RC.801;

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CIRCULAR 801

Geologic Mapping of Kentucky A 

History and Evaluation of the

Kentucky Geological Survey U.S. *

Geological Survey Mapping 

Program, 1960-1978
Geologic Mapping of Kentucky A 

History and Evaluation of the 

Kentucky Geological Survey U.S. 

Geological Survey Mapping 

Program, 1960-1978

By EARLE R. CRESSMAN and MARTIN C. NOGER 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CIRCULAR 801

Prepared in cooperation with the Kentucky Geological Survey

A discussion of the origin, operation, cost, and economic 

benefits of a major geologic mapping program

1981
United States Department of the Interior

JAMES G. WATT, Secretary

Geological Survey

Dallas L. Peck, Director

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Cressman, Earle Rupert, 1923- 

Geologic mapping of Kentucky.

(Geological Survey circular ; 801)

Bibliography: p.

1. Geological mapping. 2. Geology Kentucky. 3. Kentucky. University. Geological Survey.

4. United States. Geological Survey. I. Noger, Martin C., joint author. II. Kentucky.

University. Geological Survey. III. Title. IV. Series: United States. Geological Survey.

Circular; 801. 

QE75.C5 no. 801 [QE36] 557.3'OSs________________79-11091 [353.008'55]

Free on application to Distribution Branch, Text Products Section, 

U. S. Geological Survey, 604 South Pickett Street, Alexandria, MA 22304
CONTENTS

Page

Abstract _______________________________________________ 1

Purpose of this report _______________________________________ 1

Origins of the program ____________________________________._ 1

Operations______________________________________________ 4

Staffing_.__.______.________________________________________________________________________________ 6

Procedures______________________________________________ 6

Field methods _________________________________________ 6

Compilation and preparation for printing__________________________ 8

Role of the Paleontology and Stratigraphy Branch_______________________ 9

Contributions by the Kentucky Geological Survey________________________ 10

Productivity _____________________________________________ 11

Problems_______________________________________________ 11

Cost _____________________________.....__._________________________________________________ 13

Economic benefits __________________________________________ 14

Map sales ____________________________________________ 14

Mineral commodities_____________________________________ 15

\_/Oc*l________________________________________________________ __ _________ J-D

Oil and gas_________________________________________ 18

Fluorspar ___________________________________________ 19

Clay ____________________________________________ 19

Engineering geology _____________________________________ 19

Environmental geology and land-use planning_______________________ 20

Industrial location ______________________________________ 21

Conclusion___________________________________________ 21

References ___________________ _________________________ 21

ILLUSTRATIONS

FIGURE 1. Status of areal geologic mapping in Kentucky, prior to beginning of statewide areal

mapping program_________________________________ 3

2. Index map of Kentucky showing location of field offices _____________ 5

3. Length of assignments to Kentucky Branch ____________________ 7

4. Graph illustrating relationship between production of maps and size of professional staff ____________________________________ 12

5. Geologic quadrangle maps reordered by the Kentucky Geological Survey in fiscal

years 1972 through 1977 __________________________________________________________ 16

6. Comparison of coal production in eastern Kentucky with that of adjacent 

States of the Appalachian coal field since the beginning of the mapping 

program ________________________________________ 18

TABLES

Page

TABLE 1. Number of U.S. Geological Survey employees that have been assigned to the

cooperative mapping program __________________________ 6

2. Professional manpower assigned to the cooperative mapping program by the U.S.

Geological Survey _________________________________ 6

3. Cost of the Kentucky Geological Survey U.S. Geological Survey Cooperative Mapping Program ______________________________________ 14

III
Geologic Mapping of Kentucky A History and

Evaluation of the Kentucky Geological Survey U.S

Geological Survey Mapping Program, 1960-1978

By Earle R. Cressman and Martin C. Noger

ABSTRACT

In 1960, the U.S. Geological Survey and the Kentucky Geological Survey began a program to map the State geologically at a 

scale of 1:24,000 and to publish the maps as 707 U.S. Geological 

Survey Geologic Quadrangle Maps. Fieldwork was completed 

by the spring of 1977, and all maps were published by December 

1978.

Geologic mapping of the State was proposed by the Kentucky 

Society of Professional Engineers in 1959. Wallace W. Hagan, 

Director and State Geologist of the Kentucky Geological Survey, and Preston McGrain, Assistant State Geologist, promoted 

support for the proposal among organizations such as Chambers of Commerce, industrial associations, professional societies, and among members of the State government. It was also 

arranged for the U.S. Geological Survey to supply mapping 

personnel and to publish the maps; the cost would be shared 

equally by the two organizations.

Members of the U.S. Geological Survey assigned to the program were organized as the Branch of Kentucky Geology. 

Branch headquarters, including an editorial staff, was at Lexington, Ky., but actual mapping was conducted from 18 field 

offices distributed throughout the State. The Publications Division of the U.S. Geological Survey established a cartographic 

office at Lexington to prepare the maps for publication.

About 260 people, including more than 200 professionals, 

were assigned to the Branch of Kentucky Geology by the U.S. 

Geological Survey at one time or another. The most geologists 

assigned any one year was 61. To complete the mapping and 

ancillary studies, 661 professional man-years were required, 

compared with an original estimate of 600 man-years.

A wide variety of field methods were used, but most geologists relied on the surveying altimeter to obtain elevations. 

Surface data were supplemented by drill-hole records, and 

several dozen shallow diamond-drill holes were drilled to aid 

the mapping. Geologists generally scribed their own maps, 

with a consequent saving of publication costs.

Paleontologists and stratigraphers of the U.S. Geological 

Survey cooperated closely with the program. Paleontologic 

studies were concentrated in the Ordovician of central Kentucky, the Pennsylvanian of eastern and western Kentucky, 

and the Mesozoic and Cenozoic of westernmost Kentucky.

In addition to financial support, the Kentucky Geological Survey provided economic data, stratigraphic support, and drillhole records to the field offices. Geologists of the State Survey 

made subsurface structural interpretations, constructed bedrock topography maps, and mapped several quadrangles.

Some of the problems encountered were the inadequacy of 

much of the existing stratigraphic nomenclature, the uneven

quality of some of the mapping, and the effects of relative 

isolation on the professional development of some of the 

geologists.

The program cost a total of $20,927,500. In terms of 1960 

dollars, it cost $16,035,000; this compares with an original estimate of $12,000,000.

Although it is difficult to place a monetary value on the 

geologic mapping, the program has contributed to newly discovered mineral wealth, jobs, and money saved by government 

and industry. The maps are used widely in the exploration for 

coal, oil and gas, fluorspar, limestone, and clay. The maps are 

also used in planning highways and locations of dams, in evaluating foundation and excavation conditions, in preparing environmental impact statements, and in land-use planning.

PURPOSE OF THIS REPORT

In 1960, the U.S. Geological Survey and the 

Kentucky Geological Survey began a cooperative 

program to map geologically the entire State of 

Kentucky, an area of 40,400 square miles (104,636 

km2), at a scale of 1:24,000. The maps were to be 

published as 707 U.S. Geological Survey Geologic 

Quadrangle Maps. Fieldwork was completed by 

spring 1977, and all maps were published by the 

end of December 1978.

The Kentucky Cooperative Mapping program 

was unprecedented in terms of money, manpower, 

and time devoted to large-scale geologic mapping; 

and considering budget and manpower restraints, 

changing National priorities, and changing concepts of the proper missions of the U.S. Geological 

Survey, it is unlikely that similar projects will be 

undertaken in the foreseeable future. Nevertheless, it is appropriate, while participants and records are still available, to relate the origins of the 

program and the methods of operation, to summarize the costs, and to enumerate the economic 

benefits.

ORIGINS OF THE PROGRAM

This section is based partly on an article by Wallace W. Hagan (1961), Director and State Geologist
of the Kentucky Survey, and partly on information 

in the files of the Branch of Kentucky Geology of 

the U.S. Geological Survey.

In 1949, the U.S. Geological Survey and the Kentucky Geological Survey entered into a program to 

produce complete topographic coverage of the 

State at a scale of 1:24,000. The program was promoted by the Kentucky Chamber of Commerce on 

the advice of the State Geologist, the late Daniel J. 

Jones. The mapping was completed by the late 

1950's, and the topographic maps proved invaluable in promoting industrial development.

Though Kentucky had complete topographic 

coverage by 1959, the status of geologic mapping 

(fig. 1) was woefully inadequate for a State containing so much mineral wealth. County geologic 

maps at a scale of 1:62,500 were available for about 

two-thirds of the State, but less than one-third 

were available in printed form. The county maps 

were mostly on planimetric bases, and although 

the quality of the mapping varied, most was of a 

reconnaissance nature. Furthermore, in many of 

the areas, the units mapped were biostratigraphic 

or chronostratigraphic and did not adequately 

portray the lithologic character of the bedrock. In 

the eastern Kentucky coal field, several 7V6- 

minute quadrangles had been mapped and published by members of the Fuels Branch of the U.S. 

Geological Survey; two quadrangles had been 

mapped in a clay study by members of the Mineral 

Deposits Branch of the U.S. Geological Survey, but 

were as yet unpublished. These projects were part 

of a cooperative program between the State and 

Federal Surveys.

On February 21, 1959, the Kentucky Society of 

Professional Engineers, impressed by the utility of 

recently completed topographic maps, passed a 

resolution urging the preparation of a geologic 

map of the State. The resolution was presented to 

Governor A. B. Chandler, the Kentucky Legislative Research Commission, the Kentucky Department of Economic Development, the Kentucky 

Chamber of Commerce, and the Kentucky Geological Survey. W. W. Hagan, who had been appointed 

State Geologist and Director of the Kentucky Geological Survey in 1958, then contacted the Kentucky Department of Economic Development, 

which gave support to the proposal. Recognizing 

that the U.S. Geological Survey was the only organization with sufficiently trained manpower to 

undertake such a large geologic mapping program, 

Hagan contacted T. B. Nolan, Director of the U.S. 

Geological Survey, by letter in March. At Nolan's

suggestion, Hagan met in April with Associate Director A. A. Baker and Chief Geologist W. H. Bradley of the U.S. Geological Survey, who expressed 

interest in the proposal. Hagan and Preston McGrain, Assistant State Geologist, then sought and 

received endorsements for the program from the 

Kentucky Geological Survey Advisory Board, the 

Kentucky Chamber of Commerce, local Chambers 

of Commerce, the Kentucky Oil and Gas Association, the Indiana-Kentucky Geological Society, 

the Kentucky Geological Society, the University of 

Kentucky, the Chesapeake and Ohio and Louisville 

and Nashville Railroads, Reynolds Metals, coal 

company operators, and the clay and fluorspar industries. He also received support from officials in 

the administration of Governor Chandler, who 

was in the last year of his term.

It is obvious from the above list of supporters 

that the main selling point of the program was the 

value of geologic maps in finding and exploiting 

mineral deposits and in promoting industrial 

development.

From July 10 to 17,1959, Hagan met with various members of the U.S. Geological Survey in 

Washington, where a tentative agreement was 

reached on the scope, methods of operation, and 

finances. Both parties agreed on a 10-year program, during which time the entire State would be 

mapped at a scale of 1:24,000. The maps were to 

meet the standards already established by the 

Geologic and Water Resources Divisions of the 

U.S. Geological Survey for general geologic maps 

and to be published as multicolored maps. 1 The 

cost of the entire program was estimated to be 

$12,000,000, with the two organizations sharing 

the cost equally. The Kentucky Geological Survey 

was to include $900,000 for the program in the 

State biennial budget ($300,000 for Fiscal Year 

1961 and $600,000 for Fiscal Year 1962); and the 

U.S. Geological Survey was to seek matching funds.

In January 1960, Bert Combs was inaugurated 

as Governor of Kentucky. One of the major concerns of the new administration was the chronic 

economic depression in several parts of the State,

1 The standards, promulgated in a memorandum by the Chief Geologist of the U.S. 

Geological Survey in 1956, included the following: (l)The mapping should be on a 

scale of 1:63,360 or larger. (2) A topographic base is essential. Planimetry, contour 

interval, and detail of contouring should meet the standards established by the 

Federal Board of Surveys and Maps. (3) All geologically significant units mappable 

at the scale should be shown. "Mappable" refers to that which can be identified by 

the field geologist using lens and pick, but little else in the way of special chemical, 

paleontologic, or other analyses. (4) Structure should be adequately portrayed. (5) 

Explanation should be concise and express the distinctive characteristics and principal variations in lithology of map units and also in thickness. (6) The accuracy of 

location of faults and contacts shonld be shown by appropriate symbols. (7) Geologic 

interpretations should be internally consistent.
if

03 CO£U OI-J H(»3 , ii

ifSB "2

II

EXPLANATION 

Geologic maps available in printed form

Geologic maps available in blueline form 

Geologic maps published but out of print

Areas never mapped and areas covered 

by inadequate small-scale maps

0 10 20 30 40 50 MILES

I I i___|___| il r

0 10 20 30 40 50 KILOMETERS

v WEST VIRGINIA

J

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VIRGINIA
and Lieutenant Governor Wilson Wyatt undertook 

economic development as his prime responsibility. 

Hagan discussed the mapping proposal with 

Wyatt, who became a firm supporter. The State 

budget, containing the requested appropriation, 

was approved without change by the State legislature in March.

The supplemental appropriation of $300,000 requested by the U.S. Geological Survey was approved by Congress with the support of Senator 

John Sherman Cooper of Kentucky near the end of 

August; and the cooperative agreement between 

the two Surveys was signed on September 2,1960. 

By the end of November, 30 geologists from the 

U.S. Geological Survey had been assigned to the 

project, and mapping was underway.

In summary, several factors were responsible 

for the initiation of the mapping program. Three 

factors, apparent from the above discussion were: 

(1) The initiative of the Kentucky Society of Professional Engineers, who recognized the potential 

value of geologic maps and proposed that the State 

be mapped; (2) the acumen of the State Geologist, 

who seized on the opportunity presented by the 

resolution of the Kentucky Society of Professional 

Engineers and promoted support among a wide 

variety of influential organizations; and (3) the advent of a State administration committed to improving the economy of Kentucky.

OPERATIONS

Although the supplemental appropriation required to finance the first year of the program was 

not passed by Congress until the end of August 

1960 and the cooperative agreement was not 

signed until September 2,1960, the program actually started on July 1 of that year with the arrival 

of A. D. Zapp in Lexington to take charge of the 

project for the U.S. Geological Survey. Fieldmen 

began arriving in the State later in July.

Organizationally within the U.S. Geological 

Survey, the Kentucky program was given Branch 

status within the Regional Geology Subactivity, 

which was later changed to the Office of Environmental Geology. The program was administered 

as a single project, with the Branch Chief also 

serving as Project Chief. The Branch Chiefs and 

their tenures are listed below:

A. D. Zapp ________ July 1960 to March 1961 

P. W. Richards ______ April 1961 to June 1970 

W. W. Olive__.____________._ July 1970 to June 1975

E. R. Cressman ___July 1975 to September 1978

Richards was Branch Chief during the early 

stages when many of the policies and procedures 

were developed, and he maintained the program 

on schedule for 9 years; by the end of his tenure, 

two-thirds of the state had been mapped. He deserves a large share of the credit for the success of 

the program.

Branch headquarters was established at Lexington. The headquarters staff consisted of the 

Branch Chief, an Administrative Officer, a secretary, and a clerk. In addition, a Technical Reports 

Unit was established at Branch Headquarters to 

edit maps (but not manuscripts), prior to Branch 

Chief approval. The Technical Reports Unit consisted of an editor, assisted at various times 

during the project by an assistant editor or by 

geologists assigned to editorial duties for short 

periods. Editors in charge of the Technical Reports 

Unit and their dates of tenure are as follows:

D. E. Wolcott__ September 1961 to August 1964 

W C Swadley ___September 1964 to July 1966 

J. S. Pomeroy _____ August 1966 to April 1968 

D. F. B. Black____ May 1968 to December 1970 

R. C. McDowell __ January 1970 to February 1971 

F. R. Shawe_______..._.___ March 1971 to July 1973

D. B. Weir ____ August 1973 to November 1977

Two of the editors deserved special mention because of their work during the critical circumstances when they served. Wolcott and Branch 

Chief P. W. Richards were largely responsible for 

setting the standards and procedures for reviewing and editing that were followed throughout 

the program. Weir, who had been assistant map 

editor for a number of years, did a particularly 

commendable job in processing the large number 

of maps submitted toward the end of the program.

The Branch of Technical Illustrations (subsequently the Branch of Cartography) of the Publications Division of the U.S. Geological Survey 

established a cartographic office (Kentucky Project Office) at the Lexington headquarters office to 

prepare the maps for publication. The cartographic office was, of course, administratively independent from the Branch of Kentucky Geology. 

J. T. Hopkins, Jr., Chief of the Kentucky Project 

Office from 1960 to 1969, was largely responsible 

for establishing the procedures for preparing the 

maps for publication. These procedures, described 

by Hopkins (1977), insured timely publication of a 

uniform, high-quality product. Hopkins was succeeded as chief by E. J. Gimpel, Jr., who served 

from 1969 to 1978. The location of the cartographic 

office at the Branch headquarters had many 

advantages, the chief of which was the direct
communication possible between the draftsmen, 

the map editor, and the geologists.

The fieldwork was conducted from small offices 

established in various parts of the State. Each field 

office was headed by a Geologist-in-Charge, who 

served as liaison with the Branch Chief, assigned 

mapping priorities and assignments within his 

area, selected technical reviewers for maps submitted by the geologists in his office, and performed minor administrative chores. During the 

life of the project, there was a total of 18 field

offices (fig. 2), though the most in operation at one 

time was 15 in 1962. When the area of easy access 

from a field office had been mapped, the office was 

closed and another was opened in an unmapped 

part of the State. By the late 1960's, the construction of toll roads and interstate highways made 

larger areas accessible to the field offices, and frequent moves were no longer required.

The size of the professional staff of the field 

offices averaged four or five geologists. Several 

offices early in the project headquartered seven

OHIO

ILLINOIS

37

LW> 

TENNESSEE

83°

VIRGINIA

13.

50 100 MILES

50 100 KILOMETERS

Field office

1. Ashland

2. Berea

3. Bowling Green

4. Columbia

5. Corbin

6. Elizabethtown

7. Erlanger

8. Flemingsburg

9. Hazard

10. Hopkinsville

11. Lexington

12. Madisonville

13. Middlesboro

14. Owensboro

15. Paducah

16. Pikeville

17. Princeton

18. Somerset

Date opened

November 1960 

July 1961 

October 1960 

November 1960 

November 1960 

February 1961 

September 1966 

March 1962 

September 1962 

October 1962 

September 1961 

January 1962 

September 1966 

October 1961 

November 1960 

October 1960 

August 1960 

September 1965

FIGURE 2. Index map of Kentucky showing location of field offices.

Date dosed

June 1964 

June 1971 

June 1977 

August 1965 

November 1963 

June 1969 

June 1977 

July 1967 

June 1964 

June 1966 

September 1978 

June 1977 

October 1974 

September 1978 

June 1972 

July 1968 

October 1972 

June 1977
geologists. The Lexington Field Office in the last 

few years housed 10 geologists. In addition to the 

professionals, two of the field offices employed 

part-time secretaries.

STAFFING

About 260 people, including more than 200 professionals, were assigned to the mapping program 

by the U.S. Geological Survey at one time or another (table 1). Twenty-four of the professionals 

were newly hired; the rest were transferred from 

other Branches in the Geologic Division. The professional manpower is listed by fiscal year in 

table 2.

TABLE 1. Number of U.S. Geological Survey employees, excluding cartographic personnel, that have been assigned to the cooperative mapping program

Mapping personnel

Professional:

Full-time ......_.................__________ 94

Full-time, temporary duty _________ 67 

Part-time __. _._ _ ... ... . 35

Total____________________________________ 196

Subprofessional:

Full-time ______________________________________ 20

Part-time ____________________ 19

Total. 39

Nonmapping personnel

Professional:

Full-time __________________________________ 7

Part-time___________________ 2 

Members of Paleontology and Stratigraphy 

Branch. ____________________ 14

Total.._____________--__ .___.___ 23

Administrative and clerical:

Full-time ____________________ 13

Part-time ___________________ 10

Total. 23

Grand Total ___________________ 2811

'Inasmuch as some people are included in two categories, the actual total is 

about 260.

For as many as half the years of the project, the 

full-time professional staff headquartered in Kentucky was less than that which could have been 

supported by the budget and less than that required to keep the mapping on schedule. It was, 

therefore, necessary to assign a number of geologists headquartered elsewhere to temporary duty 

in Kentucky. These men generally spent enough 

time in the State to complete the fieldwork on one 

quadrangle.

TABLE 2 Professional manpower assigned to the cooperative 

mapping program by the U.S. Geological Survey, listed by 

fiscal year

[Leaders ( _ ) indicate not estimated]

Fiscal Year

1961______________________.

1962_______________________

1963_______________________

1964______________________.

1965_____________________._

1966_______________________

1967

1968_______________________

1969_______________________

1970_______________________

1971_______________________

1972___________________.___

1973 __________________

1974_______________________

1975_______________________

1976____________..__.__..__

1977 _____________________

1978

Professional

Original 

estimate

30

.___________-_- 60

 _-_ __ 70

-__._______- 70

70

 _ ___ 70

_-______ _-__. 70

. ._____ 70

______________ 60

________________ 30

man-years

Actual 1

30

61

61

56

41

38

38

41

37

35

33

30

30

30

32

32

25

11

Total 600 661

1 The differences between estimated and actual professional man-years resulted 

from a reduction of the State appropriation in FY-65 and the consequent lengthening of the program.

The use of faculty members from nearby universities as part-time mappers had several advantages. These men contributed significantly to the 

progress of the program, but more importantly 

they served as contacts with the various geology 

departments. The faculty members became more 

aware of the geologic problems in the State and 

were thus able to direct both their own research 

and that of their students into more fruitful areas. 

In turn, the results of the university research became available to the full-time members of the 

program.

Figure 3 summarizes the length of assignments 

of full-time professionals to Kentucky. About twothirds of the geologists headquartered in the State 

were transferred elsewhere after an assignment of 

4 years or less. However, about one-third of these 

transfers resulted from a reduction in the level of 

funding in the State biennium of fiscal years 1965 

and 1966.

PROCEDURES

FIELD METHODS

Most of Kentucky is underlain by nearly horizontal sedimentary rocks of Paleozoic age, but the 

different parts of the State vary widely in the type 

and stratigraphic complexity of the bedrock,
30-i

C/5

o

LU

O

cc

UJ 

CD 10-

0 1 8 9 10 

YEARS

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

FIGURE 3. Length of assignments to Kentucky Branch.

amount of faulting, degree of exposure, topography, and vegetation. Furthermore, each geologist 

assigned to the State came with a unique combination of temperament, education, and experience. 

Field methods, therefore, were varied. Nevertheless, the common map scale of 1:24,000, the constraints of the format of the geologic quadrangle 

maps, and the interchange of information and experience between geologists resulted in some common procedures.

The base maps were, as previously described, 

U.S. Geological Survey 7^-minute topographic 

quadrangle maps, most with a contour interval of 

10 or 20 ft, though in the more mountainous parts 

of eastern Kentucky the interval was 40 ft. Inasmuch as structure contours were to be shown, elevations of field stations were determined to 

within one-half of a contour interval. A wide 

variety of methods were used to locate the positions of field stations; but most geologists found 

the use of the surveying altimeter the most practical way of attaining the required accuracy. In 

areas where bench marks were sparse, the altimeter was used in conjunction with a barograph that 

was located at a base station. Where differences in 

elevation were small, many geologists obtained elevations by hand leveling from bench marks or 

other points of known elevation.

Correcting altimeter readings for diurnal pressure changes and for temperature is timeconsuming. In an attempt to attain the required 

accuracy more expeditiously, one quadrangle was 

mapped on an orthophotographic base and another 

on rectified aerial photographs that have been corrected for the effects of tip and tilt the deviation 

of the film from the true horizontal at the time of 

exposure. The field stations were located on the 

photographs and transferred by overlay to the topographic base map. Both methods were satisfactory in areas of gentle topography, but where 

topographic contours were closely spaced, locations 

could not be transferred from either type of photograph to the topographic base with sufficient 

accuracy to obtain elevations within the required 

one-half of a contour interval. The use of either 

orthophotographs or rectified photographs would 

have been appropriate in many other areas of gentle topography, but the cost of the photographs 

proved prohibitive.

The number of field stations occupied in a quadrangle ranged from a few hundred to a few thousand, depending on the abundance of exposures,
the complexity of the geology, and the predilections of the geologist. For each quadrangle, there 

is an optimum number of field stations beyond 

which the increase in accuracy of the map is not 

commensurate with the additional effort; this 

optimum number can be determined only by 

experience.

Drill-hole information from published reports, 

logs on file at the Kentucky Geological Survey, and 

data made available from private sources, especially coal companies, were very useful in constructing the maps. The data were used in drawing 

structure contours, in determining thickness of 

poorly exposed strata, and in analyzing facies 

changes. Locations reported for many of the older 

holes were in error, and the data generally could 

be used with confidence only if the locations could 

be confirmed in the field.

Several dozen shallow diamond-drill holes were 

drilled to obtain cores in areas where rocks were 

poorly exposed and older data were few or unobtainable. These data proved extremely useful for 

the purposes just described. Gamma-ray logs 

made by members of the Water Resources Division of the U.S. Geological Survey of water wells 

in several parts of central Kentucky also proved 

useful for the same purposes.

In much of the western Kentucky coal field and 

adjacent parts of western Kentucky near the Ohio 

River, the bedrock is very poorly exposed and commonly mantled by Pleistocene lacustrine deposits 

and loess. Fortunately, many holes have been 

drilled in that area, and the geologists were able to 

supplement the meager surface data with the 

abundant subsurface information. Several geologists of the Kentucky Geological Survey were engaged nearly full-time in gathering and compiling 

all the available drill-hole data. The information 

supplied by these men was invaluable to the 

mappers.

Mapping in the Jackson Purchase region, that 

part of Kentucky west of the Tennessee River and 

within the Mississippi embayment, posed special 

problems. The strata there consist of Upper Cretaceous and Lower Tertiary sand and clay, 

surficial gravel of Miocene(?) to Pleistocene age, 

and a blanket of Pleistocene loess. A truckmounted auger was used extensively to determine 

the configuration of the bedrock surface and the 

geology below the gravel deposits and loess mantle. The microflora and fauna were very useful in 

identifying the formations. Structure contours 

could not be shown because of the sparse data, but

contours were drawn instead on the erosional surface cut on rocks of Eocene, Paleocene, Late Cretaceous, and Paleozoic age; that is, at the base of 

the surficial deposits. These contours are not only 

useful in interpreting late Cenozoic history, but 

also have been used by drilling companies in predicting drilling costs of water wells.

COMPILATION AND PREPARATION 

FOR PRINTING

Because exposures are sparse in much of Kentucky and because structure contours were to be 

shown on the published maps, it was generally 

impossible to draw contacts in the field in a manner that would subsequently permit construction 

of reasonable structure contours without considerably altering the projected contacts. The maps 

were, therefore, largely constructed in the office.

Plotted on a topographic base, a geologic map in 

an area of gently dipping rocks can easily be 

checked for internal consistency: The contoured 

horizon must agree at all intersecting points with 

the topographic contours, the attitudes shown on 

the map must also be consistent with the structure 

contours, and the thicknesses given for units in the 

columnar section must match the thicknesses 

shown on the geologic map. This concept of internal consistency might seem elementary and selfevident, but it was novel to a surprising number of 

geologists.

To insure internal consistency, structurecontour maps were commonly drawn of all contacts and isopach maps made of all intervals. 

Geologic contacts were then located by placing the 

topographic base over the structure-contour map 

of each horizon and drawing a line on the base map 

at the elevations indicated by the structure contours. Where the mapped units maintained a uniform thickness throughout the quadrangle, 

isopachous maps were, of course, not needed, and 

observed elevations could be projected from all 

contacts to the contoured horizon. In some areas, 

such as parts of the eastern Kentucky coal field, 

thicknesses of mapped units are too erratic to enable the construction of meaningful isopachous 

maps for an area the size of a 7 V^-minute 

quadrangle.

The format of the geologic quadrangle map had 

been decided in considerable detail in the discussions between the two Surveys before the program began. In order to insure both adherence to 

the format and an expeditious flow through the 

editorial mill, guidelines for map preparation and

8
processing were worked out and distributed to all 

personnel. These were briefly described by Hopkins (1969).

A notable feature of the procedure was that 

nearly every geologist was required to scribe his 

own map. This had several advantages: Though 

few geologists enjoyed scribing, most agreed that 

it was faster and considerably more accurate than 

inking. The composite print made from the scribecoat and a negative of the base, when colored and 

labeled, made excellent, clear review copy. Finally, 

if the geologist's scribing was accepted by the 

Branch of Cartography as final copy, an average of 

60 hours per map and one-fifth the cost of preparation for printing was saved. During the midyears 

of the project, about 65 percent of the authors' 

scribecoats were acceptable and the money saved 

thereby amounted to at least $25,000 a year. In the 

last few years, the acceptance rate dropped to less 

than 20 percent. This was largely because many of 

the maps were submitted by part-time employees 

or geologists, who were inexperienced scribers, on 

temporary duty from other Branches.

ROLE OF THE PALEONTOLOGY 

AND STRATIGRAPHY BRANCH

The rocks exposed in Kentucky are almost entirely sedimentary, and fossils are commonly 

abundant and conspicuous. The desirability of 

paleontologic support was, therefore, recognized 

from the beginning of the program. Accordingly, 

the program financed eight full-time and six parttime paleontologists and preparators of the 

Branch of Paleontology and Stratigraphy of the 

U.S. Geological Survey for a combined total of 30.7 

man-years. Much more work on Kentucky fossils 

was supported entirely by the Branch of Paleontology and Stratigraphy. Age assignments and 

correlations suggested by reports on referred fossils were useful in all parts of the State. Mackenzie 

Gordon, Jr., was particularly helpful; he not only 

reported on a large number of referred fossil collections from Mississippian and Pennsylvanian 

rocks, but also visited the mappers in the field on 

several occasions. The paleontologic work was of 

particular value in the Cretaceous and Cenozoic of 

the Jackson Purchase region of westernmost Kentucky, the Ordovician in central and northern 

Kentucky, and the Pennsylvanian of the eastern 

and western coal fields.

In the Jackson Purchase region, the identifications of the Cretaceous and Tertiary formations

were in large measure made possible by palynological studies by R. H. Tschudy that were conducted concurrently with mapping, under the 

leadership of W. W. Olive of the Branch of Kentucky Geology. This joint effort resulted in significant revisions of the stratigraphy and in revised 

dating of the initiation of the Mississippi embayment. Tschudy also provided much information indicative of the environment of deposition of 

the geologic units.

In addition to its purely scientific value, 

Tschudy's work, combined with stratigraphic and 

mineralogic investigations by Olive and Finch 

(1969), has economic application. The region is a 

source of ceramic-grade clay and, as indicated by 

pollen, most commercial clay deposits are in the 

middle and upper parts of the Claiborne Formation of Eocene age; clays in the other mapped 

formations contain too much montmorillonite to 

be of commercial value. Thus, the geologic maps 

showing the distribution of the Claiborne, made 

possible by the palynological studies, are extremely useful guides in prospecting for clays.

The Ordovician of central and northern Kentucky and of adjacent parts of Ohio and Indiana 

has been considered classic since the latter part of 

the 19th century, and the Upper Ordovician section of the Cincinnati region has long been the 

standard for North America. Most of the stratigraphic units recognized in these rocks had been 

defined largely on the basis of their fauna, in 

accord with the common practice of the time. 

However, few fossil collections described in the 

literature were gathered from carefully measured 

sections, the taxonomy was mostly that of the turn 

of the century, and biostratigraphic zones had 

never been established; thus, the section was a 

rather frail standard. Using these considerations, 

Branch Chief P. W. Richards recognized that the 

mapping should be accompanied by paleontologic 

and stratigraphic studies. Accordingly, R. J. Ross, 

Jr., John Pojeta, Jr., R. B. Neuman, 0. L. Karklins, 

E. L. Yochelson, J. M. Berdan, and W. A. Oliver, Jr., 

all of the Paleontology and Stratigraphy Branch, 

and W. C. Sweet and Stig Bergstrom of Ohio State 

University visited the State on a number of occasions and collected rocks from sections measured 

by the fieldmen. Approximately 12 tons of rock 

containing silicified fossils were collected from the 

Lexington Limestone of Middle and Late Ordovician age, and a large number of collections of 

unsilicified material were made from the Upper 

Ordovician rocks throughout their outcrop belt in
Kentucky. On the published geologic quadrangle 

maps, the locations of the collections were shown 

on the map, the stratigraphic position was given 

on the column, and the identifications were given 

in the text. As a result of close communication and 

cooperation between the paleontologists and the 

field mappers, the fossil collections were firmly 

keyed to a lithostratigraphic framework that was 

based on measured sections tied together by mapping. (See Cressman, 1973, pi. 1-6, for an example.)

As of this writing, studies of the collections 

from the Ordovician made by more than a dozen 

specialists are still in progress; seven such studies 

are in U.S. Geological Survey Professional paper 

1066 (published as Alberstadt, 1979; Ball, 1979; 

Branstrator, 1979; Howe, 1979; Pojeta, 1979; Ross, 

1979; Sweet, 1979). When completed, these studies 

will modernize the taxonomy and will establish a 

zonal scheme that will provide a vastly improved 

basis for comparison with other areas. Both the 

improved taxonomy and the zonation, when combined with the lithostratigraphic data, will serve 

as a basis for paleoecological interpretations. We 

emphasize that the close collaboration between 

the paleontologists and the mappers has proven 

invaluable to both.

The correlation of coal beds in the Pennsylvanian of eastern Kentucky, important for both 

economic and scientific purposes, is difficult because of poor exposures, the large number of thin 

coal beds, the discontinuity of some, and the splitting of others. Beginning in 1963 and extending 

throughout the life of the program, R. H. Kosanke 

of the Paleontology and Stratigraphy Branch 

processed a large number of coal samples for 

spores, and his reports have been of much assistance in correlating the beds. R. C. Douglass, also 

of the Paleontology and Stratigraphy Branch, has 

dated a number of limestone units from both the 

eastern and western Kentucky coal fields on the 

basis of their fusulinids. As a result of Douglass' 

investigations in the western coal field where the 

rocks are poorly exposed, some limestone units as 

mapped in the field have been found to be miscorrelated; the revised correlations will be most 

helpful in the summary report on that area. Douglass' work has also resulted in a more refined 

correlation between the two coal fields.

CONTRIBUTIONS BY THE KENTUCKY 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

In addition to the conception, initiation, and 

continuing financial support of the program, the

Kentucky Geological Survey provided economic 

data, stratigraphic support, and drill-hole records 

to field offices. Geologists of the State Survey 

supervised core-drilling and augering projects, 

constructed bedrock-topography maps, made subsurface structural interpretations, mapped several quadrangles, prepared county economic 

reports, microfilmed field notes, and collected 

maps showing the locations of field stations.

At the start of the program, data on known economically important units and potential undeveloped mineral resources of the Commonwealth 

were supplied to each field office. Drill-hole records 

were also supplied to field offices for use in 

projecting mapped contacts and faults and in collating oil and gas data. In the early stages of the 

program, field conferences were held to acquaint 

newly assigned geologists with the nomenclature 

and stratigraphic framework, and throughout the 

program stratigraphic information was provided 

from detailed studies being conducted by Kentucky Geological Survey geologists.

Several times during the program, diamondcore drilling and augering projects were conducted 

to obtain subsurface information for use in constructing the geologic maps. Kentucky Geological 

Survey personnel contracted and supervised the 

core-drilling operations and assisted in some of 

the augering and logging of holes in the Jackson 

Purchase and Owensboro areas of western Kentucky. The Water Resources Division of the U.S. 

Geological Survey supplied wire-line logging 

equipment, and its personnel assisted in obtaining 

logs of some of the core holes.

In the Owensboro field office, Kentucky Geological Survey geologists and geologic assistants prepared maps showing the bedrock topography in 

areas where the bedrock was concealed by large 

areas of surficial deposits. Where sufficient data 

were available, the location of selected coal beds 

beneath alluvial deposits were shown. They also 

made the subsurface structural interpretations 

for some geologic maps. The bedrock maps were 

constructed at a scale of 1:24,000 and were printed 

on transparent material so they could be overlain 

on the geologic maps. The maps were printed by 

the U.S. Geological Survey as part of its Miscellaneous Geologic Investigation Series. Indexes of 

test holes and maps at a scale of 1:24,000 showing 

their locations were prepared from the data used 

in the subsurface interpretations and are openfiled at the Henderson office of the Kentucky 

Geological Survey. Also available from the State

10
Survey is a map at a scale of 1:48,000 showing 

locations of drill holes in the southern part of Ohio 

County.

During the latter part of the program, geologists of the State Survey mapped some quadrangles in eastern Kentucky.

Kentucky Geological Survey personnel have 

prepared or have in progress a new series of 

county economic reports based in part on data 

gathered as part of the mapping program. Reports 

have been published for Alien, Galloway, Hancock, 

Marshall, and Warren Counties (Branson, 1966; 

McGrain, 1968; McGrain and others, 1970; McGrain, 1970; McGrain and Sutton, 1973). The 

McCracken County report was published in 1979 

(McGrain, 1979).

Kentucky Geological Survey personnel have 

microfilmed original field notes. These microfilms 

and the maps showing the locations of field stations are on file and available for inspection at the 

office of the Kentucky Geological Survey in 

Lexington.

The following Kentucky Geological Survey personnel were at one time or another assigned primarily to the mapping program: E. R. Branson, 

M. 0. Smith, and M. C. Noger, Program Coordinators; J. M. Poteet, L. R. Ponsetto, W. E. Jackson, 

R. G. Ping, G. J. Grabowski, R. E. Sergeant, 

Geologists; and J. C. Kerns, D. K. Tully, and J. L. 

Kenkler, Geologic Assistants, Lexington; and A. S. 

Smith and R. N. Norris, Geologists, and G. E. 

Carpenter and T. Ball, Geologic Assistants, 

Owensboro.

PRODUCTIVITY

Figure 4 illustrates the cumulative number of 

geologic quadrangle reports and the cumulative 

professional man-years for the life of the mapping 

program. A comparison of the two curves shows 

that the rate of production varied only slightly 

from the average of 1.1 geologic quadrangle reports per man-year for the entire program (excluding 11 man-years in fiscal year 1978 that were 

devoted largely to the preparation of summary 

reports). Figure 4 indicates an increasing productivity in the first few years; a fall in productivity, stabilizing at one report per man-year in 

the middle years; and an increase in the years following 1972 as the planned data of completion 

approached.

The productivity for different individuals 

ranged from one quadrangle every 4 years to two

quadrangles a year. The rate of mapping might 

have been expected to differ with the complexity of 

geology, but in fact the variation between geologists in the same field office was greater than the 

variation between field offices.

PROBLEMS

No large program is entirely free of problems, 

and the Kentucky Cooperative Mapping program 

was no exception. Now that the work is complete, 

most of the problems encountered, even those that 

appeared severe at the time seem minor. Nevertheless, we will discuss some of these problems and 

indicate actions that we believe might have ameliorated them, with the hope that others might 

benefit from our experience.

Inasmuch as a cooperative program of this scope 

was unprecedented, it was inevitable that some 

friction should develop between personnel of the 

U.S. Geological Survey and of the Kentucky Geological Survey. On the administrative level, some 

conflicts arose over the scope of authority and responsibility of the Chief of the Branch of Kentucky 

Geology and the Program Coordinator for the 

Kentucky Geological Survey. The contract 

between the two organizations was short and general, allowing considerable room for interpretation, and many details had to be hammered out 

through experience. We doubt that these conflicts 

could have been entirely avoided, but we can assure others that such problems can be overcome 

and that close and effective cooperation can be 

established.

Some antagonism developed in the early years 

of the program between members of the two Surveys at the field level. Some members of the 

Branch of Kentucky Geology, most of whom were 

experienced geologists, resented what they considered to be interference by some members of the 

State Survey, whereas some members of the State 

Survey felt that their opinions, based on their 

longer experience in the State, were not adequately considered by members of the Federal 

Survey. As members of the two organizations became more familiar with the capabilities, personalities, and methods of operation of members of 

the other, the friction subsided, and close working 

relations developed. These close relations might 

have been established earlier, if some members of 

the State Survey could have been assigned at least 

part-time to actual field mapping along with the 

U.S. Geological Survey personnel.

11
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 Geologic quadrangle maps 

submitted to Branch

 Professional man-years

1961 1963 1965 1967 1969 1971 1973 1975

FISCAL YEAR 

FIGURE 4. Graph illustrating relationship between production of maps and size of professional staff.

1977

Problems of stratigraphic nomenclature caused 

many disputes in the early years and at one time 

seemed to threaten the existence of the program. 

Much of the existing nomenclature had been established early in the century, generally on the 

basis of stratigraphic studies that had a strong 

paleontologic component, and the formational 

units had never been tested by mapping at more 

than a reconnaissance scale. It was inevitable that 

parts of this nomenclature would prove inadequate for the type and scale of mapping planned 

for the program, and, indeed, the field geologists 

were soon proposing major revisions. Some of 

those geologists who had been educated in Kentucky and had most of their experience in the

State, but who were not directly involved in the 

mapping, opposed changes with a fervor that is 

commonly evoked by tinkering with an old and 

familiar nomenclature. The conflict between the 

field mappers and those attached to the existing 

nomenclature was finally resolved by revising the 

nomenclature when clearly required, but showing 

the older nomenclature by a separate column on 

the geologic quadrangle map.

The older stratigraphic nomenclature may have 

needed major overhaul, but no arrangements had 

been made for stratigraphic studies in advance of 

the mapping, possibly because it was assumed that 

the stratigraphy was already well known. Thus, a 

geologist mapping his quadrangle might find that

12
none of the units he could map were formally 

named. If his assignment was to map one or two 

7 ¥2-minute quadrangles, he was not able to judge 

the extent or regional significance of his individual 

map units. Furthermore, strata of the same age 

might be mapped from two or more field offices, 

but the stratigraphic relations between the areas 

might not be known. Coordinators were eventually 

designated for parts of the section where problems 

became especially severe, but the coordinators had 

no formal authority and their principal responsibilities remained geologic mapping. In hindsight, 

we believe that many problems could have been 

anticipated and avoided and much additional 

significant information generated if regional stratigraphy had been considered an integral part of 

the program from the beginning and if some geologists had been given stratigraphic studies as 

their principal assignment.

Rather strangely, the necessity for significant 

changes in stratigraphic nomenclature does not 

seem to have been anticipated in the negotiations 

that led to the program. It should have been obvious that the much more detailed scale of the mapping and advances in stratigraphic science would 

make many changes inevitable.

Geologic mapping involves a large amount of 

interpretation and, as noted by Harrison (1963, 

p. 225), a good geologic map is the result of 

research of a high order. Not all geologists are 

equally capable, and, naturally, the quality of 

maps produced by different geologists varies. The 

overall quality of the Kentucky maps is very high, 

but a few maps are definitely inadequate. In the 

following paragraphs, we will discuss a few procedures that we believe would have improved 

quality.

Like most other specialties in the profession, 

geologic mapping requires aptitudes that are not 

possessed by all, and those with the aptitude must 

develop proficiency through training and experience. Considering the varied backgrounds of men 

assigned to the program, we believe that the quality of the maps could have been improved and time 

saved in the long run by requiring training of all 

geologists in techniques of both mapping and compilation. We strongly recommend that such training be an integral part of any similar program 

initiated in the future.

The review and editorial system was admirably 

devised and conducted to insure internal consistency, but a map can be internally consistent and 

largely wrong. The only way to insure accuracy is

close field supervision and field checking, but the 

organization of the Kentucky program was such 

that only the Branch Chief had supervisory authority, and the demands on his time were such 

that he could not have actually supervised the 

fieldwork. In retrospect, we believe that formal 

supervisory authority should have been delegated 

to the Geologists-in-Charge of the field offices and 

that field checking should have been an integral 

part of the program.

The Federal and State Surveys had different, 

sometimes conflicting, viewpoints. For example, 

the U.S. Geological Survey prefers not to maintain 

small field offices and, if such offices are unavoidable, tries to rotate personnel frequently 

because a variety of assignments is considered 

essential to professional advancement. The State 

Survey, on the other hand, felt that geologists 

should remain in field offices for longer terms to 

benefit from the experience gained in the area. The 

matter was compromised, but for a variety of reasons no regular, consistent plan of rotation was 

developed. As predicted, long-term assignments 

did indeed have an adverse effect on the professional development of some of those who remained 

in Kentucky for many years, especially those headquartered in the smaller field offices. The lack of an 

easily accessible library, of laboratory facilities, 

and particularly of contact with geologists of 

different backgrounds and interests made it extremely difficult to keep informed on new developments in the science. Undoubtedly, both the 

mapping project and the careers of the men would 

have benefited from a regular, planned rotation. In 

the absence of rotation, the adverse effects could 

have been ameliorated by temporary duty assignments to projects in other States and by 

participation in short courses and other means of 

continuing education; but during much of the 

project, money was not available for such 

alternatives.

COST

The original estimate and the actual expenditures for the mapping program are listed in 

table 3. The overmatching by Federal funds from 

fiscal years 1973-1977 resulted from a change in 

the methods of assessment for administrative 

overhead by the U.S. Geological Survey.

The actual cost of the program in terms of 1960 

dollars was one-third greater than the original estimate. This resulted from the following factors: (l)The program required 661 professional

13
TABLE 3. Cost of the Kentucky Geological Survey U.S Geological Survey Cooperative Mapping Program

[Leaders ( _ ) indicate not estimated]

Kentucky 

fiscal year

1961 ___________

1962 ___________

1963 ___________

1964

1965 ___________

1966 ___________

1967.

1968 ___________

1969 ___________

1970 

1971 ___________

1972.

1973 ______ _

1974 ___________

1975 ___________

1976 ___________

1977

1978.

Total ______

Original 

estimate

______ 600,000

__._ 1,200,000

______ 1,400,000

______ 1,400,000

1,400,000

______ 1,400,000

______ 1,400,000

______ 1,400,000

______ 1,200,000

______ 600,000

._.. 12,000,000

Authorization

State

300,000 

600,000 

600,000 

600,000 

450,000 

450,000 

500,000 

500,000 

510,000 

510,000 

550,000 

575,000 

600,000 

630,000 

675,300 

718,000 

718,000 

539,500

10,025,800

Federal

300,000 

600,000 

600,000 

600,000 

450,000 

450,000 

500,000 

500,000 

510,000 

510,000 

550,000 

575,000 

664,900 

814,200 

923,500 

924,600 

890,000 

539,500

10,901,700

Total

600,000 

1,200,000 

1,200,000 

1,200,000 

900,000 

900,000 

1,000,000 

1,000,000 

1,020,000 

1,020,000 

1,100,000 

1,150,000 

1,264,900 

1,444,200 

1,598,800 

1,642,600 

1,608,000 

1,079,000

20,927,500

Total in1 

1960 dollars

600,000 

1,188,000 

1,176,000 

1,162,000 

859,000 

845,000 

913,000 

887,000 

869,000 

824,000 

839,000 

841,000 

897,000 

963,000 

961,000 

899,000 

806,000 

506,000

16,035,000

1 Based on the Consumer Price Index .

man-years to complete rather than the original 

estimate of 600; (2) salaries of full-time professionals increased due to promotions, ingrade 

raises, and government-wide pay increases that 

more than compensated for inflation; and (3) increased assessments were made by the U.S. Geological Survey in 1973 and subsequent years.

ECONOMIC BENEFITS

The main impetus behind the mapping was the 

expected stimulus the maps would provide to the 

economic development of Kentucky. Although 

scientific and educational benefits are and will continue to be considerable, the success of the program should be evaluated in terms of its principal 

goal of economic development. The geologic maps 

are widely used in mineral exploration, for engineering purposes, and for land-use planning, but 

the monetary value of these uses is extremely 

difficult to determine. Most of the information is 

anecdotal, and a value can seldom be placed on a 

single use.

In the following pages, we list data on geologic 

quadrangle map sales to demonstrate that the 

maps are widely used and then analyze the sales 

figures for indications as to the types of uses. We 

then present examples in order to document actual 

economic benefits accruing from specific uses of 

the maps. The examples, which are by no means 

exhaustive, have been selected mostly from information in the files of the Branch of Kentucky Geology, but several have been described by McGrain 

(1971).

MAP SALES

Sales are an indication of the extent to which 

the geologic quadrangle maps are used. The maps 

are available for purchase from the Kentucky Geological Survey, the Kentucky Department of Commerce, and the U.S. Geological Survey. The U.S. 

Geological Survey does not keep a separate record 

of the sales of geologic quadrangle maps of Kentucky, but sales in recent years by the first two 

organizations are listed in the table below. The 

sales show that the maps are used extensively, but 

they give no hint as to purpose or user.

Year

Kentucky

Geological

Survey

Kentucky

Department of

Commerce Total

1972____________ 4,519 ________________ -1 ____________ --1

1973____________ 6,319 ________________ --1 ____________ -1

1974____________ 10,109 ________________ 5,000 ____________ 15,109

1975____________ 14,062 ________________ 5,207 ____________ 19,269

1976____________ 13,220 ________________ 6.0112 ____________ 19,231

1977____________ 14,688 ________________ --1 ____________ -1

1 Information not available.

' Does not include sales for last 3 months of year.

Total sales figures for individual quadrangles 

are not available; however, the Kentucky Geological Survey receives a stock of 180 maps from the

14
U.S. Geological Survey when they are published 

and reorders maps as their stocks are depleted. 

The number of copies reordered can be used as an 

indication of the relative demand for the various 

quadrangles. Figure 5 shows the number of copies 

reordered for each quadrangle in the fiscal years 

1972 through 1977. The demand has been greatest 

for maps in the eastern Kentucky coal field. Maps 

in the western Kentucky coal field are next in demand, followed by those in the western Kentucky 

fluorspar district. Several individual geologic 

quadrangle maps are in particular demandMammoth Cave for recreational purposes, Ford 

quadrangle for use by students at the University 

of Kentucky, Morehead quadrangle for use by students at Morehead University, and Lawrenceburg 

(Indiana-Kentucky) quadrangle for use in studying landslides that have caused problems along the 

banks of the Ohio River. Sales are also greater for 

maps of areas near urban centers than for those of 

the surrounding open countryside.

MINERAL COMMODITIES

COAL

Figure 6 compares coal production in the 

eastern Kentucky coal field with production in the 

neighboring States of West Virginia, Ohio, and 

Tennessee from 1960 to 1974. Coal production in 

eastern Kentucky has continued to increase, 

whereas production in the adjacent States has either remained relatively constant or has declined 

in recent years. The reasons for the greater increases in production in Kentucky are complex; 

but, as shown below, the geologic quadrangle maps 

are undoubtedly used widely in the area and may 

be a contributing factor.

The following paragraphs present several examples of uses of the geologic maps from many that 

have been reported.

In eastern Kentucky, the geologic quadrangle 

maps are used extensively to block out coal properties for leasing and to plan detailed drilling for 

precise evaluation. One operator stated that exploration tends to be deferred until maps are 

available. Certainly, in recent years, the Lexington 

office has received requests to open-file quadrangle 

maps in eastern Kentucky as soon as announcements have been made that the fieldwork has been 

completed.

Mapping has demonstrated persistence of beds 

containing steam and coking coal and has thus led 

to exploration in areas not previously thought by 

operators to be worthy of exploration. The geologic

quadrangle reports are providing landowners and 

operators a better basis on which to estimate both 

quantity and quality of the coal reserves, making 

possible more reliable decisions on sale of land and 

on mineral development. The general tendency of 

individual coal seams to have the same quality 

over wide areas is an important factor in estimating the value of coal reserves; so the correlation of coal beds is an economically valuable 

product of the geologic mapping.

Coal operators and geologists who have not recognized geologic structure have miscorrelated coal 

beds, and the geologic mapping has led to changes 

in operators' exploration programs. In one instance, plans to acquire land were changed when 

the operator realized that the coal bed on the land 

he planned to lease was not the coal bed he sought. 

In another instance, an operator's drilling program was changed when he learned that the failure to recognize the dip of the strata had led to 

plans to drill a stratigraphically higher coal bed 

than the commercially valuable bed he wanted.

In the western Kentucky coal field, as in eastern 

Kentucky, the geologic maps have been instrumental in the opening of a number of mines. The maps 

are also used widely in property evaluation. According to McGrain (1971, p. 6), more than onehalf million tons of coal have been recovered from 

outliers of the No. 9 and No. 11 coal beds, near 

Madisonville, which were unknown to coal companies before geologic maps (Kehn, 1963,1964) were 

published on the area.

The No. 4 coal bed of western Kentucky contains 

a high-quality stoker and coking coal, known reserves of which were nearly depleted by the time 

the mapping program began. Mapping and correlation of coal beds in the southwestern part of 

the western Kentucky coal field have shown that 

the No. 4 had been miscorrelated with a stratigraphically higher bed (Kehn and others, 1967). As 

a result, many test holes for coal in the area had 

not been drilled deep enough to encounter the 

No. 4. An independent engineer has estimated that 

the revised correlation may double the coal reserves of that area, and McGrain (1971, p. 6) stated 

that further exploration based on the new correlation will probably add several million tons to 

the reserves.

The maps in the western coal field have been of 

use not only in locating coal, but also in planning 

mining operations. The geologic map of the Saint 

Charles quadrangle (Palmer, 1967) was useful in 

determining the direction and the amount of offset

15
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FIGURE 5. Geologic quadrangle maps reordered by the Kentucky Geological Survey in fiscal years 1972 through 1977. Number 

Survey between July 1, 1972, and June 30, 1977. Number in upper left corner of each quadrangle is last two digits of year 

June 30,1977, or original stock had not been depleted. The fluorspar district and the eastern and western Kentucky coal fields

that was needed in order to alleviate roof-rock and 

ventilation problems caused by faulting in two 

underground coal mines. Using this map, a U.S. 

Bureau of Mines inspector was instrumental 

in getting the operating companies to offset the 

main mine entries, both of which followed faults. 

Structure contours on the No. 9 coal bed in two 

quadrangles were used by an engineer of another 

company in planning mining operations.

An interesting unanticipated use of the maps 

was reported by the Peabody Coal Company. State 

law requires that coal cannot be mined within a 

15-ft radius of a drill hole, if the location can be

recovered or within a 150-ft radius, if the location 

cannot be recovered. The locations of drill holes 

used for structural control are shown on the published geologic maps of the Robards and Delaware 

quadrangles, Henderson County, Ky. (Fairer, 1973; 

Johnson, 1973). Using the quadrangle maps and 

information collected during the mapping, the 

15-ft radius can be used. The additional recoverable coal has an estimated value of $150,000.

Perhaps the most striking example of using the 

maps in the coal fields was reported by Knight 

(1976, p. 8). A 70- to 80-million-ton coal field with 

a gross value at 1974 prices of $1,127,000,000 was

16
VIRGINIA

Eastern Kentucky 

Coal Field

in lower right corner of each quadrangle is quantity of geologic quadrangle maps reordered by Kentucky Geological 

of original publication of geologic quadrangle map. Quadrangles with no numbers had either not been published by 

are the principal mineral-producing areas of the State.

found by use of the maps. Knight did not identify 

the location of the deposit.

OIL AND GAS

It is more difficult to evaluate the impact of the 

geologic maps on oil and gas exploration than on 

coal mining, partly because it is difficult to evaluate the relative contribution of surface geology, 

subsurface geology, and geophysics in the discovery of new fields. It is certain, though, that the 

maps are widely used by the oil and gas industry, 

as shown by a quotation from E. J. Combs of the 

Sun Oil Company (written commun., 1967).

The usage of geologic maps is so varied and carries so many 

facets that it is hard to describe or express the value in specific 

terms.

The oil industry uses these maps for elevation control, outcrop 

positions and data on subsurface rock units that enable geologists to help plan drilling programs. The value of this data is 

difficult to express in monetary terms but for every drilling 

location made, money can be saved by prior usage of the geologic maps. Geologic maps are considered a basic tool in planning seismic and core drilling programs. Knowledge of mined 

out areas, alluvium and bedrock is very pertinent in planning 

such programs. Thousands of dollars can be saved in good planning as compared to going into an area blind.

A few specific examples are listed below: 

Information on geologic quadrangle maps was

17
160 r

140

^120

O h-

£100

UO

C/D

z 

o

80

60

40

20

Tennessee

0

1960 1962 1964 1966 1968 1970 1972 1974

YEAR

FIGURE 6. Comparison of coal production in eastern Kentucky with that of adjacent States of the Appalachian coal field since 

the beginning of the mapping program. Data from U.S. Bureau of Mines (1960-1974).

used in conjunction with subsurface and geophysical data from other sources in locating the 

Cecelia gas storage field for the city of Elizabethtown and in defining the limits of the East Gradyville oil and gas field near Somerset, Ky. The maps 

were also used to define the trend and extent of an 

oil-producing reef of Mississippian age in southcentral Kentucky.

The Gradyville East field was discovered in July 

1969 in Adair County. The discovery well was located, probably prior to the mapping, on a large 

plunging anticline, and oil was discovered in the 

Knox Dolomite (Cambrian and Ordovician). Subsequent drilling followed the trend of a large 

plunging anticline shown on the Gradyville and 

Columbia geologic quadrangle maps (Taylor, 1963; 

Lewis and Thaden, 1963). By early 1970, at least 17 

oil wells had been completed. Although other factors contributed to the oil entrapment, the significant geologic fact is that drilling on the anticline, 

which is shown on the geologic maps, reveals 

structurally high Ordovician rocks 1,500 ft below 

the Mississippian strata at the surface.

In western Kentucky, the locations of folds, 

faults, and sandstone channels shown on geologic 

quadrangle maps have been widely used in exploring for oil and gas. Maps of the St. Charles and 

Nortonville quadrangles (Palmer, 1967,1968) were 

used by one oil company to find new and to extend 

known oil and gas reserves along faults. Fault 

trends of the Reineke fault system in the Madisonville East quadrangle (Kehn, 1963) continue to 

serve as a guide in prospecting for oil and gas 

reserves.

The following quotation is from a letter to the 

Kentucky State Survey from an independent oil 

company:

This letter is to inform you that the lease and oil discovery in 

Southern Logan County is a direct result of the Geological 

mapping program in the state of Kentucky, being conducted by 

you and the USGS.

The procuring of a lease block and the drilling of a test well 

were a direct result of a structural feature contained on your 

Homer Quadrangle. The surface structure was borne out, in 

depth, as indicated by the results of our well. In my opinion, a 

significant discovery of oil and gas reserves have been a direct 

result of your mapping program. I feel that the industry, and 

our company in particular, owes a debt of gratitude to your 

organization for pushing the economic mapping series for the 

state of Kentucky.

The Homer quadrangle had been mapped by Gildersleeve (1966). Many examples could be added, 

but those given above are adequate to demonstrate 

that the maps are valuable to the industry.

18
FLUORSPAR

The Illinois-Kentucky fluorspar district has 

produced more than three-fourths of the fluorspar 

mined in the United States. Though the area has 

been in production for many years, Trace (1974, 

p. 74) estimated that reserves were adequate for at 

least 15 to 20 years, and Pinckney (1976) stated 

that reasonable projections indicate that the area 

of potential production is more than twice as large 

as the area of known production.

Fluorspar is localized either as veins along a 

series of complex, northeast-trending, steeply dipping normal fault zones or as bedding replacement 

deposits along three horizons in rocks of Mississippian age. Most of the Kentucky deposits are of the 

first type. The geologic quadrangle maps show the 

faulting more accurately than previously available 

maps and can be used to predict the positions of 

horizons favorable for mineralization at depth. 

Industry uses them to help determine favorable 

areas for the core drilling required to determine 

the presence, size, and shape of orebodies. An indication of the potential value of the maps is the statement by W. W. Weigel, a geologic consultant (oral 

commun., 1968), that if similar maps had been 

available in southeastern Missouri, $25,000,000 

could have been saved on a $750,000,000 exploration program.

Mapping in Livingston and Crittenden Counties 

(Trace, 1962) revealed the presence of a fault that 

had not been known previously. After the geologic 

map was published, exploration along the fault by 

a company resulted in the discovery of a fluorspar 

body of more than 100,000 tons (McGrain, 1971, 

p. 7). At the 1977 price of about $90 a ton, this one 

deposit is valued at more than $9,000,000.

CLAY

The Jackson Purchase region of westernmost 

Kentucky is a major source of ball clay, which is 

produced from rocks of Eocene age. Mineralogic 

and ceramic analyses reported by Olive and Finch 

(1969) have shown that the composition of the 

clays is closely related to stratigraphy. Clays of 

the Wilcox and Claiborne Formations of early and 

middle Eocene age are highly kaolinitic and are 

suitable for use in ceramics; on the other hand, 

clays in the Jackson Formation of late Eocene age 

are generally montmorillonitic and are suitable 

for use as animal bedding. The distribution of exposed clay deposits in these formations is shown 

on the geologic quadrangle maps. Although only a 

few new clay pits have been opened as a result of

the mapping, there has been extensive and continued leasing of clay deposits as the maps have been 

published. Many of these leases will undoubtedly 

be brought into production in the future.

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

To geologists, a somewhat unexpected result of 

the project was the varied and extensive use of the 

maps for engineering purposes; they are used more 

in this manner than for any other single purpose 

except coal exploration. Many engineering firms 

are aware of the program and routinely use the 

maps in evaluating foundation and excavation 

conditions and in preparing Environmental Impact Statements. The following quotation is from 

a request received from Fuller, Mossbarger and 

Scott, Civil Engineers, Inc., for the open-filing of 

an unpublished map:

We routinely utilize published geologic quadrangle maps in 

planning and executing subsurface investigations for engineering projects. In that we are experiencing the need for 

such data for a specific site within the limits of the Monticello 

quadrangle, we would appreciate the benefit of related information your branch may now possess. Indeed, the U.S.G.S. 

information might well have a major influence on the overall 

feasibility of the project.

Only a few specific uses by such firms have come 

to our attention, and it is impossible to estimate 

the economic impact of the maps, even in these 

examples.

The Kentucky Department of Highways has 

regularly used the maps during studies of new 

routes, and in several instances project geologists 

were able to forewarn of potential problems while 

the geologic mapping was in progress. McGrain 

(1971, p. 3) wrote the following:

Field geologists working in the Jackson Purchase region of 

western Kentucky recognized certain situations where porous, 

water-bearing gravels or sands resting on relatively impervious clays could produce unstable slope and foundation conditions. The proposed route of the Purchase Parkway was 

through an area where this situation was common. Engineers 

of the Kentucky Department of Highways were alerted. As the 

result of conferences with mapping project geologists and further engineering studies, three to four miles of the proposed 

route of the Parkway were relocated. Assuming the average of 

a minimum of one slide per mile on the first proposed route and 

corrective measures costing an estimated $200,000 to $500,000 

per slide, it is easy to calculate the implications of geologic 

mapping to this construction project.

This is not the only instance of highway relocation 

based on information from the geologic mapping, nor 

will it be the last.

Relocation during the late 1960's of State Highway 119 in southeastern Kentucky was disrupted

19
by a series of landslides which caused considerable 

property damage and abandonment of portions of 

the new roadway. The slides, some new and others 

reactivated, were a surprise to Highway Department personnel who had been advised by a consultant that the landslide potential of the route was 

low. A. J. Froelich of the U.S. Geological Survey, 

who had recently started mapping a nearby area, 

examined the slide areas for the geologic factors 

involved.

Froelich (1970) showed that a unique set of conditions in the area had been disturbed by the highway construction, resulting in the slides. Route 119 

runs along the Cumberland River on the south side 

of and parallel with Pine Mountain, which trends 

northeasterly 100 miles across southeastern Kentucky. Interbedded shale, siltstone, sandstone, 

coal, and associated underclay forming the south 

slope of Pine Mountain dip toward the Cumberland River. Landslides had repeatedly occurred 

where these dipping strata had been undercut by 

the Cumberland River. Old slides had been reactivated and new slides initiated by the road construction. Parts of Highway 119 were then redesigned 

and relocated on the basis of Froelich's study. The 

savings cannot be determined, but the construction of one stretch of highway that was built before Froelich's study and largely destroyed by a 

major slide cost $4,000,000.

In 1968, the Kentucky Department of Highways 

and the Louisville and Nashville Railroad requested that priority be given to mapping several 

quadrangles along Pine Mountain in order to aid 

planning for a tunnel through Pine Mountain. Pine 

Mountain is on the leading edge of the Pine Mountain overthrust sheet, and the mapping (Froelich 

and others, 1970) revealed that the route originally 

chosen for the tunnel, located on the basis of a 

report by a consultant, would be through crushed 

and broken rock of the overthrust zone. The plans 

for the tunnel were eventually abandoned.

John S. Stokely (oral commun., 1968), a consulting geological engineer, a major part of whose 

business is contract drilling for the Kentucky Department of Highways, has estimated that the 

availability of a geologic map saves the State 10 

percent of the cost of highway investigations. A 

District Engineer of the Highway Department 

stated that the geologic maps saved the Department millions of dollars in the planning and the 

letting of contracts for two parkways in southern 

and southeastern Kentucky. An example, contributed by another engineer of the Department of

Highways, was a savings of about $80,000 in core 

drilling costs in 1967 along Kentucky Highway 15 

between Jackson and Hazard in eastern Kentucky 

through using the maps to predict the depth of 

coals under the highway right-of-way.

In the Paducah area of western Kentucky, unconsolidated sediments and earthquakes cause 

many foundation probelms. Engineering geology 

studies of parts of the area were published by 

Nichols (1968) and Finch (1968) as byproducts of 

the mapping program. According to Paul Moore, 

Building Inspector for Paducah, these publications 

have been particularly useful in providing answers 

to queries as to engineering properties of rock 

units, foundation requirements, and seismic zoning for structures such as a high-rise apartment, a 

control tower at the local airport, and a large shopping mall. The report by Nichols was also used by 

the Corps of Engineers in determining foundation 

requirements for a post office building. As the Paducah area expands in population, the usefulness 

of these reports and the geologic maps on which 

they are based will undoubtedly increase, though 

no monetary value can be placed on the savings.

The geologic quadrangles are used extensively 

by the Soil Conservation Service in Kentucky in 

Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention Programs. In watershed development, the maps are 

used during field examinations and preliminary 

investigations, and in watershed planning and 

operations for the proper selection and placement 

of structure sites, which are the key to flood control. Factors influencing the selection of sites include structural stability; availability of borrow 

materials; the presence or absence of mineral resources, especially coal; and, in some cases, the 

ability of a structure to maintain permanent water 

storage. The maps are effectively used to help identify problem areas. According to J. M. Burns and 

B. J. Hines (written commun., 1968) of the Soil 

Conservation Service, the availability of a good 

geologic map during structure site evaluations 

eliminates from 2 to 3 days of investigation. Expenses for a day's operation were estimated by 

Burns and Hines to range from $200 to $400, so 

savings would range from $400 to $800 per site. 

About 25 sites are investigated annually, with a 

yearly savings of about $15,000.

ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY AND 

LAND-USE PLANNING

The major use of the geologic quadrangle maps 

as basic data for environmental geology studies

20
and land-use planning lies in the future. The Kentucky Geological Survey and the U.S. Geological 

Survey plan a future cooperative study in a threecounty area of northern Kentucky that will be a 

pilot program for other environmental geology 

studies elsewhere in the State. Municipal and 

county officials in other areas in the State have 

already expressed interest. Land planning in Kentucky is generally done on a countywide basis, and 

planners generally find that scales of 1:48,000 or 

1:50,000 are the most useful for their needs and 

that smaller scales are nearly useless.

Although environmental geology studies are in 

their infancy in Kentucky, the geologic maps have 

already proven useful. In Fayette County, which includes Lexington, engineering geologic maps compiled from the quadrangle maps by C. G. Johnson 

of the U.S. Geological Survey were instrumental in 

convincing officials that a site proposed for a new 

sanitary landfill was unsuited because it would contribute to ground-water pollution. A landfill-site 

map prepared by M. C. Noger and others of the 

Kentucky Geological Survey based on data on the 

quadrangle maps and some additional fieldwork 

was used in determining a suitable site, which is 

now in operation.

Other examples in which the geologic maps have 

proven useful are: (1) The Corps of Engineers reviews and approves all applications for mining 

permits and for other activities that might affect 

water quality in the Cumberland River basin. In 

evaluating the permits, they use the geologic quadrangle maps extensively to determine the location 

of coal beds, the stability of slopes, and the most 

suitable locations for holding ponds. (2) Project 

geologists have supplied information and assistance to the U.S. Forest Service in the preparation 

and review of management plans for the Beaver 

Creek Wilderness Area in the Daniel Boone National Forest. (3) The National Park Service has 

used the geologic maps to determine local geologic 

conditions and land and mineral values in the Big 

Smith Fork Public Reservation Area in southern 

Kentucky.

INDUSTRIAL LOCATION

The State of Kentucky and local Chambers of 

Commerce have found the geologic maps of value 

in attracting industry. McGrain (1971) wrote the 

following:

Data derived from geologic mapping have been used by the 

Kentucky Department of Commerce, local chambers of commerce, and consulting engineers for the evaluation of industrial

sites which have resulted in new plants at Bowling Green, 

Hickman, Murray, Princeton, Richmond, Russellville, and 

South Portsmouth. One Chamber of Commerce official reported 

that the geologic maps allow his office to be acquainted with the 

potential of all sections of his county and to document their 

evaluation of the foundation conditions at possible plantsites. 

Further, these available geological data permit industrial developers to speak with a degree of authority which generates 

confidence in and prestige for their office.

The Executive Secretary of the Murray Chamber of Commerce, Murray, Ky., wrote the following 

in a letter to the President of the University of 

Kentucky after two major companies had selected 

Murray as the site for plants:

Through the efforts of the Kentucky Geological Survey, a complete mapping program in Galloway County has been a major 

factor in the attraction of these two fine industries.

The mapping program referred to is, of course, the 

cooperative Kentucky Geological Survey-U.S. Geological Survey program.

CONCLUSION

We have been able to estimate a monetary value 

for only a few of the uses described in the preceding pages, but we have not been able, in this 

report, to quantify most of the benefit. The information which we have provided, however, does 

support the thesis that geologic mapping has a 

positive benefit on economic development and can 

result in saving taxpayer money on the application 

of government services. Though all geologic maps 

eventually become obsolete, those of Kentucky will 

continue to be used beyond the turn of the century 

and will continue to return benefits to citizens of 

the State and Nation.

REFERENCES

Adkison, W. L., and Johnston, J. E., 1964, Geology of the Salyersville North quadrangle, Kentucky: U.S. Geological 

Survey Geologic Quadrangle Map GQ-276.

Alberstadt, L. P., 1979, The brachiopod genus Platystrophia 

from the Ordovician of Kentucky, in Pojeta, John, Jr., ed., 

Contributions to the Ordovician paleontology of Kentucky 

and nearby States: U.S. Geological Survey Professional 

Paper 1066-B, 20 p.

Ball, B. M., 1979, Edrioasteroids (Echinodermata), in Pojeta, 

John, Jr., ed., Contributions to the Ordovician paleontology 

of Kentucky and nearby States: U.S. Geological Survey 

Professional Paper 1066-E, 7 p.

Blade, L. V., 1966, Geologic map of parts of the Hamlin and 

Paris Landing quadrangles, western Kentucky: U.S. Geological Survey Geologic Quadrangle Map GQ-498.

Branson, E. R., 1966, Economic geology of Alien County, Kentucky: Kentucky Geological Survey, ser. 10, County 

Report 1, 22 p.

 1969, Economic geology of Simpson County, Kentucky: 

Kentucky Geological Survey, ser. 10, County Report 3,20 p.

21
Branstrator, J. W., 1979, Ordovician Asteroidea (Echinodermata) from Kentucky, in Pojeta, John, Jr., ed., Contributions 

to the Ordovician paleontology of Kentucky and nearby 

States: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1066-F, 

7 p.

Cressman, E. R., 1973 [1974], Lithostratigraphy and depositional environments of the Lexington Limestone (Ordovician) 

of central Kentucky: U.S. Geological Survey Professional 

Paper 768, 61 p.

Fairer, G. M., 1973, Geologic map of the Robards quadrangle, 

Henderson and Webster Counties, Kentucky: U.S. Geological Survey Geologic Quadrangle Map GQ-1084.

Finch, W. I., 1968, Engineering geology of the Paducah West 

and Metropolis quadrangles in Kentucky: U.S. Geological 

Survey Bulletin 1258-B, 19 p.

Froelich, A. J., 1970, Geologic setting of landslides along south 

slope of Pine Mountain, Kentucky: Highway Research 

Record, no. 323, p. 1-5.

Froelich, A. J., Wolcott, D. E., Rice, C. L., and Maughan, E. K., 

1970, Preliminary geologic map of Pine Mountain in Harlan, Letcher, and Pike Counties, Kentucky: U.S. Geological 

Survey Open-file Report, 8 p.

Gildersleeve, Benjamin, 1966, Geologic map of the Homer 

quadrangle, Logan County, Kentucky: U.S. Geological Survey Geologic Quadrangle Map GQ-549.

Hagan, W. W., 1961, Progress report of Kentucky areal geologic 

mapping program, in McGrain, Preston, and Crawford, 

T. J., eds., Proceedings of the technical session, Kentucky Oil and Gas Association, 25th annual meeting, 

June 1-2,1961: Kentucky University Special Publication 4, 

p. 11-20.

Harrison, J. M., 1963, Nature and significance of geologic maps, 

in Albritton, C. C., ed., The fabric of geology: Reading, 

Massachusetts, Addison-Wesley, p. 225-232.

Hopkins, J. T., Jr., 1969, Cartographic activities of the geologic 

mapping program in Kentucky, in Rose, W. D., ed., Proceedings of the technical session, Kentucky Oil and Gas 

Association, 32d annual meeting, June 6-7,1968: Kentucky 

Geological Survey Special Publications 17, p. 78-82.

 1977, Cartographic activities of the areal geologic mapping program of Kentucky: American Society of Cartographers Bulletin, v. 10, no. 1, p. 1-7.

Howe, H. J., 1979, Middle and upper Ordovician plectambonitacean, rhynchonellacean, syntrophiacean, and trimerellacean brachiopods from Kentucky, in Pojeta, John, Jr., 

ed., Contributions to the Ordovician paleontology of 

Kentucky: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 

1066-C, 18 p.

Johnson, W. D., Jr., 1973, Geologic map of the Delaware quadrangle, western Kentucky: U.S. Geological Survey Geologic 

Quadrangle Map GQ-1087.

Kehn, T. M., 1963, Geology of the Madisonville East quadrangle, 

Kentucky: U.S. Geological Survey Geologic Quadrangle 

Map GQ-252.

 1964, Geology of the Madisonville West quadrangle, Kentucky: U.S. Geological Survey Geologic Quadrangle Map 

GQ-346.

Kehn, T. M., Palmer, J. E., and Franklin, G. J., 1967, Revised 

correlation of the No. 4 (Dawson Springs No. 6) coal bed, 

Western Kentucky coal field, in Geological Survey Research 1967: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 

575-C, p. C160-C164.

Knight, H. E., 1976, Use of geologic maps for exploration for 

energy and mineral resources: American Society of Cartographers Bulletin, v. 9, no. 2, p. 1-9.

Lewis, R. Q., Sr., and Thaden, R. E., 1963, Geology of the Columbia quadrangle, Kentucky: U.S. Geological Survey Geologic Quadrangle Map GQ-249.

McGrain, Preston, 1968, Economic geology of Galloway County, 

Kentucky: Kentucky Geological Survey, ser. 10, County Report 2, 35 p.

 1970, Economic geology of Marshall County, Kentucky: 

Kentucky Geological Survey, ser. 10, County Report 5,33 p.

 1971, Geologic mapping provides key to environmental 

and natural resources development in Kentucky: Kentucky 

Geological Survey, ser. 10,12 p. 

-1979, Economic geology of McCracken County, Kentucky:

Kentucky Geological Survey, ser. 10, County Report 7,32 p.

McGrain, Preston, Schwalb, H. R., and Smith, G. E., 1970, Economic geology of Hancock County, Kentucky: Kentucky 

Geological Survey, ser. 10, County Report 4, 24 p.

McGrain, Preston, and Sutton, D. G., 1973, Economic geology of 

Warren County, Kentucky: Kentucky Geological Survey, 

ser. 10, County Report 6, 28 p.

Nichols, T. C., Jr., 1968, Engineering geology of the Paducah 

East quadrangle in Kentucky: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1258-A, 13 p.

Olive, W. W., and Finch, W. I., 1969, Stratigraphic and mineralogic relations, and ceramic properties of clay deposits of 

Eocene age in the Jackson Purchase region, Kentucky, and 

in adjacent parts of Tennessee: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1282, 35 p.

Palmer, J. E., 1967, Geologic map of the Saint Charles quadrangle, Hopkins and Christian Counties, Kentucky: U.S. 

Geological Survey Geologic Quadrangle Map GQ-674.

 1968, Geologic map of the Nortonville quadrangle, Hopkins and Christian Counties, Kentucky: U.S. Geological 

Survey Geologic Quadrangle Map GQ-762.

Pinckney, D. M., 1976, Mineral resources of the IllinoisKentucky mining district: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 970, 15 p.

Pojeta, John, Jr., 1979, Introduction, in Pojeta, John, Jr., ed., 

Contributions to the Ordovician paleontology of Kentucky 

and nearby States: U.S. Geological Survey Professional 

Paper 1066-A, 48 p.

Ross, R. J., Jr., 1979, Additional trilobites from the Ordovician 

of Kentucky, in Pojeta, John, Jr., ed., Contributions to the 

Ordovician paleontology of Kentucky and nearby States: 

U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1066-D, 13 p.

Sheppard, R. A., 1964, Geology of the Portsmouth quadrangle, 

Kentucky-Ohio, and parts of the Wheelersburg and New 

Boston quandrangles, Kentucky: U.S. Geological Survey 

Geologic Quadrangle Map GQ-312.

Sweet, W. C., 1979, Conodonts and conodont biostratigraphy of 

post-Tyrone Ordovician rocks of the Cincinnati region, in 

Pojeta, John, Jr., ed., Contributions to the Ordovician paleontology of Kentucky and nearby States: U.S. Geological 

Survey Professional Paper 1066-G, 26 p.

Taylor, A. R., 1963, Geology of the Gradyville quadrangle, Kentucky: U.S. Geological Survey Geologic Quadrangle Map 

GQ-233.

Trace, R. D., 1962, Geology of the Salem quadrangle, Kentucky: 

U.S. Geological Survey Geologic Quadrangle Map GQ-206.

 1974, Illinois-Kentucky fluorspar district, in Hutcheson, 

D. W., ed., A symposium on the geology of fluorspar; Forum 

on geology of industrial minerals, 9th, Proceedings: Kentucky Geological Survey Special Publication 22, p. 58-76.

U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1960-1974, Minerals yearbook [annual 

publication]: Washington, U.S. Government Printing 

Office, pages vary.

22 *U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1981-361-614/275