Bryan Palaszewski

Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio

Atmospheric Mining in the Outer Solar System: 

Resource Capturing, Storage, and Utilization

NASA/TM—2014-217892

April 2014

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Bryan Palaszewski

Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio

Atmospheric Mining in the Outer Solar System: 

Resource Capturing, Storage, and Utilization

NASA/TM—2014-217892

April 2014

AIAA–2012–3742

National Aeronautics and

Space Administration

Glenn Research Center

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NASA/TM—2014-217892 1

Atmospheric Mining in the Outer Solar System: 

Resource Capturing, Storage, and Utilization

Bryan Palaszewski

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Glenn Research Center

Cleveland, Ohio 44135

Abstract

Atmospheric mining in the outer solar system has been investigated as a means of fuel production for 

high energy propulsion and power. Fusion fuels such as helium 3 and hydrogen can be wrested from the 

atmospheres of Uranus and Neptune and either returned to Earth or used in-situ for energy production. 

Helium 3 and hydrogen (deuterium, etc.) were the primary gases of interest with hydrogen being the 

primary propellant for nuclear thermal solid core and gas core rocket-based atmospheric flight. A series of 

analyses were undertaken to investigate resource capturing aspects of atmospheric mining in the outer 

solar system. This included the gas capturing rate for hydrogen helium 4 and helium 3, storage options, 

and different methods of direct use of the captured gases. Additional supporting analyses were conducted 

to illuminate vehicle sizing and orbital transportation issues.

Nomenclature

3He helium 3

4He helium (or Helium 4)

AMOSS atmospheric mining in the outer solar system

ASC aerospacecraft 

CC closed cycle

delta-V change in velocity (km/s)

GCR gas core rocket

GTOW gross takeoff weight

H2 hydrogen

He helium 4

IEC Inertial-Electrostatic Confinement (related to nuclear fusion)

ISRU In Situ Resource Utilization

Isp specific impulse (s)

K Kelvin

kWe kilowatts of electric power

LEO low Earth orbit

MT metric tons

MWe megawatt electric (power level)

NEP Nuclear Electric Propulsion

NTP Nuclear Thermal Propulsion

NTR Nuclear Thermal Rocket

OC open cycle

O2 oxygen

PPB parts per billion

STO surface to orbit

UAV uninhabited aerial vehicle
NASA/TM—2014-217892 2

1.0 Atmospheric Mining in the Outer Solar System

Atmospheric mining of the outer solar system is one of the options for creating nuclear fuels, such as 

helium 3 (3He), for future fusion powered exploration vehicles or powering reactors for Earth’s planetary 

energy needs (Refs. 1 to 8). Uranus’ and Neptune’s atmospheres would be the primary mining sites, and 

robotic vehicles would wrest these gases from the H2-He gases of those planets. While preliminary 

estimates of the masses of the mining vehicles have been created (Refs. 1 to 7), additional supporting 

vehicles may enhance the mining scenarios.

There are vast reserves of potential fuels and propellants in the outer planets (Refs. 1 to 7). While the 

idea of mining outer planet atmospheres is indeed enticing, the challenges to designing mining vehicles 

may be somewhat daunting. While past studies related to the Daedalus Project (Ref. 7) have assumed the 

use of fusion propulsion for the aerostat and aerospacecraft (ASC) that mine the atmosphere and carry the 

fuel to Jupiter’s orbit, nuclear thermal rockets may also allow a more near term propulsion option. While 

the mass of the NTP options will, in most cases, be higher than the fusion powered options, the more near 

term NTP vehicle may still be attractive (Refs. 8 to 11), although closed cycle gas core nuclear rockets 

may provide high specific impulse and high thrust without invoking fusion rockets (Refs. 12 to 22).

During the 3He capturing, large amounts of H2 and 4He are produced. Analyses were conducted to 

quantify the mass production rates of these other potential fuels. Also, capturing the H2 and 4He to fuel 

additional exploration and exploitation vehicles was addressed. New options for fleets of small and large 

ASC for exploration and exploitation missions are discussed.

2.0 Resource Capturing Studies

Studies of the gas capture rate and its influence on mining time in the atmosphere were conducted.

ASC cruisers have been identified as a “best” solution for atmospheric mining (Refs. 1 to 7). To power 

these vehicles, atmospheric H2 gas would be liquefied and used a rocket propellant for the ascent to orbit.

Gaseous or liquid H2 would be used to power the engines during atmospheric mining operations. Figure 1

shows an overall schematic of a closed cycle gas core rocket (GCR) propulsion option. Helium 3 would 

be separated from the atmospheric H2 and 4He captured, liquefied and stored as a payload that would be 

returned to orbit. Table I provides the fraction of 3He in the outer planet atmospheres.

Figure 2 and Figure 3 show the 3He mining time versus the atmospheric capture rate for Uranus and 

Neptune, respectively. A 500-kg payload of 3He is captured during the mining time. 

Figure 4 and Figure 5 provide the sizing of the gas core powered vehicles and a comparison of the 

solid core and gas core vehicle options, respectively (Ref. 1). The relatively low thrust to weight of the 

nuclear engines may necessitate the use of a more advanced gas core nuclear engine over the solid core 

nuclear thermal propulsion (NTP). 

TABLE I.—FRACTION OF 3He AND 4He

IN OUTER PLANET ATMOSPHERES

Uranus Neptune

Amount of 3He in 4He 1.00×10–4 1.00×10–4

Amount of 4He in atmosphere 0.152 0.19

Amount of 3He in atmosphere 1.52×10–5 1.90×10–5
NASA/TM—2014-217892 3

Figure 1.—GCR propulsion for the mining cruiser (Ref. 8). R. Frisbee, 

“Advanced Space Propulsion for the 21st Century,” reprinted by 

permission of the American Institute for Aeronautics and 

Astronautics, Inc.

Figure 2.—Mining time versus the capture rate for Uranus.
NASA/TM—2014-217892 4

Figure 3.—Mining time versus the capture rate for Neptune.

Figure 4.—ASC mass, 1,800-s Isp, Tankage = 10 percent Mp, representative of gas 

core nuclear propulsion (Ref. 1).

1

10

100

1,000

10,000

100,000

1,000,000

10,000,000

100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000

Aerospacecraft mass, initial and final (kg)

Dry mass, without tankage (kg) 

Nuclear Aerospacecraft, 

Gas Core, 1,800-s Isp, 20-km/s delta-V capability, 

1,000-kg payload

Initial mass (Mo)

Final mass (Mf)

Tankage mass fraction = 10% Mp, for H2
NASA/TM—2014-217892 5

Figure 5.—NTP: solid core and gas core vehicle mass comparison, 

100,000 kg dry mass, 2 percent H2 tankage mass (Ref. 1).

Figure 6.—Fractions of atmospheric gases for Uranus.

3.0 Fueling and Refueling Options

After completing the analyses of the time for propellant capture it became clear that a large amount of 

LH2 was produced each day of 3He production. Figure 6 and Figure 7 depict the relatively large mass 

fractions of H2 and 4He that are processed to extract the desired 3He. It is clear that such large masses will 

be useful for not only refueling the mining cruiser ASC, but may be important for other related 

applications. 

0

200,000

400,000

600,000

800,000

1,000,000

1,200,000

1,400,000

900 s 1800 s 2500 s

Aerospacecraft initial mass (kg)

Engine specific impulse (s)

Nuclear Aerospacecraft:

Dry mass = 100,000 kg, Tankage mass = 2% Mp
NASA/TM—2014-217892 6

Figure 7.—Fractions of atmospheric gases for Neptune.

Figure 8 shows the 3He capture time (for 500 kg), the mass of H2 produced per day, and the H2

needed to fuel GCR powered ASC at a specific impulse of 1800 and 2500 s, all as a function of 

atmospheric gas capture rate. In this case, the 3He in the atmosphere is = 1.52×10–5 (a case for Uranus), 

and the ASC dry mass = 100,000 kg. As an example, of the atmospheric capture rate were 4 kg/s, there 

required amount of 500 kg of 3He would be captured in 95.2 days. During that time, 293,000 kg of H2

would be produced per day. To fully fuel an 1800-s Isp gas core ASC is 270,000 kg. A H2 propellant load 

of 148,000 kg is needed for the 2500-s Isp gas core powered ASC. Similarly, if the atmospheric capture 

rate were 10 kg/s, the time for capturing the 500 kg of 3He would be 38.1 days. During those 38.1 days, 

732,600 kg of H2 would be produced per day. Thus, more than two 1800-s gas core ASC vehicles could 

be refueled per day. While the mining vehicle (ponderously and politely) continues its 3He capturing, 

additional vehicles could flit about far from the mining ASC and gather needed information on potential 

storms or other disturbances that the mining ASC must avoid.

For a 1,000,000 kg dry mass, the mining case also show significant H2 benefits. This case is shown in 

Figure 9 In the case for Neptune (3He = 1.9×10–5

), at an atmospheric capture rate of 22 kg/s, there is 

enough H2 produced to refuel a 2500-s ASC every day. At that capture rate, it takes 13.8 days to mine the 

required 500 kg of 3He. So 13 orbital missions could be conducted or numerous sorties in the atmosphere 

by UAVs requiring smaller H2 propellant loads could be completed. 

With this high H2 production rate, fleets of ASC, of a variety of sizes, could be fueled during the 

nominal time of capturing the 3He. Such a fleet could be atmospheric sampling uninhabited aerial 

vehicles (UAVs), small orbital missions, or UAVs for in-situ planetary meteorological studies. 

Refueling of cryogenic ASC vehicles will no doubt be a challenge (in robotic aerial refueling, etc.), 

and there will be additional cryogenic transfer losses and propellant tank chilldown requirements, 

however, the mass of H2 produced is quite impressive and is a ripe area for investigating H2 usage 

options. 
NASA/TM—2014-217892 7

Figure 8.—Helium 3 mining time and H2 capture (mass per day) versus atmospheric 

gas capture rate for Uranus.

Figure 9.—Helium 3 mining time and H2 capture (mass per day) versus atmospheric 

gas capture rate for Neptune.

1

10

100

1,000

10,000

100,000

1,000,000

10,000,000

0 10 20 30 40

Time for 3He capturing (days), hydrogen produced 

and required (kg) 

Atmospheric gas capturing rate (kg/s)

AMOSS 3He mining time and hydrogen capturing requirements, 

3He = 1.52e^-5, Mdry = 100,000 kg 

Time needed for 

capturing 3He (days)

Mass of hydrogen 

produced per day

Gas core, 1800 s

Gas core, 2500 s

0.01

0.10

1.00

10.00

100.00

1,000.00

10,000.00

100,000.00

1,000,000.00

10,000,000.00

0 10 20 30 40

Time for 3He capturing (days), hydrogen produced 

and required (kg) 

Atmospheric gas capture rate (kg/s)

AMOSS 3He mining time and hydrogen capturing requirements, 

3He = 1.9e^-5, Mdry = 1,000,000 kg 

Time needed for 

capturing 3He (days)

Mass of hydrogen 

produced per day

Gas core, 2500 s

Gas core Mp loads 

per day, 2500 s
NASA/TM—2014-217892 8

Figure 10.—Number of GCR H2 propellant loads captured per day versus 

atmospheric gas capture rate—Uranus.

Figure 10 compares all of the H2 capturing cases for Uranus. In the chart, the number of GCR H2

propellant loads captured is as high at 15.8 for the 2500-s GCR cases (with a 100,000 kg dry mass, 32 

kg/s capture rate). At a 10 kg/s atmospheric capture rate, the maximum number of H2 loads is 4.95 (or just 

less than 5). The lowest value is 0.27 H2 loads per day. Similar analyses are shown for the other vehicle 

designs for Neptune in Figure 11: 1800 and 2500 s Isp nuclear GCR (SC with 100 and 1000 MT dry 

masses. With the Neptune analysis, the rates of H2 capture are slightly lower, and the capture rates are 

very similar to the Uranus cases.

While capturing 3He and H2, there is also a very significant amount of 4He than can be captured.

Figure 12 and Figure 13 provide the 4He capture capability per day. The capture capability of the 4He is

expressed in the equivalent masses of H2 to fuel the GCRs. This equivalent figure of merit of GCR 

propellant loads makes for a more direct comparison of the masses of H2 and 4He. The 4He capture 

masses are approximately15 to 19 percent of the H2 capture masses. With this added 4He resource, many 

vehicles could be fueled. Entire fleets of ASC or other aerial vehicles (UAVs, balloons, rockets, etc.) 

could fly through the outer planet atmospheres, for global weather observations, localized storm or other 

disturbance investigations, wind speed measurements, polar observations, etc. Deep-diving aircraft (built 

with the strength to withstand many atmospheres of pressure) powered by the 4He may be designed to 

probe the higher density regions of the gas giants.

0.01

0.10

1.00

10.00

100.00

0 10 20 30 40

Number of GC hydrogen Mp loads captured per day

Atmospheric gas capture rate (kg/s)

AMOSS 3He mining and hydrogen capturing capability, Uranus, 

3He mined = 500 kg, 3He = 1.52e^-5, Mtank = 0.1Mp 

Gas core Mp 

loads per day, 

2500 s, 100K 

Mdry

Gas core Mp 

loads per day, 

1800 s, 100K 

Mdry

Gas core Mp 

loads per day, 

2500 s, 1000K 

Mdry

Gas core Mp 

loads per day, 

1800 s, 1000K 

Mdry
NASA/TM—2014-217892 9

Figure 11.—Number of GCR H2 propellant loads captured per day versus 

atmospheric gas capture rate—Neptune.

Figure 12.—Number of GCR (mass equivalent H2) propellant loads of 4He captured 

per day versus atmospheric gas capture rate—Uranus.

0.01

0.10

1.00

10.00

100.00

0 10 20 30 40

Number of GC hydrogen Mp loads captured per day

Atmospheric capture rate (kg/s)

AMOSS 3He mining and hydrogen capturing capability, Neptune, 

3He mined = 500 kg, 3He = 1.9e^-5, M tank = 0.1 Mp 

Gas core Mp loads 

per day, 2500 s, 

100K Mdry

Gas core Mp loads 

per day, 1800 s, 

100K Mdry

Gas core Mp loads 

per day, 2500 s, 

1000K Mdry

Gas core Mp loads 

per day, 1800 s, 

1000K Mdry
NASA/TM—2014-217892 10

Figure 13.—Number of GCR (mass equivalent H2) propellant loads of 4He captured 

per day versus atmospheric gas capture rate—Neptune

4.0 Supporting Analyses and Observations

In addition to the capturing studies, reviews of outer planet spacecraft design issues were initiated. A 

list of the issues to be addressed is noted below:

• Mission planning.

• Cryogenic fuel storage issues.

• Cryogenic dust (outer planet moons, ice migration). Mass concentrations (mascons) on the 

moons, etc.

• Drilling into ice, walkers on ice-dust surfaces.

• Possible power generation using electrodynamic tethers (EDT), cutting across the outer planet 

magnetic field lines.

• Global Positioning System (GPS) vehicles in outer planet orbits for navigation.

• Observational satellite for outer planet weather monitoring, diverting cruisers from harm.

Figure A.1 to Figure A.4 also illuminate some of the issues to be analyzed.

5.0 Concluding Remarks

Atmospheric mining in the outer solar system can be a powerful tool for extracting fuels from the 

outer planets and allowing fast human and robotic exploration of the solar system. Preliminary designs of 

ASC with GCR nuclear engines for mining the outer planets were developed (Ref. 1). Analyses showed 

that gas core engines can reduce the mass of such ASC mining vehicles very significantly: from 72 to 

80 percent reduction over NTP solid core powered ASC mining vehicles. While this mass reduction is 

important in reducing the mass of the overall mining system, the complexity of a fissioning plasma GCR

is much higher than the more traditional solid core NTP engines. Additional analyses were conducted to 

calculate the capture rates of H2 and 4He during the mining process. Very large masses of H2 and 4He are 

produced every day during the often lengthy process of 3He capture and gas separation. Typically, these 
NASA/TM—2014-217892 11

very large additional fuel masses can dwarf the requirements needed for H2 capture for ascent to orbit.

Thus, the potential for fueling small and large fleets of additional exploration and exploitation vehicles 

exists. Additional ASC or other aerial vehicles (UAVs, balloons, rockets, etc.) could fly through the outer 

planet atmospheres, for global weather observations, localized storm or other disturbance investigations, 

wind speed measurements, polar observations, etc. Deep-diving aircraft (built with the strength to 

withstand many atmospheres of pressure) powered by the excess H2 or 4He may be designed to probe the 

higher density regions of the gas giants.

Based on these analyses, there will likely be several possible future avenues for effective use the 

gases of the outer planets for exciting exploration missions. When focusing on Uranus and Neptune, these

planets offer vast reservoirs of fuels that are more readily accessible than those from Jupiter and Saturn 

and, with the advent of nuclear fusion propulsion, may offer us the best option for the first practical 

interstellar flight.

NASA/TM—2014-217892 13

Appendix A.—Issues for Cryogenic Operations

Figure A.1.—Outer planet moon densities1 (Ref. 20).

Figure A.2.—Issues for cryogenic outer planet moon surface operations (RASC, 

HOPE study, Refs. 21 and 22).

 1 Reprinted from Icarus, Volume 185, Issue 1: Hussmann, Hauke; Sohl, Frank; Spohn, Tilman: “Subsurface oceans 

and deep interiors of medium-sized outer planet satellites and large trans-Neptunian objects,” pp. 258-273, 

Copyright 2006, with permission from Elsevier.
NASA/TM—2014-217892 14

Figure A.3.—Uranus atmospheric structure, haze phenomena2 (Ref. 23).

Figure A.4.—Atmospheric mining issues.

References

1. Palaszewski, B., “Atmospheric Mining in the Outer Solar System: Issues and Challenges for Mining 

Vehicle Propulsion,” AIAA 2011-6041, August 2011.

2. Palaszewski, B., “Atmospheric Mining in the Outer Solar System: University Studies of Mining 

Vehicles and Propulsion,” AIAA 2010-6573, August 2010.

 2 Reprinted from Icarus, Volume 172, Issue 2: K.A. Rages, H.B. Hammel, A.J. Friedsond: “Evidence for temporal 

change at Uranus’ south pole,” pp. 548–554, Copyright 2004, with permission from Elsevier.
NASA/TM—2014-217892 15

3. Palaszewski, B., “Atmospheric Mining in the Outer Solar System: Mining Design Issues and 

Considerations,” AIAA 2009-4961, August 2009.

4. Palaszewski, B., “Atmospheric Mining in the Outer Solar System: Orbital Transfer Vehicles and 

Outer Planet Moon Base Options,” AIAA 2008-4861, July 2008.

5. Palaszewski, B., “Atmospheric Mining In The Outer Solar System: Mission Scenarios and Options 

For In-Situ Resource Utilization.” AIAA 2007-5598, July 2007.

6. Palaszewski, B., “Atmospheric Mining in The Outer Solar System: Vehicle Sizing Issues.” AIAA 

2006-5222, July 2006. 

7. Palaszewski, B., “Atmospheric Mining in the Outer Solar System,” AIAA 2005-4319, July 2005.

8. Frisbee, R., “Advanced Space Propulsion for the 21st Century,” Journal of Propulsion and Power, 

Vol. 19, No. 6, Nov‐Dec 2003.

9. Dunn, Bruce P., “High-Energy Orbit Refueling for Orbital Transfer Vehicles,” Journal of Spacecraft 

and Rockets Volume. 24, No. 6, 1987, pp. 518-522.

10. Noca, M.; Polk, J. E. “Ion Thrusters and LFAs For Outer Planet Exploration,” AAAF 6th 

International Symposium; Versailles; France, May 2002.

11. Hunt, James L., Laruelle, Gerard, Wagner, Alain, “Systems Challenges for Hypersonic Vehicles;” 

AGARD Interpanel Symposium on Future Aerospace Technology in Service to the Alliance, NASATM-112908, AGARD-Paper-C37, 1997.

12. Starr, Brett R.; Westhelle, Carlos H.; Masciarelli, James P., “Aerocapture Performance Analysis For 

A Neptune-Triton Exploration Mission,” NASA/TM—2006-214300, April 2006.

13. Bussard, R., “ASPEN II: Two Staging and Radiation Shielding Effects on ASPEN Vehicle 

Performance,” LA-26-80, 09/06/1967 and in “ASPEN: Nuclear Propulsion for Earth to Orbit 

Aerospace Plane Vehicles,” Robert W. Bussard, Proceedings International Conference on 

Spaceflight, Rome. June 1971.

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Airbreathing to Interstellar Flight,” AIAA paper 93-2006, 29th Joint Propulsion Conference, 

Monterey, CA 6/28 to 6/30/1993; in JPP, Volume 11, Number 2, pp 365/372. 

15. Borowski, Stanley K.; Dudzinski, Leonard A.; and McGuire, Melissa L.: “Artificial Gravity Vehicle 

Design Option for NASA’s Human Mars Mission Using “Bimodal” NTR Propulsion,” AIAA Paper 

99–2545, 1999.

16. Kendall, J. S.; Stoeffler, R. C., “Conceptual design studies and experiments related to cavity exhaust 

systems for nuclear light bulb configurations,” Report Number: L-910900-15; NASA-CR-129298

17. Latham, T. S.; Rodgers, R. J., “Small nuclear light bulb engines with cold beryllium reflectors,” 

Report Number: AIAA Paper 72-1093. 

18. Latham, T. S., “Summary of the performance characteristics of the nuclear light bulb engine,” 

Report Number: AIAA Paper 71-642.

19. Rodgers, R. J.; Latham, T. S., “Analytical design and performance studies of the nuclear light bulb 

engine,” Report Number: L-910900-16; NASA-CR-129295. 

20. Hussmann, Hauke; Sohl, Frank; Spohn, Tilman: “Subsurface oceans and deep interiors of mediumsized outer planet satellites and large trans-Neptunian objects,” Icarus, Vol. 185, Issue 1: pp. 258-

273.

21. Troutman, Patrick A., Kristen Bethke, Fred Stillwagen, Darrell L. Caldwell, Jr., Ram Manvi, Chris 

Strickland, Shawn A. Krizan, “Revolutionary Concepts for Human Outer Planet Exploration 

(HOPE),” Space Technology & Applications International Forum (STAIF - 2003), February 2-6,

2003, Albuquerque, New Mexico.

22. R.B. Adams, R.A. Alexander, J.M. Chapman, S.S. Fincher, R.C. Hopkins, A.D. Philips, T.T. 

Polsgrove, R.J. Litchford, and B.W. Patton, G. Statham and P.S. White, Y.C.F. Thio, “Conceptual 

Design of In-Space Vehicles for Human Exploration of the Outer Planets,” NASA/TP—2003–

212691, November 2003. 

23. Rages, K.A., Hammel, H.B., and Friedsond, A.J., “Evidence for temporal change at Uranus’ south 

pole,” Icarus 172 (2004) pp. 548–554).
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14. ABSTRACT

Atmospheric mining in the outer solar system has been investigated as a means of fuel production for high energy propulsion and power.

Fusion fuels such as helium 3 and hydrogen can be wrested from the atmospheres of Uranus and Neptune and either returned to Earth or

used in-situ for energy production. Helium 3 and hydrogen (deuterium, etc.) were the primary gases of interest with hydrogen being the

primary propellant for nuclear thermal solid core and gas core rocket-based atmospheric flight. A series of analyses were undertaken to

investigate resource capturing aspects of atmospheric mining in the outer solar system. This included the gas capturing rate for hydrogen

helium 4 and helium 3, storage options, and different methods of direct use of the captured gases. Additional supporting analyses were

conducted to illuminate vehicle sizing and orbital transportation issues.

15. SUBJECT TERMS

Propulsion; Nuclear systems; Atmospheric mining; Power systems; In situ resource utilization; Outer planet exploration

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