PUBLISHED

UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS

FOR THE FOURTH CIRCUIT

No. 14-4736

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,

Plaintiff – Appellee,

v.

MICHAEL JEROME PALMER,

Defendant – Appellant.

Appeal from the United States District Court for the Eastern 

District of Virginia, at Norfolk. Robert G. Doumar, Senior 

District Judge. (2:14-cr-00031-RGD-DEM-1)

Argued: December 10, 2015 Decided: April 21, 2016

Before WILKINSON, KING, and WYNN, Circuit Judges.

Affirmed by published opinion. Judge King wrote the opinion, in 

which Judge Wilkinson and Judge Wynn joined. Judge Wynn wrote a 

separate concurring opinion.

ARGUED: James Orlando Broccoletti, ZOBY, BROCCOLETTI & NORMILE, 

PC, Norfolk, Virginia, for Appellant. Christopher John 

Catizone, OFFICE OF THE UNITED STATES ATTORNEY, Alexandria, 

Virginia, for Appellee. ON BRIEF: Dana J. Boente, United States 

Attorney, Alexandria, Virginia, Darryl J. Mitchell, Assistant 

United States Attorney, OFFICE OF THE UNITED STATES ATTORNEY, 

Norfolk, Virginia, for Appellee.
2

KING, Circuit Judge:

Michael Jerome Palmer appeals the district court’s denial 

of his motion to suppress drug and firearm evidence seized by 

police officers during a traffic stop in Chesapeake, Virginia. 

The court conducted an evidentiary hearing and, in early May 

2014, rendered its ruling in favor of the government. As 

explained below, we are satisfied that the officers did not 

contravene the Fourth Amendment and thus affirm.

I.

A.

In April 2014, the federal grand jury in Norfolk, Virginia, 

indicted Palmer on two offenses: possession with intent to 

distribute crack cocaine, in contravention of 21 U.S.C. 

§ 841(a)(1); and being a felon in possession of a firearm, in 

violation of 18 U.S.C. § 922(g)(1). Palmer moved to suppress 

the drug and firearm evidence underlying the charges, which

Chesapeake officers had seized during the October 2013 traffic 

stop of a vehicle driven by Palmer. In May 2014, the district 

court denied Palmer’s suppression motion. See United States v. 

Palmer, No. 2:14-cr-00031 (E.D. Va. May 5, 2014), ECF No. 35 

(the “Opinion”). In June 2014, Palmer pleaded guilty to both 

offenses in the indictment, but reserved the right to appeal the

suppression ruling. In September 2014, the court sentenced him
3

to sixty-one months in prison. Palmer timely noted this appeal, 

and we possess jurisdiction pursuant to 28 U.S.C. § 1291.

B.

1.

Because the district court denied Palmer’s motion to 

suppress, we recount the facts in the light most favorable to 

the government. See United States v. Watson, 703 F.3d 684, 689 

(4th Cir. 2013). On October 15, 2013, Officer Ring of the 

Chesapeake police was patrolling that city’s Ipswich 

neighborhood. During his patrol, Ring stopped Palmer, who was 

driving a silver Nissan Altima, on Paramont Avenue. When Ring

exited his patrol car and greeted Palmer through the driver-side 

window of the Nissan, he smelled an overwhelming odor of air 

freshener. He saw at least five air fresheners inside the car, 

some hanging in the passenger compartment and others plugged 

into the air-conditioning vents. Ring advised Palmer that he

had been stopped because the Nissan’s windows were too darkly 

tinted, in violation of state law, and also because the 

inspection sticker on the vehicle’s front windshield appeared 

fraudulent. Ring then obtained Palmer’s driver’s license and

the vehicle’s registration card, and returned to his patrol car

to make a database check.

From the driver’s license and registration Officer Ring 

learned that Palmer listed a P.O. box as his address and that 
4

the Nissan was registered to a woman who was not present. 

Within minutes of beginning the database check, Ring also 

learned that Palmer was a suspected member of a gang called the 

Bounty Hunter Bloods, according to a “caution” notice issued by 

the nearby Norfolk Police Department. See Opinion 2. Ring 

advised his colleague, Officer Blount — who was also on the 

scene — of Palmer’s purported gang affiliation, and asked Blount 

about the availability of a drug dog.

Officer Ring also sought information on Palmer from another

database called LInX. Ring could not initially log into the 

LInX system because his former partner had changed the password. 

He eventually accessed LInX, however — about seven minutes into 

the traffic stop — by utilizing Officer Blount’s login 

credentials. As Ring was logging into LInX and searching its

database, he called about a drug dog. Ring relayed by radio the 

information that he had gathered: Palmer was nervous; there was 

an overwhelming odor of air freshener from the Nissan; there 

were at least five air fresheners in the car; Palmer’s driver’s

license address was a P.O. box, as opposed to a street address; 

the Nissan was registered to someone other than the driver; and 

Palmer was a suspected member of the Bounty Hunter Bloods.

About eleven minutes into the traffic stop, Officer Ring 

identified Palmer in LInX. Ring learned that Palmer had a

criminal record that included four arrests on drug charges plus
5

an arrest for illegal possession of a firearm by a convicted 

felon. As a result, Ring radioed again about a drug dog, but 

was unable to confirm its availability. After completing his

LInX search, Ring returned to the Nissan from his patrol car. 

Because he suspected the inspection sticker was fraudulent, Ring

decided to verify the sticker’s authenticity by looking at the

back of it, which would enable him to determine whether it was

legitimate. After asking Palmer to exit the Nissan, Ring leaned 

through the open driver-side door and examined the back of the

inspection sticker. While reading the sticker — which he

concluded was legitimate — Ring smelled marijuana.

Officer Ring immediately advised Palmer that he had grounds 

to search the Nissan. Because Ring wanted to be “110% sure” 

that the Nissan contained drugs before searching the vehicle, 

however, he again checked on the drug dog’s availability. See

Opinion 3. At that point — approximately seventeen minutes 

after the traffic stop had been initiated — Ring called Officer 

Duncan, who had a drug dog. About ten minutes later, Duncan 

arrived with the drug dog Boomer. Duncan walked Boomer around

the Nissan, and the dog alerted twice.

Officers Ring and Duncan thereafter entered and searched 

the Nissan. They discovered a clear plastic bag containing

crack cocaine in the center front console and a 40-caliber Smith 

& Wesson pistol wedged between the driver’s seat and the
6

console. As a result, Palmer was arrested. After the search

and arrest, Ring measured the Nissan’s window tint. Those

measurements confirmed Ring’s initial suspicion that the 

Nissan’s windows were illegally tinted.1

2.

On April 29, 2014, the district court conducted an

evidentiary hearing on Palmer’s suppression motion. During the 

hearing, Officer Ring — the prosecution’s only witness —

recounted his actions and observations during the traffic stop.

Officer Ring explained that, before the traffic stop, he 

knew of numerous citizen complaints to the authorities about the

sale and use of illegal drugs in the Ipswich area. He also 

described his familiarity with Virginia’s legal limits on window 

tinting and said that he “could barely see into the vehicle”

that Palmer was driving. See J.A. 71-74.2 Aside from the window 

tint, Ring suspected that the Nissan’s inspection sticker was 

illegal, based on his experience and having stopped numerous

vehicles with fraudulent stickers. Ring explained that he could 

 1 Officer Ring found that the side-front and side-rear 

windows of the Nissan violated Virginia law by allowing light 

transmittance of only 40% and 25%, respectively. Virginia

requires side-front windows to permit light transmittance of at 

least 50%, and side-rear windows to permit light transmittance 

of at least 35%. See Va. Code Ann. § 46.2-1052(C).

2 Citations herein to “J.A. __” refer to the contents of 

the Joint Appendix filed by the parties in this appeal.
7

not see the perforated portion that should be observable on a 

legitimate sticker. The back of a legitimate inspection 

sticker, he said, shows the perforated portion and contains 

information identifying the vehicle.

Although it is understandable for any person to be nervous 

when interacting with the police, Officer Ring said that Palmer 

“appeared to be more nervous than normal” during the traffic 

stop. See J.A. 79. Specifically, Ring observed that Palmer was 

“being overly cooperative but still very nervous in his 

demeanor.” Id. Regarding Palmer’s liberal use of air 

fresheners, Ring explained that drug traffickers often use 

“heavy air freshening” to mask the “pungent odor” of marijuana. 

See id. at 80. Ring also explained that drug traffickers often 

operate vehicles registered to others. That is so because, when

the police apprehend a drug trafficker, they tend not to seize

the vehicle if it is registered to someone not present. 

Similarly, when Ring was asked — in light of the thousand-plus 

drug investigations in which he had participated — whether a 

P.O. box on a driver’s license can be indicative of involvement 

in drug trafficking, he responded affirmatively.

Officer Ring also emphasized that he developed a concern 

for officer safety after learning of Palmer’s suspected gang 

affiliation and prior criminal record. Ring stated that 

“[c]riminal street gangs are known for violence” and that his
8

department had received “intelligence reports of threats against 

law enforcement specifically from the Blood gang.” See J.A. 86. 

Ring explained that Palmer’s history of multiple drug arrests, 

as well as his arrest for possessing a firearm as a convicted 

felon, caused Ring to believe Palmer “would potentially still 

have a firearm on him.” Id.

According to Officer Ring, Palmer was initially hesitant to 

get out of the Nissan, and Palmer had thereafter lingered near 

the vehicle’s front door until Ring requested that he move to 

the car’s rear. Shortly thereafter, while Ring was inside the 

passenger compartment checking the inspection sticker, he

“smell[ed] the marijuana very faintly” before his “sense of 

smell [was] overwhelmed with the air freshener.” See J.A. 90. 

Ring confirmed that Officer Blount smelled marijuana as well.

Officer Ring made at least two other observations that 

strengthened his suspicion of criminal activity. First, Palmer 

“had two cell phones on his hip.” See J.A. 93. According to 

Ring, “[i]t’s common for people who distribute narcotics to have 

more than one cell phone in their possession.” Id. He said

that those involved in drug trafficking often rely on one phone 

to store contacts and pictures while utilizing the other phone 

to arrange drug deals. Second, Ring believed that Palmer was 

seeking to divert suspicion from himself as they waited for 

Officer Duncan and the drug dog. Palmer “kept telling us that 
9

he helps the police and that he ha[d] a contact [in] the police 

department.” See id. at 95.

As the hearing ended, the district court remarked that

Officer Ring had “presented to this Court a very, very careful 

appearance, one of a person who is very seriously trying to 

abide by what the requirements of the law are.” See J.A. 210. 

Although it was inclined to believe that Ring had acted 

lawfully, the court took the suppression motion under 

advisement.

C.

On May 5, 2014, within a week of the evidentiary hearing, 

the district court filed its Opinion denying the suppression 

motion.3 The Opinion concluded that Officer Ring had properly

stopped the Nissan, based on suspicions of a window tint 

violation and a fraudulent inspection sticker. The Opinion 

explained that Ring also possessed the reasonable, articulable 

suspicion of criminal activity necessary to extend the traffic 

stop, identifying eight supporting factors in that regard:

 3 Officer Ring made a video recording of the traffic stop

from a camera he was wearing on his uniform. After viewing the 

video during the evidentiary hearing as Ring testified, the 

district court observed that Ring presented “a very truthful 

appearance.” See J.A. 206. The court later reviewed the video

“at a slow pace in chambers, stopping to analyze the footage 

from time to time to be doubly sure of its interpretation.” See

Opinion 1.
10

• Palmer was in a high crime area where citizens 

were complaining about drug dealing;

• Ring believed that the Nissan’s windows were 

illegally tinted;

• Palmer was nervous;

• The Nissan emitted an “overwhelming” scent of air 

freshener from the multiple air fresheners;

• Palmer was a suspected member of a violent gang 

called the Bounty Hunter Bloods;4

• Palmer’s driver’s license listed a P.O. box 

address, rather than a residence;

• Palmer was driving a vehicle registered in 

another person’s name; and

• Palmer had “a criminal record that included four 

previous arrests for narcotics charges as well as 

a charge of possession of a firearm by a 

convicted felon.”

See Opinion 9. The Opinion explained that those factors, “when 

taken together, [gave] rise to reasonable suspicion because they 

eliminate[d] a substantial portion of innocent travelers and 

indicate[d] that criminal activity [was] afoot.” Id. That is,

Ring possessed the “reasonable suspicion necessary to extend the 

stop beyond its original scope and duration as soon as he

completed the computer checks.” Id.

 4 The district court observed that it was “very familiar 

with the Bloods and their propensity for violence,” based on 

“its prior cases involving members of th[at] gang.” See Opinion 

9 n.3.
11

The Opinion also explained that Officer Ring had probable 

cause to search the vehicle when he first smelled marijuana and 

also after the drug dog alerted. Without specifying whether 

Ring’s entry to check the inspection sticker constituted a 

search of the Nissan, the Opinion concluded that Ring had 

“reasonable suspicion . . . to investigate the inspection 

sticker’s authenticity,” and that he had dispelled that

suspicion by “the least intrusive means in a short period of 

time.” See Opinion 12-13. Ring’s detection of a marijuana odor

while in the car, in turn, supplied ample cause for a search of 

the Nissan. According to the Opinion, the officers were also

entitled to delay searching the vehicle and wait for a drug dog.5

In sum, the Opinion ruled that Officer Ring had made a 

legitimate traffic stop, that he had sound reasons for extending

the stop, and that his subsequent actions did not violate the

Fourth Amendment. Palmer’s motion to suppress the evidence was 

therefore denied. The constitutionality of Ring’s search-andseizure activities is the sole question preserved by Palmer’s

conditional guilty plea.

 5 The Opinion reasoned in the alternative that, even if 

Officer Ring’s entry into the vehicle to examine the inspection 

sticker was somehow improper, the drug and firearm evidence 

could not be suppressed. That was so because “Ring’s actions 

demonstrate conclusively that he would have brought the [drug 

dog] to the [traffic] stop to perform the [dog sniff] test 

irrespective of his entrance into the vehicle.” See Opinion 17.
12

II.

We review de novo a district court’s rulings with respect 

to reasonable suspicion and probable cause. See Ornelas v. 

United States, 517 U.S. 690, 699 (1996). Absent clear error, we 

will not disturb factual findings made by a district court after 

an evidentiary hearing on suppression issues. See United States 

v. Dire, 680 F.3d 446, 473 (4th Cir. 2012). When a district 

court has denied a suppression motion, we view the evidence in 

the light most favorable to the government. See United States 

v. Watson, 703 F.3d 684, 689 (4th Cir. 2013).

III.

On appeal, Palmer contends that Officer Ring did not have 

any objectively reasonable basis for initiating the traffic stop 

of the Nissan, and that Ring unreasonably expanded the scope of

the stop shortly after it began. Palmer also labels Ring’s 

entry into the Nissan to view the inspection sticker as 

constitutionally impermissible. The government counters that 

Ring legitimately stopped Palmer for suspected traffic 

violations, and that Ring’s subsequent actions were consistent 

with the Fourth Amendment.

A.

Before assessing the parties’ contentions, we identify some 

pertinent legal principles. The Fourth Amendment guards against 
13

“unreasonable searches and seizures.” See U.S. Const. amend. 

IV. A traffic stop is a “seizure” within the meaning of the 

Fourth Amendment and must be reasonable under the circumstances. 

See Delaware v. Prouse, 440 U.S. 648, 653-54 (1979). In that 

regard, the courts assess the constitutionality of a traffic

stop under the two-prong standard articulated in Terry v. Ohio, 

392 U.S. 1 (1968). See Arizona v. Johnson, 555 U.S. 323, 330-31 

(2009). Pursuant thereto, we first assess whether the 

articulated bases for the traffic stop were legitimate. See

United States v. Rusher, 966 F.2d 868, 875 (4th Cir. 1992). 

Second, we examine whether the actions of the authorities during 

the traffic stop were “reasonably related in scope” to the bases

for the seizure. Id. (internal quotation marks omitted).

1.

As the Supreme Court has explained, Terry’s first prong is 

satisfied “whenever it is lawful for police to detain an 

automobile and its occupants pending inquiry into a vehicular 

violation.” See Johnson, 555 U.S. at 327. Without question, 

such a violation may include failure to comply with traffic 

laws. See, e.g., United States v. Green, 740 F.3d 275, 279 n.1 

(4th Cir. 2014) (concluding that windows “illegally tinted” 

under Virginia law “justif[ied] the stop”); United States v. 

Digiovanni, 650 F.3d 498, 506-07 (4th Cir. 2011) (observing that 

officer made traffic stop on basis of perceived violation of 
14

Maryland law that prohibits following another vehicle too 

closely).

In assessing the legitimacy of a traffic stop, we do not 

attempt to discern an officer’s subjective intent for stopping 

the vehicle. See United States v. Branch, 537 F.3d 328, 340 

(4th Cir. 2008). We simply ask whether “the circumstances, 

viewed objectively, justify th[e] action.” See Whren v. United 

States, 517 U.S. 806, 813 (1996) (internal quotation marks 

omitted); United States v. Johnson, 734 F.3d 270, 275 (4th Cir. 

2013) (observing that a traffic stop is legitimate “when 

officers observe a traffic violation, regardless of their true, 

subjective motives for stopping the vehicle”).

2.

Terry’s second prong restricts the range of permissible 

actions that a police officer may take after initiating a

traffic stop. An officer is entitled to conduct safety-related 

checks that do not bear directly on the reasons for the stop, 

such as requesting a driver’s license and vehicle registration, 

or checking for criminal records and outstanding arrest 

warrants. See Rodriguez v. United States, 135 S. Ct. 1609, 

1615-16 (2015). Generally, however, an officer’s focus must

remain on the bases for the traffic stop, in that the stop must

be “sufficiently limited in scope and duration to satisfy the 

conditions of an investigative seizure.” See United States v. 
15

Guijon-Ortiz, 660 F.3d 757, 764 (4th Cir. 2011) (internal 

quotation marks omitted).

Thus, when following up on the initial reasons for a 

traffic stop, the officer must employ “the least intrusive means 

reasonably available to verify or dispel [his] suspicion in a 

short period of time.” See Digiovanni, 650 F.3d at 507 

(internal quotation marks omitted). To be clear, the law does 

not require that the officer employ the least intrusive means 

conceivable. See United States v. Sharpe, 470 U.S. 675, 686-87 

(1985) (“A creative judge engaged in post hoc evaluation of 

police conduct can almost always imagine some alternative means 

by which the objectives of the police might have been 

accomplished.”). If an officer acts unreasonably in attempting 

to confirm his suspicions during a traffic stop, however, he 

runs afoul of Terry’s second prong.

Relatedly, a legitimate traffic stop may “become unlawful 

if it is prolonged beyond the time reasonably required” to 

complete its initial objectives. See Illinois v. Caballes, 543 

U.S. 405, 407 (2005). Put differently, an officer cannot 

investigate “a matter outside the scope of the initial stop” 

unless he receives the motorist’s consent or develops 

reasonable, articulable suspicion of ongoing criminal activity. 

See Digiovanni, 650 F.3d at 507.
16

Reasonable suspicion is a “commonsense, nontechnical” 

standard that relies on the judgment of experienced law 

enforcement officers, “not legal technicians.” See Ornelas v. 

United States, 517 U.S. 690, 695 (1996) (internal quotation 

marks omitted). As we recently explained in United States v. 

Williams, the articulated factors supporting reasonable 

suspicion during a traffic stop “must in their totality serve to 

eliminate a substantial portion of innocent travelers,” and also 

demonstrate a connection to criminal activity. See 808 F.3d 

238, 246 (4th Cir. 2015) (internal quotation marks omitted).

Finally, although an officer may extend a traffic stop when

he possesses reasonable suspicion, he cannot search the stopped 

vehicle unless he obtains consent, secures a warrant, or 

develops probable cause to believe the vehicle contains evidence 

of criminal activity. See United States v. Baker, 719 F.3d 313, 

319 (4th Cir. 2013). An officer’s detection of marijuana odor 

is sufficient to establish such probable cause, see United 

States v. Carter, 300 F.3d 415, 422 (4th Cir. 2002), as is a 

trained drug dog’s alert on the vehicle, see United States v. 

Kelly, 592 F.3d 586, 592 (4th Cir. 2010). With the foregoing 

principles in mind, we turn to the issues presented in Palmer’s 

appeal.
17

B.

1.

With respect to Terry’s first prong — whether Officer 

Ring’s articulated bases for the traffic stop were legitimate —

Palmer asserts that Ring lacked any objectively reasonable 

grounds for stopping the Nissan. That contention is meritless. 

Ring was familiar with the limits on window tint under Virginia 

law and, in his view, the Nissan’s windows were too dark. 

Palmer points to nothing that indicates the district court 

clearly erred in crediting Ring’s testimony on that issue. See

United States v. McGee, 736 F.3d 263, 271 (4th Cir. 2013) 

(concluding that district court’s reliance on officer’s

testimony regarding inoperative brake light was not clearly 

erroneous). As we have recognized, illegally tinted windows are

alone “sufficient to justify” a traffic stop. See Green, 740 

F.3d at 279 n.1. We thus reject Palmer’s contention that Ring 

lacked any objectively reasonable basis for stopping the Nissan.

2.

Turning to the events that transpired after the Nissan had 

been stopped, Palmer acknowledges that when an officer has 

probable cause to believe a vehicle contains contraband, the 

Fourth Amendment “permits police to search the vehicle without 

more.” See Br. of Appellant 31 (internal quotation marks 

omitted). While checking the Nissan’s inspection sticker, 
18

Officer Ring smelled marijuana. At that point, he had probable 

cause to believe the vehicle contained contraband, and was 

therefore entitled to search it. See Carter, 300 F.3d at 422. 

Thus, unless Palmer can demonstrate some constitutional 

violation between the time the stop began and the point that 

Ring smelled marijuana, the evidence cannot be suppressed.6 In 

that regard, Palmer asserts that Ring transgressed Terry’s 

second prong by taking actions during the traffic stop that were

not reasonably related in scope to the initial bases for the 

stop.

a.

According to Palmer, Officer Ring unreasonably expanded the 

scope of the stop by beginning an unjustified drug 

investigation. The government contends, however, that Ring’s 

actions were supported by reasonable suspicion.

A motorist stopped by the police is obliged to endure

“certain negligibly burdensome precautions” that may not relate 

directly to the reason for the traffic stop, such as checking 

whether the driver has a criminal record or outstanding 

warrants. See Rodriguez, 135 S. Ct. at 1616; see also Muehler 

 6 Rather than search immediately after smelling marijuana, 

Officer Ring waited about ten minutes for the drug dog Boomer to 

arrive. The dog’s alerts provided strong additional support for 

the proposition that the Nissan contained contraband. See

Kelly, 592 F.3d at 592.
19

v. Mena, 544 U.S. 93, 101 (2005) (concluding that questioning 

unrelated to basis for traffic stop was not unlawful because it 

did not extend detention). Those routine checks reflect the 

reality that traffic stops are “especially fraught with danger 

to police officers,” and further the strong interest in allowing 

an officer to complete his traffic mission safely. See Michigan 

v. Long, 463 U.S. 1032, 1047 (1983). Indeed, in Terry itself, 

the Supreme Court — describing “[t]he crux of th[e] case” —

emphasized the “immediate interest of the police officer in 

taking steps to assure himself that the person with whom he is 

dealing is not armed with a weapon that could unexpectedly and 

fatally be used against him.” See 392 U.S. at 23.

Palmer suggests that it was unreasonable for Officer Ring —

after learning of the “gang alert” indicating that Palmer was 

associated with the Bounty Hunter Bloods — “to delve into [his] 

prior criminal record,” because it had “absolutely nothing to do 

with investigating a window tint or inspection sticker 

violation.” See Br. of Appellant 18. To describe that

contention is to discard it. A police officer is entitled to

inquire into a motorist’s criminal record after initiating a 

traffic stop, and we cannot fault Ring — faced with a suspected 

member of a violent gang — for doing so here. See Green, 740 

F.3d at 281 (observing that “concern for officer safety” 

justified “criminal history check”). In short, Ring’s brief 
20

investigation into Palmer’s criminal record fell squarely within 

the range of actions permitted under Terry’s second prong.

Nor did Officer Ring’s detention of Palmer prior to 

smelling marijuana unreasonably expand the scope or duration of 

the traffic stop. We are satisfied that, after accessing

Palmer’s criminal record in LInX, Ring possessed a reasonable, 

articulable suspicion that Palmer was engaged in criminal 

activity. In other words, the information on which Ring relied

eliminated a substantial portion of innocent travelers and 

logically demonstrated a connection to unlawful conduct. The

Opinion identified eight factors in that regard: Palmer was in 

a high crime area where citizens were complaining about drug

dealing; Ring believed that the Nissan’s windows were illegally 

tinted; Palmer was nervous; the Nissan emitted an “overwhelming”

scent of air freshener from multiple air fresheners; Palmer was 

a suspected member of the Bounty Hunter Bloods; Palmer’s 

driver’s license listed a P.O. box address, rather than a 

residence; Palmer was driving a vehicle registered in another 

person’s name; and Palmer had “a criminal record that included 

four previous arrests for narcotics charges as well as a charge 

of possession of a firearm by a convicted felon.” See Opinion 

9.

Palmer insists that most of those factors “relate[] to 

perfectly innocent behavior and are not indicative of criminal 
21

activity.” See Br. of Appellant 19. He fails to appreciate, 

however, that reasonable suspicion is based on the totality of 

the circumstances, and may well “exist even if each fact 

standing alone is susceptible to an innocent explanation.” See

United States v. McCoy, 513 F.3d 405, 413-14 (4th Cir. 2008) 

(footnote omitted).

Resolving the reasonable-suspicion question turns on 

whether the articulated factors, taken together, showed a 

connection to ongoing criminal activity. Palmer maintains that 

the various factors evince Officer Ring’s “attempt to take a 

series of perfectly mundane, innocent, and easily explained 

behaviors and circumstances and weave them into a web of 

deception.” See Br. of Appellant 24 (internal quotation marks 

omitted). The government counters that Ring described how those

factors were connected to suspected criminal conduct.

As we have recognized with respect to a reasonablesuspicion inquiry, “it is entirely appropriate for courts to 

credit the practical experience of officers who observe on a 

daily basis what transpires on the street.” See Branch, 537 

F.3d at 336-37 (internal quotation marks omitted). We do not, 

however, credit that experience blindly. See Williams, 808 F.3d 

at 253. Instead, we expect police officers to articulate how 

that experience applies to the facts at hand. See United States 

v. Foster, 634 F.3d 243, 248 (4th Cir. 2011) (“[A]n officer and 
22

the Government must do more than simply label a behavior as 

‘suspicious’ to make it so.”).

Officer Ring knew that the Ipswich neighborhood was a highcrime area and that the police had received complaints about 

illegal drug activity there. See Branch, 537 F.3d at 338 

(observing that “an area’s propensity toward criminal activity 

is something that an officer may consider” in forming reasonable 

suspicion (internal quotation marks omitted)). It is compelling 

that, when Ring approached the darkly tinted Nissan, he smelled 

an overwhelming odor from the air fresheners that he could see 

in the vehicle, suggesting an effort to conceal the scent of 

drugs. See United States v. Foreman, 369 F.3d 776, 785 (4th 

Cir. 2004) (concluding that air fresheners on rearview mirror 

supported reasonable suspicion because they are “commonly used 

to mask the smell of narcotics”).

Significantly, Officer Ring learned, early in the traffic 

stop, that Palmer was a suspected member of the Bounty Hunter

Bloods. Ring knew that the Bloods had threatened law 

enforcement during his service as a police officer and that such

gangs are frequently involved in organized criminal activity 

such as “narcotics distribution.” See J.A. 86. Ring also

ascertained that Palmer had at least four earlier arrests on

drug charges and was probably a convicted felon. Indeed, he had

been charged previously as a felon in possession of a firearm.
23

As we explained in United States v. Sprinkle, “an officer can 

couple knowledge of prior criminal involvement with more 

concrete factors in reaching a reasonable suspicion of current 

criminal activity.” See 106 F.3d 613, 617 (4th Cir. 1997). At 

minimum, such “concrete factors” in this situation included the 

overwhelming odor from multiple air fresheners and Palmer’s

apparent gang membership.

Put succinctly, the factors identified by the Opinion —

viewed in their totality — eliminated a substantial portion of 

innocent travelers and demonstrated a connection to possible 

criminal activity.7 We are thus satisfied that Ring’s actions 

prior to examining the Nissan’s inspection sticker were entirely 

permissible under Terry’s second prong, because Ring did not

unreasonably expand the scope of the traffic stop.

 7 Some of the factors identified by the district court, 

when viewed in isolation, provide somewhat weaker support for 

reasonable suspicion. First, a driver’s nervousness is not a 

particularly good indicator of criminal activity, because most 

everyone is nervous when interacting with the police. See

Williams, 808 F.3d at 248. Second, the listing of a P.O. box as 

an address on a driver’s license, as opposed to a residential 

address, is not a strong indicator of suspicious conduct. See

id. at 250-51. Finally, simply driving a vehicle registered to 

an absent third party is also not a strong factor, but could, in 

the proper situation, indicate the possibility of a “stolen 

vehicle or drug trafficking.” See United States v. Ludwig, 641 

F.3d 1243, 1249 (10th Cir. 2011) (internal quotation marks 

omitted).
24

b.

Palmer also maintains that Officer Ring conducted a 

warrantless search of the Nissan without probable cause when he 

stuck his head inside the car to examine its inspection sticker.

According to Palmer, Ring’s actions constituted “the most 

intrusive means of confirming or dispelling the validity of the 

sticker.” See Br. of Appellant 33. The government counters 

that Ring did not conduct a search within the meaning of the 

Fourth Amendment, and argues that Ring was simply seeking “a 

better look” at “an item that a motorist is legally required to 

display on [his] vehicle for ready inspection by law 

enforcement.” See Br. of Appellee 38.

i.

Palmer frames his contention regarding Officer Ring’s 

examination of the inspection sticker in terms of 

“reasonableness.” Under the applicable principles, to contest 

Ring’s entry into the Nissan on the ground that it was an 

illegal search, Palmer must show that he had “a legitimate 

expectation of privacy in the area searched.” See United v. 

Castellanos, 716 F.3d 828, 832 (4th Cir. 2013) (relying on 

Rawlings v. Kentucky, 448 U.S. 98, 104-05 (1980)). Palmer has 

not asserted, much less shown, any legitimate expectation of 

privacy that was unreasonably infringed. He therefore cannot 

rely merely on Ring’s examination of the inspection sticker as a 
25

basis for suppressing the cocaine and firearm evidence. See id.

at 834-35 (recognizing that defendant who fails to show 

reasonable expectation of privacy cannot challenge warrantless 

search of vehicle).

ii.

Although Palmer has failed to establish any expectation of 

privacy, he also asserts that the district court clearly erred 

in its findings regarding the inspection sticker’s appearance

and, consequently, that Officer Ring lacked a reasonable 

suspicion that the sticker was fraudulent. Palmer also contends 

that Ring failed to utilize the least intrusive means reasonably 

available to investigate the sticker. We evaluate those

contentions under Terry’s second prong. See Guijon-Ortiz, 660 

F.3d at 764.

When reviewing factual findings for clear error, “[w]e 

particularly defer to a district court’s credibility 

determinations, for it is the role of the district court to 

observe witnesses and weigh their credibility during a pre-trial 

motion to suppress.” See United States v. Abu Ali, 528 F.3d 

210, 232 (4th Cir. 2008) (internal quotation marks omitted). 

The Opinion credited Officer Ring’s testimony regarding the 

appearance of the inspection sticker during the traffic stop,

explicitly relying on Ring’s observations that he “had seen 

numerous fraudulent stickers” and that the Nissan’s inspection 
26

sticker “looked like those fraudulent stickers he had seen in 

the past.” See Opinion 11. The district court also found that 

Ring could not see, from outside the Nissan, “the perforated 

portion that sits in the middle of the sticker and is designed 

to prevent sticker theft by detaching.” Id. Moreover, the 

court itself “examined the sticker both in the video [of the 

traffic stop] and in a photograph” that Palmer introduced into 

evidence. See id. at 12.

Based on Officer Ring’s testimony and the district court’s 

examination of the evidence, the Opinion found that the 

inspection sticker was lighter in color than normal and that 

“the perforated middle portion [was] not visible from the car’s 

outside.” See Opinion 12. Palmer characterizes the evidence 

differently, but points to nothing that contradicts the court’s 

findings. In such circumstances, we cannot say that the court 

clearly erred. See McGee, 736 F.3d at 271. Because Ring had a 

legitimate basis for believing that the inspection sticker was

fraudulent, we agree that the facts recited by the court, 

“coupled with Officer Ring’s training and experience with 

inspection stickers,” support the “reasonable suspicion Ring 

required to investigate the sticker’s authenticity.” See

Opinion 12.
27

iii.

Finally, Palmer argues that, even if Officer Ring possessed 

a reasonable suspicion that the inspection sticker was 

fraudulent, his means of investigation were improper. Palmer 

posits two alternatives in that regard: Ring could have “run 

the number on the sticker through the State Police database”; or

he could have “asked for the inspection certificate.” See Br. 

of Appellant 33. In assessing those alternatives, we must 

decide whether the district court correctly concluded that Ring 

employed “the least intrusive means reasonably available to 

verify or dispel [his] suspicion in a short period of time.” 

See Digiovanni, 650 F.3d at 507 (internal quotation marks 

omitted).

The burden of demonstrating the appropriateness of Officer 

Ring’s conduct is on the government. See Florida v. Royer, 460 

U.S. 491, 500 (1983) (plurality opinion). We are mindful, of 

course, that the “scope of the intrusion permitted will vary,”

depending on the specific facts and circumstances. Id. Again, 

we are bound by the findings of the district court unless they 

are clearly erroneous. See Abu Ali, 528 F.3d at 232. In 

rejecting Palmer’s theories for less intrusive alternatives, the 

Opinion explained that it was not clear that Officer Ring — a 

city police officer — had access to a state police database of

vehicle registration information. The Opinion also observed 
28

that there was no indication that the inspection certificate was

in the Nissan during the traffic stop.

We cannot doubt Officer Ring’s statement that he was not

familiar with any state database such as Palmer describes. Nor 

are we persuaded that the presence or absence of the inspection

certificate has any significance. Ring was entitled to ask 

Palmer to step out of the vehicle, see Pennsylvania v. Mimms, 

434 U.S. 106, 111 (1977) (per curiam), and it does not give us 

pause — in light of Palmer’s affiliation with a violent gang,

his prior criminal charges, and his apparent felony conviction —

that Ring would request that Palmer exit the Nissan rather than

have him reach for something out of sight in the passenger 

compartment. Finally, neither of Palmer’s proposals would have 

been more expeditious, because Ring — in examining the back of 

the inspection sticker — was promptly in and out of the Nissan. 

The government has therefore satisfied its burden, readily 

showing that Ring’s means of investigating the inspection 

sticker were appropriate and not unreasonably intrusive.

In these circumstances, we are convinced that no 

constitutional violation occurred. See Sharpe, 470 U.S. at 687 

(“The question is not simply whether some other alternative was 

available, but whether the police acted unreasonably in failing 

to recognize or to pursue it.”). As a result, the district 

court correctly denied Palmer’s suppression motion.
29

IV.

Pursuant to the foregoing, the judgment of the district 

court is affirmed.

AFFIRMED
30

WYNN, Circuit Judge, concurring:

I fully concur in the majority opinion. I write separately 

to emphasize that while the Supreme Court omitted criminal 

background checks from its list of “ordinary inquiries” 

authorized incident to every traffic stop, Rodriguez v. United 

States, 135 S. Ct. 1609, 1615 (2015), this Court in United 

States v. Green, 740 F.3d 275 (4th Cir. 2014), held that a 

traffic stop was reasonably prolonged in order to conduct a 

background check because the driver’s “demeanor and behavior 

throughout the traffic stop in conjunction with [an outstanding] 

protective order [against the driver] raised concerns about 

officer safety.” Id. at 281.

In this case, the specific circumstances of the stop 

indicate the officer had at least some legitimate concern for 

his own safety. Thus, I agree with the majority opinion that 

“we cannot fault Ring – faced with a suspected member of a 

violent gang – for [inquiring into the motorist’s criminal 

record] here.” Ante, at 19.