2014-2015

Accomplishments

 Report

International Institute of Tropical Forestry
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For a digital version of this and other Institute Accomplishments Reports, please visit:

http://www.fs.usda.gov/detail/iitf/about/?cid=FSEPRD500881

Suggested Citation: González, G., & Nytch, C.J. 2016. 2014-2015 Accomplishments Report. 

International Institute of Tropical Forestry, San Juan, PR. 97 pp. 

Photos of Ceiba pentandra flowers (front cover) and Eucalyptus robusta tree (back cover) by 

M.M. Rivera-Costa.
Contact Information

USDA Forest Service

International Institute of

Tropical Forestry

1201 Calle Ceiba

Jardín Botánico Sur

San Juan, PR 00926-1119

Office Hours

Monday to Friday

07:30 - 16:30 AST

Contact Us

Phone: (787)-766-5335

Fax: (787)-766-6302

Web: http://www.fs/usda.

gov/main/iitf

Find Us

Google Map

Follow Us on Twitter

@USFS_IITF

Closed on all Federal holidays 

and January 6.

2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report i I. Vicens
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ii 2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report ii

G. Bauer

Institute Research Ecologist Tana Wood measures leaf temperature at El Tallonal, a biological reserve in Arecibo, Puerto Rico.
iii

Contents

2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report

Editorial Message iv 

Director’s Message v

Vision and Mission 1

About the Institute 2

Headquarters 

Sabana Field Research Station

Administration and Support 7

Finances and Workforce

Funding Partners for Fiscal Year 2015

Research and Development 11

Scientists’ Profiles

Technician and Research Support Staff

Research Highlights

Climate and Global Change

Ecosystem Processes and Disturbance

Watershed Analysis

Resource Management and Governance

Wildlife Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation

International Cooperation 55

Global Activities

Regional Activities

Nicaragua Activities

Dominican Republic Activities

Puerto Rico Activities

State and Private Forestry 63

Forest Stewardship Program

Community Forest and Open Space Program

Urban and Community Forest Program

Educational Outreach

Cooperative Fire Program

Forest Legacy Program

Forest Health

Awards 86

Publications 87

Literature Cited 97
Editorial Message

2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report iv

This edition of the Institute’s Accomplishments Report spans fiscal years 2014-2015. The past 

two years have been exciting and productive! In the following pages you will find numerous 

and diverse examples of Forest Service personnel striving to carry out the Institute’s mission, 

through the complementary programmatic realms of Research and Development, State 

and Private Forestry, and International Development. Just a few of the highlights include 

the establishment of a new experiment to test the projected effects of climatic warming in 

a tropical forest, the strengthening of international activities throughout the Caribbean and 

Central America, and the transfer of technical capacity in rural and urban communities alike 

in support of natural resource monitoring, conservation and education. The results of many 

of these endeavours have been published in scientific journals, technical reports, and popular media, including print and online formats. A number of Institute staff members and an 

arts and science collaboration received notable accolades as well. All of this work has been 

bolstered by a competent administrative support team, and the collaborative efforts of many 

valued partners. We are proud of what the Institute has achieved, and pleased to share these 

accomplishments with you. Many thanks to all who contributed to this report, and likewise 

to the Institute’s continued success. Happy reading!

Editorial team: Marinelis Talavera, Administrative Assistant; Gary Potts, Web Content and Data Manager; Grizelle González, Project 

Leader; Christopher Nytch, Research Program Support. C. Plaud
v

Director’s Message

2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report

Institute Director, Ariel E. Lugo

C. Nytch

I thank the editorial team for the hard work they have done 

in preparing this Accomplishments Report. I also express my 

gratitude to all Institute employees, contractors, and collaborators for their exemplary performance. What a great job 

everyone has done!

As I read this Accomplishments Report, I could not help but 

reflect that our employees are performing with effectiveness 

at a time when government resources are becoming scarcer every year, even as the challenge of dealing with natural 

resources increases in magnitude and complexity. Scientists 

have formally designated a new geologic epoch to describe 

the environmental conditions that we face as a human civilization; they call this epoch the Anthropocene. The Anthropocene represents a challenge to all of us because the Earth 

is responding to human activities in ways that we cannot 

fully understand or predict with certainty. For scientists, this 

epoch of human domination over the world represents a 

tremendous opportunity to advance understanding of social 

and ecological phenomena, but to do so, we have to re-examine many of the paradigms that worked in the Holocene yet fall short in the Anthropocene. The 

failure of many Holocene-based conservation paradigms and policies requires a quicker turnaround 

of information from scientific to policy and public realms. It also requires a different kind of scientific 

institution.

Dealing with the Anthropocene requires increasing levels of knowledge and understanding that can 

only be acquired through transdisciplinary activities and strong collaborations among all sectors of 

society. A scientific institution such as ours cannot operate in isolation from society, particularly if it is 

going to be effective in influencing the conservation actions of that society. And so, with this Accomplishments Report we disclose our progress towards a collaborative and transdisciplinary organization that is aimed at addressing the challenges of the Anthropocene as it cares for tropical lands and 

serves its people. I am a biased observer, but I see a lot of progress in our quest, particularly when I 

compare this Accomplishments Report with past reports. The Institute is rapidly evolving in the scope 

of its scientific investigations, the breadth of its interactions with people and organizations inside and 

outside the federal government, and the services it provides society as it confronts the effects of the 

Anthropocene. I feel pride in leading this adaptive organization and watching how it uses collaborations to overcome the increasing levels of difficulties that result from declining resources in support 

of our mission. 

I invite readers to let us know how we have done and to give us feedback on how to be more effective. We are public servants working for the public good and will listen to your comments and suggestions with the intention of improving our performance and services. In the meantime, MAY THE 

FOREST BE WITH YOU!
Vision and Mission

2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 1

The vision of the Institute is to serve as a center for excellence 

where creativity and accomplishments result in timely 

products and services that anticipate the needs of society as it 

mitigates and adapts to environmental change. 

Our mission is to develop and disseminate scientifically-based 

knowledge that contributes to the conservation of forests, 

wildlife, and watersheds of the American tropics in the

context of environmental change.

The Institute strives to cultivate an inclusive environment and 

ensure that all who visit our facilities are provided equal access 

to opportunities, programs, and services that are available. 

We actively care for the safety of ourselves, one another, and 

the public. Success is safely achieving our mission - 

with all of us returning home every day!

I. Vicéns
2

About the Institute

2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report

The International Institute of Tropical Forestry (Institute), headquartered in Río Piedras, Puerto Rico, is a research and technology transfer institute that is dedicated to advancing tropical 

forestry on insular, national, and international levels, and developing and exchanging knowledge critical to sustaining benefits of tropical forests and grasslands. The Institute has been 

in continuous operation since its inception as the Tropical Forest Experiment Station in 1939.

Members of our community span a wide range of knowledge and skills, including natural 

and social scientists, natural resource managers, education outreach and technology transfer 

specialists, technicians, as well as contracted professionals, students and volunteers. Together these dedicated men and women engage with an equally diverse network of external collaborators from the public, private, and non-profit sectors, in order to carry out our mission 

and implement our programs.

The influence of the Institute stretches throughout Puerto Rico and the Caribbean, and 

beyond to several international sites in Latin America and around the globe. We integrate 

long-term scientific studies with applied investigation, quantitative modeling, and landscape 

analysis to better understand tropical forest systems and the effects of human-induced pressures, predict future scenarios, devise effective management and governance strategies, and 

promote sustainable natural resources stewardship.

G. Bauer G. Bauer

Institute social scientist Tischa Muñoz-Erickson addresses a group of natural resource managers at an iTree workshop in San Juan, Puerto Rico.

A demonstration of the use of a range finder.
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2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report

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Map of locations around the globe where the Institute has worked or collaborated over the past 75 years. Image provided by G. Bauer.
INSTITUTE FACILITIES

2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 4

Among our many physical assets are a historic and sustainable headquarters building, stateof-the art chemistry laboratory facilities, a GIS and remote sensing laboratory, a technology 

transfer conference center, experimental research forests and scientific equipment, a newly-remodeled field station, and a world-renowned tropical forestry library. Detailed information about all of these resources can be found online at: http://www.fs.usda.gov/iitf/.
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 5

Headquarters

The Institute Headquarters has 50,000 square feet of modern, state-of the art facilities that 

are secure, functional, and accessible, and that service the scientific community of the Institute and its collaborators. The Headquarters complex is located in Río Piedras, a sector of San 

Juan, and includes the following amenities:

• The Headquarters building, a historical structure fully restored and modernized into a 

high-performance sustainable building;

• A Forest Service National Library, containing major pulbications in English and Spanish on 

forestry, ecology, management, and utilization of tropical forests as well as other documents and materials related to tropical forests around the world.

• A chemistry laboratory that focuses on analytical chemistry of plant tissues, water, soils, 

and air. In a typical year, more than 50,000 analyses on samples collected from tropical 

ecosystems around the world are completed by laboratory personnel.

• A spatial analysis laboratory to study landscape ecology using geographic information 

systems, remote sensing, and field studies. This laboratory develops information, methods, and products using spatial data and analyses at multiple scales, which are made 

available through maps, publications, and training.

• A technology transfer conferece center with capabilities for multiple use combinations for 

meetings, trainings, and conferences. This facility has a food serving area and accessible 

restrooms.

• A multipurpose building that houses a dormitory, gym, general storage area, office space, 

and lunch area.

• An area for sample preparation and long-term storage of samples.

• Three back-up generators to ensure that electrical power is available for continous operation during power blackouts, and a 3,400-gallon potable water tank that can provide 

drinking water during water shortages.

Forest Service National Library.

C. Nytch

Institute chemistry laboratory.

M.M. Rivera-Costa

Institute conference room.

C. Nytch
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 6

The Sabana Field Research Station is situated within the El Yunque National Forest/Luquillo 

Experimental Forest (EYNF/LEF). It was originally established by the Forest Service in 1938 

with the objective of maintaining security and surveillance of all surrounding forest areas. 

Remodeled in 2012, the station has all the amenities to accommodate individuals and groups 

interested in completing scientific work in the surrounding areas located within the EYNF/

LEF, including the nearby Sabana River and Bisley Experimental Watersheds. 

The station’s modern facilities include an administrative building and conference room, a laboratory building for wet and dry analyses, a multi-purpose 

building including office space, laboratory space, oven room, sample preparation room, storage areas, laundry room, and a flammable storage area, 

research offices and a mycology laboratory, and a dormitory building that 

sleeps twenty persons, complete with bathrooms, kitchen, living and balcony areas. For more information about Sabana Field Research Station, and for 

information about making reservations and conducting research at the station, visit: http://www.fs.usda.gov/detail/iitf/research/?cid=FSEPRD486693.

Sabana Field Research Station 

C. Nytch

C. NytchC. NytchC. Nytch

Sabana Field Research Station main entrance.

Field station dormitory. Field station communal living room. Field station dry laboratory.

Miriam Salgado, Sabana 

Station Manager
Heading Template Administration and Support

2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 7

Administrative Officer: Adolfo Menéndez, amenendez@fs.fed.us

Our Administration and Support staff deliver critical business operations services to the 

Institute’s Research and Development, International Cooperation and State and Private 

Forestry Programs. Our staff engages in providing technical and administrative support 

in the areas of budget, engineering and facilities maintenance, contracting and procurement, facilities and property management, mail services, grants and agreements, 

and reception.

Institute Administration and Support Staff: Adolfo Menéndez, Administrative Officer; Yolanda Padilla, Purchasing Agent; Janet 

Rivera, Grants Management Specialist; Carlos Esteves, Property Management Technician; Carolyn Pabón, General Engineer; Yanira 

L. Cortés, Detailed as Staff Assistant; Carmen Plaud, Specialist Support Assistant; absent: Rosa Ávila, Budget Officer; Amelia Dávila, 

Contracting Specialist.

C. Nytch
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 8

Finances and Workforce

The budget allocation for the Institute supports the workforce, Business Operations, and 

programs. The numbers that follow are for fiscal year 2015: October 1st, 2014, to September 

30th, 2015.

Incoming Funding

• Research Appropriations: 

$2.305 million

• State and Private : $1.919 

million

• International Cooperation: 

$493,000

• Construction and Related 

Funds: $119,000

• Administration: $1.39 million

• Total Funding: $6.226

Distribution of Funds

• Employee cost: $3.9 million 

(63%)

• Support and Operations: $1.4 

million (22%)

• Distributed to Cooperators: 

$1.6 million (25%)

Workforce Statistics

• Total Institute workforce: 

• Permanent workforce: 46

• Of the permanent workforce, 

10 employees (22%) are scientists.

• Temporary workforce: 2
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 9

Non-Governmental Organizations

• Cafi Cultura Puertorriqueña, Inc.

• Consejo Asesor para la Forestación

Urbana y de Comunidades de Puerto 

Rico, Inc. 

• Fundación Puertorriqueña de Conservación

• Mayagüez Municipality 

• Natural History Society of Puerto Rico 

• Paso Pacífico 

• Puerto Rico Conservation Trust Foundation (Para La Naturaleza)

• St. Croix Environmental Association

• University of Georgia Research Foundation, Inc.

Private Industry and Individuals

• The Greenleaf Group, Inc. 

• Dr. James Grogan 

Universities 

• Clemson University

• Colorado State University

• Michigan Technological University

• North Carolina State University 

• Universidad Metropolitana 

• University of Missouri 

• University of New Hampshire 

• University of Puerto Rico–Agricultural 

Extension Service 

• University of Puerto Rico–Research Division

• University of Wisconsin

State Government 

• Puerto Rico Fire Department 

• Puerto Rico Department of Natural and 

Environmental Resources

• U.S. Virgin Islands Department of Agriculture 

• U.S. Virgin Islands Fire Department 

Funding Partners for Fiscal Year 2015

Cooperators Who Provided Funds to the Institute 

• Puerto Rico Department of Natural and Environmental Resources 

• University of New Hampshire

• U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

• U.S. Geological Survey

• USDA, Climate Change Program Office, Office of the Chief Economist FY15 (USDA, OCE) 

Cooperators Who Received Funding from the Institute
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 10

Administrative Officer Adolfo Menéndez at a meeting with Institute staff.

M.M. Rivera-Costa
The Institute has a long history of research, dating back to the 1920s with 

the establishment of large-scale trial 

plantings in El Yunque National Forest 

with both introduced and native tree 

species. In the 1930s and 1940s the 

Institute completed important silvicultural studies with rigorous controls to 

provide an important basis for tropical 

forest production. In 1956, El Yunque 

National Forest was also designated as 

the Luquillo Experimental Forest, and 

a forest management plan was developed that prescribed active management of natural stands and the development of plantations. In the 1960s 

the ecology of unmanaged forests 

was begun in earnest via long-term 

ecosystem studies, and experimental 

research about the fundamental structure and function of tropical forest 

ecosystems and metabolic processes 

in response to radiation disturbance. 

Ecological research strengthened 

during the 1980s with the establishment of the LEF as a National Science 

Foundation Long Term Ecological 

Research (LTER) Program site, and the 

expansion into topics such as carbon 

and nutrient dynamics, trophic interactions, and the forcing effects of anthropogenic and 

non-anthropogenic disturbances. At present, the Institute continues to build upon traditional research strengths, in addition to adding new emphases that focus on watershed and 

landscape perspectives, assessing the effects of climate and land use/land cover change on 

tropical ecosystems and their biodiversity, quantifying ecosystem goods and services from 

novel forest communities and integrated social-ecological systems, and investigating policy 

and governance dynamics of natural resource management.

2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 11

Project Leader: Grizelle González, ggonzalez@fs.fed.us

The Institute has one research work unit, 

IITF-4151, titled Tropical American Forest 

Conservation. The work unit which carries out 

its agenda through several collaborative programs and projects. These include:

• The Luquillo Long-Term Ecological Research Program

• The Luquillo Critical Zone Observatory

• The San Juan Urban Long-Term Research 

Area

• The Urban Resilience to Extremes Sustainability Research Network.

Research focal sites extend throughout Puerto 

Rico, the Caribbean, and parts of Latin America, including:

• Luquillo Experimental Forest, within 

which are situated the Bisley Experimental Watersheds, East Peak, and El Verde 

Research Area

• Guánica Biosphere Reserve

• Guayama and Manatí Research Areas

• Estate Thomas Experimental Forest, St. 

Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands

• Dominican Republic

• The Brazilian Amazon.

Research and Development
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 12

Leaf litterfall collection by artist Jaime Suárez in the Luquillo Experimental Forest.

M.M. Rivera-Costa
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 13

Wildlife Ecology

Landscape Ecology

Ecosystem Ecology

Biogeochemistry

Soil Ecology

Grizelle González

Project Leader

Soil ecology and biology, 

ecosystem ecology, tropical 

ecology, earthworm ecology.

Ariel E. Lugo

Institute Director

Assembly and functioning of novel ecosystems; vulnerability and functioning of 

urban ecosystems; tropical forest response 

to environmental change.

Joseph M. Wunderle

Wildlife Biologist

Conservation biology and management 

of birds, especially neotropical-nearctic 

migrants and their response to human 

and natural disturbances.

Wayne J. Arendt

Wildlife Biologist

Disturbance ecology, climate change, 

conservation and management of neotropical resident and migratory bird 

communities and invasive species.

Michael Keller

Research Physical Scientist

Ecology and biogeochemistry of tropical 

forests, tropical deforestation and forest 

degradation, and the effects of land use 

on atmospheric composition. 

William A. Gould

Research Ecologist

Conservation science, biodiversity, 

ecology, land cover mapping, modeling 

future scenarios for conservation planning, and field education and outreach.

Eileen Helmer

Research Ecologist

Tropical forest disturbance and recovery 

dynamics; monitoring species composition, community structure and phenology, from stand to landscape scales.

Tamara Heartsill-Scalley

Research Ecologist

Riparian vegetation, stream dynamics and 

ecosystem services; monitoring long-term 

ecosystem responses to disturbance; 

knowledge and perceptions of wetlands.

Kathleen McGinley

Research Social Scientist

Natural resource and forest policies, 

institutions, and governance approaches, primarily in Latin America and the 

Caribbean.
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 14

Plant Physiology Silviculture

Social Science Geophysics Watersheds

Tischa A. Muñoz-Erickson

Research Social Scientist

Institutional arrangements, processes, and 

tools for facilitating productive, sustainable interactions among research and policy stakeholders, managers, and citizens.

Tana E. Wood

Research Ecologist

Effects of climate and land-use change on 

soil and ecosystem-level processes, linkages between microbes and the soil environment, and landscape-scale responses.

Ashley Van Beusekom

Geophysicist and Hydrologist

Statistical data analysis, computational mathematics, hydrologic modeling, 

climate change, inverse problems, 

glaciers, and geomagnetism.

Ernesto Medina

Adjunct Scientist

Physiological ecology of plants in 

stressful environments, with emphasis 

on carbon balance, water stress, and 

nutrient relations.

Whendee Silver

Adjunct Scientist

Effects of land-use practices on carbon losses, carbon sequestration, and biogeochemical cycling; effects of climate and variable 

redox conditions on ecosystem behavior.

Sebastián Martinuzzi

Adjunct Scientist

Remote sensing, biodiversity 

conservation and environmental change.

Azad Henareh

Adjunct Scientist

Global effects of climate change, large-scale 

vegetation and ecosystem change, disturbances and their interactions on landscape structure 

and ecosystem functions.

Frank H. Wadsworth

Emeritus Scientist

Management and sustainable use 

of forests and fiber-based products; 

silviculture and production.
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 15

TECHNICIANS AND RESEARCH SUPPORT STAFF

Ariel E. Lugo

Institute Director

Assembly and functioning of 

novel ecosystems; vulnerability and functioning of urban 

ecosystems; tropical forest 

response to environmental 

change.

Research technicians staff: Carlos R. Estrada Ruíz, Hydrologic Technician; Humberto Robles, Biological Science Technician, María M. 

Rivera-Costa, General Biologist Specialist; Carlos Torrens, Biological Science Technician; Samuel Moya, General Biologist; absent: Iván 

Vicéns, Forestry Technician.

C. Nytch

Chemical Laboratory research staff: Edgardo Valcarcel, Biological Science Technician; Edwin López, Chemist; Maysaa Ittayem, Chemist; 

Maribelís Santiago, Chemist; Mary Jean Sánchez, Supervisory Chemist; María del Carmen Marrero, Chemist; absent: Joel S. Olivencia, 

Electronic Technician.

C. Nytch
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 16

Joseph M. Wunderle

Wildlife Biologist

Conservation biology and 

management of birds, especially neotropical-nearctic 

migrants and their response 

to human and natural disturbances.

Geographic Information System (GIS), remote sensing, web development, and Caribbean Regional Climate Sub-Hub staff: William. 

A. Gould, Caribbean Sub-Hub Director; Jessica Castro, Protected Areas Conservation Action Team; Marixa Maldonado, Caribbean 

Landscape Conservation Cooperative (CLCC) Administrative Assistant; Maya Quiñones, Cartographer; Gary Potts, Web Content and 

Data Manager; Isabel K. Parés, Caribbean Sub-Hub Coordinator; absent: Olga Ramos, GIS Analyst; Kasey Jacobs, CLCC Partnership 

and Outreach Coordinator; Carlos Rodríguez, Ecologist/Safety Officer.

C. Nytch
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 17

G. Bauer

Caribbean Foresters conference participants measuring a tree trunk in a Dominican Republic dry forest. 
18

RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS

2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 18

Climate and Global Change

Precipitation and temperature trends 

along an elevation gradient in northeastern Puerto Rico

Tropical ecosystems across the globe are 

highly sensitive to climate, and individual 

regions are able to support their diversity of 

species because of their variability of climate 

across elevation. Forest Service researchers 

studied patterns of trends in local climatic 

conditions along a tropical elevation gradient 

in an ecologically sensitive area of northeastern Puerto Rico. They examined precipitation and temperature records collected over 

twelve years at twenty sites, ranging from sea 

level in the coastal zone of the San Juan Metropolitan area up to 1000 m at the top of the 

Luquillo Experimental Forest. An analysis of 

the driest and wettest months of the rainfall 

seasons revealed that the driest months are 

getting slightly wetter over time, while no 

trend was perceived for the wettest months. 

Precipitation also appears to increase faster 

at higher elevations. As for temperature, the 

daily minimum was observed to increase 

slightly, and the daily maximum decreased, 

suggesting that the range of temperatures 

along the elevation gradient is narrowing. 

Unlike with precipitation, the pace of temperature change did not vary with elevation 

position. These results emphasize that differing patterns of climate change across tropical elevation gradients should be explored 

in order to understand the effects of future 

climate scenarios on biological life.

Related Publication: Van Beusekom, A.E., 

González, G. and Rivera, M.M. 2015. Shortterm precipitation and temperature trends 

along an elevation gradient in Northeastern 

Puerto Rico. Earth Interactions 19: 1-33.

www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/47734

Institute Contacts: Ashley Van Beusekom, 

ashley.vanbeusekom@gmail.com;

Grizelle González, ggonzalez@fs.fed.us

Elevation gradient within the Luquillo Experimental Forest. 

M.M. Rivera-Costa
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 19

Propagation of uncertainty from

statistically downscaled climate

models to hydrologic models

Many tropical islands have limited water resources with historically increasing demand, 

all potentially affected by a changing climate. 

The effects of climate change on island hydrology are difficult to model due to steep 

local precipitation gradients and sparse data. 

This work uses ten projected climate models 

under two greenhouse gas emission scenarios to evaluate the uncertainty propagated 

in projecting the effects of climate change 

on water resources in a tropical island system. The assessment is conducted using a 

previously configured hydrologic model for 

Puerto Rico. Projected climate data and their 

modelled hydrologic variables versus historical measurements and their modelled hydrologic variables are found to have empirical 

distribution functions that are statistically different with less than 1year of daily data aggregation. Thus, only annual averages of the 

projected hydrologic variables are employed 

as completely bias-corrected model outputs. 

The magnitude 

of the projected 

total flow decreases in the 

four regions 

covering Puerto 

Rico, but with a 

large range of 

uncertainty depending on the 

projected climate. The multi-model mean 

projected total flow decreases by 50–90% 

of historical amounts from the 1960s to the 

2090s for the high emissions greenhouse gas 

scenarios and by 40–80% for the low emissions scenarios. At the two most important 

reservoirs for San Juan, Lago La Plata and 

Lago Loíza, projected streamflow is shown to 

decrease substantially below projected withdrawals by 2099.

Collaborating Institutions: U.S. Geological 

Survey, Southeast Climate Science Center; 

North Carolina Cooperative Fish and Wildlife 

Research Unit

Related Publication: Van Beusekom, A.E. 

and Collazo, J.A. 2015. Climate change and 

water resources in a tropical island system: 

propagation of uncertainty from statistically 

downscaled climate models to hydrologic 

models.” International Journal of Climatology 

(early online). http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/

doi/10.1002/joc.4560/full

Institute Contact: Ashley Van Beusekom, 

ashleyvanbeusekom@fs.fed.us

Ten-year moving averages of annual streamflow leaving Lago La Plata and Lago Loíza from simulated 

streamflow with estimated withdrawals subtracted using MSD, range of GCMs, and multi-model GCM 

ensembles.
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 20

Modeling surface runoff in Puerto Rico 

with dynamic land cover 

This study quantitatively explores whether 

land cover changes have a substantive effect 

on simulated streamflow within the tropical 

island setting of Puerto Rico. The Precipitation Runoff Modeling System (PRMS) was 

used to compare streamflow simulations 

based on five static parameterizations of 

land cover with those based on dynamically 

varying parameters derived from four land 

cover scenes for the period 1953-2012. The 

PRMS simulations based on static land cover 

illustrated consistent differences in simulated 

streamflow across the island. It was determined that the scale of the analysis makes a 

difference: large regions with 

localized areas that have undergone dramatic land cover 

change may show negligible 

difference in total streamflow, 

but streamflow simulations using dynamic land cover parameters for a highly altered subwatershed clearly demonstrate 

the effects of changing land 

cover on simulated streamflow. 

Incorporating dynamic parameterization in these highly 

altered watersheds can reduce 

the predictive uncertainty in 

simulations of streamflow using 

PRMS. Hydrologic models that 

do not consider the projected 

changes in land cover may be 

inadequate for water resource 

management planning for future conditions.

Collaborating Institutions: North Carolina 

State University, U.S. Geological Survey

Related Publication: Van Beusekom, A.E., 

Hay, L.E., Viger, R.J., Gould, W.A., Collazo, J.A., 

and Henareh Khalyani, A. 2014. The Effects of 

Changing Land Cover on Streamflow Simulation in Puerto Rico. Journal of the American 

Water Resources Association 50(6):1575-

1593. doi: 10.1111/jawr.12227

Institute Contacts: William Gould,

wgould@fs.fed.us; Ashley Van Beusekom, 

ashleyvanbeusekom@fs.fed.us

Annual Flow (cms)

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

0.5

1.0

1.5

Measured Annual Simulated Calibrated

North Region

Annual Flow (cms)

Annual Flow (cms)

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

1

2

3

4

5 South Region

Annual Flow (cms)

Annual Flow (cms)

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

1.0

1.5

2.0

East Region

Annual Flow (cms)

Annual Flow (cms)

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0 West Region

Annual Flow (cms)

Water Year

(gage 50025155) 

(gage 50092000) 

(gage 50065500) 

(gage 50145395) 

Annual Streamflow 

 (cms) 

Annual Streamflow 

 (cms) 

Annual Streamflow 

 (cms) 

Annual Streamflow 

 (cms) 

Annual Measured and Simulated Streamflow during the Calibration and Evaluation 

Periods at the “Best” Gages in the North, South, East, and West Regions of Puerto Rico.
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 21

Tropical Responses to Altered Climate 

Experiment (TRACE)

Tropical forests are expected to experience a 

significant and permanent increase in temperature over the next 20 years. Given the 

importance of these ecosystems to biodiversity as well as the cycling of water and carbon 

on a global scale, studying their potential to 

adapt to a new climate regime is critical to 

our ability to effectively manage these ecosystems and to accurately predict feedbacks 

to future climate. In response to a recognized 

need to understand tropical forest responses to increased temperature, Forest Service 

researchers and partners have established 

the first field warming experiment to be 

conducted in a tropical forested ecosystem 

in the Luquillo Experimental Forest of northeastern Puerto Rico. The Tropical Responses 

to Altered Climate Experiment (TRACE) will 

warm small patches of forest by 4 oC relative 

to control plots, using a hexagonal array of 

Infra-Red heaters established 2m above the 

understory vegetation. A multitude of responses to warming will be assessed ranging 

from the effects on the microbial community 

composition and function to the acclimation 

potential of photosynthesis of understory 

plants. Construction of the 

infrastructure began Fall 

2013 and was completed 

in May 2015. In anticipation of the start of this unprecedented experiment, 

TRACE has been featured 

in several local and international news outlets such 

as Al Jazeera America, 

ClimateWire, and El Nuevo 

Día. Pretreatment data collection is currently underway and the experiment is 

set to begin Spring 2016. 

More information about 

this project is available at 

www.forestwarming.org.

Collaborating Institutions: Michigan Technological University; U.S. Geological Survey; 

U.S. Department of Energy, Terrestrial Division

Related Publication: Cavaleri, M.A., Reed, 

S.C., Smith, K.W., Wood, T.E. 2015. Urgent 

need for warming experiments in tropical 

forests. Global Change Biology 21 (6): 2111-

2121.

http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/49346

Tropical Responses to Altered Climate (TRACE) Research Plot.

T. Wood
22

Assessing leaf-level effects of 

increased temperature on tropical

forest canopy trees

Temperatures are expected to increase substantially in tropical forested ecosystems 

in the coming decades. Tropical trees are 

among the world’s most important carbon 

sinks, yet evidence suggests they may already be near a high temperature threshold, 

which could potentially reduce their ability 

to take up carbon from the atmosphere. At 

the same time, whether or not tropical plants 

will acclimate to anticipated changes is not 

well understood. Forest Service scientists and 

partners will address this question with in situ 

warming of individual canopy leaves accessible from a canopy access tower in 

the Luquillo Experimental Forest. 

The canopy access tower was 

installed in November 2015 and 

has been officially certified as 

safe to climb. The tower will be 

instrumented with a weather station to monitor the local climate. 

At the same time, engineers at 

Michigan Technological University have developed a novel, state 

of the art system for warming 

canopy leaves. Canopy research 

is set to begin Summer 2016.

Collaborating Institution: Michigan Technological University

Related Publication: Cavaleri, 

M.A., Reed, S.C., Smith, K.W., 

Wood, T.E. 2015. Urgent need for 

warming experiments in tropical 

forests. Global Change Biology 21 

(6): 2111-2121. http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/49346

Institute Contact: Tana Wood, 

tanawood@fs.fed.us

◀ The Luquillo Experimental Forest canopy access 

tower, installed November, 2015.

A. Alonso

2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 23

Experiment, monitoring, and gradient methods used to infer climate change 

effects on plant communities yield consistent patterns 

We assessed the consistency of three 

approaches in estimating warming 

effects on plant community composition: manipulative warming experiments, repeat sampling under ambient 

temperature change (monitoring), and 

space-for-time substitution. The three 

approaches showed agreement in the 

direction of change (an increase in the 

relative abundance of species with a 

warmer thermal niche), but differed in 

the magnitude of change estimated. Experimental and monitoring approaches 

were similar in magnitude, whereas 

space-for-time comparisons indicated a 

much stronger response. These results 

suggest that all three approaches are 

valid, but experimental warming and long-term monitoring are best suited for forecasting 

effects over the coming decades.

Collaborating Institutions: National Ecological Observatory Network, University of Colorado, University of British Columbia, Grand Valley State University, Faroese Museum of 

Natural History, Memorial University, Norwegian Institute for Nature Research, University of 

Iceland, University Centre in Svalbard, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Université du Québec à 

Trois-Rivières, Icelandic Institute of Natural History, University of Gothenburg, University of 

Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Florida International University, Swiss Federal Institute for Snow and 

Avalanche Research, University of Texas at El Paso, and HOMER Energy.

Related Publication: Elmendorf, S.C., Henry, G.H.R., Hollisterd, R.D., Fosaa, A.M., Gould, W.A., 

Hermanutz, L., Hofgaard, A., Jonsdottir, I.I., Jorgenson, J.C., Levesque, E., Magnusson, B., Molau, U., Myers-Smith, I.H., Oberbauer, S.F., Rixen, C., Tweedie, C.E., Walkers, M. 2015. Experiment, monitoring, and gradient methods used to infer climate change effects on plant communities yield consistent patterns. PNAS. 112(2): 448-452. www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/

pnas.1410088112

Institute Contact: William Gould, wgould@fs.fed.us

Thermophilization of plant communities in response to multiple 

years of experimental warming scaled to a 1 °C increase in temperature. Thermophilization is a pattern of species turnover wherein 

more cold-adapted species decline in relative abundance and more 

warm-adapted species increase. The purple reference line shows effect 

size after four summers of warming. (8 regions, 12 studies, 320 plots).
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 24

Assessing vulnerabilities to climate 

change in tropical agriculture and

forestry

This is the first major output of the USDA Caribbean Climate Hub. It is a review of vulnerabilities and adaptation practices in sectors 

involved in forest management, livestock, 

grassland and grazing management, and 

crops such as coffee, fruit trees, plantains, bananas, vegetables and root crops. Historically, 

people have depended on these products 

for subsistence and export as valuable cash 

crops. Currently, 

Puerto Rico and the 

U.S. Virgin Islands 

import the vast 

majority of their agricultural products 

and local production is well below its 

full potential. The 

study highlights vulnerabilities to climate 

change and increasing climate variability in 

the region’s forestry and agricultural sectors:

• Food security is reliant on local productivity – however, climate change and 

extreme weather events in other regions 

also impact global markets and maritime 

shipping which can affect U.S. Caribbean 

food security and agriculture production;

• Climate change and weather variability 

are likely to make prices more volatile, 

which influence landowner decisions and 

farming success;

• The arrival and proliferation of new and 

existing pests may adversely affect humans, livestock, wildlife and crops;

• Sea level rise and salt water intrusion are 

affecting coastal populations, aquifers, 

and prime agricultural lands;

• Conflicting demands on a limited land 

base highlight the need for multi-sector 

adaptation planning;

• Unemployment and poverty levels are 

among the highest in the United States;

• Producers may lack access to expertise, 

information, research, financing or equipment for adaption; and

• High production costs, labor issues, and 

competition from external producers 

present barriers to expansion of local production.

Collaborating 

Institutions: The 

USDA Tropical Agricultural Research 

Station (TARS), The 

USDA Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS) Caribbean Area, the Farm 

Service Agency (FSA) and Rural Development 

(RD) in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, 

and the USDA Office of the Chief Economist 

(OCE).

Related Publication: Gould, W.A., Fain, S.J., 

Pares, I.K., McGinley, K., Perry, A. and Steele, 

R.F. 2015. Caribbean Regional Climate Sub 

Hub Assessment of Climate Change Vulnerability and Adaptation and Mitigation Strategies, United States Department of Agriculture, 67 pp.

Institute Contact: William Gould, wgould@

fs.fed.us

I. Parés
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 25

Ecosystem Processes and Disturbance

E. Medina

Research site in Laguna, the southern most site of ditricution of Laguncularia racemosa in the Brazilian Atlantic coast.

Element uptake in mangroves

Long-standing cooperative work continued with researchers in Venezuela on the mangroves 

of the Maracaibo basin. They finished the analysis of uptake and resorption of minerals by 

mangrove species with contrasting mechanisms of salt regulation, Laguncularia racemosa

and Rhizophora mangle. The salt excluder (R. mangle) was more efficient at restricting Na and 

S uptake, resorbing P, and accumulating Fe than the salt secreter (L. racemosa).

Collaborating Institution: Universidad del Zulia, Maracaibo, Venezuela

Related Publication: Medina, E., Fernandez, W., & Barboza, F. (2015). Element uptake, accumulation, and resorption in leaves of mangrove species with different mechanisms of salt 

regulation. Web Ecology, 15 (1): 3.

Contact: Ernesto Medina, medinage@gmail.com
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 26

Mangrove photosynthesis and soilplant relationships

A study in Brazil investigated the soil-plant 

nutrient relations and photosynthesis of 

mangrove species near their southern most 

sites in that country (26-28oS). At each site, 

δ13C values of Avicennia schaueriana were 

consistently higher than those for the other 

species, indicating that these species are subjected to contrasting water stress conditions. 

Leaf concentrations of C were lower, whilst 

those of N were always higher in A. schaueriana, indicating accumulation of salts and nonprotein N-compounds in leaves. Lower photosynthetic rates and carboxylation efficiency 

of R. mangle may constitute constraining factors preventing this species from establishing 

at higher latitudes. Sites sampled were comparatively fertile, because sediment transport 

through fresh water run-off is predominant 

in humid coasts, and therefore plants were 

not limited by nutrient supply, nor particularly stressed by soil salinity. The results were 

presented in the XI Latinamerican Botanical 

congress in Bahia, Brazil (October 2014).

Collaborating Institutions: Universidad 

Stadual de Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; University of 

Puerto Rico-Río Piedras

Contact: Ernesto Medina,

medinage@gmail.com

Related Publications: Soares, M.L.G., Tognella, M.P.P., Cuevas, E., and Medina, E. 2015. 

Photosynthetic capacity and intrinsic water-use efficiency of Rhizophora mangle at its 

southernmost western Atlantic range. Photosynthetica 53 (3): 464-470.

Tognella De Rosa, M., Soares, M., Cuevas, E. 

and Medina, E. 2016. Heterogeneity of elemental composition and natural abundance 

of stables isotopes of C and N in soils and 

leaves of mangroves at their southernmost 

West Atlantic range. Brazilian Journal of Biology 76 (4).

E. Medina

Field team at Palhosa, Brazil.
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 27

Terrestrial ecosystems at Toolik Lake, 

Alaska

This is a chapter in a synthesis book based 

on research at the Toolik Lake Long Term 

Ecological Research Site. The chapter focuses on the overall structure and function of 

different components of the landscape near 

Toolik Lake, Alaska. It describes and compares key physical, chemical, and biological 

controls over the distribution and function 

of these ecosystems. It discusses timescales 

and trajectories of system-level change in 

response to changes in the controls. It considers how current and 

anticipated changes in climate affect the dynamics of soils and soil 

biota in arctic tundra ecosystems. 

It also predicts how the expected 

changes in global and arctic climates may alter the landscape and 

terrestrial ecosystems near Toolik 

Lake, and suggests priorities for 

future research. Our contribution 

is based on long term monitoring 

of vegetation plots at the Toolik 

LTER site, which show trends towards 

increasing cover and dominance of the 

grasses and woody shrubs versus the mosses 

and lichens.

Collaborating Institutions: Woods Hole 

Marine Biological Laboratory, University of 

Alaska, University of Texas, University of Minnesota, University of Michigan, University of 

Florida, Colorado State University, University 

of California.

Related Publication: Shaver, G.R., Laundre, 

J.A., Bret-Harte, M.S., Chapin, F.S. III, Mercado-Díaz, J.A., Giblin, A.E., Gough, L., Gould, 

W.A., Hobbie, S.E., Kling, G.W., Mack, M.C., 

Moore, J.C., Nadelhoffer, K.J., Rastetter, E.B., 

Joshua, P. Schimel, J.P. 2014. Terrestrial ecosystems at Toolik Lake, Alaska. In Hobbie, 

J.E. and Kling, G.W. (eds.). A changing arctic: 

ecological consequences for tundra, streams, 

and lakes. Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford, New 

York. 90 pp. 

Institute Contact: William Gould, 

wgould@fs.fed.us

Change in the mean number of total hits per plot of different vegetation 

growth forms located at the Imnavait Creek and Toolik grids from 1989-

1990 to 2007-2008 (Letters above the bars indicate significant differences. Error bars represent standard errors). W.A. Gould
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 28

Soil nutrients, landscape age, and 

Sphagno-Eriophoretum vaginati

plant communities in Arctic moistacidic Tundra landscapes

In this work we assessed how organic and 

mineral soils from Toolik and Imnavait grids, 

two long-term research sites in northern 

Alaska, vary in terms of a number of different 

physical and chemical parameters, including 

total C, N, and S. These two sites differ in landscape age and glacial history by over 100,000 

years, but currently have similar vegetation 

composition. Our analysis was narrowed to 

soils in Sphagno-Eriophoretum vaginati plant 

communities. We found that most of the 

parameters evaluated were not significantly 

different between these sites, except for total 

Ca, which was significantly higher in organic 

soils from Imnavait (older) vs. Toolik (younger), 

and total Na, which was significantly 

higher in mineral horizons from Toolik 

compared to Imnavait. Moreover, the 

abundance of non-Sphagnum mosses 

was positively correlated with total 

Ca in organic soils; whereas the abundance of forbs, non-Sphagnum mosses and bryophytes was negatively 

correlated with total Na in mineral 

soils. We suggest that differences in 

the concentration of these two elements are most likely tied to landscape age differences between these 

sites. However, observed dissimilarity 

in terms of total Ca in organic soils 

and total Na in mineral soils was concordant with correlation patterns observed between these elements and 

the abovementioned growth forms. 

Therefore, it is possible that existing differences in vegetation composition between these 

sites are also influencing the concentration 

of these elements in soils, particularly that 

of Ca since non-Sphagnum mosses are dominant above organic soils in these sites and 

are therefore expected to significantly affect 

biogeochemical processes of this horizon.

Related Publication: 

Mercado-Díaz, J.A., Gould, W.A., González, 

G. 2014. Soil nutrients, landscape age, and 

Sphagno-Eriophoretum vaginati plant communities in Arctic moist-acidic Tundra landscapes. Open Journal of Soil Science 4:375-

387. 

Institute Contacts: William Gould, 

wgould@fs.fed.us; Grizelle González,

ggonzalez@fs.fed.us

Landscape ages and the location of the Toolik Lake and Imnavait Creek 1km2

grids in the Upper Kuparuk River region in Northern Alaska.
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 29

Tropical forest responses to large-scale experiments

Six synthesis articles covering recent large-scale field 

experiments that have 

been highly influential in 

tropical ecology and that 

further our understanding 

of how these forests will 

respond to global environmental change were 

published in Bioscience. 

Two of the articles focus 

on how human-induced 

habitat loss or hunting has 

altered tropical forests. 

The remaining four articles 

address global climate 

change effects on tropical 

forests-specifically, hurricanes, drought, fire, and 

temperature changes. This 

special section of hot-topic 

synthesis articles will provide a long-lasting source 

of understanding of tropical forests, as well as provide motivation and direction for establishing future 

research needs in these 

threatened ecosystems.

Collaborating Institution: USDA, National Wildlife Research Center

Related Publication: Shiels, A.B. and González, G. Tropical Forest Responses to Large-Scale 

Experiments. 2015. Volume 65 (9): 839-840. doi: 10.1093/biosci/biv126. http://bioscience.

oxfordjournals.org/content/65/9/839.short

Institute Contact: Grizelle González, ggonzalez@fs.fed.us
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 30

Tropical forest responses to largescale experimental hurricane effects

A Special Issue of Forest Ecology and Management on Tropical Forest Responses to 

Large-scale Experimental Hurricane Effects 

was published, containing 13 manuscripts 

summarizing the findings of a 10-year, 

on-going manipulative experiment (the Canopy Trimming Experiment, CTE), that simulates two key aspects of hurricane effects in a 

wet tropical forest. Although previous studies 

of tropical and subtropical forests have documented changes resulting from hurricanes, it 

is not clear which of the two simultaneously 

occurring direct effects of hurricanes—canopy openness or debris deposition—most influence responses. In the Luquillo Experimental Forest (LEF), a multi-disciplinary team of 

scientists used experimental manipulations, 

representing a replicated factorial design, to 

determine the independent and interactive 

effects of canopy openness and debris deposition on forest structural and functional 

characteristics. Although simulated hurricane 

effects triggered complex dynamics, increased canopy openness accounted for the 

majority of the documented shifts in forest 

biota and biotic processes, the large inputs 

of canopy debris and interactive effects of 

canopy openness and debris also produced 

important forest changes. Canopy openness 

increased pioneer plant recruitment and 

species richness, and decreased litterfall and 

decomposition; several animal groups were 

reduced in abundance or diversity. Debris 

deposition significantly increased tree basal 

area and microbial diversity on leaf litter, 

but these increases were relatively small 

and ephemeral. Arguably, hurricanes are the 

most important natural disturbance affecting the LEF, and most variables measured in 

the CTE showed evidence of resistance or 

resilience. By identifying the causal factors 

affecting secondary successional trajectories 

of diverse taxa, biogeochemical attributes, 

microclimatic characteristics, and measures 

of ecosystem processes following hurricane 

disturbance, we better understand tropical 

forest dynamics resulting from past hurricanes and are better able to predict mechanisms of forest changes related to future 

hurricanes.

Collaborating Institution: USDA, National 

Wildlife Research Center, University of California, Berkeley, University of Utah

Related Publication: Forest Ecology and 

Management (Volume 332, Pages 1-136, 15 

November 2014), edited by Aaron B. Shiels 

and Grizelle González.

Institute Contact: Grizelle González,

ggonzalez@fs.fed.us
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 31

Post-hurricane canopy openings influence ecosystem processes in a tropical

rainforest

Intense hurricanes disturb many tropical forests, but the key processes driving post-hurricane forest changes are not fully understood. In Puerto Rico, our Institute scientists collaborated with researchers from the Luquillo Long-Term Ecological Research Program to simulate 

hurricane effects in the Luquillo Experimental Forest, and determine the mechanisms of forest change associated with canopy 

openness (via loss of branches) and 

organic matter (debris) addition. By 

studying in isolation the individual 

effects of storms, we were able to 

observe how changes in microclimate cascaded down through the 

food web. An important conclusion 

from this research is that short-term 

responses of biota and ecosystem 

processes to cyclonic storms appear to be largely driven by canopy 

opening and the subsequent shifts 

in light and moisture, with added 

debris playing a relatively smaller 

role through the supplement of 

carbon and nutrients. This research 

highlights the dynamic nature of tropical forest ecosystems, and helps inform predictions of 

how plant, animal, and fungal species might respond to anticipated increases in the frequency of major hurricanes.

Collaborating Institutions: USDA Forest Service Center for Forest Mycology Research, Forest Products Laboratory; USDA National Wildlife Research Center; University of Puerto RicoRío Piedras

Related Publications: Shiels A., González G., Lodge, D.J., Willig, M.R., and Zimmerman, J.K. 

2015. Cascading effects of canopy opening and debris deposition from a large-scale hurricane experiment in a tropical rainforest. Bioscience 65 (9): 871-881. doi:10.1093/biosci/

biv111

Institute Contact: Grizelle González, ggonzalez@fs.fed.us

Arborist removing tree branches for the Canopy Trimming Experiment.

A.B. Shiels
Recently trimmed trees in the Canopy Trimming Experiment.

S. Stankavich

2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 32
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 33

Soil carbon and other biogeochemical properties in the Canopy Trimming

Experiment

 In order to determine the long term effects of canopy trimming and debris deposition on soil carbon and nutrients, 

and identify the depth to which these disturbances can be 

detected, we measured soil carbon and other biogeochemical properties in depth profiles of the Canopy Trimming 

Experiment. Results showed a strong depth dependence of 

soil moisture and pH, with higher water content and acidity 

in the topsoil (> 40 cm), where biological activity is concentrated. After a decade of recovery, we measured significantly higher soil carbon and nitrogen content within the top 

20 cm. Soil phosphorus—mainly bicarbonate-extractable 

organic phosphorus—also responded positively to debris 

deposition, with significantly higher values in the top 30 

cm. Concentrations of reactive iron (Fe) species, including 

citrate-ascorbate and HCl extractable Fe, showed marked 

decreases with depth, and no apparent treatment effects. 

Finally, preliminary results from soil carbon fractionation 

suggest that debris deposition increased the free light fraction in the top 10 cm over 10 years.

Considering all four treatments, debris deposition without canopy trimming caused the 

largest changes in soil carbon and nutrients over the 10 year period, with disturbance effects 

being detectable down to ~30 cm depth (for soil organic phosphorus). Interestingly, the 

effects of debris deposition combined with canopy trimming (i.e., hurricane simulation), did 

not lead to large changes in soil carbon and nutrients, highlighting the longer-term resistance and resilience of soil biogeochemistry to hurricane-associated disturbances in this wet 

tropical forest. Large pulses of organic matter deposited during hurricanes appear to subsidize the forest floor but are coupled with rapid and efficient decomposition leading to no 

detectable changes in C and P stocks over time.

Collaborating Institution: University of California, Berkeley

Related Publication: Silver, W. L., S. J. Hall, and G. González. 2014. Differential effects of canopy trimming and litter deposition on litterfall and nutrient dynamics in a wet subtropical 

forest. Forest Ecology and Management 332: 47-55. 

Contact: Whendee Silver, wsilver@berkeley.edu M.M. Rivera-Costa

A soil profile in the Luquillo Experimental 

Forest. 
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 34

Soil properties across a replicated catena in a subtropical wet forest

The objective of this study is to determine the spatial and 

temporal dynamics and drivers of soil oxygen (O2) availability and redox-sensitive biogeochemical processes using easily measured and modeled parameters. The study 

is designed to capture the biogeochemical response to 

extreme climate events, such as the drought that occurred 

in the Luquillo Experiment Forest in 2015. We are using 

automated soil O2 sensors coupled with measurements of 

soil chemical and physical properties, climate, and greenhouse gas concentrations and fluxes. These results will be 

used to derive quantitative relationships linking climate 

and soil physical properties to redox-sensitive biogeochemical processes in tropical forests, and better model 

C and nutrient cycling and greenhouse gas fluxes in 

Earth system models, such as the Community Land Model (CLM) module of the Community Earth System Model 

(CESM). Preliminary results showed that average soil O2 

concentrations, volumetric soil water content, pH, and 

greenhouse gas emissions such as CO2 and CH4 all vary, 

often non-linearly, with topographic position along the 

catena from ridge to valley. In response to the drought 

conditions, there was a striking lag in the response of 

both soil moisture and O2 in these soils. This suggests 

a high degree of resilience to short-term drying, and a threshold-type behavior with more 

severe drought. Drought increased soil aeration, which resulted in rapid iron oxidation and a 

dramatic decline in pH in lower topographic zones, which can feed back on nutrient cycling 

and net primary productivity in humid tropical forests. In summary, drought resulted in dramatic changes in redox-sensitive biogeochemistry with potential cascading effects. Current 

research is exploring more detailed drought effects using controlled experiments.

Collaborating Institution: University of California, Berkeley

Related Publication: Liptzin, D. and W. L. Silver. 2015. Spatial patterns in oxygen and redox sensitive biogeochemistry in tropical forest soils. Ecosphere 6(11):211. http://dx.doi.

org/10.1890/ES14-00309.1

Contact: Whendee Silver, wsilver@berkeley.edu
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 35

T. Heartsill-Scalley

Assessment of a stream reach that combines open channelization with built-up, impermeable (gray) riparian areas and canopy 

forming vegetation (green) riparian with permeable surfaces. 
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 36

Watershed Analysis

Characterization of a tropical, urban 

stream network in a sub-watershed of 

the Río Piedras

In many instances urban streams are flowing along roads, parks and through cities 

while being invisible and highly modified to 

many people. One such case is the Quebrada 

Doña Ana, within the Río Piedras Watershed 

(RPWS) system, a major component of the 

San Juan Bay Estuary hydrological system. 

The headwaters of the Doña Ana are highly modified and channelized, which is 

representative of most urban streams in 

the RPWS. To understand current stream 

conditions and associated hydrological 

dynamics within the urban landscape, a 

first step is to develop a site-specific hydrological network layer. We generated a 

stream network using historic and current 

hydrological data from federal and state 

agencies, and geo-referenced field data 

to describe stream structural and physical 

characteristics. The Doña Ana stream network had 81.4% of its stream length modified, including both channelized stream 

sections that were open and those that 

were buried. Buried stream sections are 

those that flow underground and whose 

water flow is not visible from the surface. 

Most of the Doña Ana stream reaches are 

currently pluvial drainages as evidenced 

by historical aerial photographs. Only 

18.6% of the stream segments were classified as unmodified. Riparian land cover 

in most of the Doña Ana watershed was 

impermeable/gray cover, with less than half 

classified as green infrastructure, including 

both open and closed canopy areas. The next 

phase of this project will further quantify 

historical changes to the stream network and 

riparian cover in light of current soil classifications. 

Collaborating Institutions: San Juan Bay 

Estuary Program; Fundación Puertorriqueña 

de Conservación

Institute Contact: Tamara Heartsill-Scalley, 

theartsill@fs.fed.us

Map by O. Ramos
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 37

Analysis of the channelization of the 

Río Piedras

The United States Army Corps of Engineers 

(COE) designed a Flood Control Project (FCP) 

for the Río Piedras Watershed in 1978, in 

response to flooding in the San Juan Metropolitan Area that was causing significant 

losses in property and urban infrastructure. 

The COE developed a plan to construct concrete channels, improve natural channels, 

construct retaining basins upstream, replace 

bridges, mitigate loss of mangrove area, and 

provide for improved recreation in the watershed, to protect the watershed against the 

100-year flood event. In 1984, the COE estimated about 6 years of construction at a cost 

of $253.5 million with a positive benefit to 

cost ratio of 2.6. By 1991, the FCP was modified, eliminating still basins and adding high 

velocity channels upstream to maximize water discharge during intense rainfall events, 

with increased cost total of $303.5 million 

and proposed construction time of 11 years. 

Several alternative flood control measures 

were discarded during the planning process 

due to high cost. After completion, the Flood 

Control Project has a life expectancy of 50 

years, and will allow residual flooding to occur in places to a depth of 2 meters, causing 

estimated damages of 1.2 million dollars to 

infrastructure in the watershed. Today, thirty years after the original survey report was 

published, FCP expenditures have reached 

about a billion dollars and flood control 

construction is in progress at the lower tidal 

reaches of the river without any indication as 

to when the Project will move upstream.

We analyzed a series of reports, documents, 

data, and arguments prepared by the COE 

regarding the channelization of the Río Piedras in order to 1) summarize the contents 

of those supporting materials; 2) evaluate 

the accuracy of predictions and assumptions 

used to justify the channelization; and 3) 

to make a case for the need to reassess the 

flooding problems in the San Juan Metropolitan Area, in the context of the evolving 

social and ecological conditions in the city. 

We uncovered many assumptions that the 

COE had to make during the planning of the 

Flood Control Project, but which turned out 

not to be correct over the long-term. The invalidation of these assumptions raises questions about the hydrological and economic 

feasibility as well as the effectiveness of the 

proposed Flood Control Project. Our intent 

was not to propose specific solutions to the 

problem of flood control in the city, but rather to emphasize the need for a total reassessment of flooding and flood control in the Río 

Piedras Watershed. Until the current course 

of channelization is thoroughly reviewed, 

other viable alternatives cannot be debated 

and vetted for their efficacy. 

Collaborating Institution: University of 

Puerto Rico, Río Piedras

Related Publication: Lugo, A.E., Nytch, C.J., 

and Ramsey, M. 2013. An analysis of US Army 

Corps of Engineers documents supporting 

the channelization of the Río Piedras, Acta 

Científica 27(1-3): 4-72.

Institute Contact: Ariel E. Lugo,

alugo@fs.fed.us
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 38

Flood control channel at the lower reaches of the Río Piedras Watershed.

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 39

Inventory and Monitoring

When data are too good: redefining 

tropical forest gaps using airborne 

laser scanning data

In the early 1980s, gap formation and regeneration in gaps were thought to hold the key 

to understanding tropical forest diversity 

resulting from “intermediate disturbance.” 

Gaps were exciting places to study rapidly 

changing biogeochemical processes and an 

accessible location for doing plant physiological studies. Everyone was studying gaps but 

not everyone agreed on how to define a gap. 

Brokaw (1982) presented a practical definition that seemed to solve the problem. “A 

gap is a hole in the forest extending through 

all levels down to an average height of two 

m[eters] above the ground.“ This definition 

has been debated, but it has been fantastically successful. Brokaw did his work walking 

around on the forest floor.

Looking at forests from an aircraft carrying a 

laser scanner gives a three dimensional picture of forest structure. The shorthand name 

for the method is LiDAR, standing for light 

detection and ranging. LiDAR provides stunning details of forest structure, but it makes 

gap detection more complicated. When we 

applied Brokaw’s definition to LiDAR data we 

found that forest turnover times were unreasonably long – thousands of years (Hunter 

et al. 2015). How could that be? It turns out 

that the data were too good, and reflections 

off fine-scale forest material in gaps turned 

them into non-gaps by the Brokaw definition. The field observer ignores many of 

the vegetative features that appear in gaps 

above two meters (stray vines, fallen canopies, tall saplings), while the LiDAR detects 

them reliably.

In order to understand gaps with LiDAR 

technology, we had to redefine them with a 

method that ignores the haphazardly placed 

objects. Through an optimization process 

based upon forest growth statistics, we 

found that for two forests in the Amazon, the 

height cut off for gaps ought to be 10 meters and the minimum area a minimum of 10 

meters squared, to make gap detection biologically reasonable. Now that we know how 

to detect gaps using LiDAR, we are studying 

a wide range of intact and managed Amazon forests (over 16,000 ha in our archives) 

to understand gap creation rates and forest 

dynamics. 

Institute Contact: Michael Keller,

mkeller.co2@gmail.com

 

wiki.awf.forst.uni-goettingen.de
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 40

Quantifying green areas in San Juan 

using high-resolution imagery

The value of green infrastructure for management and provision of ecosystem services in 

cities is gaining importance in urban planning and ecological research. Detailed information about urban vegetation is crucial to 

efforts to manage green infrastructure, and 

high-resolution imagery can provide detailed 

observations of urban areas. However, most 

knowledge and remote sensing applications 

on green infrastructure in cities comes from 

temperate zones. This can be a problem in 

places like the tropics, where urban areas are 

expanding rapidly, and with little or no information to support sustainable growth efforts. 

Our study used high-resolution (0.3 m) imagery to quantify the vegetation of the city 

of San Juan and surrounding municipalities. 

We found that 61% of San Juan is green, 

and that some neighborhoods are greener 

than previously thought. In addition, spatial 

pattern analysis allowed us to classify urban 

vegetation into residential vs. non-residential vegetation, which is important for urban 

planning. Further, our study showed that very 

small pixels (< 1-2 m) are ideally needed for 

quantifying and mapping urban vegetation 

in places such as San Juan. Overall, our study 

highlights the value of high-resolution data 

for assessing vegetation in tropical cities, and 

provides novel geospatial on urban vegetation to support city planning and scientific 

research

Collaborating Institutions: University of 

Wisconsin, Madison

Contacts: Sebastián Martinuzzi,

sebamartinuzzi@gmail.com;

Tischa Muñoz-Erickson,

tamunozerickson@fs.fed.us
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 41

Synthesis on characterizing tropical 

forests with multispectral imagery

Tropical forests have far more species diversity than temperate or boreal forests, and 

their role in Earth’s atmospheric greenhouse 

gas budgets is large. Multispectral satellite 

imagery, i.e., remotely sensed imagery with 

discrete bands ranging from visible to shortwave infrared wavelengths, is the timeliest 

and most widely available imagery for inventories of greenhouse gas sinks and sources 

related to tropical forests. Such inventories 

are conducted for the United Nations program, REDD+, which will compensate developing countries for Reducing greenhouse 

gas Emissions to the atmosphere from Deforestation or Degradation, and for sustainably managing forests and their carbon stocks. 

Together with collaborators we summarized 

how multispectral imagery can help characterize tropical forest attributes related to 

forest carbon emissions, including forest 

type, age, structure, and disturbance type or 

intensity, and the storage, degradation and 

accumulation of carbon in tree biomass. They 

also reviewed how this imagery can reveal 

feedbacks between tropical forest degradation and climate and how to cloud-screen 

and gap-fill imagery. They review how the 

spectral information inherent to multiyear 

image time series has high sensitivity to the 

age, height or biomass of forests and how 

the spectral and textural information in multispectral imagery of high spatial resolution 

can be used to estimate tropical forest biomass.

Collaborating Institutions: Remote Sensing 

Centre, Brisbane, Australia; Agricultural Research for Development, Montpellier, France;

Amazon Institute of People and the Environment, Belém, Brazil; Carnegie Institution for 

Science, Stanford, California; US Geological 

Survey, Flagstaff, Arizona.

Related Publication: Helmer, E., Goodwin, 

N.R., Gond, V., Souza Jr, C.M., and Asner, G.P. 

2015. Characterizing tropical forests with 

multispectral imagery. Chapter 14. In: Prasad 

S. Thenkabail, ed. Land Resources: Monitoring, Modeling and Mapping. Remote Sensing 

Handbook vol. 2. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 

Taylor & Francis Group. p. 367-396.

http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/49987

Institute Contact: Eileen Helmer,

ehelmer@fs.fed.us

Example of tropical forest landscape in Amazonia as seen in Landsat imagery.
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 42

Resource Management

and Governance 

Conserving mangroves in the context

of the Anthropocene

As human activities have expanded across the 

global landscape and changed the conditions 

that affect the functioning of the biota, many 

have come to describe a new geologic epoch 

being referred to as the Anthropocene. As 

conditions change, ecosystems are affected 

in new and unforeseen ways. For mangroves, 

this means coping with sea level rise, atmospheric warming, changes in atmospheric gas 

composition, changes in the frequency and 

intensity of atmospheric events and in hydrological conditions, and loss of cover as a 

result of urbanization, agriculture, and other 

land use changes. Building on more than 40 

years of mangrove research, we collaborated 

with Venezuelan investigators to consider 

mangrove ecophysiology and tree functioning, mangrove responses to global change, 

and policies and institutions that affect mangroves at local to global scales, to provide a 

better understanding of the issues and opportunities for mangrove conservation in the 

21st century. Findings suggest that mangrove 

composition is changing with the movement 

of mangrove species across continental barriers as a result of human activity, and that 

these trends will lead to novel mangrove forests and in some cases expand the range of 

mangroves worldwide. Preserving mangroves 

in the Anthropocene will not be achieved by 

isolating mangroves from people, but rather 

by regulating interactions between mangroves and humans through effective management based on sound science that goes 

beyond the traditional scope of ecological 

analyses to include the social forces converging on mangroves. Increased collaboration 

between governments, non-governmental 

organizations, and communities that depend 

on mangroves for their livelihood will be critical for the conservation of mangroves in the 

Anthropocene.

Collaborating Institution: Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas, Caracas, 

Venezuela

Related Publication: Lugo, A.E., Medina, E., 

and McGinley, K. 2014. Issues and challenges 

of mangrove conservation in the Anthropocene - Desafios de la conservación del mangle en el Antropoceno. Madera y Bosques vol. 

20, num. especial : 11-38.

Institute Contacts: Ariel E. Lugo,

alugo@fs.fed.us; Kathleen McGinley,

kmcginley@fs.fed.us

Mangrove reforestation in Puerto Rico.

G. Bauer
Examining policies, laws,

institutions, and instruments governing forest conservation and sustainable management

As part of our collaborative work on forest 

governance, we analyzed forest policies, 

laws, institutions, and instruments governing forest conservation and management 

in the United States, as part of a broader 

national process to measure, monitor, and 

report on forest sustainability using the 

Montreal Process Criteria and Indicators 

for the Conservation and Sustainable Management of Forests. Specifically, we examined: (1) land tenure, (2) legislation, (3) law 

enforcement, (4) taxation and incentives, 

(5) cross-sectoral coordination, (6) partnerships, (7) public participation and conflict 

resolution, (8) institutions and personnel, 

(9) research, and (10) monitoring and reporting as they relate to forests and their 

sustainability. We report on public laws 

that govern public lands, which comprise 

about one-third of the nation’s forests. 

These laws dictate management and 

public involvement through a broad range 

of detailed processes and prescriptions. 

Federal and state laws also protect wildlife 

and endangered species on all public and 

private lands, and range in their rigor of 

voluntary to requisite practices for protecting water quality, air quality, and other 

public goods. Federal and state laws also 

provide for technical and financial assistance, research, education, and planning 

on private forest lands, but do not require 

or prescribe specific actions or standards. 

Many newer market based mechanisms, 

including forest certification, wetland 

banks, payments for environmental services, and conservation easements are 

used ever more frequently to implement 

sustainable forest management (SFM) 

across the country. And, there is increasing 

development of cross-sectoral policies and 

programs that link related policy networks, 

purposes, and desired outcomes at all levels. Critical partnerships affecting forests 

are evolving around cross-boundary issues, such as climate change, land use, and 

water conservation. Yet, barriers persist in 

addressing issues that cross ecological, social, political, legal, and other boundaries. 

Also, forestry faces ongoing challenges 

from other land uses, particularly in places 

where incentives for SFM are low and pressures for development and/or agriculture 

are high. 

Related Publications: McGinley, K., Cubbage, F.W., 2015. Criterion 7: Legal, Institutional, and Economic Framework. In: USDA 

Forest Service, In Press, National Report on 

Sustainable Forests – 2015. USDA Forest 

Service, Washington, DC.

McGinley, K., Cubbage, F.W., 2015. Policy, 

Laws, Organizations, and Other Governance Arrangements Influencing Forests 

in the US: A Baseline Assessment. In: Congress Proceedings, XIV World Forestry 

Congress, Durban, South Africa, 7-11 September 2015. 

Institute Contact: Kathleen McGinley, 

kmcginley@fs.fed.us

2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 43
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 44

Select key cross-boundary partnerships and programs promoted by the US federal government that directly support sustainable 

forests. Source: McGinley and Cubbage, In Press.

CESUs - NPS Cooperative Ecosystems Studies Units

CFLRP - Collaborative Forest Land Restoration Progam

Climate Hubs - USDA Regional Hubs for Risk Adaptation 

and Mitigation of Climate Change

CSCs - USFWS Climate Science Centers

FIA - USFS Forest Inventory and Analysis 

HWI - EPA Healthy Watersheds Initiative

IWRSS - Integrated Water Resources Sciences and Services 

Consortium

LCCs - USFWS Landscape Conservation Cooperatives

NIFC - National Interagency Fire Center

RISAs - NOAA Regional Integrated Sciences and Assessments

US GCRP - US Global Change Research Program

UWFP - Urban Waters Federal Partnership
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 45

Conceptual illustration of the networked interactions between 

ways of knowing and information exchange among actors 

involved in sustainability decision-making and governance. 

Circles represent different governance actors and the lines 

between them represent exchanges of information and knowledge among them. Examining opportunities for translating 

knowledge to action requires investigating these challenges 

(1) establishing network boundaries that capture actors with 

relevant and diverse ways of knowing, (2) identifying whether 

a single way of knowing occupies a position of privilege and 

power over information, and (3) identifying the probability that 

information sharing among multiple ways of knowing will encourage (or detract from) the effectiveness and efficiency of the 

knowledge network (Muñoz-Erickson and Cutts, 2015).

Understanding knowledge-action 

networks for sustainability

In this study we explore how social networks 

influence efforts to link knowledge and action for sustainability. Social networks are 

patterned social relations that link actors 

together through various connections, such 

as friendships, communication, information, 

and in this case, knowledge. New institutional 

arrangements are emerging that recognize 

the complex, and sometimes networked, 

interactions between knowledge and decision-making for environmental sustainability. 

We refer to these arrangements as knowledge-action networks. In the area of urban 

sustainability, for instance, cities and national 

entities are investing in efforts that facilitate 

knowledge production, dissemination, and 

use across multiple sectors by creating boundary organizations to manage water and other 

resources, long-term collaborative social-ecological research sites (e.g., urban Long-Term 

Ecological Research sites), and most recently, 

sustainability research networks by the National Science Foundation. We conducted a review 

of the literature on social networks, governance, and knowledge production and found 

three key challenges to understanding knowledge-action networks: 1) defining boundaries; 

2) characterizing power distributions; and, 3) 

identifying obstacles to knowledge sharing 

and connectivity. These knowledge network 

properties may express themselves in different network structures of knowledge flow. We 

propose that concepts and tools from social 

network theory are useful to understand barriers and opportunities associated with how 

information and knowledge flow among the 

multiple actors and organizations involved 

in knowledge production and use for decision-making and action.

Collaborating Institution: University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Related Publication: Muñoz-Erickson, T.A. 

and B.B. Cutts. 2015. Structural dimensions of 

knowledge-action networks for sustainability. 

Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 18: 56-64.

Institute Contact: Tischa Muñoz-Erickson, 

tamunozerickson@fs.fed.us

1

2

3
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 46

Scientists and municipal planners 

collaborate in exploring green alternatives to flood control in the city

City planners of the Municipality of San Juan 

are exploring more sustainable approaches to 

manage the high incidence of flood events in 

the city without having to rely on hard structural solutions (e.g., river channelization) that 

may put communities and ecological values at 

risk. In 2013, the Municipality received funding 

from the Department of Natural Resources and 

the Environment to develop a capacity building program for exploring green alternatives to 

flood control in San Juan. Municipal planners 

reached out to Institute scientists and other 

collaborators under its San Juan Urban LongTerm Research Area (ULTRA) 

network to provide assistance 

in the design of workshops 

that explore and deliberate 

different approaches to using 

green areas alternatives as a 

flood control measure. Four 

different workshops have been 

held so far that included nine 

presentations from scientists 

and professionals from backgrounds in climate change, 

hydrology, green infrastructure, landscape architecture, 

and program development. 

In addition to specific cases 

in Puerto Rico, two cases, one 

from the Kissimmee River in 

Florida and the Jordan River 

in Salt Lake City, were also 

presented. More details on the 

workshops and presenters can be found on 

the projects website (http://www.lacuencadelriopiedras.com). A key outcome of this effort is 

the formation of a civic alliance to bring together the various participants and stakeholders that these workshops convened. Institute 

and San Juan ULTRA scientists will continue to 

support and work with the Municipality and 

the alliance to explore sustainable pathways 

towards flood resilience for the city. 

Collaborating Institution: Municipality of San 

Juan; University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences; University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras

Institute Contact: Tischa Muñoz-Erickson, 

tamunozerickson@fs.fed.us

Participants at a workshop hosted by the Municipality of San Juan at the Museo de Vida 

Silvestre.

D. Carrasquillo
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 47

M. Santiago

Butterfly project on the green roof at the Institute’s spatial analysis laboratory.
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 48

Wildlife Ecology and 

Biodiversity Conservation

Through the Institute’s Wildlife and International Cooperation programs’ collaborative scientific investigations, technological 

advice and outreach to local governments, 

universities, NGOs, and indigenous communities, long-term research and the conservation and management of remaining 

tropical submontane (cloud) forest is promoted in Nicaragua’s Northern Highlands 

Ecoregion, along with dry forest and wetlands ecosystems in southern Nicaragua’s 

Paso del Istmo Biological Corridor. What 

follows are some key findings from several 

ongoing projects.

Complex landscape matrices in

tropical America as biodiversity 

strongholds

Forest management to promote biodiversity and ecological restoration in the 

Neotropics is complex, especially in montane agroforestry landscapes currently 

experiencing increasing pressure from the 

effects of regional climate change. Often 

bioindicator taxa are used to summarize 

the effects of disturbance, describe observed changes and help raise awareness of 

the biological consequences, and to assist 

in identifying conservation targets and to 

guide adaptive and ameliorative measures. We used birds, nymphalid butterflies 

and land snails as bioindicators of habitat 

degradation and to track the effects of climate change in five montane agroforestry 

management systems: cloud forest, riparian, early serial regeneration, pasture and 

grasslands, and shade coffee, one of the 

premiere cash crops in the region. Our studies were conducted in agroforestry lands 

at three locations in the Jinotega Province, 

two within the Datanlí-El Diablo Natural 

Reserve at the Juan Roberto Zarruk Biological Station, Finca Santa Maura, within the 

Cerro Datanlí-El Diablo Natural Reserve, 

the Cerro EL Gobiado, and a disjunct cloud 

forest within the El Jaguar Private Wildlife 

Reserve. Of the 6,679 detections of 215 

bird species, five forest-dependent species (Golden-crowned Warbler, Black-faced 

Antthrush, White-breasted Wood-Wren, and 

Ochre-bellied Flycatcher) showed predictable population decreases as forest cover 

diminished. Of the 49 butterfly species collected (227 individuals), only one species, 

Satyrotaygetis gigas, showed population 

declines with ecosystem disturbance. Although none of the 42 species of molluscs 

(590 individuals) showed declines with 

habitat deterioration, three species were restricted to forest (Euglandina obtuse, Helicina oweniana, Helix trigonostoma). These bioindicators will help fill gaps in assessment 

issues of agroforestry ecosystems, natural 

and private reserves, and areas of payment 

for environmental services, all of which are 

related to the preservation and sustainability of the region’s natural resources.

Institute Contact: Wayne Arendt, 

warendt@fs.fed.us
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 49

Long-term biomonitoring documents 

the importance of agroscapes in

measuring biodiversity at local and 

landscape levels

Our biodiversity and climate change research 

was carried out along the Pacific Slope Ecoregion within the Paso del Istmo Biological 

Corridor (PIBC) in southeastern Nicaragua, 

and at the Juan Roberto Zarruk Biological 

Station, Finca Santa Maura, within the Cerro 

Datanlí-El Diablo Natural Reserve in Nicaragua’s Northern Highlands Ecoregion. Of the 

168 species of birds detected in the PIBC, 

the significant correlation between habitat 

type and forest-interior birds, as well as other bioindicator species of forest health and 

sustainability, underlined the importance of 

the preservation and management of mature forest remnants with ample understory, 

younger wooded tracts and brushy areas 

under regeneration to preserve and promote 

biodiversity among similar agroscapes within the Paso del Istmo. Of the 123 species of 

birds and 29 species of nymphalid butterflies 

detected among five habitat types in the 

Northern Highlands, i.e., secondary and riparian forest, forest fallow, coffee plantation, 

and pastureland with scattered trees, coffee 

plantations had the highest avian species 

richness, whereas forest fallows harbored 

the most species of nymphalid butterflies. 

Among the most common species observed 

(within both taxa), many were forest-dependent, further demonstrating that anthropic 

landscapes are vital in maintaining a rich 

biodiversity. Within the interior of the coffee 

plantations, which are interspersed within a 

complex matrix of remnant forest, we found 

forest-interior and bioindicator species of 

birds and butterflies. This supports the argument that agroecological practices and 

resultant agroscapes, concomitant with the 

preservation of forest remnants, have a positive effect at the local landscape level and 

are an integral piece of the major ecosystem 

mosaic generally used to measure biodiversity at local and landscape levels.

Related Publications: Herrera-Rosales, H.M., 

Tórrez, M., Arendt, W.J. 2014. Registros del 

Cuco Hormiguero (Neomorphus geoffroyi) 

en la Reserva de Biósfera de Bosawas, Nicaragua. Zeledonia 18: 55–61; www.treesearch.

fs.fed.us/pubs/48942

Maes, J.M., Tórrez, M.A., Covlin, V., and Van 

den Berghe, E. 2014. Memphis philumena

(Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae), nuevo para la 

fauna de Nicaragua. Revista Nicaragüense de 

Entomología, 7 pp.

Institute Contact: Wayne Arendt,

warendt@fs.fed.us

Nicaragua biodiversity monitoring and training. 

W. Arendt
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 50

Pilot assessment of mercury exposure 

in selected biota from the lowlands of 

Nicaragua

Lacustrine and wetlands populations of vertebrates inhabiting the Neotropics, including humans, piscivorous and insectivorous 

birds, as well as ground-foraging invertivores 

such as basilisk and Ameiva lizards, exhibited 

elevated levels of methylmercury (MeHg) in 

blood, hair, or feathers (as high as 0.72 ppm) 

as a result of methylation, biomagnification 

upwards through the food chain, and bioaccumulation as residuals in their tissues and 

circulatory systems. Feather MeHg concentrations exceeded >3.0 ppm in several species of Nearctic-Neotropical migratory birds 

sampled. Birds from a riverine wetland near 

agricultural cultivations east of Cárdenas (río 

Tirurí) on Lake Nicaragua had the highest 

MeHg concentrations of all the invertivores 

sampled at all sites. The two sites with lowest MeHg concentrations were the Pacific 

coast sites (a riverine wetland and mangrove 

forest). Whereas the low levels of the MeHg 

contaminant in the Pacific coast wetlands are 

encouraging from both environmental and 

health risk standpoints, the elevated levels of 

MeHg found in the human population, piscivorous and ground-foraging birds and reptiles inhabiting the wetlands bordering Lake 

Nicaragua is particularly troublesome, owing 

to the increased threat to human health 

and development as well as the heightened 

probability of affecting local and regional 

biodiversity resulting from poor reproductive performance of resident and migratory 

birds. Additional research is planned and the 

authors are working closely with the Nicaraguan Government’s Department of Natural 

Resources in drawing up plans to assess and 

reduce the accumulation of MeHg in the 

environment.

Related Publication: Lane, O., Arendt, W.J., 

Tórrez, M., and Cruz Gámez Castellón, J. 2013. 

Pilot assessment of mercury exposure in selected biota from the lowlands of Nicaragua. 

Mesoamericana 17: 19–28.

Institute Contact: Wayne Arendt,

warendt@fs.fed.us

W. Arendt

Sampling for mercury poisoning.
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 51

Long-term research on the dry forest 

avian community in the Guánica 

Biosphere Reserve

Declared in 1919 under the administrative 

authority of Puerto Rico’s Insular Forest 

Service, the Guánica Commonwealth Forest (also known as Guánica State Forest, 

or Bosque Estatal de Guánica) is located in 

southwestern Puerto Rico about 160 km 

(100 miles) and a 2-hour drive from San Juan. 

The Guánica Commonwealth Forest was 

renamed the Guánica Biosphere Reserve in 

1981 when it was designated as part of UNESCO’s (United Nations Educational, Scientific, 

and Cultural Organization) program on Man 

and the Biosphere (MAB). The Reserve covers 

4400 ha along an elevational gradient of 0 to 

228 m (752 feet) above sea level, comprising 

diverse coastal habitats, including deciduous 

and semi-evergreen forests, wetlands, several mangrove cays, and 21 km (13 miles) of 

undeveloped coastline and marine estuaries. 

We began conducting research and monitoring in the Guánica dry forest in 1973. To date, 

185 species of birds, the reserve’s dominant 

vertebrate taxon, have been recorded: 97 

permanent residents or summer breeders 

and visitors, and an almost equal number 

(88) of “wintering” or passage migrants and 

transients. Of Puerto Rico’s 17 species of endemic birds, all but 2, the Puerto Rican Parrot 

and Elfin-woods Warbler, occur within the 

confines of the Reserve. This guide will serve 

as a baseline for tracking forest bird population fluctuations concomitant with global 

warming and the ever-changing climate.

Related Publications: Lane, O., Arendt, W.J., 

Arendt, W.J., Faaborg, J., Canals, M., and Bauer, J. 2015. Bird checklist, Guánica Biosphere 

Reserve, Puerto Rico. Research Note SRS-23. 

Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture 

Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 23 

p.

Institute Contact: Wayne Arendt,

warendt@fs.fed.us

W. Arendt

Training Nicaraguan university students.
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 52

As part of our collaborative research on the 

habitat characteristics of the endangered 

migrant Kirtland’s Warbler (Aves; Setophaga 

kirtlandii) on its wintering grounds in The 

Bahamas, we published our studies of two 

fruiting plant species important to the 

warbler (Fleming et al. 2015). The shrubs 

black torch (Erithalis fruticosa, L.) and wild 

sage (Lantana involucrata, L.) are especially 

important in the diet of the warbler during 

the dry season at the end of the winter. 

These two shrubs occur in recently disturbed sites. We sought to determine, 

based on functional characteristics of the 

plants, whether a particular type of disturbance in The Bahamas favors their presence. We used data from our field experiments (i.e., seed broadcasting and shrub 

cutting) to determine mechanisms and conditions favoring establishment and persistence (“vital attributes”) of the two shrubs 

and categorized them into the plant functional types as previously defined in the 

literature. We then compared hypothesized 

distributions of these plant functional types 

among different anthropogenic disturbance 

regimes to observed distributions of the two 

shrubs to identify disturbance regimes most 

likely to produce the warbler’s habitat. 

Among the anthropogenic disturbances 

examined, areas of large-scale land clearing 

combined with subsequent goat grazing 

most often supported the shrubs, which 

were rare in burned areas. 

Both shrub species were functionally categorized as widely dispersed, but largely shade 

intolerant species capable of establishing 

or regenerating after disturbance via both 

seeds and vegetative mechanisms. Utilizing a plant functional type framework to 

predict species occurrence among different 

disturbances regimes and evaluating those 

predictions with field data provides a strong 

theoretical basis for conservation strategies. 

Understanding which regimes of disturbance 

favor a habitat of concern can aid the prioritization of areas for protection or the design of 

habitat management protocols for the warbler and other species.

Institute Contact: Joseph Wunderle,

jwunderlejrfs.fed.us

D. Currie

Juvenile male Kirtland’s Warbler in The Bahamas (top), black torch (lower right), and 

wild sage (lower left).

Plant functional attributes used to inform 

conservation planning and management for 

endangered bird habitat
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 53

Avian conservation planning priorities 

for Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin 

Islands

Institute scientists involved in the Caribbean 

Landscape Conservation Cooperative collaborated with research and management 

partners to produce a report that highlights 

conservation planning priorities for birds 

throughout Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin 

Islands. The report synthesizes dozens of 

previous research, planning, and management efforts spanning 

multiple taxonomic 

groups and spatial scales 

to provide an up-to-date 

summary of the regional 

avifauana, anthropogenic 

and non-anthropogenic 

threats, as well as opportunities and strategies for 

protecting individual species, community groups, 

and habitat throughout the study area. An 

important goal was to showcase important 

breeding and migratory birds, their conservation status, and habitat needs. While this 

document is not itself a comprehensive plan, 

the conclusions within are aimed at guiding 

island-wide and regional avian conservation 

planning and management actions that will 

help maintain or increase populations over 

the next 20-25 years. Specific population 

objectives for 144 species were determined 

using the Partners in Flight prioritization 

process. Analysis of species distribution and 

stewardship management data from the Gap 

Analysis Project were integrated with existing literature to identify priority areas and 

establish quantitative habitat targets. Recommended actions include protecting rare 

and critical habitats, building upon protected 

areas to create convergent habitat linkages 

among jurisdictions and across public and 

private lands, and increasing monitoring of 

population trends of vulnerable species and 

responses to interspecies interactions, habitat loss, and climate change effects. These 

actions can be supported via a suite of strategies including expanding private lands and 

public engagement/monitoring programs, 

developing multi-level governance partnerships to integrate bird 

conservation with natural 

resource management 

and land use planning 

programs, fostering of 

increased coordination 

among various conservation-oriented entities, 

and improving outreach 

communication of science-based information to help in the conservation of avian species and habitats.

Collaborating Institutions: University of 

Puerto Rico-Río Piedras, U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service, and the Atlantic Coast Joint Venture. 

Related Publication: Nytch, C. J., Hunter, W. 

C., Núñez-García, F., Fury, C., Quiñones, M., & 

Collazo, J. (February, 2015). Avian conservation planning priorities for Puerto Rico and 

the U.S. Virgin Islands (BCR 69). http://acjv.

org/documents/PRUSVI_plan.pdf

Institute Contact: William Gould,

wgould@fs.fed.us
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 54

G. González
International Cooperation

2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 55

Program Manager: Gerald Bauer, gbauer@fs.fed.us

International Cooperation conducts research and provides technical assistance and 

technology transfer throughout Central America and the Caribbean. Our primary 

focus areas for the past two years have been the Dominican Republic and Nicaragua. Additionally, we have cooperated with partners in more than 20 countries 

around the globe.

Global Activities

• International Cooperation participated in the U.S. Forest Service-USAID Disaster Assistance Support Program (DASP). This involved completing training to qualify in disaster response management, planning, operations, preparedness and prevention.

International Cooperation staff: Yaneris M. Soto Muñiz, Communications Intern; Mara C. Santana, Communications/Social 

Marketing Intern; Yanira L. Cortés, Support Service Specialist; Gerald Bauer, Program Manager.

M.M. Rivera-Costa
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 56

Regional Activities

Several International Cooperation activities 

were carried out at the regional level, including the following:

Scientific Paper Presentations

• Integrando la investigación y educación 

ambiental para conservar las especies 

emblemáticas (Amazona auropalliata), 

Paso del Istmo, Nicaragua. Julio Martónez 

Velásquez, Martín 

Lezama López, y Kimberly Williams.

• Aves de Paso del 

Istmo, Rivas, Nicaragua, con énfasis en 

especies indicadores 

dependientes de bosque. Marlon Sotelo 

Reyes, Marvin Tórrez 

Gutiérrez, y Wayne 

Arendt.

• Evaluación de talleres ecológicos y 

aprovechamiento de plantas en entoros 

urbanos, Valle Central de Costa Rica. 

Katherine Ulate Gómez, Alberto Rico U. y 

Sofia Peñaranda Oses.

Poster Presentations

• La Red de Monitoreo Terra: Entender la 

Contaminacíon de Mercuro en Ecosistemas Terrestres. David C. Evers, David G. 

Buck, Oksana Lane, Wayne Arendt, et. al.

• Mercurio en Aves Residentes y Migratorios Neotropicales en Nicaragua, Selección 

de las Especies Indicadores. Oksana Lane, 

Wayne Arendt, y Marvin Tórrez.

Workshops and Working Groups

• Participated in and gave technical presentations at regional USAID climate 

change meetings and workshops.

• Participated in Partners in Flight and 

Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory international working group on bird conservation to evaluate status of all birds in 

Central America. The Institute provided 

information based on 20 years of research in Nicaragua.

• Participated in Partners in Flight Western 

Working Group seminar sessions.

• Provided assistance to the Mesoamerican 

Society for Biology and Conservation.

Conservation education in Nicaragua.

M. Dolkas
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 57

Nicaragua Activities

International Cooperation continued with 

our long-term research, technical assistance 

and technology transfer to Nicaragua, with 

focus on the Paso del Istmus Biological Corridor with our NGO partner Paso Pacífico 

(www.pasopacifico).

Research Support

For highlights of the Nicaragua research 

activities supported by IC, see the Wildlife 

Ecology section of this report and projects 

related to biodiversity monitoring and the 

effects of climate change.

Technology Transfer and Technical Assistance

More than 2,000 persons participated in IC 

technology transfer and technical assistance 

activities.

 

Highlights include the following:

• Sponsored technical seminar on bird 

conservation and conservation education.

• Organized technical seminar and guide 

training for the first Nicaragua Bird Festival

• Conducted workshops and conservation 

education activities and long-term monitoring on mammals (bats and monkeys), birds, and reptiles (sea turtles). 

Trained more than 50 local youth on 

monitoring techniques.

• Trained 250 Hispanic “Junior Rangers” 

from underserved, small communities in 

conservation techniques.

• Provided 150 pairs of binoculars to local 

youth.

• Presented conservation programs on local TV and radio stations, with more than 

100,000 viewing.

• In coordination with the National Tourism Chamber of Commerce and the 

communities of Pearl Lagoon, completed the book “Pearls from the Lagoon, 

short stories & recipes.”

• Institute partner NGO Paso Pacífico developed a variety of curriculum around 

bat, jaguar, and bird education for over 

200 K-12 children in four communities in 

the Paso del Istmo. Students participated in workshops to learn wildlife identification and monitoring techniques 

and take field trips to observe wildlife in 

their habitat, learning the importance 

of these animals to the ecosystem and 

to respect them in their native environments.

Nicaraguan Junior Ranger parrot telemetry.

M. Sotelo
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 58

Watershed mapping in Nicaragua.

M. Dolkas
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 59

Dominican Republic Activities

International Cooperation provided leadership, mentorship and research, technical 

assistance and technology transfer to Dominican Republic partners in biodiversity conservation and sustainable tourism activities in 

local, underserved and disadvantaged, Hispanic communities, and tourism clusters in 

coordination with the Dominican Consortium 

for Tourism Development. We completed the 

Sustainable Tourism and Biodiversity Conservation project and started a new project, 

“Conservation and Sustainable Management 

of Urban Watersheds as Mechanisms for Adaptation to Climate Change.”

Our primary focus was to assist Dominican 

Republic tourism clusters with biodiversity 

conservation and sustainable tourism development through on-the-ground technical assistance and training programs that included:

• Conducting biological assessments for 

project activities;

• Providing technical training for communities to develop ecotourism activities;

• Providing promotion and marketing 

assistance;

• Providing information to support environmental education; and

• Providing technical support to the Ministry of Environment in support of protected area management.

Activities Accomplished

• In coordination with local partners, 

completed and inaugurated the first 

accessible trail in the Dominican Republic. This trail is located in the National Botanical Garden. It was inaugurated by the U.S. Ambassador and 

USAID Director.

• Assisted the U.S. Embassy Speaker 

Program by hosting Terestella Gonzalez-Denton, former President of the 

Puerto Rico Tourism Board, to give 

presentations in Dominican Republic 

universities and local communities on 

community tourism development. A 

total of about 150 persons participated 

in these events.

• In coordination with the Technological 

University of Santo Domingo, gave the 

invited presentation “Social-ecological 

systems change, vulnerability, and the 

future of a tropical city” at the “Conferencia Científica Internacional, Sostenibilidad y Cambio Climático, SYCC14.”

• Presented programs on sustainable 

tourism development in Dominican 

Republic on local TV and radio stations, 

with more than 50,000 individuals 

viewing these presentations.

M. Dolkas

Nicaraguan community wildlife education.
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 60

Training a local research technician in the Dominican Republic.

B. Nina
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 61

Puerto Rico Activities

International Cooperation accomplishments in Puerto Rico include:

• Completed the book “Passing the Baton,” in honor of the Institute’s 75th anniversary 

celebration. A public event was held with more than 100 persons present to inaugurate 

the book.

• In cooperation with the University of Puerto Rico, received a research grant under the 

Partnerships for Enhanced Engagement in Research (PEER) Program, for “Exploring Sustainable Solutions Aiming at Redressing Environmental Disasters in Haiti.”
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 62

Nicaraguan Junior Ranger certification.

Nicaraguan Junior Ranger certification.

M. Sotelo
State and Private Forestry

2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 63

Acting Program Manager: Magaly Figueroa, mafigueroa@fs.fed.us

State and Private Forestry provides professional, technical, and financial assistance to state agencies, universities, and non-profit organizations within Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands (St. Thomas, St. Croix, and St. John). Through 

targeted technical and financial assistance and conservation education, federal 

resources are leveraged to protect and support sustainable management of the 

islands’ forests and ecosystems to produce goods and services that are important 

to many communities. This assistance is focused on cooperative forestry, forest 

health, urban and community forestry, cooperative fire protection, and landowner and legacy assistance programs. Key issues addressed by this program include 

rapid urbanization and residential development and its sprawl into natural areas, ecological restoration of natural and built-up areas, water quality (including 

storm water runoff and natural area restoration), soil protection and watershed 

management, sustainable urban forestry programs at the local level, damage of 

reefs and over-fishing of key species, and sustainable tourism development in 

small communities.

State and Private Forestry staff: Jorge Morales, Technical Information Specialist; Gisel Reyes, Technical Information Specialist; Kevin 

Carlin, Forest Entomologist; Aixa Mojica, Program Support Assistant; Magaly Figueroa, Acting Program Manager and Natural Resources Specialist; absent: Evelyn Pagán, Library Technician. C. Nytch

State and Private Forestry
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 64

M. Figueroa

Tree harvesting workshop.
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 65

Forest Stewardship Program

The Forest Stewardship Program continued 

providing technical assistance to private 

landowners in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin 

Islands for the development of management 

plans that promote sustainable management 

of forest resources. The program also provides educational opportunities related to 

diverse conservation initiatives and practices. 

Partner institutions for this program include the Puerto Rico Department 

of Natural and Environmental 

Resources Forest Service 

Bureau, and the U.S. Virgin 

Islands Department of 

Agriculture for the implementation of the program. 

The DNER Stewardship 

Program in Puerto Rico focused on developing at least 

two management plans by each 

one of the seven regional offices 

and concentrating efforts in the Important 

Forest Resource Areas identified for Puerto 

Rico. The agency also contracted Cafiesencia, a nonprofit group, for the development 

of management plans in the Maricao Joint 

Priority Landscape. Moreover, the DNER partnered with the Tropical Agricultural Research 

and Higher Education Institute in Costa 

Rica (CATIE) to offer the course Diversified 

Management of Tropical Forests, a five-day 

training to strengthen the technical expertise on management of private forests. The 

course included agroforestry, forest products, 

non-timber forest products, certifications, 

and forestry and community management 

models. The same group participated in a 

workshop hosted by the Institute on the 

use of the Stewardship Mapping and Accomplishment Reporting Tool (SMART), an 

internet tool developed by the Forest Service 

for the creation of Forest Stewardship Management Plans. In 2014, the Commonwealth 

of Puerto Rico passed the Puerto Rico Model 

Forest Act under the Commonwealth Law 

Num. 182. It recognizes the ecological value of the lands included within, by declaring 

it a new priority area for 

planning, conservation, 

and for the inclusion 

of new non-industrial 

private forest lands.

In the U.S. Virgin Islands, 

the Department of Agriculture Forest Stewardship Program continued 

developing Forest Stewardship 

Management Plans for private landowners, successfully using SMART. Those 

plans are evaluated and approved by the 

Forest Stewardship Coordinating Committee. Previously, the plans were prepared by 

a private contractor hired by the U.S. Virgin 

Islands Department of Agriculture. In December, 2015, the department hired a new Forest 

Stewardship Coordinator, Louis Hilgemann, 

who will also serve as the Forest Legacy Coordinator.

Institute Contact: Magaly Figueroa,

mafigueroa@fs.fed.us
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 66

Forest Stewardship Program Accomplishments in Puerto Rico and the U.S. 

Virgin Islands 

Performance Measures Puerto Rico U.S. Virgin Islands

2014 2015 2014 2015

Non-Industrial Private Forests in 

Important Forest Resource Areas 

(acres)

1,182,964 1,182,964 44,508 44,508

New Forest Stewardship Management

Plans (number of plans) 9 21 2 3

Acres for New Forest Stewardship 

Program Management Plans 1,274 1,779 88 258

Acres in Important Forest Resource 

Areas 1,274 1,779 75 258

Acres Covered by Current Forest

Stewardship Plans 1,976 2,573 240 1,267

Acres in Important Forest Resource 

Areas Covered by Current Forest 

Stewardship Plans

1,274 1,779 188 394

Landowners Assisted 15 26 33 18

Landowners Educated 15 1,689 34 18

Acres Covered by Practice or Other 

Forest Management Plans -- 859 -- 0

Acres in Important Forest Resource 

Areas Covered by Practice or Other 

Forest Management Plans

-- 859 -- 0
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 67

Blue mahoe (Talipariti elatum) hardwood products Las Casas de la Selva
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 68

Shade grown coffee farmers as bird

custodians

Cafiesencia, a community based nonprofit 

group, received a grant from the Forest Service 

to develop a project proposed to educate and 

build capacity among farmers and communities and promote conversion to and maintenance of shade grown coffee farms. The initiative is called Cafeicanto, which provides social, 

environmental, and economic opportunities to 

communities and private landowners through 

the implementation of agroforestry practices 

in the Puerto Rico Coffee Zone. Nine important watersheds originate in this zone, which 

also includes the PR005 Maricao/Susua Important Bird Area (IBA), which provides habitat to 

important neo-tropical migratory birds. The 

project area was divided in four modules: Maricao Module which includes Las Indieras and 

Montoso wards, and San Germán municipality 

upper wards; Yauco/Sabana Grande Module, 

which includes Rancheras, Frailes, and Collores 

wards in Yauco, and Tabonuco and Susúa wards 

in Sabana Grande; Río Prieto/Castañer Module, 

and Las Marías Module. Cafeicanto educated 

and trained coffee farmers and communities 

in agroforestry practices emphasizing shade 

grown coffee techniques and promoting the 

conversion of sun coffee to shade. Cafeicanto 

also partnered with the Puerto Rico Ornithology Society and Birdlife International to train 

farmers in bird monitoring techniques, electronic reporting tools, and the identification of 

eco-agrotourism opportunities. By the end of 

the training those farms were incorporated in 

the Birdlife/IBA Efforts Network, each one received their certification, and a customized bird 

guide to identify the birds in the properties. 

Institute Contact: Magaly Figueroa,

mafigueroa@fs.fed.us

M. Figueroa

Coffee beans.
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 69

Community Forest and Open 

Space Program

The Río Hondo community forest 

The Puerto Rico Municipality of Mayagüez, 

in partnership with the community based 

nonprofit organization Proyecto Comunitario Agro Eco Turístico del Barrio Río Hondo, 

Inc., (Estampas), received funding from the 

Community Forest and Open Space Program 

to acquire 67.99 acres of land located in the 

Río Hondo Ward. The property is the only 

large block of continuous forest remaining 

in the area and is surrounded by sub-urban 

communities, rural subdivisions, and several 

housing projects. Estampas has been leasing 

the property for over nine years and wanted 

to have the opportunity to acquire the land 

but was having problems identifying funding 

sources to complete the match required by 

the program. They reached out to the Muncipality of Mayagüez Mayor José Guillermo 

Rodríguez, who has supported the group 

for many years, and who agreed to present 

the proposal to the Forest Service. Once the 

Municipality of Mayagüez signed the grant 

with the Forest Service, Estampas began the 

formal process that precedes the acquisition 

of the land and identified the entity that 

will assist in the preparation of the management plan. The University of Puerto Rico in 

Mayagüez, College of Agricultural Sciences, 

is collaborating with the Municipality and 

Estampas to develop the community forest 

management plan. University professors 

Germán Ramos, Ph.D. and Oscar Abelleira, 

Ph.D., are in charge of assisting the community to develop the management plan. 

The first meeting with the community was 

held on November 3, 2015. The meeting was 

dedicated to presenting the Community 

Forest and Open Space Program to the attendees, discussing basic forest management 

concepts, community empowerment, and 

activities that are compatible with the program specifications. Attendees also identified 

activities they want to have on the property, 

and the information which was collected by 

Drs. Ramos and Abelleira. Dr. Abelleira for 

inclusion in the management plan. A small 

portion of the property is used to house the 

Estampas’ operational headquarters, which 

consist of a trailer used as an office and a 

conference room for meetings and community workshops. The group also established 

tree green houses that produce plant material and vegetables for sale for fundraising 

purposes. The rest of the property (90%) is 

forested and consists of post-abandonment 

secondary forest. The forest regenerated 

through natural processes after cessation 

of previous agricultural practices associated 

with sugar cane, coffee, and grazing. The forest is composed of trees of white acacia (Albizia procera), guaraguao (Guarea trichiliodes), 

fruit trees such as mango (Mangifera indica), 

guamá (Inga laurina), shrubs, and old coffee 

trees (Coffea arabica). The forested portion of 

the property is used for educational, cultural, 

and recreational activities by the community, 

academia, students from the Consuelo Pérez 

Elementary School in Río Hondo, AmeriCorps 

volunteers, and many others. 

Institute Contact: Magaly Figueroa,

mafigueroa@fs.fed.us
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 70

M. Figueroa

Río Hondo community forest.
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Urban and Community Forestry 

Program

The goal of the Urban and Community Forestry (UCF) Program is to promote the conservation of our urban trees and forests. Each 

year, community members and volunteers 

participate in the development of urban 

forest management plans, tree planting 

activities, workshops and educational talks, 

and activities with kids. The UCF Cost Share 

Program provides financial resources to 

community groups for the implementation 

of conservation and management initiatives 

and educational opportunities related to urban green spaces. In Puerto Rico the program 

is administered by the Department of Natural 

and Environmental Resources Forest Service 

Bureau, and in the U.S. Virgin Islands by the 

Department of Agriculture. Each agency has 

appointed an Urban and Community Forestry 

Coordinator that works with local urban and 

community forestry partners. The Urban and 

Community Forestry Council advises State 

Foresters to plan program implementation, 

develop public policy for the protection and 

conservation of urban forests, and administer 

the Cost Share Program.

The Puerto Rico DNER 

Forest Service Bureau 

continued efforts promoting urban community forestry and making available financial 

assistance to the community groups in Puerto Rico. To encourage 

community participation, the DNER and the 

Puerto Rico UCF Council updated their Guide 

for the Preparation of 

Proposals for the Urban 

and Community Forestry Cost Share Program, 

and offered a series of workshops in different 

parts of the island to train those groups in the 

use of the guide and answer questions related to the UCF Program authorities.

To improve technical expertise in urban 

forestry, the DNER offered five workshops on 

“Green Infrastructure” to forest technicians, 

management officials, and other technical 

personnel from the Forest Service Bureau 

working on the Urban and Community Forestry Program. M. Figueroa

Pruning training to municipal emergency management officials.
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 72

In the U.S. Virgin Islands, the 

Department of Agriculture and 

the UCF Council have been very 

successful in the promotion of 

the program and encouraging 

the participation of community 

groups in the Cost Share Program. The Urban and Community Forestry Program funds were 

used to reforest and rehabilitate 

urban parks, plant native trees, 

install irrigation systems, and educate the public at the Ag-Fair in 

St. Croix and environmental fairs 

hosted in St. John and St. Thomas. 

The U.S. Virgin Islands Department of Agriculture UCF council completed the final draft of 

the Urban Forestry Law. This document was 

presented to stakeholder audiences in both 

St. Croix and St. Thomas, and modifications 

were made as a result of those facilitated 

meetings. The final draft law was presented 

to Senator Myron Jackson for his support and 

is now making its way through the legislative 

committee. Senator Jackson hopes to present 

it to the full Senate for approval during 2016.

In March 2015, the Puerto Rico and U.S. Virgin 

Islands Urban and Community Forestry Councils completed the process of creating a new 

Caribbean UCF Strategic Plan. The process 

began in March 2014 when both UCF councils 

met for a week in Ponce, Puerto Rico. This final 

plan outlines the activities needed to comply 

with the joint Strategic Plans. This is the first 

time that the U.S. Virgin Islands and Puerto 

Rico Urban and Community Forestry Councils 

worked together towards several common 

goals, and it is hoped that in the future, these 

councils can participate in joint activities to 

achieve their common goals. As a result the 

UCF Councils agreed on the following:

Our Common Vision Statement:

Our education efforts and strategic actions 

ensure the enduring benefits and environmental services of urban forests in the Caribbean landscape, enhancing community 

well-being and mitigating the effects of climate change.

Our Common Mission Statement:

Promote the proper management and sustainability of urban forests to improve the 

wellbeing of the Caribbean communities 

through education efforts, technical assistance, and partnerships between the public 

and private sectors.

Institute Contact: Magaly Figueroa, mafigueroa@fs.fed.us

M. Figueroa

Caribbean Urban and Community Forestry Strategic Plan discussing session.
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2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 73

Urban and Community Forestry

Certificate Program

The Center for Sustainable Development 

Studies of the School of Environmental Affairs at the Metropolitan University partnered 

with the International Institute of Tropical 

Forestry Urban 

and Community 

Forestry Program to develop 

the first continuing education 

program leading 

to a university 

professional 

certificate in 

Urban and Community Forestry. 

The certificate 

includes courses 

that will provide 

the participants 

with basic theoretical and 

technical knowledge to work in 

the protection, 

establishment, 

and management of trees 

in urban areas, 

business development, and community 

participation agreements for the co-management of forests and urban parks. The program consists of seven core courses and 105 

contact hours for a total of 132 contact hours 

to complete the professional certificate. The 

certificate provides topics for all students, 

from architects, horticulturists and landscape 

design professionals, senior university students, and community members. For more 

information on the Urban and Community 

Forestry Certificate Program please visit the 

website http://cedes-umet.suagm.edu/, 

Complementing this 

educational 

initiative, the 

Center produced three 

urban forestry videos for 

teachers and 

students and 

are available 

free of cost on 

its website. To 

access the videos please visit the following address: 

http://cedesumet.suagm.

edu/videos.

asp. The videos are: Green 

Infrastructure, 

Trees for Urban Areas, and Maintenance of Urban Trees. 

Each video has a fact sheet with activities for 

the students and can be downloaded from 

the site. 

Institute Contact: Magaly Figueroa,

mafigueroa@fs.fed.us 
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 74

Urban and Community Forestry Program accomplishments in Puerto Rico 

and the U.S. Virgin Islands

Urban and Community Forestry Program AccomplishmentsPuerto Rico U.S. Virgin Islands

2014 2015 2014 2015

Percentage of population living in communities 

managing programs to plant, protect, and maintain their 

urban and community trees and forests.

23.74% 23.24% 0.00% 0.00%

Percentage of population living in communities 

eveloping programs and/or activities to plant, protect, 

and maintain their urban and community trees and forests.

0.00% 0.22% 21.92% 10.94%

Number of people living in communities provided educational, technical, and/or financial assistance. 704,295 710,821 23,809 11,881

Number of people living in communities that are 

developing programs/activities for their urban and community trees and forests.

0 6,526 23,809 11,881

Number of people living in communities managing their 

urban and community trees and forests. 704,295 704,295 0 0

Number of communities with active urban and community 

tree and forest management plans developed from professionally-based resource assessments/inventories.

33 33 7 7

Number of communities that employ or retain through 

written agreement the services of professional forestry

staff who have at least one of these credentials: (1) degree 

in forestry or related field; (2) ISA certified arborist or equivalent professional certification.

225 225 7 7

Number of communities that have adopted and can 

present documentation of local/statewide ordinances or 

policies that focus on planting, protecting, and maintaining their urban and community trees and forests.

261 263 0 0

Number of communities with local advocacy/advisory 

organizations, such as active tree boards, commissions, or 

non-profit organizations that are formalized or chartered 

to advise and/or advocate for the planting, protection, and 

maintenance of urban and community trees and forests.

27 27 3 7

Number of hours of volunteer service logged (an agency 

-wide consistent metholodogy to be developed to track 

volunteer hours).

58,047 156,864 976 6,698
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Educational Outreach

Project Learning Tree

The Institute partnered with the Puerto Rican 

Department of Natural and Environmental 

Resources (DNER) to sponsor the Project 

Learning Tree (PLT) program for the first time 

in Puerto Rico. Project Learning Tree is an 

award-winning environmental education 

program that is supported by a network of 

over 500,000 trained educators across the 

globe. By training teachers, educators and 

community leaders to use the PLT curriculum, this program integrates environmental 

education and outdoor learning components 

into all subject areas of the classroom. Using 

the PLT materials, students are taught how 

to think, not what to think, about complex 

environmental issues. On July 23rd and 24th 

2014, the Institute and the DNER offered a 

Project Learning Tree facilitator training in 

Spanish at the Botanical Garden Río Piedras. 

Senior Vice President of the PLT organization, 

Kathy McGlauflin, was joined by other bi-lingual educators previously trained in the PLT 

curriculum to offer this workshop (a “train 

the trainers” event). Educators and biologists 

from the DNER, U.S. Forest Service, U.S. Fish 

and Wildlife Service, and other local organizations were among the first group of trained 

facilitators to attend this event. After receiving this training, facilitators are qualified to 

hold workshops across the island in order 

to teach educators how to incorporate the 

materials into their classroom.

Studies show that when environmental 

education and outdoor learning components are integrated into school programs, 

students improve their mastery of science, 

math, language and spelling, while simultaneously exhibiting enhanced cooperation 

and conflict resolution skills and gaining in 

self-esteem. The Institute is proud to show 

its commitment to increasing environmental 

literacy through science-based education by 

sponsoring PLT for the very first time in the 

Caribbean!

For more information about the program 

and how to become a PLT educator in Puerto 

Rico, please visit the Project Learning Tree 

website: https://www.plt.org/.

Institute Contact: Magaly Figueroa,

mafigueroa@fs.fed.us

M. Figueroa

Project Learning Tree workshop with teachers and natural resources specialists.

2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report
76

Conservation and resource management education

Environmental Interpretation

In February, 2015, the National Association for Interpretation (NAI) Southeast Region 

chapter celebrated its Annual Workshop in Humacao, Puerto Rico. The activity was 

hosted by the Puerto Rico Department of Natural and Environmental Resources. The 

workshop offered training on interpretation skills for communities, environmental 

organizations, concessionaires and DNER staff. The workshop proceedings were published and NAI recognized Puerto Rico as one of the jurisdictions with the highest number of certified interpreters. 

Green Contact Program

The Puerto Rico Legislature approved the Green Contact Program Act, Law No. 36 of 

March 2015. The Program will be administered by the Puerto Rico Department of Education and developed in coordination with the DNER. The program promoted the 

participation of students in workshops and visits to areas of ecological value in order 

promote their contact with nature. The Department of Education in collaboration with 

the DNER designed a Circular Letter to implement this Law. Local Commonwealth and 

federal agencies, NGO and private entities representatives were identified to create a 

Green Contact Network.

Guide for Safer Trees in the Landscape

A publication funded by the U.S. Virgin Islands Urban and Community Forestry Program, the University of the Virgin Islands, and the U.S. Forest Service’s Renewable Resources Extension Act was printed and is available for distribution. The Guide for Safer 

Trees in the Landscape, a 43-page handbook provides information on how to recognize 

and manage hazardous tree conditions. The handbook is illustrated with photographs 

of tree conditions that can be seen along roadways throughout the U.S. Virgin Islands 

and includes symptoms of tree stress on the roots, trunks, and canopy, and other symptoms of unhealthy trees, such as cracks, advanced decay, and deadwood. It includes 

sections on the value of trees in the environment, basic tools for tree management, and 

how to hire an arborist. The handbook is intended to be used by U.S. Virgin Islands citizens in their evaluation of their own trees for possible hazardous conditions. For more 

information about this publication, please contact Marilyn Chakroff, U.S. Virgin Islands 

Urban and Community Forestry Program Coordinator at (340) 778-0997 or via email 

marilyn.chakroff@gmail.com. 

Institute Contact: Magaly Figueroa, mafigueroa@fs.fed.us

2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report
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Forest Field Days at Estate Thomas

The Institute partnered with U.S. Virgin Islands non-profit, St. Croix Environmental 

Association to implement Forest Field Days, 

an environmental education program for 

fourth grade students that began in 2013. 

The Field Days, funded by the Forest Service’s More Kids in the Woods program, 

took place at Estate Thomas Experimental 

Forest, a Forest Service property on St. Croix 

which was established in 1964. At each Field 

Day event, fourth graders from around the 

island rotated through a series of learning 

stations in the forest to participate in activities related to tree biology, plant identification, insect diversity, native and introduced 

species, watershed function and climate 

change. Each child also had the opportunity 

to hike through the forest with a guide who 

described the history of the Estate Thomas 

and the native and introduced trees that 

are found there. Partner agencies who presented at the events included the National 

Park Service, U.S. Virgin Islands Department 

of Planning and Natural Resources East End 

Marine Park, Univeristy of Virgin Islands Cooperative Extension Service, St. Croix Hiking 

Association, and several community volunteers. 

At the end of the day, students gathered in 

the forest pavilion to create an ‘accordion 

book’ that demonstrated what they learned 

in the Forest. Each child chose one concept 

to illustrate and write about on their page. 

This proved to be a wonderful way to evaluate the effectiveness of each presentation 

and to improve future activities.

Institute Contact: Magaly Figueroa,

mafigueroa@fs.fed.us

Student response to Forest Field Day actvities.

K. Frerker
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 78

K. Frerker

Forest Field Days hike.
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2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 79

Cooperative Fire Program

The effect of El Niño in the Caribbean resulted in warmer temperatures and reduced 

rainfall across Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin 

Islands. The National Weather Service reported that 2015 was the third driest year on 

record (1899-2015), registering only 74 cm 

(29.12 in) of rainfall to the end of October, 

nearly 40 cm (16 in) below the normal yearto-date total. As a consequence, wildland fire 

incidence increased for both Puerto Rico and 

the U.S. Virgin Islands. The Puerto Rico Fire 

Department responded to 4,253 wildland 

fires affecting 5,713 ha (14,116.5 acres) of 

land. The U.S. Virgin Islands Fire Department 

responded to 258 wildland fires that affected 

900 ha (2,224 acres) of land.

With Forest Service grant funds the Puerto 

Rico Fire Department was able to equip 100 

percent of their structural fire trucks located on each Fire Station in Puerto Rico with 

personal protective equipment and wildfire 

equipment, making the response to wildland 

fires safer and more efficient. The department 

also acquired two bush cutters to be used 

for initial attack operations and fuel reduction under mitigation efforts. Twelve training 

sessions were conducted and 341 representatives from the Puerto Rico Fire Department, 

Department of Natural and Environmental 

Resources, Emergency Management Office, 

and community members participated. 

During those trainings the agency offered 

the courses Wildland Firefighter S-130, S-190, 

I-100, Mitigation Training for agriculture, 

S-131 Firefighter Type 1, S-200 Initial Attack 

Incident Commander Type 4, S-212 Wildland 

Fire Chainsaw, and S-231 Engine Boss.

M. Figueroa

Water pool for fire suppresion.
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 80

As part of the prevention efforts and to educate the public, the Puerto Rico Fire Department partnered with state, federal, municipal 

governments and local communities on the 

Puerto Rico Frente al Fuego campaign. The 

initiative included a comic book for kids, a 

music video, fire prevention songs, road signs 

in areas of high wildland fire incidence, and 

visits to schools and communities. The initiative included trainings to private landowners 

and communites on fuel reduction and mitigation techniques.

The U.S. Virgin Islands Fire Service is divided 

into two districts: the St. Thomas/St. John/

Water Island district and the St. Croix district. There are seven fire stations in the St. 

Thomas/St. John/Water Island district and 

four in the St. Croix district. Forest Service 

grant funds were used to purchase firefighting equipment and supplies, wildland fire 

engines, specialized wildland fire training for 

firefighters, and educational supplies that 

were distributed to students during Prevention Week. The Prevention Unit of the Fire 

Service conducted education workshops, 

and performed fire extinguisher training and 

fire drills. During National Prevention Week, 

this Unit conducted a series of activities that 

reached over 30,000 students. 

Institute Contact: Magaly Figueroa, 

mafigueroa@fs.fed.us

M. Figueroa

Wildland fire truck. 
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81

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2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 81

Fire weather services increase public 

safety

Land and fire management agencies now 

have access to information on the potential 

for wildfires to start and environmental conditions that put life and property at risk. During the past few years, the National Weather 

Service (NWS) in San Juan has been working 

in close collaboration with the Institute and 

the U.S Fish and Wildlife Service Caribbean 

Region to collect and analyze climatological 

fire weather data for Puerto Rico and the U.S. 

Virgin Islands. This information is the backbone of criteria now used by the NWS to issue Fire Weather Watches, Red Flag Warnings 

and Fire Danger Statements in coordination 

with land and fire management agencies in 

Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. 

An advisory is issued based upon conditions 

within a Fire Weather Zone, which is an area 

with similar fuel type, topography and climate. Red Flag Warnings are issued for the 

combination of fuels and weather conditions 

that support extreme fire danger and/or fire 

behavior and today are often broadcast by 

local television and radio stations. The National Weather Service may issue Fire Danger 

Statements for any zone, but within Puerto 

Rico it will issue Red Flag Warnings only within the Southern Coastal Plains and Mona Island, the Southern Hills, the West Coast, and 

Vieques, and in the U.S. Virgin Islands, Saint 

Croix. The fine fuels found in these areas gain 

and lose moisture more quickly than heavier 

fuels found in other areas of the region, and 

due to the drier climate and windiness typically burn more intensely than those in the 

wetter coastal and and mountainous areas. 

Islands in the Caribbean generally experience 

two peaks in fire activity during the course of 

a year, one in early March associated with the 

winter/spring dry season and a second one 

in early July associated with hot, dry air masses originating from the Sahara desert and the 

strengthening of the Caribbean low-level jet 

stream. Most fires are human-induced and 

may be intentional or accidental. 

Institute Contact: Magaly Figueroa,

mafigueroa@fs.fed.us

Red Flag press conference.

M. Figueroa
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 82

Forest Legacy Program

The U.S. Virgin Islands Department of Agriculture completed the acquisition of two 

tracts of land located in St. Croix as part of 

the Forest Service’s Forest Legacy Program. 

These two purchases are the third and fourth 

properties acquired for Forest Legacy in the 

U.S. Virgin Islands, making a total of 86 ha 

(213 acres) protected, and an investment of 

$2,118,000 from the Forest Legacy Program. 

On November 

27, 2013 the 

U.S. Virgin Island’s Department of Agriculture closed on a 

14 ha (35 acres) 

Forest Legacy 

property, Plot 

No. 3 Hamm’s 

Bluff, in the 

northwest of St. 

Croix. The plot is 

adjacent to the government owned Hamm’s 

Bluff property currently used by the Virgin 

Island’s National Guard. The forests in northwest St. Croix once hid bands of maroons, 

people who escaped from the injustice of 

slavery. Hamm’s Bluff is a steep cliff where 

some people jumped to their death rather 

than return to a harsh life as a slave. The tract 

was acquired for $279,000. Twenty five percent of that total was matched by $93,000 

of value from a tract donated to the Trust for 

Virgin Islands Lands, Inc. through The Nature 

Conservancy. 

On May 9, 2014 another tract was closed, a 

41.3 ha (102.03 acres) Forest Legacy property, 

plots No 1, 1A, and 5 Estate Northstar in the 

north of St. Croix. The tract is a beautiful undisturbed forest that has been used by many 

hiking enthusiasts from the U.S. Virgin Islands 

and tourists, and is of cultural significance 

as it was also historically used as a home 

by maroons. The property was acquired for 

$970,000 and a twenty five percent match of 

$323,333 was provided by the value from the 

tract donated 

to the Trust 

for Virgin 

Islands Lands, 

Inc. through 

The Nature 

Conservancy. 

The U.S. 

Virgin Islands 

Department 

of Agriculture hosted a 

community celebration on June 20, 2014 to 

announce the Forest Legacy Program acquisitions. The activity was attended by community members, government officials, partners, 

and community groups. The department 

continues promoting community participation and hosting facilitated sessions attended 

by community groups and stakeholders to 

identify what types of activities are adequate 

for the Forest Legacy properties and should 

be included in their land management plans.

Institute Contact: Magaly Figueroa,

mafigueroa@fs.fed.us

M. Figueroa

Estate Northstar Legacy property.
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83 83

M. Figueroa

Marilyn Chakkroff, Virgin Islands Department of Agriculture Forest Legacy Coordinator, during Estate Northstar Forest Legacy 

Celebration.

2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 84

Forest Health

Forest health monitoring program

Training and orientation to the scope and 

goals of forest health monitoring in eight 

Puerto Rico Commonwealth forests was 

completed. The Department of Natural and 

Environmental Resources forest health coordinator, a contracted biologist, as well 

as the University of Puerto Rico-Mayagüez 

(UPRM) project leader were trained in basic 

forest measurements, establishment and 

data recording of fixed monitoring plots, 

and vista point evaluation of forest conditions. A shared database for plot information and image collection was also created. 

A smartphone-compatible GPS application 

was used for data collection and retrieval 

to ArcGIS. Each person was mentored using 

the “train the trainer” model to support the 

goal of technology transfer to enable forest 

managers and field technicians to observe, 

collect and report changes in forest health 

conditions in accordance with the prescribed 

methodology. Forest managers were also 

briefed and given the opportunity for input 

as to the final application of this program in 

order to promote a cooperative work environment. To date, 24 fixed monitoring plots 

and 12 vista observation points are regularly 

monitored and reported. This information 

is shared with cooperators from UPRM and 

DRNA to support opportunities for research, 

management and development of the UPRM 

Entomology Museum and the future interactive website of forest entomology in Puerto 

Rico. 

Additionally, three new occurrences of insects that affected forests and two potentially undescribed insect species were observed. 

A reforestation management recommendation has been developed regarding the use 

of certain tree species for roadside planting 

and defoliation.

Harrisia cactus mealybug monitoring 

on Caja de Muertos

A project to measure the level of infestation 

and rate of spread of the Harrisia cactus 

mealybug on the Caja de Muertos nature 

reserve was developed, in response to an 

urgent request from the Puerto Rico Department Natural and Environmental Resrouces. 

Personnel training in basic scientific methods 

was completed. A field survey form and data 

base was developed. Ten monitoring plots 

along the leading edge of the outbreak were 

established to measure the intensity and 

rate of spread of the mealybug. To date, data 

analysis suggests that the rate of spread is increasing exponentially. A management plan 

consistent with the restrictions of this nature 

reserve and the capabilities of the host agency were developed and submitted to a USDA 

Animal and Plant Health Inspection special 

team for consideration. The data plots have 

also provided research opportunities for 

international cooperators to further develop 

biologic control agents.

Institute Contact: Kevin D. Carlin,

kdcarlin@fs.fed.us
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2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 85 85

K. Carlin

Cactus mealybug monitoring in Guánica State Forest. K. Carlin
Awards

2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 86

• Dr. Michael Keller was elected as a Fellow 

for 2014 to the American Association for 

the Advancement of Science (AAAS), in 

the Section of Geology and Geography, 

honoring him for contributions to innovation, education, and scientific leadership.

• Dr. Joseph Wunderle, Jr. was the recipient 

of the Ralph W. Schreiber Conservation 

Award, given by the American Ornithologists’ Union. This award honors extraordinary scientific contributions to the conservation, restoration, or preservation of 

birds and/or their habitats.

• Poetic Science, a collaborative exhibit 

developed by the Institute and the Museum of Contemporary Art of Puerto Rico, 

received the award of Best 2014 Collective 

Exhibition in Puerto Rico from the International Association of Art Critics. 

• Jerry Bauer was honored with the first Thomas Belt Conservation Award” for his dedication and skill in communicating the value and beauty of nature in Central America.

• 2nd Place Book Category, “Pearls from the Lagoon, short 

stories & recipes,” National Association for Interpretation 

2014 Media Award.

• Award of Excellence, Photography: Paso del Istmo book, 

21st Annual Communicator Awards.

• Award of Distinction, Book: Paso del Istmo book, 21st Annual Communicator Awards.

• Award of Distinction, Brochure: Colonial City Bird Guide, 21st Annual Communicator Awards.
Publications

2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 87

2014

1. Andersen, R. A., S. E. Reutebuch, R. J. McGaughey, M. V. N. d’Oliveira, and M. Keller. 2014. Monitoring selective logging in western Amazonia with repeat lidar flights. Remote Sensing of Environment. http://dx.doi.

org/10.1016/j.rse.2013.08.049

2. Boal, C. W., J. Wunderle, J.M., and W. J. Arendt. 2013. Autumn monitoring of resident avifauna on Guana Island, 

British Virgin Islands. Ornitologia Neotropical 24: 335-343.

3. Brandeis, T. J., F. J. Escobedo, C. L. Staudhammer, D. J. Nowak, and W. C. Zipperer. 2014. San Juan Bay Estuary 

Watershed Urban Forest Inventory. General Technical Report SRS-190. U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest 

Service, Southern Research Station, Asheville, NC.

4. Cantrell, Sharon A.; Molina, Marirosa; Lodge, D. Jean; Rivera-Figueroa, Francisco J.; Ortiz, Maria; Marchetti, 

Albany A.; Cyterski, Mike J.; Pérez-Jiménez, José R. 2014. Effects of a simulated hurricane disturbance on forest 

floor microbial communities. Forest Ecology and Management. 332: 22-31.

5. Cusack, D. F. and T. L. McCleery. 2014. Patterns in understory woody diversity and soil nitrogen across nativeand non-native-urban tropical forests. Forest Ecology and Management 318: 34-43.

6. de Miranda, S. d. C., M. Bustamente, M. Palace, S. Hagen, M. Keller, and L. G. Ferreira. 2014. Regional variations 

in biomass distribution in Brazilian savanna woodland. Biotropica 46: 125-138.

7. Domínguez Miranda, J. P. 2013. Experiencias sobre la legalizacion y proteccion de areas naturales: el caso de 

El Salvador, C.A. Biosistemas and U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, International Institute of Tropical Forestry, San Salvador, El Salvador and Rio Piedras, PR.

8. Driscoll, C. T., P. M. Groffman, J. M. Blair, A. E. Lugo, C. M. Laney, and D. P. C. Peters. 2013. Cross-site comparisons 

of precipitation and surface water chemistry. Chapter 6. Pages 46-50 in D. P. C. Peters, C. M. Laney, A. E. Lugo, 

S. L. Collins, C. T. Driscoll, P. M. Groffman, J. M. Grove, A. K. Knapp, T. K. Kratz, M. D. Ohman, R. B. Waide, and J. 

Yao, editors. Long-term trends in ecological systems: a basis for understanding responses to global change. 

USDA ARS Tech. Bull. No. 1931. USDA Agricultural Research Service, Las Cruces, NM.

9. Erickson, H. E., E. H. Helmer, T. J. Brandeis, and A. E. Lugo. 2014. Controls on fallen leaf chemistry and forest 

floor element masses in native and novel forests across a tropical island. Article 48. Ecosphere 5.

10. Espírito-Santo, F. D. B., M. Gloor, M. Keller, Y. Malhi, S. Saatchi, B. Nelson, R. C. Oliveira Junior, C. Pereira, J. Lloyd, 

S. Frolking, M. Palace, Y. E. Shimabukuro, V. Duarte, A. Monteagudo Mendoza, G. López-González, T. R. Baker, 

T. R. Feldpausch, R. J. W. Brienen, G. P. Asner, D. S. Boyd, and O. L. Phillips. 2014. Size and frequency of natural 

forest disturbances and the Amazon forest carbon balance. Nature Communications 5: 1-6.

11. Fleming, G. M., J. Wunderle, Joseph M., D. N. Ewert, and J. J. O’Brien. 2014. Estimating plant biomass in early-successional subtropical vegetation using a visual obstruction technique. Applied Vegetation Science 17: 

356-366.

12. Fonseca da Silva, J. 2014. Species composition, diversity and structure of novel forests of Castilla elastica in 

Puerto Rico. Tropical Ecology 55: 231-244.
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 88

13. Free, C. M., R. M. Landis, J. Grogan, M. D. Schulze, M. Lentini, and O. Dunisch. 2014. Management implications of 

long-term tree growth and mortality rates: A modeling study of big-leaf mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla) in 

the Brazilian Amazon. Forest Ecology and Management 330: 46-54. 

14. González, G., D. J. Lodge, B. A. Richardson, and M. J. Richardson. 2014. A canopy trimming experiment in Puerto 

Rico: The response of litter decomposition and nutrient release to canopy opening and debris deposition in a 

subtropical wet forest. Forest Ecology and Management 332: 32-46.

15. González, G., F. J. Rivera-Figueroa, W. Gould, S. A. Cantrell, and J. R. Pérez-Jiménez. 2014. Microorganisms in 

small patterned ground features and adjacent vegetated soils along topographic and climatic gradients in the 

High Arctic, Canada. Open Journal of Science 4: 47-55.

16. Henareh Khalyani, A., A. L. Mayer, and E. S. Norman. 2014. Water flows toward power: socioecological degradation of Lake Urmia, Iran. Society and Natural Resources 27: 759-767.

17. Hunter, M. O., M. Keller, D. Vitoria, and D. C. Morton. 2013. Tree height and tropical forest biomass estimation. 

Biogeosciences 10: 8385-8399.

18. Jennings, L. N., J. Douglas, E. Treasure, and G. González. 2014. Climate change effects in El Yunque National 

Forest, Puerto Rico, and the Caribbean Region. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-193. U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest 

Service, Southern Research Station, Asheville, NC.

19. Kennedy, R. F., S. Andrefouet, W. B. Cohen, C. Gómez, P. Griffiths, M. Hais, S. P. Healey, E. H. Helmer, P. Hostert, M. 

B. Lyons, G. W. Meigs, D. Pflugmacher, S. R. Phinn, S. L. Powell, P. Scarth, S. Sen, T. A. Schroeder, A. Schneider, R. 

Sonnenschein, J. E. Vogelmann, M. A. Wulder, and Z. Zhu. 2014. Bringing an ecological view of change to Landsat-based remote sensing. Frontiers in Ecology and Environment 12: 339-346.

20. Lane, O. P., W. J. Arendt, M. A. Torrez, and J. C. Gamez Castellon. 2013. Pilot assessment of mercury exposure in 

selected biota from the lowlands of Nicaragua [Evaluacion piloto de exposicion al mercurio en biota selecta de 

las tierras bajas de Nicaragua. Mesoamericana 17: 19-28.

21. Lodge, D. J., Cantrell, S. A., and G. González. 2014. Effects of canopy opening and debris deposition on fungal 

connectivity, phosphorus movement between litter cohorts and mass loss. Forest Ecology and Management. 

332: 11-21.

22. López Machado, E., K. Soto Hidalgo, and T. Heartsill-Scalley. 2012. Composición y estructura de un bosque tropical urbano en el karso norteno de Puerto Rico. Acta Científica 26: 54-67.

23. Lugo, A. E., ed. 2012. Acta Científica 26: 166.

24. Lugo, A. E. 2012. Social silviculture: a new paradigm in the search for sustainable land conservation in the tropics? Bois et Forets des Tropiques 314: 3-5.

25. Lugo, A. E. 2013. Novel tropical forests: nature’s response to global change. Tropical Conservation Science 

6:325-337.
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 89

26. Lugo, A. E. 2014. Evolving conservation paradigms for the Anthropocene. Pages 47-59 in V. A. Sample and R. P. 

Bixler, editors. Forest conservation and management in the anthropocene: adaptation of science, policy and 

practices. Proceedings RMRS-P-71. U.S. Forest Service Rocky Mountain Station, Fort Collins, CO.

27. Lugo, A. E. 2014. Poetic science: aproximaciones artístico-científicas sobre El Yunque. Visión Doble 3.

28. Lugo, A. E. 2014. Tropical cities are diverse and deserve more social-ecological attention. Article 23. Ecology 

and Society 19.

29. Lugo, A. E., O. Abelleira Martínez, and J. Fonseca da Silva. 2012. Aboveground biomass, wood volume, nutrient 

stocks and leaf litter in novel forests compraed to native forests and tree plantations in Puerto Rico. Bois et 

Forets des Tropiques 314: 7-16.

30. Lugo, A. E. and M. Alayón. 2014. Understanding the vulnerability and sustainability of urban social-ecological 

systems in the tropics: perspectives from the city of San Juan. Special feature issue. Ecology and Society 19.

31. Lugo, A. E., C. M. Concepción, L. E. Santiago-Acevedo, T. A. Muñoz-Erickson, J. C. Verdejo Ortiz, R. Santiago-Bartolomei, J. Forero-Montana, C. J. Nytch, H. Manrique, and W. Colón-Cortés. 2012. In search of an adaptive 

social-ecological approach to understanding a tropical city. Acta Científica 26: 121-134.

32. Lugo, A. E., B. Eav, G. S. Foster, M. Rains, J. Reaves, and D. J. Stouder. 2014. Forest Service Experimental Forests 

and long-term data sets: stories of their meaning to station directors. Chapter 2. Pages 25-57 in D. C. Hayes, 

S. L. Stout, R. H. Crawford, and A. P. Hoover, editors. USDA Forest Service Experimental Forests and Ranges: 

Research for the Long Term. Springer, New York.

33. Lugo, A. E. and T. Heartsill Scalley. 2014. Research in the Luquillo Experimental Forest has advanced understanding of tropical forests and resolved management issues. Chapter 19. Pages 435-461 in D. C. Hayes, S. L. 

Stout, R. H. Crawford, and A. P. Hoover, editors. USDA Forest Service Experimental Forests and Ranges: Research for the Long Term. Springer, New York.

34. Lugo, A. E., E. H. Helmer, and O. Ramos González. 2013. The greening of the Caribbean: from the Tainos to the 

Anthropocene. Ninth Annual Public Lecture. Environmental Foundation of Jamaica in association with the 

Jamaica Protected Areas Trust / Forest Conservation Fund, Kingston, Jamaica.

35. Lugo, A. E. and T. A. Muñoz-Erickson. 2013. Sustainable cities: a model case study. International Innovation 

116: 36-38.

36. McDowell, W. H., R. L. Brereton, F. N. Scatena, J. B. Shanley, N. V. Brokaw, and A. E. Lugo. 2013. Interactions 

between lithology and biology drive the long-term response of stream chemistry to major hurricanes in a 

tropical landscape. Biogeochemistry 116: 175-186.

37. Medina, E., E. Cuevas, A. E. Lugo, E. Terezo, J. Jiménez-Osornio, P. A. Macario-Mendoza, and P. Montañez. 2014. 

Conservative nutrient use by big-leaf mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla King) planted under contrasting 

environmental conditions. Revista Arvore 38: 479-488.

38. Medina, E., E. H. Helmer, E. Meléndez-Ackerman, and H. Marcano-Vega. 2014. Natural vegetation groups and 

canopy chemical markers in a dry subtropical forest on calcareous substrate: the vegetation of Mona Island, 

Puerto Rico. Caribbean Naturalist 13: 1-15.
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 90

39. Mercado-Diaz, J. A., W. A. Gould, G. González, and R. Lucking. 2013. Four new species of Coenogonium (Ascomycota: Ostropales) from vulnerable forest ecosystems in Puerto Rico. The Bryologist 116: 373-381.

40. Miller, J. S., G. A. Krupnick, H. Stevens, H. Porter-Morgan, B. Boom, P. Acevedo-Rodríguez, J. Ackerman, D. Kolterman, E. Santiago, C. Torres, and J. Vélez. 2013. Toward target 2 of the global strategy for plant conservation: an 

expert analysis of the Puerto Rican flora to validate new streamlined methods for assessing conservation status. 

Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 99: 199-205.Muñoz Erickson, T. A., A. E. Lugo, and B. Quintero. 2014. 

Emerging synthesis themes from the study of social-ecological systems of a tropical city. Article 23. Ecology and 

Society 19.

41. Muñoz-Erickson, T. A., A. E. Lugo, and B. Quintero. 2014. Emerging synthesis themes from the study of social-ecological systems of a tropical city. Article 23. Ecology and Society 19.

42. Muñoz-Erickson, T. A. 2014. Co-production of knowledge-action systems in urban sustainable governance: The 

KASA approach. Environmental Science and Policy 37: 182-191.

43. Muñoz-Erickson, T. A. 2014. Multiple pathways to sustainability in the city: the case of San Juan, Puerto Rico. 

Article 2. Ecology and Society 19.

44. Muñoz-Erickson, T. A., A. E. Lugo, E. Meléndez-Ackerman, L. E. Santiago-Acevedo, J. Seguinot-Barbosa, P. Méndez-Lázaro, M. Hall, B. Quintero, A. Ramírez, D. García-Montiel, R. G. Pontius Jr., O. M. Ramos-González, R. Santiago-Bartolomei, J. Verdejo-Ortíz, J. R. Ortíz-Zayas, C. M. Concepción, D. Cusack, J. Giusti, W. McDowell, M. L. 

Cruz-Torres, J. Vallejo, L. Cray, J. Zimmerman, V. Cuadrado-Landrau, and M. Figueroa. 2014. Knowledge to serve 

the city: insights from an emerging knowledge-action network to address vulnerability and sustainability in San 

Juan, Puerto Rico. . Cities and the Environment (CATE) 7: Art. 5.

45. Pérez, C., J. Frangi, J. F. Goya, A. Luy, and M. Arturi. 2013. Contenido de nutrientes en las raices finas y el mantillo 

de rodales de Eucalyptus grandis de diferente edad en la Mesopotomia Argentina [Fine roots and litter nutrient 

content of Eucalyptus grandis stands presenting different ages in Mesopotomia Argentina]. Bosque 34:303-310.

46. Peters, D. P. C., C. M. Laney, A. E. Lugo, S. L. Collins, C. T. Driscoll, P. M. Groffman, J. M. Grove, A. K. Knapp, T. K. 

Kratz, M. D. Ohman, R. B. Waide, and J. Yao. 2013. Long-term trends in ecological systems: a basis for understanding responses to global change. USDA ARS Tech. Bull. No. 1931. USDA Agricultural Research Service, Las Cruces, 

New Mexico.

47. Peters, D. P. C., C. M. Laney, A. E. Lugo, S. L. Collins, C. T. Driscoll, P. M. Groffman, J. M. Grove, A. K. Knapp, T. K. 

Kratz, M. D. Ohman, R. B. Waide, and J. Yao. 2013. Long-term trends in ecological systems: an introduction to 

cross-site comparisons and relevance to global change studies. Chapter 1. Pages 1-20 in D. P. C. Peters, C. M. 

Laney, A. E. Lugo, S. L. Collins, C. T. Driscoll, P. M. Groffman, J. M. Grove, A. K. Knapp, T. K. Kratz, M. D. Ohman, R. B. 

Waide, and J. Yao, editors. Long-term trends in ecological systems: a basis for understanding responses to global 

change. USDA ARS Tech. Bull. No. 1931. USDA Agricultural Research Service, Las Cruces, NM.

48. Peters, D. P. C., A. E. Lugo, I. Chapin, F.S, A. J. Tepley, and F. J. Swanson. 2013. Disturbance regimes and ecological 

responses across sites. Chapter 9. Pages 58-71 in D. P. C. Peters, C. M. Laney, A. E. Lugo, S. L. Collins, C. T. Driscoll, 

P. M. Groffman, J. M. Grove, A. K. Knapp, T. K. Kratz, M. D. Ohman, R. B. Waide, and J. Yao, editors. Long-term 

trends in ecological systems: a basis for understanding responses to global change. USDA Agricultural Research 

Service, Las Cruces, NM.

49. Pfeifer, M., V. Lefebvre, T. A. Gardner, V. Arroyo-Rodríguez, L. Baeten, C. Banks-Leite, et al. 2014. BIOFRAG - a new 

database for analyzing BIOdiversity responses to forest FRAGmentation. Ecology and Evolution 4: 1524-1537.
2014-2015 Institute Accomplishments Report 91

50. Quiñones, M., W. A. Gould, J. Castro-Prieto, and S. Martinuzzi. 2013. Spatial analysis of Puerto Rico’s terrestrial 

protected areas [1:240 000]. IITF-RMAP-03. Research Map. U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, International Institute of Tropical Forestry, Río Piedras, Puerto Rico.

51. Raich, J. W., D. A. Clark, L. Schwendenmann, and T. Wood. 2014. Aboveground tree growth varies with belowground carbon allocation in a tropical rainforest environment. PLOS One 9:e100275.

52. Ramírez, A., K. G. Rosas, A. E. Lugo, and O. M. Ramos-González. 2014. Spatio-temporal variation in stream water chemistry in a tropical urban watershed. Article 45. Ecology and Society 19.

53. Ramos-González, O. M. 2014. The green areas of San Juan, Puerto Rico. Ecology and Society 19: article 21.

54. Robinson, K., J. Bauer, and A. E. Lugo. 2014. Passing the baton from the Taínos to tomorrow: forest conservation in Puerto Rico. FS-862. U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, International Institute of Tropical 

Forestry, San Juan, Puerto Rico.

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59. Van Haren, J., R. C. de Oliveira Jr., T. P. Beldini, P. B. de Camargo, M. Keller, and S. Saleska. 2013. Tree species 

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60. Vose, James M.; Swank, Wayne T.; Adams, Mary Beth; Amatya, Devendra; Campbell, John; Johnson, Sherri; 

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11. Grogan, J., R. M. Landis, C. M. Free, M. D. Schulze, M. Lentini, and M. S. Ashton. 2014. Big-leaf mahogany Swietenia macrophylla population dynamics and implications for sustainable management. Journal of Applied 

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18. Hunter, M. O., M. Keller, D. Morton, B. Cook, M. Lefsky, M. Ducey, S. Saleska, R. C. de Oliveira, and J. Schietti. 

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20. Klawanski, P. D., B. Dalton, and A. B. Shiels. 2014. Coqui frog populations are negatively affected by canopy 

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21. Kraichak, E., S. Parnmen, R. Lücking, E. Rivas Plata, A. Aptroot, M. E. S. Caceres, D. Ertz, A. Mangold, J. A. Mercado Díaz, K. Papong, D. Van der Broeck, G. Weerakoon, and H. T. Lumbsch. 2014. Revisiting the phylogeny of 

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22. Leitold, V., M. Keller, D. C. Morton, B. D. Cook, and Y. E. Shimabukuro. 2015. Airborne lidar-based estimates of 

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27. Lugo, A. E., E. Medina, and K. McGinley. 2014. Issues and challenges of mangrove conservation in the Anthropocene - Desafios de la conservacion del mangle en el Antropoceno. Madera y Bosques vol. 20, num. especial: 

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28. Lumbsch, H. T., E. Kraichak, S. Parnmen, E. Rivas Plata, A. Aptroot, M. E. S. Caceres, D. Ertz, S. Cunha Feuerstein, 

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29. Marcano Vega, H., T. J. Brandeis, and J. A. Turner. 2015. Los bosques de Puerto Rico, 2009. Resour. Bull. SRS–

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30. Martiarena, R. A., J. L. Frangi, A. Von Wallis, M. F. Arturi, H. E. Fassola, and R. A. Fernandez. 2014. Propiedades 

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31. Martinuzzi, S., G. I. Gavier-Pizarro, A. E. Lugo, and V. C. Radeloff. 2015. Future land-use changes and the potential for novelty in ecosystems of the United States. Ecosystems 18: 1332–1342. doi: 10.1007/s10021-015-

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32. McDowell, W. H., and D. Liptzin. 2014. Linking soils and streams: Response of soil solution chemistry to simulated hurricane disturbance mirrors stream chemistry following a severe hurricane. Forest Ecology and Management 332: 56-63. Treesearch link: http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/48372
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33. McGinley, K., and F. W. Cubbage. 2015. Policy, laws, organizations, and other governance arrangements influencing forests in the US: A baseline assessment. In: Congress Proceedings, XIV World Forestry Congress, Durban, South Africa, 7-11 September 2015. http://foris.fao.org/wfc2015/api/file/5549895415ae74130aee6c6c/

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36. Meir, P., T. E. Wood, D. R. Galbraith, P. M. Brando, A. C. I. Da Costa, L. Rowland, and L. V. Ferreira. 2015. Threshold responses to soil moisture deficit by trees and soil in tropical rain forests: insights from field experiments. 

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37. Mercado-Díaz, J. A., W. A. Gould, and G. González. 2014. Soil nutrients, landscape age, and Sphagno-Eriophoretum vaginati plant communities in Arctic moist-acidic Tundra landscapes. Open Journal of Soil Science 4: 

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38. Mercado-Díaz, J. A., W. A. Gould, G. González, and R. Lücking. 2015. Lichens in Puerto Rico: an ecosystem approach. Gen. Tech. Rep. IITF-GTR-46. San Juan, PR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, International 

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40. Norghauer, J. M., C. M. Free, R. M. Landis, J. Grogan, J. R. Malcolm, and S. C. Thomas. 2015. Herbivores limit the 

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41. Norghauer, J. M., and J. Grogan. 2012. The intriguing case of Steniscadia poliophaea (Noctuidae): potent moth 

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44. Saatchi, S., Mascaro, J., Xu, L., Keller, M., Yang, Y., Duffy, P., Espírito-Santo, F., Baccini, A., Chambers, J., and D.

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46. Schimel, D., and M. Keller. 2015. Big questions, big science: meeting the challenges of global ecology. Oecologia 177: 925–934. doi: 10.1007/s00442-015-3236-3. Treesearch link: http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/

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47. Schowalter, T. D., Willig, M. R., and S. J. Presley. 2014. Canopy arthropod responses to experimental canopy

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48. Sharpe, J. M., and A. B. Shiels. 2014. Understory fern community structure, growth and spore production

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49. Shiels, A. B., and G. González. 2015. Tropical Forest Responses to Large-Scale Experiments. BioScience 65 (9):

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50. Shiels, A., González, G., Lodge, D. J., Willig, M. R., and J. K. Zimmerman. 2015. Cascading effects of canopy

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51. Shiels, A. B., González, G., and M. R. Willig. 2014. Responses to canopy loss and debris deposition in a tropical

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57. Staudhammer, C. L., F. J. Escobedo, N. Holt, L. J. Young, T. J. Brandeis, and W. Zipperer. 2015. Predictors, spatial

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58. Tesón, N., V. H. Conzonno, M. F. Arturi, and J. L. Frangi. 2014. Dissolved organic carbon in water fluxes of

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