completed an in-depth 

prescribed burn course to prepare for the use of prescribed 

burning. The Fire Service recently received permission 

from the Environmental Quality Board to conduct 

prescribed burns in fire prone areas. Frequent precipitation 

has thwarted plans so far but this will be a useful tool for 

future fire control and training. 

Contact: Constance Carpenter, conniecarpenter@fs.fed.us 

Capital Investments and 

Maintenance 

A highlight of the Institute recovery projects are the new 

dormitory facilities and laboratory / woodshop building 

in the Sabana Field Research Station located in Luquillo, 

Puerto Rico. Projects included: 

Sabana Dormitory 

The Luquillo Experimental Forest enables long-term 

research on wildlife, climate change, the effects of 

hurricanes on ecosystems, and other critical issues. To 

facilitate this research, the Institute built a 24-person 

dormitory at the Sabana Field Research Station to replace 

the use of a 1938 structure that had housed many of 

visiting scientists, students, and volunteers. This project 

will minimize human health risks by supplying improved 

sleeping, restroom, dining, and living facilities. The project 

will increase the capacity of the research station to receive 

visitors. The project will also increase the efficiency and 

productivity of the research program in the Luquillo 

Experimental Forest. 

Project Cost: $646,000 

Estimated completion date: 11/19/2011 

12
IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

American Recovery and Reinvestment Act Photo: M. Cano

Photo: M. Cano 

Sabana Dormitory in July 2011. Sabana Dormitory in November 2011. 

Woodshop Renovation 

This project includes the partial demolition of a woodshop 

and its renovation into a multipurpose building. The 

woodshop was obsolete and space was needed to provide 

research program support. The renovated facility will have 

office space, storage, a laboratory for sample preparation, 

ovens, restrooms, and laundry facilities. 

Project Cost: $552,000 

Estimated completion date: 03/19/2012 

Employment 

The total employment for the Sabana dormitory and the 

woodshop renovation has been up to 24 people, including 

the main contractor and sub-contractor employees. 

Contact: Adolfo Menéndez, amenendez@fs.fed.us 

Photo: C. Estrada 

Old woodshop building—prior to the remodeling ARRA project, 

in the Sabana Field Research Station, Luquillo, Puerto Rico. 

Photo: M. Cano 

Photo: M. Cano

Sabana Multipurpose building in April 2011. Sabana Multipurpose building in November 2011. 

13
 
IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

Awards and Training

Awards 

Guaynabo School Celebrates Earth Week 

with Tree Nursery Inauguration 

On April 28, 2011, the Rafael Martínez Nadal Middle School 

of the Guaynabo School District in Puerto Rico dedicated 

a school tree nursery to Carlos Domínguez Cristóbal, State 

and Private Forestry Conservation Education Coordinator 

and Historian. The nursery was made possible through a 

“Green Project” award of $10,000 from ACE, a Swiss-based 

global insurance company. Though Domínguez worked 

with math teacher and 4-H Club advisor Magda López and 

others to prepare the application, he had no idea that the 

school planned to name the facility after him. 

Photo: G. Reyes 

Visitors appreciating the variety of plantings in the nursery. 

Carlos Domínguez Cristóbal at far right. 

The students take turns weeding and watering the plants 

in the nursery. They have started seedlings of several 

native tree species and are producing herbs, peppers, 

tomatoes, lettuce, and eggplant. “Who said kids don’t like 

vegetables?” One mother said that her son didn’t like school 

but he couldn’t wait to go after he started working in the 

nursery and even on Saturday morning he would rush her 

out the door to get to the nursery. 

Domínguez defers credit for the nursery to López, with 

whom he has worked since 2001. She often provides 

outdoor activities on her own time, taking students to 

pick oranges and coffee, camping, and on treks through 

the mangrove forest. In 2002 she began working with 

Domínguez and Frank H. Wadsworth, retired forester 

and Institute emeritus scientist, on the development 

of a school forest and curriculum to use in an outdoor 

classroom. Wadsworth provided guidance and support on 

tree selection and management. Domínguez adapted the 

successful schoolyard program that targets high schools, 

Photo: G. Reyes 

Ribbon-cutting at the inauguration of the school tree nursery. 

Carlos Domínguez Cristóbal far left, Magda López at center, 

students, parents and local ACE representatives. 

to meet the needs of the middle school. Support was also 

provided by the municipal government and the private 

sector. 

Today students like to take visitors on tours to show off the 

nursery. Students know the names of the trees, the local 

birds nesting there, and insects, too. They practice different 

math and science skills with data they collect from the 

forest, and language skills by writing essays and poems in 

Spanish and English. 

Magaly Figueroa—Publically Recognized 

at the Caguas Arbor Day Celebration 

Magaly Figueroa, State and Private Forestry, Natural 

Resource Specialist, was publically recognized at the 

Caguas Arbor Day celebration on April 29, 2011for her 

support in the establishment and growth of the city’s Urban 

Forestry program. Caguas has been designated a Tree City 

USA and has an active street tree management program. 

Carlos Domínguez—Gifford Pinchot 

Excellence in Interpretation and 

Conservation Award 

Carlos Domínguez, Historian and Conservation Education 

Specialist at the Institute, received this award for the 

enduring nature of his conservation education activities. 

For more than 30 years, Carlos has brought local officials, 

community groups, and students together to celebrate their 

forest treasures. He is also well-known for his conservation 

education manual, which meets math and science 

requirements, and is used in outdoor schoolyard programs 

in high schools and middle schools. 

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IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

Awards and Training

Magaly Figueroa—2011 Chief’s Award for 

Conserving Open Space 

Magaly Figueroa, a part of the Agency-wide team for the 

Forest Legacy Program, won this award for protecting private 

forest lands through the Forest Legacy Program. 

Training 

Senior Leadership Program 

Grizelle González, Research Ecologist, graduated from the U.S. 

Forest Service, Senior Leadership Program, Class 8–2011 on 

November 3, 2011, in a ceremony celebrated in Washington, 

DC. Angela Coleman, U.S. Forest Service Assistant Deputy 

Chief for Research and Development, described the effort: 

“Our new graduates did an outstanding job of representing 

Research and Development in this year-long training program, 

which is one of the agency’s premiere leadership training 

opportunities. It convenes senior leaders from around the 

country who commit to a year of leadership training and 

development”. 

Middle Leadership Program 

Carlos D. Rodríguez Pedraza, the Institute Safety and 

Occupational Health Manager / Lands Manager, graduated 

from the U.S. Forest Service’s Middle Leadership Program 

2011. 

Photo: A. Mójica 

Natural Resource Specialist Magaly Figueroa is presented a 

copy of the Manifesto declaring April 29 Caguas Arbor Day, 

by Caguas Mayor William Miranda Torres. 

Photo: G. Reyes 

This year’s crop of actively engaged student 

conservationists. 

15
 
IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

Research and Development 

Research has been the cornerstone of the Institute's program since its inception. Early research focused on reforestation, plantation forestry, tropical species identification, forest inventory methods, endangered species, and 

carbon sequestration. Currently, the Institute’s research programs are focused on forest ecology, disturbance 

ecology, ecosystem functions and services, urban ecology, watershed dynamics, migratory species, climate change, 

and policy science to better understand the effect of natural and human-induced pressures on tropical forests and the 

landscapes in which they are found. Our research provides key information on forest structure and function, land 

cover change, and governance to inform the development of sustainable land use practices and policy. Research will 

continue to focus on the Luquillo Experimental Forest and its Bisley Long-term Ecological Research watersheds, the 

San Juan Urban Long Term Research Area, the Guánica Biosphere Reserve, various novel secondary forests, and 

other ecosystems in Puerto Rico; the Estate Thomas Experimental Forest in St. Croix U.S. Virgin Islands; the Brazilian Amazon; and throughout the Western Hemisphere in collaboration with partners in the region. 

Acting Project Leader: Grizelle González, ggonzalez@fs.fed.us 

Network Science—Collaborative 

Programs 

Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) 

The U.S. Forest Service inventories the forests of the 

United States and its territories. For Puerto Rico and the 

U.S. Virgin Islands, the inventory and related research 

are funded and managed jointly by the Institute and the 

Southern Research Station’s Forest Inventory and Analysis 

(FIA) Program. The field crew includes employees of both 

the Institute and the Southern Research Station, and they 

conduct the inventory out of the Institute’s Headquarters 

in Río Piedras, Puerto Rico. The Institute’s Chemistry 

Laboratory dries, processes, and analyzes all soil and 

litter samples. Maps of land cover and forest types for 

the region, which Institute scientists have produced with 

Landsat satellite imagery, help to refine the FIA forest 

cover estimates that come from the plot data. These maps 

also estimate the areas of forest and land-cover types 

with limited extent, like mangroves, which are not wellrepresented by the inventory plots given the systematic 

inventory design. The Institute also contributes to setting 

priorities for the inventory and its design, and it maintains 

a species taxonomy database for the inventory. 

The goal of the Institute investment in the Caribbean FIA 

Program is forest ecology research in four main areas: 

stand dynamics and diversity; land-cover and climate 

change; methods for remote sensing and mapping of 

forest attributes; and biogeochemical cycling. Research on 

stand dynamics and diversity investigates controls on tree 

species richness and diversity (succession, competition, 

productivity, dispersal, and functional traits) from stand 

to landscape scales, and on the structuring of the tree 

species communities that regrow after large-scale clearing. 

Remote sensing and mapping research develops and 

tests approaches for mapping forest attributes through 

integrating Caribbean Forest Inventory and Analysis 

Program data with remotely sensed data, particularly 

multispectral and hyperspectral imagery and lidar, and 

through modeling of future climate and land-use scenarios. 

Example forest attributes that the Institute is mapping or 

modeling in this way include forest structure, growth, 

phenology and leaf traits, productivity, species composition 

and diversity, species distributions, nutrient cycling, and 

Photo: G. Bauer

María M. Rivera, professional technician, working in the Soil 

Ecology Laboratory. 

Photo: G. Bauer 

Mayssá Ittayem, chemist, examining a ground sample of soil 

before performing nutrient analyses. 

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IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

Research and Development 

other attributes. The Institute also plans to project potential 

changes in forest attributes, such as the distributions of tree 

species, forest types, and ecological zones that may occur 

with climate change. Research considers the influence of 

current and historical landscape structure, including forest 

fragmentation, on stand dynamics, structure, wildlife 

habitat, element cycling, diversity, and species composition. 

Another goal is to evaluate the combined impacts in these 

landscapes of land-use and land-cover changes and global 

climate change in the context of existing protected areas 

and reserves. 

Contact: Eileen Helmer, ehelmer@fs.fed.us 

Luquillo Long Term Ecological Research 

(LUQ) 

The goal of Luquillo Long Term Ecological Research 

Program (LUQ) is to understand how forest and stream 

ecosystems, and the services that they support, are 

changing in Puerto Rico, thereby providing guidance 

for management of change in the tropics. We focus on 

understanding the key role of disturbance in determining 

ecosystem functions, processes, and their services. In the 

first phases of LUQ (1988–2006), degrees and mechanisms 

of resistance and resilience were studied, especially after 

the passage of hurricanes. This background led to more 

recent work on response to human disturbance and climate 

change, both likely to cause long-term, directional change 

in ecosystems and services. 

The LUQ also identified ecosystem trends over its 23 years 

of existence (Peters et al. 2012) and synthesized results 

in several books. Major achievements included leading 

the establishment of the National Ecological Observatory 

Network (NEON), Critical Zone Observatory (CZO), 

Integrative Graduate Education and Research Traineeship Photo: T. Wood 

Ridges and valleys in the Luquillo Experimental Forest. 

(IGERT), and San Juan Urban Long Term Research AreasExploratory (ULTRA-Ex) programs in Puerto Rico, thereby 

creating a broad, strong synergy toward sustainability 

science in the tropics. Over the years, LUQ has also given a 

commanding perspective on tropical ecology, resulting in 

numerous synthetic works. A site-synthesis book (Brokaw 

et al. 2012), for example, contains chapters whose content 

ranges from theory to management and reflects the benefit 

of long-term research toward understanding resistance and 

resilience of tropical systems in a changing disturbance 

regime. This research program also contributed to 

syntheses of LTER Network contributions (Robertson et al. 

2011) and long-term trends (Peters et al. 2011). 

Contact: Grizelle González, ggonzalez@fs.fed.us 

The National Ecological Observatory 

Network (NEON) 

The Institute is a major collaborator of the National 

Ecological Observatory Network (NEON). NEON has 

been under development for many years, but recently 

$434 million in construction funding was provided to 

the program by the National Science Foundation. NEON 

will be the first continental ecological research platform 

and promises to change the way ecological research is 

accomplished. Data will be collected on biodiversity, 

disease and pathogens, nutrients, water, pollutants, and 

greenhouse gases at more than 60 sites spread from Alaska 

and Hawaii across the United States to Puerto Rico. A very 

ambitious crow flying to the four corners of the network 

would cover more than 14,000 miles. The sites in Puerto 

Rico will be the southern and eastern-most in the network. 

Unique features of the NEON program are that it will use 

a single protocol to collect all data sets nationwide, rather 

than different instruments or protocols from site to site 

as other research networks have done. The data collected 

will also be freely available to scientists and the public in 

near-real time; since no one owns the data, they will be 

available for everyone. Having vast amounts of baseline 

data available will allow scientists to design studies that 

build from that platform, without having the costs and 

efforts needed to collect baseline data. NEON will also 

provide the first truly standardized continental network 

of research sites dedicated to being able to describe and 

forecast ecological trends at such a large scale. 

Puerto Rico was chosen to represent the Atlantic 

Neotropical domain after the Institute, academic, and 

other scientists and educators came together to inform 

NEON on the advantages and opportunities of using the 

island as an observational site. Guánica Forest will be the 

core “wildland” site for the Observatory and will anchor 

17
IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

Research and Development 

San Juan ULTRA-Ex: Understanding the 

Socio-Ecology, Sustainability, and Future 

of the City 

The city of San Juan has been selected as part of a national 

initiative for interdisciplinary scientific research in cities, 

the Urban Long Term Research Areas-Exploratory (ULTRAEx). A collaborative program between the National Science 

Foundation, the Puerto Rican Conservation Foundation, 

and the Forest Service, the ULTRA-Ex seeks to address 

how an increasingly urban landscape affects natural and 

human communities. With more than half of the world’s 

population already living in cities, it is crucial that we 

develop scientific knowledge that contributes to the 

long-term quality of life and environmental health, or the 

sustainability, of cities. San Juan ULTRA-Ex scientists seek 

a holistic understanding of how environmental, social, and 

Photo: T. Muñóz 

a land use gradient that includes the Lajas Agricultural 

Experiment Station, an urban forest in Ponce, and stream 

sites near San Germán and Adjuntas. Sampling and 

instrumentation are planned to remain in Guánica for 30 

years and in the other sites for 5–10 years. Installation of 

equipment is projected to begin in 2012–13. Geotechnical, 

environmental assessment, and permitting work are 

already completed or currently underway, as is planning 

for specific locations for instrument arrays. Local scientists 

are facilitating permitting, science decisions, and site access 

for the central NEON staff. 

More information on the NEON project can be found at 

www.neoninc.org. 

Photo: S. Van Bloem 

Guánica Dry Forest looking southwest from visitors’ center. 

climate change, and global economic changes, among 

others. 

With a focus on San Juan’s urban watershed, the Río 

Piedras River Watershed, we have multiple ongoing 

projects that address various aspects of the socio-ecology 

of the urban watershed, including: hydrology; urban 

forests and biodiversity; soil nutrients; water quality 

and ecology; riparian restoration; environmental history 

of the watershed; flooding risks; residents’ perceptions 

and behavior towards sea-level rise, yard practices, and 

streams; decision-makers’ perspectives, knowledge, and 

roles in governing the urban environment; land use and 

land cover change; and energy use. These projects are 

linked through a common network of sampling points 

across the watershed that was selected to meet both social 

and ecological criteria (Fig. 6). 

Our scientists collect both quantitative and qualitative data 

within the same sampling points and use diverse ecological 

and social methods, such as vegetation and water quality 

sampling, questionnaires and interviews (see photo) and 

modeling approaches. This integrated network allows 

us also to examine the watershed from various scales 

including spatial scales (i.e., household and river scale, to 

community and watershed scale), as well as temporal (i.e., 

historical, contemporary, and future visions and scenarios). 

In this process we have had the contribution of numerous 

graduate and undergraduate students from a diverse set of 

disciplines. 

ULTRA-Ex research scientists and students, from both natural 

economic factors interact in the city of San Juan as a socio- and social sciences, conducting household surveys in various

ecological system—the perspective that cities are products communities within the Río Piedras River Watershed. The 

of human-nature interactions. This approach will help us objective of the household surveys is to measure residents’

understand what aspects of the city are more vulnerable perceptions and practices of their yards and surrounding green 

to local and global risks, such as extensive development, areas and streams. 

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IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

Research and Development 

More than an interdisciplinary scientific 

effort, San Juan ULTRA-Ex seeks 

transdisciplinarity where, through the 

engagement of non-science stakeholders 

(city managers, communities, NGOs, and 

other social groups) in different phases of 

the research process, we hope to provide 

policy-relevant knowledge to city planners 

and administrators. We have engaged 

approximately 32 different organizations 

and community leaders through various 

stages of research, including framing 

problems and questions, providing 

feedback and critique to products, and 

participating in mapping workshops 

to develop land use scenarios. We have 

also developed the San Juan ULTRA-Ex 

Web Database and Mapping Portal as a 

tool to facilitate collaboration among our 

researchers and partners by making data, 

documents, events, and other information, 

accessible. Overall, our objective is to put 

science at the service of city residents to 

collectively work toward improving life in 

our cities. 

For more information please visit the 

website www.sanjuanultra.org. 

Contact: Ariel E. Lugo and Tischa A. 

Muñoz-Erickson, alugo@fs.fed.us and 

tmunozerickson@gmail.com 

Luquillo Critical Zone 

Observatory (LCZO) 

The “Critical Zone” is defined as the outer 

layer of the Earth that directly sustains 

human life. It extends from the lower 

atmosphere into the underlying bedrock and includes all 

the physical, chemical and biological processes that shape 

and transform the Earth’s surface. The Luquillo Critical 

Zone Observatory (LCZO) is one of six National Science 

Foundation-supported observatories designed to provide 

an integrated platform for collaborative studies that will 

provide the scientific basis for the long-term management 

of critical zones. 

How critical zone processes, water balances, and mass 

fluxes differ in landscapes with contrasting bedrock 

lithology but similar climatic and environmental histories 

is the overarching focus of the LCZO. Our infrastructure, 

sampling strategy, and data management system are 

designed to use the natural laboratory of northeastern 

Puerto Rico as a platform whereby collaborators can 

Figure 6. Network of socio-ecological sampling points for San Juan and the Río 

Piedras River Watershed. The orange boundary delineates the Municipality of San Juan, and the blue boundaries delineate the watershed 

and sub-watershed of the Río Piedras River Watershed. The 13 circles 

are the half-kilometer buffer surrounding each point. 

quantify and contrast how critical zone processes 

differ in watersheds underlain by quartzdiorite and 

volcaniclastic bedrock. The two main study watersheds, 

the Río Mameyes and the Río Blanco, drain the Luquillo 

Experimental Forest (Fig. 1, earlier) and have similar 

climates and environmental histories but differing 

lithology. The Mameyes watershed is primarily underlain 

by volcaniclastic bedrock that weathers to produce claydominated soils and boulders. The Río Blanco watershed is 

underlain by quartzdiorite, which weathers into a saprolite 

composed of sand and large corestones. These differences 

in weathering patterns have a profound influence on forest 

composition, landslide frequency, chemical weathering, 

and the morphology of streams and hillslopes. LCZO 

research is based around seven broad hypotheses that 

address the following main questions: 

19
IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

Research and Development 

Photo: F.N. Scatena 

Stream draining volcanoclastics in the Luquillo Mountains. 

Photo: F.N. Scatena

•	1 How are soil carbon, redox, and nutrient cycling 

coupled and decoupled from lithology, landscape 

position, and climate? 

•	1 How does weathering vary with regolith thickness and 

landscape position? 

•	1 How does lithology influence sediment supply and the 

residence time and routing of water and solutes across 

the landscapes? 

•	1 How do the morphology, biogeochemistry, and 

vegetation of riparian zones vary with lithology, 

climate, and basin size? 

•	1 How does basin lithology influence depositional 

environments and stratigraphic resolution of the 

coastal and fluvial sediments? 

The LCZO is supported by a $4.4 million, 5-year grant 

from the Earth Science Division of the National Science 

Foundation. It also receives additional technical and 

infrastructure support from the U.S. Geological SurveyWater, Energy, and Biogeochemical Budget Program, 

and the Institute. The principal researchers and students 

involved in the LCZO are from the University of 

Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania State University, the University 

of California at Berkeley, the University of New Hampshire, 

Brown University, the University of Puerto Rico, the U.S. 

Geological Survey, and the Institute. The Observatory also 

provides facilities for collaborators from a host of U.S. and 

international research institutions and works closely with 

the Luquillo Long Term Ecological Research Program. In 

the first 2 years of existence, more than 40 individuals have 

actively participated in LCZO research. 

Contacts: Frederick N. Scatena, fns@sas.upenn.edu 

and Ariel E. Lugo, alugo@fs.fed.us 

For additional information, data, and publications, see the 

LCZO web site www.sas.upenn.edu/lczo or contact LuquilloCZO@sas.upenn.edu. 

Stream draining quartzdiorite in the Luquillo Mountains. 

20
IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

Research and Development 

Caribbean Landscape Conservation 

Cooperative (CLCC)

The Institute has been working with a number of other 

Federal and local agencies to establish a Caribbean 

Landscape Conservation Cooperative (CLCC), which 

was initiated this year as part of a national network of 

22 landscape conservation cooperatives. Landscape 

conservation cooperatives are applied conservation 

science partnerships among State and Federal agencies, 

regional organizations, tribes, non-governmental 

organizations, universities and other entities within a 

geographic area. They are designed to provide science to 

inform resource management decisions in an integrated 

fashion across landscapes—at a broader scale than any 

individual partner’s responsibility. Landscape conservation 

cooperatives consider landscape-scale stressors including 

climate change, habitat fragmentation, urban sprawl, 

invasive species, and water availability in order to assess 

the conservation status of species and habitats and provide 

a vision for sustainable landscapes under future scenarios. 

The Caribbean Landscape Conservation Cooperative 

includes the Puerto Rican archipelago and the U.S. Virgin 

Islands (Fig. 7), and recognizes the connectivity of these 

islands with the greater Caribbean and the continental 

regions through shared species, habitats, and conservation 

opportunities and goals. The purpose of the CLCC is 

to provide a regional context to conduct conservation 

planning and management at different scales, from 

decisions on site management to understanding the 

implications of management actions regionally, nationally 

and globally. It is a platform for partners to integrate 

information, perform regional assessments of conservation 

status, assess future scenarios, and collaborate in applied 

conservation science. The CLCC mission is providing 

science and technology for conservation planning and 

action – addressing the need to restore and sustain natural 

resources in Caribbean land and seascapes. 

Contact: William A. Gould, wgould@fs.fed.us 

Collaborating Institutions: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 

U.S. Geological Survey, National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration, and Puerto Rico Department of Natural and 

Environmental Resources. 

Figure 7. The extent of the Caribbean Landscape Conservation Cooperative. Map colors represent developed land 

(black), forested land (green), shrubland (brown), and grassland (light tan). 

21
IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

Research and Development 

Research Highlights By Scientist 

I. Tropical Ecosystem Dynamics 

1. Characterization of lichen communities along an elevation 

gradient in Puerto Rico 

While studies of lichens in Puerto Rico have been 

historically discontinuous, the lichen biota is probably 

among the best known in the region. Recent work has 

shown that there are about 1,181 documented lichen species 

in Puerto Rico, while another effort suggests that there 

actually could be as many as 1,600 species. This indicates 

that at least 26 percent of our lichen species are yet to be 

discovered. Furthermore, since only one work has explored 

the interaction between lichens and environmental 

conditions in Puerto Rico, ecological dynamics of lichens 

in these ecosystems are still mostly unknown. To address 

these issues, we are carrying out a comprehensive survey of 

lichen species occurrence and abundance in a series of plots 

established along an elevation gradient of eight forest types 

Photo: M.M. Rivera

in northeastern Puerto Rico. We expect to see differences Lichenologist Joel A. Mercado collecting crustose lichens 

in the composition and structure of lichen communities growing in the trunk of a tree. To collect this kind of lichen, 

part of the living tissue of the bark needs to be removed. among these forest types with differences in environmental 

conditions such as precipitation, and temperature as factors Collaborating Institutions: Institute State and Private Forestry 

explaining most of the variation observed between these Program, University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras Campus 

communities. While the study is ongoing, we have already (Eugenio Santiago-Valentín) 

developed an extensive collection of photographs showing 

the diversity of lichens at these forests. Other expected 

outcomes include a compilation of methods and guidelines 

for long-term monitoring of forest health using lichens as 

indicators, and increased interest in the study of lichens of 

Puerto Rico and their potential use as bioindicators of the 

environment. 

Contact: Joel A. Mercado and William A Gould, jmercado@fs.fed. 

us and wgould@fs.fed.us 

Photo: J.A. Mercado 

2. Disturbance ecology in the Bisley Experimental Watersheds 

A. Vegetation dynamics under the canopy 

Hurricanes strongly influence short-term patterns of 

plant community structure, composition, and abundance, 

and are a major contributor to the maintenance of plant 

diversity in many forests. Previous research in the Bisley 

Experimental Watersheds had focused on the immediate 

and long-term effects of hurricane disturbance on tree 

species composition, number of species, and diversity, 

while far less attention has been given to other types 

of vegetation that dominate under the canopy. Yet the 

non-tree understory community is where the majority of 

plant species reside. With measurements from a unique 

20-year dataset, the response and recovery of forest 

herbs, shrubs, and vines were tracked through multiple 

storms, hurricanes, and droughts. Changes in number 

of species, ground cover, biomass, and diversity of the 

non-tree community were analyzed following Hurricane 

Hugo (1989) and Hurricane Georges (1998) in a mature 

secondary subtropical wet forest of the Bisley Experimental 

Watersheds. Our results demonstrate that hurricanes 

caused an immediate, but transient, increase in overall 

number of species, ground cover, and diversity. Over the The foliose lichen Leptogium azureum growing in the trunk of 20-year study period, the non-tree community exhibited a palm (Prestoea montana) in the Palma de sierra forest in El pronounced and persistent changes in composition, Yunque National Forest. including a dramatic increase in abundance and number of 

22
IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

Research and Development 

Samuel Moya, professional technician, measuring throughfall in the Bisley 

Watersheds in Luquillo, PR. 

fern and vine species and a decrease in forbs and shrubs. In 

the 2010 census, the understory composition and relative 

abundance of understory vegetation was significantly 

altered from previous censuses, as proportions of shrubs, 

herbs, ferns, and vines had drastically changed. Currently, 

the ferns and vines combined are 75 and 90 percent of 

total understory ground cover and biomass, respectively 

(compared to 35 to 45 percent 20 years ago). These results 

for the non-tree community contrast sharply with previous 

studies from the Bisley Experimental Watersheds that 

considered the same study period and area, but found 

that hurricanes rarely altered dominant tree species 

composition over the long-term. These results suggest 

that the role of hurricane disturbance in structuring plant 

diversity may be even more important than previously 

thought, particularly as the non-tree community contains 

most of the vascular plant species in tropical forests. 

Contact Tamara Heartsill-Scalley, theartsill@fs.fed.us 

Collaborating Institutions: Northern Research Station; 

University of Pennsylvania 

B. Leaf litter dynamics in headwater streams.

 Leaf litter that falls from the forest into streams is broken 

down into smaller particles. This broken-down leaf litter 

is then transported downstream in varying amounts and 

with different nutrient composition, to be consumed by 

native aquatic fauna. Leaf litter in streams is also known 

as coarse particulate organic matter (CPOM), and it is 

the basic energy source of forested headwater streams. 

Analysis of 18 years of data from the Bisley 

Experimental Watersheds showed there 

were various annual peaks in the quantity 

of CPOM exported instead of the single 

annual export pulse observed in temperate 

deciduous systems. The variation in the 

quantity and quality of exported material 

depended on traits of particular events 

(storms, hurricanes), season, and the 

successional status of forests. The quality 

(chemical composition) of exports varies 

temporally, with proportion of carbon to 

nitrogen (low quality for consumers) being 

highest in the driest months and lowest 

(high quality for consumers)during rainy 

months. These results signal that more 

attention should be given to changes in 

precipitation seasonality in the tropics. 

Changes in rainfall patterns could not only 

affect the timing of new leaf and flower 

production and stream discharge, but also 

increase the seasonal range in quality of 

organic matter exports to reach streams. 

Changes in the quality of organic matter 

resources in streams can potentially alter ecosystem 

processes and aquatic food webs. 

In terms of quantity, median daily exports were similar 

before and after hurricane Hugo (September 18, 1989). 

However, after 16 years of forest succession following 

this hurricane, the moderate and high stream flows still 

exported less CPOM than what was exported in the 2 

years prior to the hurricane. Median daily amounts of 

CPOM export had been observed to occur following 

hurricanes, but it seems that several decades are required 

for high storm flow exports to return to pre-disturbance 

conditions. Thus, the state of development of vegetation 

in the watershed limits how much material can be 

exported during a storm independently of the steepness 

of hillsides or amount of stream runoff. The synergy 

between hurricane intensity and frequency and level of 

vegetation maturity defines the long-term pattern of high 

CPOM exports in these watersheds. Forested headwaters 

continuously provide leaf litter and retention structures 

such as fallen logs and branches, and these can create 

and maintain pools along with natural litter traps that 

facilitate processing of organic matter in headwaters. Our 

observations in these forested watersheds have shown 

that most of the leaf litter that reaches these streams is 

processed in place and only very small amounts (0.024 

percent) are exported. However, headwaters under nonforested land cover conditions may not be able to retain 

and process large percentages of leaf litter inputs, and this 

in turn can affect water quality and resource availability for 

aquatic ecosystems downstream. 

Photo: T. Heartsill-Scalley 

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IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

Research and Development 

3. Long-term forest dynamics in the Caribbean: assessment of 

long-term forest dynamics in the Caribbean 

Recent discussions during regional Caribbean foresters 

meetings highlighted a need for a regional workshop 

to synthesize results on regional forest dynamics from 

individual studies in permanent forest plots across the 

Caribbean. The main question to be addressed by the 

workshop is the detection of change in forest stands as 

a result of environmental change, particularly hurricane 

effects and climate change. Specific targets of inquiry are 

changes in: (1) stem or biomass turnover, (2) tree growth 

rates, (3) structural attributes, and (4) species composition. 

Our challenge is to have all collaborators at the same 

starting point before the workshop. From our initial 

contacts, the conditions of permanent-plot data sets in the 

region vary substantially, from data in file cabinets to data 

sets with metadata in database programs, and thus our preworkshop work has begun. The range of permanent plot 

descriptions, based on the participants’ metadata provided, 

will be our first available product. The next steps in preworkshop activities are the development of a Webpage and 

initial permanent plot site description products for sharing 

among the group. We expect to host a workshop aimed at 

synthesizing data in mid 2013. 

Contact: Tamara Heartsill-Scalley, theartsill@fs.fed.us 

Collaborating Institutions: The Puerto Rico Conservation 

Foundation http://www.caribbeanforesters.org/, and others 

4. Forest dynamics 

Three studies were carried out in the Luquillo 

Experimental Forest to explore forest structural and species 

site relationships. The first used plots on ridge, slope, and 

ravine topography within the lower montane rain forest 

of the Espíritu Santo and Mameyes watersheds between 

350 and 570 meters elevation (Weaver 2010a). Canopy 

height in the upper Espíritu Santo watershed (leeward of 

the El Yunque to Mt. Britton ridge) was greater than in 

the Mameyes watershed (windward of the ridge); canopy 

height tended to decline from ridge to slope to ravine 

topography for sampling sites in both watersheds. Within 

both watersheds, total aboveground biomass was greater 

on ridges than in ravines, and stem density decreased from 

ridges and slopes to ravines. Prestoea montana (R. Grah.) 

Nichols and Dacryodes excelsa Vahl accounted for about 30 

percent of the 1,400 stems and 69 species that were tallied. 

Correspondence analysis showed that species abundances 

for 37 species with ≥ 6 occurrences (94 percent of all 

stems), varied by watershed and topographic position. 

Moreover, the Mameyes plots contained some tree species 

associated with forest types at higher elevation. Hurricanes 

affect the Luquillo Experimental Forest with sufficient 

frequency to maintain all forest types in various stages of 

recovery. Forest composition at any site is a function of 

environmental gradients, major climatic events, and tree 

species attributes. 

The second study was in elfin forest at the summits of 

the Luquillo Experimental Forest above 880 meters in 

elevation, where tree cover was explored by aspect and 

topographic positions (Weaver 2010b). Mean stem density 

for all topographic positions decreased from ridge to 

ravine, whereas the opposite was true for canopy height. 

Biomass was greater on ridges and slopes than in ravines, 

regardless of aspect. 

Tabebuia rigida Urban was the most abundant species, 

accounting for 23 percent of the 3,620 stems encountered. 

Eugenia borinquensis was the best distributed, occurring on 

90 percent of the plots. One-half of the 42 recorded species 

accounted for less than 2 percent of all stems. Climatic, 

edaphic, and physiological factors account for elfin forest, 

which is adapted to survive under rigorous environmental 

conditions. Elfin forest provides numerous benefits, 

including critical habitat for many endemic flora and fauna, 

valuable water supplies, panoramic vistas, and recreational 

opportunities. 

Photo: E. Camacho

Scaffold tower reaches the canopy tops in the Bisley 

Watershed in the Luquillo Experimental Forest. 

The last study was in the El Toro Wilderness, which was 

designated by Congress in 2005. El Toro occupies 36 

percent of the Luquillo Experimental Forest and is the 

only tropical wilderness managed by the U.S. Department 

of Agriculture. The wilderness extends from 370 to 1074 

meters in elevation and is occupied by four forest types 

that are characteristic of mountainous Caribbean islands: 

lower montane rain forest, montane rain forest, palm brake, 

and elfin forest (Weaver 2011). The Luquillo Experimental 

Forest contains: 225 tree species with 45 endemic to Puerto 

Rico and several to the Luquillo Experimental Forest 

alone; 150 species of ferns, 79 species of orchids, 11 native 

bats, 100 birds, 19 native reptiles, 14 native amphibians, 

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IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

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Photo: P.L. Weaver

Elfin forest scenery: short, gnarled, epiphyte laden trees 

of relatively few species endemic to the summits grow 

above 900 meters elevation in the Luquillo Experimental 

Forest. Forest trails provide scenic vistas and recreational 

opportunities for visitors. 

and 6 fish species. Most of these species are also present 

within the wilderness. The Luquillo Experimental Forest 

is surrounded by a dense human population and is under 

multipurpose management. Future activities in El Toro 

Photo: G.P. Bauer 

Lower montane rain forest: Dacryodes excelsa (tabonuco 

will involve the demarcation of wilderness boundaries, 

determination of wildlife habitats, and long-term 

monitoring. El Toro provides visitors with solitude, an 

uncommon resource elsewhere on the island. 

Contact: Peter L. Weaver, pweaver@fs.fed.us 

5. Dry forest research in southwestern Puerto Rico 

Recent research in Guánica Forest and the surrounding 

area has focused on determining how native species 

respond to wildfires and on techniques that can be used 

to help re-establish native species in degraded areas. In 

their native state, Puerto Rican dry forests do not have 

natural ignition sources and appropriate ground-level 

fuel structure to carry wildfires across the landscape. 

However, the island’s agriculture history has resulted in the 

introduction of a vast number of pasture-grass species that 

provide excellent fuel for fires in the dry season. This fuel, 

combined with careless or malicious human activities that 

provide sparks, results in wildfires that threaten native tree 

species. Our research has shown experimentally that peak 

fire temperatures from 150 to 300 ̊C will kill a majority of 

saplings. Lower temperatures (i.e., lower than 150 ̊C) kill 

tree) is the dominant species that grows mainly at elevations 

< 600 meters within the Luquillo Mountains. Tabonuco favors 

ridge topography, where it sometimes exceeds 30 meters in 

height and 1 meter in diameter. 

saplings when fires occur in the afternoon, presumably 

because the morning dew has evaporated by then and 

does not absorb the heat from a wildfire. In areas where 

we did controlled burns, about 75 percent of the saplings 

incurred temperatures above 300 ̊C. In experimental plots 

where we planted native saplings, fires from controlled 

burns killed about 65 percent of the saplings (representing 

13 native species and Leucaena leucocephala, an introduced 

species) and subsequent summer drought killed additional 

saplings, resulting in total mortality of 96 percent. Of the 13 

native species that we planted, Bursera simaruba (almácigo 

or turpentine tree) and Erythoxylon areolatum (indio) had 

the best combination of growth and survival after fires. 

The conclusion is that reforestation projects that attempt to 

re-establish trees in grass-dominated locations either need 

to prevent fire or reduce grass cover, both requirements can 

be costly or labor-intensive. 

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One species that had acceptable post-fire survival and 

growth rates was Leucaena leucocephala, a species brought 

to Puerto Rico more than 200 years ago. We planted 

saplings of native species using Leucaena as a “nurse tree” 

and prevented the occurrence of fire. Survival of native 

saplings under Leucaena was not different than when 

planted in open areas, but growth of saplings under 

Leucaena was 50 percent higher. Thus, Leucaena did show 

a nurse tree effect. Previous work had established that 

Leucaena canopies suppressed grass biomass and density, 

and protected native saplings planted in Leucaena stands 

by reducing fire effects (Santiago et al. 2008). Because of the 

time and expense required to control grass and fire, it may 

be a better strategy to establish a more fire-resilient forest 

dominated by Leucaena and then underplant native species 

once canopy cover is established. 

Contact: Skip Van Bloem, vanbloem@gmail.com 

Photo: P.L. Weaver 

El Toro Wilderness: The Luquillo Mountains as viewed from 

PR Route 2, which parallels the north coast. The northern part 

of the El Toro Wilderness Area extends left to right through the 

upper middle part of the photo. El Yunque Rock is visible at 

the upper right. 

6. Caribbean vegetation mapping: Tropical forest associations and 

land cover for Trinidad and Tobago mapped from multiseason, 

multidecade, gap-filled Landsat. 

Drawing upon field plots labeled as to forest assemblage, 

field data collected by foresters from the Trinidad and 

Tobago Forestry Division, and unique historical work by 

J.S. Beard (1944, 1946), investigators teamed up to produce 

the most detailed maps of wetlands, forest types, and land 

cover that have ever been available for conservation and 

management in Trinidad and Tobago (Figs. 8 and 9). Unlike 

most previous work, in which tropical forests were mapped 

only to physiognomic class (e.g., evergreen, deciduous, 

montane, etc.), the Institute and collaborators have shown 

for the first time that old tropical forests can be mapped 

to the level of species assemblage with gap-filled Landsat 

imagery. In gap-filled imagery, image gaps from clouds or 

scan-line failure are filled with imagery taken on various 

dates. 

Earlier maps of Trinidad and Tobago show forest types 

for public lands only. No previous maps detailed forest 

types and land cover. The team learned that many forest 

associations are identifiable in the multiseason, fine 

resolution view of forest canopies that is viewable on 

Google Earth. Decision tree classification models of forest 

habitats were 59 to 99 percent accurate for individual 

classes, based on a randomly-selected 10 percent of 

reference pixels. Accuracy improved when ~20-year-old 

gap-filled images representing late dry season phenology, 

including drought phenology, supplemented recent gapfilled imagery from the early dry season. The synthetic 

multiseason imagery that they produced from these 

old dry-season images significantly improved model 

predictions by 14 to 21 percent for deciduous, 7 to 36 

percent for semi-evergreen, and 3 to 11 percent for seasonal 

evergreen associations; and by 5 to 6 percent for secondary 

forest. The team also established that Tobago’s “xerophytic 

rain forest” is associated with ultramaphic geology. Like 

the State Forests of Susúa and Maricao in Puerto Rico, 

which also have ultramaphic geology and serpentine 

substrates, this forest type exhibits more xerophytic 

features, including more sclerophyllous leaves than other 

forests with just as much rainfall. 

In addition to digital data for land cover and forest type, 

the project designed and printed 45 cartographic products 

for Trinidad and Tobago, including island-wide maps as 

well as 41 maps at 1:25,000-scale that correspond to the 

topographic maps for the country. These maps show and 

label land cover and forest type, roads, rivers, towns, 

Photo: S. Van Bloem 

Vegetation along the grass-forest interface. The grass shown 

here is good fuel in the dry season, and future fires will kill 

trees in the picture, resulting in additional encroachment of 

grassland into the forest. 

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IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

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Figure 8. We mapped land cover for Trinidad with 

decision tree classification of the gap-filled 

Landsat 7 image centered on the year 2007. 

We then mapped forest association for 

those areas classified as forest with the gapfilled image from 2007 as well as three gapfilled images from the 1980s from the mid to 

late dry season. Mature forest associations 

are classified according to the Beard system 

(1946). 

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IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

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Figure 9. We mapped land cover and forest type for Tobago with decision tree classification of the gap-filled Landsat 7 

image centered on December 16, 2007, which is the early dry season. Mature forest associations are classified 

according to the system of Beard (1944). 

topography, forest and wildlife reserves, and management 

boundaries. The GIS data for roads and topographic 

contours required considerable development work. The 

project also included a month of hands-on training in 

remote sensing and GIS for two staff members from the 

Trinidad and Tobago Forestry Division. 

Contact: Eileen Helmer, ehelmer@fs.fed.us 

Collaborating Institutions: Colorado State University, Trinidad 

and Tobago Forestry Division, and Fanning Software Consulting 

II. Global Change 

Biodiversity 

1. (A)Avian diversity among agroscapes in Nicaragua’s northern 

highlands. 

Nicaragua’s highland forests are threatened by continual 

wood extraction and encroaching agriculture. Nicaraguan 

students and the lead researcher used fixed-width point 

counts to characterize bird assemblages in agroforestry 

systems under five land uses. Overall species richness and 

abundance were higher in coffee plantations and forest 

fallows, whereas disturbance-sensitive species were more 

abundant in secondary and riparian forest (Fig. 10). Species 

and foraging guilds characteristic of closed-canopy forest 

were found in coffee plantations, but only at points near 

forest remnants. To conserve and manage agroscapes as 

well as natural habitat, land stewards should maintain 

woodland strips and hedgerows bordering streams, 

remnant forest tracts and an arboreal component, including 

over- and understory, within the landscape matrix. 

Contact: Wayne Arendt, warendt@fs.fed.us 

(B) New species and notes on distributions of Nicaragua’s 

avifauna. 

Nicaragua’s avifauna may be the least understood in 

Mesoamerica because the ecology, life history, and 

distribution of most species remain little known. However, 

in the past decade local and international biologists have 

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Figure 10. Means for the number of species and detections among five landuse types within a landscape matrix in the Nicaraguan highlands: 

AA = open area or grassland; BS = secondary forest; BR = riparian 

forest; C = coffee plantation; T = forest fallow. Distinct letters above 

each bar indicate a statistical difference at α ≤ 0.05. 

made several important contributions to 

Nicaraguan bird distribution, including 

more than 90 new species recorded and 

noteworthy range extensions for the 

country. We recently reported (Sandoval 

and Arendt 2011) the first records of 

striated heron (Butorides striata) and 

brown-capped tyrannulet (Ornithion 

brunneicapillus) from Nicaragua and 

range extensions and abundance of 29 

additional species in the Atlantic Region 

and the Paso del Istmo Biological 

Corridor. 

Contact: Wayne Arendt, warendt@fs.fed.us 

2. Egg Laying patterns of the pearly-eyed 

thrasher in the Luquillo Experimental 

Forest. 

Temporal aspects of egg deposition are 

important factors governing avian reproductive success. 

I documented hourly egg-laying patterns of the pearlyeyed thrasher (1979 to 2000). The first eggs laid each 

day were in the early morning (median 06:42 a.m.) and 

almost half of the eggs were laid by 7:23 a.m. Many times, 

however, the last two eggs of a clutch were laid later in 

the morning and some not until mid afternoon (2:29 p.m.), 

thus extending egg laying to 8 hours. Delayed laying 

of the last eggs in a clutch may be an adaptive strategy 

triggering brood reduction to ensure survival of older and Photo: M. Solórzano 

Pearly-eyed thrasher. 

more robust siblings during periods of physiological stress 

and food shortages. A delay in the hatching of younger 

siblings, even by just a few hours, results in a growth and 

development advantage of older nestlings. Consequently, 

their survivability is increased over that of the younger, 

under-developed, and less fit siblings when resources are 

scant (Arendt 2011). 

Contact: Wayne Arendt, warendt@fs.fed.us 

3. Collapse of a winter resident bird community in the Guánica 

Dry Forest.

 Most North American migrants spend the non-breeding 

season in Mexico, the Caribbean, and Central America. 

The declines in migrant-bird population may first become 

apparent on the wintering grounds, where they occur 

in high concentrations. Collaborators and I documented 

an approximately 40-year decrease in both abundance 

and diversity of winter-resident birds, with a precipitous 

decline recorded during the past decade. Constant-effort 

mist-netting captures only about one-third as many birds 

as it did 20 years ago. Statistical modeling confirms a 

population decline and predicts local extirpation by 2033. 

Species richness estimates also decreased during our study, 

with average species richness estimated at 12.3 species 

during 1991 to 2001, but only 7.6 species during 2007 to 

2011 (Fig. 11). 

Populations of the three most common species that 

historically constituted 75 percent of winter resident 

captures are declining dramatically (Fig. 12). Black-andwhite warbler (Mniotilta varia) declined from more than 

250 birds in 1991 to fewer than 50 birds for the past 4 

years. American redstart (Setophaga ruticilla) averaged 150 

to 200 birds during 1990 to 2004, but since 2005 has been 

fewer than100 birds; and ovenbird (Seiurus aurocapilla) also 

declined. It is critical that we accelerate on-the-ground 

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IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

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Figure 11. Annual variation in estimates of total winter resident birds and 

estimated species richness for winter residents with fitted 

negative trends from capture/recapture data gathered from nine 

netlines in the Guánica Forest, Puerto Rico, from 1991 through 

2011; error bars are 95 percent confidence intervals. 

Figure 12. Declining population estimates for the three most common 

species captured in our study, computed using MARK. Error bars 

are 95 percent confidence intervals. 

conservation for migrant as well as 

resident birds and support research 

that attempts to understand these 

declines. 

Contact: Wayne Arendt, warendt@fs.fed.us 

Collaborating Institution: University of 

Missouri 

4. Avian studies and research opportunities 

in the Luquillo Experimental Forest.

 In commemoration of 100 years of 

avian research in U.S. Forest Service 

experimental forests, a special 

symposium was held at the American 

Ornithologists Union meeting in 

Philadelphia, PA, in August 2009. As a 

result of this symposium, participants 

were invited to submit manuscripts 

reviewing avian studies from their 

respective experimental forests to 

be considered for publication in a 

special section on avian studies in 

Forest Ecology and Management. As a 

result of this invitation, Joe Wunderle 

and Wayne Arendt submitted a 

manuscript reviewing avian studies 

from the Luquillo Experimental 

Forest (LEF), which was recently 

published (Wunderle and Arendt 

2011). In their review, Wunderle and 

Arendt emphasized avian studies 

with management implications and 

noted opportunities for future studies, 

especially those that would help 

managers respond to local and global 

changes, which may affect the forest’s 

ecosystems and avifauna. 

As one of the most active ecological 

research sites in the Neotropics, the 

Luquillo Experimental Forest has a 

rich history of ecological studies on 

which to base future avian studies. As 

is typical of an island ecosystem, the 

Luquillo Experimental Forest has low 

avian species richness, as represented 

by only 23 bird species that breed 

in the forest and another 76 species, 

mostly migrants, that are known to 

occur. The role of birds in the food 

web of the lower elevation tabonuco 

forest has been especially well-studied 

as part of a larger investigation of the 

rainforest’s food web. The forest is 

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IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

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noted for its remarkably high densities of Anolis lizards 

and Eleutherodactylus frogs, which may depress insect 

and spider densities, thereby contributing to the forest’s 

low species richness and densities of most insectivorous 

birds. The endangered Puerto Rican parrot has become 

the symbol of the forest, in part, because it has been the 

focus of intensive long-term research and management 

efforts, which have stimulated research on other associated 

species. The spin-off studies from the parrot recovery effort 

are many, including long-term studies of the pearly-eyed 

thrasher and botfly parasitism. Given the high frequency of 

hurricane disturbance to the Luquillo Experimental Forest 

and studies providing a baseline for comparisons, research 

has provided substantial contributions to an understanding 

of hurricane effects on forest ecosystems including bird 

populations and their resources. Censuses conducted 

over a 20- to 30-year period have documented disturbing 

population declines in sharp-shinned and broad-winged 

hawks and the elfin-woods warbler in the forest. These and 

other studies are summarized in Wunderle and Arendt’s 

(2011) review of more than 150 publications pertaining 

to avian studies from the Luquillo Experimental Forest, 

which will be a useful reference for others interested in 

conducting research at this site. 

Contact: Joseph M. Wunderle, Jr., jwunderlejr@fs.fed.us 

5. Winter ecology of the endangered Kirtland’s warbler. 

Field work on the winter ecology of the endangered 

Kirtland’s warbler and its habitat continued for the ninth 

winter (November 2010 to May 2011) on the island of 

Eleuthera, The Bahamas. The Kirtland’s warbler ranks as 

one of North America’s rarest songbirds and has been the 

focus of an intensive state and federal recovery effort on 

its North American breeding grounds. Yet despite these 

efforts little was known of the nonbreeding biology of 

the species and its habitat requirements and potential 

conservation needs on its wintering grounds in the 

Bahamas. At the request of the Kirtland’s Warbler Recovery 

Team, the Institute wildlife program has focused much of 

its research on the winter ecology of this species. This work 

currently focuses on: (1) elucidating factors controlling the 

occurrence of Kirtland’s warbler habitat on the island of 

Eleuthera, The Bahamas, and (2) examining effective means 

of creating, enhancing, or managing Kirtland’s warbler 

habitat in disturbed areas. 

Research findings to date indicate that Kirtland’s warblers 

require early successional habitats, derived mostly 

from anthropogenic disturbance, and therefore habitat 

disturbance is required to produce winter habitat for 

the warbler. Thus the challenge for wintering grounds 

conservation is the need to work with private landowners 

(given limited public lands) and the requirement for 

re-occurring habitat disturbance to produce Kirtland’s 

warbler habitat. To addresses these challenges the research 

program now focuses on answering the question: How 

can we tweak re-occurring habitat disturbances for the 

benefit of the Kirtland’s warbler in a cost-effective manner 

on private lands? Re-occurring disturbances are typical 

of areas where brush is controlled for the maintenance of 

utility corridors, boundary lines, fire breaks, and rights-ofways, and these areas are also known to provide habitat 

for the Kirtland’s warbler. Therefore, the research goal is 

to devise management strategies that allow maintenance 

of Kirtland’s warbler fruit plants in these managed sites 

without compromising the original management objectives 

of the landowner. 

Collaborating Institutions: The Nature ConservancyMichigan and Bahamas programs, Bahamas National Trust, 

Southern Forest Research Station (Athens, GA), and Forest 

Products Laboratory (Madison, WI) 

Contact: Joseph M. Wunderle, Jr., jwunderlejr@fs.fed.us 

Photo: D. Currie 

The endangered Kirtland’s warbler. 

Changing climate 

1. Tropical forest carbon balance in a warmer world. 

Tropical forests are likely to experience a significant 

and permanent increase in temperature over the next 2 

decades. Given the importance of tropical forests to the 

global carbon budget, understanding the potential for these 

forests to adapt to an unprecedented temperature regime 

is critical to our ability to accurately predict feedbacks 

to future climate. In response to a recognized need to 

understand the tropical forest response to increased 

temperatures, the International Institute of Tropical 

Forestry is leading a collaborative effort to develop a 

whole-forest warming experiment in Puerto Rico. This 

experiment will enable us to determine the resilience and 

adaptability of tropical forests to increasing temperatures 

and will provide valuable insight into mechanisms 

controlling the uptake and storage of carbon in these 

systems. 

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IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

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In October 2010, the Institute hosted a 3-day workshop 

that involved 10 scientists from university and government 

institutions to discuss the development of a whole-forest 

warming experiment in Puerto Rico. This collaborative 

effort led to the production of an expansive literature 

review of the response of tropical forests to increased 

temperature (currently in review for publication in 

Biological Reviews). The institute’s scientists and 

collaborators also led an organized oral session at the 96th 

annual Ecological Society of America Meeting in Austin, 

TX, USA, August 2011, titled “From Leaf to Biosphere: The 

Effects of a Warming Climate on Tropical Rain Forests.” 

This session was one of just three selected to develop 

a meeting report for publication in the journal New 

Phytologist. 

The U.S. Forest Service awarded the Institute funds 

to begin development of a full-scale prototype for the 

warming experiment. Equipment to begin production of 

the prototype is ordered and we anticipate construction 

will begin in 2012. This will be the first tropical forest 

warming experiment and the first experiment to warm at 

the whole-forest-scale for any forested ecosystem. 

Photo: T. Wood 

Two solar panels were installed above the forest canopy on 

existing towers to power an automated soil respiration system 

(Li-Cor LI-8100/8150) in karst forest at El Tallonal. 

Contact: Tana Wood and Ariel E. Lugo, tewood@fs.fed.us and 

alugo@fs.fed.us 

Collaborating Institutions: University of California-Berkeley; 

Michigan Technological University; U.S. Geological Survey, UT; 

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory; USDA-Agricultural 

Research Service, AZ; Environmental Improvement Systems 

Inc., PR; Brookhaven National Laboratory, NY; Oak Ridge 

National Laboratory, TN; California State University-San 

Marcos; University of Puerto Rico; and The Puerto Rico 

Conservation Foundation 

2. Assessing the carbon balance of a non-native forest stand in 

the karst region of Puerto Rico.

 In the face of a rapidly changing world, understanding 

the functional role of non-native species is critical to the 

development of effective forest management strategies. We 

are investigating the net carbon balance of a forest stand 

dominated by the introduced species, Castilla elastica. 

As part of this assessment, we installed an automated 

soil respiration system in February 2011, to evaluate soil 

respiration with high temporal resolution. This research 

builds on the master’s research of Jessica Fonseca Da Silva 

and the work of high school students during the Puerto 

Rico Math and Science Partnership program of the National 

Science Foundation. The results of the combined research 

program established a baseline of forest structure and 

carbon dynamics in replicated long-term plots. Studies 

are conducted at the privately owned El Tallonal Reserve, 

where two canopy towers and climate stations are available 

for the carbon balance research. Results from this study 

will provide information on net soil carbon loss from this 

forest with high temporal resolution. 

Contact: Tana Wood and Ariel E. Lugo, tewood@fs.fed.us and 

alugo@fs.fed.us 

Collaborating Institutions: University of California-Berkeley; 

Citizens for the Karst; The Puerto Rico Conservation 

Foundation; and University of Puerto Rico-Río Piedras 

3. Preserving the nighttime environment for future generations 

in Puerto Rico. 

Preserving dark skies and the nighttime environment has 

recently become a focus of researchers studying the effects 

of light pollution in Puerto Rico. 

In Puerto Rico, which spends an estimated $3,700 million 

annually on electricity for its 3.7 million residents, artificial 

illumination is the main cause of light pollution. Light 

pollution not only makes it more difficult to see the stars, 

but it also adversely affects sensitive nocturnal species and 

increases energy costs and carbon emissions. Expansion 

of the San Juan Metro Area and other urban corridors is 

encroaching on upland and protected areas, causing a 

marked decrease in night sky quality. Currently, scientists 

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IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

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from the Institute are monitoring 

artificial light pollution in Puerto Rico 

by customizing nighttime remote 

sensing imagery and map products 

for local use and directly monitoring 

nighttime lightscape conditions in 

the field for research, policy, and 

mitigation. On the periphery of the 

El Yunque National Forest, the only 

tropical rainforest in the National Forest 

System, light pollution is obvious at 

uphill locations. Numerous community 

outreach presentations have been 

offered to educate children and adults 

about ecological and astronomical 

effects of light pollution in Puerto 

Rico, especially in the vicinity of the El 

Yunque National Forest. Light pollution 

also greatly diminishes the visibility of 

the island’s three main bioluminescent 

water bodies where high concentrations 

of bioluminescent microorganisms 

make the bays glow. Since 2006, the 

Forest Service has worked with the 

Conservation Trust of Puerto Rico Light 

Pollution Task Force to implement a 

light pollution management strategic 

plan for the Bioluminescent Lagoon 

Demonstration Project at Las Cabezas 

de San Juan Nature Reserve in Fajardo, 

Puerto Rico. The task force and 

management plan aim to safeguard the 

resources in the Reserve and to protect 

local economic revenues derived from 

tourists visiting these globally unique 

locations. 

Contact: Olga M. Ramos González, 

oramos@fs.fed.us 

Collaborating Institutions: Conservation 

Trust of Puerto Rico, Sociedad de 

Radioastronomía del Caribe, and University 

of Puerto Rico-Humacao 

4. Effects of experimental warming and 

snow manipulation in Alaskan tundra. 

Increases in global air temperatures 

are predicted to increase vascular 

plant productivity in the Arctic 

through temperature effects on key 

ecosystem processes such as soil 

microbial respiration, organic matter 

decomposition, and nutrient availability. 

However, little is known about the 

effect that increasing precipitation 

Figure 13. Changes in nightlight coverage on the islands of Puerto Rico, 

Vieques, and Culebra, 1992/93 to 2000. Global data source 

accessible from NOAA NGDC Earth Observation Group 

(EOG) Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (http://www. 

ngdc.noaa.gov/dmsp/download_world_change_pair.html). 

Figure 14. A 3-D perspective of the light pollution footprint in the vicinity 

of El Yunque National Forest. Data source: 

http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/dmsp/dmsp.html 

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IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

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or the interaction of warming and precipitation may 

have on tundra ecosystems. We established a long-term 

experimental study to shed more light on these interactions 

(Mercado Díaz 2011). The study involved manipulating 

snow depths and warming plots of tundra vegetation, and 

comparing growth and composition of vegetation with 

control plots. Two common Alaskan Arctic ecosystem types 

were manipulated, dry heath and moist-acidic tussock 

tundra. These sites have been exposed to warming and 

snow manipulations since 1994 and responses have been 

measured periodically. Changes in snow regimes had 

the largest effects on vegetation. Most common changes 

associated with increasing snow depths included increases 

in canopy height and shrub abundance and decreases 

Figure 15. (a) Trends in canopy height (black line) 

and vegetation cover (grey line), and (b) 

absolute abundances of main growth forms 

at the dry site from 1994 to 2008. Vegetation 

cover estimated as mean number of overall 

vegetation hits. Lower case letters represent 

significant differences among years (a, b, c 

for vegetation cover and w, x, y, z for canopy 

height). 

in species diversity and lichen cover. Increases in air 

temperature had few measurable effects on vegetation; 

however, differences between control and warmed plots 

were more noticeable over time in terms of the abundance 

of shrubs at the moist site. Responses of vegetation in 

terms of canopy height and total vegetation cover varied 

over time within and between ecosystem types, suggesting 

diverging long-term responses of ecosystems within this 

tundra region to climate change (Figs. 15 and 16). 

Contact: William A. Gould, wgould@fs.fed.us 

Collaborating Institutions: University of Puerto Rico, The 

Puerto Rico Conservation Foundation, and Florida International 

University 

Figure 16. (a) Trends in canopy height (black line) 

and vegetation cover (grey line), and (b) 

absolute abundances of main growth forms 

at the moist site from 1994-2008. Vegetation 

cover estimated as mean number of overall 

vegetation hits. 

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IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

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Biodiversity assessment and conservation 

1. Mapping protected natural areas of Puerto Rico. Conservation 

of natural resources is a balance of protection, managed use, 

restoration, and sustainable development. 

Effective planning and management of protected areas 

for biodiversity conservation integrates local, regional, 

and global concerns with scientific research assessing the 

extent and status of protected areas. We have developed 

a map that portrays 115 terrestrial and marine protected 

areas—public and private lands designated for biodiversity 

conservation—in Puerto Rico (Gould et al. 2011). The 

commonwealth of Puerto Rico owns and manages the 

greatest area of protected lands (58 percent), followed by 

the Federal government (28 percent) and non-governmental 

organizations or other private entities (14 percent). Eight 

percent of the island has some degree of legal protection 

for conservation, while nearly 92 percent of the island has 

no biodiversity protection. Protected areas are concentrated 

on the high peaks of the Central and Luquillo Mountains, 

the wetlands of the coastal plains, and the lesser islands 

and cays of the Puerto Rican Archipelago. These areas are 

relatively well-protected. Under-protected areas include 

non-wetlands of the coastal plain, the karst limestone hills 

in northwestern Puerto Rico, and the coastal hills and 

lower slopes—which form an important hydrological and 

ecological link between the upper mountains, the coastal 

wetlands, and the near shore marine areas. The map we 

developed is a product of the Puerto Rico Gap Analysis 

Project, supported by the Institute and the United States 

Geological Survey National Gap Analysis Program. The 

information was primarily gathered through interviews 

with protected area management officials and through 

literature review. The map is part of the Forest Service 

Research Map (RMAP) series recently developed at the 

Institute. 

Contact: William A. Gould, wgould@fs.fed.us 

Collaborating Institutions: University of Puerto Rico, The 

Conservation Trust of Puerto Rico, The Puerto Rico Department 

of Natural and Environmental Resources, and The USGS 

National Gap Analysis Program 

Figure 17. An excerpt from a new map product in the recently inaugurated Forest Service Research and Development 

Research Map Series (RMAP). Darker green areas are managed by the Commonwealth government, intermediate green are managed by the Federal government, and light green are managed by non-governmental 

agencies. Gray lines represent the marine protected areas for Puerto Rico. 

35
IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

Research and Development 

2. Integrated Gap Analysis Project—modeling and mapping sea 

turtle distributions. 

The Integrated Gap Analysis Project for Puerto Rico and 

the U.S. Virgin Islands is evaluating the conservation 

status of 237 animal species and habitats in order to 

identify “gaps” in conservation. Sea turtles, including the 

hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), green (Chelonia mydas), 

and leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea), were prioritized 

in this analysis because of their endangered or critically 

endangered status (IUCN 2010) and essential ecological role 

in marine ecosystems. We developed a comprehensive set 

of databases including natural history information, local 

species distribution, potential habitat identification, and 

conservation status of sea turtles in the region. We have 

developed habitat suitability models and mapped predicted 

distributions for different turtle activities and parts of 

the life cycle, such as nesting and feeding activities, and 

juvenile or adult distributions (Fig. 18). 

Contact: William A. Gould, wgould@fs.fed.us 

Collaborating Institutions: U.S. Geological Survey, and Puerto 

Rico Department of Natural and Environmental Resources 

Hawksbill sea turtle. 

Photo: ©M. Kayoe 

Figure 18. This model depicts the suitability of in water habitats for the hawksbill turtle based on habitat associations. 

Some areas remain blank because some of the layers (e.g., bathymetry) do not cover the whole extent of the 

study areas. The equation used for modeling of hawksbill habitat affinities includes information on the habitat 

structure (reef type), location within that structure, and surface roughness. 

36
IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

Research and Development 

III. Working Lands 

1. Advancing tropical forest management through governmental 

and non-governmental forest policies 

Tropical forests are increasingly valued for the goods and 

services that they provide at local to global levels, yet 

they continue to be degraded and lost at alarming rates. 

Governmental forest regulation and non-governmental 

forest certification are policy approaches used throughout 

the tropics to promote and advance forest sustainability, 

but they are often criticized for failing to curtail 

continuing rates of tropical forest degradation and loss. 

Regulation generally encompasses guidelines, rules, and/ 

or restrictions on forest use and extraction. Certification 

is a fairly new, non-governmental market-driven policy 

tool that aims to promote sound forest management 

through market-based incentives. With collaborator 

Fred Cubbage, the effectiveness of governmental forest 

regulation and non-governmental forest certification in 

Costa Rica, Guatemala, and Nicaragua 

was analyzed. We found that sufficient 

human, financial, and technical 

resources and capacity are fundamental 

for adequate implementation of both 

policy approaches, but in most tropical 

settings, resources and capacity are 

often substantially limited, particularly 

for governmental forest regulation. 

The findings also show that innovative 

arrangements for promoting, verifying, 

and enforcing regulatory compliance can 

compensate for limited governmental 

resources and processes. In particular, 

forest sustainability was enhanced 

where combinations of policy tools 

and actors beyond the traditional 

Photos: W.A. Gould 

The arctic field ecology youth- command-and-control approach were the study Biocomplexity of Arctic Tundra elder-science camp involved used to promote forest sustainability, Ecosystems with a university field course, such diverse activities as (top) including economic incentives for Arctic Field Ecology, and with indigenous stretching hides of caribou sustainable forest management, Inuit students and elders (Gould et al. recently harvested by the technical assistance for forest owners 2010). The integration allowed university elders and (bottom) observing and managers, development and microscopic soil invertebrates. students and native community members to 

participation of private-sector forest 

‘stewards,’ and support for sustainable forest management 

from nongovernmental organizations. The results also shed 

light on the mitigating effects of local-level inducements 

and constraints to governmental and non-governmental 

forest policy adoption and compliance, such as forest size 

and composition, management resources and capacity, and 

attitudes toward forest policy and implementers. Overall, 

the research and its results help policy- and decisionmakers as well as forest owners and users by identifying 

key factors to consider in developing and implementing 

policies to promote sustainable forest management in the 

tropics. 

Contact: Kathleen McGinley, kmcginley@fs.fed.us 

Collaborating Institution: North Carolina State University 

2. Integrating research, education, and traditional knowledge in 

ecology: a case study of biocomplexity in Arctic ecosystems 

Integrating research and education is a fundamental goal 

of institutions and agencies supporting science because of 

the benefits to society of a more informed population. The 

value of engaging public interest in ecological research is 

to maintain support for and integrate science in solutions 

to environmental problems. For environmental scientists 

there can be some costs to developing programs that 

address broader impacts. For example, while there is a 

call for environmental scientists to broaden their activities 

to engage in outreach (i.e., have broader impact), there 

are few venues or incentives to report 

on these activities in ways that would 

enhance an environmental scientist’s 

research career. Publishing examples of 

successful integration in environmental 

research journals can help researchers 

and institutions evolve better mechanisms 

to achieve goals beneficial to society, 

including improved public understanding 

of science, greater diversity of research 

and stakeholders, and better application 

of current scientifically based information 

to managing environmental issues. In that 

spirit, we present as an example an effort 

that integrates an interdisciplinary research 

project investigating the interactions of 

climate, vegetation, and permafrost in 

participate with the research team, drawn 

by the opportunity to gain education and experience. This 

participation has had synergistic benefits with the research 

agenda and diversified the pool of stakeholders involved in 

the research. 

Contact: William A. Gould, wgould@fs.fed.us 

Collaborating Institutions: Kitikmeot Inuit Association, 

University of Alaska-Fairbanks 

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IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

Research and Development 

3. Sustainable management of big-leaf mahogany in the Brazilian 

Amazon 

Big-leaf mahogany is by far the most valuable timber 

species in seasonally dry forests across the southern rim 

of the Amazon Basin, but much of it is unsustainably 

managed. Our research supports sustainable management 

through better understanding of mahogany life history and 

population dynamics in natural forests. Local economies 

and livelihoods will benefit from forest industries invested 

in active management of long-term timber production from 

standing forests. 

The Mahogany Project seeks to understand what makes 

big-leaf mahogany ‘tick’ in natural forests across southern 

Brazilian Amazonia by monitoring vital rates for all 

stages of its life cycle, from seeds to senescent adults, 

across temporal and spatial scales relevant to each life 

phase. With steady support from the IITF since 1995, the 

Mahogany Project has addressed a long list of basic and 

applied research questions, as demonstrated by more than 

30 mahogany-related scientific articles and book chapters 

published to date. Project researchers have contributed 

directly to Brazilian national forest policy through 

participation in working groups and seminars to revise 

and improve industry harvest practices. Based on 16 years 

(1995 to 2010) of annual censuses of more than 600 trees 

and many thousands of seedlings and saplings scattered 

across nearly 5,000 hectares of forest, project researchers 

have developed demographic models that simulate both 

short- and long-term population responses to forest 

management practices such as minimum diameter felling 

limits, commercial tree retention rates, and vine cutting. 

One of these, the Big-Leaf Mahogany Growth and Yield 

Model, is a highly interactive and user-friendly computer 

application that can be operated on-line at www.swietking. 

org or downloaded with complete instructions for use on 

office or home computers. The model can be run based 

on pre-installed example populations from project sites in 

southeast and southwest Amazonia, or forest managers can 

upload data from actual management sites. Transforming 

unsustainable harvest practices into sustainable 

management systems through better understanding of 

mahogany life history and population dynamics in natural 

forests will benefit local economies and livelihoods as 

forest industries invest in long-term timber production 

from standing forests under active management. 

Contact: James Grogan, jgrogan@crocker.com 

Collaborating Institutions: ISCIENCES, Middlebury College, 

HJ Andrews Experimental Forest, Oregon State University, 

Instituto Floresta Tropical–IFT (Brazil), ESALQ/Universidade 

de São Paulo (Brazil) 

Figure 19. Screen shot of the Big Leaf Mahogany Growth and Yield Model user 

interface. The model is available at www.swietking.org. 

38
IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

State and Private Forestry

The Institute has a long tradition of information exchange with government agencies, universities, and local 

communities in Central and South America and the Caribbean. Through the State and Private Forestry Program (S&PF), the Institute provides professional, technical, and financial assistance to local communities and 

private landowners in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands (St. Thomas, St. Croix, and St. John). Through focused 

technical and financial assistance and conservation education, Federal resources are leveraged to protect and support 

sustainable management of the islands’ forests and ecosystems to produce goods and services that are important to 

many communities. This assistance is focused on cooperative forestry, cooperative fire protection, forest health, urban 

and community forestry, and landowner and legacy assistance programs. Key issues addressed by this program 

include: rapid urbanization and residential development and its sprawl into natural areas; ecological restoration 

of natural and built-up areas; water quality (including storm water runoff, and restoration of natural areas); soil 

protection and watershed management; sustainable urban forestry programs at the local level; damage of reefs and 

over-fishing of key species; and sustainable tourism development in small communities. 

Program Manager: Constance Carpenter, conniecarpenter@fs.fed.us 

Forest History 

The Institute’s historian, Carlos Domínguez Cristóbal, in 

2008 completed a book on policies affecting mangroves in 

Puerto Rico during the 19th century (La política forestal 

del manglar en Puerto Rico durante el siglo XIX). The 200­

page volume is based on an analysis of information on the 

historical impact of specific policies and programs affecting 

the use of mangroves and a study of 31 mangrove forests. 

Included is information on the draining and conversion 

of mangroves to produce sugar cane. It also relates 

interactions between the coastal communities, land use 

decisions, and the extent and benefits of mangrove forests. 

Another interesting historical work is Árboles municipales 

oficiales de Puerto Rico. This document presents 

information on the historical relevance of the official trees 

designated in 37 municipalities. In the process it raises 

awareness of the historical role of forests and trees in the 

Photo: G. González 

From left to right: Magaly Figueroa, natural resources 

specialist; Bruce Drapeau, cooperative fire (El Yunque shared 

services); Gisel Reyes, publications assistant (U.S. Forest 

Service National Library); Carlos Domínguez Cristóbal, 

history and conservation education; Constance Carpenter, 

Cooperative Programs manager; Christian Torres Santana, 

forest health specialist; Aixa Mójica, program support. 

culture and economy of Puerto Rico. Each municipality 

used its own unique process to select and officially 

designate the tree. Those involved have included schools, 

communities and social and cultural organizations. 

Contact: Constance Carpenter, conniecarpenter@fs.fed.us 

Conservation Education 

If every school were able to establish an area for longterm ecological study near their schools, it would be a 

dream come true for teachers and students alike. Carlos 

Domínguez Cristóbal, S&PF conservation education 

coordinator, published a conservation education manual 

called Forestry Research: an Interdisciplinary Guide based 

on his experience working with students in just such a 

setting for nearly 30 years (Domínguez-Cristóbal 2011). 

In the forward to the manual, Institute Director Ariel E. 

Lugo says, “... the exercises involve the application of 

botany, zoology, ecology, mathematics, chemistry and 

social science concepts. Even more interesting, this guide 

contains a strong dose of history and toponymy that make 

it more innovative and distinctive than any guide I’ve seen 

throughout my career.” The next step is to transform the 

dream into reality. 

The Institute hopes the manual will help spur the adoption 

of forest schoolyards and outdoor classrooms throughout 

Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. A forest schoolyard 

is a dynamic laboratory of life. Sample exercises in the 

manual help teachers guide students into an encounter 

with nature, and many incorporate idiosyncrasies unique 

to Puerto Rico’s history and its tropical setting. Spanish 

and English versions of the manual were developed, which 

expands its utility as a model for programs in other tropical 

countries and for Spanish-speaking students in the United 

States and elsewhere. 

Two schools in Puerto Rico—the urban elementary 

school Juana A. Méndez in Carolina and the rural middle 

39
 
IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

State and Private Forestry

school Eugenio Maria de Hostos in Arecibo—have 

recently expressed their intention to take students into 

outdoor classrooms. The middle school is located near 

the Cambalache State Forest, which has the potential to 

provide numerous opportunities for students to explore 

forest research questions. 

The 2011 Conservation Education Bulletin was dedicated to 

student accomplishments at Francisco Morales High School 

in Naranjito, Puerto Rico. The number of schools with 

outdoor classrooms and research projects is increasing; 

therefore, future issues will seek to incorporate the latest 

news and field results from as many schools as possible. 

The bulletin is an important tool for sharing information 

among schools, the community, and partners 

Contact: Constance Carpenter, conniecarpenter@fs.fed.us 

Photo: E. López 

Juan Ponce de León High School (Florida, Puerto Rico) 

students identifying forest insects on a plot in the karst region. 

More Kids in the Woods: Kids 

Discovering the Santa Ana Forest 

The future of natural resources conservation depends 

on future generations. Since 2007, the Forest Service 

has invested $3 million in diverse, partnership-based 

More Kids in the Woods projects that get “more kids in 

the woods” to learn about and experience the natural 

environment. In 2011, the More Kids in the Woods 

challenge-cost share program competitively funded 21 

projects that help children establish a lifelong connection 

with nature and develop outdoor skills and interests, 

and healthy lifestyles. Kids Discovering the Santa Ana 

Forest was one such project that won funding through this 

competition. 

Even though Puerto Rico is a small island with many 

beautiful forest resources, some kids have never had the 

opportunity to visit and enjoy the experience of observing 

and touching the natural features and creatures found 

here. Recognizing that we need to provide educational 

opportunities to those kids, the Natural History Society of 

Puerto Rico applied for a grant from the U.S. Forest Service 

More Kids in the Woods Program for the Kids Discovering 

the Santa Ana Forest project. 

Implementation of the project was a big success, enabling 

children from underserved communities to have their first 

encounter with a tropical forest. Children from schools 

active under the No Child Left Behind initiative were 

invited to spend one day at the Santa Ana Nature Center. 

The project targeted teachers and students from the first 

through the sixth grades, but more advanced students were 

also included. 

The Nature Center has about 100 acres and is part 

of the Monagas Park, which is a recreational facility 

managed by the Puerto Rico National Parks Company. 

The kids were greeted by the Santa Ana Nature Center 

staff, Eliezer Nieves and Dayamaris Candelario, who 

gave a brief overview of the events of the day. Activities 

included observation, studies, environmental games, and 

educational talks on conservation initiatives in general and 

the forest ecosystem they were visiting in particular. The 

students completed a pre-test at the beginning of the day to 

assess their knowledge about forests, endemic species, and 

parts of a tree. A post- test assessed what the kids learned 

and any changes in their attitudes regarding nature. 

Then the fun began. The children walked through the trails 

of Santa Ana Forest and began their exploration. Once 

there, the students had the opportunity to observe some 

of the 50 different tree species present and the herbaceous 

plants that are part of the ecosystem. They were introduced 

to bird-watching and were told about both endemic and 

exotic species that live in the Santa Ana Forest. Reptiles 

such as the Puerto Rican boa, and lizards and amphibians 

were observed. The Santa Ana Forest has a huge variety of 

insects for students to discover; among these are butterflies, 

walking sticks, bees, and mantis. 

Each student received the basic equipment needed to 

perform a variety of field studies. For example, each 

student got a magnifying glass to examine the parts 

of trees and insects; portable weather stations and soil 

thermometers to collect information on temperature and 

humidity; and measuring tapes and clinometers to measure 

tree diameter and height. Hands-on experience taught the 

kids how to identify the different parts of a tree, insects and 

animals of the forest, benefits of the forest’s ecosystems, 

and how wonderful nature is. The kids were excited about 

sharing their discoveries with each other. 

Each group collected information, which was logged into 

the Nature Center database. The database also includes 

results of inventories of the forest biota, information on 

tree growth, and observations of wildlife behavior. That 

information is filed in the Santa Ana Forest data inventory 

and is used to develop educational fact sheets and to 

prepare presentations. 

40
IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

State and Private Forestry

Back at the pavilion the students had the opportunity to 

discuss what they saw and how it made them feel. They 

talked about how forests work, their benefits, and how 

the interaction with nature benefits both physical and 

mental health. They discussed the fact that even though the 

forest is surrounded by heavily developed land it is still 

in good shape and provides environmental services to the 

surrounding neighborhoods. The students learned about 

the importance of conserving the forest environment and 

the sustainability of ecosystems. 

Richard Louv’s (2005) Last Child in the Woods book 

was an inspiration for the project. Louv explained that 

children exposed to nature show intellectual, spiritual, 

and physical improvement compared to those who have 

passive lifestyles and dedicate their time to video games 

and watching television. Also, kids from schools that have 

nature-based experiential education show improvement in 

social studies, language, arts, math, and science. 

Contact: Magaly Figueroa, mfigueroa@fs.fed.us 

Collaborating Institutions: The Puerto Rico Department of 

Education, Puerto Rico National Parks Company, Department 

of Natural and Environmental Resources, University of Puerto 

Rico, the Interamerican University, and the Natural History 

Society 

Photo: Santa Ana Nature Center 

Kids discovering the Santa Ana. Photo courtesy of Santa Ana 

Nature Center, Natural History Society of Puerto Rico.
	

Forest Health 

During FY 2011, the State and Private Forestry unit hired 

Christian Torres Santana to coordinate the Institute’s 

Forest Health Program, to provide technical assistance 

to partners, and to assist with implementing projects in 

Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. The Forest Health 

Program focuses on providing technical, professional, 

and financial assistance to stakeholders monitoring forest 

pests, diseases, and other biotic and abiotic factors that 

may cause detrimental changes to the health of Puerto 

Rican and U.S. Virgin Islands’ forests. This year we have 

been closely working with the Puerto Rico Department 

of Natural and Environmental Resources to establish a 

Statewide Forest Health Monitoring Program, to develop a 

Forest Health Conditions report, and to form an integrated 

Forest Health Committee. Under collaborative agreements 

we are working with the University of Puerto Rico at 

Mayagüez Plant Diseases and Pests Diagnostic Clinic to 

develop fact sheets of important forest pests and diseases 

and to provide training to University of Puerto Rico at 

Mayagüez Agricultural Extension Service agents. From 

this project, an Integrated Management of Forest Pests and 

Diseases Website (http://sea.uprm.edu/forest/index.html) 

was developed to provide an accessible mechanism for the 

general public, biologists, arborists, managers, students, 

and scientists. The Website contains information on major 

forest pests/diseases and those of potential introduction, 

pest management, and basic identification in Puerto Rico. 

The Forest Health Program specialist has joined the 

Harrisia Cactus Mealybug (Hypogeococcus pungens) 

Interagency Task Force. The mealy bug is a serious forest 

health concern in Puerto Rico’s dry forest. The task force 

has developed an informative brochure in Spanish to make 

visitors aware of this pest in the dry forests, on the main 

island as well as Vieques, Culebra, and other islands (Fig. 

20). 

We are also working with the U.S. Forest Service’s Forest 

Health Technology Enterprise Team to include Puerto Rico 

as part of the Pest Event Reporter database and to be able 

to develop risk maps for major pests and diseases. 

Contact: Christian Torres Santana, cwtorressantana@fs.fed.us 

Photo: Santa Ana Nature Center 

Eliezer Ríos and Dayamaris Candelario show kids the 

wonders of the forest. Photo courtesy of Santa Ana Nature 

Center, Natural History Society of Puerto Rico. 

41
 
IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

State and Private Forestry

Photo: M. Figueroa 

and services those resources offer. During Fiscal Year 

2011, the Virgin Islands Department of Agriculture, Virgin 

Islands Urban and Community Forestry (UCF) Council, 

and the Puerto Rico Urban and Community Forestry 

Council invested their time and effort to build capacity 

among the communities and professional groups in areas 

related to the establishment, creation, management, and 

protection of the urban forests and green infrastructure. 

The Virgin Islands Urban and Community Forestry 

Council, with the support of the Forest Service Urban and 

Community Forestry Program, adopted the campaign 

“We Plant Native Trees” and offered educational talks to 

kids and community groups and exhibitions that reached 

thousands of individuals during big events such as the 

Virgin Islands Ag Fair, and the Environmental Fairs in 

St. Croix and St. Thomas. The Council also contributed 

to the newspapers by sending articles covering aspects 

related to the importance of urban forests resources, 

and participated on radio talk shows. Professional tree 

managers and certified arborists of the International Society 

of Arboriculture in the Virgin Islands had the opportunity Mario Francis, Virgin Islands UCF Council, presents the 

“We Plant Native Trees” campaign t-shirt. 

Urban and Community Forestry 

to participate in two specialized training sessions. The 

Council also continued with the enactment of a local Tree 

Law. The scope of this policy will determine applicable 

regulations for the protection and conservation of the forest 

resources in the urban areas. Although the process has 

Program: All About Capacity 

Building 

Both the Puerto Rico Statewide Forest Resources 

Assessment and the Strategies for Puerto Rico and the U.S. 

Virgin Islands identified urban forests and green spaces as 

important elements of urban scenarios that contribute to 

livable cities and a healthy urban environment. Capacity 

building is the strategy proposed to improve the condition 

of urban forests and increase the environmental benefits 

not been easy, the Council effectively reached important 

political figures to get their support for the law. 

The Puerto Rico Urban and Community Forestry Council 

hosted the 13th Caribbean Urban and Community 

Forestry Conference in December 2010, featuring the 

theme of Green Economy: Law, Community, and Capacity 

Building. The event was attended by more than 120 

people from the Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, St. Lucia, 

Dominica, Venezuela, and the United States. The Arbor 

Day Foundation made presentations about the Tree City 

Photo: Santa Ana Nature Center 

Photo: Santa Ana Nature Center 

Kids discovering termite mounds in the Santa Ana Forest. After visiting the forest kids are invited to express what they 

Photo courtesy of Santa Ana Nature Center, Natural History learned through drawing. Photo courtesy of Santa Ana Nature 

Society of Puerto Rico. Center, Natural History Society of Puerto Rico. 

42
IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

State and Private Forestry

USA and Tree Campus USA programs to the group; both of 

these programs promote planning, protection, and proper 

management of urban forest resources, education, and 

healthy communities. Representatives of municipalities, 

communities, and universities of both Puerto Rico and 

the Virgin Islands showed their interest in participating in 

those programs. Attendees represented urban foresters, law 

enforcement, planners, ecologists, foresters, horticulturists, 

and wildland firefighters. 

The Puerto Rico Urban and Community Forestry Council 

also sponsored five specialized training sessions for tree 

management professionals and ISA certified arborists. 

The topics covered by those trainings were: bucket truck 

operation and safety, first aid, tree climbing, electrical 

hazards and tree management, and chainsaw operation. 

The Centro para la Conservación del Paisaje received a 

grant to provide training sessions to the municipalities 

of Puerto Rico on the use of iTree, which is a software 

developed by the U.S. Forest Service that provides urban 

forestry analysis and benefits assessment tools. With iTree, 

communities should be able to determine environmental 

services provided by their urban trees through the analysis 

of the condition and structure of those trees, along with 

their location and health. The first step is collecting 

information on a tree inventory and then using the 

information to run the different extensions of iTree. Centro 

para la Conservacion del Paisaje hosted two training 

sessions, one in Caguas, the other in Cabo Rojo. The group 

will provide technical assistance to the participants on the 

implementation of iTree in their municipalities. 

Contact: Magaly Figueroa, mafigueroa@fs.fed.us 

Forest Stewardship 

Program in Puerto Rico 

The Forest Stewardship Program provides targeted 

technical and planning assistance to enable active, longterm forest management on important private landscapes. 

Landowners who implement forest stewardship 

management plans are in a much better position to 

participate in incentive programs, including U.S. cost-share 

and State tax abatement. The Forest Stewardship Program 

contributes to the following overarching goals. 

1. Serves as the primary, most extensive (in reach and 

scope) private forest owner assistance program;
 

2.	 Successfully sustains a vast, effective network of 

forestry technical assistance providers and programs; 

3. Provides comprehensive management plans (forest 

stewardship management plans) to landowners and 

offer education and technical assistance opportunities 

to landowners; 

4.	 Establishes strong and effective partnerships with 

State foresters, conservation districts, and many more 

partners to provide for broader forest landowner 

participation in USDA conservation programs. 

The Puerto Rico Statewide Assessment and Strategies 

for Forest Resources identified the priority landscapes 

for Puerto Rico. State and Federal agencies and nongovernment partners established conservation priority 

landscapes as an opportunity to leverage resources. This 

initiative includes the preparation of forest stewardship 

management plans that promote watershed conservation 

by managing existing forests, restoring or creating 

riparian buffers, and establishing agroforestry practices. 

It encourages the implementation of landscape-scale and 

multi-landowner planning and streamlined processes to 

increase private forest landowners’ participation in costshare programs through collaboration with USDA agencies 

and the U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife 

Service. 

Humacao Joint Priority Landscape 

The Humacao Joint Priority Landscape is located in the 

southeastern corner of Puerto Rico. The area is threatened 

to be converted to non-forest uses due to urban sprawl. The 

Natural Resources Conservation Service, the Department 

of Natural and Environmental Resources, the U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service, and the U.S. Forest Service endorsed the 

collaborative effort to bring the communities within the 

area into a conservation effort. Landowner organizations 

and other groups supported this initiative. 

Figure 21. Humacao Joint Priority Landscape. Dark 

areas present Federal and State protected 

lands in southeastern Puerto Rico. Dashed 

area represents the Humacao Joint Priority 

Landscape. 

43
 
State and Private Forestry

IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

Benefits 

1. Habitat improvement for Puerto Rico endemic bird 

species such as the Puerto Rican parrot (Amazona 

vittata), Puerto Rican sharp-shinned hawk (Accipiter 

striatus venator), Puerto Rican broad-winged hawk 

(Buteo platypterus brunnescens), Puerto Rican screech 

owl (Megascops nudipes), elfin-woods warbler (Dendroica 

angelae), yellow-shouldered blackbird (Angelaius 

xanthomus), and Puerto Rican plain pigeon (Patagioenas 

inornata wetmore). 

2. Habitat improvement for Puerto Rico reptile species 

such Puerto Rican boa (Epicrates inornatus) and Culebra 

giant anole (Anolis roosevelt); and amphibians such as 

Puerto Rican rock frog (Eleutherodactylus cooki), and 

golden coquí (Eleutherodactylus jasper). 

3. Watershed conservation, restoration and improvement 

of forest health on properties within the Río Blanco, 

Río Grande de Loíza, and other important watersheds 

located in eastern Puerto Rico. 

4. Promote conservation of forest cover in properties 

located within the buffer and protection boundaries 

of the El Yunque National Forest, Puerto Rico State 

Forests, Natural Refuges, and other important 

ecosystems. 

5. Conservation practices to reduce soil erosion and 

improve water quality.
 

6. Tree planting, forest improvement practices, and 

education are the main strategies to promote forest 

conservation, habitat restoration, reduction of 

pests and diseases occurrence, improvement of soil 

condition, carbon sequestration, and improvement of 

degraded ecosystems. 

Figure 22. Guánica-Maricao Joint Priority Landscape. 

Dark areas present State forests and natural 

reserves managed by the Department of 

Natural Resources and Environment in 

southwestern Puerto Rico. Dashed area 

represents the Guánica-Maricao Joint 

Priority Landscape. 

The Guánica-Maricao Joint Priority 

Landscape 

The Guánica-Maricao Joint Priority Landscape was 

identified as a priority area by the NOAA Coastal 

Zone Management Program, USDA Natural Resources 

Conservation Service, Puerto Rico Department of Natural 

and Environmental Resources, U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service, and the U.S. Forest Service. Landowners’ 

organizations such as the Puerto Rico Soil Conservation 

Districts and other groups supported this initiative. 

Benefits 

1. Habitat restoration for the reintroduction of the Puerto 

Rican parrot (Amazona vittata). With this reintroduction, 

the Puerto Rican parrot natural populations will 

increase to three (El Yunque National Forest, Utuado, 

and Maricao). 

2. Improve habitat for Puerto Rico endemic bird species: 

Puerto Rican nightjar (Caprimulgus noctitherus), 

Puerto Rican bullfinch (Loxigilla portoricensis), Puerto 

Rican screech owl (Megascops nudipes), Puerto Rican 

lizard cuckoo (Coccyzus vieilloti), elfin-woods warbler 

(Dendroica angelae), green mango (Anthracothorax 

viridis), and Puerto Rican woodpecker (Melanerpes 

portoricensis). 

3. Improve Río Loco Watershed condition as part of the 

Guánica Bay and Río Loco Watershed Restoration 

Project lead by NOAA and other State and Federal 

agencies. 

4. Implement conservation practices to reduce soil erosion 

and improve water quality. 

5.	 Establish shade on coffee plantations to reduce pests 

and disease occurrence, improve product quality and 

soil condition, and contribute to carbon sequestration. 

Contact: Magaly Figueroa, mafigueroa@fs.fed.us 

Knowledge and Perception of 

Forest Benefits and Drivers of 

Ecosystem Change: The Case of 

the Northern Karst and the Río 

Piedras Watershed 

Forests provide a full suite of goods and services that 

are vital to human health and well-being. These natural 

assets we call ecosystem services. The U.S. Forest Service’s 

State and Private Forestry program partnered with 

Misión Industrial, a local non-governmental community 

organization, to better understand local perceptions of 

forest-based ecosystem services in two regions of Puerto 

44
IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

State and Private Forestry

Rico: the Río Piedras Watershed (a mainly urban site) and 

the Northern Karst (a mainly rural site). Misión Industrial 

asked a variety of community members in each area openended questions intended to allow them to express the 

values they attach to forests in their own words. 

Río Piedras Watershed 

Human well-being and the quality of life of urban 

populations greatly depend on urban forests and green 

areas. Forested lands in urban areas are also important 

for supporting other resources such as water. However, 

population growth and increases in built-up areas put 

pressure on these urban forests. Hence, it is important to 

increase public knowledge and understanding about the 

benefits provided by urban forests, the factors affecting 

them, and the means of conserving and making wise use of 

such forests. The Río Piedras watershed hosts a variety of 

urban forests and is the main watershed for the city of San 

Juan. 

Key findings 

• Language matters—half of the participants could define urban forests, but more than half had never heard 

of the term “watershed.” 

•	1Temperature regulation, oxygen production, and air 

purification were the most cited and considered the 

most important forest benefits.
1

•	1Few participants noted the connection between urban 

forests, rivers, and water. 

Photo: A.E. Lugo 

Floodwaters at the Río Piedras. 

Communities in the Northern Karst 

The unique Northern Karst region of Puerto Rico 

contains some of the best examples of karst habitat in the 

Caribbean and supports numerous endemic species, an 

extensive track of mature forest, and Puerto Rico’s largest 

freshwater aquifer. Yet this region is also threatened by 

Photo: I. Vicéns 

View from Cueva Ventana (Window Cave, name as translated 

in English) of the northern karst in Arecibo, Puerto Rico. 

human activities and unplanned development, making it 

important to increase awareness and understanding of the 

benefits that karst forests provide. 

Key findings 

• Language matters—more than half of the participants 

could define “forest.” It is important to consider other 

terms for forests such as “monte.” However, 75 percent 

of participants had never heard of the term “karst.” 

• Forest products, temperature regulation, and fauna and 

flora were the most cited forest benefits among participants. Air purification and oxygen production ranked 

as most important. 

• There was less connection with water-related benefits 

of forests. 

The results from this collaboration will help the State 

and Private Forestry program and other governmental 

and non-governmental organizations develop targeted 

environmental educational strategies, awareness 

campaigns, and outreach initiatives aimed at increasing 

people’s knowledge about forests and their benefits in 

Puerto Rico, particularly in karst and urban forests. 

• The following short information sheets on these findings are available from the State and Private Forestry 

staff: 

•	1Public Knowledge and Perceptions About Karst Forests 

• Karst Forests and Their Benefits: A Comparison Between Local and Expert Knowledge
 

•	1Public Knowledge and Perceptions About Urban Forests in a Watershed Context 

Contact: Magaly Figueroa, mafigueroa@fs.fed.us 

45
 
IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

International Cooperation 

The International Cooperation (IC) Unit promotes the mission of exchanging knowledge critical to the sustainability of tropical ecosystems through development, training, and technical assistance programs throughout 
Central and South America, the Caribbean, and other parts of the world. Project topics include forest, park, 


and protected area management; environmental education and interpretation; sustainable nature-based tourism; 


long-term forest monitoring; and environmental and biological assessments. Staff members regularly participate in 


technical assistance and training for the development and implementation of international activities.
 

International Cooperation had a very active year working mostly in Central America and the Caribbean Regions. 


Our primary areas of focus were Nicaragua and the Dominican Republic, although we supported the Central America Free Trade Agreement–Dominican Republic (CAFTA-DR) and other U.S. Aid International Development (USAID) activities throughout the region.
 

Program Manager: Gerald Bauer, gbauer@fs.fed.us 

Global Activities 

•	1Provided a grant to the International Society of Tropical 

Foresters [www.istf-bethesda.org] for production and 

worldwide distribution of a newsletter. 

Contact: Gerald Bauer, gbauer@fs.fed.us 

Regional Activities 

•	1Participated in the CAFTA-DR regional meeting in 

Washington, DC, with USAID, U.S. Department of 

State, other Federal agencies, and CAFTA-DR Focal 

Points from all CAFTA-DR countries. Also, IC staff participated in an International Migratory Bird Act activity 

in Washington, DC, with partners from throughout the 

region.
 

•	1Participated in the Mesoamerican Society for Biology and Conservation at their annual conference 

held in San Jose, Costa Rica. International Cooperation sponsored the environmental communications 

pre-conference workshop and a photo/film festival— 

“MesoAmerica Es...”—during the conference, and a 

seminar on biological corridor management in Mesoamerica, where several technical presentations were 

made from throughout the region.
 

• Organized the Fifteenth Caribbean Foresters Meeting, held June 14–18 in Guadeloupe, and compiled 

and edited the Proceedings of the Fifteenth Meeting of 

Caribbean Foresters. 

Contact: Gerald Bauer, gbauer@fs.fed.us 

Nicaragua Activities 

In coordination with the Institute’s Wildlife Unit, we 

continued with our technical assistance and technology 

transfer to Nicaragua with support to long-term 

biomonitoring, sustainable tourism development, and 

sampling for mercury and other of persistent toxic 

substances in shade coffee and cloud forest within the 

Mombacho Volcano Natural Reserve (Granada, Nicaragua). 

Photo: G. Bauer 

USAID Director Dr. Alexander Dickie receiving the Guegüense 

Excellence in Tourism Award from the Nicaragua Chamber of 

Tourism. This award was given to the Institute for high-quality 

technical assistance in the “Conservation and Sustainable 

Tourism in Critical Watersheds” project that 

was funded by USAID. 

Photo: G. Bauer 

Birdwatchers at the La Bastilla EcoLodge, Jinotega, 

Nicaragua. The Institute provided technical assistance to 

design the ecolodge, construct trails, and train nature guides. 

46
IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

International Cooperation 

Photo: G. Bauer 

Gerald Bauer, Program Manager of International Cooperation 

at the Institute stands at the Jimenoa Waterfall in Jarabacoa. 

The Institute through its International Cooperation unit 

provided technical assistance to the Dominican Republic 

Ministry of environment and local communities to conduct 

assessments of sites such as this waterfall in the Salto 

Jimenoa National Monument

 to help improve their ecotourism products. 

Our primary partners in Nicaragua were the Ministry 

of Environment and non-governmental organizations 

CLUSA, Paso Pacífico, and Fundación Cocibolca. Longterm plots were measured in agroforestry systems under 

five land uses (secondary and riparian forests, forest 

fallow, coffee plantations, and ‘open lands,’ e.g., grasslands 

and pasturelands with scattered trees) in the northern 

highlands and the same above-cited agroforestry systems, 

with the exception of coffee plantations, in southern coastal 

areas within the Paso del Istmo biological corridor. Several 

manuscripts, technical reports, and presentations were 

generated from this work. 

Other significant accomplishments in Nicaragua from IC 

and our international partners included: 

•	1 The non-governmental organization Paso Pacífico was 

invited for the second consecutive year to participate in 

the Clinton Global Initiative. 

•	1 International Cooperation provided technical 

assistance and guidance to the Academy for 

Educational Development to set up management of a 

sustainable tourism project in Nicaragua. The Academy 

asked advice on local talent, staffing, technical needs 

for specific communities and/or protected areas, etc. 

•	1 International Cooperation provided technical 

assistance to local partners to establish eco-consulting 

businesses to serve conservation non-governmental 

organizations and development projects in Protected 

Area buffers zones that would provide benefits to 

economically disadvantaged Hispanic community 

members. 

Contact: Gerald Bauer, gbauer@fs.fed.us 

Dominican Republic Activities 

International Cooperation completed a 2-year agreement 

with USAID/Dominican Republic and signed a new 

agreement to continue to provide leadership, mentorship, 

and technology transfer to Dominican Republic (DR) 

partners in biodiversity conservation and sustainable 

tourism activities in local, underserved and disadvantaged 

Hispanic communities, and tourism clusters, in 

coordination with the Dominican Sustainable Tourism 

Alliance and the Dominican Consortium for Tourism 

Development (Consorcio Dominicano de Competitividad 

Turística). The Institute also signed a Memorandum of 

Understanding with the Dominican Republic Ministry of 

Tourism to strengthen cooperation over the next few years. 

The primary focus in the Dominican Republic was to assist 

Dominican Republic tourism clusters with biodiversity 

conservation and sustainable tourism development, 

through on-the-ground technical assistance and training 

programs. The following activities were undertaken: 

Provided technical assistance to underserved, 

disadvantaged Hispanic local communities and nongovernmental organizations to encourage economic 

benefits by helping to establish eco-businesses in protected 

areas and their buffer zones in La Caleta Marine National 

Park, Laguna Bávaro Wildlife Refuge, Samaná Bay, and 

local communities in Jarabacoa (Sonido de Yaque) and 

Constanza (Salto Aguas Blancas). 

Designed environmentally friendly souvenir products 

to promote biodiversity conservation and to encourage 

economic benefits for local underserved Hispanic 

47
IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

International Cooperation 

Photo: G. Bauer 

Whale watching in the Samaná Bay is an important economic generating activity for 

local tour guides. The Institute through its International Cooperation unit helps train 

nature guides and park rangers who protect these unique resources. 

communities and non-governmental organizations to sell 

in gift shops and at major hotels. More than 25 products 

were designed, including logos, keychain fobs, posters, 

post cards, t-shirts, caps, coffee mugs, and bird guides. 

Completed seven technical reports to help provide for 

conservation of biodiversity in protected areas and buffer 

zones, including: 

•	1 Análisis de Sitio y Recomendaciones para el Desarrollo 

Ecoturístico del Sendero Padre Nuestro, Parque 

Nacional del Este, Bayahibe, República Dominicana. 

•	1 Plan de Señalización del Parque Nacional del Este, 

Bayahibe, República Dominicana. 

•	1 Taller sobre Diseño, Construcción y Mantenimiento 

de Senderos, Parque Nacional del Este, Sendero Padre 

Nuestro, República Dominicana. 

•	1 Taller sobre Diseño, Construcción y Mantenimiento de 

Senderos, Parque Nacional Valle Nuevo, Salto Aguas 

Blancas, República Dominicana. 

•	1 Recomendaciones para Senderos de Observación 

de Aves en Dos Parques Urbanos en la República 

Dominicana. 

•	1 Recomendaciones para Turismo y Conservación de 

Biodiversidad en el Refugio de Vida Silvestre de 

Laguna Bávaro, República Dominicana. 

•	1 Desarrollo de Turismo de Kayak en Laguna Bávaro, 

Punta Cana, República Dominicana. 

Contact: Gerald Bauer, gbauer@fs.fed.us 

48
IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

Publications — Fiscal Year 2011 

For electronic versions of Institute publications, please go to Treesearch at www.treesearch.fs.fed.us. For hard copy 

versions, please contact greyes@fs.fed.us, or write to: 

U.S. Forest Service - International Institute of Tropical Forestry
 

Attn: Publications
 

1201 Ceiba Street
 

Jardín Botánico Sur
 

San Juan, Puerto Rico 00926.
 

1.	 Abelleira Martinez, O.J. 2008. Observations on the fauna that visit African tulip tree (Spathodea campanulata Beauv.) 

forests in Puerto Rico. Acta Cientifica. 22(1–3): 37–42. 

2.	 Arendt, W.J. 2011. Hourly laying patterns of the pearly-eyed thrasher (Margarops fuscatus) in Puerto Rico. Wilson 

Journal of Ornithology. 123(3): 624–628. 

3.	 Asner, G.P.; Martin, R.E.; Tupayachi, R.; Emerson, R.; Martínez, P.; Sinca, F.; Powell, G.V.N.; Wright, S. J.; Lugo, A.E. 

2011. Taxonomy and remote sensing of leaf mass per area (LMA) in humid tropical forests. Ecological Applications. 

21(1): 85–98. 

4.	 Bernstein, S.; Cashore, B.; Eba’a Atyi, R.; Maryudi, R.; McGinley, K. 2010. Examination of the influences of global 

forest governance arrangements at the domestic level. Pages 111–135 in: Rayner, J.; Buck, A.; Katila, P., eds. Embracing 

complexity: meeting the challenges of international forest governance. A global assessment report. Prepared by the 

Global Forest Expert Panel on the International Forest Regime. IUFRO World Series Volume 28. Vienna: IUFRO. 

http://www.iufro.org/science/gfep/forest-regime-panel/report/download-chapter/ . 

5.	 Bruijnzeel, L.A.; Kappelle, M.; Mulligan, M.; Scatena, F.N. 2010. Tropical montane cloud forests: state of knowledge 

and sustainability perspectives in a changing world. Pages 691–740 in: Bruijnzeel, L.A.; Scatena, F.N.; Hamilton, 

L.S., eds. Tropical montane cloud forests: science for conservation and management. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge 

University Press. 

6.	 Cashore, B.; Galloway, G.; Cubbage, F.; Humphreys, D.; Katila, P.; Levin, K.; McDermott, C.; Maryudi, A.; McGinley, 

K. 2010. Ability of institutions to address new challenges. Pages 441–486 in: Mery, G.; Katila, P.; Galloway, G.; Alfaro, 

R.I.; Kanninen, M.; Lobovikov, M.; J. Varjo, eds. Forests and society: responding to global drivers of change. IUFRO 

World Forests, Society and Environment Project. Vienna: IUFRO. http://www.iufro.org/science/special/wfse/forestssociety-global-drivers/ . 

7.	 Cubbage, F.; Koesbandana, S.; Mac Donagh, P; Rubilar, R.; Balmelli, G; Morales Olmos, V.; De La Torre, R.; Murara, 

M.; Hoeflich, V.A.; Kotze, H.; González, R; Carrero, O.; Frey, G.; Adams, T.; Turner, J.; Lord, R.; Huang, J.; MacIntyre, 

C.; McGinley, K.; Abt, R.; Phillips, R. 2010. Global timber investments, wood costs, regulation, and risk. Biomass and 

Bioenergy. 34: 1667–1678. 

8.	 Cusack, D.F.; Torn, M.S.; McDowell, W.H.; Silver, W.L. 2010. The response of heterotrophic activity and carbon cycling 

to nitrogen additions and warming in two tropical soils. Global Change Biology. 16: 2555–2572. 

9.	 Cusack, D.F.; Silver, W.L.; Torn, M.S.; Burton, S. D.; Firestone, M.K. 2011. Changes in microbial community 

characteristics and soil organic matter with nitrogen additions in two tropical forests. Ecology. 92(3): 621–632. 

10.	 Davis, M.A.; Chew, M.K.; Hobbs, R. J.; Lugo, A.E.; Ewel, J.J.; Vermeij, G.J.; Brown, J.H.; Rosenzweig, M.L.; Gardener, 

M.R.; Carroll, S.P.; Thompson, K.; Pickett, S.T.A.; Stromberg, J.C.; Del Tredici, Pe.; Suding, K.N.; Eherenfeld, J.G.; 

Grime, J.P.; Mascaro, J; Briggs, J.C. 2011. Don’t judge species by their origins. Nature. 474: 153–154. 

11. Domínguez Cristóbal, C.M. 2008. Apuntes en torno al establecimiento y desarrollo de un sistema de veredas 

interpretativas en los bosques o reservas naturales de Puerto Rico: la presencia de la toponimia, la tenencia y usos de 

la tierra. Acta Científica. 22(1–3): 99–103. 

12. Domínguez Cristóbal, C.M. 2008. Apuntes en torno a la tenencia, la toponimia y usos de la tierra en la Sierra de 

Luquillo segun la “Relación general de los montes de Puerto Rico de 1867.” Acta Científica. 22(1–3): 79–84. 

49
IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

Publications — Fiscal Year 2011 

13.	 Domínguez Cristóbal, C.M. 2008. La celebración del día del árbol en Puerto Rico (1897–1903). Acta Científica. 22(1–3): 

87–93. 

14.	 Domínguez Cristóbal, C.M. 2008. Presencia de las palmas en los escudos municipales de Puerto Rico. Acta Científica. 

22(1–3): 95–97. 

15. Domínguez Cristóbal, C.M. 2008. La política forestal del manglar en Puerto Rico durante el siglo XIX: el caso del 

manglar de Jobos, Las Mareas, Caño Grande y Punta Caribe de Guayama. Acta Científica. 22(1–3): 67–77. 

16. Domínguez Cristóbal, C.M. 2010. De la tradición oral a los archivos: Barceloneta y sus bosques noveles. Ecos de 

Plazuela. (Oct.-Nov.-Dic.): 20–21. 

17. Dubinsky, E.A.; Silver, W.L.; Firestone, M. K. 2010. Tropical forest soil microbial communities couple iron and carbon 

biogeochemistry. Ecology. 9(9): 2604–2612. 

18. Ewert, D.N.; Wunderle, Jr., J.M.; Eberly, C.W.; Huber, P.W.; Carey, E. 2009. The Kirtland’s warbler: interagency and 

international cooperation works. Endangered Species Update. 26: 31–38. [Note: this journal is produced by the School 

of Natural Resources and Environment, University of Michigan at Ann Arbor.] 

19.	 Feldpausch, T.R.; Banin, L.; Phillips, O.L.; Baker, T.R.; Lewis, S.L.; Quesada, C.A.; Affum-Baffoe, K.; Arets, E.J.M.M.; 

Berry, N.J.; Bird, M.; Brondizio, E.S.; de Camargo, P; Chave, J.; Djagbletey, G.; Domingues, T.F.; Drescher, M.; 

Fearnside, P.M.; Franca, M.B.; Fyllas, N.M.; Lopez-Gonzalez, G.; Hladik, A.; Higuchi, N.; Hunter, M.O.; Iida, Y.; 

Salim, K.A.; Kassim, A.R.; Keller, M.; Kemp, J.; King, D.A.; Lovett, J.C.; Marimon, B.S.; Marimon-Junior, B.H.; Lenza, 

E.; Marshall, A.R.; Metcalfe, D.J.; Mitchard, E.T.A.; Moran, E.F.; Nelson, B.W.; Nilus, R.; Nogueira, E.M.; Palace, M.; 

Patiño, S.; Peh, K.S.-H.; Raventos, M.T.; Reitsma, J.M.; Saiz, G.; Schrodt, F.; Sonke, B.; Taedoumg, H.E.; Tan, S.; White, 

L.; Woll, H.; Lloyd, J. 2011. Height-diameter allometry of tropical forest trees. Biogeosciences. 8: 1081–1106. 

20. Free, C. 2010. Modeling big-leaf mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla) population dynamics: the importance of 

spatially explicit processes. Middlebury, VT: Department of Biology, Middlebury College. Masters thesis. 79 pages + 

bibliography and appendix. 

21. Gould, W.A.; González, G.; Walker, D.A.; Ping, C.L. 2010. Commentary—integrating research, education, and 

traditional knowledge in ecology: a case study of biocomplexity in the Arctic. Arctic, Alpine, and Antarctic Research. 

42: 379–384. 

22.	 Gould, W.A.; Solorzano, M.; Potts, G.; Castro, J. 2010. U.S. Virgin Islands gap analysis project. Gap Analysis Bulletin. 

18: 41–46. 

23. Gould, W.A.; Quiñones, M.; Solórzano, M.; Alcobas, W.; Alarcón, C. 2011. Protected natural areas of Puerto Rico. 1: 

240,000. IITF-RMAP-02. Río Piedras, PR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, International Institute of 

Tropical Forestry. [Note: Map was developed by the Puerto Rico Gap Analysis Project (PRGAP) and displays marine 

and terrestrial protected natural areas designated for natural resource conservation in Puerto Rico]. 

24.	 Grogan, J.; Blundell, A.G.; Landis, R.M.; Youatt, A.; Gullison, R.E.; Martínez, M.; Kometter, R.; Lentini, M.; Rice, R.E. 

2010. Over-harvesting driven by consumer demand leads to population decline: big-leaf mahogany in South America. 

Conservation Letters. 3(1): 12–20. 

25. Grogan, J.; Schulze, M.; Galvao, J.. 2010. Survival, growth and reproduction by big-leaf mahogany (Swietenia 

macrophylla) in open clearing vs. forested conditions in Brazil. New Forests. 40: 335–347. 

26.	 Helmer, E.H. 2010. Radiometric normalization. Encyclopedia of Geography. SAGE Publications. 4 Oct. 2010. http:// 

www.sage-ereference.com/geography/Article_n953.html . 

27.	 Holwerda, F.; Bruijnzeel, L.A.; Scatena, F.N. 2010. Comparison of passive fog gages for determining fog duration 

and fog interception by a Puerto Rican elfin cloud forest. Pages 275–281 in: Bruijnzeel, L.A.; Scatena, F.N.; Hamilton, 

L.S., eds. Tropical montane cloud forests: science for conservation and management. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge 

University Press. 

28.	 Holwerda, F.; Bruijnzeel, L.A.; Oord, A.L.; Scatena, F.N. 2010. Fog interception in a Puerto Rican elfin cloud forest: 

a wet-canopy water budget approach. Pages 282–292 in: Bruijnzeel, L.A.; Scatena, F.N.; Hamilton, L.S., eds. Tropical 

montane cloud forests: science for conservation and management. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 

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Publications — Fiscal Year 2011 

29. Lepore, C.; Kamal, S. A.; Shanahan, P.; Bras, R.L. 2011. Rainfall-induced landslide susceptibility zonation of Puerto 

Rico. Environmental Earth Science. DOI 10.1007/s12665-011-0976-1. 

30. Lücking, R.; Seavey, F.; Common, R.S.; Beeching, S.Q.; Breuss, O.; Buck, W.R.; Crane, L.; Hodges, M.; Hodkinson, B.P.; 

Lay, E.; Lendemer, J.C.; McMullin, R.T.; Mercado-Diaz, J.A.; Nelsen, M.P.; Rivas Plata, E.; Safranek, W.; Sanders, W.B.; 

Schaefer, Jr., Harold P.; Seavey, J. 2011. The lichens of Fakahatchee Strand Preserve State Park, Florida: Proceedings 

from the 18th Tuckerman Workshop. Bulletin of the Florida Museum of Natural History. 49(4): 127–186. 

31. Lugo, A.E.; Abelleira, O.J.; Collado, A.; Viera, C.A.; Santiago, C.; Vélez, D.O.; Soto, E.; Amaro, G.; Charon, G.; Colón, 

Jr., H.; Santana, J.; Morales, J.L.; Rivera, K.; Ortiz, L.; Rivera, L.; Maldonado, M.; Rivera, N.; Vázquez, N.J. 2011. 

Allometry, biomass, and chemical content of novel African tulip tree (Spathodea campanulata) forests in Puerto Rico. 

New Forests. DOI 10.1007/s11056-011-9258-8. 

32.	 Lugo, A.E.; Domínguez Cristóbal, C.M.; Méndez, N. 2011. Hurricane Georges accelerated litterfall fluxes of a 26-yr-old 

novel secondary forest in Puerto Rico. Pages 535–554 in: Lupo, A., ed. Recent hurricane research—climate, dynamics, 

and societal impacts. Rijeka, Croatia: Intech–Open Access Publisher. 

33. Lugo, A.E.; Ramos González, O.M.; Rodríguez Pedraza, C. 2011. The Río Piedras watershed and its surrounding 

environment. FS-980. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, International Institute of Tropical Forestry. 46 p. 

34. Lugo, A.E.; da Silva, J.F.a; Sáez Uribe, A.M. 2008. Balance de carbono en un bosque novedoso de Castilla elastica: 

resultados preliminares. Acta Científica. 22(1–3): 13–27. 

35.	 Lugo, A.E., ed. 2008. Acta Científica. 22 (1–3).113 p. [Note: Acta Cientifica is the journal of the Science Teachers 

Association of Puerto Rico.] 

36.	 McGinley, K.; Cubbage, F.W. 2011. Governmental regulation and nongovernmental certification of forests in the 

tropics: policy, execution, uptake, and overlap in Costa Rica, Guatemala, and Nicaragua. Forest Policy and Economics. 

13(3): 206–220. 

37. Molina Colón, S.; Lugo, A.E.; Ramos González, O.M. 2011. Novel dry forests in southwestern Puerto Rico. Forest 

Ecology and Management. 262: 170–177. 

38. Murphy, C.M.; González, G.; Belén, J. 2008. Ordinal abundance and richness of millipedes (Arthropoda: Diplopoda) in 

a subtropical wet forest in Puerto Rico. Acta Científica. 22(1–3): 57–65. 

39.	 Norghauer, J.M.; Grogan, J.; Malcolm, J.R.; Felfili, J.M. 2010. Long-distance dispersal helps germinating mahogany 

seedlings escape defoliation by a specialist caterpillar. Oecologia. 162: 405–412. 

40. Norghauer, J.M.; Nock, C.A.; Grogan, J. 2011. The importance of tree size and fecundity for wind dispersal of big-leaf 

mahogany. PLoS ONE. 6(3): e17488. [Note: PLoS ONE is the open access journal of the Public Library of Science.] 

41.	 Pérez, R.; Heartsill Scalley, T. 2008. Root nodulation in the wetland tree Pterocarpus officinalis along coastal and 

montane systems of Northeast of Puerto Rico. Acta Científica. 22(1–3): 45–54. 

42.	 Peters, D.P.C.; Lugo, A.E.; Chapin, S. III; Pickett, S.T.A.; Duniway, M.; Rocha, A.V.; Swanson, F.J.; Laney, C.; Jones, J. 

2011. Cross-system comparisons elucidate disturbance complexities and generalities. Ecosphere. 2(7): Article 81. 

43.	 Ponce, G.; Moran, S.; Huete, A.; Bresloff, C.; Huxman, T.; Bosch, D.; Bradford, J.; Buda, A.; Gunter, S.; McNab, H.; 

McClaran, M.; Peters, D.; Sadler, J.; Seyfried, M.; Starks, P.; Sutherland Montoya, D.; Heartsill, T. 2011. Convergence of 

dynamic vegetation net productivity responses to precipitation variability from 10 years of MODIS EVI. ISRSE 2011, 

34th International Symposium on Remote Sensing of Environment, Sydney Convention and Exhibition Centre, 10–15 

April 2011. Tucson, AZ: ICRSE and others. 

44.	 Rivera Costa, M.M.; Lugo, A.E.; Vázquez, S.V. 2008. Densidad de artrópodos activos en la superficie del suelo de un 

bosque novedoso de Castilla elastica. Acta Científica. 22(1–3): 3–11. 

45.	 Román, L.; Scatena, F.N.; Bruijnzeel, L.A. 2010. Global and local variations in tropical montane cloud forest soils. 

Pages 77–89 in: Bruijnzeel, L.A.; Scatena, F.N.; Hamilton, L.S., eds. Tropical montane cloud forests: science for 

conservation and management. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 

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Publications — Fiscal Year 2011 

46. Royo, A.A.; Heartsill Scalley, T.; Moya, S.; Scatena, F.N. 2011. Non-arborescent vegetation trajectories following 

repeated hurricane disturbance: ephemeral versus enduring responses. Ecosphere. 2(7): Article 77. 

47. Sandoval, L.; Arendt, W.J. 2011. Two new species for Nicaragua and other notes on the avifauna of the Atlantic 

Region and Paso del Istmo Biological Corridor. Cotinga. 33:50–57. 

48.	 Scatena, F.N.; Bruijnzeel, L.A.; Bubb, P.; Das, S. 2010. Setting the stage. Pages 3–13 in: Bruijnzeel, L.A.; Scatena, F.N.; 

Hamilton, L.S., eds. Tropical montane cloud forests: science for conservation and management. Cambridge, UK: 

Cambridge University Press. 

49.	 Schulze, M.D.; Lentini, M.W.; Macpherson, A. J.; Grogan, J. 2010. 3.6 Certification, concessions and biodiversity in 

the Brazilian Amazon. ETFRN News 51:83-89. [Note: ETFRN News is the journal of the European Tropical Forest 

Research Network.] 

50.	 Siddique, I.; Engel, V.L.; Parrotta, J.A.; Lamb, D.; Nardoto, G.B.; Ometto, J.P.H.B.; Martinelli, L.A.; Schmidt, S. 2008. 

Dominance of legume trees alters nutrient relations in mixed species forest restoration plantings within seven years. 

Biogeochemistry. 88: 89–101. 

51. Silver, W.L.; Thompson, A.W.; Herman, D.J.; Firestone, M.K. 2010. Is there evidence for limitations to nitrogen 

mineralization in upper montane tropical forests? Pages 418–427 in: Bruijnzeel, L.A.; Scatena, F.N.; Hamilton, 

L.S., eds. Tropical montane cloud forests: science for conservation and management. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge 

University Press. 

52. Smith, J.A.M.; Reitsma, L.R.; Marra, P.P. 2010. Moisture as a determinant of habitat quality for a nonbreeding 

neotropical migratory songbird. Ecology. 91(10): 2874–2882. 

53.	 Smith, J.A.M.; Reitsma, L.R.; Marra, P.P. 2011. Influence of moisture and food supply on the movement dynamics of a 

nonbreeding migratory bird (Parkesia noveboracensis) in a seasonal landscape. The Auk. 128(1): 43–52. 

54. Smith, J.A.M.; Reitsma, L.R.; Marra, P.P. 2011. Multiple space-use strategies and their divergent consequences in a 

nonbreeding migratory bird (Parkesia noveboracensis). The Auk. 128(1): 53–60. 

55.	 Snyder, N.F.R.; Raffaele, H.A.; Wunderle, J.M., Jr. 2010. Dedication to James Wiley. Journal of Caribbean Ornithology. 

23: 1–3. 

56. Sousa Neto, E.; Carmo, J.B.; Keller, M.; Martins, S.C.; Alves, L.F.; Vieira, S.A.; Piccolo, M.C.; Camargo, P.; Couto, 

H.T.Z.; Joly, C.A.; Martinelli, L.A. 2011. Soil-atmosphere exchange of nitrous oxide, methane and carbon dioxide in a 

gradient of elevation in the coastal Brazilian Atlantic forest. Biogeosciences. 8: 733–742. 

57. Trejo-Torres, J.C.; Caraballo-Ortiz, M.A.; Marcano-Vega, H. 2006. Plantas raras de la zona caliza del norte de Puerto 

Rico. San Juan, PR: Ciudadanos del Karso and U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, International Institute 

of Tropical Forestry. 311 p. 

58.	 van der Molen, M.K.; Vugts, H.F.; Bruijnzeel, L.A.; Scatena, F.N.; Pielke, Sr., R.A.; Kroon, L.J.M. 2010. Meso-scale 

climate change due to lowland deforestation in the maritime tropics. Pages 527–537 in: Bruijnzeel, L.A.; Scatena, 

F.N.; Hamilton, L.S., eds. Tropical montane cloud forests: science for conservation and management. Cambridge, UK: 

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59.	 van Haren, J.L.M.; de Oliveira, R.C.; Restrepo-Coupe, N.; Hutyra, L.; de Camargo, P. B.; Keller, M.; Saleska, S.R. 2010. 

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61.	 Wadsworth, F.H. 2008.La reforestación gubernamental en Puerto Rico. Acta Científica. 22(1–3): 105–113. 

62. Wadsworth, F.H.; Bryan, B.; Figueroa-Colón, J. 2010. Cutover tropical forest productivity potential merits assessment, 

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63. Walker, D.A.; Walker, M.D.; Gould, W.A.; Mercado, J.; Auerbach, N.A.; Maier, H.A.; Neufeld, G.P. 2010. Maps for 

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Publications — Fiscal Year 2011 

64.	 Walker, D.A.; Bhatt, U.S.; Callaghan, J.; Comiso, J.C.; Epstein, H.E.; Forbes, B.C.; Gill, M.; Gould, W.A.; Henry, G.H.R.; 

Jia, G.J.; Kokelj, S.V.; Lantz, T.C.; Oberrbauer, S.F.; Pinzón, J.E.; Raynolds, M.K.; Shaver, G.R.; Tucker, C.J.; Tweedie, 

C.E.; Webber, P.J. 2011. Vegetation. In: Blunden, J.; Arndt, D.S.; Baringer, M.O., eds. State of the climate in 2010. Bull. 

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65. Wall, D.A.; González, G.; Simmons, B.L. 2011. Seasonally dry forest soil biodiversity and functioning. Pages 61–70 

in: Dirzo, R.; Young, H.S.; Mooney, H.A.; Ceballos, G., eds. Seasonally dry tropical forests, ecology and conservation. 

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66.	 Walters, J.R.; Derrickson, S.R.; Fry, D.M.; Haig, S.M.; Marzluff, J.M.; Wunderle, Jr., J.M. 2010. Status of the California 

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67. Weaver, P.L. 2010. Forest structure and composition in the lower montane rain forest of the Luquillo Mountains, 

Puerto Rico. Interciencia. 35(9): 640–646. 

68. Weaver, P.L. 2010. Tree species distribution and forest structure along environmental gradients in the dwarf forest of 

the Luquillo Mountains of Puerto Rico. Bois et Forets des Tropiques. Num. 306: 33–44. 

69. Weaver, P.L. 2011. El Toro Wilderness, Luquillo Experimental Forest, Puerto Rico. Pages 95–108 in: Watson, A.; 

Murrieta-Salvidar, J.; McBride, B., comps. Science and stewardship to protect and sustain wilderness values: ninth 

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70. Wunderle, J.M., Jr.; Arendt, W.J. 2011. Avian studies and research opportunities in the Luquillo Experimental Forest: a 

tropical rain forest in Puerto Rico. Forest Ecology and Management. 262: 33–48. 

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IITF 2011 Accomplishments Report 

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Photo: T. Wood