CLIMATE VARIATION AND ITS 

EFFECTS ON OUR LAND AND WATER

Part A. Earth Science in Climate Research

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GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CIRCULAR 776-A
WORKSHOP ON EARTH SCIENTISTS' PERSPECTIVES OF CLIMATE CHANGE

Convened near Denver, Colorado, December 7-9, 1976

WORKSHOP COMMITTEE & EDITORIAL BOARD

David S. Fullerton, committee, editor, Denver, Colo. 

Keith A. Howard, convener, editor, Menlo Park, Calif. 

Richard F. Madole, committee, Denver, Colo. 

Harold E. Malde, committee, Denver, Colo. 

Mark F. Meier, editor, Tacoma, Wash. 

Steven S. Oriel, convener, editor, Denver, Colo. 

Kenneth L. Pierce, chairman of Workshop, Denver, Colo. 

George I. Smith, editor, Menlo Park, Calif.

GUEST SPEAKERS

Alan D. Hecht, National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C. 

Stephen H. Schneider, National Center for Atmospheric Research, 

Boulder, Colo.

PARTICIPANTS

David P. Adam, Menlo Park, Calif. 

Thomas A. Ager, Res ton, Va. 

3. Platt Bradbury, Denver, Colo. 

Parrel A. Branson, Denver, Colo. 

Walter Dean, Denver, Colo. 

Robert W. Fleming, Denver, Colo. 

Norman O. Frederiksen, Reston, Va. 

Irving Friedman, Denver, Colo. 

James V. Gardner, Menlo Park, Calif. 

Edward 3. Gilroy, Reston, Va. 

Thomas D. Hamilton, Menlo Park, Calif. 

Darrell G. Herd, Menlo Park, Calif. 

Thor N. V. Karlstrom, Flagstaff, Ariz. 

Denis Marchand, Menlo Park, Calif. 

C. Daniel Miller, Denver, Colo. 

Robert N. Oldale, Woods Hole, Ma. 

Richard Z. Poore, Menlo Park, Calif. 

Gerald M. Richmond, Denver, Colo. 

John N. Rosholt, Jr., Denver, Colo. 

Robert W. Rowland, Reston, Va. 

Meyer Rubin, Reston, Va. 

Eugene M. Shoemaker, Flagstaff, Ariz. 

Robert S. Sigafoos, Reston, Va. 

John D. Sims, Menlo Park, Calif. 

Joshua I. Tracey, Jr., Reston, Va. 

Raymond M. Turner, Tucson, Ariz.

Carl M. Wentworth, Jr., Menlo Park, Calif. 

Issac J. Winograd, Reston, Va. 

Thomas C. Winter, Denver, Colo. 

Jack A. Wolfe, Menlo Park, Calif.

CONSULTANTS

Henry L. Berryhill, Jr., Corpus Christi, Tex.

G. Brent Dalrymple, Menlo Park, Calif.

Maurice J. Grolier, Reston, Va.

Bruce B. Hanshaw, Reston, Va.

David M. Hopkins, Menlo Park, Calif.

Richard J. Janda, Menlo Park, Calif.

Arthur H. Lachenbruch, Menlo Park, Calif.

Clifford A. Kaye, Reston, Va.

Walter B. Langbein, Reston, Va.

Harry F. Lins, Reston, Va.

John O. Maberry, Denver, Colo.

Nicholas C. Matalas, Reston, Va.

John C. Reed, Reston, Va.

Ray E. Wilcox, Denver, Colo.

Paul L. Williams, Denver, Colo.
Climate Variation and Its Effects 

on Our Land and Water

Part A. Earth Science in Climate Research

By George I. Smith, Editor

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CIRCULAR 776-A

A product of the Workshop on Earth Scientists' Perspectives of Climate Change, 

convened near Denver, Colorado, December 7-9, 1976.
United States Department of the Interior

CECIL D. ANDRUS, Secretary

Geological Survey

W. A. Radlinski, Acting Director

Free on application to Branch of Distribution, U.S. Geological Survey, 1200 South Eads Street, Arlington, VA 22202
PREFACE

The enormous impact on society of climatic variation is 

being recognized increasingly by both the public and government. 

Numerous recent publications as diverse as the public press, 

governmental documents, scientific journals, and special volumes 

of learned societies have dealt with the subject. Despite this 

heightened awareness of human vulnerability to shifts of climate, 

solutions to the political and scientific problems involved 

continue to be elusive.

Climate changes constantly. The reasons for climatic 

variability are not well understood, however, despite the 

formulation of many attractive and reasonable hypotheses. 

Perhaps of even greater concern is the growing realization that 

we do not yet fully understand the numerous subtle ways in which 

changing climate affects us. These are problems that merit more 

concentrated scientific attention.

Climate is generally considered primarily of interest to 

atmospheric scientists. Yet all scientists who have dealt with 

the earth, and even with other planetary bodies, have had to 

consider climatic problems. That past changes of climate on 

Earth have exceeded those measured by meteorologists is well 

recorded in rocks and surface features studied by earth 

scientists. The detailed histories of parts of the Earth's crust 

developed in studies of resource and environmental problems 

document beyond doubt that many of the differences in rocks and 

fossils found in local stratigraphic sequences were caused by 

changes in climate and their geological consequences. The rates 

at which geologic processes modify the landscape and impact man's 

use of the land are affected by climatic changes. And water 

supplies are obviously affected by changing climatic patterns.

In the course of their studies of the Earth and its geologic 

history, scientists of the Geological Survey have thus also 

contributed to a better understanding of past climatic changes. 

They are also fully aware of their obligation to help apply that 

knowledge of climatic history to the recognition of present and 

future climatic trends and to their probable future impact on 

human activities.

For these reasons, a workshop was convened near Denver on 

December 7-9, 1976, by scientists of the Geological Survey to 

explore the role of earth science in addressing national needs 

regarding information on climate. This three-part report is an 

outgrowth of the discussions by members of the workshop. Part A 

explores the roles and methods of the earth sciences in climatic 

research. Part B summarizes the types of climate-oriented work 

now being carried out by earth scientists of the Geological 

Survey. Part C proposes a research strategy designed to increase 

our understanding of the earth-science aspects of climatic 

variation.

(yt.

Director

U.S. Geological Survey

in
CONTENTS

Page

Preface - - - - - - - -- --- -- - iii 

Summary - - ---_________ _ ___ ____ ____ __ 1

Introduction ----- -- ________ _______ _ 2

Roles and methods of earth science

in climate research - - _ _- -- __ __ 4 

Types of evidence available _____ -_ ____ 6

Lengths of time involved ---- ____ _ _ 8

Areas most affected by climate change --- _ 11 

Agencies and institutions concerned

with climate change --------- ----- _ _ _ 12
Climate Variation and Its Effects on Our Land and Water 

Part A. Earth Science in Climate Research

By George I. Smith, Editor

SUMMARY

Climate is considered by many to be an atmospheric 

phenomenon. Those who study it, however, realize the extent of 

interaction between the atmosphere and other surface components 

of our globe the oceans, ice sheets, and land and past changes 

in climate are therefore imprinted on the geologic record. For 

nearly a century, earth scientists of the U.S. Geological Survey 

have been among those studying the record of past climate change 

and the geological consequences of our present climate.

To better coordinate information being generated by the 

Geological Survey, a workshop was convened near Denver on 

December 7-9, 1976, to exchange ideas about research that is 

oriented toward climate, climate variation, and the effects of 

climate on the Nation's land and water resources. This is the 

first of a three-part report resulting from that workshop.

The broad goals of climatic research are to improve our 

understanding of how the climate system works, what it may do in 

the future, and what may be the consequences. Earth science has 

three major roles to play toward the achievement of these goals:

(1) Defining the long-term record of climate variability.

(2) Determining geologic, geochemical, and geophysical factors 

that contribute to climate change.

(3) Estimating the physical and biological consequences of 

possible future climates.

The responsibilities of the Geological Survey lead to a 

heavy concentration of its efforts on research that contributes 

toward these goals in the continental environment. Climate 

leaves its imprint on and around the continents in an 

extraordinarily large number of ways that are preserved in the 

earth science record. The reconstruction of past climates, 

necessary to establish the constraints and causes of climate 

variability and change, involves translating these records into 

separable climate elements temperature, precipitation, wind, 

storm frequency, humidity, cloudiness, and storm trajectories. 

However, many of these imprints are direct records of the very 

phenomena that would be of importance to man in the event of 

future climatic variation floods, erosion, avalanches, 

landslides, mudflows, hurricanes, dust storms, droughts, and many 

others. These earth science records can be used directly for 

estimating climate-related risks and hazards, and in many 

instances they provide a better basis for resource management 

decisions than would information on the climate itself.

1
INTRODUCTION

The winter of 1976-77 brought the 

coldest weather ever recorded to the 

north-central, central, and 

southeastern part of the United States, 

cold and nearly unprecedented amounts 

of snow to the northeastern part of the 

country, and the driest recorded winter 

to California, Nevada, and much of the 

West. Europe suffered from similarly 

severe weather. In contrast, Alaska, 

Greenland, and Iceland experienced 

warmer winters than normal. Should 

modifications be made in the geographic 

distributions of our agricultural 

belts? Should we reassess what 

constitutes adequate supplies of gas 

and fuel oil? Should the reservoir 

capacities of western water districts 

be drastically enlarged? The answers 

depend on whether this is a climatic 

pattern that will persist or occur more 

often in the future. No one knows. 

They also depend in part on the effects 

that the persistence of such climate 

would have on our Nation's land and 

water resources. Here, part of the 

answer can be provided but only part.

The importance of climate, and the 

need for more information about it, is 

well expressed in the Introduction of 

the 1975 report by the National Academy 

of Sciences "Understanding Climatic 

Change, A Program for Action":

"Climatic change has been a 

subject of intellectual interest 

for many years. However, there are 

now more compelling reasons for its 

study: the growing awareness that 

our economic and social stability 

is profoundly influenced by climate 

and that man's activities 

themselves may be capable of 

influencing the climate in possibly 

undesirable ways. The climates of 

the earth have always been 

changing, and they will doubtless 

continue to do so in the future. 

How large these future changes will 

be, and where and how rapidly they 

will occur, we do not know.

"A major climatic change would 

force economic and social 

adjustments on a worldwide scale, 

because the global patterns of food 

production and population that have 

evolved are implicitly dependent on 

the climate of the present century

 

"...Reducing this climatic 

dependency will require coordinated 

management of the nation's 

resources on the one hand and a 

thorough knowledge of the climate's 

behavior on the other. It is 

therefore essential that we acquire 

a far greater understanding of 

climate and and climatic change 

than we now possess..." 

The widespread recognition of the 

importance of climate, as well as of 

the pressing need for more research, is 

further documented by:

 "Symposium on Long-term Climatic 

Fluctuations," published by the 

World Meteorological Organization 

under United Nations auspices,

1975.

 "The National Climate Program 

Act," hearings before the House 

Subcommittee on the Environment 

and the Atmosphere, Committee on 

Science and Technology, U.S. House 

of Representatives, 1976.

 "Climate and Food," published in

1976. and "Energy and Climate" and 

"Climate, Climate Change, and 

Water Supply," both published in

1977. by the National Academy of 

Sciences.

 "A United States Climate Program 

Plan," published at the direction 

of the President's Science Advisor 

in 1977 by the Interdepartmental 

Committee for Atmospheric Sciences 

of the Federal Coordinating 

Council for Science, Engineering, 

and Technology.

 Several reports by the Global 

Atmospheric Research Program, 

sponsored and developed jointly by 

the World iMeteorological
Organization and the International 

Council of Scientific Unions.

 Two reports by the Central 

Intelligence Agency that directed 

attention to the geopolitical 

consequences of climate change.

 A wave of recent magazine and

newspaper articles, television

programs, and books. 

All these sources document beyond a 

doubt that climate greatly affects our 

water, food, energy, and land 

resources and that long-term 

variations and future change in climate 

would markedly affect our lives.

Although climate is considered by 

many to be an atmospheric phenomenon, 

those who study it realize the extent 

of interaction between the atmosphere 

and the other surf icial components of 

our globe the oceans, ice sheets, and 

land. Changes in any one component 

produce changes in all of the others. 

Past changes in climate are therefore 

also imprinted on the geologic record, 

and it is the evidence of those former 

climate changes in the oceans, ice 

sheets, and continents that is the 

object of study for a large number of 

earth scientists.

For nearly a century, earth 

scientists of the U.S. Geological 

Survey have been among those studying 

the record of past climate change as 

well as the geological consequences of 

our present climate. These studies, 

carried on within the same research 

organization for this length of time, 

have resulted in (1) advances in our 

understanding of past climates, (2) 

constantly improved bases for 

estimating the impact of future climate 

change on our land and water resources, 

and (3) maintenance of a nucleus of 

scientists that have developed high 

levels of expertise in these fields. 

Although most of the information 

generated by these studies is available 

to scientific journals, books, and 

maps, it is widely scattered as a 

result of the diversity of subject

matter, and no center for coordination 

of such data currently exists because 

of the full-time commitment of Survey 

scientists to other programs and 

projects that also have high 

priorities.

As a start in coordinating 

information being generated by the 

Geological Survey, a workshop was 

convened near Denver on December 7-9, 

1976, to exchange ideas about research 

that is oriented toward climate, 

climate variation1, and the effects 

of climate on the Nation's land and 

water resources. During workshop 

discussions, a consensus arose that:

(1) the roles of earth scientists and 

the research methods available to them 

are not well known to many 

non-scientific groups and agencies, and 

that a brief and relatively 

non-technical summary would be helpful,

(2) a very large amount of information 

related to present and past climates is 

being generated by current Survey 

projects, and that scientists, both in 

and outside the Survey, would benefit 

from a review of the scope and findings 

of these projects, and (3) a program of 

research by Survey scientists should 

be developed, emphasizing certain lines 

that are especially needed. This is 

the first of a three-part report that 

responds to these needs.

1 "Climate" is commonly defined as the synthesis 

of "weather," with the "normal climate" being 

defined as the average of the last 30 years. 

"Climate variation" is a general term that includes both "climate fluctuation" and "climate 

change". The first of these terms is most 

frequently used for weather that significantly 

differs from the norm for periods lasting many 

years to decades; the second term is restricted 

by many to longer term climatic shifts that have 

durations measured in decades to centuries.
ROLES AND METHODS OF EARTH 

SCIENCE IN CLIMATE RESEARCH

The goals of climatic research are 

to improve our understanding of how the 

climate system works, what it may do in 

the future, and what may be the 

consequences. Earth science has three 

major roles to play toward the 

achievement of these goals:

(1) Defining the long-term records 

of climate variability.

(2) Determining geological, 

geochemical, and geophysical factors 

that influence climate change.

(3) Estimating the physical and 

biological consequences of possible 

future climates.

The first responsibility stems from the 

principle that an understanding of the 

causes and the probability of future 

climatic variation requires knowledge 

of the timing, nature, and limits of 

past variations over long periods of 

time. This perspective comes from 

viewing past climates as recorded by 

the geologic record. The second role 

follows from the geologic evidence that 

changes in factors that strongly 

influence the climate system have 

occurred with time; these influences 

include the distribution and thermal 

properties of the oceans, ice sheets, 

and continents and the occurrence of 

events such as large volcanic 

eruptions. The third responsibility 

follows from the fact that it is the 

physical consequences of a new climate 

that would become most important to man 

in the event of future climatic change. 

Measuring the relations between climate 

and earth-surface processes can lead to 

estimates of the physical and 

biological consequences of future 

climatic variation. Quantitative 

interpretations of the relations 

between both present and past climates 

and their effects on the earth's 

surface become keys to assessing the 

human consequences of possible future 

climatic variations.

The relation between the earth 

sciences and meteorological, 

oceanographic, and other sciences 

involved in a climate program is 

complex because their scientific 

domains overlap extensively. 

Investigations of both present and past 

climates are inherently 

interdisciplinary; many branches of the 

theoretical, observational, and 

laboratory sciences are involved, and 

almost all of them draw on data, 

constraints, and techniques derived 

from others.

The methods used by the earth 

sciences to fulfill their roles are 

many and varied. One way of dividing 

them is on the basis of the area from 

which the record is collected from the 

ocean floors, the ice sheets, or the 

continents. Records from the 

ocean floors have yielded exciting and 

rather complete evidence of 

climatically induced changes in the 

fauna and in the temperature, salinity, 

and isotopic composition of sea water 

during the ice ages. Work on existing 

ice caps has also produced important 

information about the history of global 

climate in the polar regions. The 

continents account for only 30 percent 

of the Earth's surface, and they 

influence climates the least, but they 

respond to climate change most rapidly. 

As they also provide the main source of 

food and shelter for most of the 

Earth's population, relatively direct 

benefits stem from investigations of 

the ways in which climate interacts 

with natural processes in the 

continental environment. One major 

goal of a climate program, therefore, 

must be to understand more about how 

that environment could be affected by 

inadvertent or naturally caused 

climatic variation. Most of the 

climate research now in progress in the 

Geological Survey, described in Part B 

of this Circular, is concerned with 

this aspect of the climate problem.
Long cores from the deep sea floor 

have been available in large numbers 

only during the past decade or two. 

The methods used by earth scientists in 

studying them, therefore, have mostly 

been developed or improved during that 

period. Sea-floor sedimentation tends 

to be slow but continuous, and the 

records from these cores are valuable 

for their completeness. Climate data 

from the cores are chiefly derived from 

fossil, mineralogical, chemical, and 

isotopic variations that indicate past 

changes in the composition and 

temperature of the ocean water and the 

volume of water locked in the polar ice 

sheets. Other records include volcanic 

ash layers, which record major 

eruptions that possibly altered the 

atmospheric transparency, and debris 

dropped by melting icebergs, which 

record the existence of sea-level 

glaciers. The ages of events in 

sea-floor cores are commonly based on a 

combination of biostratigraphic, 

radiometric, paleomagnetic, and 

sedimentation rate methods. Dated 

cycles of ocean-wide isotopic 

variations provide a secondary 

correlation and dating method; these 

cycles were caused by the changing 

proportions of the isotopes oxygen-18 

and oxygen-16 in the oceans and the 

polar ice sheets (which concentrate 

oxygen-16 more than does sea water) as 

the ice sheets expanded and contracted. 

Continuous records of the past several 

million years are recorded in many 

cores. Reports by the CLIMAP research 

group 2 exemplify paleoclimatic data 

obtained from the sea floor, and those 

papers plus the references in them to 

the work of others encompass a part of 

the known techniques and sources of 

data.

Earth scientists studying ice 

sheets in the Antarctic and Greenland, 

and glaciers in mountainous regions, 

derive data on climate from the 

hydrogen and oxygen isotopes of

2 The CLIMAP program is funded by the National 

Science Foundation; two of its major products 

are cited in Part C of this Circular.

successive layers of snow and ice, or 

the chemical, biological, or clastic 

variations in the stratigraphy provided 

by the annual accumulation layers. 

Isotopic variations in the oxygen-18 

and deuterium (hydrogen-2) of the ice 

reflect changes in atmospheric 

temperatures where the snow 

crystallized. Variations in the other 

ingredients reflect atmospheric 

transport phenomena and conditions in 

ice-free areas of those latitudes. The 

climates that were responsible for 

large expansions and contractions of 

ice sheets and glaciers in the past are 

also estimated on the basis of 

variations in the present glacier sizes 

that occur in response to observed 

variations in climate. Records based 

on the stratigraphy of glacier ice 

extend back several tens of thousands 

of years; ages are assigned by counting 

annual layers in the younger deposits 

and calculating theoretical rates of 

compaction and flow in the older 

deposits.

Climate leaves its imprint on the 

continents in an extraordinarily large 

number of ways, and the earth science 

record of continental climate consists 

of the numerous kinds of imprints that 

leave a permanent record. Almost all 

of them are indirect measurements of 

the climate itself, and much of the 

science concerned with the 

reconstruction of past climates thus 

involves translating these records of 

climatic response back into separable 

climate elements temperature, 

precipitation, wind, storm frequency, 

humidity, cloudiness, and storm 

trajectories. However, a very large 

number of these imprints are direct 

records of the very phenomena that 

would be of importance to man in the 

event of future climatic 

variation floods, erosion, avalanches, 

landslides, mudflows, hurricanes, dust 

storms, droughts, and many others. 

Earth science records of these types, 

therefore, can commonly be used 

directly for estimating climate-related
risks and hazards, and in many 

instances, they provide a better basis 

for resource management decisions than 

would information on the climate 

itself.

Reconstructions by earth 

scientists of past climate-related 

events, climates, and climate change on 

the continents normally use several 

criteria. These criteria are commonly 

based on a blend of theory, laboratory 

sciences, and empirical observations of 

natural processes. Examples of climate 

parameters based primarily on theory 

and laboratory sciences are:

-Runoff velocity, based on the 

known relations between water 

velocities and the maximum sizes 

of transported fragments as 

determined by laboratory 

experiments.

-Lake floor temperatures, based on 

the ratio of stable isotopes in 

certain salts which laboratory 

synthesis has shown is a function 

of crystallization temperatures.

-Mean annual temperatures for each 

of the past 100 years or more, 

based on heat conduction theory 

and measurements of the 

distribution and downward velocity 

of variations in the near-surface 

geothermal profile.

Examples of parameters based chiefly on 

empirical or statistical criteria are:

-Relation between rainfall and 

runoff, based on the observed 

statistical relation between 

simultaneous measurements of both 

variables.

-Relation between temperature, 

humidity, wind, solar radiation, 

and lake evaporation, based on 

observations of the climatic 

variables and empirically 

determined evaporation from 

exposed pans.

-Relation between climate and 

fossil communities, based on the 

presently observed preferences of 

those plants and animals for 

certain climatic environments.

-Relation between climate and soil 

type, based on the present 

geographic and climatic 

distribution of developing soils. 

Planning and making use of studies 

by earth scientists of the physical 

consequences of our present climate and 

past climate variation require an 

understanding of the strengths and 

constraints inherent to these 

disciplines. What follows are brief 

discussions of three of the many 

factors that influence studies in the 

continental environment: (1) the types 

of physical evidence that may be 

available, (2) the durations of 

geologic time that may be involved, and 

(3) the areas that were probably most 

affected by climate variation.

TYPES OF EVIDENCE AVAILABLE

Hydrologic records provide 

information to the earth scientist 

about the responses of ground water, 

surface water, and glaciers to climatic 

change; geologic sequences provide 

evidence of earth-surface responses to 

climatic change; biological records 

yield information about the effects of 

climatic change on the Earth's biota; 

archeological records tell us where and 

how man was able to live under changing 

climatic conditions; and historical 

records allow the specific effects of 

short-term changes in climate to be 

accurately documented. The 

interrelation between present and past 

geologic environments, various methods 

of study, and the span of time over 

which the results can be applied are 

shown in the adjacent table.

Two main components of climate are 

temperature and precipitation. The 

fossilized remnants of the climatically 

sensitive plant and animal communities 

that once occupied the terrestrial or 

aquatic deposit under study are 

commonly used indicators of these 

components; comparison of these 

communities with the present life zones 

of these organisms and the accompanying
Studies that yield climate information

Indices of 

present and 

past climates

I. Modern and historical processes 1 

A. Water and ice

2. Flow or diffusion (velocity,

B. Sediment (weathering, erosion

C. Landscape change and vegetation

D. Natural hazards (landslides, 

subsidence, floods, thermokarst) --

II. Geologic evidence of past processes 

and climates 2 

A. Stratigraphic indices (stratigraphic sequence and discontinC. Pedologic (soil) indices,

D. Geomorphic indices (landforms) ----- 

E. Paleontologic, paleoecologic, 

and biogeographic indices 

(pollen, plant megafossils, 

marine and terrestrial microF. Stable isotopic indices (oxygen,

H. Dendroclimatologic indices

Geologic environment

Coastal nearshore , 

continental shelffeatures

X

X 

X

X 

X 

X

X

X

X 

X

X

X 

X

X

fans, alluvial streams, 

estuaries

X

X

X

X 

X

X

X

X

X 

X

X

X 

X

X

Lakes, playas, reservoirs

X

X 

X

X 

X

X 

X

X 

X

X

X 

X

X 

X

Ground (including water 

karst features)

X

X 

X

X 

X

X

X 

X

X 

X

X

X 

X

X

and Snowice (including sea 

ice, shelf glaciers)

X

X 

X

X 

X 

X

X 

X

X 

X

X

X 

X

X 

X

Permafrost, ground ice

X

X

X 

X

X 

X

X

X

X

X 

X

features Eolian (wind 

deposition erosion) and 

X 

X

X

X

X 

X

X

X 

X

(including slopes mass 

features) wasting 

X 

X

X 

X 

X

X 

X

X 

X

X

X 

X

Soil development and 

stability

X

X

X

\ 

X 

X

X 

X

X 

X

X

X 

X

X

Bogs, and related swamps, 

wetlands

X

X 

X 

X

X

X

X 

X

A 

V

Useful time scale 

(years)

0 

0 0 

0 0

o o

00 0

o c o o o 

o o o o 

o o -co 

o o o o o

Climatic information derived primarily from direct measurement and (or) statistical analysis. 

Climatic information derived primarily from interpretation of rocks, sediments, Stratigraphic 

relations, and fossil assemblages.

climatic conditions allows actual values 

of past temperatures and precipitation 

to be estimated. Lakes in closed 

basins that enlarged during periods of 

wetter climates indicate, by their 

sizes and areas, a definite ratio of 

inflow (related to precipitation) to 

evaporation (related to temperature). 

Similar and comparably accurate 

estimates of these climatic elements 

can be made on the basis of the former 

increased extent of glaciers. The

mineralogy and ratios of stable 

isotopes in some sediments and cave 

deposits provide approximations of the 

mean annual temperatures of the 

surrounding areas. The geometry of a 

stream channel that is underfit or no 

longer occupied indicates the size of 

the largest stream that occupied it, 

and this allows estimates of peak 

runoff volumes in the past that may 

suggest the seasonal distribution of 

maximum rainfall. Evidence indicating
variations in the past elevations of 

perennial snow and permafrost at high 

latitudes and altitudes quantitatively 

documents past variations in the mean 

annual temperatures of the regions. 

The distribution and annual variation 

in the vertical positions of 

near-surface thermal profiles record 

the mean annual temperatures of an area 

during the past century or more.

Maximum wind velocities and 

directions during storms are indicated 

by the shape and internal structures of 

stable or buried sand dunes, by 

wind-eroded landform's, and by the 

location and size of erosional 

shorelines and sand or gravel bars 

formed in extinct lakes. The sizes of 

fragments transported by winds or waves 

allow estimates of maximum wind 

velocities. High-altitude wind 

directions are indicated by the 

downwind distribution of volcanic ash 

from major eruptions.

Brief periods of unusual climate 

droughts, drenching rains, floods, hot 

spells, cold snaps, dust storms, and 

hurricanes also are recorded in the 

record available to the earth 

scientist. Long droughts, for example, 

are indicated by soils or interlayered 

thin beds of salts in lake beds, by 

strata that contain unusual amounts of 

windblown sand, by the development of 

bad land topography, and by 

concentrations of certain fossils the 

remains of terrestrial animals that 

died for lack of water, of aquatic 

animals that succumbed to increased 

salinities, or of dry land plants that 

moved into areas formerly occupied by 

lakes or swamps. Times of drenching 

rain and major floods are suggested by 

deposits indicative of widespread 

landslides and mudflows and by layers 

of abnormally coarse sediments in 

stream deposits or nearshore lake and 

marine records. Brief periods of 

atypical warming or cooling are 

suggested by temporary changes in 

fossil assemblages. Periods of

exceptional wind or reduced vegetation 

cover are documented by wind-eroded 

landforms and by isolated layers of 

windblown silt or sand in both 

continental and marine deposits.

The characteristic storm paths and 

the synoptic meteorological patterns 

that prevailed during successive 

periods also can be inferred. The 

directions of the strongest winds, 

deduced from the criteria noted above, 

indicate the synoptic regimes that 

produced the strongest barometric 

gradients. The isotopic composition of 

samples of "fossil" water in glaciers, 

permafrost, ground water, and certain 

saline minerals provide information on 

the storm tracks and condensation-level 

temperatures that produced rain and 

snow during past intervals of time. 

Plant communities are sensitive to the 

seasonal distribution of precipitation 

as well as the amount, and changes in 

the composition of a fossil fauna and 

flora can indicate changes in the 

synoptic nature of the seasonal 

climates.

LENGTHS OF TIME INVOLVED

Dated chronologies of climatic 

change are established by a variety of 

radiometric and other laboratory 

age-dating techniques, by field methods 

that produce both absolute and relative 

ages, and by correlation of undated 

strata with strata in other areas where 

they are dated. Ages are usually 

expressed in terms of years (before the 

present, B.P.) or geologic periods (see 

back cover).

Climate records may be viewed in 

terms of the time span and time 

resolution they provide. Time 

resolution and accuracy of climatic 

reconstruction are progressively better 

for younger events. This point can be 

illustrated by describing the climatic 

histories and the nature of their 

record for six progressively longer 

blocks of time; successive blocks 

contained comparably greater climatic 

changes, but the quality and resolution

8
Quaternary dating techniques

Use in dating common Quaternary deposits

--, Seldom (if ever) used xx, Often used 

. . x, Occasionally used xxx, Very often used 

.linimum ^ Potential rather than actual use 

expectable

forrol.it ionrapthmU ,,-;,--, M,, im-i-,,-ir- m 

Method

Historical records ----------

n

Amino acid racemizat ion1* -----

weathering

Progressive landform -------- 

modification

Volcanic tephra layers ------ 

Fossils and artifacts -------

Approximate age 

range, in years' 

(percent resolution)

0 to 6,000 

(±0) (±2)

100 to >40,000 

(±100) (±2)

5,000 to > 300, 000 

(±501 "(.±10)

50,000 to : 2, 000, 000 

(±20) (±2)

50,000 to 2 2, 000, 000 

(±40) (±5)

0 to 9,000 

(±0) (±2)

0 to 12,000 

(±0) (±10)

50 to 8,000 

(±10) (t-25)

100 to '2,000,000 

(±20) (±30)

1,000 to r 2, 000, 000 

(±100) (±70)

<2,000 to 250,000 

(±50) (±10)

100 to 1,000,000 

(±50) (±50)

0 to 2 2, 000, 000 

3 15-50)

100 to 2,000,000 

(±100) (±90)

100 to 2,000,000 

(±50) (±50)

100 to 2 2, 000, 000 

(±100) (±100)

0 to 2,000,000 

(±100) (±100)

Cl to 2 2, 000, 000 

3 (5-20)

0 to 2 2, 000, 000 

"(2-10)

0 to 2 2, 000, 000 

^(10-50)

0 to ? 2, 000, 000

3 (5-20)

uncertainty, 

in percent, Pluvial 

for age given Glacial Marine lake

0 xxx

(500 yr)

1 XXX XX XXX

(15,000 yr)

5 -- xx xx

(100,000 yr)

2 x x (x) 

(1-2 m.y.)

(1-2 

5 

m.y. )

xxx 

0-1 x 

[<5,000 yr)

(<8,OC10 yr)

(< 1,000 yr)

10 (x) -- (x) 

(100,000 yr)

50 (x) (x) (x) 

(100,000 yr)

5 -- (x) (x) 

(100,000 yr)

20 -- xx (x) 

(100,000 yr)

3 5 -- xxx xx

25 xxx xx xx

(100,000 yr)

15 xx -- x

(100,000 yr)

50 xxx x x

(100,000 yr)

70 xxx xx xx

(100,000 yr)

3 5 (x) (xx) (xx) 

3 2 xx xx x

3 10 X XX XX

3 5 -- xxx (xx)

Alluvial Eolian Volcanic

XX XX

xxx xx x 

x 

x -- xxx 

x x xxx 

xx xx

x

(x) -- x 

(x) (x) (x) 

(x) -- x 

(x)

X XX 

XXX XX X 

XX X X 

XX X XX 

XXX XX XX

(xx) (xx) xxx

X X XX

xx xx

(X)

1 Limits are those between which a technique is normally applied. 

Approximate resolutions at each limit is given in parentheses.

 These methods may be applicable to pre-Quaternary ( 2 m y. old) 

materials.

of their records become progressively 

less: (1) the past 100 years, (2) the 

past 1,000 years, (3) the past 15,000 

years, (4) the past 150,000 years, (5) 

the past 1,000,000 years, and (6) the 

past 50,000,000 years.

Climatic variation during the 

past 100 years is reconstructed from 

instrumental, written, photographic, 

and geologic records from much of the 

globe. The waning stage of a 

centuries-long cold period produced

3 Where resolution is mostly dependent on factors other than age, 

a single range of resolution is given, and the minimum 

uncertainty does not apply to a specific age.

''Also used as j correlation method.

temperatures during the first part of 

this period that were still 0.2 to 0.4 

degrees (C) below present normal 

values. A gradual warming trend that 

lasted until the 1940's reversed this 

pattern, with comparably above-normal 

temperatures being recorded over much 

of the globe. Since that time, 

temperatures have lowered to values 

nearer the averages of this millenium. 

Weather events in this period can 

generally be reconstructed to the 

nearest hour or day.
RANGE OF TEMPERATURE VARIATION DURING GEOLOGIC PAST

(Relative to present values PV)

15" 10° 5 J PV ( 5l -10 15°C 

III III

The past 100 /ears

The past 1,000 /ears

The past 15 000 year

The past 150,000 years

The past I 000,000 year

The past 50.000,000 years

T+ Data generalized from information in National Academy of Sciences report 

Understanding climatic change and unpublished data from the U S Geological Surve/

Substantial climatic fluctuations 

during the past 1,000 years are 

recorded by historical as well as some 

archeological, geological, and 

biological records, although sea-floor 

sediments generally do not record the 

relatively brief climatic changes of 

this period. Written documents in 

Europe reveal a relatively warm climate 

at the beginning of this millenium, 

followed by a cold period that extended 

from the mid-15th to mid-19th century. 

Several forms of evidence in North 

America show that a century-long 

drought, which started in the 

southwestern U.S. about 1300 A.D., 

caused widespread incision of gullies 

in the alluvial flood plains and 

extensive displacement of the native 

population. A cold period followed, 

like that recorded in Europe, and it 

was terminated by a period of rapid 

warming that began about 1880. Many 

climatic events within this block of 

time can be dated to the nearest day or 

year.

The past 15,000 years includes the 

time of transition from the last major 

continental glaciation (the Wisconsin 

Glaciation of the Pleistocene Epoch) 

into the current (Holocene) 

interglacial condition. The last

transition from the climate associated 

with large continental ice sheets in 

Europe and North America to a climate 

much like that of the present, occurred 

about 10,000 years ago quite possibly 

over a period of a few centuries or 

less. Over the next few thousand 

years, North America was warmer than 

now. The record of climate during the 

past 15,000 years is contained in 

sediments deposited in marine, lake, 

stream, colluvial, and windblown 

environments, and by the very young 

deposits of continental and alpine 

glaciers. More than 50 percent of the 

United States is covered by deposits 

formed during this interval, hence the 

geologic record for this block of time 

is geographically extensive and 

relatively complete. In favorable 

localities, tree ring records reflect 

annual climate variations during the 

past several thousand years. The 

absolute chronology of deposits less 

than 15,000 years old has been 

established primarily by carbon-14 

dating, which has a resolution of a few 

centuries in this time range.

The past 150,000 years includes 

all of the last glacial stage and the 

preceding interglacial stage when the 

climate at times may have been much 

like that of the present. Multiple 

advances and retreats of the 

continental ice sheet margins occurred 

during this period, and these correlate 

with other indices of climatic change. 

The most continuous records of climate 

variations come from marine sediments 

and lake beds in areas not covered by 

Pleistocene ice. Discontinuous records 

are provided by glacial deposits in the 

north-central, northeast, and 

mountainous parts of the United States, 

river and deltaic deposits in the south 

and southeast, alluvial deposits in the 

west and southwest, and deposits of 

windblown silt in the midcontinent 

regions. Age control, provided by 

carbon-14, uranium series, 

potassium-argon, and other methods 

allows climatic events that lasted less

10
than a century to be identified in the 

younger deposits and events that lasted 

several thousand years to be identified 

in older deposits.

The past 1,000,000 years saw 

repeated cycles of glacial and 

interglacial climates. Continuous 

records representing all of this block 

of time are rarely exposed, but drill 

cores from the sea floor and in 

selected lakes and valleys provide 

nearly complete documentation. Dating 

by potassium-argon, uranium-series, 

fission-track, and other methods allows 

ages to be assigned to climatic events 

of this period, but the accuracies of 

dates in older deposits generally are 

limited to several tens of thousands of 

years. Thus, climatic events that 

lasted shorter periods cannot be 

accurately correlated with similar 

events in other areas. Furthermore, 

many parts of these records are not 

accurately dated, and the relative ages 

of the recorded climatic changes are 

more certain than their absolute ages.

The past 50,000,000 years included 

the most dramatic change found in any 

of these intervals of time. A warm 

global climate underwent several 

fluctuations that lasted about 

10,000,000 years each, but it cooled 

markedly about 30,000,000 years ago and 

then warmed again. This trend 

continued until about 10,000,000 years 

ago when an even more marked cooling 

trend began and polar ice caps and 

glaciers developed at higher 

elevations. By 3 million years ago, 

the glaciers had spread to low 

elevations where they calved into the 

sea, forming icebergs. Multiple 

fluctuations of glacial and 

interglacial or less glacial climates 

followed, with climates as warm as the 

present climate being representative of 

only a small part of that block of 

time. Dating of deposits in the early 

part of this time period by 

potassium-argon, fission-track, and 

other methods generally allows ages to

be assigned to within a few million 

years in the older deposits and a few 

hundred thousand years in the 

intermediate age deposits. Many 

records, however, consist of sequences 

that have only widely spaced dates or 

points of correlation. Climatic 

variations that lasted less than a few 

hundred thousand years are not 

generally recognized and dated.

AREAS MOST AFFECTED BY CLIMATIC CHANGE

All parts of the Earth's surface 

are affected by climate. Most of the 

physical, chemical, and biological 

balances that characterize a region are 

climate dependent, and a change in 

climate forces the rebalancing of all 

dependent systems. The terrestrial 

environment responds rapidly to climate 

change, commonly within a period of 

less than a year. Biological 

communities and runoff of surface 

waters are thus criteria of short-term 

or rapid climate change. Other 

environments, such as lakes and 

glaciers, provide some averaging of 

climate and react significantly only 

after several years or decades of 

persistent change. Continental ice 

sheets and the oceans respond much more 

slowly, because of their enormous 

thermal inertia, and they require long, 

persistent climate changes to create 

measurable variation.

Some parts of the Earth's surface 

are particularly sensitive to climatic 

change. Many of these are the 

vegetational transition zones where 

existing forms of plant life can barely 

survive under the present climatic 

regime. Existing balances between them 

and animal and human life are therefore 

also in jeopardy, and even small 

changes in climate, or small changes in 

the annual variability of climate, 

produce major consequences to all forms 

of life. Examples of these fragile 

environments are the transition zones 

between the arctic tundra and the 

subarctic forest, the upper and lower 

treeline zones of the western mountain

11
forests, and the grasslands and 

deserts. Deltas, estuaries, and coasts 

are also highly sensitive to climate 

change because they represent delicate 

physical and biological balances 

between runoff volume and velocity, and 

they are markedly affected by the 

frequency and character of coastal 

storms.

Past climate variations in the 

transition zones between the 

arctic tundra and subarctic forest can 

be reconstructed on the basis of 

well-preserved plant and animal 

remains, permafrost thickness, 

cryogenic soil structure distribution, 

vertical temperature profiles in 

permafrost and in boreholes, lake and 

swamp stratigraphies, glaciers and 

glacial deposits, and tree ring 

variations and chronologies. The 

arctic and subarctic regions are 

especially affected by climate change 

because the inherent nature of the 

atmospheric circulation system tends to 

magnify the change in those areas 

relative to that felt in temperate 

latitudes.

Past changes in the elevations of 

the upper and lower treeline zones of 

the western mountain forests, as 

determined from the fossil remains of 

the plants and animals associated with 

them, are themselves sensitive criteria 

of climate although the relative 

importance of changes in precipitation, 

temperature, and wind is not always 

clear. Evidence of past migrations in 

elevation of vegetational zones on 

steep slopes are most informative 

because the accompanying temperature 

changes can be estimated on the basis 

of normal atmospheric lapse rates. 

-Minor climate fluctuations, especially 

in precipitation, result in major 

changes in the boundaries between the 

grasslands and deserts. These are 

recorded in the geologic record by 

fossil remains, the type of soil 

development, and by the intensity of 

erosion.

Changes in climate affect the 

coasts by altering the frequency and 

intensity of storms and the wave 

directions associated with them, and 

these changes affect the rate and 

location of erosion and deposition. 

Estuaries and deltas are markedly 

sensitive to even short-term changes in 

the volume of runoff and in water 

level; sediment and vegetation changes 

sensitively record such fluctuations. 

The much longer term variations in 

climate, which caused changes in sea 

level and the locations of shorelines 

as a result of major glaciations and 

deglaciations, produced downcutting or 

filling of channels, burial of marshes 

and forests, emergence of reefs, 

migration of beaches and bars, and the 

erosion of terraces.

AGENCIES AND INSTITUTIONS 

CONCERNED WITH CLIMATE

An understanding of climatic 

change and its effects is necessary to 

fulfill the responsibilities of many 

national and international groups and 

agencies. Careful coordination of 

efforts is required because of the 

number and diversity of international 

organizations and U.S. Government 

agencies that produce or require 

information on climate (see boxes). To 

assure coordination between agencies in 

the United States, recommendations were 

made in 1974 by the Domestic Council 

and in 1975 by the National Academy of 

Sciences. These were combined by an 

interdepartmental committee under the 

auspices of the Federal Coordinating 

Council for Science, Engineering, and 

Technology into a document published in 

1977 entitled "A United States Climate 

Program Plan." That plan spells out 

the major objectives of a coordinated 

interagency Federal Program and 

identifies involved agencies. It also 

identifies priority research and 

service in five categories:

12
 Impact assessments of climatic 

variability on crop yields, livestock production, energy 

demand , land and water 

resources, transportation, 

national security, and other 

activities.

 Diagnosis and projection of 

observed climatic variations, 

particular seasonal and interannual anomalies and fluctuations.

 Research to gain basic understanding of natural climate variability and of 

man's potential impact on climate, 

such as the long-term increase in 

the amount of carbon dioxide in 

the atmosphere, dioxide.

 Observations by satellite and 

other means to help determine the 

earth's radiation budget, air 

composition, sea-air interactions, 

and other processes that cause 

climate to vary.

 Management of the vast array of 

measurements needed for climate 

research and services oceanic, 

atmospheric, hydrologic, solar, 

and other types of data.

The National Research Council of the 

National Academy of Sciences has, in 

turn, established a Climate Research 

Board that is expected to provide 

overview and advice to the Government 

on research carried out as part of the 

Climate Program Plan.

The elements of the Climate 

Program Plan underlined here are the 

ones that are most directly related to 

the effects of climate on our land and 

water resources or that require major 

components of the earth science data. 

The two Government agencies most 

concerned with the earth science record 

of climate are the Geological Survey 

(USGS) and the National Science 

Foundation (NSF), so that the research 

activities of these two agencies 

require careful coordination. The 

activities of the NSF consist mostly of

support for work carried out in 

universities and university-sponsored 

research institutions.

The Geological Survey performs a 

wide variety of climate-related earth 

science investigations. Most of the 

research is done by USGS scientists, 

but some is done by universities, state 

surveys, and other institutions on a 

grant or contract basis. These 

investigations are coordinated with and 

used by many U.S. Government agencies 

as well as several international 

programs. Data on water quantity and 

quality collected by the Survey, for 

example, are used by and coordinated 

with various agencies in the 

Departments of Interior; Health, 

Education, and Welfare; Defense; 

Commerce; Energy; and Agriculture. 

Many State and local governmental 

agencies use these data and also 

perform earth-science investigations 

related to climate.

Much of the research sponsored by 

NSF dealing with-science aspects of 

climate is being conducted by research 

institutes and centers linked to 

educational institutions: Center for 

Climatic Research (University of 

Wisconsin), Coastal Studies Institute 

(Louisiana State University), Desert 

Research Institute (University of 

Nevada), Great Lakes Research Center 

(University of Michigan), Institute of 

Arctic and Alpine Research (University 

of Colorado), Institute of Arctic 

Biology (University of Alaska), 

Institute of Marine Sciences 

(University of Miami), Institute of 

Polar Studies (Ohio State University), 

Institute of Quaternary Studies 

(University of Maine), Laboratory of 

Tree-Ring Research (University of 

Arizona), Lamont-Doherty Geological 

Observatory (Columbia University), 

Limnological Research Center 

(University of Minnesota), Museum of 

Applied Science Center for Archeology 

(University of Pennsylvania), and 

Quaternary Research Center (University 

of Washington).

13
Earth science researchers in these climate-related studies that have been 

institutes, the USGS, and scores of applied to every geologic time period 

colleges, universities, and private as well as the present. The notable 

research organizations have combined to breadth of the Geological Survey's 

produce an impressive array of current efforts is the subject of Part

B in this Circular.

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS INVOLVED IN CLIMATIC STUDIES

(Organizations most actively involved in studying the effects of 

climate on land and water resources are underlined)

United Nations

World Meteorological Organization (WMQ) 

Food and Agricultural Organization CFAO~) 

UN Environmental Program (UNEP) 

Conference on Desertification 

International Hydrological Program 

International Biological Program 

World Climate Program 

International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU)

International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG)

International Association of Hydrologic Sciences (IAHS)

International Association of Meteorology and 

Atmospheric Physics (IAMAP)

International Association of Physical

Sciences of the Ocean (IAPSO) 

International Geographical Union (IGU) 

International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS)

Commission on Stratigraphy (CS)

International Geologic Correlation Program (IGCP)(with UNESCO) 

International Union of Biological Sciences (IUBS) 

Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research (SCOR) 

Scientific Committee on Water Research (COWAR) 

Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR)

International Antarctic Glaciologic Program flAGP") 

Special Committee on Problems of the Environment (SCOPE) 

Federation of Astronomical and Geophysical Services (FAGS)

Permanent Service on the Fluctuations of Glaciers fPSFGl 

World Data Centres

Inter-Union Committees on Geodynamics 

Pacific Science Association

Global Atmospheric Research Program (GARP) (ICSU/WMO) 

First Global Garp Experiment CFGGE) 

GATE, NORPAX, JASIN, and others 

Other scientific organizations

International Quaternary Association dNQUA) 

International Glaciological Society (IGS) 

International Association of Hydro-Geologists (IAH)

14
U. S. GOVERNMENT AGENCIES INVOLVED IN CLIMATE STUDIES

Coordination

Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP).

Federal Coordinating Council for Science, Engineering, and Technology (FCCSET).

Basic Data Collection and Analysis in Support of Agency Objectives 

Department of Commerce (DOC)

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) is the lead agency for weather monitoring 

and prediction and has responsibilities for atmospheric and oceanic aspects of climate, including the 

National Weather Service, National Environmental Data Service, Geophysical Fluids Dynamics Laboratory, 

Center for Climate and Environmental Assessment, Center for Experimental Design and Analysis, National 

Climate Center; Large Area Crop Inventory Experiment (with DOA and NASA); and monitoring of sea ice, 

oceanic water column, global albedo, and the surface of oceans (with DOD and NASA).

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

NASA provides satellite technology appropriate for modern weather and ocean observations. It performs 

research on solar radiation, on the climate of other planets, and on climate factors monitored by 

satellite.

National Science Foundation (NSF)

NSF has major responsibilities for basic research. The Climate Dynamics Research Program and other 

programs support research on climate history, on predictive models of climate, and on the impacts of 

climate change on man. NSF functions include operating the National Center for Atmospheric Research, 

the International Decade of Oceanographic Exploration (which includes CLIMAP, NORPAX, GEOSEC, ISOS, 

and Coastal Upwelling Experiment), and research programs on meteorology/climatology, oceans and sea 

floor, earth science, polar studies, and ecology.

Department of Interior (DOI)

The Geological Survey (USGS) collects data and performs geologic and hydrologic research on climatic 

history and its effects on land and water, to support appraisals of land and water resources and of 

environmental impacts. The Bureau of Reclamation (USER) has responsibilities in management of water 

resources and performs experiments in precipitation augmentation. Other bureaus need climate data 

for resource management.

Department of Defense (DOD)

Performs supporting services and study of air-sea interaction, solar radiation, behavior of sea ice, 

influence of weather and climate on communications, and other factors in pursuit of its missions.

Department of Transportation (DOT)

DOT is involved in weather-related activities and recently completed the Climate Impact Assessment 

Program which studied environmental impacts of aircraft effluents. The Federal Aviation Administration 

makes meteorological observations. The Federal Highway Administration studies environmental and land 

stability factors related to highways.

Department of Energy (DOE)

DOE is involved with the effects of energy production on climate, particularly the effects of carbon 

dioxide production from the burning of fossil fuel, and also needs climate and weather prediction to 

make policies concerning supplies of heating fuel.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

EPA is concerned with pollutants in the atmosphere. 

Department of Agriculture (DOA)

DOA is concerned with relations between climate and crop yield. It studies soil development and 

conservation and makes snow surveys.

Governmental policy making that requires data on climate

Department of State (DOS)

Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (HEW)

t5
CLIMATE VARIATION AND ITS EFFECTS 

ON OUR LAND AND WATER

Circular 776-B -- Current Research by the Geological Survey

CONTENTS

Past traditions and present responsibilities 

Current research

Summary and selected highlights of current work

I. Present climate-related processes and indices

II. Short-term changes in climate

III. Long-term changes in climate

IV. Areal distributions of past climates

V. Dating and correlation methods 

Selected bibliography

Circular 776-C -- Geological Survey Climate Plan

CONTENTS

A program to improve understanding climate change and

its impacts

Why expand earth-science climate research? 

Why a USGS climate program? 

Major objective 

Program elements

Consequences of climatic variation on land and

water 

Recurrence of climate variations that affect land

and water resources 

Understanding climate change

Research related to monitoring climate variables 

Data management 

Management of Geological Survey program
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