Economic

Research

Service

Economic

Information 

Bulletin 

Number 128

September 2014

United States Department of Agriculture

Characteristics and Production 

Costs of U.S. Corn Farms, 

Including Organic, 2010

Linda Foreman
Economic Research Service 

www.ers.usda.gov

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Foreman, Linda. Characteristics and Production Costs of U.S. Corn Farms, Including 

Organic, 2010, EIB-128, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, 

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United States Department of Agriculture

Economic 

Research 

Service

Economic

Information 

Bulletin 

Number 128

September 2014

Abstract

Data from the 2010 Agricultural Resource Management Survey (ARMS) and ERS cost 

of production accounts present a snapshot of the production costs, production practices, 

and characteristics related to U.S. corn production in 2010. This study found considerable variation in the operating and ownership costs for corn, ranging from an average 

of $1.74 per bushel for low-cost producers to $3.88 per bushel for high-cost producers. 

In 2010, high corn prices meant that most producers covered their corn production 

costs from harvest-month prices. The Heartland continues to be the major corn production region with the lowest operating and ownership costs per bushel, mainly because 

of the region’s high corn yields. The operating and ownership costs per bushel did not 

vary significantly by enterprise size where size is measured by the number of planted 

corn acres per farm. However, these costs per planted acre were lowest for farms with 

the smallest corn enterprises and highest for farms with the largest corn enterprises. 

Production value less operating and ownership costs per acre from organic corn production was higher than that from conventional corn production because higher prices more 

than offset lower yields for organic corn.

Keywords: corn, operator characteristics, production costs, production practices, cost 

variation, organic corn, Agricultural Resource Management Survey (ARMS).

Acknowledgments 

The author thanks Erik Dohlman, Cathy Greene, and William McBride of USDA, 

Economic Research Service; Craig Dobbins, Purdue University; Chris Hawthorn of 

USDA, National Agricultural Statistics Service; and Gregory Ibendahl, Kansas State 

University, for their comments and suggestions. Thanks also go to Maria Williams for 

editorial assistance and Cynthia A. Ray for design assistance.

Linda F. Foreman

Characteristics and Production 

Costs of U.S. Corn Farms, 

Including Organic, 2010
ii

Characteristics and Production Costs of U.S. Corn Farms, Including Organic, 2010, EIB-128

Economic Research Service/USDA

Contents

Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Many Factors Influence Costs per Bushel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

The Heartland Continues To Dominate Corn Production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Costs Varied Little by Farm Enterprise Size. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Returns From Organic Corn Exceed Those for Conventional Corn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Glossary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
United States Department of Agriculture

A report summary from the Economic Research Service

ERS is a primary source 

of economic research and 

analysis from the U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, 

providing timely information on economic and policy 

issues related to agriculture, 

food, the environment, and 

rural America. www.ers.usda.gov

Economic

Research

Service

Economic

Information 

Bulletin 

Number 128

September 2014

United States Department of Agriculture

Characteristics and Production 

Costs of U.S. Corn Farms, 

Including Organic, 2010

Linda Foreman

September 2014

Find the full report at 

www.ers.usda.gov/

publications/eib-economic-informationbulletin-report/eib128

Linda F. Foreman

Characteristics and Production Costs of 

U.S. Corn Farms, Including Organic, 2010

What Is the Issue?

Higher corn prices boosted the returns to corn production and contributed to an increase in 

corn acres from 76 million in 2001 to 88 million in 2010. Among the various factors boosting 

prices was an increased share of corn being used to produce ethanol. By 2010, ethanol production consumed 5,019 million bushels or 35 percent of the supply, compared with 707 million 

bushels or 6 percent of the U.S. corn supply in 2001. Organic corn demand has grown in recent 

years, although organic corn production remains a small segment of overall corn production. 

Higher returns and the boost in planted corn acres have changed the characteristics and practices of U.S. corn producers since 2001—the year assessed by the last comprehensive ERS 

report on corn production. Because aggregate data mask the diversity among corn growers, this 

study breaks down the data to examine differences in production costs and practices as well as 

farm and operator characteristics within various corn producer groups in 2010. In addition, data 

on corn production in 2010 and 2001 are compared to view the effects of the changing U.S. 

corn market.

What Did the Study Find?

Corn producers exhibited numerous differences in their production costs, yields, planted acres, 

farm incomes, and net returns from corn production. 

Higher prices and higher yields allowed corn producers to achieve greater returns from 

corn production in 2010 than in 2001. As a result, 92 percent of corn producers could have 

covered their operating and ownership costs per bushel for corn based on harvest-month 

prices in 2010. Of those who did not cover their costs, many were producers in a pocket of the 

Southeast that experienced low yields due to drought, so they likely would have covered their 

costs under normal weather conditions. In 2001, only 59 percent of corn producers could have 

covered their operating and ownership costs per bushel from harvest-month prices. 

The Heartland is known for its favorable corn growing conditions and continues to 

dominate U.S. corn production, with 66 percent of planted corn acres in 2010. Despite a 

17-percent increase in planted corn acres between 2001 and 2010, the shares of corn acres and 

production across regions did not change significantly. Most low-cost producers were located in 

the Heartland.
In 2010, the average operating and ownership costs per bushel did not vary significantly by the number 

of planted corn acres per farm. In contrast, 2001 producers planting the fewest corn acres per farm had the 

highest costs per bushel mainly because of their lower yields. 

In 2010, producers with the smallest corn enterprises (fewest acres) had the lowest average operating 

and ownership costs per acre, while producers with the largest corn acreage had higher costs per acre.

In 2001, these costs per acre did not vary significantly by corn enterprise size. The higher per-acre production 

costs in 2010 for producers with larger corn enterprises may have stemmed from the fact that these producers 

were least likely to rotate corn with other crops (such as soybeans). The addition of 12 million acres of planted 

corn between 2001 and 2010 may have resulted in some less productive land added to corn production in 2010, 

which could have boosted average production costs per acre. In 2010, producers planting the most corn acres 

per farm (1,000 acres or more) held a larger share of total planted corn acres than in 2001.

In 2010, net returns from organic corn per bushel and per acre exceeded those from conventional corn. 

Higher prices for organic corn outweighed the effects from lower yields. Total operating and ownership costs 

per acre were not statistically different between organic and conventional corn. Most organic corn production 

occurred in the North, mainly in the Heartland and Northern Crescent. Compared with operators of conventional corn farms, operators producing organic corn planted fewer corn acres per farm while also operating 

smaller farms. 

How Was the Study Conducted?

The author analyzed data from the 2010 Agricultural Management Resource Survey (ARMS) for corn. This 

survey collected data from conventional and organic corn producers in 2010. ARMS is the major annual 

economic survey conducted by ERS and the National Agricultural Statistics Service. Commodity versions of 

ARMS surveys are conducted on a rotating basis every 4 to 8 years to obtain data to support the commodity 

cost and return estimates. Previous ARMS corn surveys were conducted for the 2005, 2001, and 1996 growing 

seasons. In addition to comparing data collected in the 2010 ARMS to those from 2001, the author presents 

regional variation in costs from each of the last three corn surveys (2001, 2005, and 2010). ERS data on the 

corn production costs and returns, estimated using the ARMS data, were also used in this study. 

www.ers.usda.gov
1

Characteristics and Production Costs of U.S. Corn Farms, Including Organic, 2010, EIB-128

Economic Research Service/USDA

Characteristics and Production Costs of 

U.S. Corn Farms, Including Organic, 2010

Background

The United States produces more corn than any other country. The United States accounted for 

38 percent of the world’s corn production in 2010 and 51 percent of the world’s corn exports in the 

2010/11 marketing year (WAOB, 2012). Corn is a leading U.S.-produced crop, and its role expanded 

over the last decade as demand rose. Corn accounted for 15 percent of U.S. cash receipts generated from agricultural production in 2010, up from 8 percent in 2001 (USDA, ERS, 2013e). Corn 

production in the United States rose to 12.4 billion bushels in 2010, up from 9.5 billion bushels in 

2001 (USDA, NASS, Quick Stats). Corn prices rose in response to a host of factors including the 

rising ethanol demand, depreciation of the U.S. dollar, growth in global population and per capita 

income, and rising world consumption of animal products. The rising ethanol demand affected corn 

prices because corn is the major starch source for U.S. ethanol production. Higher prices boosted 

the returns to corn production, creating an incentive to increase corn acreage. Corn acreage rose 

from 75.7 million in 2001 to 88.2 million in 2010. Corn yields per harvested acre also rose, from an 

average of 138 bushels in 2001, to an average of 153 bushels in 2010, boosting the supply of corn.

Data in figure 1 show how much the available U.S. corn supply increased from 2001 to 2010 and 

how the increased corn production went to ethanol production. In 2010, ethanol consumed 35 

percent of the larger corn supply, and in 2001, it consumed about 6 percent. From 2001 to 2010, the 

amount of corn used for feed and residual uses declined, as did ending stocks, due, in part, to higher 

Note: Ending stocks = total supply minus total disappearance. 

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service, Feed Grain Database and U.S. Bioenergy Statistics.

Figure 1

Supply and uses of U.S. corn crop in the 2001 and 2010 marketing years

Billions of bushels

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

Total supply Feed and

residual use

Food, seed,

and industrial

use (except 

alcohol fuel)

Alcohol for

fuel

Exports Ending stocks

2001 2010
2

Characteristics and Production Costs of U.S. Corn Farms, Including Organic, 2010, EIB-128

Economic Research Service/USDA

corn prices. During that period, feed and residual use fell from 51 percent of the total supply to 34 

percent, while exports dropped from 17 percent to 13 percent. Ending stocks fell from 14 percent in 

2001 to 8 percent in 2010 (USDA, ERS, 2013b). 

Differences in crop uses have implications for the welfare of producers (Westcott, 2007). Because a 

higher share of the total corn supply is used for ethanol, changing corn ethanol demand affects corn 

producers more profoundly than variations in corn exports. Factors influencing ethanol demand include 

Government ethanol regulations, consumer acceptance of ethanol blends higher than the traditional 

10-percent level used by most fuel retailers, use of hybrid and more energy-efficient vehicles, and 

annual miles driven. 

Information on the 2010 U.S. corn crop may be helpful for interpreting the data. At the end of the 

2009/10 corn marketing year, the corn stock-to-use ratio was at the lowest level since the 1995/96 

marketing year (ERS, 2013b). In addition, Russia’s reduced corn crop in 2010, due to weather, led 

that country to restrict its exports (Piller, 2010). These factors put upward pressure on 2010/11 U.S. 

corn prices and helped spur a 2.1-percent increase in U.S. corn acres in 2010 from 2009. Corn prices 

averaged $5.18 per bushel in 2010/11, up from $3.55 per bushel in 2009/10, and yields averaged 153 

bushels in 2010, down from 165 bushels per acre in 2009 (USDA, NASS, Quick Stats). Higher corn 

prices in 2010 boosted the net production value per acre (USDA, ERS, 2013f).1

Annual percentage changes in regional estimates can be larger than annual changes at the national 

level. The Northern Great Plains and Prairie Gateway producers increased total planted corn acres 

by 6 to 7 percent from 2009 to 2010, while Southern Seaboard producers decreased their corn acres 

by 7 percent (see regional definitions in fig. 2). The Eastern Upland producers had sharply reduced 

yields as a result of hot, dry weather in Kentucky that occurred late in the 2010 corn growing season. 

Consequently, the increased corn demand during this period was largely met by expanded production in the Plains States.

In recent years, the number of U.S. farms harvesting corn far exceeded the number of farms harvesting 

any other major food, feed, or oilseed crop. About 16 percent of U.S. farms grew corn in 2010, while 

the census of agriculture indicates 16 percent of U.S. farms grew corn in 2002 and 2007 (ARMS, 

2010). (See box, “Data Sources.”) Data from the censuses of agriculture indicate the number of farms 

harvesting corn in 2002 and 2007 remained about the same. In contrast, the number of U.S. farms 

harvesting most other major food, feed, or oilseed crops declined significantly from 2002 to 2007. 

Rising corn demand may be partly responsible for the stability in the number of corn producers.

Growing demand for organic food led to an increased interest in organic farming. The number of 

certified organic acres planted to corn rose from 94,000 in 2001 to 213,000 in 2010 (USDA, ERS, 

2013a). Most U.S.-produced organic corn is used for livestock and poultry feed rather than food. 

Higher prices and returns to production for corn may have driven changes in corn producer characteristics and/or corn production practices. The author classified various groups of U.S. corn 

producers in 2010 according to corn production costs, region, enterprise size, and type of farming 

system used to produce corn. These classifications allowed analysis of factors driving variations in 

the characteristics of different sets of corn producers. By using data in this report and from previous 

corn reports (Foreman, 2006; Foreman, 2001; McBride, 1994), one can track the characteristics of 

1The net production value is the value of production minus the costs.
3

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Economic Research Service/USDA

U.S corn farms over time. Additional historical data on corn production practices can be found at the 

ERS Web site (USDA, ERS, 2013g). 

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service.

Figure 2

U.S. Farm Resource Regions

Northern

Crescent

Fruitful Rim

Southern

Seaboard

Eastern

Prairie Uplands

Gateway

Heartland

Fruitful Rim

Mississippi

Portal

Basin & Range

Northern

Great

Plains

Fruitful Rim

Fruitful Rim
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Data Sources

Data in this report hail from two primary sources, ARMS and the Economic Research Service (ERS) commodity 

cost and return accounts (USDA, ERS, 2013f). Conducted jointly by ERS and NASS, ARMS is USDA’s major 

annual economic survey of U.S. agricultural producers. Before 2010, ARMS surveys of corn producers were 

conducted for the 2005, 2001, and 1996 growing seasons. This report contains cost comparisons between 2010 and 

2001 because the increase in corn acres started after 2001 and had reached a new level by 2010, the latest time 

for which corn ARMS data are available. Data from the 2001, 2005, and 2010 corn ARMS are also presented in 

a comparison of operating costs, operating and ownership costs, and total costs by selected regions for each of 

these years. Additional data derived from the previous corn versions of ARMS may be found in numerous ERS 

reports on www.ers.usda.gov under Farm Structure and Organization (USDA, ERS, 2013h) and Farm Practices & 

Management (USDA, ERS, 2013i).

The 2010 ARMS survey of corn producers was used to collect data in 19 States: Colorado, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, 

Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, 

Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Texas, and Wisconsin. Data in this report refer to corn production in these surveyed 

States. Corn acreage in these States represented 93 percent of NASS’s estimate of planted U.S. corn acreage in 2010. 

In addition to the sample of conventional corn producers, a targeted sample of organic corn producers was included 

in the survey. 

The 2010 ARMS survey of corn producers had three phases:

• Phase I: Determined the farm’s operating status and whether the producer grew corn in 2010.

• Phase II: Collected data on the acreage, production practices, input use, and costs related to a randomly 

selected corn field on the sampled farm. Weights were applied to each producer’s field acreage so that the sum 

of the acres across farms equaled the number of planted corn acres reported in the surveyed States (USDA, 

NASS, Quick Stats). 

• Phase III: Collected data related to the whole farm operation that focused on the farm’s financial status and 

characteristics associated with the farm operation and operator. Weights were used to ensure the data represented corn producers in the surveyed States.

Phase II data were collected in the fall of 2010 while phase III data were collected in the spring of 2011. Usable 

data from the survey’s phase II portion were obtained from 2,250 corn producers growing corn for grain (see 

glossary, “corn farm”), including 353 producers growing organic corn. A total of 1,603 usable observations were 

obtained from corn producers in phase III with 266 of these from organic corn producers. All corn producers 

sampled in phase II were contacted again in phase III, so producer matches could be made between phase II and 

phase III data. 

The ERS-generated data on farm-level corn cost and return estimates and data generated from the ARMS phase 

II on the farm production practices appear in the first two tables in each section of this report. Variables on the 

characteristics of the farm operation and farm operator—such as the value of Government payments, value of cash 

receipts from agricultural production, and farm operator characteristics—were computed from phase III ARMS 

data and appear in the third table in each section. The phase III data and the computed variables from phase III 

appear in the third table of each section. All estimates presented in this publication’s tables were computed using 

unrounded data and then rounded for presentation. This process may result in components not adding to the 

presented totals. Data in figures 1 through 6 and tables 1 through 9 represent all corn, which includes conventional 

and organic corn. Farms growing organic corn made up about 1.0 percent of all corn farms and accounted for 0.2 

percent of all corn production in 2010. Continued—
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Characteristics and Production Costs of U.S. Corn Farms, Including Organic, 2010, EIB-128

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The ERS cost of corn production account is based on different prices and yields than those published by NASS. 

NASS U.S. annual and monthly corn prices are based on weighted prices for all States where corn is produced. The 

price in the ERS cost of production account is based on NASS harvest-month prices in the ARMS-surveyed States. 

Yield measurements also significantly differ between NASS and the ERS cost of production account. Yields in the 

ERS account are based on acres planted with the intention of harvesting them for grain in the ARMS-surveyed 

States. In contrast, NASS yields are based on all U.S. harvested acres for grain. NASS yields are very often higher 

than yields shown in ERS accounts.

When data comparisons are made in this report, the differences are statistically significant unless otherwise 

stated (see glossary, “statistically significant differences”). Estimates with a large coefficient of variation are not 

discussed since these estimates may not reflect the true value. 
6

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Many Factors Influence Costs per Bushel

The operating and ownership costs per bushel of corn in 2010 varied widely among producers, and 

these variances were driven strongly by differences in yields per planted acre and input use. This 

section of the report focuses on differences in the major characteristics of producers who were 

grouped by their costs per bushel. Producers were ranked from lowest to highest operating and 

ownership costs per bushel of corn harvested for grain and grouped into quartiles (see box, “ERS 

Corn Costs and Returns”). Mid-cost producers are producers who ranked in the two middle quartiles while low- and high-cost producers ranked in the first and last quartiles, respectively.

The net production value per acre (gross production value after costs are subtracted) was significantly 

greater for low-cost corn producers than for other groups. Table 1 shows that low-cost corn producers 

averaged $463 per acre in net production value after operating and ownership costs, compared with 

$313 per acre for mid-cost producers and $69 per acre for high-cost producers in 2010.

Significant differences in the gross production value per acre and the operating and ownership costs 

per acre existed among the cost groups. Low-cost producers had higher gross production values per 

acre and lower costs per acre than mid-cost producers. The same pattern existed between the midand high-cost groups. Likewise, higher yields per planted acre pushed up the gross production value 

per acre for lower cost groups. In 2010, yields averaged 182 bushels per planted acre for low-cost 

producers, 164 bushels for mid-cost producers, and 111 bushels for high-cost producers. The average 

price per bushel of corn was higher for the higher cost groups, which blunted some of the effect of 

their lower yields.

With harvest-month corn prices averaging $4.33 per bushel and yields averaging 159 bushels per 

planted acre in 2010, most corn producers would have covered their production costs if they sold 

their corn at that price. For 99 percent of corn producers, their production value, based on harvestmonth prices, exceeded their operating costs. Production value exceeded operating and ownership 

costs for 92 percent of corn producers. The gross production value exceeded total production costs 

(including economic costs) for 74 percent of corn producers. This situation stands in contrast to 2001 

when harvest-month corn prices averaged $1.84 per bushel and average yields were 144 bushels per 

planted acre. In 2001, 59 percent of producers would have covered their operating and ownership 

costs if they sold their corn at harvest-month prices.

In 2010, high-cost corn producers had the largest gap between their average expected yields per acre 

(160 bushels) and their actual yields (111 bushels) (see Glossary, “expected yields”). Had more of 

these producers achieved their expected yields, many of them would have covered their costs, but 

their costs would still have been significantly higher than those for producers in the low- and midcost groups.

Heartland producers accounted for the largest share of high-cost producers (fig. 3). Above normal 

temperatures in the Heartland during 2010 reduced the region’s yields, pushing some producers into 

the high-cost group. Southeast producers made up higher shares of the high-cost group compared 

with low- and mid-cost groups (see Glossary, “corn production regions”). Parts of the Southeast 

experienced drought in 2010, pushing some Southeast corn producers into the high-cost group 

because of reduced yields. Southeast producers averaged 114 bushels per acre in 2010—25 bushels 

below their average expected yields.
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ERS Corn Costs and Returns

ERS net returns from corn production are measured by subtracting costs from the gross value of corn 

production, which is estimated using harvest-month prices. Harvest-month prices are used because corn 

costs are estimated up to the point of storage or sale. Thus, the costs and returns associated with marketing 

corn are excluded. ERS cost and return estimates include the value of production and costs for all participants in the production process, including producers, landlords, and contractors. Crop commodity costs and 

returns estimates are based on the number of planted acres because costs are incurred on planted acreage 

regardless of whether they are harvested.1

Several measures of commodity costs exist, each with a different purpose. Total production costs are broken 

into three components: operating, ownership, and economic. Operating costs are those that vary with the 

amount of corn produced. Usually, producers will not plant corn unless they expect at least to cover their 

operating costs, which include costs for seed, fertilizers, chemicals, custom operations, fuel, repairs, interest, 

and hired labor. Ownership costs are costs for capital items used during production, such as capital recovery, 

insurance, and property taxes on farm machinery and equipment. Capital recovery costs are an estimate of 

the costs to replace machinery and equipment that was used in producing the annual crop plus interest on 

the remaining value. In the short term, producers only need to meet their operating costs. However, over a 

period of several years, producers must be able to recover their operating and ownership costs of production 

if they wish to replace their machinery and equipment, and stay in business. 

Economic costs are the opportunity costs for land (using cash rental rate for farmland) and unpaid labor 

(using off-farm wage rates), and general farm overhead costs. Producers and analysts may add these costs 

to the operating and ownership costs when considering long-term decisions such as land purchases, longterm rental arrangements, starting and stopping agricultural production, or reallocation of producer’s time 

or investments. 

 Corn production costs in this report refer to the sum of the operating and ownership costs unless otherwise 

stated. The focus is on operating and ownership costs since these are the costs that producers must meet 

over a period of several years to continue growing the crop. Total costs are included in the tables, but these 

are not emphasized because they include economic costs. Many producers accept different rates of return 

than the ones ERS uses to estimate the opportunity costs for land and unpaid labor in economic costs. U.S. 

and selected regional production cost data—operating, operating and ownership, and total—from the three 

most recent corn versions of the ARMS are shown in the table on page 8.

The total production costs for corn rose more sharply between 2005 and 2010 than in the 2001 to 2005 

period mainly because of increases in operating costs and, to a lesser extent, increases in the opportunity 

cost of land. Operating costs rose faster in the 2005 to 2010 period mostly because of rapid increases in seed 

and fertilizer prices. Seed and fertilizer costs are the two major components of the operating costs for corn 

production. The opportunity costs of land rose significantly faster after 2005 partly because of rising returns 

from corn production. Increases in the gross value of corn production per acre exceeded those for the operating and ownership due to rising corn prices and yields. In 2001, the Heartland producers had the lowest 

1For more detail on the construction of ERS cost of production account estimates, see http://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/

commodity-costs-and-returns/documentation.aspx

Continued—
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Economic Research Service/USDA

operating costs among the regional producers but, since they applied the highest amounts of seed and fertilizer 

per acre in 2010, they had higher than average operating costs per acre by 2010.

U.S. and selected regional corn cost-of-production estimates for 2001, 2005, and 2010

Item Heartland Northern Crescent Prairie Gateway United States

Dollars per planted acre

2001

Operating costs 154 162 198 161

Operating and ownership costs 211 225 274 221

Total production costs 340 343 389 344

2005

Operating costs 185 198 219 188

Operating and ownership costs 251 267 309 259

Total production costs 388 394 417 387

2010

Operating costs 295 295 273 289

Operating and ownership costs 384 378 384 382

Total production costs 572 514 512 550

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service cost of production accounts for corn developed from the 2001, 2005, and 2010 corn 

versions of the Agricultural Resource Management Survey.
9

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Table 1

Costs and returns per planted acre for corn in 2010, by cost groups

Item Low (a) Mid (b) High (c) Total

Percent of corn farms 25 50 25 100

Percent of corn acres 28 53 19 100

Percent of corn production 32 55 13 100

Percent of corn acres planted for: 

 Food ^ 11 5 ^ 6 ^ 7

 Feed 19 bc 28 ac ^ 39 ab 27

 Ethanol 15 b 9 a ^ 10 # 11

 Unknown or other1 55 58 c 45 b 55

Planted corn acres per farm 320 c 306 c 219 ab 288

Ratio of harvested to planted acres 100 c 100 c 96 ab 99

Yield per planted acre (bu): 

 Expected 180 c 175 c 160 ab 174

 Actual 182 bc 164 ac 111 ab 159

Corn harvest-month price ($ per bu) 4.28 bc 4.33 ac 4.46 ab 4.33

Operating and ownership costs ($ per bu):

 Expected 1.76 bc 2.28 ac 2.69 ab 2.20

 Actual 1.74 bc 2.43 ac 3.88 ab 2.40

Cost and return per planted corn acre ($):

 Gross production value 781 bc 711 ac 500 ab 690

 Operating costs : 237 bc 304 ac 327 ab 289

 Seed 80 83 81 82

 Fertilizer 84 bc 120 a 130 a 112

 Chemicals 21 bc 29 a 27 a 26

 Custom operations 12 bc 17 a ^ 21 a 16

 Fuel, lube, and electricity 18 bc 27 ac 33 ab 26

 Repairs 19 bc 24 ac 30 ab 24

 Purchased irrigation water 0 0 0 0

 Interest on operating capital 0 0 0 0

 Hired labor 2 bc 3 a 4 a 3

 Ownership costs: 81 bc 95 ac 104 ab 93

 Capital recovery of machinery and equipment 74 bc 86 ac 94 ab 84

 Taxes and insurance 7 bc 9 ac 10 ab 8

 Economic costs: 174 c 169 c 156 ab 168

 Opportunity cost of land 137 bc 129 ac 110 ab 127

 Opportunity cost of unpaid labor 19 bc 23 ac 26 ab 23

 General farm overhead 18 18 20 18

 Operating and ownership costs 318 bc 398 ac 431 ab 382

 Total costs 492 bc 567 a 587 a 550

 Production value less:

 Operating costs 544 bc 408 ac 173 ab 401

 Operating and ownership costs 463 bc 313 ac 69 ab 308

 Total costs 289 bc 144 ac -88 ab 140

Note: Letters a, b, and c indicate that the estimates are significantly different from the indicated group at the 90-percent level or higher using 

the t-statistic. Coefficient of variation (CV) = (Standard error/estimate) x 100. ^ indicates that CV is greater than 25 and less than or equal to 

50. # indicates that CV is above 50. bu=bushels. 1Many producers do not know how their grain will be used.

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service (ERS) cost of production accounts and USDA’s 2010 Agricultural Resource Management Survey, 

jointly conducted by ERS and USDA, National Agricultural Statistics Service.
10

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The average operating and ownership costs per acre were higher in the mid- and high-cost groups 

while economic costs per acre were lower. Operating costs averaged $237 per acre in 2010 for lowcost producers versus $327 per acre for high-cost producers. This difference was largely due to the 

range in fertilizer cost per acre, with costs averaging $84 per acre for low-cost producers versus $130 

per acre for high-cost producers. This difference resulted partly from differences in the amounts of 

fertilizer applied. High-cost producers applied an average of 150 pounds of nitrogen per acre versus 

131 pounds by low-cost producers (table 2). Fewer low-cost producers applied fertilizer and manure 

than did high-cost producers. In addition, a much higher share of low-cost than high-cost corn 

producers planted soybeans in their fields during the previous season (66 percent versus 44 percent). 

In much of the Heartland, soybeans enrich the soil so that less nitrogen needs to be added for the 

succeeding corn crop.

On average, low-cost corn producers used fewer inputs per planted corn acre while achieving higher 

yields. Data in table 2 show small, but often statistically significant differences between low-cost 

producers and their mid- and high-cost counterparts in their per-acre use of fuel and electricity, 

fertilizer, chemicals, and labor. These differences contributed to lower production costs per acre for 

low-cost producers.

Ownership costs, which mainly consist of the costs for capital recovery of machinery and equipment, averaged $81 per acre for low-cost producers versus $104 per acre for high-cost producers 

in 2010. Low-cost producers planted an average of 320 acres of corn per farm while high-cost 

producers planted an average of 219 acres per farm in 2010. Because low-cost producers planted 

more corn acres per farm, they spread the fixed machinery costs over more planted corn acres. In 

addition, these producers reduced their capital recovery and fuel costs per acre by making fewer 

trips over fields, 4.3 on average, compared with 5.2 for high-cost producers (see Glossary, “Trips 

over field”).

1

Note: The "Southeast" corn production region combines the ERS farm resource regions of Eastern Uplands, Southern 

Seaboard, and Fruitful Rim because of limited samples in these regions.

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service (ERS) cost-of-production accounts and USDA's 2010 corn versions of the 

Agricultural Resource Management Survey, jointly conducted by ERS and USDA, National Agricultural Statistics Service.

Figure 3

Percent of corn cost groups represented by each region, 2010 

Percent of farms

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Low-cost Mid-cost High-cost Total

Southeast1

Prairie Gateway

Northern Great Plains

Northern Crescent

Heartland
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Table 2

Production practices and input use on 2010 corn acreage, by cost groups

Item Low (a) Mid (b) High (c) Total

Crop rotation (% of acres):

 Corn 25 c 25 c 38 ab 28

 Soybeans 66 c 64 c 44 ab 61

 Idle or Conservation Reserve Program 7 5 6 6

Irrigation:

 Irrigated (% of acres) ^ 5 8 9 7

 Farms irrigating (%) # 7 c 10 c 21 ab 11

Energy used per acre:

 Gasoline (gallons) 1.8 c 1.9 2.1 a 1.9

 Diesel (gallons) 3.5 bc 5.7 a 6.3 a 5.2

 Liquid petroleum gas (gallons) 1.4 b 2.1 ac 1.4 b 1.7

 Natural gas (1,000 cubic feet) ^ 1.0 b ^ 0.2 a # 0.4 ^ 0.2

 Electricity (kilowatt hours) ^ 14.6 c 26.7 c 63.9 ab 30.4

Seed used:

 Number of seeds per acre 30,988 30,988 32,119 31,204

 Cost for 1,000 seeds ($) 2.58 2.67 c 2.51 b 2.61

 Seed variety (% of acres)

 Herbicide resistant 18 c 15 c 25 ab 18

 Bt 8 bc 19 a 19 a 16

 Both herbicide resistant and Bt 62 c 55 c 45 ab 55

Fertilizer and manure use:

 Nitrogen (pounds per acre) 131 bc 145 a 150 a 142

 Phosphorous (pounds per acre) 40 bc 55 a 51 a 50

 Potassium (pounds per acre) 50 58 60 56

 Lime (tons per acre) 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2

 Nitrogen (% of farms) 94 bc 98 a 98 a 97

 Phosphorous (% of farms) 72 bc 90 a 89 a 85

 Potassium (% of farms) 62 bc 77 a 76 a 73

 Lime (% of farms) 46 50 52 49

Chemical use:

 Herbicides (% of acres) 93 b 97 ac 93 b 95

 Insecticides (% of acres) ^ 6 bc 11 a 18 a 11

 Herbicides (treatments per acre) 2.5 2.7 2.7 2.7

 Insecticides (treatments per acre) ^ 0.0 bc 0.1 a 0.2 a 0.1

Trips over field (number) 4.3 bc 4.8 ac 5.2 ab 4.8

Labor hours per acre: 1.0 bc 1.2 ac 1.5 ab 1.2

 Paid 0.1 bc 0.2 ac 0.3 ab 0.2

 Unpaid 0.9 bc 1.0 ac 1.2 ab 1.0

Farms with paid labor (%) 41 45 c 38 b 42

Machinery maximum width (feet):

 Planter 26 c 24 c 20 ab 24

 Harvester 17 c 16 c 15 ab 16

Note: Letters a, b, and c indicate that the estimates are significantly different from the indicated group at the 90-percent

level or higher using the t-statistic. Coefficient of variation (CV) = (Standard error/estimate) x 100.

^ indicates that CV is greater than 25 and less than or equal to 50. # indicates that CV is above 50.

Source: USDA’s 2010 Agricultural Resource Management Survey, jointly conducted by USDA, Economic Research Service and National 

Agricultural Statistics Service.
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Economic costs per acre were higher for low-cost producers than for mid- and high-cost producers. 

This difference was due to the opportunity costs of land, which are based on the cash rent paid for 

land. Cash rents for land generally reflect the net income one expects to receive from the use of 

land. The expected net income is heavily influenced by the land’s history of productivity. Low-cost 

producers’ expected corn yields averaged 180 bushels per acre, and their opportunity costs of land 

averaged $137 per acre. In contrast, high-cost producers had expected corn yields of 160 bushels per 

acre and opportunity costs of $110 per acre for land in 2010 (table 1).

High-cost producers’ whole-farm characteristics differed significantly from low- and midcost producers for items such as the types of commodities produced, share of farms receiving 

Government payments, and the average household and farm incomes (which were lower for highcost than for low- and mid-cost producers) (table 3). High-cost producers were less likely to raise 

soybeans and more likely to raise wheat or cattle and to operate dairy enterprises. They were also 

less likely to have graduated from high school and less likely to receive Government payments. 
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Table 3

Characteristics of corn farms and operators in 2010, by cost groups

Low (a) Mid (b) High (c) Total 

Total operated acres per farm: 711 b 865 a 790 808

 Owned and operated 314 367 367 354

 Cash-rented 362 401 c 314 b 368

 Share-rented 83 116 121 109

 Cropland 614 b 714 a 625 667

Number of commodities per farm 3.3 bc 3.5 ac 3.9 ab 3.6

Percent of farms producing:

 Some corn under contract 43 c 43 c 24 ab 38

 Soybean 79 c 82 c 60 ab 76

 Wheat 16 bc 26 a 27 a 24

 Hay 16 17 17 17

 Cattle 38 c 42 c 57 ab 45

 Dairy 6 c 7 c 11 ab 8

 Hogs ^ 8 5 ^ 6 6

Operator occupation (percent):

 Farming 83 84 c 78 b 82

 Nonfarm work 16 15 20 16

Operator paid for off-farm work (percent) 35 37 34 36

Principal operator age (mean): 57 55 c 57 b 56

 Less than 50 years (percent) 29 31 26 29

 65 or more (percent) 26 23 c 30 b 25

Principal operator education (percent):

 High school 95 c 93 c 83 ab 91

 Completed college 21 21 19 21

Sole or family proprietor (percent) 88 85 85 86

Farms sharing farm income (percent) 10 bc 17 a 18 a 15

Government payments per farm ($): 10,429 11,299 11,563 11,157

 Direct and counter-cyclical 8,667 9,808 10,295 9,658

 Conservation ^ 1,721 1,408 1,147 1,416

Farms with Government payments (percent): 84 c 82 c 70 ab 79

 Direct and counter-cyclical 80 c 76 c 64 ab 74

 Conservation 32 c 28 c 20 ab 27

Household income per family ($1,000): 127.8 c 128.3 c 91.4 ab 118.5

 Farm income 78.8 c 82.2 c 42.8 ab 71.0

 Off-farm income: 49.0 46.1 48.7 47.5

 Earned income from business or job 35.2 35.4 34.3 35.0

 Percent with off farm business or job 63 70 63 66

Average value per farm ($1,000):

 Farm assets 1,932 2,116 c 1,780 b 1,983

 Farm debt 222 238 204 225

 Farm equity 1,711 1,877 c 1,576 b 1,758

Debt/asset ratio (percent) 11 11 11 11

Note: Letters a, b, and c indicate that the estimates are significantly different from the indicated group at the 90-percent level or higher using 

the t-statistic. Coefficient of variation (CV) = (Standard error/estimate) x 100.

^ indicates that CV is greater than 25 and less than or equal to 50. # indicates that CV is above 50.

Source: USDA’s 2010 Agricultural Resource Management Survey, jointly conducted by USDA, Economic Research Service and National 

Agricultural Statistics Service.
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The Heartland Continues To Dominate Corn Production

In 2010, the average operating and ownership cost of producing corn ranged from a low of $2.30 per 

bushel in the Heartland to a high of $3.27 per bushel in the Southeast (table 4 and Glossary on “Corn 

production regions”). Also, in 2010, differences in the average yield per planted acre—rather than 

differences in the costs per acre—were the principle reason for the spread in these costs. Heartland 

producers obtained the highest corn yields, 167 bushels per planted acre, as compared to 114 bushels 

per acre for Southeast producers, while the operating and ownership costs varied from $372 to $384 

per acre among the regions.

As a result of higher yields than those of other regions, Heartland and Northern Crescent producers 

had significantly higher gross and net values of corn production per acre. These two regions 

accounted for 78 percent of the corn farms and 79 percent of corn production, with the Heartland 

accounting for 69 percent of the corn production. Net returns were the lowest in the Southeast 

despite higher prices that offset some of the effects from their lower yields.

Although the total operating and ownership cost per planted corn acre did not vary substantially 

among the regions in 2010, some of the cost components did (fig. 4). Differences in cost components per acre among the regions related to the variations in input use and production practices. The 

Heartland producers had the highest seed costs per acre, as a result of higher seed prices, and the 

greatest number of seeds planted per acre. Heartland and Northern Great Plains corn producers paid 

higher prices for corn seed, an average of $2.68 and $2.62 per 1,000 seeds, respectively, partly due 

to their greater use of Bt and herbicide-tolerant seed (table 5). Fertilizer costs per acre were higher 

in the Heartland and Northern Crescent, partly resulting from higher application rates of potassium than in Northern Great Plains and Prairie Gateway. Although Southeast producers applied 

similar amounts of potassium per acre as the Heartland and Northern Crescent producers, Southeast 

producers had lower fertilizer costs partly because they applied less nitrogen per acre. Fuel costs per 

acre were highest in the Prairie Gateway because these producers irrigated higher shares of their 

corn acres (43 percent). Irrigation raises several cost components, including those for fuel, capital 

recovery, and land.

The number of labor hours expended per corn acre has been trending downward. The average labor 

hours spent per acre varied between a low of 1.0 hours in the Heartland and a high of 1.9 hours in 

the Southeast for 2010, compared with a low of 1.5 hours in the Heartland and a high of 2.9 hours 

in the Southeast in 2001 (Foreman, 2006). The number of trips over a corn field declined slightly, 

while the maximum width of planters and harvesters used in corn fields increased between 2001 and 

2010. Both factors contributed to fewer labor hours used per acre in 2010. 

The data suggest a relationship between the number of corn acres on a farm and the average labor 

hours spent per corn acre. On average, Northern Crescent and Southeast corn producers planted less 

than 200 acres of corn per farm and had more labor hours per acre, 1.6 hours for Northern Crescent 

producers and 1.9 hours for Southeast producers. In contrast, Heartland, Northern Great Plains, 

and Prairie Gateway producers planted over 300 corn acres per farm in 2010 and averaged 1.3 labor 

hours or less per acre. These producers used significantly wider planters and harvesters, allowing 

them to cover more acres per hour. 

Not only did Northern Crescent and Southeast corn producers plant less corn acres than did producers 

in other regions, but they also operated fewer total farm acres. Northern Crescent corn producers oper-
15

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Table 4

Costs and returns per planted acre for corn in 2010, by region 

Item Heartland (a)

Northern 

Crescent (b)

Northern 

Great Plains (c)

Prairie 

Gateway (d)

Southeast 

(e)

Percent of corn farms 59 19 5 12 6

Percent of corn acres 66 10 6 15 3

Percent of corn production 69 10 5 14 2

Percent of corn acres planted for: 

 Food ^ 7 e # 5 ^ 6 ^ 7 e ^ 3 ad

 Feed 20 bde 46 ace ^ 24 bde 38 ace 77 abcd

 Ethanol 13 e ^ 9 e ^ 14 e # 7 e 0 abcd

 Unknown or other1 60 bde 40 ace 56 be 48 ae 20 abcd

Planted corn acres per farm 324 be 155 acd 356 be 373 be 134 acd

Ratio of harvested to planted acres 100 bc 97 ad 98 a 99 b 99

Yield per planted acre (bu): 

 Expected 183 bcde 161 ae 156 ae 154 ae 139 abcd

 Actual 167 bcde 156 acde 144 abe 142 abe 114 abcd

Corn harvest-month price ($ per bu) 4.33 bce 4.44 acde 3.99 abde 4.34 bce 4.76 abcd

Operating and ownership costs ($ per bu):

 Expected 2.10 bcde 2.34 ade 2.39 ae 2.49 abe 2.68 abcd

 Actual 2.30 bce 2.43 de 2.58 ae 2.70 abe 3.27 abcd

Cost and return per planted corn acre ($):

 Gross production value 722 cde 696 cde 577 abd 619 abce 546 abd

 Operating costs: 295 e 295 e 267 e 273 e 281 abcd

 Seed 88 bcde 75 ade 80 ade 63 abc 63 abc

 Fertilizer 118 cd 122 cd 95 abe 85 abe 116 cd

 Chemicals 27 c 26 c 18 abde 26 c 29 c

 Custom operations 15 20 ^ 16 19 14

 Fuel, lube, and electricity 22 cde 24 d 27 ad 42 abce 26 ad

 Repairs 22 cde 24 d 27 a 32 abe 25 ad

 Purchased irrigation water 0 c 0 c ^ 1 ab 0 0

 Interest on operating capital 0 0 0 0 0

 Hired labor 3 e 4 e 3 e 3 e 6 abcd

 Ownership costs: 89 cd 83 cde 105 abe 111 abe 93 bcd

 Capital recovery of machinery and equipment 81 bcd 74 acd 96 abe 101 abe 83 cd

 Taxes and insurance 8 bde 9 a 9 10 a 11 a

 Economic costs: 188 bcde 137 a 120 a 128 a 129 a

 Opportunity cost of land 150 bcde 83 a 75 a 86 a 76 a

 Opportunity cost of unpaid labor 20 bde 30 ad 27 24 abe 32 ad

 General farm overhead 17 b 24 acd 18 b 17 b 21

 Operating and ownership costs 384 378 372 384 374

 Total costs 572 bcde 514 ad 492 a 512 ab 503 a

 Production value less:

 Operating costs 427 cde 401 cde 309 abd 347 abce 266 abd

 Operating and ownership costs 338 cde 318 cde 205 ab 235 ab 172 ab

 Total costs 150 cde 182 cde 81 ab 108 abe # 43 abd

Note: Letters a, b, c, d, and e indicate that the estimates are significantly different from the indicated group at the 90-percent level or higher 

using using the t-statistic. Coefficient of variation (CV) = (Standard error/estimate) x 100. ^ indicates that CV is greater than 25 and less than 

or equal to 50. # indicates that CV is above 50. bu = bushel. 

1Many producers do not know how their grain will be used.

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service (ERS) cost of production accounts and USDA’s 2010 Agricultural Resource Management 

Survey, jointly conducted by ERS and USDA, National Agricultural Statistics Service.
16

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ated an average of 440 acres per farm in 2010, while Southeast corn producers averaged 566 acres per 

farm (table 6). In contrast, Heartland producers averaged 704 acres per farm; Northern Great Plains 

producers averaged 2,117 acres per farm; and Prairie Gateway producers averaged 1,619 acres per 

farm. Table 6 data also show that Northern Crescent and Southeast corn producers had lower farm 

incomes along with fewer acres per farm than corn producers in other regions.

The distribution of planted corn acres and production among the regions was nearly the same in 

2010 and 2001, despite a 17-percent increase in planted corn acres and a 31-percent increase in corn 

production at the national level between these 2 years (Foreman, 2006). This finding indicates that 

growth rates for corn acres and production were similar among the regions (fig. 5). 

In 2001, corn producers’ household income averaged $51,000, below the U.S. average household 

income of $58,200. In contrast, in 2010, corn producers’ average household incomes ranged from 

a low of $67,700 thousand to a high of $172,300 among the regions, compared with $67,500 for 

all U.S. households (see Glossary for “farm household income” and ERS, 2013c). Higher farm 

commodity prices and increased total acreage per farm contributed to higher-than-average household incomes for corn producers in 2010. Northern Crescent and Southeast corn producers had lower 

average household incomes in 2010 than corn producers in other regions. Variations in the average 

total household income per family came mainly from variations in average farm income. 

1

Note: The "Southeast" corn production region combines the ERS farm resource regions of Eastern Uplands, Southern 

Seaboard, and Fruitful Rim because of limited samples in these regions.

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service (ERS) cost of production accounts and USDA's 2010 Agricultural Resource 

Management Survey, jointly conducted by ERS and USDA, National Agricultural Statistics Service.

Figure 4

Major components of operating and ownership costs per acre for corn producers 

by region, 2010

Dollars per acre

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

Heartland Northern

Crescent

Northern

Great Plains

Prairie

Gateway

Southeast1

Other

Capital recovery

Energy

Chemicals

Fertilizer

Seed
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Table 5

Production practices and input use on 2010 corn acreage, by region

Item Heartland (a)

Northern 

Crescent (b)

Northern 

Great Plains (c)

Prairie 

Gateway (d) Southeast (e)

Crop rotation (percent of acres): 

 Corn 26 cd 32 c ^ 13 abde 36 ac 31 c

 Soybeans 70 bcde 51 ade 54 ade 35 abc 33 abc

 Idle or Conservation Reserve Program ^ 2 bd 10 ade ^ 8 de 18 abce # 1 bcd

Irrigation:

 Irrigated (percent of acres) ^ 5 bcde # 0.0 acde ^ 19 abd 43 abce 11 abd

 Farms irrigating (percent ) ^ 4 bcd # 0.1 acde 24 abe 28 abe ^ 7 bcd

Energy used per acre:

 Gasoline (gallons) 1.9 e 2.0 e 2.1 e 1.9 e 1.6 abcd

 Diesel (gallons) 4.4 cde 4.1 de 3.8 ade ^ 9.7 abc 6.4 abc

 Liquid petroleum gas (gallons) 2.0 de 2.4 de 2.4 de na ^ 0.7 abcd

 Natural gas (1,000 cubic feet) ^ 0.0 bcd ^ 0.1 acde 0.0 abde ^ 1.0 abce # 0.0 bcd

 Electricity (kilowatt hours) 12.3 bcde 4.2 acde ^ 70.6 ab 105.9 ab ^ 57.2 ab

Seed used:

 Number of seeds per acre 32,696 bcde 31,441 ade 30,564 ade 25,727 abc 26,241 abc

 Cost for 1,000 seeds ($) 2.68 bde 2.39 ac 2.62 b 2.46 a 2.39 a

 Seed variety (percent of acres)

 Herbicide resistant 14 bde 28 ae ^ 19 e 23 ae 45 abcd

 Bt 15 d ^ 15 ^ 18 23 ae ^ 12 d

 Both herbicide resistant and Bt 60 bde 44 ace 60 bde 44 ace 26 abcd

Fertilizer and manure use:

 Nitrogen (pounds per acre) 147 be 124 a 143 137 127 a

 Phosphorous (pounds per acre) 57 bcde 41 ad 42 ad 30 abce 39 ad

 Potassium (pounds per acre) 68 cde 76 cde ^ 13 abe 11 abe 53 abcd

 Lime (tons per acre) 0.3 cd 0.3 cd 0.0 abde 0.1 abce 0.3 cd

 Nitrogen (percent of farms) 98 d 98 d 97 d 92 abce 99 d

 Phosphorous (percent of farms) 85 bde 92 acd 84 bde 72 abce 93 acd

 Potassium (percent of farms) 77 bcde 93 acd 37 abde 27 abce 92 acd

 Lime (percent of farms) 57 cd 55 cd 3 abde 14 abce 62 cd

Chemical use:

 Herbicides (percent of acres) 96 91 96 94 98

 Insecticides (percent of acres) 13 cd # 3 e # 5 a ^ 6 a ^ 13 b

 Herbicides (treatments per acre) 2.6 cd 2.0 cd 2.1 abde 3.3 abce 2.5 cd

 Insecticides (treatments per acre) 0.1 bcd # 0.1 a # 0.0 ae ^ 0.1 a ^ 0.2 c

Trips over field (number) 4.6 be 5.4 acd 4.5 be 4.3 be 5.4 acd

Labor hours per acre: 1.0 bde 1.6 acd 1.3 be 1.3 abe 1.9 acd

 Paid 0.2 e 0.3 e 0.2 e 0.2 e 0.6 abcd

 Unpaid 0.9 bde 1.4 ad 1.1 1.0 abe 1.3 ad

Farms with paid labor (percent) 38 bcd 48 ade 52 ae 57 abe 35 bcd

Machinery maximum width (feet):

 Planter 26 bce 17 acd 29 abde 25 bce 17 acd

 Harvester 17 bcde 13 acd 19 abe 18 abe 13 acd

Note: Letters a, b, c, d, and e indicate that the estimates are significantly different from the indicated group at the 90-percent level or 

higher using using the t-statistic. Coefficient of variation (CV) = (Standard error/estimate) x 100. ^ indicates that CV is greater than 25 and 

less than or equal to 50. # indicates that CV is above 50. na = not available due to statistical or confidentiality concerns. 

Source: USDA’s 2010 Agricultural Resource Management Survey, jointly conducted by USDA, Economic Research Service and National 

Agricultural Statistics Service.
18

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Table 6

Characteristics of corn farms and operators in 2010, by region 

Item Heartland (a)

Northern 

Crescent (b)

Northern 

Great Plains (c)

Prairie 

Gateway (d) Southeast (e)

Total operated acres per farm: 704 bcde 440 acd 2,117 abde 1,619 abce 566 acd

 Owned and operated 299 bcd 232 acd 1,110 abde 627 abce 235 cd

 Cash-rented 333 bcd 198 acd 922 abe 675 abe 297 cd

 Share-rented 101 bde ^ 10 acde ^ 140 bde 361 abce ^ 38 abcd

 Cropland 636 bcde 364 acd 1,492 abe 1,173 abe 426 acd

Number of commodities per farm 3.1 bcde 4.8 ade 4.5 ade 3.4 abc 3.5 abc

Percent of farms producing:

 Some corn under contract 43 be 30 ace 43 be 38 e 10 abcd

 Soybean 87 bcde 66 ae 71 ade 6 ac 47 abc

 Wheat 15 bcd 30 acde 61 abde 54 abce 18 bcd

 Hay 12 b 28 acd ^ 12 b 18 b ^ 23

 Cattle 38 bce 60 ad 66 ade 45 bc 50 ac

 Dairy 3 b 29 acde # 3 b ^ 2 b ^ 5 b

 Hogs 9 bcde ^ 5 acd na na ^ 3 acd

Operator occupation (percent):

 Farming 80 cd 86 cd 93 abe 94 abe 75 cd

 Nonfarm work 19 cd 14 cd # 5 abe ^ 6 abe 23 cd

Operator paid for off-farm work (percent) 39 cd 35 26 a 26 a 34

Principal operator age (mean): 56 56 54 58 58

 Less than 50 years (percent) 30 25 34 31 24

 65 or more (percent) 25 22 ^ 19 d 32 c 31

Principal operator education (percent):

 High school 94 b 84 ac 96 b 91 87

 Completed college 20 d 18 d ^ 15 d 32 abce 15 d

Sole or family proprietor (percent) 86 84 86 86 8

Farms sharing farm income (percent) 13 19 ^ 11 18 3

Government payments per farm ($): 11,823 bcde 4,183 acde 19,624 abe 19,022 abe 7,066 abcd

 Direct and counter-cyclical 10,376 bcde 3,297 acde 16,351 abe 16,630 abe 6,004 abcd

 Conservation 1,409 bc ^ 829 acd ^ 2,845 ab 2,110 b # 1,059

Farms with Government payments (percent) 86 bce 62 acd 97 abde 84 bce 55 acd

 Direct and counter-cyclical 80 bce 55 acd 91 abe 82 be 44 acd

 Conservation 30 bce 18 ac 44 abde 25 ce ^ 15 acd

Household income per family ($1,000): 131.1 be 67.7 acd 172.3 be 133.8 be 90.1 acd

 Farm income 83.3 be 21.4 acd 124.0 be 92.9 be ^ 32.7 acd

 Off-farm income: 47.9 46.4 ^ 48.2 40.8 57.3

 Earned income from business or job 36.4 c 32.3 25.3 a ^ 30.0 ^ 45.5

 Percent with off-farm business or job 68 e 69 69 59 58 a

Average value per farm ($1,000):

 Farm assets 2,146 bcde 1,567 ace 3,189 abde 1,811 ace 1,266 abcd

 Farm debt 247 bce 186 ace 410 abde 208 ce 59 abcd

 Farm equity 1,899 bcde 1,381 ac 2,779 abde 1,603 ace 1,207 acd

Debt/asset ratio (percent) 12 e 12 e 13 e 11 e 5 abcd

Note: Letters a, b, c, d, and e indicate that the estimates are significantly different from the indicated group at the 90-percent level or higher 

using using the t-statistic. Coefficient of variation (CV) = (Standard error/estimate) x 100. ^ indicates that CV is greater than 25 and less than 

or equal to 50. # indicates that CV is above 50. na = not available due to statistical or confidentiality concerns.

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service (ERS) cost of production accounts and USDA’s 2010 Agricultural Resource Management Survey, 

jointly conducted by ERS and USDA, National Agricultural Statistics Service.
19

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1

Note: The "Southeast" corn production region combines the ERS farm resource regions of Eastern Uplands, Southern 

Seaboard, and Fruitful Rim because of limited samples in these regions.

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service (ERS) cost of production accounts and USDA's 2001 and 2010 corn 

versions of the Agricultural Resource Management Survey, jointly conducted by ERS and USDA, National Agricultural 

Statistics Service.

Figure 5

Distribution of planted corn acres by region in 2001 and 2010

Percent

0

20

40

60

80

Heartland Northern

Crescent

Northern

Great Plains

Prairie

Gateway

Southeast1

2001 2010
20

Characteristics and Production Costs of U.S. Corn Farms, Including Organic, 2010, EIB-128

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Costs Varied Little by Farm Enterprise Size

A farm enterprise is the group of activities related to the production of an agricultural commodity 

(see glossary on “Farm enterprise size”). For this report, the size of the corn enterprise is defined by 

the number of corn acres planted per farm with the intent to harvest the crop for grain. Production 

costs per acre, production practices, input use, and farm characteristics vary by enterprise size with 

the sharpest differences visible between those planting less than 250 acres of corn and those planting 

1,000 or more acres of corn. 

Most corn producers operated relatively small corn enterprises, while at the other extreme a small 

percentage of corn producers operated very large corn enterprises. Table 7 shows that 67 percent of 

corn producers planted less than 250 acres of corn, while 5 percent planted 1,000 or more acres in 

2010. In contrast, corn production is more uniform across the enterprise size classes, with 20 percent 

of the corn produced by those planting fewer than 250 acres and 28 percent produced by those 

planting 1,000 or more acres of corn. 

In 2010, producers planting less than 250 acres planted 21 percent of U.S. corn acres (versus 29 

percent for the same producer group in 2001). At the other extreme, producers planting 1,000 

or more corn acres accounted for 23 percent of planted acres in 2001 versus 28 percent in 2010. 

Producers planting 1,000 or more corn acres may have accounted for a large share of the 12 millionacre increase in planted corn acres that occurred in that 10-year span. 

In 2010, the operating and ownership costs to produce corn ranged from an average of $2.34 to 

$2.46 per bushel among farms in the enterprise size categories, but for the most part, the differences 

were not statistically significant. With harvest-month prices averaging $4.29 to $4.37 per bushel 

among the enterprise size groups, most corn producers in each size group were more than able to 

cover their production costs in 2010. 

While the total operating and ownership cost per bushel of corn in 2010 varied little among the 

enterprise size groups, the yields and costs per acre for farms with the smallest corn enterprises 

varied significantly from those for all other corn farms. Producers with fewer than 250 corn acres 

had the lowest expected (see glossary on “Expected yields”) and actual corn yields per planted 

acre. Their expected yields averaged 164 bushels per planted acre versus a minimum average of 174 

bushels for producers in all other categories. Following the same pattern, actual yields averaged 149 

bushels per planted acre for those with smallest corn enterprises versus a minimum average yield of 

161 bushels for producers planting 250 or more corn acres.

At $364 per acre, the operating and ownership costs were lowest for producers planting less than 

250 corn acres versus a range of $377 to $397 per acre for producers with more planted corn acres.2 

The average cost per acre was higher for each sequential farm enterprise size category although the 

differences were not always statistically significant (fig. 6). Differences in production practices, land 

quality, and other factors among farms in each size group may have contributed to differences in the 

per-acre costs.

2When corn producers were divided into cost groups based on their operating and ownership cost per bushel, it was 

found that low-cost producers planted more corn acres per farm, on average, than high-cost producers. However, it does 

not necessarily follow that the reverse situation holds true. The average production costs per bushel for producers with 

1,000 or more corn acres were not statistically different than for producers with less than 250 corn acres in 2010 (see 

tables 1 and 7).
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Table 7

Costs and returns per planted acre for corn in 2010, by enterprise size 

Item

Fewer than 

250 acres (a)

250-499

 acres (b)

500-749

acres (c)

750-999

 acres (d)

1,000 or more 

acres (e)

Percent of corn farms 67 17 8 4 5

Percent of corn acres 21 22 16 12 28

Percent of corn production 20 23 17 13 28

Percent of corn acres planted for: 

 Food 6 ^ 4 e ^ 5 ^ 5 ^ 12 b

 Feed 36 bcd 23 a 23 a 22 a 20

 Ethanol 6 de ^ 10 ^ 13 ^ 16 a 12 a

 Unknown or other1 53 b 64 ae 59 e 57 46 bc

Planted corn acres per farm 91 bcde 372 acde 616 abde 875 abce 1,758 abcd

Ratio of harvested to planted acres 98 bcde 99 a 100 a 100 a 100 a

Yield per planted acre (bu): 

 Expected 164 bcde 174 a 175 a 178 a 178 a

 Actual 149 bcde 162 a 164 a 161 a 161 a

Corn harvest-month price ($ per bu) 4.37 bc 4.29 ade 4.32 a 4.34 b 4.35 b

Operating and ownership costs ($ per bu):

 Expected 2.21 2.17 2.19 2.18 2.23

 Actual 2.44 b 2.34 a 2.34 2.41 2.46

Cost and return per planted corn acre ($):

 Gross production value 654 bcde 693 a 707 a 698 a 702 a

 Operating costs: 276 ce 285 e 291 a 292 302 ab

 Seed 75 bcde 82 a 85 a 84 a 83 a

 Fertilizer 108 e 109 e 111 110 119 ab

 Chemicals 25 c 26 c 30 abe 26 26 c

 Custom operations 20 bce 16 a 15 a 17 14 a

 Fuel, lube, and electricity 22 de 24 e 23 e 27 a 31 abc

 Repairs 24 25 23 23 24

 Purchased irrigation water 0 na na na na

 Interest on operating capital 0 0 0 0 0

 Hired labor 1 bcde 2 acde 3 abe 3 abe 5 abcd

 Ownership costs: 88 de 92 92 96 a 96 a

 Capital recovery of machinery and equipment 77 bcde 84 a 85 a 89 a 88 a

 Taxes and insurance 11 bcde 8 a 8 a 8 a 8 a

 Economic costs: 166 168 172 179 e 162 d

 Opportunity cost of land 111 bcde 126 a 133 a 140 a 132 a

 Opportunity cost of unpaid labor 31 bcde 23 ae 23 ae 21 ae 15 abcd

 General farm overhead 23 bcde 19 ae 16 a 18 a 15 ab

 Operating and ownership costs 364 bcde 377 ae 383 a 388 a 397 ab

 Total costs 530 cde 545 555 a 567 a 559 a

 Production value less:

 Operating costs 378 bc 409 a 416 a 406 400

 Operating and ownership costs 291 bc 316 a 323 a 310 304

 Total costs 124 c 148 152 a 131 142

Note: Letters a, b, c, d, and e indicate that the estimates are significantly different from the indicated group at the 90-percent level or

higher using the t-statistic. Coefficient of variation (CV) = (Standard error/estimate) x 100. ^ indicates that CV is greater than 25 and less than 

or equal to 50. # indicates that CV is above 50. na = not available due to statistical or confidentiality concerns.

bu = bushel. 1Many producers do not know how their grain will be used.

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service (ERS) cost of production accounts and USDA’s 2010 Agricultural Resource Management 

Survey, jointly conducted by ERS and USDA, National Agricultural Statistics Service.
22

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In 2010, per-acre costs for seed, hired labor, and capital recovery for machinery and equipment 

were significantly lower for those planting less than 250 acres than for producers in each of the 

remaining groups. Producers with the smallest corn enterprises were least likely to purchase more 

expensive seed with stacked traits. Data from table 8 show 45 percent of the producers with the 

smallest enterprises planted Bt or herbicide-tolerant corn seed, compared with a range of 49 to 

62 percent of producers in the groups planting more than 250 corn acres. In addition, producers 

with the smallest enterprises planted less seed per acre. These producers, with an average of 91 

corn acres, were also the least likely to hire labor, while producers of the largest corn enterprises, 

with an average of 1,758 acres of corn, often hired labor. Capital recovery costs averaged $77 per 

acre for producers with the smallest corn enterprises versus an average of $84 to $89 per acre for 

producers with larger enterprises. 

A number of production practices differ between producers with the largest and smallest corn enterprises and may explain the cost differences observed between these groups. Table 8 shows that 43 

percent of producers with the largest corn enterprises planted corn for 2 consecutive years versus 

20 percent of producers with the smallest corn enterprises. Forty-eight percent of operators with the 

largest corn enterprises rotated their corn field with soybeans versus 65 percent of those with small 

enterprises. Crop rotation is a practice that can break plant disease, pests, and weed cycles, thereby 

lowering the need for chemical treatments (USDA, ERS, 2013d, and glossary on “crop rotation”). 

Producers receive an additional benefit from rotating corn with soybeans because soybeans promote 

the development of organic nitrogen in the soil, lowering the amount of supplemental nitrogen that 

needs to be applied to corn. The continuous planting of corn can result in higher chemical, fertilizer, 

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service (ERS) cost of production accounts and USDA's 2010 corn versions of the 

Agricultural Resource Management Survey, jointly conducted by ERS and USDA, National Agricultural Statistics Service.

Figure 6

Operating and ownership costs for 2010 corn by enterprise size

Dollars per acre

Other

Capital recovery

Energy

Chemicals

Fertilizer

Seed

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

Fewer than 250 250-499 500-749 750-999 1,000 or more

Corn acres planted per farm
23

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Table 8

Production practices and input use on 2010 corn acreage, by enterprise size

Item

Fewer than 

250 acres (a)

250-499

 acres (b)

500-749

acres (c)

750-999

 acres (d)

1,000 or more 

acres (e)

Crop rotation (percent of acres):

 Corn 20 e 19 e 28 e 22 a 43 abcd

 Soybeans 65 e 67 e 63 e 68 a 48 abcd

 Idle or Conservation Reserve Program 8 de ^ 6 ^ 6 ^ 4 a ^ 4 a

Irrigation:

 Irrigated (percent of acres) ^ 6 bcd 10 a ^ 12 a ^ 14 a ^ 11

 Farms irrigating (percent) 7 b 12 a ^ 11 ^ 11 ^ 15

Energy used per acre:

 Gasoline (gallons) 1.8 1.9 2.0 1.8 2.0

 Diesel (gallons) 4.2 e 4.5 e 4.3 e 4.9 7.1 abc

 Liquid petroleum gas (gallons) 1.4 e 1.3 ce 1.9 b 2.0 2.2 ab

 Natural gas (1,000 cubic feet) # 0.1 ^ 0.1 # 0.1 # 0.4 # 0.2

 Electricity (kilowatt hours) 29.3 32.0 ^ 23.1 ^ 52.0 ^ 24.6

Seed used:

 Number of seeds per acre 30,110 cde 30,840 30,990 a 32,227 a 31,993 a

 Cost for 1,000 seeds ($) 2.48 bcd 2.67 a 2.74 ae 2.62 a 2.59 c

 Seed variety (percent of acres):

 Herbicide resistant 27 bce 15 ad 12 ad 28 bce ^ 12 ad

 Bt 15 17 ^ 18 ^ 13 ^ 17

 Both herbicide resistant and Bt 45 bce 56 a 60 a 49 e 62 ad

Fertilizer and manure use:

 Nitrogen (pounds per acre) 126 cde 135 e 143 a 148 a 157 ab

 Phosphorous (pounds per acre) 46 e 44 de 52 55 b 55 ab

 Potassium (pounds per acre) 54 e 50 e 50 e 61 65 abc

 Lime (tons per acre) 0.3 ce 0.2 0.2 a 0.2 0.2 a

 Nitrogen (percent of farms) 97 d 96 d 96 d 100 abce 98 d

 Phosphorous (percent of farms) 84 87 88 87 87

 Potassium (percent of farms) 75 c 72 c 62 ab 69 69

 Lime (percent of farms) 50 49 44 54 49

Chemical use:

 Herbicides (percent of acres) 93 de 94 e 92 de 98 ac 98 abc

 Insecticides (percent of acres) 6 ce 9 12 a ^ 14 15 a

 Herbicides (treatments per acre) 2.4 e 2.6 2.6 2.7 2.9 a

 Insecticides (treatments per acre) 0.1 e ^ 0.1 ^ 0.1 ^ 0.1 0.1 a

Trips over field (number) 4.7 e 4.6 de 4.9 e 5.0 be 5.4 abcd

Labor hours per acre: 1.5 bcde 1.2 ae 1.3 ae 1.1 a 1.0 abc

 Paid 0.1 bcde 0.1 acde 0.2 ab 0.2 abe 0.3 abd

 Unpaid 1.5 bcde 1.0 ae 1.0 ae 0.9 ae 0.7 abcd

Farms with paid labor (percent) 35 bcde 45 acde 69 ab 63 ab 71 ab

Machinery maximum width (feet):

 Planter 20 bcde 29 acde 33 abde 38 abce 42 abcd

 Harvester 14 bcde 18 acde 20 abe 20 abe 24 abce

Note: Letters a, b, c, d, and e indicate that the estimates are significantly different from the indicated group at the 90-percent level or higher 

using the t-statistic. Coefficient of variation (CV) = (Standard error/estimate) x 100. ^ indicates that CV is greater than 25 and less than or 

equal to 50. # indicates that CV is above 50. 

Source: USDA’s 2010 Agricultural Resource Management Survey, jointly conducted by USDA, Economic Research Service and National 

Agricultural Statistics Service.
24

Characteristics and Production Costs of U.S. Corn Farms, Including Organic, 2010, EIB-128

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and capital recovery costs per acre because more trips across a field are needed to apply chemicals 

and fertilizers. Producers with the largest corn enterprises made more trips across a field, applied 

more fertilizer per acre, and treated a higher percentage of their corn acres with herbicides and 

insecticides than did producers with the smallest corn enterprises. 

Fewer labor hours were spent per planted corn acre on the largest corn enterprises than on the 

smallest corn enterprises, even though more trips were taken across corn fields on the largest corn 

enterprises. On average, 1.0 labor hour per acre was spent on farms with the largest corn enterprises 

versus 1.5 labor hours per acre on farms with the smallest corn enterprises in 2010 with differences 

in machinery sizes likely accounting for most of the variation. The maximum width of planters and 

harvesters used on small corn enterprises averaged 20 feet and 14 feet, respectively, versus 42 feet 

and 24 feet on the largest corn enterprises.

Characteristics of corn farms and their operators differ with the size of their corn enterprises. 

Producers with largest corn enterprises tended to operate farms with more total acres than producers 

with small corn enterprises (table 9). The percentage of each farm’s total operated acres planted with 

corn averaged 51 percent for farms with the largest corn enterprises versus 24 percent for farms with 

the smallest corn enterprises. A high degree of reliance on a single commodity can increase vulnerability to commodity policy modifications, adverse growing conditions, or unexpected changes in 

market conditions. Producers with the largest corn enterprises produced an average of 3.2 commodities 

versus 3.7 commodities for those with the smallest corn enterprises. Greater commodity diversification 

can reduce risks. In addition, producers with the largest corn enterprises had higher average ratios of 

debt-to-farm assets. Higher ratios indicate a higher risk of loan defaults if income levels drop.

Producers with the largest corn enterprises had several characteristics that help blunt risks from their 

high reliance on corn. In 2010, these operators were, on average, 51 years old versus operators with 

the smallest enterprises, who averaged 57 years old. Thus, operators with the largest corn enterprises 

have more time to recover from adverse conditions. Farms with the largest corn enterprises also 

were more likely to have multiple operators or partners, so the financial risks were frequently spread. 

Operators with the largest corn enterprises were twice as likely to use a contract for corn production than were operators with the smallest corn enterprises. Most corn contracts are marketing 

contracts to sell corn. Marketing contracts reduce price risk by establishing a selling price before the 

commodity is produced.
25

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Table 9

Production practices and input use on 2010 corn acreage, by enterprise size

Item

Fewer than 

250 acres (a)

250-499

 acres (b)

500-749

acres (c)

750-999

 acres (d)

1,000 or more 

acres (e)

Total operated acres per farm: 373 bcde 1,149 acde 1,448 abde 1,899 abce 3,425 abcd

 Owned and operated 237 bcde 519 ae 494 ae 530 ae 986 abcd

 Cash-rented 122 bcde 493 acde 731 abde 1,002 abce 2,050 abcd

 Share-rented 41 bcde 151 ade 236 ae ^ 379 ab 443 abc

 Cropland 281 bcde 919 acde 1,310 abde 1,748 abce 2,951 abcd

Number of commodities per farm 3.7 cde 3.5 3.3 a 3.2 a 3.2 a

Percent of farms producing:

 Some corn under contract 27 bcde 55 a 62 a 66 a 62 a

 Soybean 69 bcde 89 a 93 ae 88 a 83 ac

 Wheat 22 b 30 a 22 25 28

 Hay 19 be 12 a ^ 14 ^ 17 e ^ 6 ad

 Cattle 49 de 43 de 40 e 29 ab 29 abc

 Dairy 10 bcde ^ 4 ae ^ 3 a # 2 a # 1 ab

 Hogs 6 d ^ 4 d ^ 4 d ^ 16 abc ^ 14

Operator occupation (percent):

 Farming 74 bcde 98 ac 100 ab 98 a 99 a

 Nonfarm work 24 bcde ^ 2 ace 0 ab na 0 ab

Operator paid for off-farm work (percent) 43 bcde 23 ae 26 ae 22 a ^ 12 abc

Principal operator age (mean): 57 bcde 54 a 53 a 55 a 51 a

 Less than 50 years (percent) 27 e 31 36 33 41 a

 65 or more (percent) 30 bcde 17 a 13 a ^ 15 a 17 a

Principal operator education (percent):

 High school 88 bcde 98 ade 98 a 100 abe 93 abd

 Completed college 19 d 20 d 23 d 39 abc 28

Sole or family proprietor (percent) 91 bcde 84 ade 75 ae 63 ab 55 abc

Farms sharing farm income (percent) 11 cde ^16 de ^ 21 ae ^ 33 ab 38 abc

Government payments per farm ($): 4,793 bcde 13,906 acde 22,447 abde 32,372 abce 49,408 abcd

 Direct and counter-cyclical 3,855 bcde 12,816 acde 19,272 abde 27,761 abce 44,506 abcd

 Conservation 857 cde 1,087 cde ^ 2,958 ab 4,334 ab 4,902 ab

Farms with Government payments (percent): 73 bcde 90 a 91 a 94 a 93 a

 Direct and counter-cyclical 67 bcde 87 a 87 a 92 a 92 a

 Conservation 21 bcde 34 a 44 a 40 a 43 a

Household income per family ($1,000): 81.1 bcde 151.1 ae 203.4 a 207.3 a 300.5 ab

 Farm income 30.7 bcde 108.5 ace 165.1 ab ^ 169.0 a 254.2 ab

 Off-farm income 50.4 cd 42.6 38.3 a 38.3 a ^ 46.3

 Earned income from business or job 36.9 c 34.3 23.9 a 27.5 ^ 35.7

 Percent with off farm business or job 67 e 69 e 69 e 65 e 50 abcd

Average value per farm ($1,000):

 Farm assets ^ 1,222 bcde 2,587 acde 3,284 abde 4,354 abce 5,910 abcd

 Farm debt ^ 87 bcde 314 acde 451 abde 692 abce 989 abcd

 Farm equity ^ 1,135 bcde 2,273 acde 2,832 abde 3,662 abce 4,921 abcd

Debt/asset ratio (percent) 7 bcde 12 ade 14 a 16 ab 17 ab

Note: Letters a, b, c, d, and e indicate that the estimates are significantly different from the indicated group at the 90-percent level or higher 

using the t-statistic. Coefficient of variation (CV) = (Standard error/estimate) x 100. ^ indicates that CV is greater than 25 and less than or 

equal to 50. # indicates that CV is above 50. na = not available due to statistical or confidentiality concerns.

Source: USDA’s 2010 Agricultural Resource Management Survey, jointly conducted by USDA, Economic Research Service and National 

Agricultural Statistics Service.
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Characteristics and Production Costs of U.S. Corn Farms, Including Organic, 2010, EIB-128

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Returns From Organic Corn Exceed Those for 

Conventional Corn

Although organic corn production was only a fraction of the total corn market, the national average 

net returns per acre from organic corn production surpassed those for conventional corn production, 

regardless of the cost measure used. In 2010, net returns—after subtracting the sum of operating 

and ownership costs from the gross value of corn production—averaged $555 per acre for organic 

corn and $307 per acre for conventional corn (fig. 7). The gross value of production for organic corn 

averaged $904 per acre in 2010 and $689 per acre for conventional corn. Operating costs per acre 

were lower for organic corn than conventional corn, while ownership costs and economic costs per 

acre were higher for organic corn in 2010. The total operating and ownership costs per acre did not 

significantly differ for conventional and organic corn because higher ownership costs per acre for 

organic corn offset a portion of their lower operating costs per acre in 2010.3

The higher gross value of production per acre for organic corn resulted from higher harvest-month 

prices, which more than offset lower average yields per planted acre. In 2010, organic corn prices 

averaged $7.46 a bushel versus $4.33 per bushel for conventional corn (table 10). Yields per planted 

acre averaged 121 bushels for organic corn and 159 bushels for conventional corn.

3The cost and return account for organic corn excludes the costs of transitioning land from conventional to organic 

production. This transition period lasts for 3 consecutive years, during which producers are banned from using substances not approved for organic production but are not allowed to sell certified organic corn. In addition, producers who 

wish to sell $5,000 or more of organic produce annually must undergo an approval process to become certified organic 

growers. See ERS Web site for further information: http://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/natural-resources-environment/

organic-agriculture/organic-certification.aspx.

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service (ERS) cost of production accounts and USDA's 2010 Agricultural Resource 

Management Survey, jointly conducted by ERS and USDA, National Agricultural Statistics Service.

Figure 7

Conventional and organic corn production value, costs, and returns per planted acre

in 2010

Dollars per acre

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

Gross

production

value

Operating

costs

Ownership

costs

Economic

costs

Total

costs

Net after

operating

costs

Net after

operating

and

ownership

costs

Net after

all costs

Conventional Organic
27

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Table 10

Costs and returns per planted acre for conventional and organic corn in 2010

Organic

Item

Conventional 

(a) Total (b) Heartland (c)

Northern Crescent 

(d)

Pecent of corn farms 99.0 1.0 0.5 0.5

Percent of corn acres 99.8 0.2 0.1 0.1

Percent of corn production 99.8 0.2 0.1 0.1

Percent of corn acres planted for: 

 Food 7 ^ 15 # 6 ^ 9

 Feed 27 b 77 a 81 88

 Ethanol 11 b 0 a 0 0

 Unknown or other1 55 b ^ 8 a # 13 # 4

Planted corn acres per farm 290 b 73 a ^ 78 55

Ratio of harvested to planted acres 99 99 100 98

Yield per planted acre (bu): 

 Expected 174 b 135 a 138 d 127 c

 Actual 159 b 121 a 120 113

Corn harvest-month price ($ per bu) 4.33 b 7.46 a 7.13 7.16

Operating and ownership costs ($ per bu):

 Expected 2.20 2.58 2.09 d 2.75 c

 Actual 2.40 b 2.87 a 2.42 d 3.01 c

Cost and return per planted corn acre ($):

 Gross production value 689 b 904 a 856 811

 Operating costs: 290 b 229 a 174 239

 Seed 82 b 61 a 67 d 57 c

 Fertilizer 112 b # 73 a # 39 d 90 c

 Chemicals 26 b 0 a 0 0

 Custom operations 16 17 # 8 ^ 14

 Fuel, lube, and electricity 26 b 41 a 29 d 38 c

 Repairs 24 b 33 a 28 34

 Purchased irrigation water 0 0 0 0

 Interest on operating capital 0 0 0 0

 Hired labor 3 ^ 4 # 2 d 6 c

 Ownership costs: 93 b 119 a 116 111

 Capital recovery of machinery and equipment 84 b 106 a 102 97

 Taxes and insurance 8 b 13 a ^ 13 14

 Economic costs: 168 b 189 a 205 170

 Opportunity cost of land 127 b 110 a 123 d 84 c

 Opportunity cost of unpaid labor 22 b 49 a 51 50

 General farm overhead 18 b 30 a ^ 31 36

 Operating and ownership costs 382 348 290 351

 Total costs 550 537 494 521

 Production value less:

 Operating costs 400 b 674 a 682 d 572 c

 Operating and ownership costs 307 b 555 a 566 d 460 c

 Total costs 139 b 366 a 361 290

Note: Letters a and b indicate whether conventional and organic corn estimates are significantly different while c and d indicate whether 

Heartland and Northern Crescent organic corn estimates are significantly different at the 90-percent level or higher using the t-statistic. 

Coefficient of variation (CV) = (Standard error/estimate) x 100. ^ indicates that CV is greater than 25 and less than or equal to 50. 

# indicates that CV is above 50. bu = bushel. 1Many producers do not know how their grain will be used.

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service (ERS) cost of production accounts and USDA’s 2010 Agricultural Resource Management Survey, 

jointly conducted by ERS and USDA, National Agricultural Statistics Service.
28

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Operating costs per acre for organic corn were lower as a result of the inputs required for organic 

production. Most synthetics and some natural, but toxic substances are banned from use in organic 

production (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Organic Farming). Organic seed must be used, 

and the seed cannot be genetically engineered. Chemical fertilizers, chemical insecticides, and 

chemical herbicides are banned, though fertilizers from manure and compost are allowed. 

Organic seed is more expensive than conventional corn seed that is not genetically modified, but it 

is far less expensive than genetically modified corn seed that is widely used in conventional corn 

production (table 11). Organic corn producers used fewer pounds of nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, and lime per planted acre than did conventional corn producers, and virtually no producers 

applied chemicals to their organic corn acres. As a result, the average seed, fertilizer and manure, 

and chemical costs per acre were lower for organic corn production. Manure and compost were the 

primary nutrient sources for organic corn production because commercial fertilizers are banned in 

organic farming.

Average per-acre costs for fuel, repairs, capital recovery of machinery and equipment, and labor 

were higher for organic corn than for conventional corn in 2010. These higher per acre costs resulted 

from a greater number of trips across a field and smaller machinery used in organic corn production. Because synthetic chemicals are banned, organic producers employ mechanical weed control, 

thereby increasing their trips across a field. In 2010, organic corn producers averaged 8.1 trips across 

their corn fields versus 4.7 trips for conventional corn producers. A greater number of trips results 

in higher fuel and labor use per acre, and higher costs for repairs and capital recovery. On average, 

2.8 hours of labor per corn acre was used on organic fields versus 1.2 hours per acre on conventional 

corn fields in 2010. Part of the labor-hour difference is due to the smaller widths of farm machinery 

used by organic producers since it takes longer to cover an acre with the smaller machines.

The surveyed organic corn growers were asked to list their reasons for raising organic corn. The 

primary reason cited by 43 percent of the growers was increased farm income, while 26 percent 

reported the protection of family and/or community health as their primary goal. Just over 20 

percent cited the adoption of more environmentally friendly practices as their primary reason. 

Organic corn growers raised an average of 5.2 agricultural commodities on their farms versus 3.6 for 

conventional corn growers (table 12). Commodity diversification reduces production risk and financial impacts from unexpected changes in market prices or yields. More organic corn growers grew 

hay, 41 percent, versus 16 percent of conventional corn growers.

Organic corn growers operated smaller farms, averaging 462 total acres per farm versus 811 acres 

per farm for conventional corn growers, in 2010. Organic corn growers also planted fewer acres of 

corn, 73 on average, versus 290 acres per farm for conventional corn growers. 

The smaller farm operations of organic corn producers were reflected in the lower values of equity 

per farm and smaller farm incomes per farm family. On average, operators of organic farms averaged $1.2 million in farm equity, while operators of conventional corn farms averaged $1.8 million. 

Farm income per household averaged $25,300 for organic corn producers, versus $71,400 for 

conventional producers in 2010. In addition to having less farm income, families of organic corn 

producers received less off-farm income per family than conventional producers, even though these 

families were equally likely to have someone working off-farm. 
29

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Table 11

Production practices and input use on conventional and organic corn acreage in 2010

Organic

Item Conventional (a) Total (b) Heartland (c)

Northern Crescent 

(d)

Crop rotation (percent of acres):

 Corn 28 b ^ 3 a # 1 d # 6 c

 Soybeans 61 ^ 36 # 53 ^ 18

 Idle or Conservation Reserve Program 6 b ^ 24 a # 11 d 31 c

Irrigation:

 Irrigated (percent of acres) 7 # 4 # 1 na

 Farms irrigating (percent) 11 # 15 # 1 na

Energy used per acre:

 Gasoline (gallons) 1.9 1.8 ^ 1.7 2.0

 Diesel (gallons) 5.2 b 7.5 a 6.3 d 7.4 c

 Liquid petroleum gas (gallons) 1.7 1.8 1.5 d 2.7 c

 Natural gas (1,000 cubic feet) ^ 0.2 # 0.5 0.0 0.0

 Electricity (kilowatt hours) 30.5 ^ 21.6 # 27.4 # 16.2

Seed used:

 Number of seeds per acre 31,206 30,180 31,391 29,851

 Cost for 1,000 seeds (dollars) 2.62 b 2.01 a 2.12 d 1.90 c

Fertilizer and manure use:

 Nitrogen (pounds per acre) 142 b ^ 50 a # 40 ^ 51

 Phosphorous (pounds per acre) 50 b ^ 20 a # 15 ^ 28

 Potassium (pounds per acre) 56 b ^ 30 a # 16 d ^ 51 c

 Lime (tons per acre) 0.2 b 0.1 a # 0.1 0.2

 Nitrogen (percent of farms) 97 b 79 a 76 82

 Phosphorous (percent of farms) 85 79 74 84

 Potassium (percent of farms) 73 78 71 85

 Lime (percent of farms) 49 48 37 d 58 c

Trips over field (number) 4.7 b 8.1 a 8.2 8.0

Labor hours per acre: 1.2 b 2.8 a ^ 2.9 2.9

 Paid 0.2 ^ 0.3 # 0.2 d ^ 0.4 c

 Unpaid 1.0 b 2.5 a ^ 2.8 d 2.5 c

Farms with paid labor (percent) 42 39 ^ 39 39

Machinery maximum width (feet):

 Planter 24 b 17 a 19 15

 Harvester 16 14 ^ 17 12

Note: Letters a and b indicate whether conventional and organic corn estimates are significantly different while c and d indicate whether 

Heartland and Northern Crescent organic corn estimates are significantly different at the 90-percent level or higher using the t-statistic.

Coefficient of variation (CV) = (Standard error/estimate) x 100. ^ indicates that CV is greater than 25 and less than or equal to 50.

# indicates that CV is above 50. na = not available due to statistical or confidentiality concerns.

Source: USDA’s 2010 Agricultural Resource Management Survey, jointly conducted by USDA, Economic Research Service and National 

Agricultural Statistics Service.
30

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Table 12

Characteristics of corn farms and operators in 2010 by conventional and organic corn

Organic

Item Conventional (a) Total (b) Heartland (c)

Northern Crescent 

(d)

Total operated acres per farm: 811 b 462 a 431 375

 Owned and operated 356 b 229 a 211 242

 Cash-rented 370 b 189 a 188 ^ 133

 Share-rented 110 b # 50 a # 39 # 6

 Cropland 670 b 352 a 342 280

Number of commodities per farm 3.6 b 5.2 a 5.5 5.1

Percent of farms producing:

 Some corn under contract 38 b 21 a ^ 21 ^ 20

 Soybean 76 73 85 63

 Wheat 24 24 # 5 d 42 c

 Hay 16 b 41 a # 28 53

 Cattle 45 57 71 d 43 c

 Dairy 8 ^ 20 ^ 30 # 10

 Hogs 6 ^ 6 ^ 11 ^ 3

Operator occupation (percent):

 Farming 82 b 90 a 96 84

 Nonfarm work 16 b ^ 9 a # 4 ^ 15

Operator paid for off-farm work (percent) 36 ^ 34 ^ 32 ^ 37

Principal operator age (mean): 56 b 52 a 52 53

 Less than 50 years (percent) 29 42 ^ 52 ^ 33

 65 or more (percent) 25 ^ 16 # 14 ^ 18

Principal operator education (percent):

 High school 91 74 ^ 62 86

 Completed college 21 # 13 ^ 9 ^ 15

Sole or family proprietor (percent) 86 88 88 91

Farms sharing farm income (percent) 15 ^ 17 # 10 * 23

Government payments per farm ($): 11,213 b 5,319 a ^ 6,650 ^ 2,784

 Direct and counter-cyclical 9,723 b ^ 2,995 a ^ 3,651 ^ 1,705

 Conservation 1,408 ^ 2,245 ^ 3,000 ^ 917

Farms with Government payments (percent): 79 b 50 a ^ 49 50

 Direct and counter-cyclical 74 b 40 a ^ 42 37

 Conservation 27 27 ^ 30 ^ 24

Household income per family ($1,000): 119.0 b 59.1 a ^ 60 ^ 55.8

 Farm income 71.4 b ^ 25.3 a ^ 27.2 ^ 20.8

 Off-farm income: 47.6 b 33.9 a ^ 32.8 ^ 35

 Earned income from business or job 35.1 ^ 25.1 ^ 25.0 ^ 24.8

 Percent with off-farm business or job 66 64 ^ 62 64

Average value per farm ($1,000):

 Farm assets 1,988 b 1,407 a 1,411 1,388

 Farm debt 226 162 ^ 140 ^ 182

 Farm equity 1,763 b 1,245 a 1,271 1,206

Debt/asset ratio (percent) 11 11 10 13

Note: Letters a and b indicate whether conventional and organic corn estimates are significantly different while c and d indicate whether 

Heartland and Northern Crescent organic corn estimates are significantly different at the 90-percent level or higher using the t-statistic.

Coefficient of variation (CV) = (Standard error/estimate) x 100. ^ indicates that CV is greater than 25 and less than or equal to 50.

# indicates that CV is above 50. 

Source: USDA’s 2010 Agricultural Resource Management Survey, jointly conducted by USDA, Economic Research Service and National 

Agricultural Statistics Service.
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Although organic corn producers operated smaller farms, they were more likely to be full-time 

farmers and younger than conventional corn producers. In 2010, 90 percent of organic corn 

producers reported that their principal occupation was farming versus 82 percent of conventional 

corn producers. The average age for operators of organic corn farms was 52 years versus 56 years 

for operators of conventional corn farms.

Regional Organic Corn Production

Nearly all organic corn production occurs in two regions. Virtually half of all U.S. organic corn 

production occurs in the Heartland, which is well known for its low-cost conventional corn production, while the other half is produced in the Northern Crescent. Organic corn production may be 

more concentrated in Northern Crescent than conventional corn because of the concentration of 

organic milk production in this region. In 2005, the Northern Crescent produced nearly half of U.S. 

organic milk (McBride and Greene, 2009). Organic production tends to be concentrated in northern 

regions because of the cooler climate that reduces the pressure from pests (Rosenzweig et al., 2000). 

Warmer temperatures, especially those in the winter and at night, are conducive to the survival of 

crop pests. Pests are especially troublesome for organic producers since they are not permitted to use 

most chemicals.

Expected and actual organic corn yields per planted acre in 2010 were higher in the Heartland than 

in the Northern Crescent while organic corn prices were nearly identical in the two regions. The 

operating and ownership costs averaged $2.42 per bushel for organic corn in the Heartland versus 

$3.01 per bushel in Northern Crescent. The three cost measures per acre did not differ significantly 

for organic corn in the Heartland and the Northern Crescent. However, the net returns per acre were 

significantly higher in the Heartland for two of the three cost measures.

The average operating costs per acre for organic corn were lower in the Heartland than in the 

Northern Crescent, although the difference was not statistically significant. Fertilizer, fuel, and hired 

labor costs per acre were lower for Heartland than Northern Crescent producers while seed cost per 

acre was higher for Heartland producers in 2010. Heartland producers applied less potassium to their 

organic corn fields and used less diesel and liquid petroleum gas per acre than Northern Crescent 

producers did. Heartland producers used less paid labor hours and more unpaid labor per acre of 

organic corn than did Northern Crescent producers. Heartland organic corn producers were less 

likely than Northern Crescent producers to indicate that their main occupation was nonfarm work. 

Producers working off-farm have less time for farming and may hire labor to complete farm tasks. 

Heartland organic corn producers had higher costs per acre for land rental than Northern Crescent 

organic producers had. These higher land costs may reflect the higher expected corn yields obtained 

by Heartland corn producers.
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Conclusions

The boost in corn prices between 2001 and 2010 significantly affected corn producers. Increased 

corn prices resulted in significantly higher return to corn production. In 2010, most U.S. producers, 

92 percent, covered their operating and ownership costs per bushel for corn from harvest-month 

prices compared with 59 percent in 2001 (Foreman, 2006). Higher returns from corn production 

created the incentive to move additional land into corn production. More than 12 million U.S. corn 

acres were added between 2001 and 2010. 

The operating and ownership cost to produce corn varied widely, ranging from an average of $1.74 

per bushel for low-cost producers to $3.88 per bushel for high-cost producers while corn prices averaged $4.33 per bushel. Differences in yields and input use accounted for most of the cost differences, 

with low-cost producers achieving higher corn yields using lower levels of inputs. 

Despite the increase in corn acreage from 2001 to 2010, the distribution of corn farms and production among the regions was quite similar in each year, suggesting that corn acreage was added at 

about the same rate in each region (Foreman, 2006). 4 The Heartland continues to be the major 

corn production region because producers in this region have the lowest average production costs per 

bushel. Heartland producers had the highest average yields in 2010. In contrast, Southeast producers 

had the lowest yields and the highest average operating and ownership costs per bushel. Variations in 

the average corn yields per planted acre accounted for the majority of regional variation in corn costs 

per bushel in 2010. In 2010, drought in pockets of the Southeast reduced yields and pushed some of 

the region’s producers into the high-cost group.

The majority of corn production, 58 percent, took place on farms that planted 500 or more corn 

acres in 2010. These farms made up 17 percent of corn farms. In contrast, 67 percent of corn 

producers planted fewer than 250 acres of corn and produced 20 percent of the 2010 corn. One 

might expect the corn production costs to be lower for producers planting more corn acres because 

of factors contributing to economies of size, such as spreading fixed costs over more acres and 

discounts for large purchases. However, the 2010 ARMS data showed that farms with more planted 

corn acres tended to have higher costs per acre. This situation also occurred in 2001 and may be 

partially due to the greater use of irrigation on farms with more corn acres. In 2010, the fact that 

farms planting the most corn acres were less likely to rotate corn with soybeans and other crops 

tended to raise their corn production costs. Further, the addition of 12 million corn acres between 

2001 and 2010 may have resulted in some less productive land being added to corn production, 

which would increase average corn production costs. Still, high corn prices in 2010 enabled returns 

above costs from corn production on land not previously planted with corn.

Net returns from organic corn production surpassed those from conventional corn production, largely 

because of organic corn’s higher prices. Higher organic corn prices more than offset the lower yields per 

planted acre in 2010. Although the total operating and ownership costs per acre did not differ significantly 

between conventional and organic corn, the operating costs per acre were lower for organic corn because 

of the nature of inputs used, while ownership costs per acre were higher as a result of more intensive 

use of machinery. Organic production is concentrated in the Heartland and Northern Crescent, with the 

Heartland producers having lower operating and ownership costs per bushel.

4However, year-to-year changes in corn acreages can show significant variation as discussed for 2009 to 2010 in the 

Background section of this report.
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References

Foreman, Linda. August 2001. Characteristics and Production Costs of U.S. Corn Farms, SB-974, 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. 

Foreman, Linda. February 2006. Characteristics and Production Costs of U.S. Corn Farms, 2001, 

EIB-7, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. 

McBride, William D. January 1994. Characteristics and Production Costs of U.S. Corn Farms, 

1991, AIB 691, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. 

McBride, William D. and Catherine Greene. November 2009. Characteristics, Costs, and Issues for 

Organic Dairy Farming, ERR-82, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. 

Piller, Dan. August 5, 2010. “U.S. wheat, corn prices surge after Russia bans exports,” USA Today.

Rosenzweig, Cynthia, Ana Iglesias, X. B. Yang, Paul R. Epstein, and Eric Chivian. May 2000.

Climate Change and U.S. Agriculture: The Impacts of Warming and Extreme Weather Events 

on Productivity, Plant Diseases, and Pests. Boston, MA: Center for Health and the Global 

Environment, Harvard Medical School. 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service (2013a). Organic Production Data Set. 

http://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/organic-production.aspx. Accessed Sept. 27, 2013.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service (2013b). Feed Grains Database, http://

www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/feed-grains-database.aspx. Accessed July 25, 2013.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service (2013c) Farm Household Income and 

Characteristics: Data Set: Historic data on mean and median farm operator household income, 

1960-2011, http://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/farm-household-income-and-characteristics.

aspx. Accessed August 14, 2013. 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service (2013d). Agricultural Resources and 

Environmental Indicators, “Chapter 4.2 Crop Rotations.” http://www.ers.usda.gov/media/871532/

arei4-2.pdf. Accessed September 6, 2013. 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service (2013e). Historical U.S. and StateLevel Farm Income and Wealth Statistics. http://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/farm-incomeand-wealth-statistics/historical-us-and-state-level-farm-income-and-wealth-statistics.aspx. 

Accessed July 22, 2013.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service (2013f). Commodity Costs and 

Returns. http://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/commodity-costs-and-returns.aspx. Accessed 

Sept. 27, 2013.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service (2013g). ARMS Farm Financial and 

Crop Production Practices. http://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/arms-farm-financial-andcrop-production-practices/tailored-reports-farm-structure-and-finance.aspx. Accessed April 14, 

2013.
34

Characteristics and Production Costs of U.S. Corn Farms, Including Organic, 2010, EIB-128

Economic Research Service/USDA

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service (2013h). Farm Structure and 

Organization. http://ers.usda.gov/topics/farm-economy/farm-structure-and-organization.aspx. 

Accessed May 9, 2013.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service (2013i). Farm Practices & 

Management. http://ers.usda.gov/topics/farm-practices-management.aspx. Accessed June 24, 

2013.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service and National Agricultural Statistics 

Service, 2001. Agricultural Resource Management Survey, 2001 (ARMS). http://www.ers.

usda.gov/data-products/arms-farm-financial-and-crop-production-practices/questionnaires-andmanuals.aspx#28022

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service and National Agricultural Statistics 

Service, 2010. Agricultural Resource Management Survey, 2010 (ARMS). http://www.ers.usda.

gov/data-products/arms-farm-financial-and-crop-production-practices/questionnaires-andmanuals.aspx#27871

U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Statistics Service (USDA, NASS). Quick 

Stats, http://www.nass.usda.gov/Quick_Stats/. Accessed August 16, 2013.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, World Agricultural Outlook Board. December 11, 2012. World 

Agricultural Supply and Demand Estimates. WASDE-513.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Agriculture, Organic Farming. http://www.epa.gov/agriculture/torg.html#Background. Accessed on September 3, 2013.

Westcott, Paul C. September 2007. “U.S. Ethanol Expansion Driving Changes Throughout the 

Agricultural Sector,” Amber Waves, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research 

Service. 
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Glossary

Coefficient of variation (CV) is a statistical measure that allows one to examine the relative data 

variability about the mean for two estimates that may have significantly different means. The coefficient of variation is computed by dividing the standard deviation by the mean, and the result is often 

multiplied by 100 to report it as a percentage. Higher CV values indicate relatively greater variation 

of values around the mean. 

Corn is a grass that requires nitrogen for growth because grasses cannot convert atmospheric 

nitrogen into organic nitrogen usable by the plant. Therefore, producers usually apply organic 

nitrogen to their grass crops. Often, increased amounts of nitrogen are added to a corn field if the 

field has not been rotated with legumes. 

Corn enterprise refers to the activities related to the farm production of corn. In contrast, the farm 

operation usually refers to all farm-related activities on the farm. Often farms grow more than one 

commodity and, therefore, most farms have more than one enterprise.

Corn farms are those with at least 1 acre of corn planted with the intention of harvesting it for 

grain. Data on producers planting corn with the intention of harvesting it for silage or commercial 

seed were excluded from this report.

Corn production regions are defined by modifying ERS farm resource regions. Farm resource 

regions consist of county groupings with similar soils and climates that favor production of 

selected crops and livestock and lead to the use of similar production practices within a region. The 

Southeast region was created by combining farms in the Eastern Uplands, Southern Seaboard, and 

Fruitful Rim because of limited samples in these regions. Fruitful Rim producers were reclassified 

into the Southeast because the only Fruitful Rim producers included in the 2010 corn survey were 

located in either Georgia or Texas. Data on one corn producer located in the Basin and Range region 

of Colorado were categorized as “Prairie Gateway” due to the producer’s proximity to this region. 

No corn producers were sampled in the Mississippi Portal.

Corn under contract refers to marketing or production contracts. Marketing contracts either specify 

the price or stipulate how the price will be determined before corn is harvested. Typically, the 

producer provides all production inputs and retains ownership until the corn is delivered. Production 

contracts are formal or informal arrangements to produce corn for processors, packers, canners, or 

integrators. Often, such contracts specify which inputs will be provided by the producer and which 

will be supplied by the contractor, and how the producer will be compensated.

Cost categories are based on the ranking of operating and ownership costs per bushel of corn raised 

for grain in 2010 on U.S. corn farms. The high-cost category included farms planting corn but not 

harvesting it. For these farms, the operating and ownership costs per bushel of corn were set to the 

cost per planted acre.

• Low-cost farms: lowest quartile (25 percent of the farms with the lowest costs per bushel).

• Mid-cost farms: second and third quartiles (the mid 50 percent of farms with neither the highest 

nor lowest costs per bushel).

• High-cost farms: highest quartile (25 percent of farms with the highest costs per bushel).
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Crop rotation is the planting of different crops in a field during sequential growing seasons. 

Rotation increases soil fertility and reduces problems with weeds, pests, and pathogens. Corn is 

often rotated with soybeans because soybeans provide nitrogen in the soil for corn. Despite the benefits of crop rotation, corn is often planted in the same field for two consecutive growing seasons. 

Debt-to-asset ratio measures the level of debt on farm assets. A higher proportion of debt relative to 

assets indicates more financial risk. The ratio is the value of the operator’s farm debt divided by the 

value of farm assets, expressed either as a percentage or a fraction.

Economic costs are the sum of opportunity costs for land and unpaid labor and general farm overhead. The opportunity costs for land are based on cash rental rates per acre, and unpaid labor is 

valued at off-farm wage rates.

Ending stocks are the difference between the total supply and total disappearance. For corn, the 

total disappearance is the sum of corn used for food, alcohol, industrial items, seed, feed, residual 

and exports. Ethanol is a form of alcohol. 

Expected yields are the yields farm operators reported that they expected to achieve when planting 

corn.

Farm enterprise size measures of the size of the corn operation on the farm. The unit of measure 

for size is the number of corn acres planted. Five sizes for the corn enterprise are used in this report: 

less than 250 acres, 250 to 499 acres, 500 to 749 acres, 750 to 999 acres, and 1,000 or more acres.

Farm household income is computed from ARMS data and is the sum of farm and off-farm 

income for the household of the principal farm operator. It excludes income earned by landlords 

and contractors. In addition, it excludes income generated by farms organized as nonfamily corporations or cooperatives and farms operated by hired managers. For farms with multiple operators or partners, the only income reported is that earned by the household of the principal farm 

operator. Farm income of farm households is defined as the net cash farm business income plus 

net income from farmland rental, and earnings of the operator household from farming activities, 

minus the sum of depreciation, gross farmland rental income, and farm business income received 

by other households. Off-farm income consists of wages, salaries, net income from nonfarm businesses, interest, dividends, transfer payments, Social Security retirement, pensions, other retirement plans, gifts, net cash income from another farm operation, net income from farmland rental, 

and other off-farm income sources.

General farm overhead costs are those costs that cannot be directly attributable to a specific enterprise. Some examples of these costs include general farm supplies, marketing containers, hand tools, 

power equipment, maintenance and repair of farm buildings, farm utilities, and general business 

expenses. General farm overhead costs are allocated to each commodity based on the relative contribution to total farm operating margin (i.e., value of production less operating costs).

Idled land was fallowed or in the Conservation Reserve Program during summer and fall of 2009. 

Land that has been idled during the previous growing season frequently needs additional work to 

prepare the field for planting corn. 

Labor hours per acre are the hours worked by paid and unpaid workers on the corn enterprise,

excluding the hours spent by workers performing custom field operations.
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Lime is normally applied once every few years to a field to reduce acid in the soil since acidic soils 

often reduce plant growth. Amounts per acre shown in the tables in this report are the average 

prorated annual amount of lime applied to all planted corn acres. The annual prorated amount is 

computed by taking the amount of lime applied and dividing it by the number of years between 

lime applications for each farm reported in ARMS. The annual prorated amount of the lime is then 

summed across all farms and divided by the sum of planted corn acres. 

Principal operator is the person who makes most of the daily decisions for the farm operation.

Returns are the gross production value minus the costs. In this publication, three levels of returns 

are shown, those after subtracting operating costs, those after the sum of operating and ownership 

costs are subtracted, and those after all costs are subtracted.

Sole or family proprietors have no legal partners or shareholders. Under the sole or family proprietor arrangement, the operator(s), usually husband and wife, are regarded as self-employed and 

personally liable for all the farm’s obligations.

Soybeans are legumes. Legumes are plants with nodules on their roots formed by bacteria that 

convert atmospheric nitrogen to organic nitrogen that enrich the soil. Often, producers can reduce 

the amount of nitrogen they apply to crops planted after legumes. For our purposes, corn was 

considered to be rotated with soybeans if soybeans were planted in the spring or summer of 2009 

and a second crop was not planted in the fall. 

Statistically significant differences in estimates in this report indicate that there is a 90-percent 

chance that means from two different producer groups are actually different. The t-test is used to 

make this determination.

Trips over field is a measure that counts the number of trips made across the selected corn field. 

The number of trips excludes trips made by custom operators since the costs for labor, fuel, and 

machinery used in custom operations are included in the costs for custom operations. Tandem operations count as one trip over the field. Partial trips over a field are included. For example, if a producer 

sprays pesticide over the entire field and later sprays pesticide over half of the field, then the number 

of trips over the field would be recorded as 1.5 trips for pesticide applications.

Width of farm machinery measures the maximum width of farm machinery used on the corn field. 

The machinery used in custom operations is excluded from this calculation.