GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CIRCULAR 768

Proceedings of the Geology and 

Food Conference, with Related 

U.S. Geological Survey Projects 

and a Bibliography
Proceedings of the Geology and 

Food Conference, with Related 

U.S. Geological Survey Projects 

and a Bibliography

By Omer B. Raup, Editor 

Bibliography compiled by Flora K. Walker

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CIRCULAR 768

1977
United States Department of the Interior

CECIL D. ANDRUS, Secretary

Geological Survey

V. E. McKelvey, Director

Library of Congress catalog-card No. 77-600060

Free on application to Branch of Distribution, U.S. Geological Survey, 1200 South Eads Street, Arlington, VA 22202
CONTENTS

Page

Purpose and organization of the Geology and Food Conference __________ 1

Abstracts_______,__________________________________________ 2

Introductory remarks _______________________________________ 2

Fertilizer materials (titles and speakers listed on page 1) ______________ 3

Soil amendment materials (titles and speakers listed on page 2)_____ 12

Weathering of rocks, soils, trace elements, and plant nutrition (titles and speakers listed on page 2) 16

Related studies (titles and speakers listed on page 2) ________________ 20

Summary of recommendations from abstracts and discussions of papers 23

Fertilizer materials _______________________________________ 23

Phosphate________________________________________________ 23

Potash __________________________________________________ 24

Sulfur__________________________._______________________ 24

Soil amendment materials________ ___________________________ 24

Weathering of rocks, soils, trace elements, and plant nutrition _______________ 24

Related studies __________________________________________ 24

General recommendations ___________________________________________ 24

Workshop sessions _________________________________________ 25

Report from the Fertilizer Materials Workshop _____________ 25

Report from the Soil Amendment and Rock Weathering Workshop ________ 28

Current USGS projects _____________________. _______________________ 29

Fertilizer materials _________________________________________ 30

Soil amendment materials_________________________________ _- 30

Weathering of rocks, soils, trace elements, and plant nutrition ________ 31

Land use___________________________________________ 34

Bibliography _________________._______________________________ 35

Fertilizer materials _____________________________________ 35

Geology of phosphate_____________________________________- 35

Geology of potash _ _ __ ___ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _____ _ _ ____ _ __ _ ____ _ 40

Geology of nitrates and sulfur ___________________ ______________ 41

General fertilizer materials__________________ 42

Soil amendment materials_______ ________ ________ ________ ______ 42

Weathering of rocks, soils, trace elements, and plant nutrition ___ 44

Land-use maps ___ _ _ __ _ ___ ___ _ _ __ _ _ _ ___ __ _____ _____ _ _ 49

III
PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGY AND 

FOOD CONFERENCE, WITH RELATED 

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROJECTS 

AND A BIBLIOGRAPHY

By Omer B. Raup, Editor

Bibliography compiled by Flora K. Walker

PURPOSE AND

ORGANIZATION OF

THE GEOLOGY AND

FOOD CONFERENCE

Food production is a major factor in the national 

economy, both in terms of domestic consumption 

and foreign export. Modern intensive agricultural 

practices have strained the production capacity of 

the Nation's agricultural lands and constitute a 

major geologic process changing the geochemical 

and physical properties of the land surface. As a 

result, the environmental quality and agricultural 

productivity are threatened. In addition, rapid 

exploitation of fertilizer-mineral deposits coupled 

with withdrawal of fertilizer mineral-bearing 

lands for environmental reasons has placed our 

domestic supply of fertilizer minerals in jeopardy. 

It is, therefore, vital to the social and economic 

needs of the Nation to have a program focused on 

the geologic factors that relate to intensifying the 

agricultural productivity of the land.

The U.S. Geological Survey has a number of 

projects in progress which contribute directly or 

indirectly to the agricultural needs of the Nation. 

Five projects are devoted to the study of the geology and geochemistry of phosphate, one of the 

major components in fertilizer. Six other projects 

concern various aspects of some of the other fertilizer minerals, such as potash, nitrates, and sulfur. Several projects are devoted to studies of trace 

elements in soils, regional geochemistry, and environmental and land-use mapping, all of which

apply directly or indirectly to the solution of problems that have application in the general field of 

agriculture.

At the request of the Chief Geologist, a conference was organized to investigate areas in which 

the U.S. Geological Survey might increase its research activities to make a greater contribution to 

the field of agriculture. The conference, entitled 

"Geology and Food," was held January 22-24, 

1975, in the Building 25 Auditorium at the Denver 

Federal Center. Presentations were made by 24 

U.S. Geological Survey personnel. The following is 

a list of the speakers and their papers, arranged by 

category:

Richard P. Sheldon, Chief Geologist Introductory remarks.

FERTILIZER MATERIALS

Alfred J. Bodenlos Soil sulfur Requirements, deficiencies,

and replenishment. 

James B. Cathcart Distribution and resources of phosphate

in the eastern United States and in Latin America. 

James B. Cathcart Environmental and cultural problems

related to phosphate mining and processing. 

David F. Davidson and Richard P. Sheldon (speaker) The

geographic and geologic distribution of phosphate deposits. 

Walter G. Dupree, Jr. Fertilizer demand Domestic and

worldwide. 

George E. Ericksen Geology, resources, and development

potential of naturally occurring nitrates. 

Robert J. Kite A geochemical success story in northeast

Thailand.

Robert J. Kite Phosphate and evaporites A direct relationship? 

Charles L. Jones Potash resources and economics.
Keith B. Ketner Nature of the Phosphoria sea and the relation of upwelling to rich phosphate deposits.

Richard F. Meyer Energy requirements of the agriculture 

industry.

Richard P. Sheldon Upwelling model and its applications.

SOIL AMENDMENT MATERIALS

Alfred L. Bush Distribution of volcanic rocks potentially 

useful as soil amendments.

Cornelia C. Cameron Peat as a soil amendment.

Harold A. Hubbard and George E. Ericksen (speaker) Lime- 

'stone and dolomite in agriculture.

Ronald C. Severson Soil amendments and physical properties of soils.

Richard A. Sheppard Potential role of natural zeolites in 

agriculture and animal husbandry.

Vernon E. Swanson Humate as a soil additive.

Ray E. Wilcox Volcanic ash and related materials as soil 

amendments.

WEATHERING OF ROCKS,

SOILS, TRACE ELEMENTS,

AND PLANT NUTRITION

Helen L. Cannon The importance of elemental interrelationships in biological systems.

T. T. Chao Soil chemical properties and plant nutrient availability.

Wallace R. Griffitts Problems of lateritic soils.

Hansford T. Shacklette Major nutritional elements in soils 

and plants A balance sheet.

Ronald R. Tidball Composition as a measure of soil quality.

Richard W. White Weathering, and the parent materials of 

soils.

RELATED STUDIES

Simon Cargill Computer-based data systems for fertilizer 

materials.

Roger B. Morrison How remote sensing can assist in mapping surficial and fertilizer materials.

Robert D. Watson Phosphate rock detection using solarstimulated luminescence.

Eleven guests from industry, universities, and 

other Government agencies were invited to attend 

the conference. They were requested to discuss the 

papers and participate in the workshop sessions. 

The following is a list of the invited participants:

Joseph Coffman, U.S. Bureau of Mines, Spokane, Wash.

G. Donald Emigh, Monsanto Industrial Chemicals Co., St.

Louis, Mo. 

Donald L. Everhart, International Minerals and Chemical

Corp., Libertyville, 111.

Leonard Garrand, Garrand Corporation, Salt Lake City, Utah. 

Ray Gremillion, Tennessee Valley Authority, Muscle Shoals,

Ala. 

Tommie Holder, Soil Conservation Service, Denver, Colo.

Clifford Holmes, Phillips Petroleum Co., Bartlesville, Okla.

Robert B. Kayser, International Minerals and Chemical Corp., 

Libertyville, 111.

Albert E. Ludwick, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, 

Colo.

Guerry McClellan, Tennessee Valley Authority, Muscle 

Shoals, Ala.

Sterling R. Olsen, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Fort Collins, Colo.

The conference was organized into three parts:

1. Presentation of papers by U.S. Geological Survey personnel in the following subject 

areas fertilizer materials; soil amendment 

materials; weathering of rocks, trace elements, and plant nutrition; and related 

studies.

2. The invited participants were requested to give 

their reactions to the research that was reported on in the papers and to make any other 

comments that they felt were appropriate. In 

addition, they were asked to answer the question, "What could or should the USGS do that 

would aid the agricultural industry?"

3. The speakers and invited participants were divided into two major study groups. These 

consituted the workshop sessions on (a) fertilizer materials, and (b) soil amendments 

and rock weathering. The workshops met for 

about 6 hours. These sessions were followed 

by a report from the chairman of each workshop in which he gave a consensus of the 

recommendations of the group.

ABSTRACTS

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS

By Richard P. Sheldon

A proper objective for man is to feed himself 

adequately without getting the world ecology out 

of balance now or in the future.

But we are a long way from achieving this 

rather Utopian objective, which in fact has never 

been achieved in the past and may be unachievable in the future. Certainly the recent famine in 

the Sahel and the present one in India and 

Bangladesh are evidence of the failure of the present system, and a great apprehension exists today 

about man's future ability to feed himself.

Obvious factors contributing to this crisis are 

population growth, limited farm land, and lack of 

fertilizer and water. Some of the not-so-obvious 

factors are the following:

1. Low productivity of existing farms.
2. Inadequate food distribution.

3. Loss of food to pests.

4. Misallocation of food.

5. Pollution from intensive farming technology.

6. Energy requirements of intensive farming 

	technology.

7. Loss of soil through erosion.

It would appear that man is on the brink of a 

major change in his way of producing his food.

What can geologists do to impact this problem 

which seems largely biologic and is in an area 

where we have played a relatively minor role in 

the past?

I would propose that the science of geology can 

contribute in some degree to the following objectives:

1. Increase in arable acreage by land reclamation.

2. Optimum agricultural use of ground and surface water.

3. Adequate supply of fertilizer and soil-amendment raw nlaterial.

4. Understanding of the geochemical and geologic 

processes operating within a balanced 

ecologic system.

5. Projection of the mineral resource supply to 

which the agricultural system must adjust in 

the long term.

The next question is, "What can the USGS do to 

contribute in solying this national and world problem?"

That is the pujrpose of this conference.

FERTILIZER MATERIALS

SOIL SULFUR REQUIREMENTS, DEFICIENCIES, 

AND REPLENISHMENT

By Alfred J- Bodenlos

Sulfur is one of the 11 elements essential to life; 

it is needed specifically in the synthesis of proteins, vitaminfe, enzymes, and, indirectly, 

chlorophyll. Boljh plants and animals contain 

about as much sulfur as phosphate, and the ratio of 

nitrogen to sulfur should be 15:1 to insure 

adequate synthesis of proteins.

Notwithstanding, soils in parts of most of our 

States and in parts of Canada, Japan, western 

Europe, Australia, New Zealand, South America, 

and Africa do not contain sufficient sulfur to 

achieve maximum crop yields or protein content; 

and this in turn Results in reduced yields of meat,

wool, and milk. These deficiencies can result from 

a variety of causes: excessive leaching of soils due 

to heavy annual rainfall or to the high porosity of 

the soils themselves; intensive agriculture or poor 

livestock management; insufficient replenishment of sulfur from natural rock weathering or 

atmospheric fallout; or use of low-sulfur fertilizers.

Sulfur resources are globally widespread, occurring as elemental deposits in evaporites and in 

volcanic terrain, as gypsum and anhydrite, as sulfide-bearing metallic minerals, and as organic and 

inorganic compounds in most fossil fuels; Africa is 

the only continent that seems to have limited resources of sulfur-bearing rocks, minerals, or fuels. 

Yet most sulfur, either in elemental form or as 

pyrite, is produced from mines or recovered as a 

byproduct from base-metal smelters, oil refineries, 

or gas processing plants located in the industrialized nations; therefore, most of those countries should have sufficient resources of sulfur and 

sulfur-bearing materials to permit adequate fertilization to compensate for deficiencies in soil sulfur. Providing adequate sulfur to the agricultural 

belts of the less-developed nations will be more 

difficult because of problems involving economic 

factors and deficiencies in the infrastructures 

needed to move large tonnages of sulfur-bearing 

minerals or chemicals from local sources to the 

cultivated segments of such countries.

Sulfur is used in the processing of phosphate 

rock in addition to its use as an essential element 

in fertilizers. Sulfur, in the form of sulfuric acid, is 

used to acidulate phosphate rock into phosphoric 

acid which is the soluble form necessary for fertilizer manufacture. More than half the sulfur annually consumed in the United States has one of 

those two uses. Sulfur compounds also are indispensable in neutralizing the alkaline soils of arid 

regions and in increasing their porosity.

DISTRIBUTION AND RESOURCES OF PHOSPHATE 

IN THE EASTERN UNITED 

STATES AND IN LATIN 

AMERICA

By J. B. Cathcart

Phosphate deposits of igneous origin, those derived from guano, and phosphorites of sedimentary origin are widespread in the Eastern United 

States and in Latin America. About 75 percent of 

the production of phosphate is from sedimentary
phosphate deposits, 20 percent from igneous apatites, and the remainder from guano. Production in 

the United States in 1974 was 44.7 million short 

tons all but a trace from sedimentary phosphorites.

Reserves and resources in metric tons in the 

Eastern United States and in Latin America are as 

follows:

Reserves Resources

Eastern United States

Guano or guano -derived 

Igneous apatite 

Secondary

Sedimentary phosphorite

None 

Hundreds of thousands 

Tens of millions

Billions

Tens of thousands 

Millions 

Hundreds of 

millions 

Hundreds of 

billions

Latin America

Guano or guano -derived 

Igneous apatite

Secondary 

Sedimentary phosphorite

Tens of millions 

Hundreds of millions

None 

Hundreds of millions

Millions 

Hundreds of 

millions or 

billions 

None 

Billions

Phosphate deposits and occurrences in these 

areas are summarized in tables 1 and 2.

TABLE 1. Phosphate deposits of the Eastern United States

[Leaders (...) indicate no data]

State

Florida ........

Georgia .......

Area

. .. Polk, Hillsborough

Counties

Hardee, Manatee, 

DeSoto Counties

Hamilton, Alachua, 

Lake, Orange; and

. . . Lowndes, Echols Counties

General geology

Sedimentary phosphates

rocks, reworked from Miocene.

Turbulent mixing on flanks of rising domes; phosphate 

pellets in sand, clay, limestone; may be reworked, 

concentrated, enriched in marine or continental 

environment; pellets contain as much as 38 percent

PAReserves 

(metric tons)

600 X ID*

300 xlO6 

100 xlO6

Resources 

(metric tons)

1000 X lO*^

1000 X 106 ( 

>800 xlOJ>l

y 

Recoverable 

pellets of 

30 percent

PA

Florida, Georgia, Throughout peninsular Hawthorn Formation; Miocene; phosphate pellets in None >100 x 109 (pellets). 

South Carolina. Florida in coastal plain to limestone and marls; pellets contain 20-30 percent 

South Carolina. P.O..

Georgia Savannah River at Atlantic Hawthorn Formation (Miocene) and Duplin Marl 

Ocean. (Pliocene); phosphate pellets in sand, clay, marl; 

pellets contain 30 percent P2OS.

None >1.6 xlO9 (pellets).

.... ...... do. ......................................

sand, clay, marl ; pellets contain 30 percent P2O5.

1 xiO» tonnes of

pellets

Hundreds of millions

(pellets).

10 x 109 (pellets).

Other occurrences of phosphate pellets and nodules are in the Eocene Castle Hayne Limestone of North Carolina, the Eocene Tallahatta Formation of 

Georgia, and the Oligocene Cooper Marl of South Carolina.

Alabama, Georgia, Widely distributed in 

Mississippi. several counties. 

Oklahoma, Kansas, Eastern Oklahoma, 

Missouri. Kansas, and adjacent 

western Missouri.

Cretaceous; several formations of limestone, chalk, marl, None 

containing phosphate pellets and nodules; pellets may 

have 30 percent P2O5, rock only about 3 percent.

Pennsylvania!! ; phosphate pellets and nodules in shales None 

interbedded with limestone; several phosphatebearing shales; nodules are 30 percent P20S, shales 

2-3 percent.

No data; could be very 

large, but tonnes per 

unit area too small to 

be minable.

Do.
TABLE 1. Phosphate deposits of the Eastern United States Continued

State Area General geology

Reserves 

(metric tons)

Resources 

(metric tons)

Sedimentary phosphates Continued

Texas ............ Llano uplift ....... ...... Morrowan; sandy, calcareous phosphorite at base; may None

be lag gravel ; phosphorite contains 10 15 percent

>40 X 106

Arkansas hwestern part of Pitkin Limestone (Mississippian) and Hale Formation 5 x 10* 

(Mississippian) ; lenticular beds of calcareous 

phosphorite at base of Hale Formation; some mining in 

past, started again in 1975.

Several times the 

reserves, but still 

limited; millions.

Mississippian ; Fayetteville Shale ; beds of shale may None ; too low grade . No data, but in 

contain as much as 6 percent P205 ; pelletal; content of aggregate may be 

pellets not known ; may be an area of upwelling. large, billions (?).

Alabama, Georgia, Various counties in 

Tennessee, contiguous States. 

Kentucky, Ohio, 

Indiana.

Devonian and Mississippian Chattanooga and New None ; too few No data, but probably 

Albany Shales and Mississippian Maury Shale; nodules per unit billions of tonnes of 

contains sparse phosphate nodules ; nodules as much as area. nodules throughout the 

30 percent P205, shale beds 2 -3 percent. very extensive outcrop 

belt.

Arkansas Northwestern part of 

State, into OklahomaW.

Devonian; Sylamore Sandstone Member of Chattanooga None 

Shale; some phosphate in basal sandstone.

Nodata,small(?).

New York, 

Pennsylvania, 

Virginia

Iowa, Wisconsin, 

Illinois.

Per

I

ry, Maury, Lewis, 

jckman Counties.

Central New York, SouthCentral Pennsylvania, 

Southwest Virginia

Twi

Int

Tnd

C

he Tri-State area.

ependence, Izard 

<o unties.

Devonian; Hardin Sandstone Member of Chattanooga 

Shale contains phosphate pellets reworked from 

underlying Ordovician rocks; so-called "blue rock"; 

mined in the past; thin, as much as 25 percent P205.

Devonian; Oriskany Sandstone; base is sandy 

phosphorite; thin beds as much as 25 percent P205.

Ordovician; lag gravels at base of Decorah Shale and 

Galena Dolomite.

Ordovician; Maquoketa Shale; thin beds at base of 

Manquoketa contain as much as 15 percent P205 ; 

sandy phosphorite.

Ordovician; Cason Shale; phosphate nodules and pellets 

in shale-^thin beds (1-)- m) contain as much as 20 

percent P205 ; on southern flankof rising Ozark dome.

None; mining 

problems.

None

None

None; mining 

problems.

........do....

80 x 10«; may be 

greater.

No data; may be some 

tens of millions of 

tonnes.

Probably small.

8 x 10H of rock near 

Dubuque that could be 

stripped; total is 

probably much larger.

.. 20 x lost; may be much

more; tonnage 

estimated from 

outcrop area plus few

Tennessee Na

deposited on west flankof rising Nashville dome; 

turbulent mixing of laterally moving currents at an 

optimum water depth.

None; too low 

phosphate 

content.

3-5 X 10* ; average 

about 5 percent P205. 

Source rock for the 

"brown rock" 

deposits.

Sevier, Polk Counties. Precambrian; Ocoee Supergroup; lenticular beds of 

pelletal phosphate associated with shale and 

limestone; beds as much as 1.3 m thick; contain as 

much as 35 percent P205 .

None No data; probably small 

in individual deposits; 

may be large in total.

Michigan Marquette and Baraga 

Counties.

Precambrian X (middle) ; large phosphate nodules in None, too little 

siliceous slaty conglomerate ; one 15-m bed contains 15 known . 

percent P205 ; oldest phosphorite known in the United 

States.

May be large.

Secondary deposits of phosphate rock

Tennessee, 

Alabama, 

Kentucky.

Nashville basin and Residual: Tens of millions. 

Adjacent areas both north "Brown rock"; acid weathering in modern cycle of 

and south. Ordovician phosphatic limestone ; calcite removed; 

residually concentrated apatite.

About same as reserves.

Tennessee Johnson, Perry Counties. Phosphatizedrock; None; mining

"White rock"; phosphate, leached by acid ground water; problems, 

replaces underlying carbonate rock.

Tens of millions.

Florida, Georgia. Msiny counties ........... "Hardrock." Origin same as above .do ............ Tens to hundreds of

millions.

Florida Several counties Aluminum phosphate; wavellite, crandallite; formed by None; processing

leaching of phosphate by acid water; phosphate problems, 

combines with alumina of clay minerals.

Florida, Georgia, 

South Carolina.

Many counties Reworked: None; mining 

"River pebble"; phosphate, eroded by modern rivers problems.

from marine phosphorites, is concentrated as bars and

in the flood plains of the rivers.

100 X 108 .

Millions.
TABLE 1. Phosphate deposits of the Eastern United States Continued

State

Jersey, 

Massachusetts.

Area General geology

Apatite deposits of igneous origin

Reserves Resources 

(metric tons) (metric tons)

...... Nil Small ; in individual

deposits.

...... None Tens to hundreds of

thousands.

Missouri ......... Pea Ridge .............. Intrusive sheets; high phosphorus iron ore, apatite Hundreds of millions of tons of iron ore that

concentrated in processing byproduct, may amount to contain about 4 percent apatite. 

100,000 metric tons per year.

Arkansas ......... Magnet Cove Carbonatite; apatite-rich in places Nil Small, probably.

Guano or guano-derived

Florida........... Monroe Pellets, in bird rookery, derived from guano Nil Very small.

TABLE 2. Phosphate deposits of Latin America

Country Area General geology Reserves 

(metric tons)

Resources 

(metric tons)

Sedimentary Phosphorite

[No phosphate deposits are known in Argentina, Bolivia, and Ecuador, but all have reported sedimentary beds that contain minor amounts of P205. Consequently, potential exists for 

marine phosphorite deposits in beds of Cretaceous and Tertiary age. There are reports of Ordovician phosphate in Argentina]

Mexico Zacatecas ............. Jurassic; La Caja Formation; calcareous phosphorite; 150 x 106 , 130-km2 area; folded, faulted; total

marine; miogeosyncline; best is 5-7 m thick, as much as >13 percent resources probably billions.

20 percent P205. P205.

Baja California ......... Miocene; Monterey Formation; siliceous phosphorite;

platform facies; 80km strike; best is 2-m thick, 19 

percent P205.

None Probably hundreds of millions.

Nicaragua . .

Colombia . . .

Brazil .....

. Cerro Papayal .........

. Cordillera Oriental.

. Tachira ..............

Falcon ...............

Modern beach sand; probably reworked Miocene; 80 km 

long; 3 per cent P205 .

. Phosphatic sandstone; as much as 25 percent P205, in small

pocket of sediments on volcanics.

uncovered in road building.

Cretaceous; shelf facies is sandy; miogeosynclinal facies is 

calcareous; Plaeners and La Luna Formations; beds as 

much as 5m thick, average about 20 percent P205.

Colombia.

hardrock of Florida.

to 4 m thick at base limestone of Gramame; total area 

underlain by the Gramame Formation is 100 x 12km.

None

None

100 x 106

1 X106

15 X106

500-1000 x 106.

No data; may be moderate.

f

500 x Vindicated; total probably 

billions.

the formation; no data.

Minas Gerais Precambrian Bambui Group; lenticular isoclinally folded 

phosphorite bodies, as much as 80 m thick in shales of 

Bambui.

300 x 10« 700 x 106.

Peru ........ Central

Northern 

Sechura .

Jurassic; Aramachay Formation; miogeosynclinal None 

phosphorite in limestone, mudstone; as much as 17 m 

thick; 10percent P205.

Cretaceous; Muerto Formation; phosphatic limestone, None 

reported to be tens of meters thick with 5 percent P205 .

Miocene; Zapayal Formation; pelletal phosphorite beds in 500 x 106 

clay, sand, and diatomaceous clay; best bed is 1.3m and 

23 percent P205. ____ ______ _______

May be very large; phosphate beds 

crop out over 100 km; folded and 

faulted sequence.

May be large.

900 x 106 . May be much larger. 

Tonnages computed for "best" 

material.

Apatite deposits of igneous origin

Brazil Widespread 

Bahia .....

Carbonatite bodies contain apatite at Araxa, Jacupiranga, 100 x 106 

Catalab, Tapira, Serrote, and elsewhere.

Pegmatite apatite; may be thoroughly metamorphosed None 

sediments of Precambrian age.

Many carbonatite bodies are being 

investigated. Resources are 

many times reserves.

Millions.
TABLE 2. Phosphate deposits of Latin America Continued

Country Area General geology Reserves 

(metric tons)

Resources 

(metrfc tons)

Apatite deposits of igneous origin Continued

Chile Coquiifibo and Atacama. Apatite associated with magnetite in dikes or local 

intrusives.

Limited Small.

Guano or guano-derived deposits

Dutch Antilles Curaciio Guano-derived P205 replaces underlying coral limestone; 

68,000 metric tons to the United States (1974).

30 x 106 No data.

Antigua 

Brazil 

Colombia

Chile 

Peru

Redonda Island 

Trauiita Island 

Malpelo Island

Coastal areas

Al.

Guano -derived P205 replaces igneous rocks. 

Guano-derived P205 replaces bauxite. 

Guano-derived P205 replaces igneous rocks.

Bird guano deposits; mined for local use; amount mined 

depends on amounts formed by birds.

None

Small

14 x 106.

Limited. 

10 x 106. 

0.4 x 106 .

"Renewable;" 

small.

ENVIRONMENTAL AND CULTURAL PROBLEMS 

RELATED TO PHOSPHATE MINING AND PROCESSING

By James B. Cathcart

Environmentalists, ecologists, and other groups 

of concerned citizens whose aim is to protect the 

environment view with alarm the damages that 

may result when mining and chemical or mineral 

processing plants are proposed for the areas in 

which they live. No mention is ever made of the 

benefits that will accrue to individuals and to society as a result of the mining and processing. The 

case for phosphate mining is particularly clear 

without phosphate fertilizer, which has to be made 

from rock phosphate, food production as we know it 

today would be impossible.

Open-pit mining unquestionably alters and upsets the environment and the ecology while it is 

going on. However, land can be reclaimed, upsets 

to the ecology can be minimized, and, a few years 

after mining, the land can be returned to almost 

any use that can be envisioned.

In Florida, land is being reclaimed, and, after 

reclamation, it is better farmland than prior to 

mining. Reclaimed land is being used for recreation boating, swimming, fishing and outdoor 

sports golf, baseball, and so forth; some land is 

used for housing developments and for industrial 

parks, and some is used as wildlife refuge. The 

mess made by mining is no longer visible; the land 

is utilitarian and also attractive to the eye.

A great fear of many people is that their potable 

water supplies will be permanently damaged by 

mining. In Florida, evidence exists that this is not

so and that, after mining is completed, the water 

supplies return approximately to the pre-mining 

state within a few score years.

Air and water effluents from mining and 

processing plants must be purified, so that deleterious elements do not get into the environment. 

State and Federal laws require that only relatively 

pure water and air are returned to the environment, and Florida producers are spending millions 

of dollars per year to meet these requirements. 

These efforts must be continued and improved not 

only in Florida but throughout the country, 

wherever open-pit mining is done.

Phosphate mining must continue or our food 

supplies will be drastically reduced, and there 

must be a strong effort by industry and government to show the environmentalists and the public 

at large that production of minerals and their processing can be accomplished with only minimal 

damage to the environment. As a corollary to this, 

strong efforts should be made by industry to see 

that air and water pollution are minimized and 

that the land is returned, after mining, to a usable 

state. Compromises will have to be made by both 

sides. It is not possible to return land to its original 

state after mining and it may not be possible to 

meet too rigid standards of air and water pollution, 

but that should not deter both sides from seeking a 

reasonable compromise which insures maximum 

production with minimum disruption.
THE GEOGRAPHIC AND 

GEOLOGIC DISTRIBUTION 

OF PHOSPHATE 

DEPOSITS

By David F. Davidson 

and Richard P. Sheldon

Phosphate resources of the world are large and 

are widely distributed both geographically and 

stratigraphically.

Guano and apatite deposits probably will not 

bulk large in the production picture for the 

foreseeable future most production will continue 

to come from deposits of marine phosphate rock. 

The already identified resource of such deposits 

appears to amount to tens of billions of tons.

Large resources have been identified in rocks of 

Phanerozoic age, but much further work must be 

done to make a realistic appraisal of these resources. Such an appraisal should lead to development of new ideas to be used in the search for 

so far unknown deposits.

FERTILIZER DEMANDDOMESTIC AND WORLDWIDE

By Walter G. Dupree, Jr.

Two of the three main fertilizer materials nitrates, potash, and phosphates are experiencing 

short-run supply problems. The nitrates and phosphates will be in short supply from the present 

until 1980, while potash will have surplus capacity.

In the long run, potassium (from potash) in the 

United States is expected to increase in consumption from 4 to 12 million metric tons. Phosphorus 

(from the phosphates) is expected to increase in 

consumption from 4 to 12 million metric tons, 

while nitrogen (from natural gas) consumption 

will increase from 18.7 to 60.6 million metric tons.

The greatest fertilizer problem in the United 

States will be related to phosphates owing to the 

increasing number of constraints placed on its development in the United States. The conclusions 

are as follows:

1. An enhanced resource evaluation program is 

necessary.

2. A research program for increasing yields from 

phosphatic raw materials is necessary.

3. Rationalization of local, State, and Federal constraints is necessary.

GEOLOGY, RESOURCES,

AND DEVELOPMENT

POTENTIAL OF NATURALLY

OCCURRING NITRATES

By George E. Ericksen

The sources and uses of fixed nitrogen chemicals 

have changed dramatically during the past three 

decades, chiefly because of a phenomenal growth 

in the use of synthetic nitrate fertilizers. Chilean 

nitrate deposits, which furnished nearly all of the 

world's fixed nitrogen in the late 19th and early 

20th centuries, yielded only about 0.25 percent of 

fixed nitrogen supplies in 1970. In 1940, world 

consumption of fixed nitrogen products, used 

largely as fertilizer and munitions, was about 1 

million metric tons of contained nitrogen. About 

25 percent was supplied by the Chilean deposits. In 

1970, world production was nearly 39 million metric tons of contained nitrogen (about 80 percent 

used as fertilizer), of which Chile contributed only 

100,000 metric tons. On the basis of present 

growth rates, projected world consumption will be 

about 165 million metric tons in the year 2000. The 

Chilean contribution in 2000 will probably be less 

than in 1970 unless new technology is devised and 

the Chilean nitrate industry is broadened to recover other saline components, such as lithium, 

magnesium, sulfate, chloride, perchlorate, and borate, in the nitrate salts of ore. In the early 1970's, 

the only components being recovered were sodium 

and potassium nitrate and iodine.

Naturally occurring nitrate deposits include 

caliche layers and playa deposits in desert environments, cave deposits and field efflorescences 

due to action of nitrifying bacteria on animal 

wastes, and sea bird guano in coastal desert environments. With the exception of the Chilean 

caliche deposits, the resources of all naturally occurring nitrate deposits are insignificant in terms 

of world consumption. In addition to the Chilean 

deposits, caliche deposits are known to exist in 

other deserts for example, Death Valley, 

Calif. but none is of commercial grade and size. 

The possibility of finding commercial deposits outside of Chile is remote. Prior to the 20th century, 

cave deposits and animal wastes were sources of 

potassium nitrate for manufacture of gun powder. 

Culturation of animal wastes to promote nitrification by bacteria yielded important quantities of 

nitrate until the mid-19th century when Chilean 

production became dominant. However, India con8
tinued to produce potassium nitrate from animal 

and human wastes well into the 20th century.

The nitrate deposits of northern Chile are part 

of the saline complex of the Atacama Desert, a 

saline desert that is more arid than most, if not all, 

other deserts of the world. The nitrate deposits are 

in a region nearly 700 km long, mainly along the 

eastern border of the Coastal Range but also 

within the Coastal Range and, to a lesser extent, in 

the Central Valley and along the lower Andean 

front. The deposits are caliches in which saline 

minerals occur as a cement or as impregnations in 

unconsolidated regolith and fractured bedrock, 

and as high-purity veins in the cemented regolith 

and bedrock of all types. The zone of abundant 

saline minerals in which the host rock is firmly 

cemented generally extends to depths of only a few 

meters, but at a few places nitrate ores are found at 

depths of as much as 12 m. The layer of nitrate ore 

is highly irregular in grade and thickness. Typical 

nitrate caliche being exploited in the 1970's contains 7-12 percent NaNOa (including small 

amounts of KNOs) and is on the order of 1-3 m 

thick. During the 19th century the caliches that 

were exploited generally had an average grade of 

15 percent or more NaNOs; and some, particularly 

during the earliest days of mining, averaged 50 

percent or more NaNOs.

The role of natural nitrates as fertilizers is distinctly limited in a world of mechanized agriculture, because resources are small in terms of present-day fertilizer needs. For example, reserves of 

NaNOs in commercial-grade Chilean nitrate ore 

(>7 percent NaNOs) are estimated to be about 

200,000,000 metric tons, which is equivalent to 33 

million tons of contained nitrogen and is less than 

world annual consumption during the early 

1970's. Probable resources of lower grade caliche 

(1-7 percent NaNOs) are several times as great as 

those of the currently commercial-grade ore, but 

they are still equivalent to only 2 or 3 years of 

current world consumption of fixed nitrogen.

A GEOCHEMICAL SUCCESS

STORY IN NORTHEAST

THAILAND

By Robert J. Hite

Thick beds of rock salt have been penetrated by 

numerous water wells in the Khorat Plateau of 

northeastern Thailand and central Laos. These 

deposits of Cretaceous age occur in the Maha

Sarakam Formation of the Mesozoic Khorat 

Group.

The salt-bearing Maha Sarakam Formation extends over 21,000 km2 in the Sakon Nakhon basin 

in the northern half of the plateau. An additional 

36,000 km2 occurs to the south in the Khorat basin. 

The maximum thickness of the halite facies is unknown but may exceed 1,000 m. In the Sakon 

Nakhon basin, three salt beds are present. The 

lowermost bed is 340 m thick at Vientiene and is 

probably the thickest salt bed in the world.

Preliminary studies of trace bromine and potassium in halite cores from the western edge of the 

Khorat basin indicated that the thick basal halite 

bed in Maha Sarakam Formation was a very 

favorable target for potash exploration.

Following the recommendations based on the 

bromine and potassium geochemistry, a core hole 

was drilled at Udon Thani in the Sakon Nakhon 

basin. This hole penetrated a carnallite deposit at 

89 m, which continued to the depth of 130 m. Subsequent drilling has shown this deposit to extend 

over about 1,800 km2 in Thailand. The extension of 

the potash deposit into Laos has been verified by a 

core, hole recently completed on the Vientiene 

plain. This hole penetrated a high-grade deposit of 

sylvite.

Although part of the Sakon Nakhon basin is still 

unexplored and little drilling has been done in the 

large Khorat basin, the preliminary results 

suggest that the Khorat Plateau hosts one of the 

largest, if not the largest, potash deposit in the 

world.

PHOSPHATE AND

EVAPORITES A DIRECT

RELATIONSHIP?

By Robert J. Hite

Many sedimentary sequences in the world show 

lateral gradation of phosphorite, chert, carbonate, 

and evaporite facies. Two classic examples are the 

Permian Phosphoria Formation and the Jurassic 

Fernie Group and equivalent rocks of the northern 

Rocky Mountains, U.S.A. and Canada.

Current theories on the origin of phosphorite 

facies require no direct relationship with evaporites. This paper proposes that apatite, chert, and 

dolomite are precipitated by the mixing of warm 

brines from evaporite basins with cold ocean 

water. This mixing takes place in and at the 

mouths of marine accessways to Mediterranean-
type evaporite basins, where high-density brines 

reflux back to the ocean. The mechanism provides 

conditions favoring the accumulation of prodigious amounts of organic matter a common feature 

of phosphorite facies. Reactions in the basin between the evaporite brine and detrital silicate minerals may mobilize Si, F, Cr, Ni, V, Fe, rare earths, 

and other elements that frequently occur in 

anomalously large amounts in the phosphorite 

facies. Phosphorus, which other theories assume is 

supplied by the ocean, may be supplied by reactions between brine and detrital apatite from 

igneous or sedimentary sources. The proposed 

mechanism may also be responsible for the formation of some sedimentary deposits of barite and 

iron ore.

POTASH RESOURCES 

AND ECONOMICS

By C. L. Jones

World production of potash (RzO) now exceeds 

20 million metric tons per year. Slightly more than 

96 percent of the total originates in the industrial 

nations of Europe and North America; the remainder comes mostly from the Middle East, with 

smaller amounts from Australia, Asia, and South 

America. Among the industrial nations, four countries Canada, West Germany, East Germany, 

and the U.S.S.R. control 72 percent of the world 

production capacity and 96 percent of the reserves. 

The United States produces about one-tenth of the 

world supply, has less than one-half of 1 percent of 

the reserves, and imports over one-half of its annual supply.

National and world sources of potash are evaporite and brine deposits. These sources provide 

known reserves of potash in excess of 120 billion 

metric tons, and they are sufficient to fulfill world 

requirements for a few thousand years. Tonnage of 

reserves obviously is not a problem, but other factors are of immediate concern. The concentration 

of production facilities and reserves in a few countries favors the development of an international 

cartel and gives rise to governmental control over 

the production, distribution, and pricing of potash. 

All too recently, governmental action in Canada 

disrupted world trade by glutting the market; this 

action resulted in the premature closure of potash 

mines in the United States, a reduction in domestic output, and a loss of potash reserves.

The outlook for the United States is bleak. 

There will be further reductions in potash supplies 

from existing domestic sources, a steadily rising 

demand for potash, and a large increase in imports. This projection suggests that the United 

States must weigh the alternatives of paying an 

inflated price for potash on the world market or 

developing new domestic sources of potash. The 

latter may be less expensive.

NATURE OF THE 

PHOSPHORIA SEA AND

THE RELATION OF

UPWELLING TO RICH

PHOSPHATE DEPOSITS

By Keith B. Ketner

Upper Middle Pennsylvanian to Upper Permian 

conglomeratic, sandy, and silty rocks cover part of 

southern California, most of Nevada, and much of 

Idaho. Their distribution, facies trends, and current vectors indicate that detrital components 

were shed mainly from a tectonic belt of highlands 

that extended generally northward through 

southern California, central Nevada, and western 

Idaho. Their enormous volume suggests that the 

provenance terrain was of major proportions. Sediments shed eastward from this belt were deposited in the shallow epicontinental Phosphoria 

sea, where they mingled with limestone, dolomite, 

evaporites, spicule chert, and phosphorite; but 

those shed westward were deposited in deeper 

water off the edge of the continent as debris flows 

and turbidites and they mingled with coarse volcanic sediments, tuffs, lava flows, and radiolarian 

cherts. The volcanic sediments, tuffs, and lavas 

emanated from an archipelago that lay parallel to, 

and a short distance west of, the tectonic belt. The 

tectonic highlands formed a barrier between the 

ocean to the west and the epicontinental Phosphoria sea to the east, with profound effects on 

sedimentation in the latter. Obviously the highland belt supplied an enormous volume of detrital 

material; but, beyond that, it probably indirectly 

affected sedimentation by restricting circulation 

of both water and air. It served as a barrier between the Phosphoria sea and the ocean. Without 

such a barrier the formation of evaporite beds 

would have been impossible and the formation of 

extensive dolomite beds unlikely. The exact conditions under which phosphorite was deposited are

10
poorly understood, but the abundance of phosphorite east of the highland belt and its scarcity west 

of it suggest that restriction of circulation was 

important. The effect of the Humboldt belt on air 

circulation can only be guessed, because its topographic relief is unknown and atmospheric circulation patterns before uplift of the highland belt are 

unknown. To the extent that the highland belt was 

a mountain range, it must have had the effect of 

increasing aridity over the Phosphoria sea, for it 

would have formed a barrier to moist oceanic air 

and would have promoted evaporation and hypersalinity.

The currently popular concept of Kazakov 

(1937), which relates rich phosphate deposits directly to up welling oceanic waters, should be regarded only as a working hypothesis, not as a 

proven theory. New information and new concepts 

on which to base additional working hypotheses 

are needed, because too much reliance on a single 

concept in exploration could result in failure to 

locate important deposits. The need for new ideas 

can be illustrated by a consideration of the exact 

spatial relation of known commercial phosphate 

deposits of the Phosphoria sea to possible sites of 

upwelling.

Although it is hardly conceivable that upwelling could have taken place within the shallow, 

restricted Phosphoria sea, it is theoretically quite 

possible that deep-seated oceanic waters welled up 

along the western edge of the continent, west of the 

highland belt, in Permian time. However, phosphate beds of commercial grade are not known to 

have been deposited outside the Phosphoria sea, 

where upwelling may have taken place, nor in the 

western part of the sea close to the upwelling waters; but, rather, they were deposited near the 

center of the widest part of the sea, hundreds of 

kilometers from the nearest possible site of upwelling oceanic waters. If exploration for phosphate in 

the early days had been based on an assumed close 

genetic connection with upwelling oceanic waters, 

the commercial phosphate deposits of southeastern Idaho would not have been discovered.

Reference Cited

Kazakov, A. V., 1937, The phosphorite fades and the genesis of 

phosphorites, in Geological investigations of agricultural 

ores: Sci. Inst. Fertilizers and Insecto-Fungicides Trans., 

no. 142 (published in Leningrad for the 17th Sess. Internat. 

Geol. Cong.), p. 95-113.

ENERGY REQUIREMENTS OF THE 

AGRICULTURE INDUSTRY

By Richard F. Meyer

The United States appears to possess large resources of potassium in the form of potash, phosphorus in phosphate rocks, nitrogen in atmospheric nitrogen, and sulfur in many forms. These 

are the essential ingredients for fertilizer.

The potash is crushed and separated from other 

salts by flotation or fractional crystallization and 

may then be applied directly. The major energy 

required, in addition to that needed for mining and 

milling, is heat for drying. About 94 percent of 

potassium goes for agricultural chemicals.

Phosphate rock is decomposed with sulfuric acid 

and applied as fertilizer in several forms. Eightyfour percent of phosphorus demand is for fertilizer 

and 10 percent for animal feed.

About half of all sulfur mined is used in fertilizer manufacture, and 72 percent of elemental 

sulfur is obtained by the Frasch process, which 

depends entirely upon natural gas for heating the 

processing water.

Nitrogen for agricultural purposes is supplied in 

the form of ammonia, which is either applied directly or used to make other fertilizer materials. 

The ammonia is synthesized from nitrogen and 

natural gas.

At least 16 billion m3 of natural gas per year are 

required for the fertilizer industry, of which about 

14 billion are needed to synthesize ammonia. Because of natural-gas-supply curtailments, there 

will be a curtailment this year (1975) of 400,000 to 

500,000 metric tons of ammonia.

As a whole, the agricultural industry requires 

13 percent of the total U.S. input of 37 quadrillion 

kcal/kg of energy. This energy is needed for farm 

production and family living, food processing, 

marketing and distribution, and input manufacture, including fertilizer and pesticides.

If the energy crisis is, in fact, more appropriately an investment capital crisis, then any potential agricultural shortfalls due to the energy 

crisis must also be resolved in terms of investment 

capital.

UPWELLING MODEL AND 

ITS APPLICATIONS

By R. P. Sheldon

The history of exploration for a mineral resource 

generally begins with an empirical-technique

11
phase and, after geologic knowledge and theory 

have been developed to explain the distribution of 

the deposits, ends with a deductive-technique 

phase. Phosphate exploration was empirical until 

about 1950. After 1950, when the upwelling theory 

of the origin of phosphate was developed, this 

theory was instrumental in the discovery of deposits in Baja California, Sechura desert of Peru, 

Huancayo district of Peru, Australia, India, Angola, and extensions of phosphogenic provinces in 

North Africa and the Middle East. The upwelling 

model was described by McKelvey (1963, 1967), 

McKelvey and others (1953), and Sheldon (1963), 

and the Phosphoria Formation example developed 

by McKee and others (1967). This deductive exploration technique uses, more or less sequentially, 

the following geologic theories and tools as guides: 

regional tectonics, plate tectonics, reconnaissance-level* stratigraphic sections, chert-black 

shale-phosphorite association, and uranium association. Is the theory still useful? Yes, but the 

theory is becoming less useful as the deposits that 

can be found with it are found. Some important 

deposits do not fit this model well, if at all; these 

include the Florida-North Carolina Tertiary deposits and the Rajasthan, India, Precambrian deposits. These deposits should be studied intensively if we are to develop new theory and new 

deductive exploration techniques.

References Cited

McKee, E. D., Oriel, S. S., and others, 1967, Paleotectonic maps 

of the Permian System: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. 

Map 1-450, 20 pi., text.

McKelvey, V. E., 1963, Successful new techniques in prospecting for phosphate deposits: Natural Resources, United 

States papers prepared for the United Nations Conference 

on the application of science and technology for the benefit 

of the less developed areas, v. 2, p. 163-172. U.S. Govt. 

Printing Office.[ Repr. 1966, Australian Mining, v. 58, no. 

3; 1967, Colombia Boletin Geologico, v. XV, p. 45-64 (in 

Spanish); 1968, ECAFE Min. Res. Dev. Ser., no. 32, p. 

207-211.]

 1967, Phosphate deposits: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 

1252-D. [Abs. repr. 1968, ECAFE Min. Res. Dev. Ser., no. 

32.]

McKelvey, V. E., Swanson, R. W., and Sheldon, R. P., 1953, The 

Permian phosphate deposits of Western United States, in 

Saint Guilhem, P. L. R., ed.: Origine des gisements de 

phosphates de chaux: Internat. Geol. Cong., 19th, Algiers, 

Comptes Rendus, sec. 11, fasc. 11, p. 45-64.

Sheldon, R. P., 1964, Exploration for phosphorite in Turkey A 

case history: Econ. Geology, v. 59, p. 1159-1175.

SOIL AMENDMENT MATERIALS

DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANIC ROCKS 

POTENTIALLY USEFUL AS 

SOIL AMENDMENTS

By Alfred L. Bush

Glassy volcanic rocks appear to be most suitable 

for use in upgrading soils because they break down 

easily in the weathering environment. They release such elements as K, P, and Fe to soil solutions at low-energy levels, because the elements 

are not tied up in crystal lattices. A variety of 

glassy rocks are available as soil amendments, 

ranging widely in composition (basaltic, andesitic, 

rhyolitic), in texture (ash, pumice, obsidian, perlite, scoria), and in form (air-fall blankets, reworked bedded deposits, flows, domes, cinder 

cones). Although volumes and tonnages are very 

large, distribution is spotty.

Because glasses do not persist for geologically 

long periods, they are mostly Miocene in age or 

younger. They occur in the western parts of North 

and South America, through Central America, in 

the islands of the Pacific Ocean, along the eastern 

borderlands of Asia and Southeast Asia, through 

the Indonesian Archipelago, and in parts of eastern Australia and New Zealand. Another major 

zone extends through the Mediterranean area, the 

Balkans, and Asia Minor into India; and a third, in 

a very generalized way, follows the Rift Valleys of 

Africa and extends into the western Arabian 

Peninsula.

Utilization of these rocks depends on a multitude of factors, including (1) rates of release of 

elements from glass in a variety of climatic and 

agricultural environments, (2) specific element deficiencies in specific environments, (3) needed tonnages and costs of distribution and application of 

the natural materials, and (4) relative economics 

and efficiencies of the use of alternative natural 

and manufactured materials. We have far more 

questions than answers.

PEAT AS A SOIL AMENDMENT

By Cornelia C. Gamer on

Peat forms mainly from dead plant remains and 

occurs in bogs, swamplands, or marshes. It has an 

ash content not exceeding 25 percent by dry weight 

according to the ASTM standard. Ash is defined as 

the solid material that remains after the peat is

12
heated to 550°C. The organic content and the ability of peat to hold water in its fibers make it valuable as a soil amendment. In addition to its moisture-storing ability, peat produces a humic acid, 

through slow decay, that moderates the uptake of 

mineral fertilizer by plants. Peat, therefore, helps 

prevent plants from being "burned" by the mineral 

fertilizers and promotes increased crop yield.

Peat bogs underlie 150 million ha of the world's 

land surface. They contain deposits ranging from 

high-quality peat that is excellent for soil amendments to organic soils that have little or no soil 

amendment capacity. Ninety-three percent of the 

bogs are located chiefly in latitudes north of the 

United States. Five percent are in the United 

States, and the remaining 2 percent, at the same 

latitudes and south.

The United States does not produce enough peat 

to meet national consumption; yet, undeveloped 

deposits of peat, excellent for soil amendment use, 

are believed to lie in the Eastern United States, in 

the Rocky Mountains, and in States bordering the 

Great Lakes and the Pacific Ocean. Peat producers 

are beginning to mine deposits in central Florida 

drained during phosphate mining operations. 

Here, phosphate fertilizer is mixed with peat and 

sold to citrus growers.

Undoubtedly, peat resource potentials exist in 

other countries and could benefit agriculture. For 

example, Uganda has deposits of peat in areas of 

clay soils, India has deposits of peat in its uplands, 

and the Latin American countries have deposits of 

mangrove peat in the tropics as well as reed-sedge 

peat in Argentina.

Peat prospecting techniques are being studied 

in this country to enable peat producers to expand 

the growing need for peat; production in 1973 was 

10 percent above that of 1972. As we become more 

self-sufficient in using peat in conjunction with 

fertilizers, our example may be followed by other 

countries in which peat exists and food is needed.

LIMESTONE AND DOLOMITE 

IN AGRICULTURE

By Harold A. Hubbard 

and George E. Ericksen

Liming of agricultural soils is common practice 

in regions of acid soils in developed nations. Liming has two effects: (1) It acts as a fertilizer furnishing calcium and magnesium, which are essential

to plant growth; and (2) it acts as an amendment 

that causes an increase in soil pH (hydrogen ion 

concentration). The pulverized stone may also improve the physical structure of clayey soils, 

thereby increasing permeability.

Acid soils predominate in areas of moderate to 

relatively high rainfall and are particularly prevalent in the humid tropics. Many acid soils in temperate or tropical areas respond dramatically to 

liming by showing significant increases in crop 

yields.

Limestone and dolomite promote plant growth 

because an increase in pH makes more cations 

available for exchange in soil solutions. Plants can 

use metallic cations, whereas non-ionized metals 

adsorbed on soil particles or in chemical compounds cannot be used. As the hydrogen ion concentration of soil or soil solution decreases, metallic elements ionize more readily and the concentration of metallic ions in the soil solution increases.

As the carbonates dissociate, metallic ions are 

exchanged with hydrogen adsorbed in soil solution 

and on clay particles. When limestone is added to 

the soil, new equilibria are established; calcium 

ions from the limestone replace hydrogen at exchange sites on clay particles and the hydrogen 

forms water by combining with oxygen from the 

carbonate radical.

Liming in general is beneficial to plant growth, 

but its effects vary with different plants. Most 

crops grow best in slightly to moderately acid soil. 

A few crops grow well only in relatively strongly 

acid soils, and a few others grow well only in nearly 

neutral soils.

In countries where farmers have total cash incomes of tens to hundreds of dollars a year, many 

farmers cannot pay for limestone, fertilizers, and 

other soil additives. In these countries farmers 

may use lime or fertilizer only if it is paid for with 

government or foundation aid. However, the value 

of increased crop production due to liming will 

generally far exceed the cost of the lime and its 

application, and could contribute to many national 

economies by materially reducing food imports.

SOIL AMENDMENTS AND 

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS

By R. C. Severson

The use of soil amendments to improve physical 

properties of soils must be put into perspective in

13
terms of plant growth factors. Moisture, nutrients, 

heat, light, and a medium (soil) are all necessary 

for plant growth. The improvement of physical 

properties of soils is aimed at increasing the efficiency, or ease, with which the plant is able to 

assimilate the other factors. If any of the factors 

are limiting, it will serve no useful purpose to alter 

factors that are not limiting. Therefore, physical 

properties of soils should be altered only if they are 

suspected of being limiting to plant growth.

Within the soil, physical, chemical, biological, 

and microbiological processes are integrated so 

that a process cannot be singled out and treated 

alone. The physical properties and processes of 

soils can be treated as a singular entity while the 

chemical, biological, and microbiological changes 

which are related to and result from changing 

physical soil properties are ignored.

Certain features of the soil landscape are more 

amenable to change than others. Soil features such 

as structure, moisture, aeration, and temperature 

are subject to change by amendment with some 

extraneous material, but "permanent" soil features such as texture, slope, ground water, flooding, and climate are not readily changed by the 

simple incorporation of some extraneous material 

into the soil. We should concentrate our first efforts on those soil features that are amenable.

Soil porosity and soil structural stability 

(aggregation) are the targets of soil physical 

amendments. These two properties effectively determine the magnitudes of water infiltration, 

water retention, water runoff, soil dispersion, 

soil-surface crusting, soil aeration, and soil temperature. Soil porosity and aggregation are responsible for the quality of physical soil environment available for plant growth.

The properties of materials that account for 

their usefulness as physical soil amendments are 

particle size, surface area, and exchange capacity.

Mechanized agriculture results in soil properties being modified by powerful machines. The required energy is as yet more economical than the 

use of soil amendments to maintain adequate 

physical soil properties for plant growth. As 

energy becomes more expensive, as expanding 

populations demand more production from a finite 

resource (the soil), and as lands considered marginal for agriculture are brought into production, 

the potential of amendments for improving or 

maintaining soil physical properties will be recognized.

The task of determining the potential of various 

amendment materials is largely one for agricultural scientists. Crop response, in terms of yield, to 

various amendment materials is determined by 

the specific combinations of plant growth factors at 

the site. The response can only be quantified by 

empirical methods, as has been the usual approach 

in soil fertility studies. The main role of the scientist in the U.S. Geological Survey is perhaps locating and characterizing the sources of potential 

amendment materials and characterizing the 

specific properties of the materials themselves. It 

follows that a cooperative effort would lead to the 

most efficient utilization of available expertise.

RECOMMENDED TERMINOLOGY

The terms, additive, admixture, amendment, 

conditioner, fertilizer, and stabilizer have been 

variously used to describe types of soil modification. The absence of a generally accepted terminology for describing specific soil modification 

processes aimed at specific uses leads to confusion.

The dictionary presents the following meanings 

for each of the words:

Additive to be added, of the nature of an addition, characterized by addition.

Admixture anything added, an alien element or ingredient.

Amendment act of amending, correction, improvement.

Condition(er) a restrictive, limiting, or modifying circumstance.

Fertilizer any material used to enrich the soil for crops, especially a commercial or chemical manure.

Stabilizer any compound which, when included with a material, decreases the ability of the material to decompose 

spontaneously.

Inasmuch as additive, admixture, and stabilizer 

are generally used in describing the modification 

of soil properties for engineering purposes, I propose that these terms not be used in referring to 

the modification of soil properties for agricultural 

purposes. Conditioner and amendment have the 

same general connotation, but since the label conditioner has been employed quite extensively in 

the agronomic literature for synthetic materials 

used in the modification of soil properties for agronomic purposes, I propose that amendment be 

employed to describe materials of geologic origin 

used in agronomic aspects of soil modification. The 

remaining terms should be employed in agreement with their intended function and prefixed 

with descriptive terms to further describe their 

mode of action. For example, if limestone is incor14
porated into the soil to specifically supply calcium 

for plant growth, it should be referred to as an 

inorganic fertilizer. If limestone is incorporated 

into the soil with the intent of changing the soil 

pH, it should be referred to as a chemical amendment.

I have limited the list of employable terms to 

two fertilizer and amendment. The rationale is 

to avoid confusion in use and interpretation, and to 

simplify the terminology and yet retain integrity. 

This can be obtained by using the terms with modifiers to make their intended meanings clear.

POTENTIAL ROLE OF

NATURAL ZEOLITES 

IN AGRICULTURE AND 

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

By Richard A. Sheppard

Zeolites, crystalline hydrated aluminosilicate 

minerals of the alkali and alkaline-earth elements, are important rock-forming constituents in 

sedimentary rocks and are potentially valuable 

industrial minerals. Although more than 30 

species of zeolites occur in nature, only about six 

occur abundantly in sedimentary deposits. These 

are analcime, chabazite, clinoptilolite, erionite, 

mordenite, and phillipsite. These zeolites are very 

finely crystalline (<1-60 /Am) and are especially 

common and abundant in Cenozoic tuffs. Zeolites 

in sedimentary deposits have been recognized in 

about 40 countries throughout the world, but only 

in Japan are deposits being used in food production. The properties of zeolites that make them 

useful for agriculture as well as industry include 

cation exchange, adsorption, and reversible dehydration.

The Japanese use zeolitic tuffs as (1) soil 

amendments that neutralize acid soils and release 

small amounts of exchangeable potassium, (2) 

zeolite-chemical fertilizer mixes that improve the 

soil's retention of nitrogen and result in more complete utilization of the nitrogen by plants, (3) lowgrade fertilizer after application to cattle feedlots, 

and (4) carriers for insecticides and herbicides. 

Other potential agricultural uses are as low-grade 

fertilizer after use in tertiary sewage treatment 

plants and as material added to Sr90-contaminated 

soils to reduce the strontium uptake by plants.

Besides the application to cattle feedlots, the 

Japanese use crushed clinoptilolite-rich tuff to 

deodorize and dry the excrement of pigs and chickens. The spent zeolite-excrement mixture is then 

used for fertilizer. Another use in animal husbandry is the addition of 5 percent clinoptilolite to the 

feed of pigs and chickens. Test animals experienced faster growth than control animals, and less 

feed was required. Severe cases of scours 

(diarrhea) in pigs were relieved when the afflicted 

animals were placed on a diet containing 15 percent clinoptilolite.

Three areas warrant further attention: (1) We 

need to set up communications between geologists 

and food industry personnel if only to let them 

know that a voluminous natural resource exists 

that has great potential but has been mostly ignored; (2) accelerated experimental work is 

needed, chiefly by those in agronomy and animal 

husbandry, on the utilization of natural zeolites; 

and (3) we should prepare an inventory of 

worldwide zeolite resources with special emphasis 

on the countries of Southeast Asia and Central and 

South America.

HUMATE AS A SOIL ADDITIVE

By Vernon E. Swanson

Humate is a naturally occurring, dark-brown to 

black, solid organic substance that is formed during the oxidation and decomposition of plant material, is soluble in slightly alkaline water, and can 

be transported in water in its soluble or colloidal 

forms, which are the humic acids or fulvic acids 

common in the tea-colored streams of swamps and 

peat bogs. When precipitated either by encountering acid water (pH<3) or seawater, or by adsorbing 

excess metal ions, humate is a structureless gel 

that solidifies to a brittle, glistening coal-like 

material indistinguishable from vitrain in appearance. Its ash-free composition is generally 

about 60 percent carbon, 4 percent hydrogen, 35 

percent oxygen, and 1 percent nitrogen. Humate 

having the same chemical characteristics is similarly derived from oxidizing peat and lignite.

The following properties of humate make it useful in the fertilizer business:

1. Its solubility characteristics in natural waters.

2. Its ability to adsorb plant-nutrient metals to as 

much as 20 percent dry weight, and to release 

these metals in a plant-available form.

3. Its organic composition, which contributes to 

the humus content of the soil.

4. Its abundant resources, which can be cheaply 

processed for market distribution.

15
The major, but still limited, agrobiologic use of 

humate has been as a nutrient-metal (for example, 

Fe, Cu, Mn, and Zn) soil additive, either applied as 

a granulated solid or added to irrigation water, 

especially for horticultural and hydroponic use.

Two major sources of humate are (1) the humate-impregnated sands irregularly distributed 

along parts of an 80-km-wide coastal belt from 

Pamlico Sound, N. C., on the Atlantic Ocean, to 

Mobile Bay, Ala., on the Gulf of Mexico; and (2) the 

irregularly distributed leonardite deposits associated with, and parts of, the lignite and subbituminous coal of the Northern Great Plains 

States. No reliable estimates of humate resources 

exist, but the humate that can be readily obtained 

from each of the above sources is reckoned in the 

hundreds of millions of metric tons. Considering 

that the yearly production of humate is 50,000 

metric tons or less, it would be relatively simple to 

delineate recoverable reserves that would last 

many hundreds of years. For example, the Trail 

Ridge heavy minerals mine in northeast Florida 

alone has a "byproduct stockpile" of about 10 million metric tons of humate, which is more than a 

200-year supply of humate based on present demand.

Any great increase in the use of humate in agriculture will depend on (1) the refinement of 

knowledge of micronutrient deficiencies in specific 

food plants and animals grown in different areas, 

and (2) an improvement in technology to customprocess different humate additives that will 

meliorate these deficiencies and result in optimum 

growth characteristics and nutritional value of the 

product.

VOLCANIC ASH AND RELATED MATERIALS 

AS SOIL AMENDMENTS

By Ray E. Wilcox

During the present century the suggestion has 

been made repeatedly that pyroclastic materials 

should be mixed into crop soils to provide paced 

release of plant nutrients, such as K, P, Ca, and Fe, 

and to improve physical properties of the soils. One 

basis for the suggestion is the apparent fertility 

and productivity of certain young soils developed 

on terrains covered by volcanic ash that is chiefly 

of basic and intermediate composition.

Interesting and appealing as this proposition 

seems, few definitive agronomic tests have been 

reported (in striking contrast to the many investigations of natural volcanic-ash soils and their own 

special problems).

The geologist can indicate the varieties of young 

pyroclastic materials and the accessible deposits. 

A careful assessment of the current knowledge of 

natural volcanic-ash soils may provide an idea of 

the benefits to be expected from addition of such 

material to normal soils. The critical answers, 

however, await results of controlled field trials by 

agronomists and soil scientists.

WEATHERING OF ROCKS,

SOILS, TRACE ELEMENTS,

AND PLANT NUTRITION

THE IMPORTANCE OF ELEMENTAL 

INTERRELATIONSHIPS IN 

BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS

By Helen Cannon

Widespread areas of crop deficiency exist in the 

United States and in many countries of the world. 

Many deficiencies in plants are induced by the 

addition of fertilizers, which changes the availability of other elements. Various crop species have 

different requirements and tolerances for available elements, and so absolute levels cannot be 

determined for the growth of all plants. Animals 

(including man) are also strongly affected by 

imbalances in available nutrients. Certain interrelationships such as Ca-Zn, Cu-Mo, and Na-Li-K 

have been linked with specific diseases.

To improve crop quality, the agronomic situation must be thoroughly understood and the effects 

of additives on the availability of other elements 

must be anticipated. Crop plants that are particularly tolerant of abnormal soils or particularly efficient at absorbing scarce nutrients may be substituted for the plants commonly grown.

SOIL CHEMICAL PROPERTIES AND 

PLANT NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY

By T. T. Chao

In order to evaluate the effectiveness of a fertilizer in soil, two factors related to plant nutrient 

availability should be considered the intensity 

factor and the capacity factor. The intensity factor 

represents the concentration of a given nutrient in 

the soil solution, and the capacity factor represents 

the ability of the soil to maintain that intensity in

16
the soil solution, or the rate at which a nutrient 

concentration can be reestablished after uptake by 

plants. Whether an applied fertilizer will be satisfactory is greatly affected by chemical and 

mineralogical properties of the soil.

Because the soil solution is not a simple aqueous 

solution, there is a constant reaction between the 

nutrient element supplied by a fertilizer and the 

solid components of a soil. One of these reactions, 

important from the standpoint of plant nutrient 

availability, is fixation of a nutrient element by 

soil, whereby availability of the nutrient is drastically reduced. Moderate retention, however, may 

be beneficial to plant growth, because it lessens 

the risk of leaching loss of the nutrient element.

Fixation or retention by soils of phosphate and 

sulfate, and of several micronutrient elements 

such as cobalt, molybdenum, and boron may be 

influenced by numerous factors. Among these are 

the content of secondary iron, manganese, and 

aluminum oxides, and the degree of crystallinity of 

the oxides. Amorphous oxides usually can fix large 

amounts of the above nutrient elements in forms 

not readily usable by the plant. In extreme cases, 

considerable amounts of a nutrient element may 

be rendered unavailable to the plant.

Certain soils, especially those containing vermiculite and degraded illite clay minerals, have 

the ability to fix potassium and ammonium added 

as fertilizers in much less available forms. An explanation for the striking similarity between the 

capacities of these soils to fix potassium and ammonium can be found in the "lattice cavity" theory. 

According to this theory, cation fixation is related 

to the size of the cation as well as to the mineralogy 

of the fixing materials. Cations that fit snugly into 

openings of the exposed surface between the layers 

of 2:1 lattice-type minerals will be fixed very 

tightly as they approach the negative electric 

charges of the crystal lattice.

PROBLEMS OF LATERITIC SOILS

By W. R. Griffitts

Laterites, in a strict sense, are soils that are 

hard enough to be used as building material or 

become hard upon exposure to weather. Lateritic 

soil is one that contains laterite. For purposes of 

discussion, I include saprolite as a lateritic soil.

Laterite and lateritic soils result from nearly 

complete leaching of alkalis, alkaline earths, and 

combined silica. Aluminum, iron, and, in some

places, manganese, phosphate, or other elements 

of the RzOs group are concentrated.

Old laterites contain kaolinite, gibbsite, and 

limonite as the dominant minerals. Those no older 

than Pliocene contain more amorphous silica and 

alumina, halloysite, and allophane, which may be 

more effective in making phosphate unavailable to 

plants. The relation is not entirely clear inasmuch 

as soils in western Africa containing allophane 

and much organic matter are said to have a longer 

lasting fertility than allophane-free soils.

In forest and savannah areas, the plants' roots 

gather some of the trace amounts of nutrients from 

large volumes of lateritic soil. These accumulate in 

a thin layer near the surface as plant debris decays. Potassium, calcium, phosphate, sulfur, zinc, 

and, to some extent, magnesium show such surficial concentrations. The trees in one hectare of a 

40-year-old forest in Guinea were estimated to 

contain 127 kg of phosphorus, 829 kg of potassium, 

2,556 kg of calcium, and 350.5 kg of magnesium. 

The plants in the savannahs contained one-third 

to one-ninth of these amounts. Nitrogen and sulfur 

were not included in the estimates because they 

are largely lost when the plant material burns, a 

common preliminary to cultivating the land. 

Other studies suggest that these elements probably constituted a few hundred kilograms of the 

plant material on 1 ha of land. This surficial concentration of plant nutrients is the basis of "slash 

and burn" agriculture. In Indonesia and the mountains of Burma, one crop can be raised every 5 to 10 

years. In subtropical China this kind of agriculture has been carried on for several thousand years 

with no reported ill effects. Improper technique or 

attempts to raise unsuitable plants can severely 

damage the soil. ,

Lateritic soils are widespread in Southeastern 

United States, show the usual low contents of several important plant nutrients, and, as a result, 

are less intensively cultivated than other soils.

MAJOR NUTRITIONAL ELEMENTS IN SOILS 

AND PLANTS A BALANCE SHEET

By Hansford T. Shacklette

Food produced on agricultural lands exploits a 

nonrenewable resource the natural supply of 

major and minor nutritive elements in the soil. 

Not only the elements contained in the food that is 

removed from the land, but also the element losses 

associated with agricultural practices, such as

17
those caused by erosion, leaching, and volatilization, must be replaced if acceptable crop yields are 

to be maintained. In agrarian societies the losses 

from soils can be greatly reduced by returning 

plant, animal, and human wastes to the soil from 

which they came through labor-intensive practices, if a relatively low yield of produce is acceptable. This system of management does not result in 

an increase in essential elements in the soil 

naturally poor soils will gradually become 

poorer and crop yields will reflect the element 

deficiencies. The cost of food then becomes a major 

item in the economy of the society. In societies 

having a well-developed industrial base, on the 

other hand, agricultural soils are brought to the 

level of maximum crop yields by utilizing additional sources, largely geologic in origin, for supplying the essential plant nutrients, particularly 

phosphorus, potassium, and nitrogen. This system 

of management results in energy-intensive practices, low labor requirements, and high crop yields, 

which make food relatively inexpensive; it also 

permits the accumulation of a food surplus for export.

The movement of phosphorus through the 

human food chain can be used as an example of the 

losses in essential plant elements that must be 

corrected by application of "commercial" or "chemical" fertilizers. Much of the phosphorus contained 

in our foods eventually enters city sewers. The 

total municipal sewage solids produced per year in 

the United States is estimated to be 45 million 

metric tons. This amount of sewage, on the basis of 

analyses of metropolitan Chicago sewage, contains 1.7 million metric tons of phosphorus, and 

only a small percentage of this total is returned to 

the farm lands where it originated and where it 

can reenter the human food chain. Much of the 

United States diet consists of meat of animals that 

were fed grains in feedlots. In 1970, 24,970,000 

head of cattle were in U.S. feedlots, each animal 

producing an average of about 27 kg of manure per 

day, resulting in a total of about 250 billion kg of 

manure per year. On the basis of an "average" 

analysis of this manure, 5 billion kg of phosphorus 

are contained in this annual manure output. Much 

of this phosphorus is never effectively recycled in 

food production. There is another less commonly 

considered sink for the elements contained in our 

foods the human body. Ash of the human body 

contains about 24 percent phosphorus, and the ash 

constitutes about 5 percent of live weight. Assuming that the "average" human weighs 45 kg and 

that the present U.S. population is 219 million, 

there are 113 million kg of phosphorus in the 

bodies of this population. Regardless of whether 

these figures are accurate, two important aspects 

stand out: (1) This phosphorus was principally derived from the available phosphorus in soils, which 

constitutes about 5 percent or less of the total soil 

phosphorus; and (2) most of this phosphorus will 

never again enter the food-production chain.

The elements in foods that are exported represent a total loss to the agricultural soils of a country. For example, one railroad carload of wheat 

weighs about 2.7 metric tons, and this amount of 

wheat contains about 11 kg of phosphorus. An 

"average" hectare of U.S. soils contains about 146 

kg total phosphorus in the plow zone, but only a 

small amount (about 45 kg per ha) exists in a form 

available to plants. At a yield rate of 3.4 metric 

tons per hectare, the crop of wheat removes about 

13.4 kg of phosphorus from a hectare of soil. Erosion losses can be estimated at 11.2 kg per ha. 

These two losses, 24.6 kg, would exhaust the 

available phosphorus in a hectare of soil in 2 years, 

in the same time that a carload of wheat was being 

produced on the hectare.

The losses in potassium using the same cropping 

procedures are equal to, or greater than, those of 

phosphorus. Certain management practices can 

reduce these losses; but, in the long run, our exportation of foodstuffs exploits a* nonrenewable resource just as surely as does the exportation of 

petroleum or metals. For example, Hawaii exports 

2,000,000 kg of potassium annually in its pineapple crop alone. The net losses in nutrient elements 

by another country, Ecuador, are exemplified by 

its exportation of 4,600,000 kg of potassium annually in its banana crop, while importing only half 

this amount of potassium in fertilizers. The balance sheet for two other major nutrient elements, 

nitrogen and sulfur, generally follows the trend in 

losses of phosphorus and potassium, except that 

certain amounts of the two former elements are 

added to the soil by natural processes.

These examples illustrate the general trend in 

soil depletion by food production that must be corrected by applications of fertilizers. Even the best 

systems of returning unused crop residues and 

animal wastes to the soil, sometimes called "organic farming," will only reduce but not eliminate 

the loss; they also result in yields unacceptably low 

in relation to the world demand for food. Moreover,

18
the economics of technologically advanced food 

production do not at present permit advantageous 

use of organic fertilizers. To produce maximum 

crop yields, the cost of obtaining and applying sufficient organic material (which contains only low 

percentages of the major nutrient elements) contrasted to the cost of using high-test commercial 

fertilizers cannot be justified economically. The 

present trend is to apply more of the plant nutrient 

elements as "chemical" fertilizers per year than 

are removed from the soil in foodstuffs in order to 

allow for volatilization, chemical fixation, leaching, erosion, and other losses. Commercial fertilizers obtained directly or indirectly from geologic 

sources form the basis of U.S. agricultural systems; they permit food to be produced in excess of 

national needs so that an exportable surplus remains.

COMPOSITION AS A MEASURE OF 

SOILQUAUTY

By Ronald R. Tidball

An extensive study of soil composition throughout the State of Missouri provides basic data that 

may be applied to the solution of various problems. 

Examples are presented to illustrate the usefulness of this type of study.

Do these soils have a basic chemical signature? 

This fundamental question was investigated by 

factor analysis using the total composition of soils 

as expressed by 32 elements (Tidball, 1973). Approximately 95 percent of the variance in the samples could be accounted for by only 16 elements. 

These are aluminum, barium, carbon, calcium, 

gallium, iron, lithium, magnesium, potassium, 

scandium, silicon, sodium, strontium, titanium, 

vanadium, and zirconium. The samples may be 

best described by a four-factor model in which the 

theoretical end-members are best related to the 

predominating parent materials.

Human mortality data compiled according to 

cause of death within Missouri counties were compared with the soil composition within corresponding counties using multiple regression procedures 

(Tidball and Sauer, 1975). This was a test of the 

hypothesis that the mortality rate of the human 

population is proportional to the quality (as measured by element concentration) of the soils in the 

locality of their longtime residence. Little significant association was found, so the hypothesis cannot be accepted. This finding suggests that either

the hypothesis is much too simplistic or we failed 

to measure the most appropriate properties of the 

soil.

Birth defects among swine were also compiled 

according to type of defect by Missouri counties 

and were compared to the corresponding soil composition data (Selby and Tidball, in press). The 

hypothesis that was tested was that the frequency 

of occurrence of a birth defect was associated with 

the composition of the soils within the corresponding locality. The hypothesis was better supported 

here than with human populations, perhaps because the swine are in more intimate contact with 

the soil. Nearly 50 percent of the variance in 

selected birth defects was related to phosphorus 

concentration in the soil.

The quality of soil (or land) for general agricultural use has been routinely judged during the soil 

mapping program of the Soil Conservation Service 

using criteria such as soil texture, drainage, profile depth, rockiness, and slope. Chemical composition could not be included as a criterion because 

the data were unavailable. The U.S. Geological 

Survey has been developing methods by which 

such data could be obtained. Maximum yields of 

agricultural products (plants and animals) are 

achieved in those areas where the conditions of 

temperature, water, and soil quality are simultaneously optimum. Land-use priorities could be 

designed according to land-classification units 

that recognize this unique combination of factors. 

Those areas that have great potential for food production should not be permanently assigned to 

support the physical structures of man, such as 

buildings, highways, parking lots, and reservoirs.

REFERENCES CITED

Selby, L. A., and Tidball, R. R., in press, The environmental 

geochemistry of agricultural soils in Missouri and its association with malformations in domestic swine: Trace 

Substances in Environ. Health, 10th Ann. Conf., Columbia, Missouri, June 8-10, 1976, Proc.

Tidball, R. R., 1973, Distribution of elements in agricultural 

soils of Missouri: Geol. Soc. America Abs. with Programs, 

v. 5, no. 4, p. 358-359.

Tidball, R. R., and Sauer, H. L, 1975, Multivariate relationships between soil composition and human mortality rates 

in Missouri, in Freedman, Jacob, ed., Trace element 

geochemistry in health and disease: Geol. Soc. America 

Spec. Paper 155, p. 41-59.

19
WEATHERING, AND THE PARENT 

MATERIALS OF SOILS

By R. W. White

The parent material of a soil is defined as that 

material from which the A and B horizons of the 

soil were derived which may (or may not) be the 

same as that in the horizon underlying B. It is 

weathered rock or other loosely consolidated 

material. The influence of the parent material on 

properties of a soil decreases with time and progressive soil development, but it is never eliminated. Soil boundaries, clay mineralogy and content, nutrient content, tilth, depth, grain-size distribution, permeability, and other properties of 

soils are influenced or controlled by the parent 

material. These properties have an important effect on the agricultural productivity of the soil.

Geological studies can and should be useful to 

students of soil genesis; but, in practice, conventional geologic mapping, as it presently is conducted by the U.S. Geological Survey, is of minimal value to pedologists and soil mappers. The 

reasons for this are several:

Few agricultural soils are residual, derived directly from bedrock. Thin surficial deposits such as 

loess are responsible for the productivity of many 

soils that at first glance appear to be residual. 

Conventional geologic studies typically ignore 

such deposits.

Even where soils are truly residual, the rocks 

and residual parent materials exert their influence through their lithology, such as the clay 

mineralogy of shales, the plagioclase and biotite 

contents of volcanic rocks, and the insoluble residue of limestones. Conventional mapping of rockstratigraphic units does not address such aspects 

of lithology.

The most important agricultural soils, except 

for tropical areas, are derived from young unconsolidated materials. These have high sustained 

natural fertility because they contain large 

amounts of unweathered silicate minerals 

throughout the profile, are relatively deep but not 

excessively leached, generally have good tilth, and 

are gently sloping to level. Relatively little 

lithologic mapping of such materials has ever been 

done by the U.S. Geological Survey, particularly in 

important agricultural areas.

The following studies, if implemented, could 

have an influence on pedology and soil science and 

thereby on food production:

1. Lithologic mapping of surficial materials, determining mineralogy (primarily silicates 

and clays), grain-size distribution, permeability and its orientation, and total-element 

chemistry.

2. Preparation of interpretative maps based on 

the above studies, urban-area studies, or 

studies of other regions of intensive geologic 

mapping (Kentucky), showing the parent 

materials of soils and, by implication, potential agricultural value of soils.

RELATED STUDIES

COMPUTER-BASED DATA SYSTEMS 

FOR FERTILIZER MATERIALS

By Simon M. Cargill

The study of food and fertilizers requires the 

collection of large volumes of data. These data can 

be stored in a computer file while awaiting further 

analysis. CRIB presently contains several 

hundred records on phosphates, potash, and nitrates, but these data are being moved to a data 

handling system that will provide a user with interactive access to the files. The new system is 

GARNET, which accesses the CRIB file and allows 

a user to'produce graphic displays of the areal 

distribution of deposits, as well as to update and 

maintain the data file with new information. In 

addition, analysis of problems and decisionmaking 

aids are associated with GARNET as independent 

modeling programs. Finally, GARNET and CRIB 

files are an integral part of a teleconferencing system called FORUM, which links together experts 

through use of the fertilizer-materials data base.

HOW REMOTE SENSING 

CAN ASSIST IN MAPPING

SURFICIAL AND 

FERTILIZER MATERIALS

By Roger B. Morrisen

To aid in detecting conditions at the Earth's 

surface, remote sensing uses instruments ranging 

from aerial cameras to side-looking radar to sense 

the reflected or emitted energy from various parts 

of the electromagnetic spectrum. Aerial cameras 

and multispectral scanners, which utilize the visible-light and near-infrared regions, are the operational workhorses they are the cheapest and

20
easiest to operate and yield the greatest amount of 

geologic-terrain data (tables 1-2). These photographic sensing systems, operated from mediumand high-altitude aircraft and satellites, have the 

following advantages:

1. Superior spatial resolution.

2. Record maximum amount of geologic-terrain 

information.

3. Metric capability (for planimetric accuracy).

4. Relatively low cost.

5. Photography and processing relatively simple; 

complicated circuitry and calibration not 

needed.

6. Multispectral capability (including color and 

color-IR).

7. Interpreted by conventional techniques.

In contrast, they have these disadvantages:

1. Require daylight and clear weather without 

clouds.

2. Limited to visible and near-infrared spectrum.

3. Not "real time" (delayed processing).

4. Potential for enhancement less than for digitally recorded imagery.

SLAR (side-looking airborne radar), which operates from aircraft, also produces useful data and 

has the following advantages:

1. Day and night and virtually all-weather capability (penetrates most cloud cover).

2. Single images cover large areas.

3. Rapidly acquired.

4. Oblique "illumination" aids in recognition of 

obscure faults, fractures, and outcropping 

strata, often better than with airphotos.

5. Orientation and angle of "illumination" can be 

changed at will, in contrast to the orientation 

of illumination in airphotos.

6. Modern SLAR imagery has good planimetric 

accuracy.

7. Megaview with moderate resolution suppresses 

minor surface details (such as vegetation), 

thus enhancing larger geologic features.

8. Interpretation of imagery is similar to (though 

different from) conventional photogeologic 

interpretation.

9. Stereoscopic viewing is possible from overlapping radar imagery.

10. Longer wavelengths penetrate some vegetation and the top few millimeters of soil.

However, it has three limitations:

1. Moderate resolution.

2. High cost.

3. No information from shadowed zones.

Unfortunately, remote sensing offers little 

promise of finding new deposits of mineral fertilizers in the United States. Surface deposits already 

are known, and subsurface ones are not amenable 

to discovery using this technique. There is greater 

promise of aiding in the discovery of surface deposits of fertilizers in poorly mapped foreign areas 

and also of aiding the exploration for various mineral soil amendments, such as agricultural limestone, gypsum, volcanic ash and pumice, peat, and 

sedimentary zeolite soil conditioners, both within 

the United States and offshore.

Probably the chief way that remote sensing can 

aid in the production of foodstuffs is through the 

general and specialized mapping of soils (table 3). 

Even in the United States, large areas lack 

adequate soil maps. Specialized soil maps, focusing on such topics as soil depth, nutrient-deficient 

soils, saline and alkali soils, toxic soils, erosion 

damage and erosion hazard, and poorly drained 

soils are needed in order to plan for optimum food 

production. Multispectral, multiseasonal aerial 

photography or scanning are the best tools for efficient and rapid production of soil maps, both general ones such as soil associations and soil capability for agriculture, and also specialized ones such 

as soil limitations and problem soils.

TABLE 1. Photographic sensing systems, operated from 

medium- and high-altitude aircraft and satellites

Spectral region Wavelength Common applicable imagine 

sensors

Near and middle 0.280 -0.393 fan 

ultraviolet.1

Visible ......... 0.393-0.759 /urn

Near infrared ... 0.759- 3/ion

Intermediate and 3.0 -1,000 fan

far infrared. 

Microwave, active 0.1 100cm

(radar) and

passive.

Photographic film (quartz 

lenses); scanners with 

photomultiplier 

detectors; imageconverter tubes.

Photographic film; scanners 

with photomultiplier 

detectors; television.

Photographic film (to 

approximately 0.9 fan); 

scanners with infrared 

detectors.

Scanners with infrared 

detectors.

Scanning antennas with 

radio-frequency.

1 Far and "vacuum" ultraviolet wavelengths (0.004-0.280 jum) do not penetrate the 

Earth's atmosphere significantly, so they are not useful for remote sensing. The portion 

of the electromagnetic spectrum generally used for remote sensing ranges from 0.3 fan 

(near-ultraviolet) to 3cm (microwave/radar).

21
TABLE 2. Attributes of various parts of the photographic 

spectrum

Spectral region

Near ultraviolet .

Violet ..........

Blue ...........

Yellow .........

Red ............

Near infrared . . .

Wavelength in 

micrometers (/um)

0.315-0.393

0.393

(extreme visible)

.470 (mean)

0.515 (mean)

0.560 (mean)

.620 (mean)

.700 (mean)

.759

(extreme visible)

0.759-1.0

Characteristics

Good water penetration; good 

discrimination of rock and 

soil types; poor resolution 

(scattering) ; poor haze 

penetration; and weak 

shadows.

Maximum water penetration

(blue).

Weak shadows.

radiation; poor haze 

penetration; and moderate 

shadows.

Fair resolution.

Strong shadows.

Fair to poor resolution; no

water penetration; good haze 

penetration; and vegetation 

discrimination.

TABLE 3. Utility of remote sensors for various types of soil mapping

[VG, very good; G, good; F, fair; and P, poor. Leaders (...) indicate not applicable. Multispectral medium- and high-altitude airplanes, stereoscopic, and multiseasonal]

Type of soil map b

Soil associations 

(1:125,000 to 1:250,000 scale) .....

Soil capability for agriculture

Soil depth ........................

Favorable and unfavorable topography 

Saline and alkali soils ..............

Nutrient -deficient soils .............

Toxic soils (for example, seleniferous) 

Poorly drained soils; soils liable to

Excessively clayey soils ............

Soils with deficient moisture-holding 

capability .......................

Erosion damage ...................

Erosion hazard (potential credibility)

Conventional 

ilack-and-white 

air photos

F

F-G

F-G

G-VG F-G

P-F

P-F 

F-G

F-G

F-G

F-G

F-G

G

F-G

Multispectral 

medium -altitude 

airphotos

F-VG

F-VG

F-G

VG F-G

F-G

F-G 

VG

VG

VG

VG F-G

VG F-VG

Multispectral 

high-altitude 

airphotos

F-G

F-G

P-G

VG P-G

F

F 

VG

F

F-G

G

F-G

G

F-G

Multispectral 

Skylab 

photographs

P-F

P

T1

P I?

G P-F

P-F

P-F 

F-G

F-P

P-G

P-F

P-F

P-F

F-G

Thermal 

infrared1

P

P

P

P 

P

P

P-F

P

G

P-F

P

P

P

SLAR

P

P

P

F-G 

P

P-F

F

F-P

P-F

P

P-F

P

At optimum time of year and time of day.

PHOSPHATE ROCK DETECTION USING 

SOLAR-STIMULATED LUMINESCENCE

By Robert D. Watson

Sedimentary phosphate rock is an increasingly 

important raw material for production of agricultural fertilizer. A common problem in prospecting 

for this material, however, is that cursory field

observation reveals few physical properties that 

distinguish phosphatic from nonphosphatic beds. 

Although small hand-carried ultraviolet lamps 

have been used to stimulate luminescing minerals 

and rocks, these methods of prospecting are limited because the lamps are low powered, the effective range is limited to a meter or less, and the 

work must be conducted at night because the lowintensity luminescence is obscured by bright sun22
light. An instrument, called an FLD (Fraunhofer 

Line Discriminator), has been recently developed 

that overcomes the above-mentioned difficulties 

and measures solar-stimulated luminescence at 

several orders of magnitude below the intensity 

detectable with the human eye. To assess the application of the FLD in prospecting for phosphate 

rocks, the luminescence of sedimentary phosphate 

rock samples from several geographic locations 

was measured using a laboratory fluorescence 

spectrometer at the 486.1-, 589.0-, and 656.3-nm 

wavelengths. Luminescence at the 486.1-nm 

Fraunhofer wavelength exceeded that at 589.0 

and 656.3 nm, and the luminescence of all samples 

was within the sensitivity limits of the FLD and 

indicated the need for a field test.

A high-grade phosphate deposit crops out near 

Pine Mountain, northeast of Santa Barbara, 

Calif., in the upper part of the Santa Margarita 

Formation (Miocene), where a 24-m-thick phosphate zone occurs in siltstone and siliceous shale. 

The FLD was flown aboard a HU1B helicopter over 

the Pine Mountain area on November 26,1974, at 

a hover altitude of 50 m. Luminescence measurements of phosphate rocks and soil, background 

rocks and soil, and vegetation along Chorro 

Grande Canyon were obtained at the 486.1-nm 

Fraunhofer wavelength. Phosphate rocks and soils 

were found to average 3.2 and 2.7 times more luminescent than background rocks, soil, and vegetation and were readily detected with the FLD. Future experiments are planned for FLD measurements of the luminescence of phosphate rocks in 

other areas from a fixed wing aircraft.

SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS FROM ABSTRACTS 

AND DISCUSSIONS OF PAPERS

The following recommendations, listed by subject, 

were made in the foregoing abstracts, during discussions of the papers, and by our invited participants in.their presentations. Further recommendations are made in the next section, "Workshops."

FERTILIZER MATERIALS 

PHOSPHATE

1. A worldwide appraisal of phosphate rock resources must be made. Phosphate is one of 

the three major fertilizer constituents, but

its worldwide abundance is less than that of 

either potash or nitrogen. Although present 

known reserves of phosphate are abundant, 

the long-term future of the fertilizer industry, and therefore of the world's food-producing capacity, is limited to the discovery and 

proper management of its phosphate resources.

2. Research should be initiated to develop 

theories of origin for all types of phosphate 

deposits. New information and new concepts on which to base additional working 

hypotheses are needed. Too much reliance 

on a single concept in exploration could result in failure to locate important deposits.

3. Research is recommended on the problem of 

phosphate fixation in soils rich in oxides of 

iron, manganese, and aluminum. The possibility should be explored of adding some 

substance to phosphate fertilizers that will 

allow the phosphate to stay free of fixation.

4. Phosphate data should be plotted on paleotectonic maps.

5. More research is needed on the occurrence of 

apatite in igneous and metamorphic rocks.

6. Investigations to determine the possible 

metamorphic equivalents of sedimentary 

marine phosphate deposits are needed.

7. More overseas work on phosphate deposits is 

desirable.

8. Further work should be done to characterize 

the extent of the Western phosphate field.

9. Work is needed to determine the relationships 

between the altered and unaltered phosphate rock in the Western phosphate field.

10. Geophysical techniques need to be developed 

for the exploration of phosphate deposits.

11. Geochemical techniques need to be developed 

for exploration for phosphate.

12. The U.S. Geological Survey should publish 

more open-file maps of phosphate areas.

13. Research is needed to determine factors controlling ore deposition on a small to medium 

scale (2 km or less).

14. The phosphate industry could benefit from a 

large, comprehensive publication that 

would bring recent work up to date in a 

single book.

15. The potential of the FLD (Fraunhofer Line 

Discriminator) as an instrument for prospecting for outcrops of phosphate rock 

should be investigated.

23
POTASH

1. More general research is needed on potash and 

related evaporites in the United States and 

worldwide.

2. More research should be done to determine the 

existence of an eastward trend of the New 

Mexico potash deposits.

3. Geophysical techniques need to be developed 

for exploration of potash deposits.

4. Better geochemical techniques for exploration 

of potash deposits are needed.

5. Efforts should be made to promote resource development of potash.

6. Research to determine the controlling factors 

for potash ore deposition on a small to 

medium scale (2 km or less) should be done.

7. Economic geologic studies of potash are needed.

SULFUR

1. A worldwide inventory of available sulfur 

sources should be made to indicate areas of 

deficiency.

2. Economic geologic studies of sulfur are needed.

is needed to assure a continuing supply as the 

demand increases.

3. Maps should be prepared that show the distribution of agricultural limestone, dolomite, 

and gypsum. As the use of these materials 

increases, the most efficient distribution systems will depend on complete knowledge of 

the sources of these materials.

4. An effort should be made to locate the sources of 

any type of potential soil amendment materials and to characterize them in terms of 

their chemical and physical properties.

5. It is recommended that the U.S. Geological 

Survey prepare an inventory of worldwide 

sedimentary zeolite resources with special 

emphasis on the countries of Southeast Asia 

and Central and South America.

6. Compilations of resources of bulk commodities 

such as sand and gravel, limestone, and gypsum should be coordinated with and done in 

cooperation with the State geological surveys.

SOIL AMENDMENT 

MATERIALS

1. The proposal has been made that volcanic ash 

and other pyroclastic materials, many of 

which are rich in glassy components, would 

decompose fairly rapidly and would, therefore, be an excellent soil amendment material. The texture of these materials could also 

improve the physical properties of soils. The 

geologist can indicate the varieties of young 

pyroclastic materials and the accessible deposits. A careful assessment of the current 

knowledge of natural volcanic-ash soils may 

provide an idea of the benefits to be expected 

from the addition of such material to normal 

soils. The decomposition of glassy rock materials in various soils and climatic environments should also be studied. The rates of 

release of various elements and in what form 

they are released are necessary information. 

The critical answers, however, await results 

of controlled field trials by agronomists and 

soil scientists.

2. Peat and other natural organic materials are 

very useful in certain types of agricultural 

applications. An inventory of these materials

WEATHERING OF ROCKS,

SOILS, TRACE ELEMENTS,

AND PLANT NUTRITION

1. Geochemical surveys should be made of the 

major soil types, worldwide, to identify those 

soils of greatest potential for particular crops.

2. Lithologic maps of surficial materials should be 

made to determine the mineralogy (primarily silicates and clays), grain-size distribution, permeability, and total element chemistry.

RELATED STUDIES

1. A worldwide computer inventory should be established for fertilizer and soil amendment 

materials.

2. Various remote sensing techniques should be 

investigated for use in mapping soil types 

and their distribution.

GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Resource development of all of the fertilizer and 

soil amendment materials should be promoted.

2. Public education in the field of all mineral 

commodities is needed.

24
3. The U.S. Geological Survey should establish 

briefing sessions for members of Congress on 

the status of all mineral commodities.

4. The U.S. Geological Survey should write more 

reports on fertilizer commodities.

5. The U.S. Geological Survey should do more 

mapping of surficial materials soil maps.

6. The U.S. Geological Survey should initiate 

more ground-water studies relative to problems in agriculture. Such studies could include leaching of elements from soils, redistribution or concentration of certain elements in soils, and residence times of fertilizer elements in soils.

WORKSHOP SESSIONS

REPORT FROM THE

FERTILIZER MATERIALS

WORKSHOP

R. P. Sheldon, Chairman 

R. F. Meyer, recorder

INTRODUCTION

About 30 participants entered into the workshop deliberations on the final day of the Geology 

and Food Conference. The expertise of the participants included mineral economics, economic 

geology, fertilizer mineral petrology, physical 

oceanography, mineral extraction, beneficiation 

and production, Federal land management, data 

processing and systems analysis, and Federal science administration. Participants represented 

private industry, academia, and the Federal government.

The questions probed at the workshop related to 

present and potential shortages of the fertilizer 

minerals both on the world market and in local 

economies, and also related to ways these shortages might be alleviated by U.S. Geological Survey programs directed at new commodities as well 

as at better understanding of the distribution of 

presently used commodities.

This report presents generalizations about the 

problems of the fertilizer minerals, then deals individually with the specifics of each commodity, 

and finally presents recommendations for future 

U.S. Geological Survey programs.

ECONOMIC AND GEOLOGIC

INFORMATION REQUIRED

FOR THE MINERAL SUPPLY

SYSTEM

The mineral supply system for any mineral is a 

complex multilateral system that (1) functions 

within governmental laws and regulations and 

hence is directed by public policies, (2) requires 

economic data and analysis in order to set both 

public and private industry policies, (3) requires 

geologic data and analysis in order for industry to 

formulate exploration and exploitation plans and 

for government to manage lands under its jurisdiction and carry out its other responsibilities, (4) 

requires continued basic research in the origin of 

mineral deposits and in new techniques of exploration and exploitation in order for reserves to be 

renewed from the undiscovered and subeconomic 

resources of the country as they are depleted, (5) 

requires reserve and production analysis in order 

to project short-term mineral availability, and (6) 

requires resource and exploration analysis in 

order to project long-term mineral availability and 

to understand the long-term viability of the total 

mineral supply system. These six requirements 

suggest programs, mostly within the jurisdiction 

of the U.S. Geological Survey, that must be carried 

out to insure effective working of the mineral supply system. These programs may be categorized as 

follows:

1. Economic studies of mineral demand.

2. Geologic1 study of the commodity, including: 

a. Field studies of known deposits to determine 

the geologic parameters controlling the 

local and regional distribution of the deposits;

b. Laboratory studies to determine the 

geochemistry and mineralogy of the 

commodity; and

c. Analogue studies of modern environments to 

understand processes of formation of 

commodities.

3. Geologic studies of little-known but potentially 

mineralized areas leading to resource appraisal and exploration-target identification.

4. Research in exploration techniques.

5. Resource analysis to project long-range mineral supply.

'The term geology is used in its broad sense in this report and includes geochemistry and geophysics.

25
Depending on the character of the commodity, 

program needs vary between the last four program 

elements. However, economic studies of mineral 

demand are needed equally because of the interdependence of individual fertilizers in agricultural 

fertilizer application programs. Thus, this subject 

is treated separately.

FERTILIZER MIN ERAL DEMAND

The U.S. Geological Survey has no direct role to 

play in economic studies of the demand for fertilizer minerals within the Department of the 

Interior. That role is carried out by the Bureau of 

Mines. However, it is essential for the U.S. Geological Survey to be aware of changes in demand 

caused by changing agricultural technology and 

national and international economic trends. In 

order to set meaningful priorities, to establish 

realistic justification of geologic studies, and to 

usefully categorize resource estimates, not only 

the quantitative but also the qualitative demand 

for commodities must be known. The deleterious 

as well as the beneficial materials occurring with 

the fertilizer mineral resources must be appraised 

in order that they may be economically evaluated.

The above considerations make it essential that 

the U.S. Geological Survey develop sufficient expertise in mineral-demand economics to be able to 

understand such studies and to interact with the 

organizations responsible for them.

The workshop participants recognized that a 

better understanding of the quality categories of 

phosphate rock and the potential coproducts of 

various deposits must be established. Also, a longterm-demand study of potash would be helpful to 

set priorities for study of deposits that are presently uneconomic due to unfavorable mineralogy.

NITRATES

The present supply of nitrate fertilizer is based 

on air as a nitrogen source and natural gas as an 

energy source for nitrogen fixation. The limiting 

mineral in nitrate fertilizer production is natural 

gas, and consideration of its supply was beyond the 

scope of the workshop. In this context, however, 

several geologic studies of nitrogenous materials 

could be carried out.

Natural nitrates of consequence are known to 

occur only in Chile. G. E. Ericksen of the U.S. 

Geological Survey has recently completed a long 

study of these deposits; he has demonstrated that

the deposits are probably unique in the world and 

constitute only a small resource in relation to 

present world demand. From the standpoint of 

mineral supply, no present justification exists for 

further USGS study. However, the origin of these 

deposits is still in doubt, and a fuller understanding might lead to discovery of a natural process of 

nitrogen fixation that requires less energy than 

present processes.

The main compound of nitrogen in fertilizer 

production is urea, and its production need not 

depend on natural gas. Carbon dioxide and nitrogen in air can be combined to form urea. This 

possibility should be pursued to establish the time 

frame of its economic feasibility. The resources of 

COa in nonmethane natural gas wells in the 

United States should be appraised. Sufficient data 

presently exist in the U.S. Geological Survey to 

quickly make a preliminary appraisal.

Combined nitrogen occurs in oil shale and crude 

oil, and this occurrence should be studied to establish its feasibility as a source of nitrate.

Buddingtonite, an ammonium-bearing 

feldspar, has been discovered in abundance in the 

Phosphoria Formation in southeastern Idaho. Although it is in a relatively insoluble mineral form, 

its resources should be estimated and fertilizer 

scientists should be made aware of its existence. 

Also, other phosphate deposits of marine origin 

should be examined for similar occurrences, particularly young deposits which, instead of buddingtonite, may contain an ammonium-rich zeolite that probably would be a valuable fertilizer 

and soil amendment material.

Programs of study of potentially mineralized 

areas, exploration research, and resource analysis 

should await results from the above studies of the 

geology of nitrates and CO2.

POTASH

GEOLOGY OF POTASH

Potash is concentrated in saline waters and deposited as evaporite minerals, so its origin is no 

mystery. However, the processes of chemical 

sedimentation are imperfectly understood, particularly with respect to basin fluid dynamics and 

geochemical processes attending surficial evaporation. Three kinds of modeling studies are 

needed to enlarge the geologic understanding of 

the basinal distribution of potash deposits.

26
First, geologic facies studies of rocks containing 

potash need to be carried out to develop conceptual 

sedimentation models based on real deposits.

Second, these conceptual models should be used 

as the basis of computer modeling. Or, to put it 

another way, the conceptual models should be 

tested by computer modeling.

Finally, actual-scale modeling should be carried 

out in arid areas to test the results of the first two 

modeling studies.

RESOURCE APPRAISAL

Potash deposits are known in the United States, 

but some are not well appraised. Also, some possibilities exist for additional discoveries. In particular, the following program opportunities exist:

1. Potash deposits of eastern New Mexico and 

western Texas probably contain only polyhalite, but the resources are only poorly known. 

The future demand for polyhalite needs to be 

determined, as its sulfate content may make 

it valuable in some fertilizers. It is also possible that the dissemination of knowledge of a 

large resource of polyhalite to industry could 

stimulate its demand.

2. The Michigan basin seems to offer a potash potential that is too poorly known at present to 

evaluate.

3. The salt domes of the Gulf Coast have not been 

properly studied for potential potash content.

Although workshop participants discussed the 

need for a computerized resource data bank only in 

relation to phosphate, it is equally urgent that 

such a data bank, including all deposits throughout the world, be developed for potash. Not only 

should identified resources be listed in the data 

bank, but the undiscovered resources should be 

appraised and entered in the bank. This is an essential step to analyzing the long-term availability of potash.

EXPLORATION RESEARCH 

Further study of bromine-chloride ratios needs 

to be made to improve this exploration technique. 

A major deterrent to better exploration technology is the difficulty of accurately logging drill 

holes. Geophysical research in this area could 

greatly improve present techniques.

RESOURCE ANALYSIS

The long-term availability of potash must be 

determined in relation to long-term demand estimates. This determination involves analyzing the 

undiscovered resources by search and occurrence 

modeling. Thus, a family of projections of future 

supply can be constructed using varying assumptions of future prices and costs (including the external costs), exploration technology, and mining 

and recovery technology.

SEDIMENTARY PHOSPHATES

GEOLOGY OF PHOSPHATE

Although much research has been carried out on 

the genesis of sedimentary phosphorite, the problem is complex enough and the data are sparse 

enough to allow multiple genetic interpretations 

for even the better known deposits. These differing 

hypotheses of origin lead to differing exploration 

strategies, so it is important that more research be 

carried out on the subject.

The geochemical cycle of phosphorus from 

igneous apatite petrology through the weathering 

and transportation phases to sedimentation 

needs better definition. Particularly important is 

more precise consideration of mass balance of the 

cycle. This study must be based on better data of 

the geochemistry of phosphate in the lithosphere.

The mineralogy and geochemistry of sedimentary apatite are still poorly understood in terms of 

defining the range of natural compositions and 

mineral structures and the chemical processes of 

formation. Further laboratory research on these 

subjects is needed.

Stratigraphic and sedimentologic research on at 

least four phosphate-bearing formations needs to 

be continued in order to derive more accurate 

sedimentologic models from them. These include 

the Miocene rocks of southern California, the 

Permian rocks of the Rocky Mountains, the Tertiary rocks of the Atlantic Coast, and the Precambrian phosphorite and related rocks in Rajasthan, 

India.

Phosphatic sediments have been found on the 

sea floor, largely in areas of coastal upwelling, as 

the result of widespread bottom sampling in all 

oceans. This environment should be studied in detail to better understand the controls and character of the sedimentation of phosphatic and related 

sediments. The best opportunity for study is 

offshore Baja California, but the continental 

shelves of Peru and of Northwest and Southwest 

Africa are also reported areas of phosphatic sediments. In addition, a study of other marine

27
sedimentary environments, such as the Atlantic 

shelf of the United States, the Bass Strait, the 

Chatham Rise, and selected seamounts in the tropical northeast Pacific Ocean could contribute to an 

understanding of the conditions under which the 

Miocene phosphorites of the Southeastern United 

States were deposited. A number of the existing 

hypotheses of origin could be tested and sharpened 

by such marine sediment studies.

Finally, the models of marine phosphate 

sedimentation, conceived from ancient rock 

studies and supported by laboratory and marine 

geologic studies, should be computer modeled to 

develop a better predictive capability for use in 

phosphate prospecting.

RESOURCE APPRAISAL

The major phosphate deposits of the United 

States are the Miocene and Pliocene deposits of the 

Southeastern United States, mainly Florida and 

North Carolina, and the Permian deposits of Idaho 

and adjacent States. The phosphate resources of 

the Southeastern United States are fairly well appraised although some regional overview studies 

could be profitably made, particularly if company 

data could be made available. The Permian deposits of the West badly need to be appraised. This 

would consist largely of analyzing and synthesizing existing data, although some additional 

geologic mapping should be undertaken.

In addition, some phosphate is known to exist in 

other areas, particularly Alaska and the Great 

Basin, and should be better appraised.

A phosphate data bank should be established 

internationally at the earliest opportunity. The 

necessary computer format and software have already been developed for coal resources and could 

be readily adapted to a phosphate data bank. An 

informal international group of geologists interested in phosphate has been in existence for 

some years. Preliminary discussions among this 

group indicate that building such a data bank not 

only would be feasible but would be undertaken 

enthusiastically. The data bank would contain not 

only data on well-studied large deposits but also 

data on occurrences of phosphate deposits that are 

not economic. It would constitute an objective 

basis for the appraisals of undiscovered resources 

that are necessary for national and world planning. National and multinational development 

organizations might be interested in financially 

supporting this project.

EXPLORATION RESEARCH 

Preliminary studies have revealed that the FLD 

(Fraunhofer Line Discriminator) is a very promising exploration technique. This geophysical airborne instrument would work particularly well in 

areas of arid climate where little vegetation is 

present. Further development would be warranted 

and could be carried out in Baja California or in 

several other desert areas of known phosphate occurrences.

Studies of the fate of weathering products of 

phosphorite and their occurrence in ground water 

should be carried out. These include fluorine, 

helium, and perhaps trace metals.

RESOURCE ANALYSIS

The projections of long-term availability of 

phosphate should be made in a similar manner as 

that described for potash.

IGNEOUS APATITE

The discovery of igneous apatite in some parts of 

the world has been increasing in recent years, and 

a short study of the feasibility of discovery of 

igneous apatite in the United States should be 

undertaken.

SULFUR

A short study of the future requirements of 

sulfur should be made and, if the requirements are 

significant, a follow-up study of the feasibility of 

discovering U.S. sulfur deposits should be made.

REPORT FROM THE SOIL 

AMENDMENT AND ROCK 

WEATHERING WORKSHOP

Jon J. Connor, Chairman 

Richard A. Sheppard, Recorder

Considerable discussion took place in the first 

part of the workshop as to what materials are 

suitable for soil amendments. A tentative list included peat, volcanic ash, zeolites, fly ash, basic 

slag, gypsum, limestone, garbage, sewage, humates, sand, clay, and mine tailings. An attempt 

was made to rank these in order of importance, and 

although this was not accomplished for all materials, it was agreed that limestone and gypsum 

should be near the top of the list.

28
The primary objection raised against largescale application of such common amendments 

was economic. In order to substantially improve 

large areas of poor soil through amendments, incredibly large quantities of the amendments must 

be transported from "source" areas to "need" areas. 

The tremendous energy requirements of distribution, whether long-distance or local (spreading it 

on large acreages of tillable soil) seem prohibitive. 

This fact was brought out in a lengthy discussion 

on the present and potential uses of peat. Its agricultural uses are primarily in "truck garden" 

crops, but the relatively low cost-benefit ratio involved in widespread redistribution accounts for 

the fact that it is not widely used in large-scale 

farm crops.

That realization forces one to look at improving 

use of the amending materials in place. This, in 

turn, calls for an up-to-date inventory of the 

world's "good" soils. In this respect, most of the 

discussion was devoted to various types of mapping that could be done. It was emphasized that we 

need more and better maps of surficial deposits. 

Such maps should include the types of materials, 

the depth to bedrock, the physical properties, and 

perhaps the depth to the water table. The need for 

large-scale maps of surficial deposits was emphasized, and it was stated that such maps should 

be lithologic rather than genetic.

The discussion of maps continued with a listing 

of numerous kinds of so-called "nutritional" maps. 

Some examples follow:

1. Types of amendment materials.

2. Depth to bedrock.

3. Soil physical properties.

4. Depth to water table.

5. Salt seeps.

6. Limestone.

7. Gypsum.

8. Dolomite.

9. Land-use planning.

10. Element distribution.

11. Toxic element.

12. Beneficial element.

13. Hard pan.

14. Peat map.

15. Volcanic ash.

Some research areas were also recommended. It 

was suggested that, to better understand the 

geochemistry of soils, the U.S. Geological Survey 

could study the release of elements to soils from

the primary minerals in the soils. In connection 

with this, the release of elements from fertilizers 

in the soils and the behavior of elements during 

weathering in general should be studied.

The most important result of the discussion was 

a general recognition that the group could not 

agree on a common approach to geologic work in 

the subject area of soil amendments. This lack of 

consensus reflected, in part, the natural desire of 

the individual participant to "push" his own particular interests; but, more fundamentally, it reflected the unspoken awareness that soil problems 

in terms of food production are by their nature 

agronomic rather than geologic. Four points kept 

recurring through the discussion. These are the 

need for (1) better data banks, (2) bibliographies, 

(3) better maps, and (4) better and more interdisciplinary communication.

CURRENT USGS 

PROJECTS

The following is a current list of USGS projects 

that have direct or indirect application to research 

related to agricultural problems. They are arranged under the following categories:

1. Fertilizer materials.

2. Soil amendment materials.

3. Weathering of rocks, soils, trace elements, and 

plant nutrition.

4. Land use.

The projects in the categories of fertilizer materials and soil amendment materials apply directly 

to research related to agriculture.

The projects under weathering of soils, trace 

elements, and plant nutrition are both directly and 

indirectly related. For instance, some projects involve studies of trace elements in soils for the purpose of developing exploration techniques for finding metallic ore deposits in the bedrock beneath 

the soils. The basic data, however, can be applied 

to studies of soil chemistry.

The projects under the subject of land use derive 

much data which can be used in agricultural applications. Such information as determination of soil 

types, water supply, surface drainage, steepness of 

slopes, distribution of glacial deposits, flood-prone 

areas, and natural vegetation; problems of erosion 

and land utilization; and areas of potential strip 

mining and urban development are examples of

29
the types of data that have or could have an impact 

on agricultural development.

FERTILIZER MATERIALS

Subject: Phosphate

Title: Phosphate in Southeastern United States,

9430-00139

Project Chief: J. B. Cathcart 

Economic geology and resource appraisal, reserves, stratigraphy, structure, mineralogy, chemistry, origin of deposits.

Subject: Phosphate

Title: Petrology and geochemistry of Phosphoria

Formation, 9430-00137 

Project Chief: R. A. Gulbrandsen 

Emphasis on chemical composition, mineralogy, 

and petrography of phosphorites and phosphatic 

rocks; CCfe, Sr, and Y determinations on apatite; 

environmental impact work.

Subject: Phosphate

Title: Great Basin phosphate, 9430-01346 

Project Chief: K. B. Ketner 

Stratigraphy of phosphatic rocks and their relation to Phosphoria Formation in Idaho, phosphate 

reserves and origin, relation of Phosphoria sea to 

oceanic upwelling, quadrangle mapping.

Subject: Phosphate

Title: California phosphorites, 9430-01578 

Project Chief: A. E. Roberts 

Phosphate content of selected marine units having 

future phosphate potential for example, Monterey Formation; stratigraphic and areal distribution of phosphorites; chemical and mineralogical 

composition; physical, chemical, and biological 

environments of phosphorites, including diagenetic effects and localization of phosphates; mapping.

Subject: Phosphate

Title: Geologic map of Wyoming, 9530-00544

Project Chief: J. D. Love

Compilation of geologic map of Wyoming; mapped

the distribution of the Phosphoria Formation.

Subject: Phosphate Stratigraphy and structure

of southeastern Idaho. 

Title: Snake River Plain, 9530-00873 

Project Chief: Steven S. Oriel 

Mapping of upper Paleozoic rocks (including Phosphoria Formation) in the ranges southeast of the

Snake River Plain; consulting with Conservation 

Division on public lands in Idaho withdrawn for 

phosphate; consulting on multiagency assessment 

of environmental impact on Federal phosphate 

lands.

Subject: Potash

Title: Mineralogy of nonmetallic deposits, 9430-

00141

Project Chief: B. M. Madsen 

Emphasis on mineralogy, petrography, and chemical composition of salines and related rocks; lowtemperature and pressure alteration of sediments; 

support work for other projects.

Subject: Potash

Title: Paradox basin salt studies, Utah-Colorado,

9430-00146

Project Chief: O. B. Raup

Development of a physico-chemical model of 

basinal evaporite deposition; origin of potash deposits and associated petroleum and metallic mineral deposits; surface and subsurface stratigraphy, 

structure, and lithofacies analysis; petrography; 

mineralogy; geochemistry.

Subject: Potash

Title: New Mexico potash studies, 9430-00153 

Project Chief: C. L. Jones

Geology and resource evaluation of Permian 

potash deposits in southeastern New Mexico; surface and subsurface study of distribution, lithology, structure, and history of the deposit.

Subject: Study of sulfur accumulations 

Title: Sulfur in coal, lignite, and peat, 9420-01092 

Project Chief: Alfred J. Bodenlos 

Investigation of the paleoenvironments and 

geochemistry leading to the accumulation of sulfur in coal; compilation of sulfur tonnages in coal, a 

potential resource of elemental sulfur or sulfuric 

acid when recovery systems are developed; Project 

Chief also serves as USGS sulfur commodity 

geologist.

SOIL AMENDMENT MATERIALS

Subject: Lightweight aggregates as soil amendments

Title: Lightweight aggregate resources of the United States, 9350-00171

Project Chief: Alfred L. Bush

30
Appraisal and assessment of the reserves and resources of lightweight aggregate materials for the 

entire United States; changes in uses, consumption patterns (geographic and economic), technology, and energy requirements; delineation of 

favorable areas for exploration and development of 

guides to ore for the numerous kinds of suitable 

materials.

Subject: Humate as a soil amendment

Title: Geology and geochemistry of coal and humate, 9420-00106 

Project Chief: Vernon E. Swanson 

Primary emphasis currently on chemical composition and geochemical genesis of coal, particularly 

trace elements, based on complete analyses of 

3,800 samples from 36 States; determination of the 

progenitors and processes of alteration of humic 

organic materials in sedimentary rocks, and especially identification of the processes of mobilizing, 

transporting, and precipitating soluble organic 

substances and the associated metals (Cu, Ni, U, 

etc.) concentrated in humates; distribution, approximate tonnages, lithologic associations, and 

stratigraphic relations of humate deposits for 

example, humate sands in north Florida and eastern South Carolina, and leonardite in North 

Dakota, Wyoming, and New Mexico.

Subject: Zeolites as soil amendments

Title: Zeolites in southeastern California, Arizona,

and Oregon, 9430-00164 

Project Chief: R. A. Sheppard 

Formation and distribution of zeolites and authigenic silicate minerals in Cenozoic lacustrine 

deposits of the Western United States; comparison 

and correlation of optical and cell parameters of 

natural zeolites with variations in chemical composition; geochemistry and mineralogy of unusual 

hydrous silicate deposit in Trinity County, Calif.

Subject: Bentonite as a soil amendment

Title: Bentonite resources in the Rocky Mountain

region, 9430-01288 

Project Chief: C. A. Wolfbauer 

Determination of physical, chemical, and 

mineralogical properties of bentonite; stratigraphic, geographic, and environmental distribution; relationship of physical properties to chemical and mineralogical composition; Na:Ca exchangeable ion ratios.

Subject: Volcanic ash (pyroclastic material) as soil

amendments

Title: Volcanic ash chronology, 9720-00324 

Project Chief: Ray E. Wilcox 

Development of methods and criteria for use of 

volcanic ash beds as time-stratigraphic markers in 

upper Cenozoic deposits; correlations based on determinations of chemical, optical, and weathering 

characteristics of the constituents of the ashes.

Subject: Peat as a soil amendment 

Title: Peat studies, 9360-00254 

Project Chief: Cornelia Cameron 

Exploration of peat deposits suitable for soil-conditioner and horticultural use by field study in 

areas representing major terrane types typical of 

the United States; discovery of physiographic and 

geologic controls of deposit occurrence and size; 

determination of relation of stratigraphy and ecology to water movement and diagenesis affecting 

peat quality; cataloging of major deposits according to ASTM standards for current agricultural 

uses and anticipated uses in manufacture of 

foodstuffs and pollution controls.

WEATHERING OF ROCKS,

SOILS, TRACE ELEMENTS,

AND PLANT NUTRITION

Subject: Soils

Title: Quaternary dating techniques, 9530-01559 

Project Chief: Kenneth L. Pierce 

Studies of thick sections of loess showing several 

buried soils that are more developed than the surface soil; fission-track dating.

Subject: Surficial geology and geochronology 

Title: Methodology of Quaternary dating

techniques, 9530-01937 

Project Chief: George O. Bachman 

Evaluation and application of various radiometric, 

stratigraphic, and geochemical techniques for dating surficial deposits, with emphasis on soil-forming processes in the arid environment.

Subject: Soils

Title: Geotechnical measurements and services,

9550-00645

Project Chief: Harold W. Olsen 

Tests and analyses of soils and rocks in support of

31
research projects of an engineering geology nature; engineering soil property tests including size 

analysis, Atterberg limits, specific gravity, porosity, moisture-density relationships, pH determinations, volume change, and compressive, shear 

and bearing strengths.

Subject: Geochemistry of the Earth's crust 

Title: Data of geochemistry, 9760-00429 

Project Chief: Michael Fleischer 

Provides major reference source for element abundances in the Earth's crust, including geologic 

materials used as fertilizers and physical soil 

amendments.

Subject: Analytical services, food and feed plants 

Title: Plant laboratory support, 9760-00433 

Project Chief: T. F. Harms

Provides special methods necessary for chemical 

analysis of plant materials, including food and 

feed plants.

Subject: Rock, soil, and plant data storage and

retrieval

Title: Geochemical data systems, 9760-00440 

Project Chief: R. V. Mendes 

A basic data bank for chemical analyses, including 

composition of rocks and native and cultivated 

soils and plants.

Subject: Geochemistry of surficial materials, including soils

Title: Urban geochemistry, 9760-00512 

Project Chief: Harry A. Tourtelot 

Effects of geologic formations and urban pollution 

on chemical constituents of urban and agricultural 

soils, and effects of sewage-sludge applications on 

crop lands.

Subject: Chemical elements in rocks and displaced

geologic materials

Title: Western coal regions rocks, 9760-01135 

Project Chief: R. J. Ebens

Establishment of geochemical baselines for range 

and crop lands subject to disturbance by mining 

operations.

Subject: Chemical elements in natural soils and

mine spoil

Title: Western coal regions soils, 9760-01136 

Project Chief: R. R. Tidball 

Establishment of geochemical baselines for soils to

use in assessing chemical changes produced by 

effects of coal exploitation on crop and range lands.

Subject: Chemical elements in native vegetation

and crop plants

Title: Western coal regions plants, 9760-01137 

Project Chief: J. A. Erdman 

Establishment of geochemical baseline data for 

shrubs, range grasses, and grains in relation to 

effects of present and future coal-mining operations; revegetation and reclamation of mine spoil.

Subject: Bioavailability of trace elements to plants 

Title: Element availability, soils, 9760-01876 

Project Chief: R. C. Severson 

Identification of those chemical properties of soil 

substrates that best predict the trace-element content of rooted plants.

Subject: Bioavailability of trace elements to plants 

Title: Element availability, plants, 9760-01877 

Project Chief: L. P. Gough

Distribution andtranslocation of trace elements in 

plant tissue.

Subject: Studies of scavenging by Fe, Mn oxides, in

part immobilizing metals 

Title: Research in methods of chemical analysis for

geochemical exploration, 9330-00085 

Project Chief: T. T. Chao

Research topic: Hydro- and biogeochemistry of 

heavy metals.

Principal Investigator: T. T. Chao 

Scavenging of various metals by Mn and Fe oxides.

Subject: Studies of scavenging by Fe, Mn oxides

from ground waters 

Title: Surface and ground waters in geochemical

exploration, 9330-00087 

Project Chief: Gary A. Nowlan 

Research topic: Anomaly characterization 

Principal Investigator: Gary A. Nowlan 

Study of scavenging of metals from surface water 

and bed-flow water by Fe, Mn oxides and development of devices for sampling streambeds that 

would be useful in water-quality and irrigation 

studies.

Research topic: Hydrogeochemistry as a tool used 

in the search for metals 

Principal Investigator: W. R. Miller 

Use of natural water and its trace metal content to 

develop a tool for mineral-deposit location and 

identification.

32
Subject: Studies of scavenging by oxides, in part

immobilizing metals

Title: Geochemical exploration research in desert, 

semidesert, temperate, tropical, and subtropical regions, 9330-00088 

Project Chief: Robert E. Learned 

Research topic: Geochemical exploration in lateritic territory

Principal Investigator: Wallace R. Griffitts 

Degree of accumulation of metals in the uppermost 

soil zones the root zone of most food plants and 

the zone that is enriched in metal through decay of 

plant material; lateral variations in total contents 

of some metals; combined geochemical-heavy 

mineral survey.

Research topic: Minor elements in detrital minerals

Principal Investigator: W. C. Overstreet 

Limonite scavenging of uranium in the alkalic 

complex at Darby Mountain in stream beds; study 

of surficial processes, including agricultural, as 

means of working out history of sampled material; 

ties in with project 9330-00079. 

Research topic: Basin Range exploration 

Principal Investigator: Henry V. Alminas 

Extensive geochemical maps showing distribution 

of the micronutrients Cu, Zn, Mo, and Co in surficial materials in south-central New Mexico; mineral sampling of plants.

Research topic: Research exploration geochemistry, Puerto Rico

Principal Investigator: Robert E. Learned 

Soil profiles over porphyry copper deposits in 

Puerto Rico; areal geochemical maps of large 

areas, including, as usual, minor nutrients Cu, Co, 

Mo, and Zn.

Subject: General plant-soil interrelations

Title: Geochemical exploration research in arctic,

subarctic, alpine, and subalpine regions,

9330-00089

Project Chief: J. Howard McCarthy, Jr. 

Research topic: Geochemical investigation in alpine and subalpine environment 

Principal Investigator: Gary C. Curtin 

Interrelations between plant and soil metal contents in Colorado, Alaska, and Idaho; analysis of 

soils, humus, plants, and sediment in neighboring 

creeks. Gathering of much basic data on the ability 

of plants of various families to pick up nutrient 

metals in the three environments. 

Research topic: Geochemical Exploration

techniques in the arid environment 

Principal Investigator: Maurice A. Chaffee 

Sampling of soils, stream and wash sediments, and 

plants; studies of important brouse plants, minor 

in direct human nutrition.

Subject: General geochemical surveys of soil metals. 

Title: Geochemical characterization of metallogenic provinces and mineralized areas,

9330-00093

Project Chief: George J. Neuerburg 

Research topic: Geochemical exploration, Coeur 

d'Alene district

Principal Investigator: Garland B. Gott 

Areal distribution of micronutrients of smelter as 

well as of natural origin.

Research topic: Geochemical exploration studies 

with selenium, tellurium, and thallium 

Principal Investigator: John R. Watterson 

Nutritional aspects of selenium and thallium 

both toxic and beneficial as micronutrients. 

Research topic: Accessory sulfides of igneous rocks 

Principal Investigator: George J. Neuerburg 

Alunite group of minerals and its phosphate and 

arsenate analogs; scavenging of Cu, Zn, Mo by 

hydrous iron and managanese in the alpine and 

subalpine environments.

Subject: Botanical studies

Title: Biogeochemical research in geochemical

exploration, 9330-00099 

Project Chief: John B. Cathrall 

Research topic: Botanical research 

Principal Investigator: Helen L. Cannon 

Relationship of geochemistry and geobotany to 

public health problems, including nutrition. 

Research topic: Elements in organic-rich materials

Principal Investigator: Fred N. Ward 

Development and application of analytical 

methods useful with organic materials, food, and 

non-food plants.

Subject: Plant-soil interrelations in desert or

semidesert environments

Title: Mexican Coop., 9330-01366

Project Chief: Paul K. Theobald

Research topic: General plant-soil interrelations

in desert or semidesert environment

Principal Investigators: Glenn H. Allcott and Paul

K. Theobald

33
Plant-soil interrelationships of Arabia, South 

Dakota, Arizona, and Mexico.

LAND USE

Subject: Environmental data 

Title: Denver urban corridor studies, 9530-00555 

Project Chief: Wallace R. Hansen 

Emphasis on recasting geologic and hydrologic 

data 'into forms readily usable by nongeologists; 

production of maps and reports concerning landuse, nonmetallic mineral resources, climatography, geologic hazards, vegetation, natural and 

historic landmarks, trace elements, and floodprone areas along the Front Range urban corridor 

of Colorado.

Subject: Environmental data 

Title: Central Nebraska basin Bedrock geology 

and thickness of overlying Quaternary deposits, 9530-00588 

Project Chief: George E. Prichard 

Data from the files of the Nebraska Geological 

Survey supplemented by the current test-well 

drilling program and reconnaissance field work 

being used to delineate the bedrock geology and 

determine the thickness of overlying Quaternary 

deposits, which consist of loess, fill, alluvium, and 

lake sediments; bedrock geology superimposed on 

a topographic base map at a scale of 1:250,000 and 

thickness of Quaternary deposits shown by 

isopach lines on map.

Subject: Environmental data 

Title: Denver mountain soils, 9530-00861 

Project Chief: Paul W. Schmidt 

Study of suitability of mountain areas along the 

Front Range, Colorado, for homesites, road locations, underground utility corridors, waste-disposal sites, and ground-water recharge; relationship of distribution, thickness, and character of 

mountain soils to urbanization.

Subject: Surficial mapping

Title: Surficial Snake River Plain, 9530-00871

Project Chief: William E. Scott

Reconstruct geomorphic events that produced

such land resources as the arable land and unconfined artesian and perched ground-water aquifers;

determine physical properties and age relations of

unconsolidated materials; provide basis for evaluation of engineering properties and material resources, such as foundation conditions for construction, water supply, waste disposal, and so 

forth; investigate problems of soil erosion.

Subject: Surficial mapping

Title: Black Mesa surficial geology and environmental study, 9530-01552 

Project Chief: Thor N. V. Karlstrom 

Surficial and environmental geology of an area of 

active strip mining, with special attention to late 

Pleistocene and Holocene climatic and geomorphic 

events.

Subject: Environmental data 

Title: Dillon 2° sheet, Montana, 9530-01557 

Project Chief: E. T. Ruppel

Geologic studies; potential for nonmetallic mineral and water resources; thickness of valley fills; 

and other environmental geologic topics as needed 

for land-use information.

Subject: Environmental data

Title: Geologic factors for mapping reclamation

potential of western coal lands, 9530-01560 

Project Chief: Harold E. Malde 

Determination of reclamation potential based on 

measurement of such pertinent geologic, hydrologic, and geomorphic factors as variety and 

steepness of slope, diversity of landscape, conditions of erosion, density and character of surface 

drainage, and variations in soil and overburden.

Subject: Environmental data

Title: Environmental aspects of coal development,

eastern Powder River Basin, Wyoming,

9530-01565

Project Chief: Donald A. Coates 

Acquire, compile, and interpret basic land and resource data for environmental impact evaluation 

of large-scale surface mining of the thick 

Wyodak-Anderson coal bed along the eastern 

margin of the Powder River Basin in Wyoming.

Subject: Environmental data

Title: Energy lands Oil shale, 9530-01598

Project Chief: Robert B. Raup, Jr.

Acquire and assemble a knowledge base of bedrock

and surficial geologic data at regional scales

34
(1:250,000) and combine these data with hydrologic, topographic, soils, geochemical, resource, 

and related earth science data to define and cartographically display assessments of land capability.

Subject: Surficial mapping

Title: Environmental geologic studies,

Kaiparowitz coal basin, Utah, 9530-01637 

Project Chief: Kenneth A. Sargent 

Surficial geologic mapping and compilation of 

land-use and geologic-hazard map folio.

Subject: Surficial geologic mapping

Title: Environmental geology of San Juan Basin,

9530-01932

Project Chief: Glenn R. Scott 

Surficial geology and environmental mapping at 

1:250,000 of the entire basin, and detailed mapping of strippable coal areas.

Subject: Surficial geologic mapping

Title: Environmental geology of Williston basin,

9530-01936

Project Chief: Donald E. Trimble 

Surficial geologic mapping of coal lands of Williston basin, Montana and North Dakota, at 

1:100,000 and 1:500,000, and environmental 

geologic studies of areas of strippable coal.

Subject: Environmental data

Title: Engineering geologic mapping research,

Powder River Basin, 9550-01631 

Project Chief: Frank W. Osterwald 

Basic engineering geologic data to serve as 

background for land-use planning; surface and 

subsurface data on engineering properties and 

predictable behavioral characteristic of the surficial and bedrock units in the area; interpretations 

of the geologic and engineering data for the use of 

land-use planners, civil engineers, architects, and 

government officials.

Subject: Environmental data

Title: Denver metropolitan area, Colorado, 9550-

00632

Project Chief: Robert M. Lindvall 

Preparation of detailed general-purpose geologic 

maps of eight quadrangles covering the major part 

of the Denver area to provide basic information 

pertinent to maximum land utilization; engineering properties of the surficial and bedrock units,

areas subject to flooding, and location and extent of 

sand and gravel deposits necessary for construction aggregate materials.

Subject: Environmental data

Title: Geology of Salt Lake City and vicinity,

9550-00636

Project Chief: Richard Van Horn 

Geologic mapping of the Salt Lake area with emphasis on surficial deposits; special purpose maps 

relating to specific environmental features including floodwater and surface-water information, relative geologic stability, thickness of loosely 

packed sediments and depth to bedrock, and 

minimum depth to water in shallow aquifers.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF 

PUBLICATIONS BY U.S. 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

AUTHORS THROUGH 1975 

THAT PERTAIN TO SUBJECTS 

RELATED TO THE GEOLOGY 

AND FOOD CONFERENCE

Compiled by Flora K. Walker

FERTILIZER MATERIALS

GEOLOGY OF PHOSPHATE

This list of references covers 30 years of research 

in the U.S. Geological Survey in various subjects 

related to the geology of phosphate. The publications include such topics as stratigraphy, mineralogy, geochemistry, and economic geology.

Altschuler, Z. S., 1958, The petrography and beneficiation of 

Negev phosphates: United Nations Tech. Assistance 

Admin. Kept. TAA-1SR-26, 59 p.

 1959, The petrography of phosphorites from Mona Island: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 317-C, p. 157-162.

 1965, Precipitation and recycling of phosphate in the 

Florida land-pebble phosphate deposits, in Geological Survey research 1965: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 525-B, p. 

B91-B95.

 1974, The weathering of phosphate deposits environmental and geochemical aspects, Chapt. Ill, p. 33-96, in 

Environmental Phosphorus Handbook: John Wiley and 

Sons, New York, 700 p.

35
Altschuler, Z. S., Herman, Sol, and Cuttitta, Frank, 1965, Rare 

earths in phosphorites geochemistry and potential recovery, in Geological Survey research 1967: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Prof. Paper 575-B, p. B1-B9.

Altschuler, Z. S., Cathcart, J. B., and Young, E. J., 1964, Geology and geochemistry of the Bone Valley Formation and its 

phosphate deposits, west-central Florida: Geol. Soc. 

America Guidebook, Field Trip 6, Ann. Mtg., Nov. 1964, 

68 p.

Altschuler, Z. S., Cisney, E. S., and Barlow, I. H., 1953, X-ray 

evidence of the nature of carbonate-apatite [abs.]: 19th 

Internal Geol. Cong. Proc., Algiers, Fasc. 11, p. 1. (Also 

published in Am. Mineralogist and Geol. Soc. America 

Proc. for 1952.)

Altschuler, Z. S., Clarke, R. S., Jr., and Young, E. J., 1958, 

Geochemistry of uranium in apatite and phosphorite: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 314-D, 45 p.

Altschuler, Z. S., Jaffe, E. B., and Cuttitta, Frank, 1958, 

Geochemistry of uranium in apatite and phosphorite: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 314-D, 45 p.

Altschuler, Z. S., Jaffe, E. B., and Cuttitta, Frank, 1956, The 

aluminum phosphate zone of the Bone Valley Formation 

and its uranium deposits, in Contributions to the geology of 

uranium and thorium by the United States Geological 

Survey and Atomic Energy Commission for the United 

Nations International Conference on Peaceful uses of 

Atomic Energy, Geneva, Switzerland, 1955: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Prof. Paper 300, p. 495-504.

Armstrong, F. C., and Oriel, S. S., 1965, Tectonic development 

of the Idaho-Wyoming thrust belt: Am. Assoc. Petroleum 

Geologists Bull., v. 49, no. 11, p. 1847-1866.

Axelrod, J. M., Thayer, T. P., Carron, M. K., and Milton, 

Charles, 1952, Phosphate mineralization at Bomi Hill and 

Bambuta, Liberia, West Africa: Am. Mineralogist, v. 37, 

no. 11-12, p. 883-909.

Brown, D. W., and Gulbrandsen, R. A., 1973, Chemical composition of a saline lake on Enderbury Island, Phoenix Island 

Group, Pacific Ocean: U.S. Geol. Survey Jour. Research, v. 

1, p. 105-111.

Cannon, W. F., and Klasner, J. S., 1976, Phosphorite and other 

apatite-bearing sedimentary rocks in the Precambrian of 

Northern Michigan: U.S. Geol. Survey Circ. 746, 6 p.

Cathcart, J. B., 1950, Notes on the land-pebble phosphate deposits of Florida, in Snyder, F. G., ed., Symposium on mineral resources of the southeastern United States (1949 

Proe.): Univ. Tennessee Press, Knoxville, Tenn., 20 p.

 1954, Results of drilling airborne radioactivity anomalies in Florida, Georgia, and South Carolina: U.S. 

Geol. Survey open-file rept., 10 p.

 1956a, Economic geology of the phosphate deposits of 

Florida [abs.]: Econ. Geology, v. 51, p. 111-112.

 1956b, Distribution and occurrence of uranium in calcium phosphate zone of the land-pebble phosphate district 

of Florida, in Contributions to the geology of uranium and 

thorium by the United States Geological Survey and 

Atomic Energy Commission for the United Nations International Conference on Peaceful uses of Atomic Energy, 

'Geneva, Switzerland, 1955: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 

300, 6 p.

 1960, Phosphate deposits, land-pebble district, Florida, 

in Manual of methods of the Assoc. Florida Phosphate 

Mining Chemists: p. 4-5.

 1961, Geology of phosphate deposits of the eastern United States: Am. Chem. Soc., 140th Ann. Mtg., Chicago, 111., 

Sept. 1961.

 1963a, Economic geology of the Keysville quadrangle, 

Florida: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1128, 82 p.

 1963b, Economic geology of the Plant City quadrangle, 

Florida: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1142-D, 56 p.

 1963c, Economic geology of the Chicora quadrangle, 

Florida: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1162-A, 66 p.

 1964, Economic geology of the Lakeland quadrangle, 

Florida: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1162-G, 128 p.

 1965, Miocene phosphorite deposits of North Carolina 

[abs.]: Am. Inst. Mining Me tall. Engineers, Chicago, 111., 

Feb. 1965.

 1966a, Economic geology of phosphate deposits in the 

eastern United States [abs.]: Am. Inst. Mining Metall. 

Engineers, Tampa, Fla. mtg., Oct. 1966.

 1966b, Economic geology of the Fort Meade quadrangle, 

Polk and Hardee Counties, Florida: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 

1207, 97 p.

 1967, Phosphate exploration in Colombia a case history: U.S. Geol. Survey open-file rept., 19 p.

 1968a, Phosphate deposits of the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains, in 4th Forum on Geology of Industrial Minerals: 

Univ. Texas Bur. Econ. Geology, p. 23-34.

 1968b, Texture and composition of outcropping phosphorite in the Turayf region, northern Saudi Arabia, in 

Geological Survey research 1968: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. 

Paper 600-C, p. C4-C12.

 1968c, Florida-type phosphate deposits origin and 

techniques for prospecting, in Seminar on Sources of mineral raw materials for the fertilizer industry in Asia and 

the Far East, Proc.: United Nations, Min. Res. Dev. Ser., 

no. 32, p. 178-186.

 1968d, Phosphate exploration in Colombia a case history reference, in Seminar on Sources of mineral raw materials for the fertilizer industry in Asia and the Far East, 

Proc.: United Nations, Min. Res. Dev. Ser., no. 32, p. 248- 

254.

 1968e, Marine phosphorite deposits economic considerations, in Seminar on Sources of Mineral raw materials 

for the fertilizer industry in Asia and the Far East, Proc.: 

United Nations, Min. Res. Dev. Ser., no. 32, p. 295-300.

 1970, Phosphate deposits in the Jawf-Sakakah Basin, 

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Part III, Preliminary observa: 

tions on the texture and composition: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Open-File Rept. (IR) SA-^83, 23 p.

 197 la, Economic geology, phosphate deposits of the 

land-pebble district, Florida [abs.]: 7th Forum on Geology 

of Industrial Minerals, Tampa, Florida, April 1971.

 1971b, Phosphate investigations in Colombia, 1969 a 

progress report with a note on the aluminous laterite deposits of the Department of Cauca: U.S. Geol. Survey 

open-file rept., 44 p.

 1973, Geology and mineralogy of phosphate rocks in the 

Bambui Group near Cedro de Abaete and vicinity, Minas 

Gerais, Brazil: U.S. Geol. Survey Open-File Rept. 74-219 

[1974].

 1974, Phosphate potential, Wakulla County, Florida, in 

Cameron, C. C., and Morey, P. C., Mineral resources of the 

Bradwell Bay-Sopchoppy River study area, Wakulla 

County, Florida: Submitted for publication as U.S. Geol. 

Survey Bull. 1431.

 1975a, Phosphate fertilizer materials in Colombia Im36
ports, uses, and domestic supplies: U.S. Geol. Survey Jour. 

Research, v. 3, no. 6, p. 659-663.

 1975b, Uranium in phosphate rock: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Open-File Kept. 75-321, 20 p. 

-1976, Fluorine in phosphate deposits, in Shawe, D. R.,

ed., Geology and resources of fluorine in the United States: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 933, p. 82-83.

Cathcart, J. B., Blade, L. V., Davidson, D: F., and Ketner, K. B., 

1953, Geology of Florida land-pebble phosphate deposits, 

in Origine des gisements des phosphate de chaux: 19th 

Internal Geol. Cong., Algiers 1952, Sec. 11, Fasc. 11,15 p.

Cathcart, J. B., and Davidson, D. F., 1952, Distribution and 

origin of phosphate in the land-pebble district of Florida 

[abs.]: Econ. Geology, v. 47, p. 127.

Cathcart, J. B., and Gulbrandsen, R. A., 1973, Phosphate deposits, in Brobst, D. A., and Pratt, W. P., eds., United States 

Mineral Resources: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 820, 

p. 515-525.

Cathcart, J. B., and Houser, F. N., 1950, Development and 

distribution of leached rocks in the land-pebble phosphate 

district, Florida: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 61, p. 1449.

Cathcart, J. B., and McGreevy, L. J., 1959, Results of geologic 

exploration by core drilling, 1953, land-pebble phosphate 

district, Florida: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1046-K, p. 221- 

298.

Cathcart, J. B., and Osterwald, F. W., 1957, Relation of phosphatic sediments to tectonics of the easternU.S. [abs.]: Am. 

Inst. Mining Metall. Engineers, Tampa, Fla. mtg., Oct. 

1957.

Cathcart, J. B., and Schmidt, D. L., 1977, Middle Paleozoic 

sedimentary phosphate in the Pensacola Mountains, Antarctica: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 456-E, 17 p.

Cathcart, J. B., and Ward, E. L. M., 1953, Ownership maps of 

parts of Hillsborough and Polk Counties, land-pebble 

phosphate district, Florida: U.S. Geol. Survey open-file 

rept.

Cathcart, J. B., and Zambrano, F., 1967, Roca fosfatica en 

Colombia: Servicio Geol. Nac. Bol. Geol., v. XV, nos. 1, 2, 

and 3, p. 65-162.

 1969, Phosphate rock in Colombia A preliminary report: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1272-A, 77 p.

Cheney, T. M., Sheldon, R. P., Waring, R. G., and Warner, M. 

A., 1954, Stratigraphic sections of the Phosphoria Formation in Wyoming, 1951: U.S. Geol. Survey Circ. 324, 22 p.

Clarke, R. S., and Altschuler, Z. S., 1958, Determination of the 

oxidation state of uranium in apatite and phosphorite deposits: Geochim. et Cosmochim. Acta, v. 13, p. 127-142.

Cressman, E. R., and Gulbrandsen, R. A., 1955, Geology of the 

Dry Valley quadrangle, Idaho: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 

1015-1, p. 257-270.

Davidson, D. F., and Gulbrandsen, R. A., 1957, Selenium in the 

Phosphoria formation in Idaho, Wyoming, Utah, and Montana: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 68, no. 12, p. 1714.

Davidson, D. F., and Lakin, H. W., 1961, Metal content of some 

black shales of the western United States in Short papers 

in the geologic and hydrologic sciences: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Prof. Paper 424-C, p. C329-C331.

Davidson, D. F., Smart, R. A., Peirce, H. W., and Weiser, J. D., 

1953, Stratigraphic sections of the Phosphoria formation 

in Idaho, 1949, Pt. 2: U.S. Geol. Survey Circ. 305, 28 p.

Eckel, E. B., and Milton, Charles, 1953, Reconnaissance of 

phosphate deposits near Minas, Uruguay: Econ. Geology, 

v. 48, no. 7, p. 437^46.

Goudarzi, G. H., Blade, L. V., Couto, P. A., Corvalho Filho, A. R. 

de, and Souza, C. H. de, 1971, Apatite deposits in east-central Bahia, Brazil [abs.]: 7th Forum on Geology of Industrial Minerals, Abstracts, p. 6-7.

Goudarzi, G. H., Couto, P. A., and Souza, C. H. de, 1972, Geology and apatite deposits, east-central Bahia, Brazil, in 

Puri, H. S., ed., Geology of phosphate, dolomite, limestone, 

and clay deposits: Florida Dept. Natl. Res. Forum on Geology of Industrial Minerals Proc., 7th, Tampa, Fla., April 

1971, Spec. Pub. 17, p. 117-138.

Gower, H. D., and Madsen, B. M., 1964, The occurrence of 

phosphate rock in California, in Geological Survey research 1964: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 501-D, p. 

D79-D85 [1965].

Gulbrandsen, R. A., 1958, Petrology of the Meade Peak 

Member of the Phosphoria Formation at Coal Canyon, 

Wyoming: Dissert. Abs., v. 19, p. 297-298.

 1960a, Minor elements in phosphorites of the Phosphoria Formation: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 71, no. 12, p. 

1876.

 1960b, Petrology of the Meade Peak phosphatic shale 

member of the Phosphoria formation at Coal Canyon, 

Wyoming: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1111-C, p. 71-146 

[1961].

 1966a, Chemical composition of phosphorites of the 

Phosphoria Formation: Geochim. et Cosmochim. Acta, v. 

30, p. 769-779.

 1966b, Precambrian phosphorite in the Belt Series in 

Montana, in Geological Survey research 1966: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Prof. Paper 550-D, p. D199-D202.

 1967, Some compositional features of phosphorites of the 

Phosphoria Formation, in Hale, L. A., ed., Anatomy of the 

Western phosphate field: Intermtn. Assoc. Geologists, 15th 

Ann. Field Conf., Salt Lake City, Utah, p. 99-102.

 1969, Physical and chemical factors in the formation of 

marine apatite: Econ. Geology, v. 64, p. 365-382. 

-1970, Relation of carbon dioxide content of apatite of the

Phosphoria Formation to regional facies, in Geological 

Survey research 1970: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 

700-B, p. B9-B13.

Gulbrandsen, R. A., and Cremer, Marcelyn, 1970, Coprecipitation of carbonate and phosphate from sea water, 

in Geological Survey research 1970: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Prof. Paper 700-C, p. C125-C126.

Gulbrandsen, R. A., Jones, D. L., Tagg, K. M., and Reeser, D. 

W., 1963, Apatized wood and leucophosphite in nodules in 

the Moreno Formation, California, in Short papers in geology and hydrology: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 475-C, p. 

C100-C104.

Gulbrandsen, R. A., Kramer, J. R., Beatty, L. B., and Mays, R. 

E., 1966, Carbonate-bearing apatite from Faraday 

Township, Ontario, Canada: Am. Mineralogist, v. 51, p. 

819-824.

Gulbrandsen, R. A., and McKelvey, V. E., 1954, Problems in 

sampling the Phosphoria Formation: Am. Statistical 

Assoc. Jour., v. 49, p. 345.

Gulbrandsen, R. A., McLaughlin, K. P., Honkala, F. S., and 

Clabaugh, S. E., 1956, Geology of the Johnson Creek quadrangle, Caribou County, Idaho: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 

1042-A, p. 1-23.

Gulbrandsen, R. A., and Roberson, C. E., 1973, Inorganic phosphorus in seawater, in Environmental Phosphorus Hand37
book, E. J. Griffith, Alfred Bee ton, J. M. Spencer, and D. T. 

Mitchell, eds.: John Wiley and Sons, New York, p. 117-140.

Gulbrandsen, R. A., and Sheldon, R. P., 1971, Introduction to 

the Permian and Triassic rocks in southwestern Montana, 

in International Conference on the Permian and Triassic 

Systems Guidebook, Permian and Triassic exposures of 

western North America (Joseph Luitz, Jr., ed.): Geol. Survey Canada and Univ. Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, p. 1-11.

Harrington, J. F., Ward, D. F., and McKelvey, V. E., 1966, 

Sources of fertilizer minerals in South America A preliminary study: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1240, 66 p.

Kite, R. J., 1974, Role of the evaporite basin in the origin of 

marine phosphorite deposits A new theory [abs.], in 4th 

Symposium on Salt: Northern Ohio Geol. Soc., p. 323.

Irving, E. M., 1953, The phosphate deposits of Angaur Island, 

Palau group, western Carolines [abs.]: 7th Pacific Sci. 

Congress Proc., v. 2, New Zealand 1949, p. 248, 249.

 1956, Problems in the origin of phosphate ores of Angaur 

Island, Palau group, western Carolines [abs.]: 8th Pacific 

Sci. Congress Proc., v. 2-A, Philippines 1953, p. 593. (Also 

published in Mining Newsletter, v. 7, no. 5: Manila, p. 161, 

162).

Irving, E. M., and Teves, J. S., 1947, Guano caves of Pupug, 

Municipality of Mabini, Bohol, Philippines: Philippine 

Geologist, v. 1, no. 4, p. 1-8.

Johnson, R. F., and Sukamto, Rab., 1961, Cave deposits of 

phosphate rock in central Djawa, Indonesia: Djawatan 

Geologi Tech. Pub. 2, Econ. Geol. Ser., 35 p. (Also published 

in Short papers in the geologic and hydrologic sciences: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 424-D, p. D219-D221.)

Ketner, K. B., 1977, Late Paleozoic orogeny and sedimentation, 

southern California, Nevada, Idaho, and Montana, in 

Paleozoic paleogeography of the western United States, J. 

H. Stewart, C. H. Stevens, and A. E. Fritsche, eds.: Soc. 

Econ. Paleontologists and Mineralogists, Pacific Coast 

paleogeography symposium I, p. 363-369.

Ketner, K. B., Keefer, W. R., Fisher, F. S., Smith, D. L., and 

Raabe, R. G., 1966, Mineral resources of the Stratified 

Primitive area, Wyoming: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1230-E, 

56 p.

Keefer, W. R., and Van Lieu, J. A., 1966, Paleozoic formations 

in the Wind River Basin, Wyoming: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. 

Paper 495-B, 60 p.

Lewis, R. W., Jr., and others, 1969, Feasibility of geochemical 

prospecting for sedimentary phosphate in Minas Gerais, 

Brazil [abs.]: Soc. Brasileira Geol., Bol. Esp. 1, p. 44.

Love, J. D., 1964, Uraniferous phosphatic lake beds of Eocene 

age in intermontane basins of Wyoming and Utah: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 474-E, 66 p.

Malde, H. E., 1959, Geology of the Charleston phosphate area, 

South Carolina: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1079, 105 p.

McKee, E. D., Oriel, S. S., and others, 1967a, Paleotectonic 

maps of the Permian System: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. 

Inv. Map 1-450.

 1967b, Paleotectonic investigations of the Permian System in the United States: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 

515, 271 p.

McKelvey, V. E., 1946, Stratigraphy of the phosphatic shale 

member of the Phosphor ia formation in western Wyoming, 

southeastern Idaho, and northern Utah: U.S. Geol. Survey 

open-file rept., Univ. Wisconsin Ph. D. thesis.

 1949a, Stratigraphy of the phosphatic shale member of 

the Phosphoria formation in western Wyoming, southeastern Idaho, and northern Utah, in Summaries of Doctoral 

Dissertations, v. 9: Univ. Wisconsin, p. 540-542.

 1949b, Geological studies of the western phosphate field: 

Mining Trans., v. 184, p. 270-279.

 1956, Uranium in phosphate rock: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Prof. Paper 300, p. 477-481. (Also published in Geology of 

uranium and thorium: Internat. Conf. on peaceful uses of 

atomic energy Proc., v. 6, p. 499-502.)

 1959, Relation of marine upwelling waters to phosphorite and oil [abs.]: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 70, no. 12, p. 

1783-1784.

 1963, Successful new techniques in prospecting for phosphate deposits, in Natural Resources, United States papers 

prepared for the United Nations conference on the application of science and technology for the benefit of the less 

developed areas, v. 2, p. 163-172: U.S. Govt. Printing Office. [Repr. 1966, Australian Mining, v. 58, no. 3; 1967, 

Colombia Boletin Geologico, v. XV, p. 45-64 (in Spanish); 

and 1968, ECAFE Min. Res. Dev. Ser., no. 32, p. 207-211.]

 1967, Phosphate deposits: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 

1252-D. [Abstract repr. 1968, ECAFE Min. Res. Dev. Ser., 

no. 32.]

 1968a, Phosphates and guano: Encyclopedia of Earth 

Sciences.

 1968b, Mineral phosphates: Encyclopedia Britannica. 

-1971, Abundance and distribution of phosphorus in the

lithosphere, in Environmental phosphorus handbook: 

John Wiley and Sons, New York.

McKelvey, V. E., Armstrong, F. C., Gulbrandsen, R. A., and 

Campbell, R. M., 1953, Stratigraphic sections of the Phosphoria Formation in Idaho, 1947-1948, pt. 2: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Circ. 301, 58 p.

McKelvey, V. E., and Carswell, L. D., 1956, Uranium in the 

Phosphoria formation: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 300, 

p. 483-487. [Also published in Geology of uranium and 

thorium: Internat. Conf. on the peaceful uses of atomic 

energy Proc., v. 6, p. 503-506; and in Anatomy of western 

phosphate field: Internat. Assoc. Geologists Guidebook, 

1967, p. 119-124.]

McKelvey, V. E., Cathcart, J. B., Altschuler, Z. S., Swanson, R. 

W., and Buck, K. L., 1953, Domestic phosphate deposits, in 

Soil and fertilizer phosphorus (W. H. Pierre and A. G. 

Norman, eds.): Academic Press, Inc., New York, p. 347- 

376.

McKelvey, V. E., Davidson, D. F., O'Malley, F. W., and Smith, 

L. F., 1953, Stratigraphic sections of the Phosphoria formation in Idaho, 1947-1948, pt. 1: U.S. Geol. Survey Circ. 208, 

49 p.

McKelvey, V. E., and Gulbrandsen, R. A., 1953, Problems in 

sampling the Phosphoria formation [abs.]: Am. Statistical 

Assoc., v. 49, p. 345.

McKelvey, V. E., and James, E. L., 1952, Phosphate a plentiful material: President's Materials Policy Comm. Rept., 

Resources for freedom, v. 2, p. 156-157.

McKelvey, V. E., Smith, L. E., Hoppin, R. A., and Armstrong, F. 

C., 1953, Stratigraphic sections of the Phosphoria formation in Wyoming, 1947-1948: U.S. Geol. Survey Circ. 210, 

33 p.

McKelvey, V. E., Swanson, R. W., and Sheldon, R. P., 1953a, 

The Permian phosphate deposits of Western United States, 

in Origine des gisements de phosphates de chaux, P. L. R. 

Saint Guilhem, ed.: 19th Internat. Geol. Cong., Algiers, 

Comptes Rendus, sec. 11, Fasc. 11, p. 45-64.

38
 1953b, Phosphoria formation in southeastern Idaho and 

western Wyoming: 4th Ann. Field Conf., Intermtn. Assoc. 

Petroleum Geologists, 1953, p. 41-47.

McKelvey, V. E., Williams, J. S., Sheldon, R. P., Cressman, E. 

R., Cheney, T. M., and Swanson, R. W., 1959, The Phosphoria, Park City, and Shedhorn formations in the western 

phosphate field: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 313-A, 47 p. 

(Repr., in part, in Anatomy of the western phosphate field: 

Internat. Assoc. Geologists Guidebook, 1967, p. 15-33.)

Meissner, C. R., 1970, Results of core drilling in the West 

Thaniyat phosphate area: Saudi Arabia Directorate Gen. 

Mineral Resources Research 1968-1969, 2 p.

 1973, Phosphatic rock in the Nizampur area of the Kara 

Chitta Hills, Pakistan: U.S. Geol. Survey Open-File Rept. 

(IR) PK-6, 15 p. [In press, Pakistan Geol. Survey.]

Murata, K. J., Friedman, Irving, and Gulbrandsen, R. A., 1972, 

Geochemistry of carbonate rocks in Phosphoria and related 

formations of the western phosphate fields, in Geological 

Survey research 1972: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 

800-D, p. D103-D110.

Mytton, J. W., 1966, Geologic map of the Turayf phosphate area 

(Arabia): Saudi Arabia Ministry Petroleum and Mineral 

Resources Min. Inv. Map MI-3, scale 1:100,000.

 1967, Phosphate deposits in the Jawf-Sakakah Basin, 

Saudi Arabia, Part II, Thaniyat Turayf and Quraymiz: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Open-File Rept. (IR) SA-74, 20 p.

Oliviera, J. F., Aragae, G. C. de, Couto, P. A., Silva, V. G. da, 

and Goudarzi, G. H., 1969, The pe de Serra-Jacuipe apatite 

deposits, Bahia [abs.]: Soc. Brasiliera Geol., Cong. 

Brasiliero Geol. XXIII, Bol. Esp. 1, p. 35-36.

O'Malley, F. W., Davidson, D. F., Hoppin, R. A., and Sheldon, R. 

P., 1953, Stratigraphic sections of the Phosphoria formation in Idaho, 1947-1948, Pt. 3: U.S. Geol. Survey Circ. 262, 

43 p.

Oriel, S. S., 1969, Geology of the Fort Hill quadrangle, Lincoln 

County, Wyoming: U.S. dreol. Survey Prof. Paper 594-M, 

40 p.

Oriel, S. S., and Platt, L. B., 1977, Geology of the Preston, 

Idaho-Wyoming 1° x 2° sheet: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. 

Inv. Map, scale 1:250,000 [in prep.].

Owens, J. P., Altschuler, Z. S., and Berman, R., 1960, Millisite

in phosphorite from Homeland, Florida: Am. Mineralogist,

v. 45, p. 547-561. 

Quema, J. C., and Irving, E. M., 1950, Possible sources of

phosphate fertilizer for the Philippines: Philippines Bur.

Mines Inf. Circ. 9, p. 1-33. 

Rogers, C. L., Ulloa A., Salvador, and Tavera A., Eugenio,

1952a, Los depositos de fosfatos de Concepcion del Oro

Zacatecas: Convencion Interam. Recursos Minerales, 1st,

Mexico 1951, Mem., p. 83-91.

 1952b, Phosphate deposits of the Concepcion del Oro 

district, Zacatecas, Mexico: U.S. Geol. Survey open-file 

rept., 11 p. 

-1953, Los depositos fosforiticos de la region de Concepcion del Oro y Mazapil, Zacatecas, Mexico: 19th Internat. 

Geol. Cong., Algiers 1952, Comptes rendus, sec. 11, pt. 11, 

p. 33-43.

Rogers, C. L., Cserna, Zolton de, Tavera A., Eugenio, and Ulloa 

A., Salvador, 1957, General geology and phosphate deposits of Concepcion del Oro district, Zacatecas, Mexico: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1037-A, 102 p. [Also published in

1956 (in Spanish) in Mexico Consejo Recursos Nat. no. 

Renovables Bol. 38, 152 p.]

Rogers, C. L., Tavera A., Eugenio, Ojeda R., Jesus, Cserna, 

Zoltan de, and van Vloten, Roger, 1961, Marine phosphorites of north-central Mexico, in Short papers in the 

geologic and hydrologic sciences: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. 

Paper 424-D, p. D222-D224.

Rogers, C. L., Cserna, Zoltan de, Tavera A., Eugenio, van Volten, Roger, and Ojeda R., Jesus, 1961, Reconocimiento 

geologico y depositos de fosfatos del norte de Zacatecas y 

areas adyacentes en Coahuila, Nuevo Leon y San Luis 

Potosi: Mexico Consejo Recursos Nat. no Renovables Bol. 

56, 322 p.

Rubey, W. W., 1973, Geologic map of the Afton quadrangle and 

part of the Big Piney quadrangle, Lincoln and Sublette 

Counties, Wyoming: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. 

Map 1-686, scale 1:62,500.

Rubey, W. W., and Oriel, S. S., 1977 , Geology of the Cokeville 

30' quadrangle, Wyoming: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Field 

Inv. Map [in prep.].

Rubey, W. W., Oriel, S. S., and Tracy, J. L, Jr., 1975, Geology of 

the Sage and Kemmerer quadrangles, Lincoln County, 

Wyoming: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 855.

Sever, C. W., Cathcart, J. B., and Patterson, S. H., 1967, Phosphate deposits of south-central Georgia and north-central 

Peninsular Florida: Georgia Dept. Mines, Mining, and 

Geology, South Georgia Minerals Program Proj. Rept. 7, 

62 p.

Sheldon, R. P., 1955, Stratigraphy of the Phosphoria formation 

in the Wyoming and Wind River Ranges: Wyoming Geol. 

Assoc. Guidebook, 10th Ann. Field Conf., p. 64.

 1956, Stratigraphy of the Phosphoria formation in the 

Jackson Hole region, Wyoming: Wyoming Geol. Assoc. 

Guidebook, llth Ann. Field Conf., p. 66-69.

 1957, Physical stratigraphy of the Phosphoria formation 

in northwestern Wyoming: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 

1042-E, p. 105-185.

 1959, Geochemistry of uranium in phosphorites and 

black shales of the Phosphoria formation: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1084-D, p. 83-115.

 1964a, Paleolatitudinal and paleogeographic distribution of phosphorite, in Geological Survey research 1964: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 501-C, p. C106-C113.

 1964b, Exploration for phosphorite in Turkey a case 

history: Econ. Geology, v. 59, p. 1159-1175.

 1966a, Preliminary appraisal of the Australian Continent for sedimentary phosphate deposits: Dept. National 

Development, Bur. Mineral Resources, Geology and 

Geophysics, Commonwealth of Australia, open-file rept., 

12 p.

 1966b, Suggestions on the role to be played by the BMR 

in sedimentary phosphorite exploration and research in 

Australia: Australia Dept. Natl. Dev. records No. 1966/17, 

5 p.

 1967, World tectonic distribution of economic sedimentary phosphate deposits [abs.]: Intermtn. Assoc. 

Geologists, 15th Ann. Field Conf., p. 97.

 1969, World phosphate resources: Mining Congress 

Jour., v. 55, no. 2, p. 115-118.

 1972, Phosphate deposition seaward of barrier islands at 

edge of Phosphoria sea in northwestern Wyoming [abs.]:

39
Paper presented at Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Convention, April 18, 1972. 

-1973, Reconnaissance evaluation of Pakistan for phosphate rock: U.S. Geol. Survey Open-File Kept. (IR) PK-32, 

20 p.

Sheldon, R. P., Cressman, E. R., Carswell, L. D., and Smart, R. 

A., 1954, Stratigraphic sections of the Phosphoria formation in Wyoming, 1952: U.S. Geol. Survey Circ. 325, 24 p.

Sheldon, R. P., Waring, M. A., Warner, M. A., and Smart, R. A., 

1953, Stratigraphic sections of the Phosphoria formation 

in Wyoming, 1949-1950: U.S. Geol. Survey Circ. 307,45 p.

Sheldon, R. P., Warner, M. A., Thompson, M. E., and Peirce, H. 

W., 1953, Stratigraphic sections of the Phosphoria formation in Idaho, 1949, part 1: U.S. Geol. Survey Circ. 304, 

30 p.

Smart, R. A., Waring, R. G., Cheney, T. M., and Sheldon, R. P., 

1954, Stratigraphic sections of the Phosphoria formation 

in Idaho, 1950-1951: U.S. Geol. Survey Circ. 327, 22 p.

Stanin, S. A., and Hasan, M. S., 1973, Reconnaissance for phosphate in Pakistan: U.S. Geol. Survey Open-File Rept. (ER) 

PK-S, 22 p.

Swanson, R. W., Carswell, L. D., Sheldon, R. P., and Cheney, T. 

M., 1956, Stratigraphic sections of the Phosphoria formation, 1953: U.S. Geol. Survey Circ. 375, 30 p.

Swanson, R. W., McKelvey, V. E., and Sheldon, R. P., 1953, 

Progress report on investigations of western phosphate 

deposits: U.S. Geol. Survey Circ. 297, 16 p.

Trimble, D. E., 1977 , Geology of the Yandell Springs quadrangle, Idaho: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull or Misc. Geol. Inv. 

Map [in prep.].

Witkind, I. J., 1969, Geology of the Tepee Creek quadrangle, 

Montana-Wyoming: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 609, 

101 p.

GEOLOGY OF POTASH

Twenty-four years of research in the U.S. 

Geological Survey on subjects related to potash are 

covered in this bibliography. The papers focus on 

mineralogy, stratigraphy, geochemistry, economic 

geology, and geological maps that cover areas of 

potash deposits.

Brokaw, A. L., Jones, C. L., Cooley, M. E., and Hays, W. H., 

1972, Geoldgy and hydrology of the Carlsbad potash area, 

Eddy and Lea Counties, New Mexico: U.S. Geol. Survey 

open-file rept., 86 p.

Cathcart, J. B., 1949, Open fracture in langbeinite, International Minerals and Chemical Corporation's potash mine, 

Eddy County, New Mexico: Am. Inst. Mining Metall. Engineers Mining Trans., v. 18F, 3 p.

 1951, Isopach of langbeinite and of sylvite concentrations, 800 level, IMCC potash mine, in Dunlap, J. C., ed., 

Geologic studies in a New Mexico potash mine: Econ. Geology, v. 46, p. 909-923.

Kite, R. J., 1960, Stratigraphy of the saline facies of the 

Paradox Member of the Hermosa Formation of southeastern Utah and southwestern Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey 

open-file rept. (Also printed in Four Corners Geol. Soc. 

Guidebook, Field Conf. 3, p. 86-89.)

 1961, Potash-bearing evaporite cycles in the salt anticlines of the Paradox basin, Colorado and Utah, in Short

papers in the geologic and hydrologic sciences: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Prof. Paper 424-D, Art. 337, p. D135-D138.

 1963, Problems of joint development of potash and oil 

and gas in the Paradox basin, in Oil and gas possibilities of 

Utah, re-evaluated: Utah Geol. and Mineralog. Survey 

Bull., v. 54, p. 519-526.

 1964, Salines, in Mineral and water resources of Utah: 

Utah Geol. and Mineralog. Survey Bull. 73.

 1967, Distribution and geologic habitat of marine halite 

and associated potash deposits: U.S. Geol. Survey open-file 

rept., 41 p.

 1968a, Salt deposits of the Paradox Basin, southeast 

Utah and southwest Colorado: Geol. Soc. America Spec. 

Paper 88, p. 319-330.

 1968b, Distribution and geologic habitat of marine halite and associated potash deposits, in Sources of raw materials for the fertilizer industry in Asia and the Far East A 

symposium: Mineral Res. Dev. Ser. 32, p. 307-326.

 1972a, Potassium and magnesium in Cretaceous evaporites of northeast Brazil [abs.]: Am. Assoc. Petroleum 

Geologists Bull., v. 56, no. 3, p. 627.

 1972b, Saline resources of the Rocky Mountains, in Mallory, W. W. ed., Geologic Atlas of the Rocky Mountains: 

Rocky Mtn. Assoc. Geologists, p. 318-321.

 1973, Suggested origin for the tachyhydrite-producing 

brines of the Sergipe basin, Brazil, in Prog. XVII Congresso 

Braziliero de Geologica, Aracaja, Sergipe, Brazil. 

-1974, Evaporite deposits of the Khorat Plateau, northeast Thailand, in 4th Symposium on Salt, p. 135-146. 

Kite, R. J., and Cater, F. W., 1972, Pennsylvanian rocks and 

salt anticlines, Paradox Basin, Utah and Colorado, in Mallory, W. W., ed., Geologic Atlas of the Rocky Mountains: 

Rocky Mtn. Assoc. Geologists, p. 133-138.

Kite, R. J., and Gere, W. C., 1958, Potash deposits of the 

Paradox Basin, in Intermountain Assoc. Geologists 

Guidebook, 9th Ann. Field Conf.: p. 221-225.

Kite, R. J., and Liming, J. A., 1972, Stratigraphic cross section 

through Pennsylvanian rocks of the Paradox Basin, in 

Mallory, W. W., ed., Geologic Atlas of the Rocky Mountains: Rocky Mtn. Assoc. Geologists, p. 134-135.

Jones, C. L., 1953, Some geologic features of a potash deposit 

[abs.]: Econ. Geology, v. 48, p. 329.

 1954, Occurrence and distribution of potassium minerals in southeastern New Mexico, in New Mexico Geol. Soc. 

Guidebook, 5th Ann. Field Conf.: p. 107-112.

 1959, Potash deposits in the Carlsbad district, southeastern New Mexico [abs.]: Econ. Geology, v. 54, 

p. 1349.

 1963, Geologic and petrographic features of Upper Permian evaporites in southeastern New Mexico [abs.]: Geol. 

Soc. America Spec. Paper 73, p. 276.

 1965, Petrography of evaporites from the Wellington 

Formation near Hutchinson, Kansas: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Bull. 1201-A, 70 p.

 1970, Potash in halitic evaporites, Salt Range, West 

Pakistan, in Geological Survey research 1970: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Prof. Paper 700-D, p. D140-D145.

 1972, Permian basin potash deposits, southwestern 

United States, in Geology of saline deposits Geologic des 

depots salins: UNESCO, Earth Sci. Ser. 7, p. 191-201.

40
 1973, Salt deposits of Los Medanos area, Eddy and Lea 

Counties, New Mexico: U.S. Geol. Survey open-file rept., 

67 p.

 1974a, Salt deposits of the Mescalero Plains area, 

Chaves County, New Mexico: U.S. Geol. Survey open-file 

rept., 21 p. 

-1974b, Salt deposits of the Clovis-Portales area, eastcentral New Mexico: U.S. Geol. Survey Open-File Rept. 

(74-60), 22 p.

Jones, C. L., and Asrarullah, 1968, Potential for potash and 

other evaporite mineral resources in West Pakistan: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Open-File Rept. (IR) PK-46, 18 p.

Jones, C. L., Bowles, C. G., and Bell, K. G., 1960, Experimental 

drill hole logging in potash deposits of the Carlsbad district, New Mexico: U.S. Geol. Survey open-file rept., 22 p.

Jones, C. L., and Madsen, B. M., 1959, Observations on igneous 

intrusions in late Permian evaporites, southeastern New 

Mexico [abs.]: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 70, no. 12, p. 

1625-1626.

 1968, Evaporite geology of Fifth ore zone, Carlsbad district, southeastern New Mexico: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 

1252-B, 21 p.

Jones, C. L., and Waggaman, W. H., 1952, Potash 1,000 year 

supply, in Report to President, Materials Policy Comm., v. 

2: p. 157-158.

Peterson, J. A., and Kite, R. J., 1968, Pennsylvanian evaporite 

cycles and petroleum production, southern Rocky Mountains: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 52, no. 3, p. 

544.

 1969, Pennsylvanian evaporite-carbonate cycles and 

their relation to petroleum occurrence, southern Rocky 

Mountains: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 53, 

no. 4, p. 884-908.

Raup, O. B., 1964, Salts of sodium and potassium, in Mineral 

and water resources of Colorado: Report of U.S. Geol. Survey for use of Senate Committee on Interior and Insular 

Affairs, 88th Cong., 2d Sess., Washington, D.C., p. 173- 

177.

 1970, Brine mixing an additional mechanism for formation of basin evaporites: Am. Assoc. Petroleum 

Geologists Bull., v. 54, no. 12, p. 2246-2259.

Smith, G. L, 1966, Potash, in Mineral resources of California: 

U.S. Cong., 89th, 2d Sess., Comm. Interior and Insular 

Affairs, p. 334-336. (Also printed in California Div. Mines 

and Geology Bull. 191.)

 1969, Geologic frontiers in exploration for sedimentary 

industrial minerals, in Hoover, K. V., ed., Fifth Forum on 

Geology of industrial minerals Proc.: Pennsylvania Bur. 

Topographic Survey Bull. M-64, p. 141-152.

Smith, G. L, Jones, C. L., Culbertson, W. C., Ericksen, G. E., 

and Dyni, J. R., 1973, Evaporites and brines, in Brobst, D. 

A., and Pratt, W. P., eds., United States mineral resources: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 820, p. 197-215.

GEOLOGY OF NITRATES AND SULFUR

These papers cover the geology, mineralogy, 

and economic geology of nitrates and sulfur. There 

is a vast literature on the technology of recovering 

nitrogen from the air, which is our main source of

nitrogen for fertilizer. Those papers, however, 

beyond the scope of this conference.

are

Bodenlos, A. J., 1969a, Sulfur, in Mineral and water resources 

of Arizona: U.S. Geol. Survey, Arizona Bur. Mines, and 

U.S. Bur. Reclamation report to Committee on Interior and 

Insular Affairs, U.S. Senate, p. 456-462.

 1969b, Sulfur possibilities in Saudi Arabia, in Mineral 

resources research 1967-1968: Ministry of Petroleum and 

Mineral Resources, Directorate General of Mineral Resources, Jidda, p. 74-76.

 1970, Cap-rock development and salt-stock movement, 

in Geology and technology of Gulf Coast salt, a symposium: 

School of Geoscience, Louisiana State Univ., Baton Rouge, 

p. 73-83c. 

-1973, Sulfur, in Brobst, D. A., and Pratt, W. P., eds.,

United States mineral resources: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. 

Paper 820, p. 605-618.

Ericksen, G. E., 1961, Rhyolite tuff, a source of the salts of 

northern Chile, in Short papers in the geologic and hydrologic sciences: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 424-C, Art. 

230, p. 224-225.

 1963, Geology of the salt deposits and the salt industry of 

northern Chile: U.S. Geol. Survey Open-File Rept. 689, 

164 p. 

-1964, Geology of the Chilean nitrate deposits: Geol. Soc.

America Abs. with Programs 1964, p. 57.

Ericksen, G. E., Fahey, J. J., and Mrose, M. E., 1967, Humberstonite, KaNa-MgafSO^etNOate-eHaO, a new saline mineral from the Chilean nitrate deposits: Geol. Soc. America 

Spec. Paper 115, p. 59.

Ericksen, G. E., and Mrose, M. E., 1970, Mineralogical studies 

of the nitrate deposits of Chile (II): Darapskite, 

Na3(NO3)(SO4)-H2O: Am. Mineralogist, v. 55, p. 1500- 

1517.

 1972, High-purity veins of soda-niter, NaNOa, and associated saline minerals in the Chilean nitrate deposits, in 

Geological Survey research 1972: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. 

Paper 800-B, p. 43^9.

Ericksen, G. E., Mrose, M. E., and Marinenko, J. W., 1974, 

Mineralogical studies of the nitrate deposits of Chile (IV), 

Bruggenite, CadQak HaO, a new saline mineral: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Jour. Research, v. 2, p. 471-478.

Ericksen, G. E., and Stoertz, G. E., 1973, Features of salars in 

northern Chile and nearby Andean regions of Argentina, 

Bolivia, and Peru: Caracas, II Congreso Latinoamericano 

de Geologia Resumenes, p. 161-162.

Grossling, B. F., and Ericksen, G. E., 1971, Computer studies of 

the composition of Chilean nitrate ores: data reduction, 

basic statistics, and correlation analysis: U.S. Geol. Survey 

open-file rept., 82 p.

Mrose, M. E., and Ericksen, G. F., 1970, Mineralogical studies 

of the nitrate deposits of Chile (I): The identity of nitroglauberite with darapskite: Am. Mineralogist, v. 55, p. 

776-783.

Mrose, M. E., Ericksen, G. E., and Marinenko, J. W., 1971a, 

Crystal chemistry of the calcium iodates in the system 

Ca(IOs)2 HaO: Geol. Soc. America Abs. with Programs, v. 

3, p. 653.

 1971b, Bruggenite, CadOaJ-HaO, a new saline mineral 

from the Chilean nitrate deposits; Mineral. Soc. America, 

Clay Minerals Conf. Proc.

41
Mrose, M. E., Fahey, J. J., and Ericksen, G. E., 1970, 

Mineralogical studies of the nitrate deposits of Chile (III): 

Humberstonite, KaNavMgatSOnMNOsJ-eHbO: Am. Mineralogist, v. 55, p. 1518-1533.

Smith, G. I., Jones, C. L., Culbertson, W. C., Ericksen, G. E., 

and Dyni, J. R., 1973, Evaporites and brines, in Brobst, D. 

A., and Pratt, W. P., eds., United States mineral resources: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 820, p. 197-216.

Stoertz, G. E., and Ericksen, G. E., 1974, Geology of salars in 

northern Chile: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 811, 65 p.

GENERAL FERTILIZER MATERIALS

Harrington, J. F., and Hubach, Enrique, 1953, Fuentes de fertilizantes minerales en Colombia; Colombia Servicio Geol. 

Nac., Ministerio Minas y Petroleos Informe 977, 10 p. 

Harrington, J. F., Ward, D. E., and McKelvey, V. E.,

1966, Sources of fertilizer minerals in South America A preliminary study: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1240, 66 p.

Irving, E. M., 1967, Conceptos preliminares sobre el desarrollo 

y uso de fertilizantes en Colombia: Colombia Servicio Geol. 

Nac., Bol. Geol., v. XV, nos. 1-3, p. 167-174.

Russel, D. A., Lehr, J. R., Livingston, O. W., Blade, L. V., and 

Wangh, D. L., 1971, Lime, fertilizer, and agricultural potential in Paraguay: Tennessee Valley Authority LA(QA) 

13-71: Rept. prepared for U.S. Dept. of State, Agency for 

Internat. Development, 108 p.

SOIL AMENDMENT MATERIALS

Many different materials are used to improve 

the tilth and other physical properties of soils. 

These include limestone, gypsum, and various 

kinds of organic material such as peat and manure. Sand can be added to soils that are too rich in 

clay, and vice versa. Other materials, such as volcanic ash and sedimentary zeolites, might be used 

in various parts of the world to improve soils. The 

use of such materials would depend on their location relative to the area of need and the cost of 

moving and distributing the materials.

The following articles describe the geology, 

mineralogy, and geochemistry of various materials that either are used or have potential use as 

soil amendment materials.

Bush, A. L., 1951, Sources of lightweight aggregates in Colorado: Colorado Sci. Soc. Proc., v. 15, no. 8, p. 305-368.

 1963, Mineral resources, in Report of the United States 

Delegation to the United Nations Conference on the Application of Science and Technology for the Benefit of the Less 

Developed Areas, Geneva, Switzerland, Feb. 4-20, 1963, 

Dept. of State, Agency for International Development: p. 

73-106.

 1964, Lightweight aggregates, in Mineral and water 

resources of Colorado: U.S. Cong., 88th, 2d Sess., Senate

Comm. Interior and Insular Affairs, Comm. Print, p. 197- 

202.

 1973, Lightweight aggregates, in Brobst, D. A., and 

Pratt, W. P., eds., United States mineral resources: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 820, p. 333-356. 

-1974, National self-sufficiency in lightweight aggregate

resources: First Internat. Congress on the Exploitation of 

Industrial Minerals and Rocks Proc., Comm., Sess. 3, Industrial Minerals, Turin, Italy, Oct. 4-6, 1974, p. 1-17.

Bush, A. L., and Sweeney, J. W., 1968, Lightweight aggregates, 

in Mineral resources of the Appalachian region: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Prof. Paper 580, p. 210-224.

Cameron, C. C., 1965, The new technique in subsurface maptping of glacial drift in southern Iowa: Internat. Assoc. 

Quaternary Research, 7th Ann. Internat. Cong., p. 60.

 1968a, Peat, in Mineral resources of the Appalachian 

region: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 580, p. 136-145.

 1968b, Relation of commercial quality peat to bedrock 

and geologic structure [abs.]: 3d Internat. Peat Cong., 

Quebec, Canada, p. 29.

 1969a, Reflection of bedrock geology in peat ash of 

southeastern New York: Geol. Soc. America Abs. with 

Programs, Pt. I, Northeastern Sec. Mtg., p. 6.

 1969b, Peat, in Mineral and water resources of Oregon: 

U.S. Cong., 90th, Senate Comm. Interior and Insular Affairs, Comm. Print, p. 218-222.

 1970a, Relation of commercial peat to bedrock and 

geologic structure: 3d Internat. Peat Cong. Proc., Quebec, 

Canada, p. 98-101.

 I970b, Geologic factors related to peat resources near the 

Allegheny Front south of the glacial border: Geol. Soc. 

America Abs. with Programs, Southeastern Sec. Mtg., p. 

199.

 1970c, Peat deposits of northeastern Pennsylvania: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Bull. 1317-A, 90 p. [1971].

 1970d, Peat deposits of southeastern New York: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Bull. 1317-B, 32 p.

 1970e, Peat resources of the unglaciated uplands along 

the Allegheny structural front in West Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania, in Geological Survey research 

1970: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 700-D, p. D153-D161 

[1971].

 1971, Stratigraphic controls and diagenetic significance 

of Eh and pH variations in peat deposits: Geol. Soc. 

America Abs. with Programs, Southeastern Sec. Mtg., v. 3, 

no. 5, p. 299-300.

 1972a, Diagenesis and quality of peat deposits, in 4th 

Internat. Peat Cong. Proc., v. 1, Oraniemi, Finland, 1972: 

p. 233-245.

 1972b, A preliminary study of peat resources in eastern 

Maine: U.S. Geol. Survey open-file rept., 25 p.

 1973, Peat, in Brobst, D. A., and Pratt, W. P., eds., United States mineral resources: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. 

Paper 820, 11 p. 

-1975, Some peat deposits in Washington and southeastern Aroostook Counties, Maine: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 

1317-C.

Cameron, C. C., and Wright, N. A., 1974, Some peat bogs in 

Washington County, Maine their formation and trace 

element content: Geol. Soc. America Abs. with Programs, 

v. 6, no. 7, p. 679.

42
Ericksen, G. E., and Cox, D. P., 1968, Limestone and dolomite,

in Mineral resources of theAppalachian region: U.S. Geol.

Survey Prof. Paper 580, p. 227-252. 

Ericksen, G. E., and Thomson, R. D., 1968, Lime, in Mineral

resources of the Appalachian region: U.S. Geol. Survey

Prof. Paper 580, p. 225-227. 

Frezon, S. E., and Schultz, L. G., 1961, Possible bentonite beds

in the Atoka Formation in Arkansas and Oklahoma, in

Geological Survey research 1961: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof.

Paper 424-C, p. C82-C84.

Gude, A. J., 3d, and Sheppard, R. A., 1966, Silica-rich chabazite 

from the Barstow Formation, San Bernardino County, 

southern California: Am. Mineralogist, v. 51, p. 909-915.

 1967, Composition and genesis of analcime in the 

Barstow Formation, San Bernardino County, California 

[abs.], in Bailey, S. W., ed., Clays and clay minerals: FifteenthNati. Conf. on clays and clay minerals Proc., p. 189.

Hubbard, H. A., and Ericksen, G. E., 1973, Limestone and 

dolomite, in Brobst, D. A., and Pratt, W. P., eds., United 

States mineral resources: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 

820, p. 357-364.

Madsen, B. M., and Murata, K. J., 1970, Occurrence of laumontite in Tertiary sandstones of Central Coast Range, 

California, in Geological Survey research 1970: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Prof. Paper 700-D, p. D188-D195 [1971].

Mumpton, F. A., and Sheppard, R. A., 1972, Zeolites: Geotimes, 

v. 17, no. 3, p. 16-17. (Also published in Ore Bin, v. 34, no. 9, 

p. 152-153.)

Munson, R. A., and Sheppard, R. A., 1974, Natural zeolites 

their properties, occurrences, and uses: Minerals Sci. Eng., 

v. 6, no. 1, p. 19-34.

Shacklette, H. T., and Severson, R. C., 1975, Sources and use of 

fertilizers and other soil amendments for'food production an outline: U.S. Geol. Survey Open-File Rept. 75-23, 

94 p.

Schultz, L. G., 1965a, Lithium and potassium, DTA, and infrared properties of some montmorillonites: Clays and clay 

minerals, v. 13, p. 275.

 1965b, Mineralogy and correlation of marl beds in the 

lower part of the Pierre Shale, South Dakota and Nebraska: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 392-B, p. B1-B19.

 1969, Lithium and potassium absorption, dehydroxylation temperature, and structural water content of aluminous smectite: Clays and clay minerals, v. 17, p. 115-149.

Sheppard, R. A., 1967, Measured sections of the Barstow Formation, Mud Hills, San Bernardino County, California: 

U.S. Geol. Survey open-file rept., 29 p.

 1969, Zeolites, in Mineral and water resources of 

Arizona: U.S. Cong., 90th, 2d Sess., Comm. Interior and 

Insular Affairs, Comm. Print, p. 464-^167. [Also published 

as Arizona Bur. Mines Bull. 180.]

 197la, Zeolites in sedimentary deposits of the United 

States a review, in Gould, R. F., ed., Molecular sieve 

zeolites I: Am. Chem. Soc., Advances in chemistry ser. 

101, p. 279-310.

 1971b, Clinoptilolite of possible economic value in 

sedimentary deposits of the conterminous United States: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1332-B, 15 p.

 1972, Bedded zeolites in United States potential industrial minerals [abs.]: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists 

Bull., v. 56, no. 3, p. 653.

 1973a, Zeolites, in Mineral and water resources of North 

Dakota: U.S. Cong., 93d, 1st Sess., Comm. Interior and 

Insular Affairs, p. 130-132. (Also published in North 

Dakota Geol. Survey Bull. 63.)

 1973b, Zeolites in sedimentary rocks, in Brobst, D. A., 

and Pratt, W. P., eds., United States mineral resources: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 820, p. 689-695.

 1973c, Zeolites and zeolite ore from Union Carbide Corporation's EZ No. 225 placer mining claim, Graham 

County, Arizona: U.S. Geol. Survey open-file rept., 38 p.

 1974a, Zeolites in tuffaceous rocks of alkaline salinelake deposits of the United States [abs.], in Abstracts and 

Proceedings of a seminar on "Occurrence, origin, and utilization of sedimentary zeolites in the circum-Pacific region:" U.S.-Japan Coop. Sci. Program, p. 39-40.

 1974b, Zeolites, in Macropedia, v. 19, p. 1139-1143: Encyclopaedia Brittanica, 15th ed., Chicago.

 1975a, Zeolites in sedimentary rocks, in Lefond, S. J., 

ed., Industrial minerals and rocks, 4th ed.: Am. Inst. Mining, Me tall., and Petroleum Engineers, Inc., New York, p. 

1257-1262.

 1975b, Zeolites in sedimentary deposits of the northwestern United States potential industrial minerals 

[abs.]: Presented at llth Forum on Geology of Industrial 

Minerals, Kalispell, Montana, July 18-20, 1975. 

-1975c, Zeolites, in Mineral and water resources of South

Dakota: U.S. Cong., 94th, 1st Sess., Comm. Interior and 

Insular Affairs, Comm. Print, p. 155-157. 

Sheppard, R. A., and Gude, A. J., 3d, 1964, Reconnaissance of 

zeolite deposits in tuffaceous rocks of the Mojave Desert 

and vicinity, California, in Geological Survey research 

1964: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 501-C, p. C114-C116.

 1965a, Zeolitic authigenesis of tuffs in the Ricardo Formation, Kern County, southern California, in Geological 

Survey research 1965: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 

525-D, p. D44-D47.

 1965b, Potash feldspar of possible economic value in the 

Barstow Formation, San Bernardino County, California: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Circ. 500, 7 p.

 1968a, Distribution and genesis of authigenic silicate 

minerals in tuffs of Pleistocene Lake Tecopa, Inyo County, 

California: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 597, 38 p.

 1968b, Authigenic silicate minerals in tuffs of Pleistocene Lake Tecopa, Inyo County, California [abs.]: Geol. 

Soc. America Spec. Paper 101, p. 419-420.

 1969a, Diagenesis of tuffs in the Barstow Formation, 

Mud Hills, San Bernardino County, California: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Prof. Paper 634, 35 p.

 1969b, Chemical composition and physical properties of 

the related zeolites, offretite and erionite: Am. 

Mineralogist, v. 54, p. 875-886.

 1970, Calcic, siliceous chabazite from the John Day 

Formation, Grant County, Oregon, in Geological Survey 

research 1970: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 700-D, p. 

D176-D180.

 1971, Sodic harmotome in lacustrine Pliocene tuffs near 

Wikieup, Mohave County, Arizona, in Geological Survey 

research 1971: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 750-D, p. 

D50-D55.

 1972a, Zeolite resources in vitroclastic rocks, in Workshop on techniques of mineral resource appraisal: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Proc., p. 146-157.

43
 1972b, Big Sandy Formation near Wikieup, Mohave 

County, Arizona: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1354-C, 10 p.

 1973a, Zeolites in tuffaceous rocks of the Big Sandy 

Formation, Mohave County, Arizona, in Uytterhoeven, J. 

B., ed., Molecular sieves: Third Internal Conf. on Molecular Sieves Proc., p. 151-155.

 1973b, Zeolites and associated authigenic silicate minerals in tuffaceous rocks of the Big Sandy Formation, 

Mohave County, Arizona: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 

830, 36 p.

 1973c, Boron-bearing potassium feldspar of authigenic 

origin in closed-basin deposits: U.S. Geol. Survey Jour. 

Research, v. 1, p. 377-382.

 1975a, Distribution of zeolites in pliocene lacustrine 

rocks, Durkee Basin, Baker County, Oregon [abs.]: Geol. 

Soc. America Abs. with Programs, v. 7, no. 3, p. 374.

 1975b, Occurrence, properties, and utilization of chabazite from sedimentary deposits in the United States [abs.]: 

Internal Clay Conf., Mexico City, July 1975.

Sheppard, R. A., Gude, A. J., 3d, and Griffin, J. J., 1970, Chemical composition and physical properties of phillipsite from 

the Pacific and Indian Oceans: Am. Mineralogist, v. 55, p. 

2053-2062.

Sheppard, R. A., Gude, A. J., 3d, and Munson, E. L., 1965, 

Chemical composition of diagenetic zeolites from tuffaceous rocks of the Mojave Desert and vicinity, California: 

Am. Mineralogist, v. 50, p. 244-249.

Sheppard, R. A., and Walker, G. W., 1969, Zeolites, in Mineral 

and water resources of Oregon: U.S. Cong., 90th, 2d Sess., 

Comm. Interior and Insular Affairs, Comm. Print, p. 268- 

271. (Also published in Oregon Dept. Geol. and Mineral 

Industries Bull. 64.)

Swanson, V. E., and Palacas, J. G., 1965, Humates in coastal 

sands of northwest Florida: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 

1214-B, p. B1-B29.

Swanson, V. E., Frost, I. C., Rader, L. F., Jr., and Huffman, 

Claude, Jr., 1966, Metal sorption by northwest Florida 

humate: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 550-C, p. 

C174-C177.

Swanson, V. E., and Ging, T. G., 1972, Possible economic value 

of trona-leonardite mixtures, in Geological Survey research 1972: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 800-D, p. 

D71-D74. (Also published as Tech. Note, Dec. 1972, Soc. 

Mining Eng., Am. Inst. Mining and Metall. Engineers 

Trans., v. 252, no. 4, p. 371-372.)

Vine, J. D., 1969, Authigenic laumontite in arkosic rocks of 

Eocene age in the Spanish Peaks area, Las Animas 

County, Colorado, in Geological Survey research 1969: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 650-D, p. D80-D83.

Withington, C. F., 1962, Gypsum and anhydrite in the United 

States, exclusive of Alaska and Hawaii: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Min. Res. Map MR-33, scale 1:3,168,000, with text, 18 p.

 1968, Gypsumin Appalachia, in Mineral resources of the 

Appalachian region: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 580, p. 

206-210.

Withington, C. F., and Jaster, M. C., 1960, Selected annotated 

bibliography of gypsum and anhydrite in the United States 

and Puerto Rico: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1105, 126 p.

Wolfbauer, C. A., 1975, Bentonite resources in the eastern 

Bighorn Basin, Wyoming: Wyoming Geol. Assoc., 27th 

Ann. Field Conf. Guidebook, p. 249-254.

WEATHERING OF ROCKS,

TRACE ELEMENTS, AND

PLANT NUTRITION

This list of references covers a wide range of 

subjects. Much of the trace-element data for soils 

was collected in order to develop exploration 

techniques for finding metallic ore deposits in the 

rocks under the soils. The papers are included here 

because these data are also useful in characterizing the chemical properties of soils. Four papers 

that pertain primarily to climatic conditions have 

been included because climate influences the types 

of soils that form in any given area.

Allcott, G. H., 1970, Preliminary results from biogeochemical 

prospecting in Saudi Arabia, in Mineral Resources Research, 1968-69: Saudi Arabia Directorate General of 

Mineral Resources, p. 122-124.

Bachman, G. O., and Dane, C. H., 1962, Preliminary geologic 

map of the northeastern part of New Mexico: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map 1-358, scale 1:380,160.

Bachman, G. O., and Harbour, R. L., 1970, Geologic map of the 

northern part of the San Andres Mountains, central New 

Mexico: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map 1-600, scale 

1:62,500.

Bachman, G. O., and Myers, D. A., 1969, Geology of the Bear 

Peak area, Dona Ana County, New Mexico: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Bull. 1271-C, 46 p.

Baker, R. G., and Richmond, G. M., 1977, Palynology of two 

pre-Pinedale lake sediment sequences in and near Yellowstone National Park, and their paleoclimatic significances: 

Quaternary Research [in press].

Bloom, Harold, 1955, A field method for the determination of 

ammonium citrate soluble heavy metals in soils and alluvium: Econ. Geology, v. 50, no. 5, p. 533-541.

Canney, F. C., and Hawkins, D. B., 1958, Cold acid extraction of 

copper from soils and sediments A proposed field method: 

Econ. Geology, v. 53, p. 877-886.

Canney, F. C., and Nowlan, G. A., 1964a, Solvent effect of 

hydroxylamine hydrochloride in the citrate-soluble heavy 

metals test: Econ. Geology, v. 59, p. 721-724.

 1964b, Determination of ammonium citrate-soluble 

cobalt in soils and sediments: Econ. Geology, v. 59, p. 

1361-1367.

Canney, F. C., Ward, F. N., and Bright, M. J., Jr., 1961, Molybdenum content of glacial drift related to molybdenite-bearing bedrock, Aroostook County, Maine, in Short papers in 

the geologic and hydrologic sciences: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Prof. Paper 424-B, p. B276-B277.

Cannon, H. L., 1952, The effect of uranium-vanadium deposits 

on the vegetation of the Colorado Plateau: Am. Jour. Sci., 

v. 250, p. 735-770.

 1955, Geochemical relations of zinc-bearing peat to the 

Lockport dolomite, Orleans County, New York: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Bull. 1000-D, p. 119-185.

 1957, Description of indicator plants and methods of 

botanical prospecting for uranium deposits on the Colorado 

Plateau: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1030-M, p. 399-516.

44
 1960a, Geochemistry of sandstones and related vegetation in the Yellow Cat area of the Thompson district, Grand 

County, Utah, in Short papers in the geological sciences: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 400-B, p. B96-B97.

 1960b, Development of botanical methods of prospecting 

for uranium on the Colorado Plateau: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Bull. 1085-A, 50 p.

 1960c, Botanical prospecting for ore deposits: Science, v. 

132, no. 3427, p. 591-598.

 1963, The biogeochemistry of vanadium: Soil Sci., v. 96, 

no. 3, p. 196-204.

 1964, Geochemistry of rocks and related soils and vegetation in the Yellow Cat area, Grand County, Utah: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Bull. 1176, 127 p.

 1970, Trace element excesses and deficiencies in some 

geochemical provinces of the United States, in Trace substances in environmental health, III, D. D. Hemphill, ed.: 

Univ. Missouri, p. 21-44. 

-1971, The use of plant indicators in ground water surveys, geologic mapping and mineral prospecting: Taxon, v. 

20, p. 197-226.

Cannon, H. L., and Anderson, B. M., 1972, Trace element content of the soils and vegetation of the Four Corners Power 

Plant, in Rept. of Coal Resources Work Group, Southwest 

Energy Study, Pt. IE: U.S. Dept. Interior.

Cannon, H. L., and Hopps, H. C., 1970, Metals of the geochemical environment health and disease: Science, v. 170, p. 

1232.

 1971, (eds.), Environmental geochemistry in health and 

disease: Geol. Soc. America Mem. 123, 230 p.

 1972a, Minor metals of the geochemical environment, 

health and disease, in Man and his physical environment, 

McKenzie and Utgard, eds.: Burgess Pub. Co., Minneapolis, Minn., p. 99-100. 

-1972b, Geochemical environment in relation to health

and disease: Geol. Soc. America Spec. Paper 140, 77 p. 

Cannon, H. L., Papp, C. S. E., and Anderson, B. M., 1972, 

Problems of sampling and analysis in trace-element investigations of vegetation, in Hopps, H. C., and Cannon, H. L., 

eds., Geochemical environment in relation to health and 

disease: New York Acad. Sci. Annals, v. 199, p. 124-136.

Cannon, H. L., and Starrett, W. H., 1956, Botanical prospecting 

for uranium on La Ventana Mesa, Sandoval County, New 

Mexico: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1009-M, 17 p.

Case, A. A., Selby, L. A., Hutcheson, D. P., Ebens, R. J., 

Erdman, J. A., and Feder, G. L., 1973, Infertility and 

growth suppression in beef cattle associated with abnormalities in their geochemical environment, in D. D. 

Hemphill, ed., Trace substances in environmental 

health VI: Missouri Univ. 6th Ann. Conf. on Trace Substances in Environmental Health Proc., p. 15-21.

Chaffee, M. A., 1970, Determination of acid-soluble and total 

manganese in geological and botanical materials by 

atomic absorption, in Geological Survey research 1970: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 700-D, p. D217-D221.

Chaffee, M. A., and Hessin, T. D., 1971, An evaluation of 

geochemical sampling in the search for concealed "porphyry" copper-molybdenum deposits on pediments in 

southern Arizona, in Boyle, R. W., ed., Geochemical Exploration: Third Internat. Geochemical Expl. Symposium 

Proc., Canadian Inst. Mining and Metallurgy Spec. Vol. 11, 

Toronto, p. 401-409.

Chao, T. T., 1972, Selective dissolution of manganese oxides 

from soils and sediments by acidified hydroxylamine: Soil 

Sci. Soc. America Proc., v. 36, p. 764-768.

Chao, T. T., and Sanzolone, R. F., 1973, Atomic absorption 

spectrophotome trie determination of microgram levels of 

Co, Ni, Cu, Pb, and Zn in soil and sediment extracts containing large amounts of Mn and Fe: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Jour. Research, v. 1, no. 6, p. 681-685.

Chase, G. H., and McConaghy, J. A., 1972, Generalized surficial geologic map of the Denver area, Colorado: U.S. Geol.

Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map 1-731, scale 1:62,500 [1973]. 

Colton, R. B., Lemke, R. W., andLindvall, R. M., 1961, Glacial

map of Montana east of the Rocky Mountains: U.S. Geol.

Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map 1-327, scale 1:500,000.

 1963, Preliminary glacial map of North Dakota: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map 1-331, scale 1:500,000.

Connor, J. J., Erdman, J. A., Sims, J. D., and Ebens, R. J., 1971, 

Roadside effects on trace metal content in some rocks, soils, 

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Fourth Ann. Conf. on Trace Substances in Environmental 

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Connor, J. J., Keith, J. R., and Anderson, B. M., 1976, Trace 

metal variation in soils and sagebrush in the Powder River 

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Connor, J. J., Shacklette, H. T., and Erdman, J. A., 1971, 

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Connor, J. J., Shacklette, H. T., and others, 1977, Background 

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Crandell, D. R., 1963, Surficial geology and geomorphology of 

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 1969, Surficial geology of Mt. Rainier National Park, 

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Crandell, D. R., and Miller, R. D., 1974, Quaternary stratigraphy and extent of glaciation in the Mount Rainier region, Washington: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 847,59 p.

Curtin, G. C., and King, H. D., 1972, An auger-sleeve sampler 

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Curtin, G. C., King, H. D., and Mosier, E. L., 1974, Movement of 

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Curtin, G. C., Lakin, H. W., and Hubert, A. E., 1970, The 

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Curtin, G. C., Lakin, H. W., Hubert, A. E., Mosier, E. L., and 

Watts, K. C., 1971, Utilization of mull (forest humus layer) 

in geochemical exploration in the Empire district, Clear 

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Curtin, G. C., Lakin, H. W., Neuerburg, G. J., and Hubert, A. 

E., 1968, Utilization of humus-rich forest soil (mull) in

45
geochemical exploration for gold: U.S. Geol. Survey Circ. 

562, 11 p.

Cuthbert, M. E., and Ward, F. N., 1964, Determination of iodine 

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Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 501-C, p. C154-C156.

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Ebens, R. J., Erdman, J. A., Feder, G. L., Case, A. A., and Selby, 

L. A., 1973, Geochemical anomalies of a claypit area, Callaway County, Missouri, and related imbalance in beef 

cattle: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 807, 24 p.

Ebens, R. J., Erdman, J. A., and Tidball, R. R., 1974, Establishing environmental baselines trace-element variation in 

sagebrush and the associated soil and parent material, 

Powder River Basin, Montana-Wyoming: Geol. Soc. 

America Abs. with Programs, v. 6, no. 7, p. 717.

Erdman, J. A., and Shacklette, H. T., 1973, Concentrations of 

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313.

Erickson, R. L., and Marranzino, A. P., 1964, Copper determinations on samples of alluvium and caliche from the Rocky 

Range, Beaver County, Utah: U.S. Geol. Survey open-file 

rept.

Federa, G. L., Ebens, R. J., and Connor, J. J., 1972, The relationship between lithology and trace-element content of 

ground water: Short papers of the Eighth Am. Water Resources Conf., St. Louis, Mo., Oct. 30-Nov. 2,1972, p. 104.

Ficklm, W. H., 1970, A rapid method for the determination of 

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in Geological Survey research 1970: U.S. Geol. Survey 

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Fleischer, Michael, 1967, Fluoride content of ground water in 

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Fleischer, Michael, Forbes, R. M., Harriss, R. C., Krook, L., and 

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 1974b, Iodine, in Geochemistry and the environment: 

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Fleischer, Michael, Sarofini, A. F., Fassett, D. W., Hammond, 

Paul, Shacklette, H. T., Nisbet, I. C. T., and Epstein, 

Samuel, 1974, Environmental impact of cadmium a review by the panel on hazardous trace substances: Environmental Health Perspectives, May 1974, p. 253-323.

Griffitts, W. R., and Alminas, H. V., 1968, Geochemical evidence for possible concealed mineral deposits near the 

Monticello Box, northern Sierra Cuchillo, Socorro County, 

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Griffitts, W. R., and Ward, F. N., 1972, Observations on the 

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Hansen, W. R., Chronic, John, and Matelock, J., [in press], 

Climatography of the Front Range Urban Corridor and 

vicinity: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 1019.

Hopps, H. C., and Cannon, H. L., 1972, Geochemical environment in relation to health and disease: New York Acad. 

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Hubert, A. E., 1971, A sensitive method for the determination 

of tellurium in vegetation, in Geological Survey research 

1971: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 750-D, p. D162-164.

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1961, A comparison of analytical methods used in 

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Keith, J. R., 1973, The use of high altitude infrared photography for small-scale vegetation mapping [abs.]: Am. 

Assoc. Adv. Sci., 49th Ann. Mtg., Southwestern and Rocky 

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 1975, The use of ERTS satellite imagery in vegetation 

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1975 [in press].

Keith, J. R., and Maberry, J. O., 1973, Vegetation map of the 

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 1977, Vegetation map of the Highlands Ranch quadrangle, Arapahoe and Douglas Counties, Colorado: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Map [in prep,].

Keith, J. R., Anderson, B. M., and Connor, J. J., 1974, Trace 

metal variation in the Powder River Basin, in Geochemical 

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Lakin, H. W., 1961, Geochemistry of selenium in relation to 

agriculture (Chap. 3); Vertical and lateral distribution of 

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 1973, Selenium in our environment, in Kothny, E. L., 

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Lakin, H. W., Hunt, C. B.t Davidson, D. F., and Oda, Uteana, 

1963, Variation in minor-element content of desert varnish, in Short papers in geology and hydrology: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Prof. Paper 475-B, Art. 8, p. 28-31.

Lemke, R. W., 1960, Geology of the Souris River area, North 

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1965, Quaternary geology of northern Great Plains, in 

Wright, H. E., Jr., and Frey, D. G., eds., Quaternary of the 

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Lovering, T. S., and Engel, Celeste, 1967, Translocation of 

silica and other elements from rock into Equisetum and 

three grasses: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 594-B, p. 

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Machette, M. N., 1975, Geology of the Lafayette quadrangle, 

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Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Field Inv. Map MF-656, scale 

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259.

 1965, Snake River Plain, in Wright, H. E., Jr., and Frey, 

O. G., eds., Quaternary of the U.S.: Princeton Univ. Press, 

822 p.

46
Malde, H. E., Powers, H. A., and Marshall, C. H., 1963, Reconnaissance geologic map of west-central Snake River Plain, 

Idaho: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map 1-373, scale 

1:125,000.

Masironi, R., Miesch, A. T., Crawford, M. D., and Hamilton, E. 

I., 1972, Chemical environments, trace elements and cardiovascular diseases: World Health Organization Bull., v. 

47, p. 139-150.

Miesch, A. T., and Huffman, Claude, Jr., 1972, Abundance and 

distribution of lead, zinc, cadmium, and arsenic in soils, in 

Helena Valley, Montana, Area Environmental Pollution 

Study: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, p. 65-80.

Morrison, R. B., 1964, Lake Lahontan: Geology of southern 

Carson Desert, Nevada: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 401, 

156 p.

 1965a, Lake Bonneville: Quaternary stratigraphy of 

eastern Jordan Valley south of Salt Lake City, Utah: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 477, 80 p.

 1965b, Quaternary geology of the Great Basin, in 

Wright, H. E., Jr., and Frey, D. G., eds., Quaternary of the 

U.S.: Princeton Univ. Press, 822 p. 

-1974, Application of the Skylab EREP photographs to

mapping of landforms and environmental geology in the 

Great Plains and Midwest; progress report for period 

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Morrison, R. B., and Hallberg, G. R., 1977, Evaluation of 

ERTS-1 imagery for mapping Quaternary deposits and 

landforms in the Great Plains and Midwest. Type III (final) 

report for period 15 June 1972 to 31 December 1973: NASA 

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Mosier, E. L., 1972, A method for semiquantitative spectrographic analysis of plant ash for use in biogeochemical and 

environmental studies: Appl. Spectroscopy, v. 26, no. 6, p. 

636-641.

Mullineaux, D. R., 1970, Geology of the Renton, Auburn, and 

Black Diamond quadrangles, Washington: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 672, 92 p.

Ong, H. L., Swanson, V. E., and Bisque, R. E., 1970, Natural 

organic acids as agents of chemical weathering, in Geological Survey research 1970: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 

700-C, p. C130-C137.

Overstreet, W. C., and Ward, P. N., eds., 1970, Second Seminar 

on Geochemical Prospecting Methods and Techniques, 

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Minerals Res. Dev. Ser., no. 38, 413 p.

Pierce, K. L., 1973a, Surficial geologic map of the Mount 

Holmes quadrangle and parts of the Tepee Creek, Crown 

Butte, and Miner quadrangles, Yellowstone National 

Park, Wyoming and Montana: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. 

Geol. Inv. Map 1-640, with text, scale 1:62,500.

 1973b, Surficial geologic map of the Mammoth quadrangle and part of the Gardiner quadrangle, Yellowstone 

National Park, Wyoming and Montana: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Misc. Geol. Inv. Map 1-641, with text, scale 1:62,500.

 1975, Surficial geologic map of the Abiathar Peak and 

parts of adjacent quadrangles, Yellowstone National Park, 

Wyoming and Montana: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. 

Map 1-646, with text, scale 1:62,500.

 1977, Glaciation of northern Yellowstone National

 1977, Surficial geologic map of the Tower Junction quadrangle and part of the Mount Wallace quadrangle, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming and Montana: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map 1-647, with text, scale 

1:62,500 [in press].

Prichard, G. E., Burchett, R. R., and Dreeszen, V. H., 1977, 

Bedrock geologic map of the Sioux City quadrangle, Nebraska: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map, scale 

1:250,000 [in prep.].

Reed, J. C., Jr., and Keith, J. R., 1972, Vegetation of the Evergreen quadrangle, Jefferson County, Colorado: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map I-786-B.

Richmond, G. M., 1962, Quaternary stratigraphy of the La Sal 

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 1965, Glaciation of the Rocky Mountains, in Wright, H. 

E., Jr., and Frey, D. G., eds., Quaternary of the U.S.: 

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 1972, Appraisal of the future climate of the Holocene in 

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 1973a, Surficial geologic map of the West Thumb quadrangle, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map 1-643, with text, scale 

1:62,500.

 1973b, Surficial geologic map of the Grassy Lake Reservoir quadrangle, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map 1-644, with text, 

scale 1:62,500.

 1973c, Geologic map of Fremont Lake South quadrangle, 

Sublette County, Wyoming: U.S. Geol. Survey Geol. Quad. 

Map GQ-1138, scale 1:24,000.

 1973d, Surficial geologic map of the Warm River Butte 

quadrangle, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming and 

Idaho: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map 1-645, with 

text, scale 1:62,500.

 1974, Surficial geologic map of the Frank Island quadrangle, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map 1-642, with text, scale 

1:62,500.

 1976, Pleistocene stratigraphy and chronology in the 

mountains of western Wyoming, in Quaternary stratigraphy of North America, W. C. Mahoney, ed.: Dowden, 

Hutchinson, and Ross, Inc., Stroudsburg, Pa., p. 353-379.

 1977, Deglaciation of the last icecap in the basin of Yellowstone Lake: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper [in prep.].

Richmond, G. M., Fryxell, Roald, Neff, G. E., and Weis, P. L., 

1965, The Cordilleran ice sheet of the Northern Rocky 

Mountains and related Quaternary history of the Columbia Plateau, in Wright, H. E., Jr., and Frey, D. G., eds., 

Quaternary of the United States: Princeton Univ. Press, 

822 p.

Richmond, G. M., and Hansley, P. L., 1977a, Geologic map of 

the Lament quadrangle, Fremont and Teton Counties, 

Idaho: U.S. Geol. Survey Geol. Quad. Map [in prep.].

 1977b, Geologic map of the Drummond quadrangle, 

Fremont and Teton Counties, Idaho: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Geol. Quad. Map [in prep.]. 

-1977c, Geologic map of the Linderman Dam quadrangle,

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Fremont, Madison, and Teton Counties, Idaho: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Geol. Quad. Map [in prep.].

Richmond, G. M., Mullenders, William, and Coremans, Mady, 

1977, Two pollen analyses of rocks of latest Pliocene age in

47
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Richmond, G. M., and Pierce, K. L., 1971a, Surficial geologic 

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 197 Ib, Surficial geologic map of the Mount Hancock 

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1-636, scale 1:62,500.

Richmond, G. M., and Waldrop, H. A., 1977, Surficial geologic 

map of the Norris Junction quadrangle: U.S. Geol. Survey 

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Robinson, W. O., Lakin, H. W., and Reichen, L. E., 1947, The 

zinc content of plants of the Friedensville zinc slime ponds 

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1974, Color terrain map of Yellowstone National Park, 

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Sainsbury, C. L., Curry, K. J., and Hamilton, J. C., 1973, An 

integrated system of geologic mapping and geochemical 

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Sainsbury, C. L., Hamilton, J. C., and Huffman, Claude, Jr., 

1968, Geochemical cycle of selected trace elements in the 

tin-tungsten-beryllium district, western Seward Peninsula, Alaska A reconnaissance study: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Bull. 1242-F, 42 p.

Scott, G. R., 1963, Quaternary geology and geomorphic history 

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 1965, Nonglacial Quaternary geology of the southern 

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-1977, Cenozoic surfaces and deposits in the southern

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Severson, R. C., 1974, Solution transport of major ions in forest 

soils A column lysimeter study: Univ. Minnesota, Ph. D. 

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Severson, R. C., and Arneman, H. F., 1972, Physical, chemical, 

and morphological properties of a soil biosequence in 

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 1973, Soil characteristics of the forest-prairie ecotone in 

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Severson, R. C., and Gough, L. P., 1976, Concentration and 

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Severson, R. C., Grigal, D. F., and Arneman, H. F., 1975, Percolation losses of phosphorus, calcium, and potassium from 

some Minnesota forest soils: Soil Sci. Soc. America Proc., v. 

39, no. 3, p. 540-543.

Shacklette, H. T., 1962, Influences of the soil on boreal and 

arctic plant communities: U.S. Geol. Survey open-file rept., 

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 1972, Cadmium in plants: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 

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Shacklette, H. T., Boerngen, J. G., Cahill, J. P., and Rahill, R. 

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Geol. Survey Circ. 673, 8 p.

Shacklette, H. T., Boerngen, J. G., and Turner, R. L., 1971, 

Mercury in the environment surficial materials of the 

conterminous United States: U.S. Geol. Survey Circ. 644, 

5 p.

Shacklette, H. T., and Connor, J. J., 1973, Airborne chemical 

elements in Spanish moss: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 

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Shacklette, H. T., and Cuthbert, M. E., 1963, Iodine content of 

plant groups as influenced by variation in rock and soil 

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Shacklette, H. T., Erdman, J. A., Harms, T. F., and Papp, C. S. 

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Shacklette, H. T., Erdman, J. A., and Keith, J. R., 1973, Trace 

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Shacklette, H. T., Hamilton, J. C., Boerngen, J. G., andBowles, 

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the conterminous United States: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. 

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Shacklette, H. T., Keith, J. R., and Erdman, J. A., 1976, Elemental composition of corn, soybeans, pasture grasses, and 

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Shacklette, H. T., Sauer, H. L, and Miesch, A. T., 1970, 

Geochemical environments and cardiovascular mortality 

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Shacklette, H. T., and Severson, R. C., 1975, Source and use of 

fertilizer and other soil amendments for food production 

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Tidball, R. R., 1966, A study of soil development on dated 

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 1970, Geochemical variation in midwest soils [abs.]: 

Univ. Missouri 4th Ann. Conf. on Trace Substances in 

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 1971, Geochemical variation in Missouri soils, in Hemphill, D. D., ed., Trace substances in environmental 

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 1973, Distribution of elements in agricultural soils of 

Missouri: Geol. Soc. America Abs. with Programs, v. 5, no. 

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-1974, Average composition of agricultural soils in Missouri counties: U.S. Geol. Survey Open-File Rept. 74-66, 

25 p.

Tidball, R. R., and Connor, J. J., 1970, Distribution of elements 

in a black shale parent and its derivative soil, western 

Kentucky: Geol. Soc. America Abs. with Programs, v. 2, no. 

3, p. 244-245.

48
Tidball, R. R., Erdman, J. A., and Ebens, R. J., 1974, Geochemical baselines for sagebrush and soil, Powder River Basin, 

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Tidball, R. R., and Sauer, H. L, 1972, Soil composition and 

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 1975, Multivariate relationships between soil composition and human mortality rates in Missouri, in Freedman, 

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 1976, Chemistry of northern Great Plains soils, in U.S. 

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 1973, Regional geochemical investigations, Front Range 

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Tourtelot, H. A., and Miesch, A. T., 1977, Sampling designs in 

environmental geochemistry: Geol. Soc. America Spec. 

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Tourtelot, H. A., and Neiman, H. G., 1974, Geochemical patterns, Front Range Urban Corridor, Colorado, and possible 

technological influences: Geol. Soc. America Abs. with 

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Tourtelot, H. A., Schultz, L. G., and Huffman, Claude, Jr., 1961, 

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Paper 424-C, p. C228-C292.

Trimble, D. E., 1963, Geology of Portland, Oregon, and adjacent 

areas: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1119, 119 p..

 1977, Geologic story of the Great Plains: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull, [in prep.].

Trimble, D. E., and Carr, W. J., 1961, Late Quaternary history 

of the Snake River in the American Falls region, Idaho: 

Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 72, no. 12, p. 1739-1748.

U.S. Geological Survey, 1972a, Geochemical survey of Missouri, plans and progress for first 6-month period (JulyDecember 1969): U.S. Geol. Survey open-file rept., 49 p.

 1972b, Geochemical survey of Missouri, plans and progress for second 6-month period (January-June 1970): U.S. 

Geol. Survey open-file rept., 60 p.

 1972c, Geochemical survey of Missouri, plans and progress for third 6-month period (July-December 1970): U.S. 

Geol. Survey open-file rept., 33 p.

 1972d, Geochemical survey of Missouri, plans and progress for fourth 6-month period (January-June 1971): U.S. 

Geol. Survey open-file rept., 63 p.

 1972e, Geochemical survey of Missouri, plans and progress for fifth 6-month period (July-December 1971): U.S. 

Geol. Survey open-file rept., 145 p.

 1972f, Geochemical survey of Missouri, plans and progress for sixth 6-month period (January-June 1972): U.S. 

Geol. Survey open-file rept., 86 p.

 1972g, Surficial geologic map of Yellowstone National 

Park: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map 1-710, scale 

1:125,000. 

-1973, Geochemical survey of Missouri, plans and progress for seventh 6-month period (June-December 1972): 

U.S. Geol. Survey open-file rept., 59 p.

Van Horn, Richard, 1972, Surficial geologic map of the Sugar 

House quadrangle, Salt Lake County, Utah: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map I-766-A, scale 1:24,000.

Waldrop, H. A., 1975, Surficial geologic map of the West 

Yellowstone quadrangle, Yellowstone National Park and 

adjoining area, Montana, Wyoming, and Idaho: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map 1-648, with text, scale 

1:62,500.

 1977 , Surficial geologic map of the Old Faithful quadrangle, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map 1-649, with text, scale 

l:62,500[in press].

Waldrop, H. A., and Pierce, K. L., 1975, Surficial geologic map 

of the Madison Junction quadrangle, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. 

Map 1-650, with text, scale 1:62,500.

Ward, F. N., and McHugh, J. B., 1964, Determination of mercury in vegetation with dithizone A single extraction 

procedure, in Geological Survey research 1964: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Prof. Paper 501-D, p. D128-D130 [1965].

Williams, P. L., 1972, Map showing types of bedrock and surficial deposits, Salina quadrangle, Utah: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Misc. Geol. Inv. Map I-591-H, scale 1:250,000.

Witkind, I. J., 1959, Quaternary geology of the Smoke CreekMedicine Lake-Glenora area, Montana and North Dakota: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1073, 80 p.

Yeend, W. E., 1969, Quaternary geology of the Grand and 

Battlement Mesa area, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. 

Paper 617, 50 p.

LAND-USE MAPS

The workshop on Soil Amendment Materials 

concluded that a primary function of the U.S. 

Geological Survey that could contribute to the 

geology of agriculture is specialized geologic mapping. It was suggested that maps could be prepared 

that would show such things as types of soil 

amendment materials, depth to bedrock, distribution of soils and their various physical and chemical properties, depth to water table, distribution of 

limestone and gypsum, and many others.

The following list of references includes a 

number of special-purpose land-use maps that 

have been prepared for use in engineering and 

environmental applications. Although these maps 

do not have direct application to agriculture, they 

indicate the type of mapping that can be done to 

solve specific problems.

49
Bryant, Bruce, 1972a, Map showing ground-water potential in 

the Aspen quadrangle, Pitkin County, Colorado: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map I-785-B, scale 1:24,000.

 1972b, Map showing relative ease of excavation in the 

Aspen quadrangle, Pitkin County, Colorado: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map I-785-C, scale 1:24,000.

 1972c, Slope map of the Aspen quadrangle, Pitkin 

County, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map 

I-785-E, scale 1:24,000. 

-1972d, Map showing relative permeabilities of rocks and

surficial deposits of the Aspen quadrangle, Pitkin County, 

Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. MapI-785-F, 

scale 1:24,000.

Burchett, R. R., Dreeszen, V. H., Reed, E. C., and Prichard, G. 

E., 1972, Bedrock geologic map showing thickness of overlying Quaternary deposits, Lincoln quadrangle and part of 

Nebraska City quadrangle, Nebraska and Kansas: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map 1-729, scale 1:250,000 

[1973].

Burchett, R. R., Reed, E. C., Dreeszen, V. H., and Prichard, G. 

E., 1977, Bedrock geologic map showing thickness of overlying Quaternary deposits, Fremont quadrangle and part 

of the Omaha quadrangle, Nebraska: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Misc. Geol. Inv. Map 1-905, scale 1:250,000 [in press].

Colton, R. B., and Cushman, R. V., 1963, Contour map of the 

bedrock surface of the Manchester quadrangle, Connecticut: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map 1-402, scale 

1:24,000.

Covington, H. R., 1972a, Map showing length of freeze-free 

season in the Salina quadrangle, Utah: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Misc. Geol. Inv. Map I-591-E, scale 1:250,000.

 1972b, Surface water map of the Salina quadrangle, 

Utah: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map I-591-F, 

scale 1:250,000. 

-1972c, Map showing springs in the Salina quadrangle,

Utah: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map I-591-G, 

scale 1:250,000.

Covington, H. R., and Gable, D. J., 1973, Map showing density 

of dwelling units in the Tungsten quadrangle, Boulder, 

Gilpin, and Jefferson Counties, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map I-792-B, scale 1:24,000.

Covington, H. R., and Williams, P. L., 1972, Map showing 

normal annual and monthly precipitation in the Salina 

quadrangle, Utah: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map 

I-591-D, scale 1:250,000.

Crandell, D. R., 1973, Map showing potential hazards from 

future eruptions of Mount Rainier, Washington: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map 1-836, scale 1:250,000 [1974].

Driscoll, L. B., 1974, Land-use classification map of the Boulder-Fort Collins-Greeley area, Front Range Urban Corridor, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map 

I-855-B.

 1975, Land classification map of the Colorado SpringsCastle Rock area, Front Range Urban Corridor, Colorado: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map I-857-B. 

-1977, Land classification map of the Greater Denver

area: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map I-856-E [in 

press].

Gable, D. J., 1973, Map showing water wells and springs in the 

Tungsten quadrangle, Boulder, Gilpin, and Jefferson 

Counties, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map 

I-792-C, scale 1:24,000.

Gardner, M. E., Simpson, H. E., and Hart, S. S., 1971, Preliminary engineering geologic map of the Golden quadrangle,

Jefferson County, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Field 

Studies Map MF-308, scale 1:24,000 [1972]. 

Hackman, R. J., 1973, Vegetation map of the Salina quadrangle, Utah: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map I591-P, scale 1:250,000.

 1977, Land use and change in land use over 20 years in 

the Rexburg Bench, Bonneville County, Idaho: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Misc. Field Studies Map, scale 1:62,500 [in prep.].

Hackman, R. J., and Williams, P. L., 1972, Map showing drainage basins and historic cloudburst floods in the Salina 

quadrangle, Utah: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map 

I-591-N, scale 1:250,000.

Hansen, W. R., 1976, Geomorphic constraints on land development in the Front Range Urban Corridor, in Urban 

Geomorphology, D. R. Coates, ed.: Geol. Soc. America Spec. 

Paper 174, p. 85-109.

Keith, J. R., and Maberry, J. O., 1973, Vegetation map of the 

Parker quadrangle, Arapahoe and Douglas Counties, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map I-770-N, 

scale 1:24,000.

Love, J. D., 1973a, Map showing rock materials useful for 

construction in the Jackson quadrangle, Teton County, 

Wyoming: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map I-769-B, 

scale 1:24,000.

 1973b, Map showing distribution of loamy soils in the 

Jackson quadrangle, Teton County, Wyoming: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map I-769-C, scale 1:24,000. 

-1973c, Map showing differences in the stability of the

ground, Jackson quadrangle, Wyoming: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Misc. Geol. Inv. Map I-769-F, scale 1:24,000.

Love, J. D., and Covington, H. R., 1973, Map showing steepness 

of slopes in the Jackson quadrangle, Teton County, Wyoming: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map I-769-E, 

scale 1:24,000.

Maberry, J. O., 1972a, Map showing areas of past flooding in 

the Parker quadrangle, Arapahoe and Douglas Counties, 

Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map I-770-B, 

scale 1:24,000.

 1972b, Map showing landslide deposits and areas of potential landsliding in the Parker quadrangle, Arapahoe 

and Douglas Counties, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. 

Geol. Inv. Map I-770-E, scale 1:24,000.

 1972c, Slope map of the Parker quadrangle, Arapahoe 

and Douglas Counties, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. 

Geol. Inv. Map I-770-F, scale 1:24,000.

 1972d, Map showing relative erodibility of geologic 

materials in the Parker quadrangle, Arapahoe and Douglas Counties, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. 

Map I-770-G, scale 1:24,000.

 1972e, Map showing relative excavatability of geologic 

materials in the Parker quadrangle, Arapahoe and Douglas Counties, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. 

Map I-770-H, scale 1:24,000.

 1972f, Map showing inferred permeability of geologic 

materials in the Parker quadrangle, Arapahoe and Douglas Counties, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. 

Map I-770-I, scale 1:24,000. 

-1973, Map showing construction materials resources in

the Parker quadrangle, Arapahoe and Douglas Counties, 

Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map I-770-L, 

scale 1:24,000.

Morrison, R. B., 1974, Application of Skylab ERGP photographs to study of the modern episode of accelerated erosion in southern Arizona; progress report for period

50
January 1-June 30,1975; NASA Earth Resources Survey 

Program, Natl. Tech. Inf. Service.

Morrison, R. B., andCooley, M. E., 1977, Application of ERTS-1 

imagery to detecting and mapping modern erosion features, and to monitoring erosion changes, in southern 

Arizona. Type III (final) report for period 15 July 1972 to 31 

January 1974: NASA Earth Resources Survey Program, 

Natl. Tech. Inf. Service [in prep.].

Pierce, K. L., and Schmidt, P. W., 1975a, Reconnaissance map 

showing relative amounts of soil and bedrock in the mountainous part of the Ralston Buttes quadrangle and adjoining areas to the east and west in Jefferson County, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Field Studies Map MF-689, 

scale 1:24,000.

 1975b, Reconnaissance map showing relative amounts 

of soil and bedrock in the mountainous part of the Eldorado 

Springs quadrangle, Boulder and Jefferson Counties, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Field Studies Map MF-695, 

scale 1:24,000.

Price, Donald, 1972a, Map showing general chemical quality of 

ground water in the Salina quadrangle: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Misc. Geol. Inv. Map I-591-K, scale 1:250,000.

 1972b, Map showing general availability of ground 

water in the Salina quadrangle, Utah: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Misc. Geol. Inv. Map I-591-M, scale 1:250,000.

Reed, J. C., and Keith, J. R., 1972, Vegetation map of the 

Evergreen quadrangle, Jefferson County, Colorado: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map I-786-B, scale 1:24,000.

Schmidt, P. W., 1972, Slope map of the Evergreen quadrangle, 

Jefferson County, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. 

Inv. Map I-786-C, scale 1:24,000.

 1976a, Reconnaissance map showing relative amounts 

of soil and bedrock in the mountainous part of the Morrison-Evergreen quadrangles and adjoining areas to the 

west in Jefferson County, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Misc. Field Studies Map MF-740, scale 1:24,000.

 1976b, Reconnaissance map showing relative amounts 

of soil and bedrock in the mountainous part of the Indian 

Hills quadrangle, Jefferson County, Colorado: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Misc. Field Studies Map MF-741, scale 1:24,000.

 1976c, Reconnaissance map showing relative amounts of 

soil and bedrock in the Conifer quadrangle and adjoining 

areas to the westsin Jefferson County, Colorado: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Misc. Field Studies Map MF-770.

 1976d, Reconnaissance map showing relative amounts 

of soil and bedrock in the Platte Canyon quadrangle in 

Jefferson County, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Field 

Studies Map MF-803. 

-1976e, Reconnaissance map showing relative amounts of

Stroudsburg, Pa., Dowden, Hutchinson, and Ross, Inc., 

360 p.

Schmidt, P. W., and Reed, J. C., Jr., 1972, Map showing approximate locations, depths, and estimated yields of water 

wells in the Evergreen quadrangle, Jefferson County, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map I-786-E, 

scale 1:24,000 [1973].

Scott, G. R., 1972a, Map showing water courses and areas 

inundated by historic floods in the Morrison quadrangle, 

Jefferson County, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. 

Inv. Map I-790-F, scale 1:24,000.

 1972b, Map showing inferred relative permeability of 

geologic materials in the Morrison quadrangle, Jefferson 

County, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map 

I-790-G, scale 1:24,000 [1973].

Shown, L. M., 1973, Land-use map of the Gillette area, Wyoming, 1970: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map I848-A, scale 1:125,000.

Simpson, H. E., 1973, Map showing landslides in the Golden 

quadrangle, Jefferson County, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Misc. Geol. Inv. Map I-761-B, scale 1:24,000.

Smedes, H. W., 1975, ERTS images aid in land-use planning in 

Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, Montana, and 

Idaho, in ERTS-1, A new window on our planet, Williams, 

R. S., Jr., and Carter, W. D., eds.: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. 

Paper 929, 400 p.

Van Horn, Richard, 1972a, Slope map of Sugar House quadrangle, Salt Lake County, Utah: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. 

Geol. Inv. Map I-766-C, scale 1:24,000.

 1972b, Landslide and associated deposits map of the 

Sugar House quadrangle, Salt Lake County, Utah: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. MapI-766-D, scale 1:24,000. 

-1972c, Relative slope stability map of the Sugar House

soil and bedrock in the Pine quadrangle and adjoining 

areas to the west in Jefferson County, Colorado: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Misc. Field Studies Map MF-804. 

Schmidt, P. W., and Pierce, K. L., 1976, Mapping of mountain 

soils west of Denver, Colorado, for land-use planning, in 

Geomorphology and Engineering, Coates, D. R., ed.:

quadrangle, Salt Lake County, Utah: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Misc. Geol. Inv. Map I-766-E, scale 1:24,000.

 1973, Construction materials map of the Sugar House 

quadrangle, Salt Lake County, Utah: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Misc. Geol. Inv. Map I-766-G, scale 1:24,000.

Williams, P. L., 1972a, Map showing relative ease of excavation 

in the Salina quadrangle, Utah: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. 

Geol. Inv. Map I-591-J, scale 1:250,000.

 1972b, Map showing landslides and areas of potential

landsliding in the Salina quadrangle, Utah: U.S. Geol.

Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map I-591-L, scale 1:250,000

[1973]. 

Witkind, I. J., 1972a, Generalized slope map of the Henrys Lake

quadrangle, Idaho and Montana: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc.

Geol. Inv. Map I-781-B, scale 1:62,500.

 1972b, Map showing construction materials in the Henrys Lake quadrangle, Idaho and Montana: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map I-781-F, scale 1:62,500.

 I972c, Map showing relative ease of excavation of 

geologic units in the Henrys Lake quadrangle, Idaho and 

Montana: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map 1-781-G, 

scale 1:62,500 [1973].

51