CLIMATE VARIATION AND ITS 

EFFECTS ON OUR LAND AND WATER

Part B. Current Research by the Geological Survey

OF ALASKA

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CIRCULAR 776-B
WORKSHOP ON EARTH SCIENTISTS' PERSPECTIVES OF CLIMATE CHANGE

Convened near Denver, Colorado, December 7-9, 1976

WORKSHOP COMMITTEE & EDITORIAL BOARD

David S. Fullerton, committee, editor, Denver, Colo. 

Keith A. Howard, convener, editor, Menlo Park, Calif. 

Richard F. Madole, committee, Denver, Colo. 

Harold E. Malde, committee, Denver, Colo. 

Mark F. Meier, editor, Tacoma, Wash. 

Steven S. Oriel, convener, editor, Denver, Colo. 

Kenneth L. Pierce, chairman of Workshop, Denver, Colo. 

George I. Smith, editor, Menlo Park, Calif.

GUEST SPEAKERS

Alan D. Hecht, National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C. 

Stephen H. Schneider, National Center for Atmospheric Research, 

Boulder, Colo.

PARTICIPANTS

David P. Adam, Menlo Park, Calif. 

Thomas A. Ager, Reston, Va. 

J. Platt Bradbury, Denver, Colo. 

Farrel A. Branson, Denver, Colo. 

Walter Dean, Denver, Colo. 

Robert W. Fleming, Denver, Colo. 

Norman O. Frederiksen, Reston, Va. 

Irving Friedman, Denver, Colo. 

James V. Gardner, Menlo Park, Calif. 

Edward J. Gilroy, Reston, Va. 

Thomas D. Hamilton, Menlo Park, Calif. 

Darrell G. Herd, Menlo Park, Calif. 

Thor N. V. Karlstrom, Flagstaff, Ariz. 

Denis Marchand, Menlo Park, Calif. 

C. Daniel Miller, Denver, Colo. 

Robert N. Oldale, Woods Hole, Ma. 

Richard Z. Poore, Menlo Park, Calif. 

Gerald M. Richmond, Denver, Colo. 

John N. Rosholt, Jr., Denver, Colo. 

Robert W. Rowland, Reston, Va. 

Meyer Rubin, Reston, Va. 

Eugene M. Shoemaker, Flagstaff, Ariz. 

Robert S. Sigafoos, Reston, Va. 

John D. Sims, Menlo Park, Calif. 

Joshua I. Tracey, Jr., Reston, Va. 

Raymond M. Turner, Tucson, Ariz.

Carl M. Wentworth, Jr., Menlo Park, Calif. 

Issac J. Winograd, Reston, Va. 

Thomas C. Winter, Denver, Colo. 

Jack A. Wolfe, Menlo Park, Calif.

CONSULTANTS

Henry L. Berryhill, Jr., Corpus Christi, Tex.

G. Brent Dalrymple, Menlo Park, Calif.

Maurice J. Grolier, Reston, Va.

Bruce B. Hanshaw, Reston, Va.

David M. Hopkins, Menlo Park, Calif.

Richard J. Janda, Menlo Park, Calif.

Arthur H. Lachenbruch, Menlo Park, Calif.

Clifford A. Kaye, Reston, Va.

Walter B. Langbein, Reston, Va.

Harry F. Lins, Reston, Va.

John O. Maberry, Denver, Colo.

Nicholas C. Matalas, Reston, Va.

John C. Reed, Reston, Va.

Ray E. Wilcox, Denver, Colo.

Paul L. Williams, Denver, Colo.
Climate Variation and Its Effects 

on Our Land and Water

Part B. Current Research by the Geological Survey

By George I. Smith, Editor

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CIRCULAR 776-B

A product of the Workshop on Earth Scientists' Perspectives of Climate Change, 

convened near Denver, Colorado, December 7-9, 1976

1978
United States Department of the Interior 

CECIL D. ANDRUS, Secretary

Geological Survey

W. A. Radlinski, Acting Director

Free on application to Branch of Distribution, U.S. Geological Survey, 1200 South Eads Street, Arlington, VA 22202
PREFACE

The enormous impact on society of climatic variation is 

being recognized increasingly by both the public and government. 

Numerous recent publications as diverse as the public press, 

governmental documents, scientific journals, and special volumes 

of learned societies have dealt with the subject. Despite this 

heightened awareness of human vulnerability to shifts of climate, 

solutions to the political and scientific problems involved 

continue to be elusive.

Climate changes constantly. The reasons for climatic 

variability are not well understood, however, despite the 

formulation of many attractive and reasonable hypotheses. 

Perhaps of even greater concern is the growing realization that 

we do not yet fully understand the numerous subtle ways in which 

changing climate affects us. These are problems that merit more 

concentrated scientific attention.

Climate is generally considered primarily of interest to 

atmospheric scientists. Yet all scientists who have dealt with 

the earth, and even with other planetary bodies, have had to 

consider climatic problems. That past changes of climate on 

Earth have-exceeded those measured by meteorologists is well 

recorded in rocks and surface features studied by earth 

scientists. The detailed histories of parts of the Earth's crust 

developed in studies of resource and environmental problems 

document beyond doubt that many of the differences in rocks and 

fossils found in local stratigraphic sequences were caused by 

changes in climate and their geological consequences. The rates 

at which geologic processes modify the landscape and impact man's 

use of the land are affected by climatic changes. And water 

supplies are obviously affected by changing climatic patterns.

In the course of their studies of the Earth and its geologic 

history, scientists of the Geological Survey have thus also 

contributed to a better understanding of past climatic changes. 

They are also fully aware of their obligation to help apply that 

knowledge of climatic history to the recognition of present and 

future climatic trends and to their probable future impact on 

human activities.

For these reasons, a workshop was convened near Denver on 

December 7-9, 1976, by scientists of the Geological Survey to 

explore the role of earth science in addressing national needs 

regarding information on climate. This three-part report is an 

outgrowth of the discussions by members of the workshop. Part A 

explores the roles and methods of the earth sciences in climatic 

research. Part B summarizes the types of climate-oriented work 

now being carried out by earth scientists of the Geological 

Survey. Part C proposes a research strategy designed to increase 

our understanding of the earth-science aspects of climatic 

variation.

Director

U.S. Geological Survey

*
CONTENTS

Page

Summary --------------------------------------- 1

Introduction ---------------------------------- 2

Past traditions and present responsibilities -- 2

Current research ------------------------------ 3

I. Present climate-related processes

and indices --------------------- ---- 6

II. Short-term changes in climate ---------- 12

III. Long-term changes in climate ---------- 21

IV. Areal distributions of past climate --- 28

V. Dating and correlation methods ---------- 30

Selected bibliography ------------------------ 34
Climate Variation and Its Effects on Our Land and Water 

Part B. Current Research by the Geological Survey

By George I. Smith, Editor

SUMMARY

The U.S. Geological Survey is one of the world's major institutions of 

earth-science research, with responsibilities for gathering information on 

the Nation's resources and physical environment. Geology and hydrology, 

two of the major disciplines in the Survey, are intimately tied to climatic 

processes. Many of the research investigations undertaken by the 

Geological Survey, therefore, have been producing information on past and 

present climates and their effects.

The Survey was established almost a century ago, in large part because 

of the need for better understanding of the West where the landscape 

presents a natural laboratory that displays the varied effects of geologic 

and climatic processes. About half of today's programs in the Survey are 

concerned with processes that occur at or near the Earth's surface, and 

information related to climate is either required or generated as a 

byproduct. Most water-resource investigations collect data having climatic 

significance, and about 15 percent of the geologic investigations make 

identifiable contributions. Although primarily concerned with other 

objectives, approximately 1,500 Survey scientists are presently involved in 

studies that relate to our present climate, past climates, and climate's 

effect on land and water resources.

Current research that is generating data of climatic significance in 

the Geological Survey has great breadth and depth. Processes related to 

present climate that are under study involve glaciers, runoff, ground 

water, plant and animal communities, erosion, evaporation, lakes, water 

chemistry, isotope ratios, permafrost, weathering and soil formation, 

sedimentation, estuaries and near shore environments, and more. Geological 

techniques and criteria that provide data on climates of the past include 

paleoecology, isotope geology and hydrology, tree-ring study, stratigraphy, 

glaciology, pedology, geochemistry, geomorphology, and study of 

near-surface thermal profiles. An extensive capability for dating and 

correlating the climatic events, variations, and environments indicated by 

these criteria rounds out the Geological Survey's ability to contribute to 

studies of past climate variations.

This Circular presents a summary of the types of work in progress in 

the Geological Survey and gives brief examples of the rationale and results 

of about 50 selected efforts. Many of these efforts are described in 

detail by one or more of the several hundred technical publications by 

Survey authors listed at the end of this report. The studies that are 

related to climate are divided into five categories: I. present 

climate-related processes and indices that provide baseline data for 

climatic interpretation; II. geologically short-term changes in climate; 

III. geologically longer term climate changes, IV. the areal 

distributions of past climates; and V. dating and correlation methods.
INTRODUCTION

The U.S. Geological Survey is one 

of the world's major institutions of 

earth-science research, with 

responsibilities for gathering 

information on the Nation's resources 

and physical environment. Geology and 

hydrology, two of the major disciplines 

in the Survey, are intimately tied to 

climatic processes, and many of the 

research investigations undertaken by 

the Geological Survey, therefore, have 

been producing information on past and 

present climates and their effects. 

These investigations, however, are 

mostly undertaken for specific mission 

objectives, and the climatic aspects of 

the work have previously lacked strong 

focus and visibility. As a first step 

in better identifying and coordinating 

the climatic work within the Survey, a 

USGS Workshop on "Earth Scientists' 

Perspectives of Climatic Change" was 

convened near Denver, Colorado, December 

7-9, 1976.

This Circular is a product of that 

workshop. Because of its diverse 

subject matter, it is divided into three 

parts that are bound separately. Part A 

helps provide a focus and perspective by 

exploring the role of earth science in 

climatic research. Part B (this report) 

summarizes the types of climate-oriented 

research now being carried out by the 

Geological Survey. Part C recommends 

the establishment of a specific program 

of climatic research which would serve 

to expand the Survey's present efforts 

and also provide maximum coordination of 

the climate-related work undertaken for 

other reasons.

PAST TRADITIONS AND PRESENT 

RESPONSIBILITIES

The Geological Survey was 

established almost a century ago, in 

large part because of the need for 

better understanding of the West where 

the landscape presents a natural

laboratory that displays the varied 

effects of geologic and climatic 

processes. Among the eminent members of 

the new agency was a nucleus of earth 

scientists dedicated to documenting and 

understanding the effects on the 

landscape of the present climate and the 

evidence of past changes. Examples of 

this early work illustrate the 

beginnings of a tradition in the Survey 

to understand climatic effects.

 John Wesley Powell and N. S. Shaler 

published reports that could have 

largely prevented the dust bowls of the 

1930's had they been heeded. Powell 

understood and forcefully advocated as 

early as 1878 that water was of 

overriding importance in the development 

and management of the western lands, and 

that any "improvements" in rainfall are 

likely to be parts of cycles and thus 

temporary. Unfortunately, climatic 

change that was favorable to farming 

happened to follow plowing of the high 

plains, and his arguments were ignored 

as the wishful conviction spread that 

"rain follows the plow." Less than 15 

years later, Shaler demonstrated that 

the formation of soil, so necessary to 

agriculture, requires geologic intervals 

of time. He advocated that inasmuch as 

its destruction occurs rapidly after 

tillage, both man and his government 

have a duty to succeeding generations to 

protect and conserve the soil an 

obligation that was largely avoided 

until the early part of the present 

century.

 G. K. Gilbert recognized the value of 

monitoring subtle landscape changes by 

use of photographs in the 1880's and he 

set up camera stations that could be 

(and have been) reoccupied by later 

generations for that purpose.

 I. C. Russell and G. K. Gilbert 

published reports between 1885 and 1890 

that described the Pleistocene histories 

of Lakes Lahontan, Mono, and Bonneville 

in the Great Basin and provided some of 

the first field evidence of the relation 

between lake expansion and the times of 

glaciation in adjacent mountains.
 T. C. Chamberlin and Frank Leverett 

were part of the group that first mapped 

and described the stratigraphy of the 

glacial succession in the midcontinental 

U.S. Before 1900 they had named and 

defined the Wisconsin, Illinoian, and 

Kansas Glaciations and the Sangamon, 

Yarmouth, and Aftonian Interglaciations.

Since the inception of the 

Geological Survey, therefore, its 

scientists have been studying the impact 

of climate on geologic and hydrologic 

processes. The Survey's responsibilities for doing so began with 

the Organic Act of 1879, which broadly 

authorized the new agency to undertake 

the "...classification of the public 

lands, and examination of the geological 

structure, mineral resources, and 

products of the national domain." 

Subsequent acts and the separation of 

portions of the Survey that became new 

entities (the Forest Service, the Bureau 

of Reclamation, the Bureau of American 

Ethnology, the Grazing Service which is 

now incorporated in the Bureau of Land 

Management, the Bureau of Mines, and the 

Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie 

Institution) have led to present-day 

Survey responsibilities focusing on the 

Nation's energy, mineral, land, and 

water resources. Today the Survey's 

principal mission is to collect the 

factual information and develop the 

expertise that will provide a reliable 

basis for (1) the identification and 

evaluation of the Nation's land, water, 

mineral, and energy resources, and (2) 

policy- and decision-making on the part 

of the Administration, the Congress, 

State and local governments, and the 

general public. Clearly, an increased 

knowledge of the effects of climate 

change on the Nation's land and water 

resources serves both parts of this 

mission.

CURRENT RESEARCH

About half of the current programs 

in the Geological Survey contribute some 

information on present or past climates. 

Their concerns are with processes that

occur at or near the earth's surface, 

and information related to climate is 

either required or generated as a 

byproduct. Most water-resource 

investigations involve collecting and 

interpreting data of climatic 

significance, and about 15 percent of 

the Survey's geologic investigations are 

making identifiable contributions to the 

subject. We estimate that about 1,500 

professional hydrologists, geologists, 

mathematicians, chemists, 

paleontologists, biologists, 

limnologists, and representatives of 

other sciences in the Geological Survey 

are presently involved in studies that 

relate to our present climate, past 

climates, and climate's effect on land 

and water resources.

Much of the Geological Survey's 

ability to contribute to studies of 

long-term climate variation stems from 

its capability for dating and 

correlating geologic events of the last 

few million years. The Survey has 

radiometric dating facilities at each of 

its three major centers (Reston, Va., 

Denver, Colo., and Menlo Park, Calif.), 

and several of the techniques available, 

including carbon-14, potassium-argon, 

uranium series, and fission track, 

provide ages useful for Quaternary 

studies. Approximately 25 Survey 

scientists and technicians, excluding 

supporting staff, produce and interpret 

more than 2,000 age measurements each 

year using these four techniques alone.

In addition to radiometric dating, 

a number of other methods are being 

developed or used by about 100 

scientists. Techniques based on tree 

rings, varves, annual snow layering of 

glaciers, archaeology, paleomagnetism, 

and fossils are relatively well 

established, although refinements in 

them continue. Other techniques using 

obsidian hydration, superhydration, 

thermoluminescence, amino-acid 

racemization, lichenometry, mineral 

alteration, soil development, rock 

weathering, and rind-thickness methods 

are in varying stages of development.
U S.GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

MAP OF

GLACIER BAY

Surveyed in 1890and 92

BY 

Harry FieldingReid

10

10 20 30 KILOMETERS

Survey geologist H. F. Reid began studies in the 1890's designed to monitor climatic cycles as expressed by 

changes in existing glaciers. Reid's map of Glacier Bay, Alaska,m 1890-91 (left), when compared with a 

1973 Landsat photograph (right), shows that in eight decades the terminus of the Muir Glacier (arrows) has 

recede^'about 34 km.

Activities in the Geological Survey 

that require or produce information 

on climate

Reduction of natural hazards

Landslides

Glacier-related hazards

Floods

Ground subsidence

Earthquakes and faults 

Land resource utilization

Classification of Federal lands

Urban studies

Land use information

Fragile environments 

Water supply and utilization

Surface-water resources

Ground-water resources

Water quality and geochemistry

Effects of water management

strategies 

Mineral and energy supply and utilization

Geothermal resources

Environmental effects of energy 

production

Mineral resources

Regulation of exploration, development, and production from 

onshore and offshore Federal lands 

^Special concerns

Management of radioactive waste

Siting constraints on nuclear power 

reactors

Environmental impact analysis

Advances in the methods of 

correlating deposits that are physically 

separate and lithologically different 

are continuing. Tephrochronology, the 

most precise and highly developed basis 

for correlation of widespread volcanic 

ash deposits, is the main concern of 

about 10 research scientists in the 

Survey. Stable-isotope evidence of 

climate or climatically related events 

is being produced in three laboratories 

and used by 10 or 20 research projects. 

Quantitative application of geomorphic 

evidence of correlation is used to 

varying extents by dozens of projects 

and programs.

The breadth and depth of current 

research makes it impractical to 

describe each program and project that 

is generating data of climatic 

significance. What follows is a summary 

of the types of work in progress and 

brief examples of the rationale and 

results of selected efforts. Many of 

these efforts are described in detail by 

one or more of the technical 

publications listed in the bibliography 

at the end of this report.

Studies now being carried out that 

are related to climate can be 

conveniently divided into five 

categories: I. present climate-related 

processes and indices that provide 

baseline data for climatic 

interpretation; II. geologically short 

term changes in climate; III. 

geologically longer term climate 

changes; IV. the areal distributions of 

past climates; and V. dating and 

correlation methods. The relation 

between these categories is illustrated 

by the diagram below.

I. PRESENT CLIMATE-RELATED 

PROCESSES AND INDICES

Our present climate is reflected in

MAGNITUDE OF 

CLIMATE VARIATION

I. Present climaterelated processes

\

V. Dating and correlation methods

"Present" time IV. Areal distribution and 

nature of past climate variation

AGE

GEOGRAPHIC AREA AFFECTED 

BY CLIMATE VARIATION

Categories of Geological Survey research related to climate.
a number of natural processes that are 

observable directly or indirectly. Some 

processes are almost instantly 

responsive to the climate of the 

moment the weather whereas others 

integrate and average the effects of 

weather and climate over longer periods. 

Response times range from minutes to 

several thousand years. The value of 

studying the more rapidly responding 

phenomena is twofold. They provide a 

statistical basis for estimating the 

likelihood that a given short-term 

variation in a climate or a 

climate-related event will happen in a 

given area, and thus help decisionmakers 

to avoid hazards and make the best use 

of our land and water resources. They 

also serve as the means by which the 

geologic consequences of climate and 

climate change can be observed and 

quantitatively related to the climatic 

elements that caused them, so the past 

climates can be interpreted 

quantitatively when evidence of them 

occurs in the geologic record.

Current projects that concentrate 

on climate-related processes and indices 

mostly fall into one or more of the 

following categories:

- Periodic or continuous measurement 

of streamflow at 1,100 gaging 

stations in 50 states.

- Systematic measurements of depths 

to ground water, and monitoring and 

recording their variations.

- Comparison of historic climate 

patterns with the ages and growth 

rings of trees, the age 

distributions of selected species of 

plants, and documented changes in 

the natural vegetation and the 

composition and amount of airborne 

pollen.

- Comparison of the amount of 

precipitation with the amount of 

runoff.

- Development of mathematical 

expressions that relate stream and 

river channel geometry to flow 

volumes.

- Measurement of erosion rates by

200

1940 1950 1960 1970 1980

Climatic variations are expressed by fluctuations of 

glaciers, but it is necessary to understand the 

dynamic response mechanism of glaciers: how 

changes in thickness translate into changes in the 

rate of ice deformation and the speed of sliding on 

the bed. After many years of thinning, the 

Nisqually Glacier, Washington, began thickening in 

1945-46. This was one of the first recorded 

observations of a response to the world-wide 

cooling trend that began in the mid-1940's. During 

the ensuing decade, as shown by this diagram, the 

speed of flow also increased. The wave of 

thickening travelled rapidly downglacier causing 

the terminus to advance 520 meters between 1953 and 

1966.

determining volumes of sediment and 

dissolved materials that are 

removed, carried, and deposited by 

running water.

- Studying the initiation, growth, 

and stabilization of a variety of 

erosional landforms in relation to 

major climatic events.

- Identification for future 

comparative purposes of remote areas 

that have geological and biological 

characteristics comparable to less 

remote areas being affected by man.

- Measurement and calculation of 

evaporation from lakes and 

reservoirs as a function of water 

temperature, air humidity, wind, and 

solar radiation.

- Study of the relation of lake 

hydrology, limnology, and water 

chemistry to regional hydrology and 

climate.

- Measurement and mapping of changes 

in the terminus positions and 

dimensions of glaciers which respond 

to climate.
- Measurement of the - hydrologic 

balance of existing glaciers, and 

relating those measurements and 

physical changes in glaciers to 

climate.

- Determination of the physical 

processes involved in glacier flow 

and volume changes so that 

measurements of them can be related 

to climate.

- Computer modeling the relations 

between water velocity and volume, 

sediment load, slope of flow, 

channel geometry, and sediment 

deposition.

- Measurement of the annual and 

regional variations in the 

stable-isotope composition of 

surface and ground water, ice, and 

vegetation in different climatic 

settings.

- Measurement of the variations in 

the stable-isotope composition of 

rain and snow during and between 

storms, between areas, and between 

years.

- Measurement of the variations in 

the stable-isotope composition of 

evaporating water in closed-basin 

lakes as functions of weather, 

evaporation, and crystallizing 

salts.

- Studying climate-related current 

movements, salinity variations, and 

sedimentation patterns in delta, 

estuary, bay, and near-shore marine 

environments.

- Determining the ecologic limits of 

marine faunas and floras, and the 

natural climatic events that cause 

recorded stress or wholesale 

mortalities.

- Monitoring thermal profiles in 

permafrost areas.

- Studying the rates, mechanisms, 

and types of weathering and soil 

formation caused by present 

climates.

- Measurement of variations in 

temperature, moisture, and other 

variables in the near-surface parts 

of deposits where climatically

controlled soil-forming reactions 

occur.

- Monitoring throughout much of the 

world of seasonal and yearly changes 

in glaciers, vegetation, and albedo 

by study of Landsat pictures and 

other types of satellite imagery. 

The total impact of the contributions 

made by above-listed types of projects 

can be better assessed by more detailed 

descriptions of a few.

 Data on the fluctuations of 114 

U.S. glaciers over the five-year period 

1970-75 show some are advancing, some 

are retreating, and some are stationary. 

The data illustrate the complexity of 

relating areal differences and 

short-term changes in climate to glacier 

activity.

 A series of "hydrologic benchmark" 

stations, established in areas 

relatively unaffected by and permanently 

protected from man's activities, allow 

for continuing observation of 

ground-water level, streamflow, water 

chemistry, sediment transport, and 

channel geometry in relation to long 

term climatic records. The benchmark 

stations are intended to aid recognition 

of the relative importance of climatic 

events and the activities of man on 

surficial processes.

 The "Vigil Network" consists of 

areas where systematic repeated 

observations of changes in the landscape 

are made through use of relatively 

simple instruments. Changes in 

landforms and vegetation can be related 

to meteorologic and hydrologic records 

and the activities of man.

 Aircraft and spacecraft photography 

and imagery are being used to compile

South Cascade Glacier, Washington, is the main site 

for glaciological research by the Geological Survey. 

The elevations of about 100 points on the surface of 

the South Cascade Glacier were determined in 1970 

and again in 1976 by the simultaneous use of theodolite 

and laser measuring devices as shown here. Changes 

in the level of the horizontally located points give the 

change in the average thickness and volume of the 

glacier. Between 1970 and 1976 the glacier thickened, 

and the observed mass change was corroborated by 

measured differences between the snow that accumulated and the ice that melted.

8
'*;
Left; The dust storm of February 23, 1977 in the western great plains, as seen from the GOES-1 Weather 

Satellite about seven hours after the period of most intense surface erosion (3 p.m. local time). Two large 

plumes can be seen, which in these pictures are gray in contrast to the lighter clouds and much darker gray 

ground surface. The white arrow points to one source area of the southernmost plume in the Clovis-Portales 

region of eastern New Mexico. This plume extends almost across the entire central part of the state of 

Texas. The black arrow points to another large plume that originated in eastern Colorado, and that at the 

time of this picture had reached southern Oklahoma. Right: During a seven hour period on February 23, this 

barbed wire fence was almost completely buried by sand and silt that was eroded from a large field to the 

right. Similar drifts buried wheat fields downwind from severely eroded areas. The drifts are composed of 

the coarser sand and silt that was moved during the windstorm; the silt and clay was carried away in 

suspension and provided the material for the plume that rose to heights of thousands of feet only a few hours 

after the windstorm began. Note relatively undamaged rangeland in the background (arrow). The degree of 

erosion depended on soil type, vegetative cover, and soil moisture; in general, irrigated fields suffered 

less than areas where dry farming was being practiced.

land-use and land cover maps and related 

data of the entire United States. When 

processed to separate the different 

wavelengths of reflected light, they 

indicate what percentage of solar 

radiation that reaches the ground is 

returned to the atmosphere or to space. 

In populated areas, land uses influence 

the percentage and wavelengths of 

reflected energy and change the energy 

balance. With the quantitative 

definition of these characteristics, in 

conjunction with solar and atmospheric 

data, it is possible to determine the 

net radiation, radiation temperature, 

and albedo of both populated and 

unpopulated areas. These are essential 

data in evaluating the thermal 

interaction between the atmosphere and

ground surfaces, and they allow 

estimates to be made of the impact on 

climate caused by man's alteration of 

the landscape.

 Study of the precipitation that 

fell at the stations on the slopes of 

the Sierra Nevada, California, and in 

areas to the east during the 1968-69 

season shows that the stable-isotope 

composition of precipitation is chiefly 

controlled by the temperatures at 

condensation levels and by trajectories 

of air masses relative to the large 

mountain range. Large variations in the 

deuterium content of precipitation 

occurred during storms and between 

storms. However, correlations exist 

between the isotopic composition of the 

precipitation and the location and

10
The content of oxygen-18 in calcite deposited as crusts beneath existing glaciers records the oxygen-isotope 

composition of the ice. Temperate glaciers, like the Blackfoot Glacier in Glacier National Park, Montana, 

dissolve carbonate minerals on the uphill side (dark areas of photograph) of irregularities in the carbonate 

bedrock and deposits calcite on the downhill side (light areas) where the pressure at the ice-rock interface 

lessens, the meltwater freezes, and the remaining solution concentrates to the point of resaturation. 

Isotopic analyses of carbon and oxygen in bedrock calcite and subglacially redeposited calcite show that the 

carbon-13 content of the subglaciai calcite reflects that of the parent bedrock whereas the oxygen-18 content 

is that of the glacier ice. Subglaciai calcite that originated beneath Pleistocene continental ice sheets is 

therefore also expected to reflect the oxygen-isotopic composition of the Pleistocene snow, a function of 

prevailing air temperatures and stormtracks. Photograph by Bernard Hallet, Stanford University, California.

1.1
elevation of the station, the amount of 

precipitation, the month in which the 

storm occurred, and the 

early-versus-late stages of the same 

storm. Significant variations also 

occurred in the precipitation of 

successive years, as shown by snow cores 

over a period of five years.

 Owens Lake, California, which is 

normally dry, was flooded in 1969 as a 

result of an uncommonly large amount of 

rain and snow the previous winter. 

During 1970 and 1971, as the lake dried 

up and salts crystallized, observations 

of the types of minerals, the chemical 

composition of the brine, and the 

isotopic composition of both provided a 

basis for interpreting the mineralogy 

and isotopic composition of salts that 

crystallized in Pleistocene lakes and 

the climates in which they formed.

 Arroyo cutting is caused by runoff 

from intense summer rains. Near Santa 

Fe, New Mexico, the development of 

arroyos has been measured by repeated 

surveys and photography, and the 

rainfall and resulting discharge that 

caused the arroyo growth have also been 

measured. Measured discharges accounted 

for up to 30 percent of the rain that 

fell in the drainage area, total flow 

times during erosional episodes could 

have been as brief as 30 minutes, and 

headward cutting rates approached 3 

m/yr. In Arizona, headward cutting 

rates have been measured that exceed 30 

m/yr.

 Study of time-sequential aerial 

photographs, in conjunction with weather 

and streamflow records going back to the 

19th century, has helped evaluate the 

degree to which recent timber harvest 

and road construction have influenced 

the erosional impacts of infrequent high 

magnitude floods in the Redwood National 

Park of northwestern California. The 

results have been used in drafting 

forest practices legislation and in 

resolving controversies concerning 

physical protection of the park, and 

they provide baseline data on the 

relation between climate-related

events floods and erosion in similar 

areas.

 Sclerochronology, the marine 

counterpart of dendrochronology, is the 

study of the density bands of stony 

corals. It shows promise of providing a 

means of detecting and dating past 

environmental variations in shallow warm 

coastal seas. For example, a patch reef 

off southeast Florida was almost 

entirely killed by an abnormal influx of 

cold water during the winter of 1969-70. 

Cores from the tops of large dead 

corals, as well as from those that 

survived the winter, show that stress 

caused by periods of cold decreases the 

thickness of the annual growth bands as 

detected by X-radiography. Atmospheric 

temperature data from a nearby weather 

station confirm that stress bands in the 

corals for the years 1970, 1964, 1958, 

and 1942 can be explained by abnormally 

cold winter air temperatures. Some 

coral heads may have lived as long as 

400 to 500 years; the history of cold 

periods is expected to be recorded in 

them.

II. SHORT-TERM CHANGES IN CLIMATE

Short-term changes in geologically 

recent climate are here considered to be 

those occurring during the last several 

decades to a few thousand years. They 

provide data on the magnitude, rate, 

frequency, and duration of infrequent 

weather events and changes in climate 

that are representative of those that 

can occur within the framework of our 

present "interglacial" climate. These 

changes provide the records of climatic 

phenomena that occurred over longer 

periods of time than modern instrumental 

records provide and become the basis for 

estimating the probability and 

consequences of climate variations that 

could occur without prolonged shift in 

atmospheric circulation patterns. An 

added benefit stemming from some of 

these studies is that they help identify 

climate-related hazards that increased 

in recent times as a result of man's

12
SUMMER 

CLOUDINESS

SNOW 

ACCUMULATION

SNOW AND 

ICE MELT

1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980

Reconstruction by computer modeling of the annual accumulation, ablation, and mass balance of glaciers in the 

North Cascades of Washington shows that the period of pronounced glacier recession, which began before 188^, 

ended about 19<*5. A decrease in the summer air temperature of 0.5 degrees (C), or an increase in winter snow 

accumulation of 10 percent (0.35 mm), would have caused these glaciers to grow instead of losing mass during 

this period. Winter snow accumulation since 19^5 has been greater and summer ablation less than the 

188^-1975 average, meaning that the glaciers are now "healthy." The greater cloud cover shown during this 

period is probably responsible for more stable glacier balances during this period. The newly developed 

computer program that calculates cloud cover as well as the other variables shown above only requires data on 

low-altitude precipitation, temperature, and streamf low.

activities rather than from a change in 

the climate itself.

Current projects that focus on 

historic and geologically short-term 

variations in climate and supply data on 

them, mostly fall under one or more of 

the following program categories:

- Calculating, on the basis of 

stream-flow gaging data, the 

likelihood of past and future stream 

flows of all magnitudes, including 

those not actually represented by 

historic records.

- Documenting, by use of photographs 

made several decades apart, the 

climatically caused changes that 

have occurred in plant populations, 

in geomorphic features, in the 

extent of erosion, in the lengths of

glaciers, and in the levels of 

rivers and lakes.

- Deriving, from tree growth rings, 

a history of past changes in 

precipitation, available ground 

water, or growth-season 

temperatures.

- Differentiating between the damage 

caused by high magnitude weather 

events that is a natural response 

versus an excessive response as a 

consequence of man's activities.

- Establishing, by means of 

fossiliferous stratigraphic 

sequences, the patterns of past 

changes in climate-sensitive 

biota pollen, seeds, leaves, wood, 

the bones and shells of animals, and 

the remains of man.

13
Arroyos, which grow headward by progressive erosion, have been forming in the American Southwest since the 

1880's, a circumstance seemingly initiated and perpetuated by the prevailing arid and semiarid climate. 

Under this climate, the dense ground cover needed to promote infiltration of rainfall and to impede erosion 

cannot develop. These two photographs document the rapidity of this destructive form of erosion. The left 

photograph was taken in 1915 by N. H. Darton; arroyo cutting was underway as shown by the bank of an arroyo 

in the middle distance (arrow), but the area invaded by arroyos was still comparatively small. The right 

photograph was taken in the same time of the year by H. E. Malde in 1970; arroyo cutting had expanded into 

the area where Darton had stood, and the grassland of the middle distance had become more barren.

Compiling, in areas where 

sedimentary processes were 

responsive to climate, 

age-controlled stratigraphic records 

of climatic variations indicated by 

changes in the sediments and by 

discontinuities in their deposition. 

- Systematically measuring, in 

geothermally stable areas and over a 

period of years, the changes in 

near-surface temperature profiles 

that reflect past variations in mean 

annual air temperatures.

- Reconstructing the periods of 

changing sediment load carried by 

rivers by study of stratigraphic 

variations in nearshore marine 

sediments.

- Determining past wind directions 

at low altitudes by study of 

stabilized sand dunes, and at high 

altitudes by the downwind path 

followed by volcanic ash plumes.

- Establishing geologically recent 

decreases in the distribution of 

permafrost by determining the areal

14
distribution of young geomorphic 

features that indicate its former 

existence.

- Using geomorphological techniques 

of reconstructing past environments 

by study of the preserved landforms 

such as glacial moraines, lake 

shorelines, abandoned river 

channels, and inactive sand dunes.

- Collaborating with archaeological 

investigations.

Determining chronological 

variations in the stable isotope 

composition of old glacier ice, lake 

deposits, or tree rings to 

reconstruct past changes in the 

climatically determined isotopic 

ratios of the precipitation. 

Examples of such studies:

I

 The technique of repeat 

photography affords one of the best 

methods for recording historic changes 

in erosional features, in lake and 

stream configuration, and in 

vegetation. For example, 

approximately 200 photographs taken in 

Utah and Arizona between 1869 and 1937 

have been studied and the sites 

re-photographed. Among the^ results 

are indications that the widespread 

dying of oaks now occurring in Arizona 

is a phenomenon that began only after 

1935, and that some parts of Utah are 

undergoing an invasion by junipers 

while the more arid western mountains 

of the state are not. Other plant 

population changes that are documented 

involve burroweed, jumping cholla,

15
velvet mesquite, saguaro, and several 

grasses. Rainfall change is strongly 

implicated as a force in producing 

vegetation changes at many sites. The 

recent photographs will also provide a 

future basis for judging alteration in 

the landscape an especially important 

consideration where the rate of 

environmental modification is

increasing in response to man-induced 

changes in weather or climate. 

 Height-growth studies of certain 

desert plants may be used to extend 

rainfall and runoff records beyond the 

historic period for which these values 

are available. Among columnar desert 

plants, such as the saguaro, there is 

a close relationship between height

The South Cascade Glacier, in the North Cascades, Washington, is the main site for glaciological research by 

the Geological Survey. This glacier is about 3 km long and ranges from 1610 to 2100 m in altitude. Studies 

using carbon-14, tree rings, and lichens indicate that it grew from a small glacier to its present size about 

5,000 years ago. Its largest extent was reached during the 16th century in response to an average increase 

of snow accumulation (or decrease of melting) of 0.9 m more than today. Continuing studies show, however, 

that this is small compared to recent year-to-year fluctuations. Photograph by Austin Post.

16
From mid-October 1972 through mid-February 1973, mudflows from the rugged Santa Lucia Range repeatedly invaded 

the community of Big Sur, Calif. The flows were generated by intense winter rains falling on steep slopes 

that had been denuded by fire in August 1972. Damage from mudflows and floodwater occurred in areas marginal 

to the lower courses of three creeks where California State Highway 1 was blocked by mud; structures and 

automobiles were heavily damaged, as shown in the photograph by R. W. Kopf, and one life was lost. The only 

other historic mudflows in these basins occurred during the winters of 1908-10 after a 1907 forest fire. 

However, during the prehistoric period 1370-1800, at least three periods of mudflow activity occurred on the 

average of once every 1<»0 years. These are documented by the ages of successive root systems of redwood 

trees that developed higher on the tree after the previous root system was buried by mud. As illustrated by 

the diagram, cores were taken from trees 1, 2, and 3, and the rings counted to determine the minimum ages of 

the trees. For tree 1 (only one root horizon), this dated the top mudflow; for trees 2 and 3, ring counting 

dated the minimum ages of lowest (original) root systems. Division of the number of root horizons into this 

minimum age gave a minimum recurrence interval of mudflows. Carbon-l<» dates of wood fragments <f and 5 

indicate the maximum ages of those flows.

Tree 2

Core^

 0 -.'?^a^-^"

Tree 1

\,

^7

W

r

Present forest floor

' . ' . o . ' : r -i^T" ° " ." .-^ -: o ' . ' *

 ". 5*: -° -".'v'*- °'-':' : Mudflow deposits' 0 -". °. v ' o : .'-:°-0 .° ; ;°J («'. .' / -': ' Older forest floor developed on mudflows " "; .'.'./

17
and age. The seedling establishment 

of these plants fluctuates in response 

to shifts in the climate in which they 

grow, and curves representing the age 

composition of plant populations can 

be used to identify those times when 

conditions favoring plant 

establishment existed. Our knowledge 

of climatic fluctuation in the desert 

has been extended back about 200 years 

by study of old plant communities. 

Other desert plants, not known in the 

United States but common in Baja 

California, are slower growing and 

longer lived, and future work with 

these plants as subjects may 

reconstruct the desert climate through 

the past four centuries.

 Pollen and macrofossil analyses 

of a swamp in the Sierra Nevada and a 

landslide pond on the San Francisco 

Peninsula, complemented by radiocarbon 

age determinations, suggest that 

conditions in central California were 

cooler and perhaps more moist between 

350 B.C. and 0 A.D. and between 650 

A.D. and 900 A.D. than at present. 

The Sierra Nevada swamp has also 

yielded a drowned tree stump that 

suggests that there was a century-long 

drought about a thousand years ago.

 Reconstruction of climatic events 

can be derived from studies of the 

ages of trees growing on land surfaces 

that were established during 

climate-related events. Trees of the 

same species as in the surrounding 

forests may start to grow within 2 to 

5 years after a new deposit becomes 

physically stable. Young alluvial, 

terrace, glacial, and landslide 

deposits are therefore accurately 

dated by sampling a large number of 

trees growing on them, with the oldest 

trees indicating a close minimum age 

of that surface.

 Clues to the relative hydrologic 

regimes that prevailed in the 

southwestern states during each of the 

last 20 centuries come from tree 

rings, fossil pollen, stratigraphic

relations, sediment character, soil 

development, and archaeological 

evidence. Studies of these types of 

evidence suggest that four regional 

hydrologic cycles of about the same 

duration affected this area. Long 

periods of drought are expressed by 

many discontinuities in alluvial 

chronologies, soils, sediment 

structures and sizes indicative of 

intermittent stream flow, high 

percentages of pollen from arid 

floras, and archaeological 

discontinuities in cultural styles. 

Moist cycles are indicated by fewer 

stratigraphic breaks in the alluvium, 

sediment structures and sizes that 

result from continuous stream flows, 

lower percentages of pollen from arid 

floras, and cultural continuity. 

Shorter term climatic cycles are 

indicated by variations in the numbers 

of minor stratigraphic breaks and in 

the widths of tree rings. The past 

record of continuing change makes it 

untenable to assume the indefinite 

persistence of this century's range of 

climatic and hydrologic fluctuations. 

Eventual climatic changes of the 

magnitudes recorded in the past must 

be considered in long-range planning 

for the future.

 Studies in the Black Mesa region, 

Arizona, show that juniper and pinyon 

forests buried by alluvium of various 

ages have ring patterns that are 

cross-datable with established 

dendrochronological records. These 

allow accurate dating of episodes of 

alluvial deposition and nondeposition, 

and the striking synchroneity of such 

events throughout the region probably 

means that climatically induced 

hydrologic changes were the primary 

controls. The overall record suggests 

a primary 500-600 year hydrologic 

cycle with periods of predominant 

alluvial deposition caused by 

relatively moist climates, alternating 

with periods of nondeposition, 

erosion, and soil formation caused by

18
Along many river in the eastern United States, mature 

trees survive on surfaces flooded more than once a 

year, but low flow must prevail for several years 

for seedlings to grow sufficiently to survive even 

minor floods. Clustered ages of mature trees thus 

date long periods of low flow, a condition commonly 

associated with drought. Floods are dated 

precisely by determining the ages of trees that 

have continued to grow since they were damaged by 

these floods. The bark on flood-plain trees often 

is damaged during floods by floating debris or ice; 

this leaves a scar within the upstream side of the 

trunk that preserves a record of the age, river 

level, and sometimes even the season of that event 

for the life of the tree. The inclined segment of 

the lower left trunk shown in this photograph is 

all that remains of the original tree which was 

felled (but not killed) by an extreme flood of the 

Potomac River in 1889. After the flood, the two 

vertical trunks started to grow. The age of the 

vertical trunk and the flood is determined by 

counting rings in a core taken with a borer as 

shown here.

one or two centuries of predominant 

drought that coincided with the most 

rapid changes in prehistoric cultures. 

If the modern arroyo cutting episode 

that began after the 1850's throughout 

the southwest represents a drought 

similar to those associated with the

past 500-600 year hydrologic cycles, 

the present drought should terminate 

and reverse itself near the beginning 

of the 21st century. A more specific 

estimate, based on pattern matching of 

the higher frequency tree-ring record 

and the longer term geologic and 

hydrologic records, predicts that the 

current major drought interval in the 

Southwest will culminate around 1990 

and that an initial return to wetter 

conditions will follow within 50 

years!

 Examination of the annual growth 

rings in pinyon pine and juniper roots 

in the Piceance Creek area of Colorado 

indicate that erosion rates have 

varied over the last 800 years, 

presumably in response to climatic 

change. The minimum rates of erosion 

are indicated by the height of the 

once-buried roots of known ages above 

the present ground surface. Average 

calculated erosion rates are mostly 

near 0.5 mm/yr. Preliminary analysis 

suggests that 200-300 years ago, 

erosion rates were higher than at any 

other 100-year interval during the 

last 800 years.

 Alluvial deposits having 

structures indicative of fast-flowing 

streams are found along the east side 

of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado. 

Most are of the same age as the 

Pleistocene glaciations that occurred 

at higher elevations in the mountains, 

but some are younger. One extensive 

unit, whose structures are indicative 

of fast-flowing streams and thus a 

moist climate, was deposited between 

4,500 and 1,500 years ago. In prairie 

areas to the east, the climate cooled 

and effective moisture increased 

during the same period; the evidence 

for this consists of stratigraphic 

sequences that show where bogs formed 

over sand dunes and fossil pollen 

sequences that show where forests 

replaced prairies.

 Sediments that have accumulated 

during the past several hundred years

19
Dramatic changes in the vegetation of southwestern North America during historic time may be related, at least 

partly, to changes in climate, although the effects of grazing cattle and the other activities of man are 

difficult to separate from purely climatic effects. These two photographs, taken in 1903 (upper photograph) 

and 1961, are of one of the ungrazed Melisas Islands in the bay at Guaymas, Sonora, Mexico. The giant 

cactus, Pachycereus pringlei, has greatly increased in number during the 58-year period, and this increase 

serves as a basis for comparing vegetation changes in nearby grazed areas. Photographs by D. T. MacDougal 

(1903) and 3. R. Hastings (1961).

20
in the shallow marine waters south of 

Texas contain thin sand layers that 

probably were deposited during and 

after hurricanes. These sand layers 

are dated by use of lead- and 

uranium-isotope techniques, and their 

distribution is a probable indicator 

of hurricane frequencies in the past. 

Hurricane formation is directly 

related to sea surface temperatures 

which must approach or exceed about 30 

degrees (C) for periods of weeks or 

months each year to permit strong 

cyclonic circulation to develop in 

tropical areas.

 Repeated measurements of 

temperature profiles in holes drilled 

in permafrost allow the reconstruction 

of changes in mean ground surface 

temperatures over the last century or 

more. Near Barrow, Alaska, for 

example, measurements of this type 

show that ground temperatures rose 

about 3 degrees (C) between the 

mid-1800's and mid-1900's. In 

general, historical weather records in 

such remote places are inadequate for 

the detection of such changes, and 

many areas suitable for measurements 

of this type are not represented by 

historical records of any sort.

III. LONG-TERM CHANGES IN CLIMATE

Studies of long-term changes in 

climate include the larger amplitude 

changes that produced the Pleistocene 

ice ages, as well as the climates that 

preceded and followed them. These 

studies document the magnitudes, 

frequencies, durations, and rates of 

climatic change. They also allow 

investigation of the possible 

synchroneity of globally documented 

climate changes, of similarities in 

the characteristics of past changes, 

and of rates of change. In addition, 

these studies document the limits of 

variation that have been allowed by 

the physical properties of the earth's 

atmosphere.

Projects now active in the 

Geological Survey that produce 

information on climates and changes in 

climate in the geologic past mostly 

use the following approaches:

- Collection and interpretation of 

dated stratigraphic evidence of past 

changes in sedimentation resulting 

from changes of climatically 

responsive continental surface 

processes; both exposed and buried 

stratigraphies are used. These 

studies are primarily concerned with 

deposits or erosion indicative of 

past glaciers, ground ice, lakes, 

running water, and wind.

- Collection and interpretation of 

sediment cores from continental 

shelf and deep-sea areas. These 

studies are concerned with both 

nearby continental climatic events, 

as expressed by variations in the 

sizes and compositions of locally 

derived clastic fragments, and 

global climatic events as indicated 

by criteria that record worldwide 

changes in the oceans.

- Study of stratigraphically 

controlled and age-controlled 

sequences of sediments that contain 

fossils that can be related to 

existing biota and the climates that 

support them.

- Measurement on steep mountains and 

at all latitudes of the differences 

between the present and past 

elevation and latitude limits of 

climate-sensitive geological 

processes and biological 

communities.

- Study of the present and past 

distributions of landforms that 

develop in climatically distinctive 

environments; examples are U-shaped 

valleys and cirques carved by 

glaciers, patterned ground and other 

structures produced by frost action, 

extinct lake shorelines, streamless 

valleys, stream and coastal 

terraces, sand dunes, and 

wind-eroded landforms.

21
Identification of periods 

characterized by climates that 

resulted in erosion, nondeposition, 

or soil formation.

- Measurement of variations in the 

stable-isotope composition of dated 

samples of ice in glaciers and 

permafrost, organic remains, ground 

water, stalacites, and saline and 

other minerals that reflect the 

isotopic composition of the locally 

precipitated waters.

Correlating major volcanic 

eruptions, as evidenced by globally 

widespread volcanic ash layers, with 

the other geologic records that 

indicate changes or aberrations in 

climate. 

Examples:

 A temperate climate prevailed in 

Alaska, northeastern Siberia, and the 

intervening continental 

shelves collectively called 

Beringia until shortly before the 

beginning of the Pleistocene Epoch, 

although earlier glaciation began in the 

mountains of Alaska and probably in the 

Siberian mountains of Kamchatka and the 

Koryak region 10 million years ago. The 

oldest recorded effects of severe frost 

action in lowland areas are in 

sedimentary rocks that are 2 million 

years old, and the earliest known 

evidence of permafrost in these areas is 

in deposits about 1 million years old. 

Forest vegetation probably covered most 

of Beringia throughout Pliocene time; 

tundra did not appear there until near 

the beginning of Pleistocene time 

although it seems to have emerged 

several million years earlier at 

latitude 80 degrees N in ^he Arctic 

Islands of Canada. The Arctic Ocean was 

ice-free and the water well mixed until 

shortly before the beginning of the 

Pleistocene Epoch. The present 

stratified and ice-covered regime of 

this area seems to have originated about 

2.2 million years ago.

 Fossilized remains of sea otters in 

marine deposits of the Barrow area, 

Alaska, indicate a high sea-level stand, 

probably the one that occurred during

the last interglacial period. Sea 

otters are strictly limited by the 

southern extent of winter sea ice, and 

the fossils indicate that winter ice did 

not cover all of the Arctic Ocean during 

the interglacial period. Warmer water 

mollusks associated with these 

vertebrate fossils corroborate the 

conclusion.

 Sequences of glacial deposits, 

outwash, and alluvium along the south 

flank of the Brooks Range and the 

coastal mountains of Alaska reveal a 

long history of glacier fluctuation 

dating back at least to middle 

Pleistocene time. These deposits 

commonly also contain abundant organic 

material which allows events of the last 

40,000 years to be dated quite 

accurately by carbon-14 methods. Much 

of the organic material can be 

identified in terms of species, and this 

allows the climatically sensitive 

biological communities that coexisted in 

the area at that time, composed of such 

elements as plants, insects, mammals, 

and mollusks, to be reconstructed.

 Studies of altitudes of cirque 

floors in the Kigluaik Mountains, 

Alaska, indicate that the regional 

snowline was at least 75 m lower than 

the present snowline during a late 

prehistoric glacial advance, 150 m lower 

during an earlier Holocene glacial 

advance, and 300 m lower during the last 

glacial maximum. Similar studies in the 

Indian Mountains, Alaska, indicate that 

the snowline was at least 450 m lower at 

the time of the last maximum glaciation. 

These data suggest that relative to the 

present, mean annual temperatures 

lowered by no more than 2 degrees (C) in 

the Kigluaik Mountains and 3 degrees (C) 

in the Indian Mountains during the most 

extreme glacial times. _

 Each of the five major river 

valleys in the Cascade Range that drain 

the slopes of Mount Rainier contains 

deposits formed during multiple 

glaciations. A glaciation that probably 

occurred more than 600,000 years ago 

produced an icecap that mantled much of 

the Cascade Range, and valley glaciers

22
LAKE BONNEVILLE AND WASATCH MOUNTAINS, 

UTAH

GLACIAL OSCILLATIONS 

average altitude of LAKE FLUCTUATIONS

altitude of lake level FEET terminae of valley glaciers

Oi Oi 

Ki CO 

O Q 

O O

_I. I

Soil

in H nil it Mini soil TTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTT

n i ii 111< ii i im if i TfTf

-

Soil

? TTTTTTTTT 111 ill 1111II III TT T TTTT Soil

___ 7 TTTTTTTIT

Soil!

8

LAKE LAHONTAN, 

NEVADA

LAKE FLUCTUATIONS

altitude of lake level

FEET

i I I I

Soil

T1HTTTT7 Soil ' ''''''

Soil

INFERRED CLIAAATIC 

FLUCTUATIONS

Present climate

Increasing Decreasing

temp, and temp, and

precipitation precipitation

M

The levels of two large lakes in the Great Basin during the last part of the Pleistocene changed at the same 

times as did the lengths of mountain glaciers in the range east of one of them. Increases in the depth of 

the lakes and lengths of the glaciers indicate times having "pluvial" (wetter than at present) climates, and 

reversals indicate periods having climates more like the present. Soils mark times of stable land surfaces 

when weathering of exposed glacial and lake deposits a slow process could develop without the soils being 

buried by new deposits or eroded and destroyed.

23
reached lengths of as much as 120 km. 

Icecaps and valley glaciers as long as 

105 km again formed in the region during 

two distinct later episodes. During the 

last major glaciation, the valley 

glaciers were only 25 to 65 km long, and 

as they were retreating upvalley during 

a late phase of this episode, rigorous 

climatic conditions caused them to 

expand again briefly before retreating 

and nearly disappearing. Glacier 

development occurred again between 4,500 

and 2,500 years ago, and during most of 

the time between the early 17th and late 

19th century, they were larger than at 

present.

 Lassen Volcanic National Park, 

California, was mostly covered by an 

icecap glacier during much of the last 

ice age and at least once before that 

time. Glacial deposits surround Lassen 

Peak, but Lassen Peak itself, a volcanic 

dome that formed about 11,000 years ago, 

has deposits only from the small 

glaciers that formed later. The

altitudinal distribution of glaciers 

that existed before and after the 

creation of Lassen Peak suggests that 

the regional snowline during the earlier. 

glaciation was near 2100 m and near 2500 

m during the later one. These elevation 

differences indicate that mean annual 

temperatures during these two glacial 

episodes differed by about 2 degrees 

(0.

 Valley glaciers in the Front Range, 

Colorado, advanced to their maximum 

extents about 21,000 years ago, began to 

wane 14,500 to 13,000 years ago, and 

disappeared about 8,000 years ago. 

Carbon- 14 dates on the organic materials 

first deposited in the lakes, bogs, and 

kettle ponds (depressions caused by the 

melting of large blocks of buried 

glacier ice) that formed at the edges of 

retreating glaciers, give minimum ages 

of deglaciation. The composition of the 

overlying sediments, and the plant 

remains in them, show that complete 

revegetation of the glaciated areas

LU 

CO

LU

co

CO

700

600

500

400

Level of lake during overflow

.

O 

O

0

200

100

0

1

LU 

CO

50 100 

THOUSANDS OF YEARS BEFORE PRESENT

150

(100) 2

<

CO

&.

LU

The level of Searles Lake in California fluctuated during the last 150,000 years in response to climate 

changes. The wet (pluvial) interval between 130,000 and 32,000 years, when the lake stood mostly at high 

levels, is correlated with the glacial advances in northeastern North America known as early Wisconsin. The 

similar interval 24,000 to 10,500 years ago, correlated with the late Wisconsin glaciation, saw the lake 

expand and then contract at least five times. During the last 1,500 years of this period, six changes from 

one extreme to the other occurred, allowing 250 years or less for each climatic reversal.

24
uj 80 H 

(J

2 «H

8CK

Uj

O

CLEAR LAKE, CALIFORNIA

T~

no

DEPTH, IN METERS

The varying percentages of fossil pollen in cores taken from the bottom of Clear Lake, Calif, indicate changes 

in the ratios of plant types along the shores and in the surrounding mountains as the lake mud was being 

deposited. This diagram shows the changes in the percentage of oak pollen in the upper 115 m of one core. 

Oak, which is now a common tree in the area, dominates the fossil pollen remains in the upper 20 m of core 

and in parts of the lower 35 m; pine pollen replaces oak in most of the intervening zone. These changes in 

forest type, caused by climate change, apparently occurred during transitions from glacial to interglacial 

periods. The change near 20 m probably took place about 10,000 years ago, the changes below 80 m probably 

reflect the last interglacial.

commonly occurred at least 3,000 to 

4,000 years after the ice disappeared. 

(Land surfaces that have been glaciated 

are analogous in many ways to surfaces 

that have been bulldozed, and the time 

required for natural processes to 

develop soils and restore vegetation to 

its normal state in similar areas would 

presumably be comparable.) 

 The past expansions of mountain 

glaciers commonly required increases in 

the amount of regional snowfall and 

annual meltwater runoff. For example, a 

Pleistocene glacier in northern 

Yellowstone National Park covered about 

3,400 km2, averaged 700 m in thickness, 

and had a maximum flow line 150 km long. 

Comparison of this reconstructed glacier 

with those of modern glaciers in 

analogous climatic environments leads to 

the conclusion that there was an annual 

flow of about 3 km 3 of ice from the 

glacier accumulation area to its 

ablation area where an equal amount 

melted. The present drainage from the 

land area that used to be covered by 

glacier ice is about 1.5 km^/yr. During 

glacial times, therefore, the amount of 

meltwater flowing from the glacier was

about twice the amount of water now 

draining from the same area.

 Pleistocene lake deposits exposed 

near Clear Lake, California contain 

fossil cones of the foxtail pine, a 

subalpine species now found growing in 

colder areas, and fossil pollen that 

show that the deposits represent a 

glacial period. The present 

distribution of vegetational types 

represented by these fossils suggest 

that mean annual temperatures in the 

Clear Lake area during that glacial 

stage were about 7 degrees (C) lower 

than now and that precipitation was 

slightly higher than now.

 Much of the suburban development 

on the peninsula south of San Francisco 

is built on stream deposits about 20,000 

years old. When these deposits were 

formed, sea level was much lower than 

now, and San Francisco Bay was a large 

alluviating valley that drained through 

the Golden Gate to form a large delta to 

the west. In the southern bay area, 

fossil ground squirrels of a type now 

known to live only north of California 

and in the northernmost Sierra Nevada 

have been found in these ancient river

25
deposits, along with fossils of extinct 

mammoth, ground sloth, and camel. This 

squirrel is known to be limited to 

cooler climates and to areas of summer 

green grass, suggesting the absence of 

the present Mediterranean climate in the 

bay area during that part of Pleistocene 

time and the more common occurrence of 

summer rain. Associated wood, pollen, 

freshwater mollusks, and fish also

Stratigraphic units

Mud erburden 

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TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS

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Salt Average paleotemperature for horizon

Mud I 1 Present climate (range and mean)

Crystallization temperatures have been estimated for 

salt layers beneath the surface of Searles Lake, 

Calif., using mineral assemblages and 

deuterium/hydrogen ratios. Seven salt layers that 

were deposited during short periods of aridity in 

the Middle Wisconsin interpluvial period (estimated 

to have extended from 32,500 to 24,000 carbon-14 

years ago) are separated by six layers of mud that 

represent deeper lakes and less arid periods that 

lasted as long as 3,000 years. The reconstructed 

depositional temperatures indicate a distinct 

trend, with the arid periods near the middle of 

this interval being the warmest and those at the 

beginning and end of this time being the coldest. 

During Middle Wisconsin time, therefore, the local 

climate fluctuated every few thousand years between 

aridity and nonaridity, yet a trend of gradual 

warming followed by gradual cooling was 

superimposed on these shorter period fluctuations.

50 40 30 20 10 

TIME,IN MILLIONS OF YEARS

Changes in the percentage of marine fossils indicate 

coastal water temperatures during most of Tertiary 

time in the vicinity of the present San Joaquin 

Valley, Calif. Water temperatures both reflect and 

influence local atomospheric temperatures. During 

the Eocene, for example, about 20 percent of the 

mollusks were of types most closely related to 

forms now living in tropical waters, and smaller 

percentages were of types related to subtropical 

and warm temperate forms; by the end of Pliocene 

time, these percentages had shrunk to near zero and 

temperate forms had replaced them as shallow sea 

temperatures in this part of the world lowered in 

response to the growing ice sheets nearer the 

poles.

indicate much cooler and moister 

climates.

 The latest Tertiary and the 

Quaternary nonmarine alluvial and lake 

deposits of the eastern San 3oaquin 

Valley of California record a long 

history of cyclical deposition, land 

stability with soil formation, and 

erosion. Fifteen episodes of terrace 

and alluvial fan aggradation have been 

identified, most of which can be related 

to climatic oscillations. The sequence 

of sediments can be correlated 

indirectly with glacial events in the 

adjacent Sierra Nevada. Radiometric 

ages from the San Joaquin Valley 

sequence show that lakes formed in the 

basin at the same time that fans were 

growing as a result of climates 

conducive to glacial expansion. At 

least eight major lacustrine units have 

been identified; four of them are 

younger than 600,000 years, and the 

youngest, dated by carbon-14 methods, 

was deposited between 27,000 and 9,000 

years ago.

26
 Fluctuations in the oxygen-18 and 

carbon-13 content of ground waters in 

the southern Great Basin are recorded in 

a swarm of calcite veins in the Death 

Valley region. Veins ranging in age 

from 1.0 to 1.8 million years have been 

dated using uranium-23<*/uranium-238 

techniques. Hydrogeologic field 

relations indicate that these veins are 

low-temperature ground-water deposits 

that were precipitated under 

closed-system conditions by ground 

waters of nearly constant chemical 

composition. The results provide a 

record of large-amplitude low-frequency 

fluctuations in oxygen-18 in these 

waters that can be related to 

long-period climatic oscillations of the 

southern Great Basin.

 During pluvial (wet) periods of the 

Pleistocene, the climates in 

south-central Asia and North America 

appear to have produced comparable 

increases in streamflow. Wind-eroded 

lake beds in the Seistan Basin of 

southwestern Afghanistan and adjacent 

parts of Iran and Pakistan, observed by 

a Survey scientist while on a technical 

aid mission, indicate an early or middle 

Pleistocene lake as large as 65,000 

square kilometers. The inflow needed to 

offset Pleistocene evaporation from the 

lake is estimated at seven to nine times 

the flow of present rivers. These 

values are similar to the late 

Pleistocene streamflow calculated for 

the Owens River, California, where the 

latitude and the topographic and 

hydrographic settings are similar.

 The growth of continental ice 

sheets during Pleistocene time caused 

sea-level fluctuations that are recorded 

in the regional stratigraphic relations 

of shallow marine sediments. The 

continental shelf off south Texas is a 

slowly subsiding area with a high rate 

of sedimentation that favors the 

preservation of surf-planed terraces, 

river channels, and other indications of 

lowered sea levels. High-resolution 

seismic profiles from this area provide 

a record of sea-level changes caused by

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Cores taken from the sea floor by the Ship DSDP 

Glomar Challenger provide a nearly continuous 

record of sedimentation for long periods of time. 

The upper 150 m of this core from the North 

Atlantic (DSDP Site 410, lat 45 degrees N, long 30 

degrees W), studied by Survey scientists, contains 

sand-size mineral grains (larger than 0.06 mm) that 

are interpreted as material that fell to the sea 

floor from icebergs as they melted. The abrupt 

beginning of this material at a level dated by 

fossils and paleomagnetic techniques as about 3 

million years old is interpreted to mean that the 

polar ice sheets, which had been enlarging for 

several million years but chiefly at high 

elevations, finally expanded into areas that were 

at sea level. When they reached the coast, large 

blocks of them calved into the sea to produce 

icebergs. The larger glacier fragments in 

sediments younger than about 2 million years may 

mean more abundant bergs or more intense erosion by 

the glaciers before reaching the sea.

the waxing and waning of polar ice 

sheets. Four regional unconformities, 

dating back approximately 130,000 years, 

represent erosion when sea level

27
The striking landforms shown in this photograph are evidence of large lakes that existed 

in Searles Valley, Calif., during Pleistocene time. The towers, mostly 15 to 25m high, 

are composed of calcium carbonate deposited by algae that lived in the upper few meters 

of the lake waters. The white salt flat visible several kilometers beyond the towers is 

the remnant of the last enlarged lake, a result of the more arid climate that now prevails.

lowered. The sediments above the oldest 

unconformity represent the rising of sea 

level after the climax of the preceding 

glacial event, eventually reaching a sea 

level comparable to today. Deposits 

from the next transgression indicate a 

less complete glacial recession. The

youngest sediments represent deposition 

since the last interglacial, about 

30,000 years ago.

IV.AREAL DISTRIBUTIONS OF PAST CLIMATES

Studies of the distributions of

1_______I_______L

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MEAN ANNUAL RANGE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS

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Evidence from fossil leaves allows reconstruction of the progression of climates that characterized areas 

during the Tertiary. For example, the mean temperature of the cold month determines the areas that support 

broad-leaved evergreen or broad-leaved deciduous trees. Other physical characteristics of the fossils allow 

subdivisions of these two forest types into categories that indicate the mean annual temperature, the annual 

range in monthly temperatures, and the approximate mean temperature of the warm month of the year. The 

arrows on this graph show how forest types, and therefore climates, of Alaska and the Pacific Northwest areas 

progressed from early Tertiary time to the present. The circles represent fossil leaf localities having 

known relative age relations but they are not separated by equal time intervals.

28
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QUATERNARY

GEOLOGIC AGE

The shape of fossil leaves is a sensitive indicator of climate environment almost regardless of botanical 

classification. Changes in the percentages of fossil leaves having tropical characteristics show that 

climatic cycles about 10 million years long affected widely separated areas in early Tertiary time. Tropical 

climates existed in some middle-latitude areas during Paleocene and Eocene time, and a major cooling occurred 

during Oligocene time.

past climates not only allow comparisons 

of contemporaneous past climates in the 

two hemispheres, the several climatic 

belts, and the different continents, but 

also can show the degree of global 

synchroneity during climate change. 

This information contributes both to an 

understanding of how climate works and 

to ecologic reconstruction of regions 

that provide a perspective on possible 

future environments. In addition, this 

knowledge is essential to the correct 

reconstruction of areas favorable for 

prospecting for certain resources, such 

as evaporite minerals, coal, or oil

shale whose deposition was made possible 

by favorable climates as well as 

geologic settings.

Examples of climatic synthesis made 

by Geological Survey personnel follow: 

 Beringia that is, Alaska, 

northeastern Siberia, and the 

intervening continental shelves has 

played a strategic role in the evolution 

of northern climate and biota. Climatic 

fluctuations during the early part of 

the Wisconsin glaciation are poorly 

understood, but this cold cycle 

culminated in a period of extremely 

severe climate between 20,000 and 13,000

29
years ago that has been studied through 

a variety of geologic evidence. 

Glaciers covered the mountain ranges 

bordering the Pacific Ocean and 

southwestern Bering Sea, as well as

Modern 

Near-shore marine climate

large areas in the Brooks Range of 

Alaska and the mountains of Chukotka in 

Siberia. The climate of central and 

northern Beringia was strongly 

continental and very dry. Persistent 

barometric highs over the polar sea ice 

resulted in strong northeast winds in 

regions north of the Arctic Circle, and 

the ice fields of southern Alaska 

produced strong and persistent katabatic 

southwest winds in central Alaska. 

Tundra-steppe vegetation covered most of 

unglaciated Beringia. Forests persisted 

only in a few unglaciated enclaves in 

Kamchatka and possibly in an area on 

what is now the continental shelf near 

the modern Yukon River Delta.

V. DATING AND CORRELATION METHODS

The value of the record indicating 

past changes in climate is greatest 

where the ages, rates, and durations of 

those changes are known. Some 

techniques provide absolute ages, others 

provide relative ages, and still others 

allow regional correlation of key 

strata. The main techniques available 

are listed in Part A of this Circular, 

though others can be applied where the 

geologic setting is favorable. The 

following are examples of some of the 

lesser known methods being studied or 

used by Survey personnel. 

 Two experimental dating methods are 

being used in a study of faulted 

alluvial fan gravels north of the Idaho 

National Engineering Laboratory. One 

method is based on the amount of water 

that has diffused through the glass in

Comparisons of "marine climates" near-shore water 

temperatures during glacial periods of the late 

Pleistocene versus modern times are indicated by 

fossil and living mollusks along the northeastern 

Pacific Ocean. Not only did the boundaries of 

marine climate zones change but the widths of the 

zones changed. The greatest reduction in width was 

in the "temperate" zone during glacial periods. 

This may be because the upweliing waters along the 

presently "temperate" coastal areas come from the 

Gulf of Alaska, and they may have been 

substantially cooler during glacial periods because 

much larger glaciers existed along the south coast 

of Alaska at that time.

30
volcanic ash fragments and collected in 

its cavities to date a volcanic ash that 

is interbedded with the gravels. The 

superhydration age of 250,000 years, is 

thought to be accurate within a factor 

of about two. The other method uses the 

stratified caliche rinds that coat the 

boulders in the soil that has developed 

on the fan surface. The technique 

depends on the growth of thorium-230 

from uranium-234 to date the successive 

layers in caliche rinds. Uranium-series 

ages on the outer rind (the youngest), 

middle, and inner are 17,500+7-5,000, 

67,000+7-10,000, and 133,000+7-30,000 

years. Independent controls for 

evaluating the uranium-series dates come 

from the facts that the age of the 

youngest caliche layer is on the order 

of tens of thousands of years (because 

it is similar to rinds on nearby glacial 

outwash of this age), the fan material 

is probably a few hundred thousand years 

old (based on the age of the ash), and 

the caliche layers must increase in age 

inward.

 Another experimental method of 

dating deposits consists of measuring 

the thickness of weathering rinds on 

rock fragments within the soil 

B-horizons. Climate and individual rock 

properties also affect weathering rind 

development, but the rind thicknesses 

indicate relative ages and very 

approximate estimates of absolute age. 

More than 6,300 measurements of the 

thickness of weathering rinds developed 

on andesitic and basaltic cobbles in 

Quaternary deposits at 70 sites in the 

western U.S. provide a means of

Fossil pollen found in a core from the mud at the 

bottom of Clear Lake, Calif. Photographs were made 

by scanning electron microscope, which enormously 

enlarges the image, thus allowing better 

identification and more detailed correlation 

between the deposits of this and other areas. 

Distances between white squares at base of pictures 

from top to bottom, are 0.03, 0.01, 0.003, and 0.01 

mm. Top, an alga, Pediastrum; upper middle, a 

Pinus (pine) pollen grain; lower middle, a 

chrysomonad cyst; and bottom, a Brasenia (water 

lily) pollen grain. Upper three samples are about 

3,000 to 4,000 years old, bottom is about 11,300 

years old.

31
These scanning electron microscope photographs are of a fossil freshwater diatom and a fossil tooth from a 

mouse that were found together in a diatomite in northeastern California that underlies a basalt flow dated 

as ^.9+/-0.5 million years old. The picture on the left is of a diatom (Melosira sp. cf. M. islandica) that 

is a sensitive indicator of climate and is the most abundant species in the diatomite (The white squares at 

the base of the picture are 0.003 mm apart). Its modern counterparts are now most abundant in cool 

freshwater lakes such as the modern Great Lakes and Great Slave Lake of Canada. The presence of the 

ancestral form in rocks of this age documents a marked climatic cooling (and probably an increase in 

effective moisture) relative to conditions indicated by diatoms in somewhat older sediments in Northern 

California. Did this change in climate occur in other parts of the world? The two pictures on the right 

provide evidence that it did. They are side and top views of a tooth from a meadow mouse (white squares at 

base of these two pictures are 0.3 mm apart). This mouse (Mimomys (Cseria) sp.) is a member of a group known 

as the microtine rodents that was probably the most rapidly evolving, diversifying, and dispersing of the 

megascopic living organisms during most of the last 5 million years. Repeated waves of faunally distinct 

rodents left Asia and migrated rapidly to both North America and Europe, and their fossilized remains provide 

a means of correlating widely separated strata of continental sediments. The illustrated teeth are nearly 

identical to mice teeth found in Europe in deposits formed immediately after the end of the desiccation of 

the Mediterranean Sea, which also suggests a cooling or more humid climatic shift.

estimating the usefulness of this 

technique. The thickness of weathering 

rinds on fragments from the dated 

glacial sequence near West Yellows tone 

appears to be approximately a 

logarithmic function of age. Using the 

form of this function, calibrated using 

deposits known to be about 140,000 years 

old, the ages of glacial deposits in 

other nearby areas have been estimated. 

Their ages appear to fall into discrete 

intervals of time: 15,000 to 25,000 

years, 30,000 to 45,000 years, 60,000 to 

70,000 years, and near the calibration 

age of 140,000 years. These intervals 

correspond closely to those 

characterized by large global ice 

volumes according to the marine oxygen 

isotope record.

 Annual layers in lake sediments 

(varves), where they can be

unambiguously identified, provide a 

powerful tool for precise time-series 

calibration and basin-wide correlation. 

Geochemical cycles that were probably 

climatically induced caused layering in 

many of the lake deposits of the Green 

River Formation of Eocene age, and 

investigations are underway aimed at 

developing a precise varve-calibrated 

time-series. It will provide 

terrestrial documentation of the 

magnitude and frequency of very short 

term climatic variation during the 

Eocene as well as allow exploration of 

the technique as an interbasin 

correlation method. 

 Short-lived radioactive isotopes 

(lead-210 and radium-226) are being used 

experimentally to obtain ages of shallow 

marine sediments. Excess radioactive 

lead-210 is produced and accumulated in

32
the atmosphere and waters of the world 

because of a series of favorable nuclear 

and chemical properties of the elements 

in the uranium-238 radioactive family. 

The lead-210 isotope, with a half-life 

of 22.3 years, is formed from the decay 

of its radon-222 grandparent which 

diffuses into the atmosphere because of 

its properties as a noble gas. After 

lead is formed, it is precipitated into 

the hydrosphere and adsorbed on 

suspended sediment fragments that are 

eventually deposited. This scenario 

produces a constant flux of lead-210 in 

the accumulating sediments. By knowing

the extent of disequilibrium at the time 

of sedimentation, the age of any horizon 

in the sediment column less than two 

hundred years old can be determined with 

a resolution of approximately one year 

in areas of rapid sedimentation (5 

cm/yr). Radium-226 has a half-life of 

about 1,500 years and is useful for 

dating events up to 10,000 years old. 

It follows a geochemical cycle similar 

to that of lead-210; however, the 

element is more often associated with 

organisms, and sediments rich in organic 

remains are better suited for radium 

dating than is terrigenous material.

33
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

The following is a list of 

selected publications concerned with 

past and present climates and the 

methods used by earth scientists to 

study them. All are writ en in part or 

entirely by present or past members of 

the U.S. Geological Survey, although 

not all of the listed authors are 

members of the Survey because many 

Survey scientists collaborate with 

colleagues from other institutions. 

The selections are divided into broad 

categories that conform to those used 

in this publication describing Survey 

work, and those categories are further 

subdivided by subject mater, area, 

technique, or subdiscipline. Within 

each subdivision, the publications are 

listed alphabetically by senior author.

This bibliography is by no means 

complete. The selections are limited 

to those published since 1964.

Abstracts, open-file reports, theses, 

and articles in guidebooks published by 

local or informal organizations are not 

included. Most maps and reports that 

describe surficial deposits primarily 

for engineering or resource planning 

purposes are also omitted (even though 

they are of value in the reconstruction 

of past climates) as are most 

publications that consist primarily or 

systematically collected data on 

surface water flow and ground water 

levels (even though they provide the 

data base for many of the listed 

publications). Many papers that 

constitute significant contributions 

have undoubtedly been overlooked during 

compilation, and many studies in 

progress have to date been described 

only in the summaries of "Geological 

Survey Research" published annually by 

the Agency.

34
Contents of Bibliography

!. PRESENT CLIMATE-RELATED PROCESSES AND INDICES

A. Geologic and geomorphic processes in subaerial environments

B. Geologic and geomorphic processes in rivers, streams, 

lakes, estuaries, swamps, and related environments

C. Geochemical and geophysical processes

D. Botanical and zoological indices

E. Floods, landslides, and other natural hazards

F. Surface and ground water

G. Glaciers, snow pack and snow cover

H. Land use

I. Satellite imagery

3. Climatology and meteorology 

II. SHORT-TERM CHANGES IN CLIMATE

A. Stratigraphic records glacial

B. Stratigraphic records nonglacial

C. Geomorphic records

D. Hydrologic and sea-level records

E. Biological records 

HI. LONG-TERM CHANGES IN CLIMATE

A. Quaternary glacial deposits Alaska

B. Quaternary glacial deposits western U.S.

C. Quaternary glacial deposits northeastern U.S.

D. Quaternary nonglacial deposits and features

E. Pre-Quaternary deposits

F. Deposits and features on Mars

IV. AREAL DISTRIBUTIONS OF PAST CLIMATES 

A. North America 

B. Other areas

V. DATING AND CORRELATION METHODS 

A. Dating radiometric 

B. Dating nonradiometric"

C. Correlation techniques and principles geologic 

D. Correlation techniques and principles geophysical 

E. Correlation techniques and principles tephrochronological 

F. Correlation techniques and principles biological 

and paleontological

35
I. PRESENT CLIMATE RELATED PROCESSES 

AND INDICES

A. Geologic and geomorphic processes 

in subaerial environments

Branson, F. A., and Owen, J. B., 1970, Plant cover, 

runoff, and sediment yield relationships on 

Mancos shale in western Colorado: Water 

Resources Research, v. 6, no. 3, p. 783-790.

Denny, C. S., 1967, Fans and pediments: Am. Jour. 

Sci., v. 265, p. 81-105.

Ferrians, O. 3., Jr., and Hobson, F. D., 1973, Mapping 

and predicting permafrost in North America: A 

review, 1963-1973, in Permafrost: North American 

contribution to the Second International 

Conference: Washington, D.C., Natl. Acad. Sci., 

p. 479-498.

Hack, J. T., 1965, Geomorphology of the Shenandoah 

Valley, Virginia and West Virginia, and the 

origin of the residual ore deposits: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Prof. Paper 484, 84 p.

Hadley, R. F., and Branson, F. A., 1965, Surficial 

geology and microclimatic effects on vegetation, 

soils and geomorphology in the Denver, Colorado 

area, Trip 10, in Guidebook for one-day field 

conferences, Boulder area, Colorado Internal. 

Assoc. Quaternary Research, 7th Cong., U.S.A., 

1965: Lincoln, Nebr., Nebraska Acad. Sci., p. 

56-63.

Hadley, R. F., 1967, Pediments and pediment-forming 

processes: Jour. Geoi. Education, v. 15, p. 

83-89.

Hunt, C. B., 1973, Thirty-year photographic record of 

a shale pediment, Henry Mountains, Utah: Geol. 

Soc. America Bull., v. 84, no. 2, p. 689-695.

Hunt, C. B., and Washburn, A. L., 1966, Patterned 

ground: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 494-B, p. 

104-133.

Krinsley, D. B., 1972, Dynamic processes in the 

morphogenesis of salt crusts within the Great 

Kavir, north-central Iran: Internal. Geol. 

Cong., 24th session, Montreal, Sect. 12, 

Quaternary Geology Proc., p. 167-174.

Krinsley, D. B., Woo, C. C., and Stoertz, G. E., 1968, 

Geologic characteristics of seven Australian 

playas, in Neal, J. T., ed., Playa surface 

morphology: Miscellaneous investigations: 

Bedford Mass., Air Force Cambridge Res. Labs. 

Environ. Res. Papers 283, p. 59-103.

Lachenbruch, A. H., 1966, Contraction theory of 

ice-wedge polygons: A qualitative discussion, in 

Proceedings of International Conference on 

Permafrost, Lafayette, Indiana, 1963: 

Washington, D. C., Natl. Acad. Sci., Natl. Res. 

Council Pub. 1287, p. 63-71.

LaMarche, V. C., Jr., 1968, Rates of slope degration 

as determined from botanical evidence, White 

Mountains, California: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. 

Paper 352-1, p. 341-377.

Leopold, L. B., 1973, River channel change with time: 

an example: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 84, p. 

1845-1860.

Leopold, L. B., 1976, Reversal of erosion cycle and 

climatic change: Quaternary Research, v. 6, p. 

557-562.

Leopold, L. B., Emmett, W. W., and Myrick, R. M., 

1966, Channel and hillslope processes in a 

semiarid area in New Mexico: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Prof. Paper 352-G, p. 193-253.

Lustig, L. K., 1965, Clastic sedimentation in Deep 

Springs Valley, California: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Prof. Paper 352-F, p. 131-192.

Malde, H. E., 1973, Geologic bench marks by 

terrestrial photography: Jour. Research, U.S. 

Geol. Survey, v. 1, no. 2, p. 193-205.

Malde, H. E., and Scott, A. G., 1977, Observations of 

contemporary arroyo cutting near Santa Fe, New 

Mexico, U.S.A.: Earth Surface Processes, v. 2, 

p. 39-54.

Marchand, D. E., 1971, Rates and modes of denudation, 

White Mountains, eastern California: Am. Jour. 

Sci., v. 270, p. 109-135.

McCauley, J. F., Grolier, M. J., and Breed, C. S., 

1977, Yardangs, in Doehring, D. O., ed., 

Geomorphology in arid regions: Eighth Ann. 

Geomorphology Symposium., New York State Univ. at 

Binghamton, Proc., p. 233-269.

McKee, E. D., 1966, Significance of climbing-ripple 

structure, in Geological Survey research 1966: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 550-D, p. D94-D103.

McKee, E. D., 1966, Structures of dunes at White Sands 

National Monument, New Mexico (and a comparison 

with structures of dunes from other selected 

areas): Sedimentology, v. 7, no. 1, Spec. Issue, 

69 p.

McKee, E. D., and Douglass, J. R., 1971, Growth and 

movement of dunes at White Sands National 

Monument, New Mexico: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. 

Paper 750-D, p. 108-114.

McKee, E. D., Douglass, J. R., and Rittenhouse, S., 

1971, Deformation of lee-side laminae in eolian 

dunes: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 82, p. 

359-378.

Pewe, T. L., 1966, Ice-wedges in 

Alaska Classification, distribution, and 

climatic significance, in Proceedings of 

International Conference on Permafrost, 

Lafayette, Indiana, 1963: Washington, D. C., 

Natl. Acad. Sci. Natl. Research Council Pub. 

1287, p. 76-81.

Pew£, T. L., 1968, Loess deposits of Alaska, in 

Proceedings of the 23d International Geologic 

Conference, 1968, Sec. 8, Genesis and 

classification of sedimentary rocks: Prague, 

Academia, p. 297-309.

Pewe, T. L., 1974, Geomorphic processes in polar 

deserts, in Smiley, T. L., and Zumberge, J. H., 

eds., Polar deserts: Tucson, Univ. Arizona 

Press, p. 33-52.

Schumm, S. A., 1967, Rates of surficial rock creep on 

hillslopes in western Colorado: Science, v. 155, 

jo. 3762, p. 560-561.

Schumm, S. A., 1968, Speculations concerning 

paleohydrologic control of terrestrial 

sedimentation: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 79, 

p. 1573-1588.

36
Schumm, S. A., and Chorley, R. 3., 1966, Talus 

weathering and scarp recession in the Colorado 

Plateaus: Zeitschr. Geomorphologie, new ser., v. 

10, no. 1, p. 11-36.

B. Geologic and geomorphic processes in rivers, streams, 

lakes, estuaries, swamps, and related environments

Burkham, D. E., 1976, Flow from small watersheds 

adjacent to the study reach of the Gila River 

Phreatophyte Project, Arizona: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Prof. Paper 655-1, 119 p.

Burkham, D. E., 1976, Hydraulic effects of changes in 

bottom-land vegetation on three major floods, 

Gila River, in southeastern Arizona: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Prof. Paper 655-3, 14 p.

Carlston, C. W., 1965, The relation of free meander 

geometry to stream discharge and its geomorphic 

implications: Am. Jour* Sci., v. 263, p. 

864-885.

Carlston, C. W., 1969, Downstream variations in the 

hydraulic geometry of streams: Special emphasis 

on mean velocity: Am. 3our. Sci., v. 267, p. 

499-509.

Culbertson, 3. K., Scott, C. H., and Bennett, 3. P., 

1972, Summary of alluvial- channel data from Rio 

Grande conveyance channel, New Mexico, 1965-69: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 562-3, 49 p.

Doyle, W. H., 3r., 1972, Sediment transport in a 

Mississippi River distributary Bayou Lafourche, 

La.: U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 2008, 

48 p.

Dury, G. H., 1965, Theoretical implications of 

underfit streams, U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 

452-C, 43 p.

Folger, D. W., 1972, Characteristics of estuarine 

sediments of the United States: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Prof. Paper 742, 94 p.

Hanson, R. L., and Dawdy, D. E., 1976, Accuracy of 

evapotranspiration rates determined by the 

water-budget method, Gila River flood plain, 

southeastern Arizona: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. 

Paper 655-L, 35 p.

Harbeck, G. E., 3r., 1966, Annual variability in lake 

evaporation: Internal. Assoc. Sci. Hydrology 

Pub. 70, p. 294-303.

Harbeck, G. E., 3r., 1967, Status of evaporation 

measurements in the United States: Internal. 

Assoc. Sci. Hydrology Pub. 78, p. 285-291.

Harbeck, G. E., 3r., and Meyers, 3. S., 1970, Present 

day evaporation measurement techniques: Am. Soc. 

Civil Engineers Proc., v. 96, 3our. Hydraulics 

Div., no. HY 7, p. 1381-1390.

Harbeck, G. E., 3r., Meyers, 3. S., and Hughes, G. H., 

1966, Effect of an increased heat load on the 

thermal structure and evaporation of Lake 

Colorado City, Texas: Texas Water Devel. Board 

Rept. 24, 37 p.

Hardison, C. W., and Moss, M. E., 1972, Accuracy of 

low-flow characteristics estimated by correlation 

of base-flow measurements, with a section on 

Outline of derivations by E. 3. Gilroy: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Water- Supply Paper 1542-B, p. 

B1-B55.

Knochenmus, D. D., 1967, Shoreline features as 

indicators of high lake levels, in Geological 

Survey Research 1967, Chap. C: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Prof. Paper 575-C, p. C236-C241.

Langbein, W. B., and Leopold, L. B., 1966, River 

meanders theory of minimum variance: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Prof. Paper 422-H, 15 p.

Lutz, G. A., Hubbell, D. W., and Stevens, H. H., 3r., 

1975, Discharge and flow distribution, Columbia 

River estuary: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 

433-P, 31 p.

Maddock, Thomas, 3r., 1969, The behavior of straight 

open channels with movable beds: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Prof. Paper 622-A, 70 p.

McQuiry, R. S., 1973, Summary of turbulence data from 

rivers, conveyance channels, and laboratory 

flumes: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 802-B, 66

PMeade, R. H., 1969, Errors in using modern stream-load

data to estimate natural rates of denudation:

Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 80, p. 1265-1274. 

Meade, R. H., and Emery, K. O., 1971, Sea level as

affected by river runoff, eastern United States:

Science, v. 173, p. 425-428. 

Rantz, S. E., 1972, Runoff characteristics of

California streams: U.S. Geol. Survey

Water-Supply Paper 2009-A, 38 p. 

Reed, L. A., 1976, Sediment characteristics of five

streams near Harrisburg, Pa., before highway

construction: U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply

Paper 1796-M, 29 p. 

Schumm, S. A., 1967, Meander wavelength of alluvial

rivers: Science, v. 157, p. 1549-1550. 

Simons, C. E., 1976, Sediment characteristics of

streams in the eastern Piedmont and western

Coastal Plain regions of North Carolina: U.S.

Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 1798-O, p. 1-32.

C. Geochemical and geophysical processes

Friedman, I., Smith, G. I., and Hardcastle, K. G., 

1976, Studies of Quaternary saline lakes; II, 

Isotopic and compositional changes during 

desiccation of the brines in Owens Lake, 

California, 1969-1971: Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 

v. 40, no. 5, p. 501-511.

Gold, L. W., and Lachenbruch, A. H., 1973, Thermal 

conditions in permafrost A review of North 

American Literature, in Permafrost, North 

American contribution to the Second International 

Conference: Washington, D.C., Natl. Acad. Sci., 

p. 3-23.

Lachenbruch, A. H., Greene, G. W., and Marshall, B. 

V., 1966, Permafrost and the geothermal regimes, 

in Wilimavsky, N. 3., ed., Environment of the 

Cape Thompson region, Alaska: Oak Ridge, Tenn., 

U.S. Atomic Energy Comm., p. 149- 163.

Lachenbruch, A. H., and Marshall, B. V., 1969, Heat 

flow in the Arctic: Arctic, v. 22, p. 300-311.

Marchand, D. E., 1974, Chemical weathering, soil 

development, and geochemical fractionation in a 

part of the White Mountains, Mono and Inyo 

Counties, Calif.: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 

352-3, p. 379-424.

37
Matsuo, Sadao, Friedman, Irving, and Smith, G. I., 

1972, Studies of Quaternary saline lakes: I. 

Hydrogen isotope fractionation in saline 

minerals: Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, v. 36, no. 

1, p. 427-435.

Smith, P. B., and Emiliani, C., 1968, Oxygen isotopic 

analysis of some Recent tropical Pacific 

benthonic Foraminifera: Science, v. 160, no. 

3834, p. 1335-1336.

D. Botanical and zoological indices

Adam, D. P., and Mehringer, P. 3., 3r., 1975, Modern 

pollen surface samples An analysis of 

subsamples: Jour. Research, U.S. Geol. Survey, 

v. 3, no. 6, p. 733-736.

Branson, F. A., and McQueen, I. S., 1970, Plant 

communities and associated soil and water factors 

on shale-derived soils in northeastern Montana: 

Ecology, v. 51, no. 3, p. 391-407.

Branson, F. A., Miller, R. F., and McQueen, I. S., 

1965, Plant communities and soil moisture 

relationships near Denver, Colorado: Ecology, v. 

46, no. 3, p. 311-319.

Hastings, 3. R., and Turner, R. M., 1965, The changing 

mile An ecological study of vegetation change 

with time in the lower mile of an arid and 

semiarid region: Tucson, Arizona Univ. Press, 

317 p.

Karlstrom, T. N. V., 1969, Introduction, and regional 

setting and geology, in Karlstrom, T. N. V., and 

Ball, George, eds., The Kodiak Island Refugium, 

Its geology, flora, fauna, and history: Toronto, 

Ryerson Press, p. 2-6, 20-54.

Mclntyre, I. G., and Pilkey, O. H., 1969, Tropical 

reef corals: Tolerance of low temperatures on 

the North Carolina continental shelf; Science, 

v. 166, no. 3903, p. 374-375.

E. Floods, landslides, and other natural hazards

Bailey, 3. F., Patterson, 3. L., and Paulhus, 3. L. 

H., 1975, Hurricane Agnes rainfall and floods: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 924, 403 p.

Burkham, D. E., 1970, Precipitation, stream flow and 

major floods at selected sites in the Gila River 

drainage basin above Coolidge Dam, Arizona: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 655-B, 33 p.

Burkham, D. E., 1976, Effects of changes in an 

alluvial channel on the timing, magnitude, and 

transformation of flood waves, southeastern 

Arizona: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 655-K, 

25 p.

Campbell, R. H., 1975, Soil slips, .debris flows, and 

rainstorms in the Santa Monica Mountains and 

vicinity, southern California: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Prof. Paper 851, 51 p.

Chin, E. H., Skelton, 3ohn, and Guy, H. P., 1976, 

Mississippi River basin flood: Compilation and 

analyses of meteorologic, streamflow, and 

sediment data: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 

937, 137 p.

Cooley, M. E., Aldridge, B. N., and Euler, R. C., 

1977, Effects of the catastrophic flood of 

December 1966, north rim area, eastern Grand

Canyon, Arizona: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 

980, 43 p.

Edelen, G. W., 3r., and Miller, 3. G., 1976, Floods of 

March-April 1973 in Southeastern United States: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 998, 283 p.

Frank, David, Meier, M. F., and Swanson, D. A., 1977, 

Assessment of increased thermal activity at Mount 

Baker, Washington, March, 1975-March, 1976, with 

contributions by 3ames W. Babcock, Marvin O. 

Fretwell, Steven D. Malone, Charles L. Rosenfeld, 

Ronald L. Shreve, and Ray E. Wilcox: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Prof. Paper 1022-A, p. 1-49.

Frank, David, Post, Austin, and Friedman, 3. D., 1975, 

Recurrent geothermally induced debris avalanches 

on Boulder Glacier, Mount Baker, Washington: 

3our. Research, U.S. Geol. Survey, v. 3, no. 1, 

p. 77-87.

Glancy, P. A., and Harmsen, Lynn, 1975, A hydrologic 

assessment of the September 14, 1974, flood in 

Eldorado Canyon, Nev.: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. 

Paper 930, 28 p.

Hansen, W. R., 1973, Effects of the May 5-6, 1973, 

storm in the greater Denver area, Colorado: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Circ. 689, 20 p.

Helley, E. 3., and LaMarche, V. C., 3r., 1973, 

Historic flood information for northern 

California streams from geological and botanical 

evidence: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 485-E, 

16 p.

McKee, E. D., Crosby, E. 3., and Berryhill, H. L., 

3r., 1967, Flood deposits, Bijou Creek, Colorado, 

3une 1965: 3our. Sed. Petrology, v. 37, p. 

829-851.

Nilsen, T. H., Taylor, F. A., and Brabb, E. E., 1976, 

Recent landslides in Alameda County, Calif. 

(1940-71): An estimate of economic losses and 

correlations with slope, rainfall, and ancient 

landslide deposit; U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 

1398, 21 p.

Nilsen, T. H., Taylor, F. A., and Dean, R. M., 1976, 

Natural conditions that control landsliding in 

the San Francisco Bay region An analysis based 

on data from the 1968-69 and 1972-73 rainy 

seasons: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1424, 35 p.

Nilsen, T. H., and Turner, B. L., 1975, Influence of 

rainfall and ancient landslide deposits on recent 

landslides (1950-71) in urban areas of Contra 

Costa County, Calif.: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 

1388, 18 p.

Post, Austin, and Mayo, L. R., 1971, Glacier clammed 

lakes and outburst floods in Alaska: U.S. Geoi. 

Survey Hyd. Atlas 455, 3 sheets, 10 p.

Reid, 3. K., and others, 1975, Summary of floods in 

the United States during 1969: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Water-Supply Paper 2030, 173 p.

Richardson, Donald, 1968, Glacier outburst floods in 

the Pacific Northwest: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. 

Paper 600-D, p. 79-86.

Rostvedt, 3. O., and others, 1972, Summary of floods 

in the United States during 1968: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Water-Supply Paper 1970-B, 73 p.

Schroeder, E. E., Grozier, R. U., Hahl, D. C., and 

Hulme, A. E., 1974, Floods of September-October 

1967 in south Texas and northeastern Mexico: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 1880-B, 111 

P38
Schwarz, F. K., Hughes, L. A., Hansen, E. M., 

Petersen, M. S., and Kelly, D. B., 1975, The 

Black Hills-Rapid City flood of 3une 9-10, 1972, 

a description of the storm and flood: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Prof. Paper 877, 47 p.

Scott, K. M., and Gravlee, G. C., 3r., 1968, Flood 

surge on the Rubicon River, 

California Hydrology, hydraulics, and boulder 

transport: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 422-M, 

40 p.

Snipes, R. 3., and others, 1974, Floods of June 1965 

in Arkansas River basin, Colorado, Kansas, and 

New Mexico: U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 

1850-D, 97 p.

Stewart, 3. H., and LaMarche, V. C., 3r., 1967, 

Erosion and deposition produced by the flood of 

December, 1964, on Coffee Creek, Trinity County, 

California: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 422-K, 

22 p.

Williams, G. P., and Guy, H. P., 1973, Erosional and 

depositional aspects of Hurricane Camille in 

Virginia, 1969: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 

804, 80 p.

F. Surface and ground water

Benson, M. A., and Carter, R. W., 1973, A national

study of the streamflow data-collection program:

U.S. Geol. Survey Water-supply Paper 2028, 44 p. 

James, I. C., II, Bower, B. T., and Matalas, N. C.,

1975, Relative importance of variables in water

resources planning, Selected works in water

resources: Champaign, 111., Internal. Water

Resource Assoc., p. 221-229. 

Krimmel, R. M., and Tangborn, W. V., 1974, South

Cascade Glacier, The moderating effect of

glaciers on runoff: Western Snow Conf., 42d,

Anchorage 1974, p. 9-13. 

Langbein, W. B., 1968, Hydrological bench marks, in

Hydrological decade rept. 8: World Meteorol.

Organization, 8 p. 

Leopold, L. B., 1964, Water in the world: UNESCO

Courier, 17th year, 3uly-Aug., p. 11-13. 

Leopold, L. B., 1972, Hydrologic research on

instrumented watersheds: Internal. Assoc. Sci.

Hydrol., no. 97, p. 135-150. 

Leopold, L. B., and Davis, K. S., 1966, Water: New

York, Inc. (LIFE Sci. Library), 200 p. 

Leopold, L. B., and Tilson, Seymour, 1966, The water

resource: Internal. Sci. and Technology, no.

55, p. 24-34. 

Luzier, 3. E., and Skrivan, 3. A., 1975,

Digital-simulation and projection of water-level

declines in basalt aquifers of the Odessa- Lind

area, east-central Washington: U.S. Geol. Supply

Water-Supply Paper 2036, 48 p. 

Mayo, L. R., Zenone, Chester, and Trabant, D. C.,

1977, Reconnaissance hydrology of Portage Glacier

Basin Alaska, 1972,: U.S. Geol. Survey Hyd.

Inves. Atlas HA-583. 

Meier, M. F., 1969, Glaciers and water supply: Am.

Water Works Assoc. Jour., v. 61, no. 1, p. 8-12. 

Rasmussen, L. S., and Tangborn, W. V., 1976, Hydrology

of the North Cascades region, Washington: Part

11. A proposed hydrometeorological streamflow 

prediction method: Water Resources Research, v.

12. no. 2, p. 187-202.

Tangborn, W. V., and Rasmussen, L. A., 1977, 

Application of a hydrometeorological model to the 

South- Central Sierra Nevada of California: 

3our. Research, U.S. Geol. Survey, v. 5, no. 1, 

p. 33-48.

Winograd, I. 3., and Thordarson, William, 1975, 

Hydrogeologic and hydrochemical framework, 

southcentral Great Basin, Nevada-California, with 

special reference to the Nevada test site: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 712-C, 126 p.

G. Glaciers, snow pack and snow cover

Dean, Willard, 1974, Maclure Glacier, California: 

Western Snow Conf., 42d, April 16-20, 1974, 

proc., p. 1-8.

Krimmel, R. M., 1970, Gravimetric ice thickness 

determination, South Cascade Glacier, Washington: 

Northwest Sci., v. 44, no. 3, p. 147-153.

Krimmel, R. M., Meier, M. F., and Tangborn, W. V., 

1973, Water flow through a temperate glacier: 

The Role of Snow and Ice in Hydrology Symposium, 

Banff 1972, IAHS Pub. 107, v. 1, p. 353-370.

Hamilton, T. D., 1965, Comparative glacier photographs 

from northern Alaska: 3our. Glaciology, v. 5, 

no. 40, p. 479-487.

Hodge, S. M., 1974, Variations in the sliding of a 

temperate glacier: 3our. Glaciology, v. 13, no. 

69, p. 349-369.

Hodge, S. M., 1976, Direct measurements of basal water 

pressures A pilot study: 3our. Glaciology, v. 

16, no. 7, p. 205-218.

Meier, M. F., 1973, Hydraulics and hydrology of 

glaciers with discussion: Internal. Assoc. Sci. 

Hydrol., no. 107, p. 353-370.

Meier, M. F., 1974, New ways to monilor the mass and 

areal exlenl of snowcover, in Proceedings of the 

COSPAR Symposium on Approaches lo Earih Survey 

Problems through Use of Space Techniques, 

Konsianz 1973: Berlin, Akad. Verlag, p. 

241-250.

Meier, M. F., Alexander, R. H., and Campbell, W. 3., 

1966, Mullispeclral sensing lesls al Soulh 

Cascade Glacier, Washinglon: Symposium on remole 

sensing of environment (ONR and AFCRL), 4lh, 

1966, Proc., Michigan Univ., p. 145-159.

Meier, M. F., Kamb, Barclay, Alien, C. R., and Sharp, 

R. P., 1974, Flow of Blue Glacier, Olympic 

Mounlains, Washinglon: 3our. Glaciology, v. 13, 

no. 68, p. 187-212.

Meier, M. F., and Posl, Austin, 1969, What are glacier 

surges? In Seminar on the causes and mechanics 

of glacier surges, Si. Hilaire, Quebec, 1968: 

Canadian 3our. Earth Sci., v. 6, no. 4, pi. 2, p. 

807-816.

Meier, M. F., and Tangborn, W. V., 1965, Nel budgel 

and flow of Soulh Cascade Glacier, Washinglon 

(wilh French and German abslracls): 3our. 

Glaciology, v. 5, no. 41, p. 547-566.

Meier, M. F., Tangborn, W. V., Mayo, L. R., and Posl, 

Auslin, 1971, Combined ice and waler balances of 

Gulkana and Wolverine glaciers, Alaska, and Soulh 

Cascade glacier, Washinglon, 1965 and 1966 

hydrologic years: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 

715-A, 23 p.

39
Post, A. S., 1965, Alaskan glaciers: Recent 

observations in respect to the earthquake-advance 

theory: Science, v. 148, p. 366-368.

Post, Austin, 1967, Effects of the March 1964 Alaska 

earthquake on glaciers: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. 

Paper 544-D, 42 p.

Post, Austin, 1969, Distribution of surging glaciers 

in western North America: Jour. Glaciology, v. 

8, no. 53, p. 229-240.

Post, Austin, 1972, Periodic surge origin of folded 

medial moraines on Bering piedmont glacier, 

Alaska: 3our. Glaciology, v. 11, no. 62, p. 

219-226.

Post, Austin, 1975, Preliminary hydrography and 

historic terminal changes of Columbia Glacier, 

Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey Hydrol. Inv. Atlas, 

Map HA-559, 3 sheets.

Post, Austin, Richardson, Don, Tangborn, W. V., and 

Rosselot, F. L., 1971, Inventory of glaciers in 

the North Cascades, Washington: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Prof. Paper 705-A, 26 p.

Richardson, Don, 1973, Effect of snow and ice on 

runoff at Mount Rainier, Washington, in The Role 

of Snow and Ice in Hydrology Symposium, Banff 

1972: Internatl. Assoc. Hydrologic Sci., IAHS 

Pub. 107, v. 2, p. 1172-1185.

Tangborn, W. V., 1966, Glacier mass budget 

measurements by hydrologic means: Water 

Resources Research, v. 2, no. 1, p. 105-110.

Tangborn, W. V., 1968, Mass balances of some North 

Cascade glaciers as determined by hydrologic 

parameters, 1920-65: Internal. Assoc. Sci. 

Hydrol., Bern Gen. Assembly, Pub. 79, p. 267-274.

Tangborn, W. V., Krimmel, R. M., and Meier, M. F., 

1975, A comparison of glacier mass balance 

measurements by glaciologic, hydrologic and 

mapping methods, South Cascade Glacier, 

Washington: Internal. Assoc. Hydrol. Sci., 

Moscow Gen. Assembly 1971, IAHS-AISH Pub. 104, p. 

185-196.

Tangborn, W. V., and others, 1977, Combined ice and 

water balances of Maclure Glacier, California, 

South Cascade Glacier, Washington, and Wolverine 

and Gulkana Glaciers, Alaska, 1967 hydrologic 

year: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 715-B, 20

PVeatch, F. M., 1969, Analysis of a 24-year 

photographic record of Nisqually Glacier, Mount 

Rainier National Park: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. 

Paper 631, 52 p.

H. Land use

3enner, C. B., 1977, Land use effects on the urban 

temperature field: A simulation experiment: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper, in press.

Mansue, L. 3., and Anderson, P. W., 1974, Effects of 

land use and retention practices on sediment 

yields in the Stony Brook basin, New Jersey: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 1798-L, 33 

PNicholas, F. W., and Lewis, 3. E., 1978, Relationships 

between aerodynamic roughness and land use in 

Baltimore, Maryland: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. 

Paper, in press.

Pease, R. W., Jenner, C. B., and Lewis, 3. E., 1978, 

The impact of land use on climate: An analysis 

of the Washington-Baltimore area that couples 

remote sensing with numerical simulation: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Prof. Paper, ,in press.

Reed, W. E., and Lewis, 3. E., 1978, Land use 

information and air quality planning: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Prof. Paper, ,in press.

Wolman, M G.., and Schick, A. P., 1967, Effects of 

reconstruction on fluvial sediment, urban and 

suburban areas of Maryland: Water Resources 

Research, v. 3, p. 451-464.

I. Satellite imagery

Alexander, R. H., Lewis, 3. E., Lins, H. F., 3enner, 

C. B., Outcalt, S. I., and Pease, R. W., 1976, 

Applications of Skylab data to land use and 

climatological analysis, Final Report: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Skylab/EREP Inv. no. 469.

Anderson, R. R., Carter, Virginia, and McGinness, 

3ohn, 1973, Mapping Atlantic coastal marshlands, 

Maryland, Georgia, using ERTS-1 imagery: U.S. 

Natl. Aeronautics and Space Adm., Spec. Pub. no. 

327, p. 603-613.

Krimmel, R. M., and Meier, M. F., 1975, Glacier 

applications of ERTS images: Proc. Symposium on 

Remote Sensing in Glaciology, Cambridge, England, 

1974: 3our. Glaciology, v. 15, no. 73, p. 

391-402.

Meier, M. F., 1973, Evaluation of ERTS imagery for 

mapping and detection of changes of snowcover on 

land and on glaciers: Symposium on Significant 

Results Obtained from ERTS-1, New Carrollton, 

Maryland, Proc., v. 1, p. 863-875.

Meier, M. F., 1974, Applications of ERTS imagery to 

snow and glacier hydrology, iri Proceedings of the 

COSPAR Symposium on Approaches to Earth Survey 

Problems Through Use of Space Techniques, 

Konstanz 1973: Berlin, Akad.-Verlag, p. 

329-334.

Meier, M. F., 1975, Application of remote sensing 

techniques to the study of seasonal snowcover, in 

Proceedings of the Symposium on Remote Sensing in 

Glaciology, Cambridge, England, 1974: 3our. 

Glaciology, v. 15, no. 73, p. 251-265.

Meier, M. F., and Evans, W. E., 1975, Comparison of 

different methods for estimating snowcover in 

forested, mountainous basins using LANDSAT (ERTS) 

images: Workshop on Operational Applications of 

Satellite Snowcover Observations, Lake Tahoe, 

Aug. 18-20, 1975, U.S. Nat. Aeronaut. Space 

Admin. Spec. Pub.

Morrison, R. B., and Cooley, M. E., 1973, Application 

of ERTS-1 multispectral imagery to monitoring the 

present episode of accelerated erosion in 

southern Arizona: U.S. Natl. Aeronaut. Space 

Admin. Spec. Pub. no. 327, p. 283-290.

Morrison, R. B., and Cooley, M. E., 1973, Assessment 

of flood damage in Arizona by means of ERTS-1 

imagery: U.S. Natl. Aeronautics and Space Adm. 

no. 327, p. 755-760.

Morrison, R. B., and Hallberg, G. R., 1973, Mapping 

Quaternary landforms and deposits in the midwest 

and great plains by means of ERTS-1 multispectral 

imagery: U.S. Natl. Aeronautics and Space Adm.

40
Spec. Pub. no. 327, p. 353-361. 

Pease, R. W., Lewis, J. E., and Outcalt, S. I., 1976,

Urban terrain climatology and remote sensing:

Am. Geographers Annals, v. 66, no. 4, p. 557-569. 

Pease, R. W., and Nichols, D. A., 1976, Energy balance

maps from remotely sensed imagery: Photogramm.

Eng. and Remote Sensing, v. 42, no. 11, p.

1367-1373. 

Williams, R. S., Jr., and Carter, W. D., editors,

1976, A new window on our planet: U.S. Geol.

Survey Prof. Paper 929, 362 p.

J. Climatology and meteorology

Adam, D. P., 1973, Ice ages and the thermal

equilibrium of the earth: Jour. Research, U.S.

Geol. Survey, v. 1, p. 587-596. 

Adam, D. P., 1975, Ice ages and the thermal

equilibrium of the earth, 11: Quaternary

Research, v. 5, p. 161-171. 

Adam, D. P., 1975, The tropical cyclone as a global

climatic stabilizing mechanism: Geology,

November, 1975, p. 625-626. 

Ferrians, O. J., Jr., 1965, Permafrost map of Alaska:

U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map 1-445,

scale 1:2,500,000. 

Friedman, Irving, and Smith, G. I., 1970, Deuterium

content of snow cores from Sierra Nevada area:

Science, v. 169, p. 467-470. 

Friedman, Irving, and Smith, G. I., 1972, Deuterium

content of snow as an index to winter climate in

the Sierra Nevada area: Science, v. 176, p.

790-793. 

Giusti, E. V., and Lopez, M. A., 1967, Climate and

stream flow of Puerto Rico: Caribbean Jour.

Sci., v. 7, p. 87-93. 

Hamilton, T. D., 1965, Alaskan temperature

fluctuations and trends; Analysis of recorded

data: Arctic, v. 18, p. 105-117. 

Kaye, C. A., and Stuckey, G. W., 1973, Modal tidal

cycle of 18.6 year Its importance in sea-level

curves of the east coast of the United States and

its value in explaining long-term sea level

changes: Geology, v. 1, p. 141-144. 

Meier, M. F., 1965, Glaciers and climate, in Wright,

H. E. and Frey, D. G., eds., The Quaternary of

the Unites States: Princeton, N. J., Princeton

Univ. Press, p. 795-805. 

Pewe, T. L., 1966, Paleoclimatic significance of

fossil ice wedges: Biul. Peryglacjalny, no. 15,

p. 65-72. 

Pewe, T. L., 1966, Permafrost and its effect on life

in the North: Oregon State Univ. Press, 40 p. 

Pewe, T. L., 1973, Ice wedge casts and past permafrost

distribution in North America: Geoforum, no. 15,

p; 15-26. 

Pewe, T. L., and Reger, R. D., 1972, Modern and

Wisconsinan snowlines in Alaska: Proc. Internal.

Geol. Cong. programme, no. 24, p. 187-197.

II. SHORT-TERM CHANGES IN CLIMATE

A. Stratigraphic records-glacial

Carrara, P. E., 1975, The ice-cored moraines of the 

Akudnirmuit Glacier, Cumberland Peninsula, Baffin 

Island, N.W.T., Canada: Arctic and Alpine 

Research, v. 7, p. 61-67.

Carrara, P. E., and Andrews, J. T., 1972, The 

Quaternary history of northern Cumberland 

Peninsula, Baffin Island, N.W.T., Part 1; The 

late- and Neoglacial deposits of Akudnirmuit and 

Boas Glaciers: Canadian Jour. Earth Sci., v. 9, 

p. 403-414.

Carrara, P. E., and Andrews, J. T., 1975, Holocene 

glacial/periglacial record, northern San Juan 

Mountains, southwestern Colorado: Zeitschr. 

Gletscherlennde und Glazialgeologie, v. II, p. 

155-174.

Koteff, Carl, 1974, The morphologic sequence concept 

and deglaciation of southern New England: Chap. 

4, in Coates, D. R., ed., Glacial geomorphology: 

Binghamton, New York, State Univ. N.Y. Pubs, in 

Geomorphology, p. 121-144.

Madole, R. G., 1972, Neoglacial facies in the Colorado 

front range; Arctic and Alpine Research, v. 4, 

no. 2, p. 119-130.

Ovenshine, A. T., 1967, Provenance of recent glacial 

ice in lower Glacial Bay, southeastern Alaska, in 

Geological Survey research 1967, Chap. D: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 575-D, p. D198-D202.

Sigafoos, R. S., and Hendricks, E. L., 1972, Recent 

activity of glaciers of Mount Rainier, 

Washington: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 387B, 

24 p.

B. Stratigraphic records-nonglacial

Ahlbrandt, T. S., 1974, Dune stratigraphy, 

archaeology, and the chronology of the Killpecker 

Dune field, in Wilson, Michael, ed., Applied 

geology and archaeology: The Holocene history of 

Wyoming: Wyoming Geol. Survey Rept. Inv. 10, p. 

51-57.

Bouma, A. H., and Bryant, W. R., 1969, Rapid delta 

growth in Matagorda Bay, Texas, in Coastal 

lagoons, a symposium UNAM-UNESCO, Mexico, D.F., 

1967 (A. Ayala Castanares and F. B. Phleger, 

eds.): Mexico, D.F., Univ. Nac. Autonoma 

Mexico, p. 171-189.

Brice, J. C., 1966, Erosion and deposition in the 

loess-mantled Great Plains, Medicine Creek 

drainage basin, Nebraska: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Prof. Paper 352-H, p. 255-339.

Denny, C. S., 1965, Alluvial fans in the Death Valley 

region, California and Nevada: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Prof. Paper 466, 62 p.

Detterman, R. L., 1970, Early Holocene warm interval 

in northern Alaska: Arctic, v. 23, no. 2, p. 

130-132.

Detterman, R. L., Reed, B. L., and Rubin, Meyer, 1965, 

Radiocarbon dates from Iliamna Lake, Alaska, in 

Geological Survey Research 1965: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Prof. Paper 525-D, p. D34-D36.

Fornald, A. T., 1965, Recent history of the upper 

Tanana River lowland, Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Prof. Paper 525-C, p. 124-127.

41
Hopkins, D. M., 1965 Chetvertichnye morskie 

transgressii Alyaska (with English abs.), in F. 

G. Markov and others, eds., Anthropogene period 

in the Arctic and subarctic: Nancho-Issled. 

Inst. Geologii Arktiki Trudy, v. 143, p. 131-154.

Karlstrom, T. N. V., Gumerman, G. J., and Euler, R. 

C., 1974, Paleoenvironmental and cultural changes 

in the Black Mesa region, northeastern Arizona: 

Geol. Soc. America Rocky Mtn. Sec. Guidebook no. 

27, p. 768-792.

McCulloch, David and Hopkins, D. M., 1966, Evidence 

for an early Recent warm interval in northwestern 

Alaska: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 77, no. 10, 

p. 1089-1107.

McKee, E. D., and Moiola, R. J., 1975, Geometry and 

growth of the White Sands dune field, New Mexico: 

Jour. Research, U.S. Geol. Survey, v. 3, no. 1, 

p. 59-66.

Scott, K. M., 1973, Scour and fill in Tujunga Wash A 

fanhead valley in urban southern 

California 1969: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 

732-B, 29 p.

Thorson, R. M., and Hamilton, T. D., 1977, Geology of 

the Dry Creek site; a stratified early man site 

in interior Alaska: Quaternary Research, v. 7, 

p. 149-176.

C. Geomorphic records

Burkham, D. E., 1972, Channel changes of the Gila 

River in Safford Valley, Arizona, 1846-1970: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 655-G, 24 p.

Bull, W. B., 1965, The Tumey Gulch fanhead trench, 

western Fresno County, California, in Guidebook 

for Field Conference 1, Northern Great Basin and 

California Internal. Assoc. Quaternary Research, 

7th Cong., U.S.A.: Lincoln, Nebr., Nebraska 

Acad. Sci., p. 137-139.

Bull, W. B., 1968, Alluvial fans: Jour. Geol. 

Education, v. 16, no. 3, p. 101-106.

Dickinson, R. G., 1965, Landslide origin of the type 

Cerro Till, southwestern Colorado, in Geological 

Survey Research 1965: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. 

Paper 525-C, p. C147-C151.

Foster, H. L., and Holmes, G. W., 1965, A large 

transitional rock glacier in the Johnson River 

area, Alaska Range, in Geological Survey Research 

1965: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 525-B, p. 

B112-B116.

Hack, J. T., 1965, Postglacial drainage evolution and 

stream geometry in the Ontonagan area, Michigan: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 504-B, 40 p.

Holmes, G. W., Foster, H. L., and Hopkins, D. M., 

1966, Distribution and age of the Pingos of 

interior Alaska, in Proceedings of International 

Conference on permafrost, Lafayette, Indiana, 

1963: Washington, D.C., Natl. Acad. Sci.- Natl. 

Res. Council Pub. 1287, p. 88-93.

Holmes, G. W., Hopkins, D. M., and Foster, H. L., 

1968, Pingos in central Alaska: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Bull. 1241-H, 40 p.

Krinsley, D. B., 1968, Geomorphology of three Kavirs 

in northern Iran, in Neal, J. T., ed., Playa 

surface morphology: Miscellaneous 

Investigations: Bedford, Mass., Air Force 

Cambridge Res. Labs., Environ., Res. Papers 283, 

p. 105-130.

D. Hydrologic and sea-level records

Helley, E. J., and LaMarche, V. C., Jr., 1968, 

December 1964, A 400-year flood in northern 

California, ir> Geological Survey Research 1968, 

Chap. D: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 600-D, p. 

D34-D37.

Scholl, D. W., Craighead, F. C., Sr., and Stuiver, 

Minze, 1969, Florida submergence curve revised: 

Its relation to coastal sedimentation rates: 

Science, v. 163, p. 562-564.

Schumm, S. A., 1968, River adjustment to altered 

hydrologic regimen Murrumbridgee River and 

paleochannels, Australia: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Prof. Paper 598, 65 p.

Shepart, F. P., Curray, J. R., Newman, W. A., Bloom, 

A. L., Newell, N. D., Tracey, J. I., Jr., and 

Vech, H. H., 1967, Holocene changes in sea level: 

Evidence in Micronesia: Science, v. 157, p. 

542-544.

Wait, R. L., 1968, Submergence along the Atlantic 

coast of Georgia, in Geological Survey research 

1968, Chap. D: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 

600-D, p. 38-41.

Van Denburgh, A. S., 1975, Solute balance at Abert and 

Summer Lakes,, southcentral Oregon: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Prof. Paper 502-C, 29 p.

E. Biological records

Adam, D. P., 1967, Late-Pleistocene and recent 

palynology in the central Sierra Nevada, 

California, in Quaternary paleocology Internat. 

Assoc. Quaternary Research, 7th Cong., 1965, 

Proc., V. 7: New Haven, Conn., Yale Univ. Press, 

p. 275-301.

Adam, D. P., 1975, A late Holocene pollen record from 

Pearson's Pond, Weeks Creek landslide, San 

Francisco Peninsula, California: Jour. Research 

U.S. Geol. Survey, v. 3, no. 6, p. 721-731.

Andrews, J. T., Carrara, P. E., King, F. B., and 

Stuckenrath, R., 1975, Holocene environmental 

changes in the alpine zone, northern San Juan 

Mountains, Colorado: Evidence from bog 

stratigraphy and palynology: Quaternary 

Research, v. 5, p. 173-197.

Bukry, David, 1970, Coccolith intrusion in the Black 

Sea since the Ice Age: Oceanus, v. 15, no. 4, p. 

21-22.

Carrara, P. E., and Andrews, J. T., 1973, Problems and 

application of lichenometry to geomorphic 

studies, San Juan Mountains, Colorado: Arctic 

and Alpine Research, v. 5, p. 373-384.

Hastings, J. R., and Turner, R. M., 1965, The changing 

mile: Tucson, Arizona Univ. Press, 317 p.

LaMarche, V. C., Jr., 1966, An 800-year history of 

stream erosion as indicated by botanical 

evidence, in Geological Survey research 1966: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 550-D, p. D83-D86.

Post, A., and Streveler, G., 1976, The tilted forest; 

glaciological-geologic implications of vegetated 

neoglacial ice at Lituya Bay, Alaska: Quaternary 

Research, v. 6, no. 1, p. 111-117.

Sercelj, Alojz, and Adam, D. P., 1975, A late Holocene 

pollen diagram from near Lake Tahoe, Eldorado 

County, California: Jour. Research U.S. Geol.

42
Survey, v. 3, no. 6, p. 737-745.

Sigafoos, R. S., and Hendricks, E. L., 1969, The time 

interval between stabilization of Alpine Glacial 

deposits and establishment of tree seedings: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 650-B, p. B89-B93.

Sigafoos, R. S., and Sigafoos, M. D., 1966, Flood 

history told by tree growth: Nat. History, v. 

75, no. 7, p. 50-55.

Turner, R. M., 1974, Quantitative and historical 

evidence of vegetation changes along the upper 

Gila River, Arizona: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. 

Paper 655-H, 20 p.

Williams, A. S., 1975, Late-glacial postglacial 

vegetational history of the Pretty Lake region, 

northeastern Indiana: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. 

Paper 686-B, 23 p.

III. LONG TERM CHANGES IN CLIMATE

A. Quaternary glacial deposits-Alaska

Detterman, R. L., and Reed, B. L., 1973, Surficial 

deposits of the Iliamna quadrangle, Alaska: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Bull. 1368-A, 64 p.

Fernald, A. T., 1965, Glaciation in the Nabesna River 

area, upper Tanana River valley, Alaska, in 

Geological Survey research 1965: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Prof. Paper 525-C, p. C120-C123.

Ferrians, O. 3., 3r., and Nichols, D. R., 1965, Resume 

of Quaternary geology of the Copper Riiver basin, 

in Guidebook for Field Conference F. Central and 

south central Alaska Internal. Assoc. Quaternary 

Research, 7th Cong., U.S.A., 1965: Nebraska 

Acad.Sci., p. 93-114.

Hamilton, T. D., 1969, Glacial geology of the lower 

Alatna Valley, Brooks Range, Alaska, in Schumm, 

S. A., and Bradley, W. CM eds., United States 

contributions to Quaternary research: Geol. Soc. 

America, Spec. Paper 123, p. 181-223.

Hamilton, T. D., and Porter, S. C., 1975, Itkillik 

Glaciation in the Brooks Range, Alaska: 

Quaternary Research, v. 5, p. 471-497.

Holmes, G. W., and Lewis, C. R., 1965, Quaternary 

geology of the Mount Chamberlin area, Brooks 

Range, Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1201-B, 

32 p.

Hopkins, D. M., and Einarsson, Thorleifur, 1966, 

Pleistocene glaciation on St. George, Pribilof 

Islands: Science, v. 152, no. 3720, p. 343-345.

Karlstrom, T. N. V., 1965, Resume of the Quaternary 

geology of the Upper Cook Inlet area and 

Matanuska River valley, in Guidebook for Field 

Conference F, Central and south central 

Alaska Internal. Assoc. Quaternary Research, 7th 

Cong., U.S.A., 1965: Lincoln, Nebr., Nebraska 

Acad. Sci., p. 114-141.

McCulloch, D. S., 1967, Quaternary geology of the 

Alaskan shore of Chukchi Sea, in Hopkins, D. M., 

ed., The Berring land bridge: Stanford, Calif., 

t Stanford Univ. Press, p. 91-120.

Pewe, T. L., 1965, Resume of Quaternary geology of the 

Delta River area, Alaska Range, in Guidebook for 

Field Conference F, Central and south central 

Alaska Internal. Assoc. Quaternary Research, 7th 

Cong., U.S.A., 1965: Lincoln, Nebr., Nebraska 

Acad. Sci., p. 55-93.

Pewe, T. L., 1965, Resume of the Quaternary geology of 

the Fairbanks area, in Guidebook for Field 

Conference F, Central and south central 

Alaska Internal. Assoc. Quaternary Research, 7th 

Cong., U.S.A., 1965: Lincoln, Nebr., Nebraska 

Acad. Sci., p. 6-36.

Pewe, T. L., Burbank, Lawrence, and Mayo, L. R., 1967, 

Multiple glaciation of the Yukon-Tanana upland, 

Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map 

1-507.

Sainsbury, C. L., 1967, Qualernary geology of weslern 

Seward Peninsula, Alaska, in Hopkins, D. M., ed., 

The Bering Land Bridge: Slanford, Calif., 

Sianford Univ. Press, p. 121-143.

Sainsbury, C. L., 1967, Upper Pleislocene fealures in 

the Bering Slrail area, in Geological Survey 

research 1967, Chap. D: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. 

Paper 575-D, p. D203-D213.

Trainer, F. W., and Waller, R. M., 1965, Subsurface 

stratigraphy of glacial drift al Anchorage, 

Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 525-D, p. 

167-174.

Yeend, Warren, 1971, Glacialion of ihe Ray Mouniains, 

Ceniral Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 

750-D, p. 122-126.

B. Quaternary glacial deposits-western U.S.

Armslrong, 3. R., Crandell, D. R., Easlerbrook, D. 3., 

and Noble, 3. B., 1965, Lale Pleislocene 

stratigraphy and chronology in southweslern 

Brilish Columbia and northwestern Washington: 

Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 76, no. 3, p. 

321-330.

Crandell, D. R., 1967, Glacialion al Wallowa Lake, 

Oregon, in Geological Survey research 1967, Chap. 

C: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 575-C, p. 

C145-C153.

Crandell, D. R., 1969, Surficial geology of Mounl 

Rainier Nalional Park, Washinglon: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Bull. 1288, 41 p.

Crandell, D. R., 1969, The geologic slory of Mounl 

Rainier: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1292, 43 p.

Crandell, D. R., Mullineaux, D. R., and Waldron, H. 

H., 1965, Day 7, Seplember 12, in Guidebook for 

Field Conference 3, Pacific Northwest Internal. 

Assoc. Qualernary Research, 7lh Cong., U.S.A.: 

Lincoln, Nebr., Nebraska Acad. Sci., p. 51-59.

Crandell, D. R., and Miller, R. D., 1974,- Qualernary 

slraligraphy and exlenl of glaciation in the 

Mount Rainier region, Washinglon: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Prof. Paper 847, 59 p.

Easlerbrook, D. 3., Crandell, D. R., and Leopold, E. 

B., 1967, Pre-Olympia Pleislocene slraligraphy 

and chronology in Ihe cenlral Pugel Lowland, 

Washinglon: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 78, no. 

1, p. 13-20.

3anda, R. 3., 1965, Minarel Summil, in Guidebook for 

Field Conference II, Norlhern Greal Basin and 

California Iniernal. Assoc. Qualernary 

Research, 7lh Cong., U.S.A., 1965: Lincoln, 

Nebr., Nebraska Acad. Sci., p. 89-91.

43
3anda, R. 3., and Wahrhaftig, Clyde, 1965, Mineral 

Summit to Convict Lake, in Guidebook for Field 

Conference I, Northern Great Basin and 

California Internal. Assoc. Quaternary 

Research, 7th Cong., U.S.A., 1965: Lincoln, 

Nebr., Nebraska Acad. Sci., p. 91-93.

LaMarche, V. C., 3r., 1965, Distribution of 

Pleistocene glaciers in the White Mountains of 

California and Nevada, in Geological Survey 

research 1965: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 

525-C, p. C144-C146.

Madole, R. F., 1969, Pinedale and Bull Lake glaciation 

in upper St. Urain drainage basin, Boulder 

County, Colorado: Arctic and Alpine Research, v. 

1, p. 279-287.

Madole, R. F., 1976, Bog stratigraphy, radiocarbon 

dates, and Pinedale to Holocene glacial history 

in the Front Range, Colorado: 3our. Research, 

U.S. Geol. Survey, v. 4, no. 2, p. 163-169.

Madole, R. F., 1976, Glacial geology of the Front 

Range, Colorado, in Mahoney, W. C., ed., 

Quaternary stratigraphy of North America: 

Stroudsburg, Pa., Dowden, Hutchinson, and Ross, 

p. 297-318.

Matthes, F. E., 1965, Glacial reconnaissance of 

Sequoia National Park, California: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Prof. Paper 504-A, 58 p.

Mullineaux, D. R., Waldron, H. H., and Rubin, Meyer, 

1965, Stratigraphy and chronology of late 

interglacial and early Vashon glacial time in 

Seattle area, Washington: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Bull. 1194-0, 10 p.

Richmond, G. M., 1965, Quaternary stratigraphy of the 

Durango area, San Juan Mountains, Colorado, in 

Geological Survey research 1965: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Prof. Paper 525-C, p. C137-C143.

Richmond, G. M., 1969, Development and stagnation of 

the last Pleistocene icecap in the Yellowstone 

Lake Basin, Yellowstone National Park, U.S.A.: 

Eiszetalter u. Gegewart, v. 20, p. 196-203.

Richmond, G. M., 1975, A partial Quaternary chronology 

from Yellowstone National Park, in Report 2 on 

the session in Salzburg, Austria: Intern. Geol 

Correlation Prog., Project 73/1/24, Quaternary 

glaciations in the Northern Hemisphere, p. 

144-147.

Richmond, G. M., 1976, Pleistocene stratigraphy and 

chronology in the mountains of western Wyoming, 

in Mahoney, W. C., ed., Quaternary stratigraphy 

of North America: Stroudsburg, Pa., Dowden, 

Hutchinson, and Ross, p. 353-379.

Richmond, G. M., 1976, Surf icial geologic history of 

the Canyon Village quadrangle, Yellowstone 

National Park, Wyoming, for use with Map 1-652: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1427, 35 p.

Richmond, G. M., Fryxell, Roald, Neff, G. E., and 

Weis, P. L., 1965, The Cordilleran Ice Sheet of 

the Northern Rocky Mountains, and related 

Quaternary history of the Columbia Plateau, in 

The Quaternary of the United States: Princeton, 

N. 3., Princeton Univ. Press, p. 231-242.

Richmond, G. M., and Murphy, 3. F., 1965, Geologic map 

of the Bull Lake East quadrangle, Fremont County, 

Wyoming: U.S. Geol. Survey Geol. Quad. Map 

GQ-431.

Richmond, G. M., Murphy, 3. F., and Denson, N. M., 

1965, Glacial chronology of the Wind River

Mountains, Pt. C in Guidebook for Field 

Conference E, Northern and Middle Rocky 

Mountains Internal. Assoc. Quaternary Research, 

7th Cong., U.S.A., 1965: Lincoln, Nebr., 

Nebraska Acad. Sci., p. 28-37.

Richmond, G. M., and Pierce, K. L., 1971, Surf icial 

geologic map of the Mount Hancock quadrangle, 

Yellowstone Park and adjoining area, Wyoming: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map 1-636, 

scale 1:62,500.

Schmidt, D. L., and Mackin, 3. H., 1970, Quaternary 

geology of Long and Bear Valleys, west-central 

Idaho: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1311-A, 22 p.

Witkind, I. 3., 1975, A proposed glacial history of 

the Henrys Lake basin, Idaho: 3our. Research, 

U.S. Geol. Survey, v. 3, p. 67-76.

Yeend, W. E., 1969, Quaternary geology of the Grand 

and Battlement Mesas area, Colorado: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Prof. Paper 617, 50 p.

C. Quaternary glacial deposits-northeastern U.S.

Denny, C. S., 1974, Pleistocene geology of the 

northeast Adirondack region, New York: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 786, 50 p.

Eschmann, D. F., 1966, Surficial geology of the Athol 

quadrangle, Worcester and Franklin Counties, 

Massachusetts: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1163-C, 

20 p.

Huber, N. K., 1973, Glacial and postglacial geologic 

history of Isle Royale National Park, Michigan: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 754-A, 15 p.

Kaye, C. A., 1964, Illinoian and early Wisconsin 

moraines of Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts, in 

Geological Survey research 1964: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Prof. Paper 501-C, p. C140-C143.

Kaye, C. A., 1964, Outline of Pleistocene geology of 

Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts, in Geological 

Survey research 1964: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. 

Paper 501-C, p. C134-C139.

Leighton, M. M., and Ray, L. L., 1965, Glacial 

deposits of Nebraskan and Kansan age in northern 

Kentucky, in Geological Survey research 1965: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 525-B, p. 

B126-B131.

Pettyjohn, W. A., 1967, Multiple drift sheets in 

southwestern Ward County, North Dakota, in 

Glacial geology of the Missouri Coteau and 

adjacent areas: North Dakota Geol. Survey Misc. 

Ser. 30, p. 123-130.

Ray, L. L., 1966, Pre-Wisconsin glacial deposits in 

northern Kentucky, in Geological Survey research 

1966: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 550-B, p. 

B91-B94.

Ray, L. L., 1969, Glacial erratics and the problem of 

glaciation in northeast Kentucky and southeast 

Ohio a review and suggestion: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Prof. Paper 650-D, p. 195-199.

Winter, T. C., 1971, Sequence of glaciation in the 

Mesabi-Vermillion Iron Range area, northeastern 

Minnesota: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 750-C, 

p. 82-88.

44
D. Quaternary nonglacial deposits and features

Adam, D. P., 1973, Early Pleistocene(?) pollen spectra 

from near Lake Tahoe, California: Jour. 

Research, U.S. Geol. Survey, v. 1, no. 6, p. 

691-693.

Adam, D. P., 1976, Hudson Bay, Lake Zissaga, and the 

growth of the Laurentide Ice Sheet: Nature, v. 

261, p. 679-680.

Andrews, G. W., 1965, Late Quaternary geologic history 

of the lower Chippewa Valley, Wisconsin: Geol. 

Soc. America Bull., v. 76, no. 1, p. 113-12*.

Baker, C. H., 3r., 1966, The Milnor channel, an 

ice-marginal course of the Sheyenne River, North 

Dakota, in Geological Survey research 1966: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 550-B, p. B77-B79.

Baker, C. H., 3r., 1967, New observations on the 

Sheyenne delta of glacial Lake Agassiz, in 

Geological Survey research 1967, Chap. B: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 575-B, p. B62-B68.

Baker, R. G., 1976, Late Quaternary vegetation history 

of the Yellowstone Lake Basin, Wyoming: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 729-E, *8 p.

Bright, R. C., Rubin, Meyer, Goode, H. D., Morrison, 

R. B., Eardley, A. 3., and Richmond, G. M., 1965, 

Lake Bonneville, Pt. H, in Guidebook for Field 

Conference E, Northern and Middle Rocky 

Mountains Internat. Assoc. Quaternary Research, 

7th Cong., U.S.A., 1965: Lincoln, Nebr., 

Nebraska Acad. Sci., p. 10*-117.

Casteel, R. W., Adam, D. P., and Sims, 3. D., 1977, 

Late-Pleistocene and Holocene remains of 

Hysterocarpus traski (Tule Perch) from Clear 

Lake, California, and inferred Holocene 

temperature fluctuations: Quaternary Research, 

v. 7, p. 133-1*3.

Croft, M. G., 1968, Geology and radiocarbon ages of 

late Pleistocene lacustrine deposits, southern 

part of San Joaquin Valley, California, in 

Geological Survey research 1968, Chap. B: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 600-B, p. B151-B156.

Croft, M. G., and Wahrhaftig, Clyde, 1965, General 

geology of the San Joaquin Valley, in Guidebook 

for Field Conference I, Northern Great Basin and 

California Internat. Assoc. Quaternary Research, 

7th Cong., U.S.A., 1965: Lincoln, Nebr., 

Nebraska Acad. Sci., p. 133-137.

Emery, K. O., Wigley, R. L., and Rubin, Meyer, 1965, A 

submerged peat deposit off the Atlantic coast of 

the United States: Limnology and Oceanography 

(Alfred C. Redfield 75th Anniversary Volume), v. 

10, supp., p. R97-R102.

Fryxell, Roald, Richmond, G. M., Malde, H. E., 

Trimble, D. E., Bright, R. C., and Rubin, Meyer, 

1965, The canyons of western Idaho, the Snake 

River Plain and the Bonneville flood, Pt. G in 

Guidebook for Field Conference E, Northern and 

Middle Rocky Mountains Internat. Assoc. 

Quaternary Research, 7th Cong., U.S.A., 1965: 

Lincoln, Nebr., Nebraska Acad. Sci., p. 90-10*.

Hawley, 3. W., Bachman, G. O., and Manley, K., 1976, 

Quaternary stratigraphy in the Basin and Range 

and Great Plains Provinces, New Mexico and 

western Texas, in Mahoney, W. C., ed., Quaternary 

stratigraphy of North America: Stroudsburg, Pa., 

Dowden, Huchinson, and Ross, p. 235-27*.

Herrick, S. M., 1965, A subsurface study of 

Pleistocene deposits in coastal Georgia: Georgia 

Geol. Survey Inf. Circ. 31, 8 p.

Hopkins, D. M., 1967, Quaternary marine transgressions 

in Alaska, in Hopkins, D. M., ed., The Bering 

Land Bridge: Stanford, Calif., Stanford Univ. 

Press, p. *7-90.

Hopkins, D. M., 1973, Sea level history in Beringia 

during the past 250,000 years: Quaternary 

Research, v. 3, p. 520-5*0.

3anda, R. 3., 1965, Great soil groups on the west 

slope of the central Sierra Nevada, California, 

in Guidebook for Field Conference I, Northern 

Great Basin and California Internat. Assoc. 

Quaternary Research, 7th Cong., U.S.A., 1965: 

Lincoln, Nebr., Nebraska Acad. Sci., p. 121-123.

3anda, R. 3., 1965, Quaternary alluvium near Friant, 

California, in Guidebook for Field Conference I, 

Northern Great Basin and California Internat. 

Assoc. Quaternary Research, 7th Cong., U.S.A., 

1965: Lincoln, Nebr., Nebraska Acad. Sci., p. 

128-133.

3anda, R. 3., and Croft, M. G., 1967, The 

stratigraphic significance of a sequence of 

noncalcic brown soils formed on the Quaternary 

alluvium of the northeastern San Joaquin Valley, 

California, in Morrison, R. B., and Wright, H. 

E., 3r., eds., Quaternary soils: Internat. 

Assoc. Quaternary Research, 7th Cong., U.S.A., 

Proc., v. 9, p. 158-190.

Karlstrom, T. N. V., 1976, Quaternary and upper 

Tertiary time-stratigraphy of the Colorado 

Plateaus, continental correlations, and some 

paleoclimatic implications, in Mahaney, W. C., 

ed., Quaternary stratigraphy of North America: 

Stroudsburg, Pa., Dowden, Hutchinson, and Ross, 

p. 275-282.

Knox, A. S., 1966, The Walker interglacial swamp, 

Washington, D.C.: Washington Acad. Sci. 3our., 

v. 56, no. 1, p. 1-8.

Knox, A. S., 1969, Glacial age marsh, Lafayette Park, 

Washington, D.C.: Science, v. 165, no. 3895, p. 

795-797.

Krinsley, D. B., 1970, A geomorphological and 

paleoclimatological study of the playas of 

Iran Air Force Cambridge Research Lab. Contract 

No. PRO CP 70-800 (AFCRL-70-0503), Final Rept., 

Pts. 1-2: U.S. Government Printing Office, *86

PLajoie, K. R., Helley, E. 3., Nichols, D. R., and 

Burke, D. B., 197*, Geologic map of 

unconsolidated and moderately consolidated 

deposits of San Mateo County, California: San 

Francisco Bay Region Environmental Resources 

Planning Study, Basic data Contr., no. 68.

Madole, R. F., and Bachhuber, F. W., 1973, 

Geomorphology, palynology, and paleomagnetic 

record of glacial Lake Delvin, front range: 

Geol. Soc. America, Rocky Mountain Sec., 26th 

Ann. Mtg., Guidebook for Field Trip no. 1, 25 p.

Malde, H. E., 1965, Snake River Plain, in Wright, H. 

E., and Frey, D. G., eds., The Quaternary of the 

United States: Princeton, N.3., Princeton Univ. 

Press, p. 255-263.

Malde, H. E., 1968, The catastrophic late Pleistocene 

Bonneville flood in the Snake River plain, Idaho: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 596, 52 p.

45
Malde, H. E., and Cox, Allan, 1971, History of Snake 

River Canyon indicated by revised stratigraphy of 

Snake River Group near Hagerman and King Hill, 

Idaho: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 644-F, 21

PMalde, H. E., and VanHorn, Richard, 1965, 

Stratigraphy, soils, and geomorphology of the 

nonglacial Quaternary deposits between Boulder 

and Golden, Colorado, Trip 8, in Guidebook for 

one-day field conferences, Boulder area, 

Colorado Internat. Assoc. Quaternary Research, 

7th Cong., U.S.A., 1965: Lincoln, Nebr., 

Nebraska Acad. Sci., p. 40-47.

McCulloch, D. S., Taylor, Dwight, and Rubin, Meyer, 

1965, Stratigraphy, nonmarine mollusks and 

radiometric dates from Quaternary deposits in the 

Kotzebue Sound area, western Alaska: 3our. 

Geology, v. 73, no. 3, p. 442-453.

Minard, 3. P., 1966, Sandblasted blocks on a hill in 

the coastal plain of New Jersey: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Prof. Paper 550-B, p. 87-90.

Mixon, R. B., and Pilkey, O. H., 1976, Reconnaissance 

geology of the submerged and emerged Coastal 

Plain Province, Cape Lookout area, North 

Carolina: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 859, 45 

PMorrison, R. B., 1965, Lake Bonneville Quaternary 

stratigraphy of eastern Jordan Valley, south of 

Salt Lake City, Utah: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. 

Paper 477, 80 p.

Morrison, R. B., 1965, New evidence on Lake Bonneville 

stratigraphy and history from southern Promontory 

Point, Utah, in Geological Survey research 1965: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 525-C, p. 

C110-C119.

Morrison, R. B., 1965, Salt Lake City to Little 

Cottonwood area and return, in Guidebook for 

Field Conference I, Northern Great Basin and 

California Internat. Assoc. Quaternary Research, 

7th Cong., U.S.A., 1965: Lincoln, Nebr., 

Nebraska Acad. Sci., p. 6-14.

Morrison, R. B., 1965, Wave-built bars at Fallen 

turnoff (Eetza bar), in Guidebook for Field 

Conference I, Northern Great Basin and 

California Internat. Assoc. Quaternary Research, 

7th Cong., U.S.A., 1965: Lincoln, Nebr., 

Nebraska Acad. Sci., p. 33-35.

Morrison, R. B., and Frye, 3. C., 1965, Correlation of 

the middle and late Quaternary successions of the 

Lake Lahontan, Lake Bonneville, Rocky Mountain 

(Wasatch Range), Southern Great Plains, and 

eastern Midwest areas: Nevada Bur. Mines Rept. 

9, 45 p.

Morrison, R. B., Mifflin, Martin, and Wheat, Margaret, 

1965, Rye Patch Dam, in Guidebook for Field 

Conference I, Northern Great Basin and 

California Internat. Assoc. Quaternary Research, 

7th Cong., U.S.A., 1965: Lincoln, Nebr., 

Nebraska Acad. Sci., p. 28-35.

Morrison, R. B., Mifflin, Martin, and Wheat, Margaret, 

1965, Badland amphitheatre on Truckee River north 

of Wadsworth, in Guidebook for Field Conference 

I, Northern Great Basin and California Internat. 

Assoc. Quaternary Research, 7th Cong., U.S.A., 

1965: Lincoln, Nebr., Nebraska Acad. Sci., p. 

38-48.

Olive, W. W., 1966, Lake Paducah, of Late Pleistocene 

age, in western Kentucky and southern Illinois, 

in Geological Survey research 1966: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Prof. Paper 550-D, p. D87-D88.

Pewe, T. L., 1970, Altiplanation terraces of early 

Quaternary age near Fairbanks, Alaska, in 

Problemy Czwartorzedu: Acta Geog. Lodziensia 24, 

p. 357-363.

Ray, L. L., 1965, Geomorphology and Quaternary geology 

of the Owensboro quadrangle, Indiana and 

Kentucky: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 488, 72

PRay, L. L., 1967, An interpretation of profiles of 

weathering of the Peorian Loess of western 

Kentucky: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 575-D, 

p. 221-227.

Richmond, G. M., Fryxell, Roald, Weiss, P. L., Neff, 

G. E., and Trimble, D. E., 1965, Glacial Lake 

Missoula, its catastrophic flood..., and the 

loesses and soils of the Columbia Plateau, Pt. F 

in Guidebook for Field Conference E, Northern and 

Middle Rocky Mountains Internat. Assoc. 

Quaternary Research, 7th Cong., U.S.A., 1965: 

Lincoln, Nebr., Nebraska Acad. Sci., p. 68-89.

Sainsbury, C. L., Kachadoorian, Reuben, Campbell, R. 

H., and Scholl, D. W., 1965, Marine platform of 

probable Sangamon age, and associated terrace 

deposits, Cape Thompson area, northwestern 

Alaska: Arctic, v. 18, no. 4, p. 230-245.

Segerstrom, Kenneth, 1965, Dissected gravels of Rio 

Copiapo Valley and adjacent coastal area, Chile: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 525-B, p. 117-121.

Sheppard, R. A., Gude, A. 3., 3d, 1968, Distribution 

and genesis of authigenic silicate minerals in 

tuffs of Pleistocene Lake Tecopa, Inyo County, 

California: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 597, 

38 p.

Smith, G. I., 1968, Late-Quaternary geologic and 

climatic history of Searles Lake, southeastern 

California, in Morrison, R. B. and Wright, H. E., 

eds., Means of correlation of Quaternary 

successions Internat. Assoc. Quaternary 

Research, 7th Cong., U.S.A., 1965, Proc., V. 8: 

Salt Lake City, Utah, Utah Univ. Press, p. 

293-310.

Smith, G. I., Friedman, Irving, and Matsuo, Sadao, 

1970, Salt crystallization temperatures in 

Searles Lake, California: Mineral. Soc. America 

Spec. Paper no. 3, p. 257-259.

VanHorn, Richard, 1967, Soils on Upper Quaternary 

deposits near Denver, Colorado, in Geological 

Survey research 1967, Chap. D: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Prof. Paper 575-D, p. D228-D232.

Winter, T. C., and Wright, 3. E., 3r., 1977, 

Paleohydrologic phenomena recorded by lake 

sediments: Am. Geophys. Union Trans., v. 58, no. 

4, p. 188-195.

46
E. Pre-Quaternary deposits

Addicoll, 1970, Tertiary paleoclimatic trends in the 

San Joaquin basin, California: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Prof. Paper 644-D, 19 p.

Bachman, G. O., 1976, Cenozoic deposits of 

southeastern New Mexico and an outline of the 

history of evaporite dissolution: Jour. 

Research, U.S. Geol. Survey, v. 4, no. 2, p. 

135-149.

Croft, M. G., 1972, Subsurface geology of the late 

Tertiary and Quaternary water-bearing deposits of 

the southern part of the San Joaquin Valley, 

California: U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 

1999-H, 29 p.

Lucchitta, Ivo, 1972, Early history of the Colorado 

River in the Basin and Range province: Geol. 

Soc. America Bull., v. 83, p. 1933-1947.

Wolfe, J. A., Hopkins, D. M., and Leopold, E. B., 

1966, Tertiary stratigraphy and paleobotany of 

the Cook Inlet region, Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Prof. Paper 398-A, 29 p.

F. Deposits and features on Mars

Carr, M. H., The channels of Mars: Scientific Am., in

press. 

Carr, M. H., and Schaber, G. G., 1977, Martian

permafrost features: Jour. Geophys. Research,

v. 82, no. 28, p. 4039-4054. 

Cutts, J. A., and others, 1976, North polar region of

Mars: Imaging results from Viking 2: Science,

v. 194, p. 1329-1337. 

Masursky, Harold, 1973, An overview of geological

results from Mariner 9: Jour. Geophys. Research,

v. 78, no. 20, p. 4009-4030. 

Masursky, Harold, and others, 1977, Classification and

time of formation of Martian channels based on

Viking data: Jour. Geophys. Research, v. 82, no.

28, p. 4016-4038. 

Milton, D. J., 1973, Water and processes of

degradation in the Martian landscape: Jour.

Geophys. Research, v. 78, no. 20, p. 4037-4048. 

Soderblom, L. A., and others, 1973, Mariner 9

observations of the surface of Mars in the north

polar region: Jour. Geophys. Research, v. 78,

no. 20, p. 4197-4210.

IV. AREAL DISTRIBUTIONS OF PAST CLIMATES

A. North America

Addicott, W. O., 1966, Late Pleistocene marine 

paleoecoiogy and zoogeography in central 

California: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 523-C, 

21 p.

Addicott, W. O., 1969, Tertiary climatic change in the 

marginal northeastern Pacific Ocean: Science, v. 

165, no. 3893, p. 583-586.

Andrews, J. T., Boyer, S. J., Carrara, P. E., Dundale, 

R. E., and Miller, G. H., 1972, Quaternary 

geology and glacial chronology, in Present and 

paleoclimalic influences on the glacierization * 

and degiacierization of Cumberland Peninsula,

Baffin Island, N.W.T., Canada: Arctic and Alpine 

Research Occ. Paper 2, Chap. 9, p. 1-12.

Andrews, J. T., and others, 1976, Alternative models 

of early and middle-Wisconsin events, Broughton 

Island, Northwest Territories, Canada toward a 

Quaternary chronology, in Report No. 3 on the 

Session in Bellingham, U.S.A.: Internal. Geol. 

Correlation Prog., Project 73/1/24, Quaternary 

glaciations in the Northern Hemisphere, p. 28-61.

Coulter, H. W., Hopkins, D. M., Karlstrom, T. N. V., 

Pewe, R. L., Wahrhaftig, Clyde, and Williams, J. 

R., 1965, Map showing extent of glaciations in 

Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map 

1-415, scale 1:2,500,000.

Crandell, D. R., 1965, The glacial history of western 

Washington and Oregon, ir» Wright, H. E., and 

Frey, D. G., eds., The Quaternary of the United 

States: Princeton Univ. Press, p. 341-353.

Crandell, D. R., Meier, M. F., and Mullineaux, D. R., 

1965, Day 3, September 8, in Guidebook for Field 

Conference J, Pacific Northwest Internal. Assoc. 

Quaternary Research, 7th Cong., U.S.A., 1965: 

Lincoln, Nebr., Nebraska Acad. Sci., p. 22-27.

Crandell, D. R., Meier, M. F., Mullineaux, D. R., and 

Sigafoos, R. S., 1965, Day 4, September 9, in 

Guidebook for Field Conference J, Pacific 

Northwest Internal. Assoc. Quaternary Research, 

7th Cong., U.S.A., 1965: Lincoln, Nebr., Nebraska 

Acad. Sci., p. 27-34.

Hartsborn, J. H., and Schafer, J. P., 1965, New 

England, Pt. 1 in Guidebook for Field Conference 

A. New England-New York State Internal. Assoc. 

Quaternary Research, 7lh Cong., U.S.A., 1965: 

Lincoln, Nebr., Nebraska Acad. Sci., p* 5-38.

Hazel, J. E., 1970, Allantic continenlal shelf and 

slope of Ihe Uniled Slales Oslracode 

zoogeography in Ihe Nova Scolian and northern 

Virginian faunal provinces: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Prof. Paper 529-E, 21 p.

Heavly, R. H., and Karlslrom, T. N. V., 1974, 

Soulhwesl paleoclimalic and conlinenial 

correlalions, in Karlslrom, T. N. V., Swann, G. 

A., and Easlwood, R. L., eds., Geology of 

norlhern Arizona wilh noles on archaeology and 

paleoclimate: Geol. Soc. America, Rocky Mountain 

Sec., Flagslaff, Ariz., p. 257-295.

Heindl, L. A., Davis, L. V., Anderson, R. Y., and 

Irwin, J. H., 1965, Soulhweslern arid lands, in 

Guidebook for Field Conference H Inlernal. 

Assoc. Qualernary Research, 7lh Cong., U.S.A., 

1965: Lincoln, Nebr., Nebraska Acad. Sci., 109

PHopkins, D. M., ed., 1967, The Bering Land Bridge:

Slanford, Calif., Slanford Univ. Press, 495 p. 

Hopkins, D. M., 1972, The paleogeography and climalic

hislory of Beringia during lale Cenozoic lime:

Inlernord, no. 12, p. 121-150. 

Karlslrom, T. N. V., and others, 1964, Surficial

geology of Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc.

Geologic Inv. Map 1-357, scale 1:1,584,000.

Kotllowski, F. E., Cooley, M. E., and Ruhe, R. V., 

1965, Qualernary geology of Ihe Soulhwesl, in 

Wrighl, H. E., and Frey, D. G., eds., The 

Qualernary of Ihe United Slales: Princelon, 

N.J., Princelon Univ. Press, p. 287-298.

47
Lemke, R. W., Laird, W. M., Tipton, M. J., and 

Lindvall, R. M., 1965, Quaternary geology of 

northern Great Plains, in Wright, H. E., and 

Frey, D. G., eds., The Quaternary of the United 

States: Princeton, N.J., Princeton Univ. Press, 

p. 15-27.

Morrison, R. B., 1965, Quaternary geology of the Great 

Basin, in Wright, H. E., and Frey, D. G., eds., 

The Quaternary of the United States: Princeton, 

N.J., Princeton Univ. Press, p. 265-285.

Oldale, R. N., and Uchupi, Elazar, 1970, The glaciated 

shelf off northeastern United States, in 

Geological Survey research 1970, Chap. B: ~~U.S. 

Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 700-B, p. B167-B173.

Pettyjohn, W. A., 1966, Eocene paleosol in northern 

Great Plains, in Geological Survey research 1966: 

e U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 550-C, p. C61-C65.

Pewe, T. L., 1975, Quaternary geology of Alaska: U.S. 

t Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 835, 1*5 p.

Pewe, T. L., Hopkins, D. M., and Giddings, J. L., 

1965, The Quaternary geology and archaeology of 

Alaska, in Wright, H. E., and Frey, D. G., eds., 

The Quaternary of the United States: Princeton, 

N.J., Princeton Univ. Press, p. 355-37*.

Pratt, R. M., and Schelee, Joh, 1969, Glaciation on 

the continental shelf off New England: Geol. 

Soc. America Bull., v. 80, p. 2335-23*1.

Ray, L. L., 197*, Geomorphology and Quaternary geology 

of the glaciated Ohio River valley A 

reconnaissance study: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. 

Paper 826, 77 p.

Richmond, G. M., 1972, Appraisal of the future climate 

of the Holocene in the Rocky Mountains: 

Quaternary Research, v. 2, no. 3, p. 315-322.

Richmond, G. M., 1965, Glaciation of the Rocky 

Mountains, in Wright, H. E., and Frey, D. G., 

eds., The Quaternary of the United States: 

Princeton, N.J., Princeton Univ. Press, p. 

217-230.

Richmond, G. M., Malde, H. E., and Tweto, O. L., 1965, 

Glaciation of the Colorado Plateau and Southern 

Rocky Mountains in Colorado, Pt. 1 in Guidebook 

for Field Conference E, Northern and Middle Rocky 

Mountains Internat. Assoc. Quaternary Research, 

7th Cong., U.S.A., 1965: Lincoln, Nebr., 

Nebraska Acad. Sci., p. 117-125.

Richmond, G. M., Mudge, M. R., Lemke, R. W., and 

Fryxell, Roald, 1965, Relation of alpine 

glaciation to the Continental and Cordilleran ice 

sheets, Pt. E in Guidebook for Field Conference 

E, Northern and Middle Rocky Mountains Internat. 

Assoc. Quaternary Research, 7th Cong., U.S.A., 

1965: Lincoln, Nebr., Nebraska Acad. Sci., p. 

53-68.

Schafer, J. P., and Hartshorn, 3. H., 1965, The 

Quaternary of New England, in Wright, H. E., and 

Frey, D. G., eds., The Quaternary of the United 

States: Princeton, N.J., Princeton Univ. Press, 

p. 113-128.

Schumm, S. A., 1965, Quaternary paleohydrology, in 

Wright, H. E., and Frey, D. G., eds., The 

Quaternary of the United States: Princeton, 

N.J., Princeton Univ. Press, p. 783-79*.

Scott, G. R., 1965, Nonglacial Quaternary geology of 

the southern and middle Rocky Mountains, in 

Wright, H. E., and Frey, D. G., eds., The 

Quaternary of the United States: Princeton,

N.J., Princeton Univ. Press, p. 2*3-25*.

Weis, P. L., and Richmond, G. M., 1965, Maximum extent 

of late Pleistocene Cordilleran glaciation in 

northeastern Washington and northern Idaho: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 525-C, p. 128-132.

Wolfe, J. A., 1969, Neogene floristic and vegetational 

history of the Pacific Northwest: Madrono, v. 

20, no. 3, p. 83-110.

Wolfe, J. A., 1975, An interpretation of Tertiary 

climates in the Northern Hemisphere, in 

Proceedings of Sixth Annual Meeting of American 

Assoc. of Stratigraphic Palynologists, 

Geoscience and Man., v. 11, p. 160-161.

Wolfe, J. A., and Hopkins, D. M., 1967, Climatic 

changes recorded by Tertiary land floras in 

northwestern North America, in Tertiary 

correlation and climatic changes in the 

Pacific Pacific Sci. Cong., llth, Tokyo, 1966, 

Symposium 25: Tokyo, Sci. Council Japan, p. 

67-76.

B. Other areas

Armstrong, R. L., Hamilton, Warren, and Denton, G. H., 

1968, Glaciation in Taylor Valley, Antartica, 

older than 2.7 billion years: Science, v. 159, 

no. 3811, p. 187-189.

Coates, D. A., 1972, Pagoda Formation: Evidence of 

Permian glaciation in the central transantarctic 

mountains: Antarctic Geology and Geophysics, no. 

l,p. 359-36*.

Cox, Allan, 1968, Polar wandering, continental drift, 

and the onset of Quaternary glaciation, in Causes 

of climatic change INQUA-NC A R Symposium, 

Boulder, Colo., (INQUA, 7th Cong., 1965, Proc., 

v. 5): Meteorol. Mons., v. 8, no. 30, p. 

112-125.

Einarsson, Thorleifur, Hopkins, D. M., and Doell, R. 

R., 1967, The stratigraphy of Tjornes, northern 

Iceland, and the history of the Bering land 

bridge, in Hopkins, D. M., ed., The Bearing Land 

Bridge: Stanford, Calif., Stanford Univ. Press, 

p. 312-325.

Hamilton, Warren, 1968, Cenozoic climatic change and 

its cause, in Causes of climatic 

change INQUA-NCAR Symposium, Boulder, Colo., 

1965 (INQUA, 7th Cong., 1965, Proc., V. 5): 

Meteorol. Mons., v. 8, no. 30, p. 128-133.

Hamilton, Warren, and Krinsley, David, 1967, Upper 

Paleozoic glacial deposits of southern Africa and 

southern Australia: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 

78, p. 783-800.

Karlstrom, T. N. V., 1966, Quaternary glacial record 

of the north Pacific region and world-wide 

climatic changes, in Blumenstock, D. I., ed., 

Pleistocene and post-Pleistocene climatic 

variations in the Pacific area A 

symposium Pacific Sci. Cong., 10th, Honolulu, 

1961: Bishop Mus. Press, p. 153-182.

Matthews, J. L., Crowell, J. C., Coates, D. A., Neder, 

I. R., and Frakes, L. A., 1967, Late Paleozoic 

glacial rocks in the Sentinel and Queen Alexandra 

Ranges: Antarctic Jour., v. 2, no. *, p. 108.

Monroe, W. H., 1968, High-level Quaternary beach 

deposits in northwestern Puerto Rico: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Prof. Paper 600-C, p. 1*0-1*3.

48
Pewe, T. L., 1966, Quaternary climatic variations in 

Antarctica as suggested by glacial fluctuations, 

in Blumemstock, D. I., ed., Pleistocene and 

post-Pleistocene climatic variations in the 

Pacific area: Honolulu, Bishop Mus. Press, p. 

57-82.

Richmond, G. M., 1970, Comparison of the Quaternary 

stratigraphy of the Alps and Rocky Mountains: 

Quaternary Research, v. 1, no. 1, p. 3-28.

Richmond, G. M., 1971, Stratigraphic comparisons 

between the Quaternary formations of the Alps and 

the Rocky Mountains; presidential address: 

Assoc. Francaise Etude Quaternaire Bull. Suppi., 

no. 4, p. 7-25.

Schmidt, D. L., and Williams, P. L., 1969, Continental 

glaciation of late Paleozoic age, Pensacola 

Mountains, Antaractica, in Gondwana stratigraphy, 

IUGS Symposium, Buenos Aires, 1967: UNESCO Earth 

Sci. Ser., v. 2, p.. 617-644.

Seiders, V. M., Briggs, R. P., and Glover, Lynn, HI, 

1972, Geology of Isla Desecheo, Puerto Rico, with 

notes on the great southern Puerto Rico fault 

zone and Quaternary stillstands of the sea: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 739, 22 p.

Smith, G. I., 1974, Quaternary deposits in 

southwestern Afghanistan: Quaternary Research, 

v. 4, no. 1, p. 39-52.

Stoertz, G. E., and Ericksen, G. E., 1974, Geology of 

salars in northern Chile: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Prof. Paper 811, 65 p.

Tracey, 3. I., 3r., and Ladd, H. S., 1974, Quaternary 

history of Eniwitok and Bikini Atolls, Marshall 

Islands, in Proceedings 2nd International coral 

reef symposium: Brisbane, Great Barrier Reef 

Committee, v. 2, p. 537-550.

Wolfe, 3. A., and Leopold, E. B., 1967, Neogene and 

early Quaternary vegetation of northwestern North 

America and northeastern Asia, in Hopkins, D. M., 

ed., The Bering Land Bridge: Stanford, Calif., 

Stanford Univ. Press, p. 193-206.

V. DATING AND CORRELATION METHODS

A. Dating-radiometric

Black, R. F., and Rubin, Meyer, 1968, Radiocarbon 

dates of Wisconsin: Wisconsin,Acad. Sci., Arts 

and Letters Trans. 1967-68, v. 56, p. 99-115.

Dalrymple, G. B., 1967, Potassium-argon ages of Recent 

rhyolites of the Mono and Inyo Craters, 

California: Earth and Planetary Sci. Letters, v. 

3, no. 4, p. 289-298.

Dalrymple, G. B., 1968, Potassium-argon dating in 

Pleistocene correlation, in Means of correlation 

of Quaternary successions Internal. Assoc. 

Quaternary Research, 7th Cong., U.S.A., 1965, 

Proc., V. 8: Salt Lake City, Utah, Utah Univ. 

Press, p. 175-194.

Dalrymple, G. B., 1972, Potassium-argon dating of 

geomagnetic reversals and North American 

glaciations, in Bishop, W. W., and Miller, 3. A., 

eds., Calibration of hominoid evolution, recent 

advances in isotopic and other dating methods 

applicable to the origin of man: New York, 

Wenner-Gran Found, for Anthropol. Research, p. 

107-134.

Dalrymple, G. B., Cox, Allan, and Doell, R. R., 1965, 

Potassium-argon age and paleomagnetism of the 

Bishop tuff, California: Geol. Soc. America 

Bull., v. 76, no. 6, p. 665-674.

Grove, D. B., Rubin, Meyer, Hanshaw, B. B., and 

Beet em, W. A., 1969, Carbon-14 dates of ground 

water from a Paleozoic carbonate aquifer, 

south-central Nevada, in Geological Survey 

research 1969, Chap. C: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. 

Paper 650-C, p. 215-218.

Ives, P. C., and others, 1967, U.S. Geological Survey 

radiocarbon dates IX: Radiocarbon, v. 9, p. 

505-529.

Levin, Betsy, Ives, P. C., Oman, C. L., and Rubin, 

Meyer, 1965, U.S. Geological Survey radiocarbon 

dates VIII: Radiocarbon, v. 7, p. 372-398.

Marsters, Beverly, Spiker, Elliott, and Rubin, Meyer, 

1969, U.S. Geological Survey radiocarbon dates X: 

Radiocarbon, v. 11, no. 1, p. 210-227.

Naesser, C. W., Izett, G. A., and Wilcox, R. E., 1973, 

Zircon fission track ages of Pearlette family ash 

beds in Meade Country, Kansas: Geology, v. 1, p. 

187-189.

Pecora, W. T., and Rubin, Meyer, 1967, Absolute dating 

and the history of man, in Time and stratigraphy 

in the evolution of man NAS-NRC, Div. Earth 

Sci., Symposium, Washington, D.C., 1965: Natl. 

Acad. Sci. Natl. Research Council Pub. 1469, p. 

43-56.

Rosholt, 3. N., 3r., 1967, Open system model for 

uranium-series dating of Pleistocene samples, in 

Radioactive dating and methods of low-level 

counting Symposium Proc.: Vienna, Austria, 

Internal. Atomic Energy Agency, p. 299-311.

Rosholt, 3. N., Doe, B. R., and Tatsumoto, M., 1966, 

Evolution of the isotopic composition of uranium 

and thorium in soil profiles: Geol. Soc. America 

Bull., v. 77, no. 9, p. 987-1004.

Schmoll, H. R., Szabo, B. 3., Rubin, Meyer, and 

Dobrovolny, Ernest, 1972, Radiometric dating of 

marine shells from the Bootlegger Cove clay, 

Anchorage area, Alaska: Geol. Soc. America 

Bull., v. 83, p. 1107-1113.

Sullivan, B. M., Spiker, Elliott, and Rubin, Meyer, 

1970, U.S. Geological Survey radiocarbon dates 

XI: Radiocarbon, v. 12, no. 1, p. 319-334.

Szabo, B. 3., Dooley, 3. R., 3r., Taylor, R. B., and 

Rosholt, 3. N., 1970, Distribution of uranium in 

uranium-series dated fossil shells and bones 

shown by fission tracks, in Geological Survey 

research 1970, Chap. B: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. 

Paper 700-B, p. B90-B92.

Szabo, B. 3., and Card, L. M., 1975, Age of the South 

Bright II marine transgression at Amchitka 

Island, Aleutians: Geology, v. 3, p. 457-459.

Szabo, B. 3., Malde, H. E., and Irwin-Williams, 

Cynthia, 1969, Dilemma posed by uranium-series 

dates on archaeologically significant bones from 

Valsequillo, Puebla, Mexico: Earth and Planetary 

Sci. Letters, v. 6, p. 237-244.

Szabo, B. 3., and Rosholt, 3. N., 1969, Uranium-series 

dating of Pleistocene molluscan shells from 

southern California An open system model: 3our. 

Geophys. Research, v. 74, no. 12, p. 3253.

Szabo, B. 3., Stalker, A. M., and Chrucher, C. S., 

1973, Uranium-series ages of some Quaternary 

deposits near Medicine Hat, Alberta, Canada: 

Canadian 3our. Earth Sci., v. 10, p. 1464-1469.

49
B. Dating-nonradiometric

Berry, A. L., 1973, Thermoluminescence of Hawaiian

basalts: 3our. Geophys. Research, v. 78, no.

29, p. 6863-6867. 

Friedman, Irving, 1968, Hydration rind dates rhyolite

flows: Science, v. 159, no. 3817, p. 878-880. 

Friedman, Irving, 1977, Hydration dating of volcanism

at Newberry Crater, Oregon: 3our. Research, U.S.

Geol. Survey, v. 5, p. 337-3*2. 

Friedman, Irving, Evans, Clifford, 1968, Obsidian

dating revisited: Science, v. 162, no. 3855, p.

813-81*. 

Friedman, Irving, and Long, William, 1976, Hydration

rate of obsidian: Science, v. 191, p. 3*7-352. 

Friedman, Irving, Pierce, K. L., Obradovich, 3. D.,

and Long, W. D., 1973, Obsidian hydration dates

glacial loading?: Science, v. 180, no. *087, p.

733-73*. 

Pierce, K. L., Obradovitch, 3. D., and Friedman,

Irving, 1976, Obsidian hydration dating and

correlation of Bull Lake and Pinedale glaciations

near West Yellowstone, Montana: Geol. Soc.

America Bull., v. 87, p. 703-710. 

Steen-Mclntyre, Virginia, 1975, Hydration and

superhydration of tephra glass a potential tool

for estimating age of Holocene and Pleistocene

ash beds, in Suggate, R. P., and Cresswell, M.

M., eds., Quaternary Studies: Royal Soc. New

Zealand Trans., p. 271-278.

C. Correlation techniques and principles-geologic

Birkeland, P. W., Crandell, D. R., and Richmond, G. 

M., 1971, Status of correlation of Quaternary 

stratigraphic units in the western conterminous 

United States: Quaternary Research, v. 1, no. 2, 

p. 208-227.

Birkeland, P. W., and 3anda, R. 3., 1971, Clay 

mineralogy of soils developed from Quaternary 

deposits of the eastern Sierra Nevada, 

California: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 82, p. 

2*95-2513.

Frye, 3. C., William, H. B., Rubin, Meyer, and Black, 

R. F., 1968, Definition of the Wisconsinan Stage: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 127*-E, 22 p.

Hopkins, D. M., MacNeil, F. S., Merklin, R. L., and 

Petrov, O. M M 1965, Quaternary correlations 

across Bering Strait: Science, v. 1*7, no. 3662, 

p. 1107-111*.

Karlstrom, T. N. V., 1968, The Quaternary time-scale, 

a current problem of correlation and radiometric 

dating, in Morrison, R. B., and Wright, H. E., 

3r., eds., Means of correlation of Quaternary 

successions, Proc. VII INQUA: Salt Lake City, 

Utah Univ. Press, p. 121-150.

Love, 3. D., Montagne, 3. M. de la, Richmond, G. M., 

and Good, 3. M., 1965, Relation of Quaternary 

tectonics and volcanism to glaciation, Pt. D in 

Guidebook for Field Conference E. Northern and 

Middle Rocky Mountains Internet. Assoc. 

Quaternary Research, 7th Cong., U.S.A., 1965: 

Lincoln, Nebr., Nebraska Acad. Sci., p. 37-52.

Morrison, R. B., 1967, Principles of Quaternary soil 

stratigraphy, in Morrison, R. B., and Wright, H. 

E., 3r., eds., Quaternary soils: Nevada Univ., 

Desert Research Inst., Center for Water Resources 

Research, p. 1-69.

Morrison, R. B., 1968, Means of time-stratigraphic 

division and long-distance correlation of 

Quaternary successions, in Means of correlation 

of Quaternary successions Internat. Assoc. 

Quaternary Research, 7th Cong., U.S.A., 1965, 

Proc., V. 8: Salt Lake City, Utah Univ. Press, 

p. 1-113.

Morrison, R. B., 1969, The Pleistocene-Holocene 

boundary An evaluation of the various criteria 

used for determining it on a provincial basis, 

and suggestions for establishing it world-wide: 

Geologic en Mijnbouw, v. *8, no. *, p. 363-371. 

Morrison, R. B., and Wright, H. E., eds., 1967, 

Quaternary Soils: Internat. Assoc. Quaternary 

Research., 7th Cong., U.S.A., Proc., v. 9, 338 p. 

Morrison, R. B., and Wright, H. E., 3r., eds., 1968, 

Means of correlation of Quaternary 

successions Internat. Assoc. Quaternary 

Research, 7th Cong., U.S.A., 1965, Proc., V. 8: 

Salt Lake City, Utah Univ. Press, 631 p. 

Pewe, T. L., 1975, Quaternary stratigraphic 

nomenclature in unglaciated central Alaska: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 862, 32 p. 

Ray, L. L., and Karlstrom, T. N. V., 1968, Theoretical 

concepts in time-stratigraphic subdivision of 

glacial deposits, in Means of correlation of 

Quaternary successions Internat. Assoc. 

Quaternary Research, 7th Cong., U.S.A., 1965, 

Proc., V. 8: Salt Lake City, Utah Univ. Press, 

p. 115-120. 

Richmond, G. M., 1967, The Plio-Pleistocene boundary:

Science, v. 157, no. 3773, p. *10. 

Richmond, G. M., 1968, Correlation of some glacial 

deposits in New Mexico: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. 

Paper *50-E, p. 121-125.

Scott, G. R., 1975, Cenozoic surfaces and deposits in 

the southern Rocky Mountains and their 

recognition, in Curtis, B. F., ed., Cenozoic 

history of the southern Rocky Mountains: Geol. 

Soc. America Mem. 1**, p. 227-2*8. 

Walker, E. H., 1967, Varved lake beds in northern 

Idaho and northeastern Washington, in Geological 

Survey research 1967, Chap. B: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Prof. Paper 575-B, p. B83-B87.

D. Correlation techniques and principles-geophysical

Cox, Allan, 1965, Review of "Paleomagnetism and its 

application to geological and geophysical 

problems" by E. Irving: Geotimes, v. 10, no. 3, 

p. 39.

Cox, Allan, 1969, Geomagnetic reversals: Science, v. 

163, no. 386*, p. 237-2*5.

Cox, Allan and Dalrymple, G. B., 1967, Geomagnetic 

polarity epochs Nunivak Island, Alaska: Earth 

and Planetary Sci. Letters, v. 3, no. 2, p. 

173-177.

Cox, Allan, Dalrymple, G. B., and Doell, R. R., 1965, 

Paleomagnetic locality at Stop 9-5, Powerhouse 

No. 2, in Guidebook for Field Conference I, 

Northern Great Basin and California Internat.

50
Assoc. Quaternary Research, 7th Cong., U.S.A.: 

Lincoln, Nebr., Nebraska Acad. Scl., p. 102-103.

Cox, Allan, Dalrymple, G. B., and Doell, R. R., 1965, 

Paleomagnetic locality at Carnelian Bay, in 

Guidebook for Field Conference I, Northern Great 

Basin and California Internat. Assoc. Quaternary 

Research, 7th Cong., U.S.A., 1965: Lincoln, 

Nebr., Nebraska Acad. Sci., p. 51-59.

Cox, Allan, and Doell, R. R., 1968, Paleomagnetism and 

Quaternary correlation, in Means of correlation 

of Quaternary successions Internat. Assoc. 

Quaternary Research, 7th Cong., U.S.A. 1965, 

Proc., V. 8: Salt Lake City, Utah Univ. Press, 

p. 253-265.

Cox, Allan, Doell, R. R., and Dalrymple, G. B., 1965, 

Quaternary paleomagnetic stratigraphy, in The 

Quaternary of the United States: Princeton, 

N.3., Princeton Univ. Press, p. 817-830.

Cox, Allan, Doell, R. R., and Dalrymple, G. B., 1966, 

Paleomagnetic reversals: New York, McGraw-Hill, 

Yearbook of Sci. and Technology, p. 280-282.

Cox. Allan, Doell, R. R., and Dalrymple, G. B., 1968, 

Radiometric time-scale for geomagnetic reversals: 

Geol. Soc. London Quart. Hour., v. 124, pt. 1, p. 

53-66.

Cox, Allan, Doell, R. R., and Dalrymple, G. B., 1968, 

Time scale for geomagnetic reversals, in Phinney, 

R. A., ed., The history of the Earth's crust, a 

syposium; Goddard Inst. Space Studies, 1966 Conf. 

Contr.: Princeton, N. 3., Princeton Univ. Press, 

p. 101-108.

Cox, Allan, Hopkins, D. M., and Dalrymple, G. B., 

1966, Geomagnetic polarity epochs: Pribilof 

Islands, Alaska: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 

77, p. 883-910.

Dalrymple, G. B., Cox, Allan, Doell, R. R., and 

Gromme, C. E., 1967, Pliocene geomagnetic 

polarity epochs: Earth and Planetary Sci. 

Letters, v. 2, no. 3, p. 163-173.

Doell, R. R., and Dalrymple, G. B., 1966, Geomagnetic 

polarity epochs A new polarity event and the age 

of the Brunhes-Matuyama boundary: Science, v. 

152, no. 3725, p. 1060-1061.

Doell, R. R., Dalrymple, G. B., and Cox, Allan, 1966, 

Geomagnetic polarity epochs Sierra Nevada data 

(Pt. 3): 3our. Geophys. Research, v. 71, no. 2, 

p. 531-541.

E. Correlation techniques and 

principles-tephrochronological

Izett, G. A., Wilcox, R. E., and Borchard, G. A., 

1972, Correlation of a volcanic ash bed in 

Pleistocene deposits near Mount Blanco, Texas, 

with the Guaje Pumice Bed of the 3emez Mountains, 

New Mexico. Quaternary Research, v. 2, p. 

554-578.

Izett, G. A., Wilcox, R. E., Powers, H. A., and 

Desborough, G. A., 1970, The Bishop ash bed, a 

Pleistocene marker bed in the western United 

States: Quaternary Research, v. 1. no. 1, p. 

121-132.

Lemke, M. R., and others, 1975, Geologic setting of 

the Glacier Peak and Mazama ash-bed markers in 

west-central Montana: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 

1395-H, 31 p.

Mullineaux, D. R., Hyde, 3. H., and Rubin, Meyer, 

1975, Widespread late glacial and postglacial 

tephra deposits from Mount St. Helens Volcano, 

Washington: 3our. Research, U.S. Geol. Survey, 

v. 3, no. 3, p. 329-335.

Nelson, C. H., Kulm, L. D., Carlson, P. R., and 

Duncan, 3. R., 1968, Mazama ash in the 

northeastern Pacific: Science, v. 161, no. 3836, 

p. 47-49.

Steen-Mclntyre, Virginia, and Wilcox, R. E., 1974, 

North America, Hawaii, West Indies and adjacent 

waters, in World bibliography and index of 

Quaternary tephrochronology: 3. A. Westgate and 

C. M. Gold, eds., Alberta Univ., p. 43-110. 

Wilcox, R. E., 1965, Volcanic-ash chronology, in 

Wright, H. E., 3r., and Frey, D. G., eds., The 

Quaternary of the United States: Princeton, 

N.3., Princeton Univ. Press, p. 807-816.

F. Correlation techniques and principles-- 

biological and paleontological

Andrews, G. W., 1966, Late Pleistocene diatoms from 

the Trempealeau Valley, Wisconsin: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Prof. Paper 523-A, 27 p.

Baker, R. G., 1970, Pollen sequence front Late 

Quaternary sediments in Yellowstone Park: 

Science, v. 168, no. 3938, p. 1449-1450.

Bradley, W. C., and Addicott, W. O., 1968, Age of 

first marine terrace near Santa Cruz, California: 

Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 79, no. 9, p. 

1203-1209.

Colquhoun, D. 3., Herrick, S. M., and Richards, H. G., 

1968, A fossil assemblage the Wicomico Formation 

in Berkeley County, South Carolina: Geol. Soc. 

America Bull., v. 79, p. 1211-1219.

Emery, K. O., Wigley, R. L., Bartlett, A. S., Rubin, 

Meyer, and Barghoorn, E. S., 1967, Freshwater 

peat on the continental shelf: Science, v. 158, 

no. 3806, p. 1301-1307.

Gutentag, E. D., and Galli-Oliver, Carlos, 1969, New 

locations of Pleistocene (Kansan) molluscan and 

ostracode faunas, Dickinson County, Kansas, in 

Geological Survey research 1969, Chap. D: U.3H 

Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 650-D, p. D148-D154.

Harbour, 3erry, Pollen profile of the Rita Blanca Lake 

deposits, in Paleocology of an early Pleistocene 

lake on the High Plains of Texas: Geol. Soc. 

America Mem. 113, p. 83-95.

Hazel, 3. E., 1971, Paleoclimatology of the Yorktown 

Formation (upper Miocene and lower Pliocene) of 

Virginia and North Carolina, in Gertli, H. 3., 

ed., Collogue sur la paleoecologie des 

ostracodes, Pau, 3uly 20-27, 1970: Centre 

Recherches Pau-SNPA, Bull., v. 5, suppl., p. 

361-375.

Hibbard, C. W., Ray, E. E., Savage, D. E., Taylor, D. 

W.,' and Guilday, 3. E., 1965, Quaternary mammals 

of North Americ, in Wright, H. E., 3r., and Frey, 

D. G., eds., The Quaternary of the United States: 

Princeton, N. 3., Princeton Univ. Press, p. 

509-525.

Hopkins, D. M., and others, 1971, A Pliocene flora and 

insect fauna from the Bering Strait region: 

Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, 

Palaeoecology, v. 9, p. 211-231.

51
Hopkins, D. M., and others, 1974, An Anvilian (early 

Pleistocene) marine fauna from western Seward 

Peninsula, Alaska: Quaternary Research, v. 4, p. 

441-470.

Hopkins, D. M., Rowland, R. W., and Pat ton, W. W., 

Jr., 1972, Middle Pleistocene mollusks from St. 

Lawrence Island and their significance for the 

paleooceanography of the Bering Sea: Washington 

Univ., Quaternary Research Center, v. 2, no. 2, 

p. 119-134.

Kauffman, E. G., and McCulloch, D. S., 1965, Biota of 

a late glacial Rocky Mountain pond: Geol. Soc. 

America Bull., v. 76, p. 1203-1231.

Leopold, E. B., 1967, Late-Cenozoic patterns of plant 

extinction, in Pleistocene extinctions The 

search for a cause Internat. Assoc. Quaternary 

Research, 7th Cong., 1965, Proc., V. 6: New 

Haven, Conn., Yale Univ. Press, p. 203-246.

Leopold, E. B., 1969, Late Cenozoic palynology, Chap. 

17 in Aspects of palynology: New York and 

London, Wiley Interscience, p. 377-438.

Leopold, E. B., Hester, J. J., and Schoenwetter, 

James, 1964, Reconstruction of Quaternary 

environments using palynology, in The 

reconstruction of past environments: Fort 

Burgwin Conf. Paleoecology 1962 Proc., no. 3, p. 

43-52.

Merrill, A. S., Emery, K. O., and Rubin, Meyer, 1965, 

Ancient oyster shells on the Atlantic continental 

shelf: Science, v. 147, p. 398-400.

Pewe, T. L., and Hopkins, D. M., 1967, Mammal remains 

of pre-Wisconsin age in Alaska, in Hopkins, D. 

M., ed., The Bering Land Bridge: Stanford, 

Calif., Stanford Univ. Press, p. 266-270.

Ray, C. E., Denny, C. S., Rubin, Meyer, 1970, A 

peccary, platygonus compressus leconte, from 

drift of Wisconsinan Age in northern 

Pennsylvania: Am. Jour. Sci., v. 268, no. 1, p. 

78-94.

Scott, G. R., and Lindvall, R. M., 1970, Geology of 

new occurrences of Pleistocene bisons and 

peccaries in Colorado, in Geological Survey 

research 1970, Chap. B: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. 

Paper 700-B, p. B141-B149.

Sercelj, Alojz, and Adam, D. P., 1975, A late Holocene 

pollen diagram from near Lake Tahoe, El Dorado 

County, California: Jour. Research, U.S. Geol. 

Survey, v. 3, p. 737-745.

Sirkin, L. A., and Minard, J. P., 1972, Late 

Pleistocene glaciation and pollen stratigraphy in 

northwestern New Jersey: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. 

Paper 800-D, p. D51-D56.

Sirkin, L. A., Owens, J. P., Minard, J. P., and Rubin, 

Mayer, 1970, Palynology of some Upper Quaternary 

peat samples from the New Jersey coastal plain, 

in Geological Survey research 1970, Chap. D: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 700-D, p. D77-D87.

Taylor, D. W., 1965, The study of Pleistocene 

nonmarine molluscs in North America, in Wright, 

H. E., Jr., and Frey, D. G., eds., The Quaternary 

of the United States: Princeton, N.J., Princeton 

Univ. Press, p. 597-611.

52
CLIMATE VARIATION AND ITS EFFECTS 

ON OUR LAND AND WATER

Circular 776-A -- Earth Science in Climate Research

CONTENTS

Roles and methods of earth science in climate research

Types of evidence available

Lengths of time involved

Areas most affected by climate change 

Agencies and institutions concerned with climate change

Circular 776-C -- Geological Survey Climate Plan

CONTENTS

A program to improve understanding climate change and

its impacts

Why expand earth-science climate research? 

Why a USGS climate program? 

Major objective 

Program elements

Consequences of climatic variation on land and

water 

Recurrence of climate variations that affect land

and water resources 

Understanding climate change

Research related to monitoring climate variables 

Data management 

Management of Geological Survey program
SMITH-CLIMATE VARIATION AND ITS EFFECTS: CURRENT RESEARCH BY USGS-GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CIRCULAR! 776-B

Names and bounding ages of geologic eras, periods, and epochs, and frequently used names of Quaternary stages.

Geologic time scale, complete

Era or Erathem

Paleozoic

Mesozoic

Cenozoic

Proterozoic 

& Archeozoic

System or Period

Quaternary

Tertiary

Cretaceous

Permian

Triassic

Jurassic

% D£ Pennsylvanian

-Q 2£

(S^c^" Mississippian

Devonian

Silurian

Precambrian

Cambrian

Ordovician

Estimated ages of 

time boundaries, in 

millions of years ago

n 0

1 

65 

tJW

i on

«J 

ooor\

225 

1 W

Art 

410 

Tin

c

600 480 

A*r\r\ +

Cenozoic time scale

Series or Epoch

[ Tertiary

Quaternary

Pleistocene

Holocene

Miocene

Pliocene

Oligocene

Eocene

Paleocene

Estimated ages of 

time boundaries, in 

millions of years ago

0 

0.01 

o

5.5 

A«;

54 noOz

Quaternary 

stage names

 5 g

£8

Pleistocene

( interglacial )

( 

Wisconsin 

glacial )

Sangamon 

( interglacial )

Illinoian 

( glacial )

Yarmouth 

( interglacial )

Kansan 

( glacial )

Aftonian 

( interglacial )

( 

Nebraskan 

glacial )