Water-Supply and Irri ,^ raper . . 160 Series 0, Underground Waters, 68

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

CHARLES D. WALCOTT, DiEECTOB

UNDERGROUND-WATER PAPERS

1906

L. FULLER

GEOLOGIST IN CHARGE

WASHINGTON

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1906
£*<»-fr -k ? $(

and Irrigation Paper No. 160 Series 0, Underground Watem, 58 

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

CHARLES D. WALCOTT, DlRKCTOE

UNDERGROUND-WATER PAPERS

1906

MYRON L. FULLER

GEOLOGIST IN CHARGE

WASHINGTON

GOVERNMENT FEINTING OFFICE 

1906
CONTENTS.

Page. 

Work of the eastern section of hydrology in 1905, and publications relating to

underground waters, by Myron L. Fuller................................... 1

Significance of the term " artesian," by Myron L. Fuller....................... 9

Representation of wells and springs on maps, by Myron L. Fuller............... 16

Occurrence of water in crystalline rocks, by E. E. Ellis ........................ 19

Flowing-well districts n the eastern part of the northern peninsula of Michigan, by

Frank Leverett.......................................................... 29

Drainage of wet lands in Arkansas by wells, by A. F. Crider .................... 54

Total amount of free water in the earth's crust, by Myron L Fuller.............. 59

Use of fluorescei'n in the study of underground waters, by R. B. Dole............ 73

Peculiar mineral waters from crystalline rocks of Georgia, by Myron L. Fuller..... 86

Problems of water contamination, by Isaiah Bowman.......................... 92

Instances of improvement of water in wells, by Myron L. Fuller................. 96

Index..................:................................................. 101

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Page. 

PLATE I. Map of flowing-well districts of eastern part of the northern peninsula of

Michigan .......................................... f ........... 29

FIG. 1. Conditions in an artesian basin..................... ................ 14

2. Possible conditions in an artesian slope............................... 15

3. Geologic sketch map of Connecticut .................................. 20

4. Well sections west of Crowleys Ridge, Arkansas........................ 56
UNDERGROUND-WATER PAPERS, 1906.

MYRON L. FULLER,

Geologist in Charge.

WORK OF THE EASTERN SECTION OF HYDROLOGY IN

1905, AND PUBLICATIONS RELATING TO

UNDERGROUND WATERS.

By MYRON L. FULLER.

INTRODUCTION.

The present report is the fourth volume of miscellaneous short contributions, the preceding 

volumes of which appeared under the title of "Contributions to the Hydrology of Eastern United States." The change in name is made with the view of more clearly indicating 

the scope of the report.

The present volume'contains eleven papers by six authors, mainly connected with the 

eastern section of the division of hydrology. These papers are predominantly of a. theoretical or general character; papers relating to local areas, such as the quadrangle descriptions appearing in the previous reports, are omitted, as it has been shown that there is less 

demand for such descriptive contributions than for general or theoretical papers, which 

often have practical engineering and geologic applications. The fact that the report makes 

available a considerable number of short contributions which could not otherwise be satisfactorily placed before the public is one of the leading reasons for its publication.

As in previous reports, the present volume covers a wide range of subjects, including 

papers on (1) artesian nomenclature and the representation of ground-water data on maps, 

(2) occurrence of ground waters in igneous rocks, (3) description of the ground-water 

resources of special localities, (4) the use of wells in the drainage of^Wet lands, (5) the 

amount of ground water in the earth, (6) a method of tracing underground currents, (7) 

spring waters of peculiar composition, (8) depths reached by boring, (9) flowing wells and 

springs, (10) problems of water contamination, and (11) improvement of water in wells.

WORK OF THE EASTERN SECTION OF HYDROLOGY.

Personnel. Of the permanent members of the section, M. L. Fuller has continued in 

charge of the work in eastern United States, and in addition to executive duties has given 

special attention to the water supplies of Pleistocene and Coastal Plain deposits. F. U. 

Clapp has been engaged mainly in the investigation of Pleistocene geology and its relation 

to underground waters. E. E. Ellis has devoted the greater part of the season to a study 

of the occurrence of ground waters in igneous rocks, especially those of Connecticut. Isaiah 

Bowman has been engaged in field work and m the preparation ol a report on the methods 

of well drilling in use in different parts of the country. Samuel oanford has had chaige

1
2 . UNDEBGEOUND-WATEE PAPEES, 1906.

of the collection of deep-well records and samples. B. L. Johnson has devoted his time 

to a large extent to the preparation of a bibliography of the underground waters of the 

United States.

In addition to the permanent force the following have been engaged in work for the 

section during the year: W. S. Bayley, on underground waters of Maine; G. N. Knapp, in 

New Jersey; L. W. Stephenson, in North Carolina; S. W. McCallie, in Georgia; E. A. 

Smith, in Alabama; L. C. Glenn, in Tennessee and Kentucky; A. C. Veatch, A. F. Crider, 

and L. W. Stephenson, in Arkansas; E. M. Shepard, in Missouri; W. H. Norton and Howard E. Simpson, in Iowa; C. W. Hall, in Minnesota, and Frank Leverett, in Michigan. 

E. F. Lines and D. F. MacDonald have assisted in office work.

Office loorlt. The office work for the, year has consisted, in addition to executive duties, 

of the preparation of a bibliography of the underground waters of the United States, and 

of tables relating to the discharge and other features connected with artesian wells, and of 

the systematic collection of well records and samples. Both the executive work and the 

collection of samples involve a very extended correspondence and the furnishing of information in regard to wells and underground-water conditions to a large number of applicants. 

Separate reports on the bibliography of underground waters, artesian tables, and collection 

of well samples are in preparation.

Theoretical investigations. The principal theoretical and technical investigations undertaken in 1905 related to the fluctuations of the water level in wells, by A. C. Veatch, and 

the methods of well drilling by Isaiah Bowman. The report on the fluctuation of wells is 

in press, and that on well drilling is nearly completed.

Surveys. Detailed surveys of underground-water problems have been conducted in Connecticut by H. E. Gregory and E. E. Ellis; in Iowa, by W. H. Norton and Howard E. 

Simpson; in Arkansas, by M. L. Fuller, A. F. Crider, and L. W. Stephenson; and in North 

Carolina by L. W. Stephenson and B. L. Johnson. In Connecticut and Arkansas the work 

is completed and reports are in preparation. In Iowa and North Carolina the surveys are 

incomplete and will require further work the coming season.

Reports. The following reports have been published since January 1,1905:

Bibliographic review and index of papers relating to underground waters published by the United 

States Geological Survey, 1879-1904, by M. L. Fuller: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 120, 12S pp.

Contributions to the hydrology of eastern United States, 1904, M. L. Fuller, geologist in charge: WaterSup, and Irr. Paper No. 110, 211 pp.

Underground waters of eastern United States, M. L. Fuller, geologist in charge: Water-Sup, and Irr. 

Paper No. 114,285 pp.

Relation of the law to underground waters, by D. W. Johnson: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 122, 

55 pp.

Field measurements of the rate, of movement of underground waters, by C. S. Slichter: Water-Sup, 

and Irr. Paper No. 140, 122 pp.

Contributions to the hydrology of eastern United States, 1905, M. L. Fuller, geologist in charge: WaterSup, and Irr. Paper No. 145, 220 pp.

Record of deep-well drilling for 1904, by M. L. Fuller, E. F. Lines, and A. C. Veatch: Bull. No. 264, 

106 pp.

Underground water resources of Long Island, New York, by A. C. Veatch: Prof. Paper No. 44, 394 pp.

In addition the following papers have been received from the authors and transmitted 

for publication:

Fluctuations of the water level in wells, with special reference to Long Island, New York, by

A. C. Veatch: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 155. 

Geology and underground waters of Mississippi, by A. F. Crider and L. C. Johnson: Water-Sup, and

Irr. Paper No. 159. 

Geology and water resources of northern Louisiana and southern Arkansas, by A. C. Veatch: Prof.

Paper No. 46.

The following papers are nearly completed :

Flowing wells of the southern portion of the lower Peninsula of Michigan, by Frank Leverett. 

Flowing wells of the northern and central portions of the lower Peninsula of Michigan, by Frank

Leverett. 

Artesian waters of Missouri, toy E. M. Shepard.
WOEK OF EASTEEN SECTION IN 1905. 3

Underground water resources of Tennessee and Kentucky west of Tennessee River, and of an adjacent

area in Illinois, by L. C. Qlenn. 

Underground water resources of Minnesota, by C. W. Hall.

Preliminary reports on the wells and springs of Virginia and South Carolina were prepared by M. L. Fuller for the State surveys in accordance with plans of cooperation 

approved by the Director.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

The results of the work of the Survey on underground waters and springs are published 

as reports of various kinds. All but the folios and monographs, which are sold at cost, 

are for free distribution and can be obtained on application to the Director until the editions 

are exhausted. A number have been delivered to members of Congress for distribution.

A full subject index of the Survey publications on underground waters is contained in 

Water-Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 120, entitled "Bibliographic review and index of 

papers relating to underground waters published by the United States Geological Survey."

A list of papers published by the Survey since Water-Supply Paper No. 120 was prepared, 

and brief references to the most important publications of the Survey, are given below:

GENERAL DESCRIPTIVE REPORTS.

ALABAMA..

Alabama (water resources), by E. A. Smith: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 114, 1905, pp. 164-170. 

For other reports see Water-Supply Paper No. 102.

ARKANSAS.

Summary of the water supply of the Ozark region in northern Arkansas, by George I. Adams: WaterSup, and Irr. Paper No. 110, 1905, pp. 176-182.

Northern Arkansas (water resources), by A. H. Purdue: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 114, 1905, 

pp. 188-167.

Water resources of the Winslow quadrangle, Arkansas, by A. H. Purdue: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper 

No. 145, 1905, pp. 84-87.

Water resources of the contact region between the Paleozoic and Mississippi ernbayment deposits

in northern Arkansas, by A. H. Purdue: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 145, 1905, pp. 88-116. 

For other reports see Water-Supply Paper No. 102.

CALIFORNIA.

Water problems of Santa Barbara, Cal., by J. B. Lippincott: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 116,1605. 

For other reports see Water-Supply Papers Nos. 56 and 6(1.

COLORADO.

Geology and underground-water resources of the central Great Plains, by N. H. Darton: Prof. Paper

No. 32, 1904.

For other reports see Sixteenth, Seventeenth, and Twenty-first Annual Reports, Bulletin No. 131, 

and Folios 36, 68, and 71.

CONNECTICUT.

Drilled wells of the Triassic area of the Connecticut Valley, by W. H. C. Pynchon: Water-Sup, and

Irr. Paper No. 110, 1905, pp. 65-64. 

Triassic rocks of the Connecticut Valley as a source of water supply, by M. L. Fuller: Water-Sup, and

Irr. Paper No. 110, 1905, pp. 65-112.

Connecticut (water resources), by H. E. Gregory: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 114, 1905, pp. 76-81. 

For other reports see.Water-Supply Paper No. 102.

CUBA. 

Notes on the hydrology of Cuba, by M. L. Fuller: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 110,1905, pp. 183-200.

DELAWARE.

Delaware (water resources), by N. H. Darton: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 114, 1905, pp. 111-113. 

For other reports see Bulletin No. 138.

DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA.

District of Columbia (water resources), by N. H. Darton and M. L. Fuller: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper

No. 114, 1605, pp. 124-126. 

For other reports see Bulletin No. 138 and Folio 70.
UNDEEGEOUND-WATEE PAPEES, 1906.

Florida (water resources), by M. L. Fuller: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 114, 1905, pp. 159-163. 

For other reports see Water-Supply Paper No. 102.

GEOEGIA.

Georgia (water resources), by S. W. McCallie: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 314, 1905, pp. 153-158. 

For other reports see Water-Supply Paper No. 102 and Bulletin No. 138.

IDAHO. 

See Water-Supply Papers Nos. 54, 55, 78, Bulletin No. 199, .and Folio 104.

HAWAII. 

See Water-Supply Paper No. 77.

ILLINOIS.

Illinois (water resources), by Frank Leverett: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 114, 1905, pp. 248-257. 

For other reports see Seventeenth Annual Report and Folios 67. 81, and 105.

INDIANA.

Indiana (water resources), by Frank Leverett: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 114,1905, pp. 258-264.

For other reports see Water-Supply Papers Nos. 21 and 26, Eighteenth Annual Report, and Folios 

67, 81, and 105.

IOWA.

Iowa (water lesources), by W. H. Norton: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 114, 1905, pp. 220-225. 

Water supplies at Waterloo, Iowa, by W. H. Norton: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 145, 1905, pp.

148-155. 

For other reports see Sixteenth Annual Report.

KANSAS.

Geology and underground-water resources of the central Great Plains, by N. H. Barton: Prof. Paper

No. 32, 1904, pp. 433. 

Water resources of the Joplin district, Missouri-Kansas, by W. S. Tangier Smith: Water-Sup, and

Irr. Paper No. 145, 1905, pp. 74-83. 

For other reports see Water-Supply Paper No. 6, Twenty-second Annual Report, and Bulletin No. 131.

KENTUCKY. .

Water resources of the Middlesboro-Harlati region of southeastern Kentucky, by George H. Ashley:

Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 110, 1905, pp. 177-178.

Kentucky (water resources), by L. C. Glenn: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 114, 1905, pp. 205-208. 

For other reports see Water-Supply Paper No. 102.

LOUISIANA.

Louisiana (water resources), by A. C. Veatch: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 114, 1905, pp. 179-187. 

For other reports see Water-Supply Paper No. 101.

MAINE.

Maine (water resources), by W. S. Bayley: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 114, 1905, pp. 41-56. 

Water resources of the Portsmouth-York region, New Hampshire and Maine, by George Otis Smith:

Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 145, 1905, pp. 120-128. 

Water supply from glacial gravels near Augusta, Me., by George Otis Smith: Water-Sup, and Irr.

Paper No. 145, 1905, pp. 156-160. 

For other reports see Water-Supply Paper No. 101.

MAEYLAND.

Water resources of the Accident and Grantsville quadrangles, Maryland, by G. C. Martin: WaterSup, and Irr. Paper No. 110, 1905, pp. 168-170.

Water resources of the Frostburg and Fiintstone quadrangles, Maryland and West Virginia, by G. C. 

Martin: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 110, 1905, pp. 171-173.

Maryland (water resources), by N. H. Barton and M. L. Fuller: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 114, 

1905, pp. 114-123.

Water resources of the Pawpaw and Hancock quadrangles, West Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania, by George W. Stose and George C. Martin: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 145, 1905, pp. 

58-63. 

For other reports see Bulletin No. 138 and Folios 13, 23, and 70.

MASSACHUSETTS.

Drilled wells of the Triassic area of the Connecticut Valley, by W. H. C. Pynchon: Water-Sup, and 

Irr. Paper No. 110,1905, pp. 65-94.
HYBEOLOGIO PUBLICATIONS OF THE SURVE^. 5

Triassic rocks of the Connecticut Valley as a source of water supply, by M. L. Fuller: Water-Sup, and

Irr. Paper No. 110, 1905, pp. 95-112. 

Water resources of the Taconic quadrangle, New York, Massachusetts, and Vermont, by F. B. Taylor:

Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 110, 1905, pp. 130-133. 

Massachusetts and Rhode Island (water resources), by W. O. Crosby: Water-Sup, and. Irr. Paper

No. 114, 1905, pp. 68-75. 

Water supply from the delta type of sand plain, by W. O. Crosby: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 145,

1905, pp. 161-178. 

For other reports see Water-Supply Paper No. 102.

MICHIGAN.

A ground-water problem in southeastern Michigan, by Myron L. Fuller: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper

No. 145, 1905, pp. 129-147. 

For other reports see Water-Supply Papers Nos. 30, 31, and 102.

MINNESOTA.

Minnesota (water resources), by C. W. Hall: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 114, 1905, pp. 226-232. 

For other reports see Water-Supply Paper No. 102.

MISSISSIPPI.

Mississippi (water resources^, by L. C. Johnson: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 314, 1905, pp. 171-378. 

For other reports see Water-Supply Paper No. 102.

MISSOURI.

Spring system of the Decaturville dome, Camden County, Missouri, by E. M. Shepard: Water-Sup.

and Irr. Paper No. 110, 1905, pp. 113-125.

Missouri (water resources), by E. M. Shepard: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 114, 1905, pp. 209-219. 

Water resources of the Joplin district, Missouri-Kansas, by W. S. Tangier Smith: Water-Sup, and

Irr. Paper No. 145, 1905, pp. 74-83. 

For other reports see Water-Supply Paper No. 102.

NEBRASKA.

Geology and underground-water resources of the central Great Plains, by N. II. Darton: Prof. Paper

No. 32, 1904.

For other reports see Water-Supply Paper No. 12, Sixteenth, Nineteenth, and Twenty-second Annual 

Reports, Bulletin 131, Professional Paper No. 17, and Folios 85 and 108.

NEW HAMPSHIRE.

New Hampshire (water resources), by M. L. Fuller. Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 114,1905, pp. 57-59. 

Water resources of the Portsmouth-York region, New Hampshire and Maine, by George Otis Smith:

Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 145, 1905, pp. 120-128. 

For other reports see Water-Supply Paper No. 102.

NEW JEKSEY.

Water resources of the central and southwestern highlands of New Jersey, by Laurence La Forge:

Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 110, 1905, pp. 141-155.

New Jersey (water resources), by G. N. Knapp: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 114, 1905, pp. 93-103. 

For other reports see Water-Supply Paper No. 106 and Bulletin 138.

NEW MEXICO.

Geology and underground-water conditions of the Jornada Del Muerto, New Mexico, by C. R. Keyes:

Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 123, 1905. 

For other reports see Twenty-second Annual Report.

NEW YORK.

The new artesian water supply at Ithaca, N. Y., by Francis L. Whitney: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper

No. 110, 1905, pp. 55-64. 

Water resources of the Fort Ticonderoga quadrangle, Vermont and New York, by T. Nelson Dale:

Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 110, 1905, pp. 126-129. 

Water resources of the Taconic quadrangle, New York, Massachusetts, and Vermont, by F. B. Taylor:

Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 110, 1905, pp. 130-133. 

Water resources of the Watkins Glen quadrangle, New York, by Ralph S. Tarr: Water-Sup, and Irr.

Paper No. 110, 1905, pp. 134-140.

New York (water resources), by F. B. Weeks: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 114, 1905, pp. 82-92. 

Water resources of the Catatonk area, New York, by E. M. Kindle: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 145,

1905, pp. 53-57. 

Waters of a gravel-filled valley near Tully, N. Y., by George B. Hollister: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper

No. 145, 1905, pp. 179-184. 

For other reports see Water-Supply Paper No. 102 and Bulletin No. 138.
6 * UNDEBGEOUND-WATEE PAPEES, 1906.

NOETH CAROLINA.

Water resources of tne Cowee a»d Pisgah quadrangles, North Carolina, by Hoyt S. Gale: Water-Sup.

and Irr. Paper No. 110,-1905, pp. 174-176.

North Carolina (water resources), by M. L. Fuller: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 114,1905, pp. 136-139. 

For other reports see Bulletin No. 138 and Folio 80.

NOETH DAKOTA.

See Seventeenth Annual Report.

OHIO.

Ohio (water resources), by Frank Leverett: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 114, 1905, pp. 265-270. 

For other reports see Eighteenth and Nineteenth Annual Reports.

OKLAHOMA.

See Twenty-second Annual Report.

OEEGON. 

See Water-Supply Papers Nos. 7, 8, and 252.

PENNSYLVANIA.

Water resources of the Chambersburg and Mercersburg quadrangles, Pennsylvania, by George W. 

Stose: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 110, 1905, pp. 156-158.

Water resources of the Curwensville, Patton, Ebenshurg, and Barnesboro quadrangles, Pennsylvania, 

by F. G. Clapp: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 110, 1905, pp. 159-163.

Water resources of the Elders Ridge quadrangle, Pennsylvania, by Ralph W. Stone: Water-Sup, and 

Irr. Paper No. 110, 1905, pp. 164-165.

Water resources of the Waynesburg quadrangle, Pennsylvania, by Ralph W. Stone: Water-Sup, and 

Irr. Paper No. 110, 1905, pp. 166-167.

Pennsylvania (water resources), by M. L. Fuller: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 114, 1905, pp. 104-110.

Water resources of the Pawpaw and Hancock quadrangles, West Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania, by George W. Stogeand George C. Martin: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 145,1905, pp. 58-63.

Waynesburg folio, Pennsylvania, by Ralph W. Stone: Geologic Atlas U. S., folio 121, 1905. 

For other reports see Water-Supply Paper No. 106.

EHODE ISLAND.

Massachusetts and Rhode Island (water resources), by W. O. Crosby: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No.

114, 1905, pp. 68-75. 

For other reports see Water-Supply Paper No. 102.

SOUTH CAEOLINA.

South Carolina (water resources), by L. C. Glenn: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 114,1905, pp. 140-152. 

For other reports see Bulletin No. 138.

SOUTH DAKOTA.

Geology and underground-water resources of the central Great Plains, by N. H. Dartoii: Prof. Paper

No. 32, 1904.

Huron folio, South Dakota, by J. E. Todd: Geologic Atlas U. S., folio 113, 1904. 

De Smet folio, South Dakota, by J. E. Todd and C. M. Hall: Geologic Atlas U. S., folio 114, 1904.

For other reports see Water-Supply Papers Nos. 34 and 90, Seventeenth, Eighteenth, and Twentyfirst Annual Reports, and Folios 85, 96, 97, 99, 100, 107, and 108.

TENNESSEE.

Tennessee and Kentucky (water resources), by L. C. Glenn: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 114, 1905,

pp. 198-208. 

For other reports see Water-Supply Paper No. 102.

TEXAS.

See Eighteenth, Twenty-first, and Twenty-second Annual Reports and Folio 42.

VEEMONT.

Water resources of the Fort Ticonderoga quadrangle, Vermont and New York, by T. Nelson Dale:

Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No 110, 1905, pp. 126-129. 

Water resources of the Taconic quadrangle, New York, Massachusetts, and Vermont, by F. B. Taylor:

Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 110, 1905, pp. 130-133.

Vermont (water resources), by G. H. Perkins. Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 114, 1905, pp. 60-67. 

For other reports see Water-Supply Paper No. 102.

VIEGINIA.

Virginia (water resources), by N. H. Barton and M. L. Fuller: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 114,

1905, pp. 127-135. 

For other reports see Bulletin No. 138 and Folios 13, 23, 70, and 80.
HYDROLOGIC PUBLICATIONS OF THE SURVEY. 7

WASHINGTON.

See Water-Supply Papers Nos. 4 and 55, and Folio 86.

WEST VIRGINIA.

Water resources of the Frostburg and Flintstone quadrangles, Maryland and West Virginia, by G. C. 

Martin: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 110, 1905, pp. 171-173.

West Virginia (water resources), by M. L. Fuller: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 114,1905, pp. 271-272.

Water resources of the Pawpaw and Hancock quadrangles, West Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania, by George W. Stoseand GeorgeC. Martin: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 145,1905, pp. 58-63.

Water resources of the Nicholas quadrangle, West Virginia, by George H. Ashley: Water-Sup, and 

Irr. Paper No. 145, 1905, pp. 64-66.

WISCONSIN.

Wisconsin district (water resources), by A. R. Shultz: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 114, 1905, pp.

233-241. 

Water resources of the Mineral Point quadrangle, Wisconsin, by U. S. Grant: Water-Sup, and Irr.

Paper No. 145, 1905, pp. 67-73.

WYOMING.

Geology and underground-water resources of the central Great Plains, by N. H. Barton: Prof. Paper

No. 32, 1904. 

For other reports see Twenty-first Annual Report and Folio 107.

SPRINGS AND SPRING DEPOSITS.

Contributions to hydrology of eastern United States, 1904, M. L. Fuller, geologist in charge: WaterSup, and Irr. Paper No. 110, 1905.

Spring system of the Decaturville dome. Camden County, Missouri, by E. M. Shepard: Water-Sup, 

and Irr. Paper No. 110, 1905, pp. 113-125.

Notes on the hydrology of Cuba, by M. L. Fuller: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper, No. 110,1905, pp. 183-200.

Waters of a gravel-filled valley near Tully, New York, by George B. Hollister: Water-Sup, and Irr. 

Paper No. 145, 1905, pp. 179-184.

Notes on certain hot springs of the southern United States, by Walter Harvey Weed: Water-Sup, 

and Irr. Paper No. 145, 1905, pp. 185-206.

Notes on certain large springs oi the Ozark region, Missouri and Arkansas, compiled by Myron L.

Fuller: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 145, 1905, pp. 207-210. 

For other reports see Ninth Annual Report, Bulletins Nos. 32 and 47, and Folio 30.

MINERAL AND POTABLE WATERS.

See Fourteenth Annual Report,Bulletins Nos. 32 and 47,and the various reports on Mineral Resources 

from 1883 to 1904.

ARTESIAN REQUISITES, MOVEMENTS OF GROUND WATERS, ETC.

Description of underflow meter used in measuring the velocity and direction of underground water, 

by Charles S. Slichter: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 110, 1905, pp. 17-31.

Underflow tests in the drainage basin of Los Angeles River, by Homer Harnlin. Water-Sup, and Irr. 

Paper No. 112. 1905.

Underground waters of eastern United States, M. L. Fuller, geologist in charge. Water-Sup, and Irr. 

Paper No. 114, 1905.

Two unusual types of artesian flow, by Myron L. Fuller. Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 145, 1905, 

pp. 40-45.

Water resources of the Portsmouth-York region, New Hampshire and Maine, by George Otis Smith: 

Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 145, 1905, pp. 120-128.

Field measurements of the rate of movement ot underground waters, by Charles S. Slichte-r: WaterSup, and Irr. Paper No. 140, 1905.

Observations of the ground waters ot the Rio Grande Valley, by Charles S. Slichter: Water-Sup, and

Irr. Paper No. 141, 1905. 

For other reports see Water-Supply Paper No. 67 and Filth and Nineteenth Annual Reports.

LAWS RELATING TO UNDERGROUND WATERS.

Relation of the law to underground waters, by D. W. Johnson. Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 122, 

1905.

WELL-DRILLING METHODS.

The California or "stovepipe" method of well construction, by Charles S. Slichter: Water-Sup, and

Irr. Paper No. 110, 1905, pp. 32-36. 

For other reports see Water-Supply Paper No. 101 and Bulletin No. 212.
8 UNDEEGEOUND-WA.TEE PAPEE8. 1906.

MEASUREMENTS OF FLOW AND HEAD.

Approximate methods of measuring the yield of flowing wells, by Charles S. Slichter: Water-Sup, and 

Irr. Paper No. 110, 1905, pp. 37-42.

Field measurements of the rate of movement of underground waters, by Charles S. Slichter: WaterSup, and Irr. Paper No. 140, 1905.

A convenient gage for determining low artesian heads, by Myron L. Fuller: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper 

No. 145, 1905, pp. 51-52. 

, LISTS OF WELLS AND BORINGS.

Record of deep-well drilling for 1904, by M. L. Fuller, E. F. Lines, and A. C. Veatch: Bull. No. 264, 1905. 

Contributions to the hydrology of eastern United States, 1903, by M. L. Fuller: Water-Sup, and Irr.

Paper No. 102, 1905. 

Preliminary list of deep borings in the United States, second edition, with additions, by N. H. Darton:

Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 149, 1905.

DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS BY WKLLS.

Drainage of ponds into drilled wells, by Robert E. Horton: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 145, 1905, 

pp. 30-39.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TERM "ARTESIAN/

By MYRON L. FULLER.

INTRODUCTION.

The term artesian, derived from the town of Artois in France, where the first flowing 

wells of importance were secured, was originally applied only to those wells in wbich the 

water rose above the surface, but in late years has been used in a number of other senses. 

At the present time, in fact, one can not be assured of its meaning in a particular paper 

unless its use is specifically stated. In many cases, fortunately, it is so defined, but the 

variability of the usage in different cases is sufficient to emphasize the need of a standard 

definition which shall be adhered to in public discussions.

It is doubtful if any definition can be devised which will meet the approval of or be 

accepted by all geologists, as opinions will naturally vary greatly according to the locality 

and nature of the work on which the geologists are engaged. But while there is considerable diversity of practice there is nevertheless a general tendency to give the term one or 

the other of two meanings, and a considerable number of geologists have expressed their 

willingness to accept any definition agreed on by the majority of active workers on underground-water problems.

The need of uniform practice has probably been felt most severely in the United States 

Geological Survey, where a considerable number of men devote their entire time to underground-water investigations and to related geologic problems, and it has become desirable 

either to drop the use of the term entirely or to adopt some definition wbich will meet the 

needs of geologists and be in harmony with the best usage in this country. For the purpose of obtaining the views of the different authorities, circular letters were mailed to those 

who have at one time or another been engaged in underground-water investigations or who 

are at the head of organizations such as State surveys, etc. Replies were received from 

about fifty geologists, and although they sbowed a considerable range of opinion, they were 

of much assistance in the consideration of a definition of the term.

USE OF TERM "ARTESIAN."

ORIGINAL USE.

The question of the early use of the term has been admirably summarized by W. H. 

Norton.« The word is derived from Artesium, the Latin equivalent of Artois, the name of 

an ancient province of France now included in the department of Pas de Calais, where the 

first flowing wells to be extensively known were obtained. The term in its etymology carries no definition, but it is unquestionable that it was the overflow of the Artois wells wbich 

attracted attention to them. The water in all wells, except those sunk to the shallow unconfined ground waters, rises when encountered and in many instances stands within a few 

feet or even a few inches of the top. Such wells, however, never, even in the earliest times, 

excited any comments, while flowing waters have almost invariably been regarded by the. 

people at large as of some mysterious and unknown but none the less wonderful origin.

a Artesian wells of Iowa: Iowa Geoi. Survey, vol. 6, 1897, pp. 122-128.

9
10 UNDERGROUND-WATER PAPERS, 1906.

In the early days the term bored wells (puits fores) was practically equivalent to flowing 

wells, since these alone at that time were bored or drilled. Later the terms bored wells, 

deep wells, artesian wells, artesian fountains, and even bubbling wells have all been 

applied to the same type. As wide a range of terms is found in French scientific literature, 

viz, puits fores, puits artesiens, fontaines artesiennes, fontaines artificielles, fontaines jaillissantes des puits fore's, etc. The term artesian obtained a definite place in literature as early 

as 1805, and was applied to those wells which flowed.

USE IN RECENT SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE.

As the geologic conditions governing artesian waters became known the term artesian 

was gradually extended by some writers to include any well in which the water rose under 

hydrostatic pressure when encountered, but others, especially teachers and authors of textbooks, have continued to use the term in its original sense, while a few have used it to apply 

to deep wells in general. In addition there is a fourth popular use of the word for any 

tubular well regardless of depth or other factors.

The varying meanings given to the term in this country are shown by the results of an 

examination of underground-water papers by 25 American authors. By "artesian" 6, or 

24 per cent, of these authors mean flowing wells; 15, or 60 per cent, wells in which water is 

under pressure but does not necessarily flow; and 4, or 16 per cent, deep wells in general. 

It should be borne in mind, however, that this is not altogether an expression of present 

practice. The use of the term artesian has, in fact, undergone a considerable change in the 

last few years, and a number of writers use it in a different sense at the present time from 

that adopted by them in their earlier writings. T. C. Chamberlin, for instance, at the time 

of the publication of his report on the requisite and qualifying conditions of artesian wells,a 

in 1885, defines an artesian well as a flowing well, but in the recent text-book of Chamberlin 

and Salisbury the statement is made that the term is now applied to any deep bored or 

drilled well.

EUROPEAN USE.

As to the European use of the term artesian the following quotation may be given from 

the letter from C. S. Slichter, who is probably more familiar with foreign literature on artesian waters than any other from whom replies to the circular have been received. " I have 

found very little difference of opinion among European writers in the use of the term. Any 

area in which the ground water exists under an appreciable pressure is called an 'artesian' 

area, and wells drilled in such a water-bearing medium are called 'artesian' wells. If they 

flow, they are called 'flowing' wells; if not^they are called 'nonflowing' wells."

PRESENT USE.

Preferences of scientists. The preferences as to the use of the term artesian by the geologists from whom returns were received are summarized in the accompanying table (p. 11). 

The figures do not in all cases express the original preferences of the geologists, several having 

modified their opinions since the question has been under discussion. This is especially 

true in regard to the administrative heads and geohydrologists who, after a full discussion 

of the question, were nearly unanimous in favoring the use of the term for all waters under 

hydrostatic pressure and for all wells in which the water rises. The table therefore represents the present views of the geohydrologists of the Geological Survey and the Survey geologists interested in underground-water investigations, and the views as expressed in replies 

to the circular letter of inquiry sent to geologists outside of Washington. From expressions 

in these replies it is believed that a considerable number of others would now accept the use 

of the term for all hydrostatic wells. This is especially true of those who were inclined to 

drop the term, there being relatively little difference in the opinions of the two classes.

a Filth Ann. Kept. U. S. Geol. Survey, 1885, pp. 125-173.
 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TEEM "ABTESIAN."" 11

Classified opinions relating to use of word "artesian" as applied to wetts.

From 

Administrative heads who are also engaged in field work on

Geohydrologists devoting entire time to underground-water

Geologists, other than teachers, who have had experience in

Teachers with extensive field experience in undergroundTeachers with limited field experience in underground-water

Drop 

term 

artesian.

0

0

5

1

2

Flowing 

wells.

1

1

3

5

o

All wells 

in which 

water 

rises.

4

6

9

4

0

Any deep 

wells.

0

0

1

1

0

PER CENT FAVORING THE VARIOUS PROPOSED USAGES.

Mainly field experience. .-

Field and teaching experience

Geologists with extended field expeTeachers with extensive field experipnce....... ...........

Mainly teaching or theo-f Teachers with limited field experi0 

0

28 

9 

33

20 

14

17

46 

33

80 

86

49 

36 

33

0 

0

6 

9 

0

In the above classification the figures do not possess the full significance they would 

have if a larger number of individuals were represented, but as the views of practically 

all those who have been engaged to any extent in underground-water problems are represented the figures may be accepted as illustrating the general trend of opinion.

It will be seen that in general the proportion of those favoring the restriction of the 

term artesian to flowing wells varies inversely with the amount of their actual field experience, although there are some variations inside of the main divisions of the classification 

due to differences in the standpoint from which the question is viewed.

The administrative heads, including State geologists and the geologists in charge of the 

eastern and western sections of hydrology of the United States Geological Survey, who 

meet the problem both in the field and in the office, or, in other words, who are familiar. 

with both the field problems and the problems of logical treatment in reports, favor in 

the proportion of 4 to 1 the more extended use of the word.

Of the geohydrologists, or those devoting their entire time to the study of underground 

waters, only 1 out of 7 favors returning to the original definition of the term, while of 

geologists not devoting their entire time to underground-water work, but who have had 

extended experience with water problems, only 3 out of 18 favor returning to the original 

definition.

In the class of teachers the effect of their characteristic methods of thought is at once 

apparent, the percentage of those favoring the original use of the term artesian jumping 

to 4(i per cent among those with extensive field experience and to 33 per cent among those 

with limited field experience in underground-water investigations.

Popular use. The popular use of the term artesian is even more variable than the 

use by scientists. As pointed out in the letter of T. C. Chamberlin, there were not many 

flowing wells in the eastern portion of the country twenty-five years ago, and there was 

at that time no dominant practice, but " with the multiplication of wells and the growth 

of speech and common literature relative to them usage has drifted strongly toward the 

application of the term artesian to deep wells quite irrespective of the rise or flow of water, 

and it seems useless to try to stem the tide of this growing practice. It is easy to see 

how this arises and how inevitable it is. An individual or a community in considering
12 UNDEKGKOtnSTD-WATEB PAPEES, 1906.

the question of sinking a deep well in hope of a flow naturally uses the term artesian in 

reference to the proposed well. The drillers do the same, and the name thus becomes 

fixed before the result is determined. Many wells are now designated artesian solely for 

the hygienic implications of the term."

The uses mentioned by Professor Chamberlin are widely prevalent throughout the 

eastern United States and often in those areas in the West in which flowing wells are absent. 

In general the term artesian is used for flows in those areas where flowing wells are common, 

but elsewhere the other usage predominates. The use of the term in various parts of the 

country, as brought to light by the work of the division of hydrology, may be summarized 

as follows:

Summary of popular use of term " artesian."

Locality.

Atlantic and Gulf 

Coastal Plain.

Great Lakes region ....

Use of term.

Any deep wells and those shallow wells which flow. 

Occasionally also for a shallow tubular well.

ing water (not oil or gas).

Any deep rock well drille4 for water. Term not always 

applied to drift wells even when flowing.

Authority.

M. L. Fuller.

Do. 

Do.

Do.

Do.

W. C. Mendenhall.

Summary of present use. From the preceding discussion it is clear that no definite 

meaning can be assigned to the word artesian in a publication unless a definition is given 

in the same paper, a fact which is emphasized by the various ways in which the term is 

used, even the same writer sometimes employing it differently in different publications.

The predominant scientific usage, as brought out by the table on page 11, is for all wells 

in which the water rises; in other words, for those exhibiting the hydrostatic or artesian 

principle. In popular practice it is applied, in addition to the uses previously mentioned, 

to deep wells in general, especially those in rock, and to a certain extent to any drilled 

wells yielding water of good sanitary quality.

ARGUMENTS FOR VARIOUS USES.

DEFICIENCY OF TERMS.

In artesian-water reports several types of wells and waters occurring under a variety 

of conditions must, in many cases, be constantly referred to. Of these, the most common 

are: (1) Unconfined waters, (2) confined waters, (3) hydrostatic principle, (4) hydrostatic 

basin, (5) nonhydrostatic wells, (6) nonflowing hydrostatic wells, and (7) flowing wells.

The term ground water is commonly used for the unconfined portion of the undergroundwater body, the top of which is represented by the water table, while the term flowing 

wells can be satisfactorily applied to those wells in which the water rises above the surface. 

On the other hand, the term nonflowing is not sufficient to express the character of a 

well in which the water rises but does not flow, as it does not distinguish between such 

wells and wells drawing from the water table.

The original use of the term, artesian, as has been seen, was for flowing wells, but if 

restricted to such wells it can not be logically applied to basins in which the water is under 

pressure, but which do not yield flowing wells, nor can it be used to distinguish confined 

waters from the ordinary unconfined ground waters, the top of which is represented by 

the water table, or for the general result of the action of the hydrostatic principle.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TERM "ARTESIAN." 13

SUMMARY OP ARGUMENTS.

Most of the arguments urged for the different uses of the term have been outlined or suggested in the preceding pages, but a brief statement summarizing them may not be out of 

place.

Use of term for flouting wetts. The arguments brought forward by those favoring.the 

use of the term for flowing wells are 

(1) The term artesian was first used for flowing wells, and hence such use has priority 

over all others.

(2) The advocates of this usage believe that it is the predominating scientific use.

(3) They believe it likewise predominates in popular usage.

(4) The term is capable of precise definition and is based on conditions apparent to 

the layman as well as to the scientist.

(5) It is argued that the term is applicable and necessary for the practical discrimination 

of flowing and nonflowing waters, a distinction regarded as of great economic importance.

Use for well waters under pressure. The advocates of the use of the term artesian for 

wells in which the water is under hydrostatic pressure present the following arguments:

(1) The definition given to the term should agree with the most common usage.

(2) The common European use of the term is for wells in which the water is under pressure, but which do not necessarily flow.

(3) The proposed usage is followed by the majority of field investigators in America.

(4) It is impossible at the present time to return to the original meaning.

(5) The term artesian, if used at all, should be applied to the hydrostatic principle and 

not to flows which are an accidental result.

(p) The term flowing describes the well exactly and in terms which can not be mistaken, 

making it unnecessary to restrict the term artesian to such wells.

Use for d.eep wells. Those favoring the, application of artesian to deep wells in general 

advance the following considerations:

(1) Depth and not flow was the significant feature of the original wells at Artois.

(2) Such definition of the term is according to popular usage.

DISCUSSION OF ARGUMENTS.

Original use of term. All geologists, with one possible exception, are agreed that' the 

original significance of the wells at Artois was their flow and not their depth, the fact 

that they were sunk in rock, nor the fact that they were drilled instead of dug. It can 

therefore probably be accepted as a fact that the term was originally applied to flowing 

wells (see pp. £KLO).

Predominant usage. It has been shown (pp. 10-11) that although scientific practice 

varies considerably, the majority of geologists, including the European ones, use the term 

in the modified sense as applying to the hydrostatic principle and basin, and to wells in 

which the water rises. The popular usage is so variable that it would seem as if little 

would be gained by conforming to it, even if some one use largely predominated, which, 

however, is not the case.

Precise definition. The term artesian, whether applied to all wells in which the water 

rises or only to flowing wells, is equally capable of precise definition, since a rise of the 

water is as positive a fact as is the flow, hence no argument can be based upon such preciseness of definition.

Necessity of term artesian for Jlowing wells. That some term is necessary for designating 

flowing wells will be admitted by all, but that this must necessarily be the word "artesian" 

is very doubtful. Any word which will express the meaning will answer and the term 

flowing has an advantage over artesian in that it is self-explanatory.

Im.possibility of returning to original meaning. That it is probably impossible to return 

to the original meaning of the word artesian, except perhaps by scientists, will be recognized

IRK 160 06 2
14 UNDERGROUND-WATER PAPERS, 1906.

by everyone. It will, however, doubtless be equally impossible to secure the uniform 

.adoption of any other definition, so this argument can not be advanced in favor of any 

of the proposed uses.

Basis of nomenclature. A definition of the term artesian, if it is to be redefined, should, 

it is believed, be based on a fundamental principle rather than on accident. The rise of 

the water in wells is the result of the action of the hydrostatic principle, which results 

from well-defined properties of liquids and definite physical laws, the rise taking place 

in all wells regardless of kind, size, depth, material, or location, provided only that confined 

waters are encountered. Flows, on the 1 other hand, depend on the location. One well 

may flow and another on land a few inches higher may not flow. Again, a well may not 

rise to the level of the surface, but may yield flows when piped laterally to a slightly lower 

level.

TERMS TO BE SELECTED.

To secure the best results it is believed that certain principles should be assumed as a 

guide in the selection of terms. These are briefly outlined as follows:

(1) The question of depth should not enter into the probable nomenclature.

(2) Definitions should, if possible, be based on principle and not on accident.

(3) The terms should be scientific and should be capable of accurate definition.

(4) Provision should be made for terms for the hydrostatic basin and principle.

(5) The terms should meet the needs of the greatest possible number of workers

PROPOSED DEFINITIONS.

Along the line sketched in the preceding pages, the replies received from other geologists 

being considered, the terms to be used were thoroughly discussed by the members of the 

division of hydrology at the Survey, as a result of which the following definitions were 

agreed on with practical unanimity as the most expedient at the present time:

Artesian principle. The artesian principle, which may be considered as identical with 

what is often known as the hydrostatic principle, is defined as the principle in virtue of 

which water confined in the materials of the earth's crust tends to rise to the level of the 

water surface at the highest point from which pressure is transmitted. Gas as an agent 

in causing the water to rise is expressly excluded from the definition.

Artesian pressure. Artesian pressure is defined as the pressure exhibited by water confined in the earth's crust at a level lower than its static head.

Artesian irater. Artesian water is defined as that portion of the underground water 

which is under artesian pressure and will rise if encountered by a well or other passage 

affording an outlet.

Artesian system. An artesian system is any combination of geologic structures, such as 

basins, planes, joints, faults, etc., in which waters are confined under artesian pressure.

Artesian basin. An artesian basin is defined as a basin of porous bedded reck in which, 

as a result of the synclinal structure, the water is confined under artesian pressure.

C Z> E F

Pia. 1. -Conditions in an artesian basin.

Artesian slope. An artesian slope is defined as a monoclinal slope of bedded rocks in 

which water is confined beneath relatively impervious covers owing to the obstruction to
FIG. 2. Possible conditions in an artesian basin slope, a. Water bed cut oft by unconform

is the only obstruction to downward motion; d, porous bed changing t
REPRESENTATION OF WELLS AND SPRINGS ON MAPS.

By MYRON L. FULLER.

INTRODUCTION.

In general there has been no attempt at uniformity of practice in the delineation on 

maps of underground-water features or of wells or springs, but the increase in the number 

of men engaged in underground-water investigations both on local and national surveys 

and the increasing number of reports issued has been so rapid within the past two or three 

years that it now appears desirable that a concerted movement be made to develop a uniform 

system of symbols for use on maps. As by far the greater portion of the undergroundwater literature, other than that in engineering magazines, is published by the tJnited 

States Geological Survey, it is thought that the adoption of some such system by its members will go far toward securing uniformity in the country as a whole.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.

It is believed that the various types of wells and springs can l:e best shown by symbols 

of different colors, but unfortunately colored maps can not always be had, and it becomes 

necessary to represent a considerable number of features in black and white. Symbols 

which can be readily and quickly made are also a great convenience in note keeping in the 

field and result in much saving of time.

The number of symbols devised should be sufficient for the representation of all features 

which it is desirable to show. If wholly arbitrary devices are used, confusion will result 

whenever a considerable number are used simultaneously, but this difficulty will be largely 

avoided if the system adopted is based on a few suggestive forms grouped according to 

easily remembered principles. Unnecessary duplication should of course be avoided, 

although even a multiplicity of symbols leads to less confusion than the attempt to use a 

single device to represent several different things.

The older generalized, maps, such as the early topographic sheets of this country, have 

given place to maps in which the features are shown in great detail, yet not only are the 

maps not crowded and confusing, but their usefulness has been increased many fold. It 

is believed that the use of any necessary number of symbols will likewise add to the usefulness of underground-water maps. The system should in fact be as nearly complete as is 

practicable, for although the use of many symbols on a single map might be objectionable, 

in reality only a few would, in most cases, be used at one time.

The principles to be considered in devising a system of well and spring symbols for 

underground-water maps are (1) simplicity, (2) clearness, (3) ease of making, and (4) suggestiveness. Failure to answer these various requirements ruled out many of the arbitrary systems used in the past, although several of the old symbols have been utilized in 

the new system proposed.

SYMBOLS.

It is believed that a system of symbols can be most logically developed if a single arbitrary device is taken as a base. In common practice a circle is most often used for a well, 

while more or less closely allied devices are used for springs. Inasmuch as both wells and 

springs are ordinarily approximately circular, this device, which seems to have both the 

required simplicity and suggestiveness, is proposed.

16
REPRESENTATION OF WELLS AND SPRINGS ON MAPS. 17

WELL SYMBOLS.

Base symbol. The cross section of all but a few shallow open wells being circular, the 

unmodified circle is proposed as a base symbol to indicate all wells.

Successful and unsuccessful wells. The most significant feature of a well from the economic 

and practical standpoints is its success or failure, and provision fcr its representation has 

to be made at the very start. It is thought that a successful well a "full" well in many 

instances can be best shown by a filled circle, or rather a circular dot, while an empty or 

unsuccessful well can be best shown by a simple circle.

Nonmineral and mineral wdls. Next to obtaining water its quality is most important 

and it becomes necessary to devise a symbol for indicating the mineral property. If an 

ordinary nonmineral well is represented by a circle, a mineral well, or one in which the 

water includes mineral matter in solution, may well be represented by a circle inclosing a 

dot.

Hydrostatic pressure in wells. Next to quantity and quality the problem of whether or 

not the waters will rise is of the greatest importance, and a further symbol for distinguishing the wells simply sunk to the water table and in which the water does not rise from those 

sunk to confined or artesian waters becomes necessary. It is thought that a vertical line 

can be best used to designate the vertical rise of the water. Such a line, to be superimposed 

on any of the other well symbols, is therefore recommended.

Flowing weUs. The wells in which the waters rise are still further subdivided into those 

which fail to reach the surface and those which flow. For the latter the plus sign has 

often been used and is proposed in the present instance. It is to be superimposed on 

other well symbols as in the case of the vertical line.

Wells from different horizons. In many areas all of the successful wells do not. draw 

from the same horizon, in some instances as many as four or five different water-bearing 

beds being utilized. As no limit can be put to the number of horizons which it may be 

necessary to indicate, and as the horizons do not necessarily have any relation to the 

character of the well it has not seemed desirable to devise symbols for their representation. 

Instead it is recommended that the horizon of the supply be indicated by letters placed 

to the left of the well symbol, the space to the right being left for the insertion of figures 

giving the depth, height of water, elevation, etc.

SPRING SYMBOLS.

Base symbol. As a base symbol for springs a circle with a short irregular line, indicative 

of a stream, leading away from the circumference, is considered as most in harmony with 

common usage, especially in topographic maps. All springs yield water, so there is no 

demand for distinguishing springs as in the case of successful and unsuccessful wells.

Mineral and nonmineral springs. The presence of mineral matter in the water may be 

indicated by a dot placed in the center of the circle as in the case of the wells.

Superficial and artesian springs. In some springs the water is unconfined, the flows 

taking place where the surface of the water table is cut by a depression. The movement 

of the water in such instances is almost entirely downward, and the springs are frequently 

spoken of as superficial or gravity springs, since the water has not been to any distance 

below the water table and emerges under the direct action of gravity. The water of such 

springs will not rise if confined. In artesian springs, on the other hand, the water comes 

from below and rises under the influence of hydrostatic pressure, and when confined will 

sometimes rise to considerable heights above the spring mouth. In such instances it is 

recommended that, as in the case of the wells, the hydrostatic principle be represented by 

a vertical line superimposed on the base symbol, but not extending beyond the circumference of the circle. Flows do not need to be represented, since all springs possess this 

property.

Thermal property. Springs may be further divided into cold or warm, but only one 

symbol, that for the thermal property, is required. For this a horizontal bar is proposed
18 UNDERGROUND-WATER PAPERS, 1906.

as the simplest device which can be superimposed on all others. It is intended that this 

bar shall not extend beyond the circumference of the circle so that there may "be no confusion with the device indicating flowing wells.

SUMMARY.

Base or primary symbols. As primary symbols the following devices are proposed: 

O =well. 

O = spring.

Secondary symbols. The secondary symbols to be superimposed on the primary symbols 

are six in number:

 = water (for wells only).

 = mineral property.

I = waters which rise.

ir-l = waters which flow (for wells only).

 - = thermal waters (for springs only).

Application. The use of the various devices is illustrated below. The arrangement 

is not intended as a classification of wells and springs, but is simply for convenience in 

showing the use of the symbols.

(Flowing..... _A_ 

rRise....J '

Nonmineral. J iNonflowing.. A

Wells.....

Successful....

No rise.

_. (Flowing..... -4&-

(

Rise...J »

INonflowing.. A

^No rise. ©

Unsuccessful. .............--.-....-...-.-....--.- Q

Springs.....

Nonmineral.. ..

Mineral .

Artesian. ...

I Warm

Gravity ..... Cold .. 

[Cold. .

I Warm 

Gravity ..... Cold ..

Artesian. ... J
OCCURRENCE OF WATER IN CRYSTALLINE ROCKS.

By E. E. ELLIS.

INTRODUCTION.

While the laws governing the occurrence of ground water in unconsolidated materials 

and in porous sedimentary formations are now generally understood, little has been written concerning the sources of supply for wells in the so-called crystalline rocks. For this 

reason, when an opportunity was presented in connection with an investigation of the 

underground waters of Connecticut, special attention was given to the occurrence of water 

in such rocks.

The term "crystalline" is applied to rocks whose component grains have crystallized 

into their present relative positions; contrasted with them are the sedimentary types, 

which are laid down under water and which generally consist of fragments of older rocks 

mechanically arranged. Under the head of crystalline rocks two main types may be distinguished igneous rocks, such as granite, diabase, gabbro, granodiorite, etc., which were 

once in a molten condition, and crystallized and consolidated on cooling; and metamorphic rocks, such as schists and gneisses, which were originally either sedimentary or igneous, but have been altered by metamorphic processes to their present form. The Connecticut limestones, or marbles, are classed with the crystalline rocks.

It is the purpose of the present paper to call attention to some of the features of special 

economic interest, with the hope that they may be of value to those seeking for information 

as to the probabilities of success in drilling in similar regions elsewhere in New England 

or along the Piedmont Plateau to the south. All discussion of the literature of the subject and, so far as practicable, all local references are omitted, being reserved for the special 

detailed report on the occurrence of water in the crystalline rocks of Connecticut.

ROCK TYPES. 

CRYSTALLINE ROCKS.

The principal types of crystalline rocks dealt with are granite, gneiss, and schist, although 

some diabase and limestone areas were studied. The granites, although of many varieties, are mainly of the ordinary somewhat coarsely crystalline types, consisting mainly of 

quartz, feldspar, and mica. The gneiss is more variable, but may be distinguished by 

the driller froni the granite by its banded, appearance. The granodiorite resembles ordinary granite, but is darker, frequently being known as black granite.

In the schists the banding is more highly developed, mica is present in large amounts, 

and there is a decided tendency to cleave into more or less flat fragments. Some of the 

schists, in which little mica is present, much resemble slate. Pegmatite, usually called

19
20 UNDERGROUND-WATER PAPERS, 1906.

"feldspar" by the quarrymen and drillers, occurs as dikes or more irregular masses cutting the older rocks, and is usually recognized by its large crystals and white or light color. 

Diabase, or trap rock, may be distinguished by the driller from its crystalline character

Crystalline area

FIG. 3. Geologic sketch map of Connecticut. The present paper deals with the crystalline and limestone areas.

and dark greenish-black color. The distribution of the crystalline rocks and limestones 

are shown in fig. 3.

DRIFT.

In the region under investigation the rocks are in large measure covered with deposits 

left by the ice sheet which once occupied the region, part consisting of a heterogeneous 

mixture of bowlders, sand, and clay known as hardpan or till, and part of stratified sand, 

gravel, and clay. The till is seen largely on the hills, averaging about 15 feet in thickness, 

while the stratified drift occurs mainly in the yalleys, where it has an average thickness 

of about 36 feet. In general, therefore, the hills have a configuration corresponding rather 

closely to the underlying rock surface, the minor irregularities of which are masked by the 

overlying drift. On the other hand, the valley bottoms are flat and would show a decidedly different topography if the sand and gravel deposits were removed.

DRILLING PRODUCTS.

The marked characteristics of these rocks give equally characteristic products in drilling. In many cases fragments will be yielded by the drill which are large enough to 

show the general texture; in others the drillings will all be in the form of finely broken 

fragments. In general the granite drillings yield an even-grained product, with a large 

proportion of the white or pink minerals, quartz and feldspar, and maintain the same 

character and color of material for a number of feet. Gneiss gives a somewhat similar 

product, but will usually have a larger proportion of biotite, or black mica, and the character of the drillings will change rapidly, usually every few inches. Schist is generally 

softer and more readily drilled than either of the preceding types and the drillings contain 

a conspicuous amount of mica, which occurs in larger particles than the other minerals.
OCCURRENCE OF WATER IN" CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 21

The drillings maintain a fairly uniform appearance, as in granite. Phyllite is usually a 

hard rock to drill, owing to its fineness of grain and the frequent nearly vertical position 

of its cleavage. Trap rock is considered the most difficult rock to drill, because of its 

hardness, and is readily distinguished. Limestone drillings are ordinarily white, and may 

be tested by adding acid or strong vinegar, which will produce an effervescence, owing 

to the escape of carbon-dioxide gas.

WATER IN CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 

OCCURRENCE IN PORES.

The occurrence of water in crystalline rocks is very different from that in sedimentary 

rocks, largely owing to the great difference in porosity. The sedimentary deposits, which 

are made up of fragments of older materials generally cemented into new rock, are commonly very porous and often absorb several per cent of their volume in water. (See table 

by M. L. Fuller, p. 61 ) Porosities of sandstone average about 15 per cent, shales about 

4 per cent, and limestone 5 per cent. In granites and other crystalline rocks, however, 

the absorption is usually less than half of 1 per cent of the volume. The limestones here 

discussed have about the same porosity. In such rocks the water moves through the 

pores so slowly that it can never escape fast enough to be of value in wells. Fortunately 

there are in the crystalline rocks many large passages, some of which are described below.

OCCURRENCE IN JOINTS.

Joints are the more or less extensive and generally smooth and straight planes cutting 

the rock in various directions, and are the result of fracturing forces which have split it 

into blocks of different shapes and sizes, although usually without any appreciable separation or movement of the rocks.

TYPES OF JOINTS. »

Vertical joints. The most common type of joint is that having an approximately vertical position (70°-90°), but joints with many other inclinations occur. In the region 

investigated the character of the joints is as follows:

Inclination of joints in Connecticut rocks.

Inclination.

80° 90°

70°-80°. . ................. .................... . ........... ...........................

40°-70°. . ...... ............................................................................

Below 40° ..................................................................................

Number 

of localities 

observed.

40

17

75

14

4

The joints are mostly straight, but a few that were curved or showed other irregularities were observed.

Horizontal joints. In many of the rocks there is another class of joints which are verydifferent from the vertical type, both in their degree of inclination and in their general 

nature. These occupy an approximately level position, rarely more than 20° from the 

horizontal, and usually much less than this. In general this joint structure follows the 

surface configuration of the rock, but occasionally is found to pitch at a low angle in a 

direction opposite to the slope of the hillside.

Fissility and schistosity openings. The porosity of schist, while probably greater than 

that of slate, is too small to admit artesian circulation through the pores. In the crumpled schists there appear to be openings between the laminae, but they probably do not 

permit sufficient rapid circulation for well supplies. It is upon the more or less pronounced
22 UNDERGROUND-WATER PAPERS, 1906.

fracture planes parallel to the schistosity, especially those near the surface, that the wells 

depend.

Faults. Faults may be considered as extreme types of joints in which there has been 

movement of one wall of the joint plane past the other. The work of Hobbs, Davis, and 

others has shown that there has been a considerable amount of faulting in Connecticut, 

while it is not uncommon to find strongly marked shear zones, indicating slipping in the 

crystalline rocks. They are comparatively rare phenomena, however, and are seldom 

encountered in well drilling, and accordingly will be treated simply as special cases of jointing. They are possibly important as sources for springs, although it is extremely difficult 

and generally impossible to ascribe any particular spring to a fault plane.

SPACING AND CONTINUITY OF JOINTS.

Vertical joints. The vertical joints, which are the important water carriers, have no 

regularity of spacing even for the same rock. From a large number of observations it 

appears that at the places where jointing is well developed the spacing of all joints is commonly between 3 feet and 7 feet to a depth of 50 feet, the average spacing, however, between 

vertical joints of the same series for the crystalline rocks, excluding trap and limestone, is 

more than 10 feet for this depth, while the study of well records indicates that this is not far 

from the average spacing for all joints to a depth of 100 feet.

Although there are many exceptions, joints of this type are generally continuous for considerable distances both along the line of outcrop and that of dip. Faults, however, have the 

greatest continuity and frequently extend for several miles across the country, occasionally 

for tens of miles. The sheeted zones of close jointing are probably nearly as continuous as 

faults, and their dimensions should be measured in hundreds of feet. Where there is a welldefined parallel joint series the prominent joints may extend several hundred feet, while the 

minor intersecting joints will be much shorter.

Horizontal joints. -There is much greater regularity of spacing in the horizontal joints 

than in the vertical joints. They are apparently surface phenomena and diminish in number rapidly with depth, and it is probable that they do not exist as fractures at 200 feet below 

the surface. In the first 20 feet below the surface these horizontal joints average 1 foot apart, 

in the next 30 feet they average between 4 and 7 feet, and in the next 50 feet they are much 

more widely spaced, running from 6 to 30 feet or more apart.

The continuity of individual horizontal joints rarely exceeds 150 feet, but owing to their 

intersection of each other a continuous opening might be formed of several hundred feet 

which would be in the form of a curved sheet approximately parallel to the hill slope., each 

lower sheet having less curvature than the other. They are probably better developed on 

the hills than in the valleys, as the pitch of the joints is usually less than the slope of the 

surface, which consequently cuts across the joints; and as they are wider spaced with depth 

the horizontal joints which cross the valleys will be widely spaced.

Not only do joints become tighter with depth, but they are farther apart. The application of this principle in the drilling of wells is of the utmost importance, as it is frequently 

asserted that water can always be obtained by going deep enough, whereas, in fact, the 

deeper the well the less the chance of striking fractures, which are the only passages permitting water transmission in crystalline rocks. It is further evident that, owing to the closing 

of joints with depth, there will be a much greater circulation in the upper half than in the 

lower half of any individual joint.

The number of fractures supplying water varies greatly in different wells. In some 

cases the greater part of the water appears to come from a single opening, while in others the 

water comes in slowly from a large number of openings. In the average well there are from 

one to four horizons from which the principal supplies of water come, although the yield from 

one of them is usually greater than from all the others together. This is particularly true of
OCCURRENCE OF WATER IN CRYSTALLINE ROCKS, 23

the deeper wells (from 200 to 300 feet), in which the principal source is usually very close to 

the bottom of the well.

If an average inclination of 70° from the horizontal and an average spacing of 10 feet be 

assumed for the vertical joints for the upper 200 feet of rock, each well 200 feet in depth will 

intersect seven joints. This is probably not far from the average for all the wells, the small 

and discontinouus fractures near the surface being neglected. Below 200 feet the average 

number of joints intersected would be somewhat decreased for the next 100 feet, and 

greatly decreased at depths greater than 300 feet.

INTERSECTION OF JOINTS.

The intersection of joints with one another is very important in determining the nature of 

the underground circulation. While all joints intersect, the circulation is greatest where 

the joints of the principal systems meet and where, in addition to the vertical joints, horizontal fractures occur.

WIDTH OF OPENINGS.

At the immediate surface, joints often have an opening of one-half inch to 2 inches and 

occasionally much greater. This wide opening is due to various weathering and mechanical 

agencies, which act only near the surface, and consequently is not found at depths below 

which these agents act. In an artificial cut, such as a quarry wall, joints which may be 

open one-half inch at the surface are often found to be too tight to admit a knife blade at 25 

feet below the surface.

While the joints at 30 feet below the surface may have only one-twentieth the opening 

that they have at the surface, the same proportionate tightening will not continue at lower 

depths, although it is certain that the greater the depths the greater must be the tendency 

of joints to close, owing to increased pressure and the smaller opportunity for lateral expansion below the level of minor topographic relief.

QUALITY OF THE WATER.

The waters of the crystalline rocks are variable in mineral composition, but in most 

instances are relatively soft, the carbonates or sulphates of calcium or magnesium being 

present only in small amounts. They are practically always safe for domestic purposes and 

give little trouble in boilers. Some wells on islands or very near the coast on the mainland 

yield brackish water.

WELLS.

VARIABILITY OF CONDITIONS.

In crystalline rocks it is impossible to foretell the conditions that will be encountered in a 

well, since these often depend on the occurrence of joints of which there may be no indication at the surface. One well may be entirely different in both the quantity and quality of 

its waters from another only a few feet away. It is not therefore advisable for a driller to 

guarantee water unless an additional charge is made to insure him against risk of failure.

Among 237 wells of which information was secured only 3, or 1J per cent, failed to get 

water, and although there is a general reluctance to give information in regard to such wells, 

the probabilities of failure are probably not more than one in twenty. It should be remembered, however, that this applies only to domestic wells, and that the chance of failure when 

large supplies for manufacturing or similar purposes are demanded is considerably greater. 

It is probable, however, that 90 per cent of the wells sunk have obtained supplies sufficient 

for the use required. »

FLOWING WELLS.

Although wells in which the water rises above the rock surface are common, very few 

instances where it reaches the surface of the overlying drift are known. Only six yielding 

permanent flows have been reported, although a number of others flowed for a few minutes 

when first drilled. All of the flowing wells are located on slopes with considerably higher
24 UNDERGROUND-WATER PAPERS, 1906.

elevations near by, and are generally found only where there is a considerable thickness of 

drift resting on the rock surface and serving to confine the water in the rock.

The flows are ordinarily of no especial value if the water is to be utilized at the well, as 

the rise above the surface is very slight. In some instances, however, when the wells are 

on hillsides, the water can be piped to a point lower down, giving a continuous flow without pumping. Flows can occasionally be obtained by the use of siphons when the water 

is within 30 feet of the surface and the point where the water is used is more than 30 feet 

below the mouth of the well.

WATER SUPPLY.

GENERAL STATEMENT.

The yield of a well depends on its depth, its topographic location, and the nature of the 

rock in which it is made.

As previously stated, only 3 out of the 237 wells reported were completely dry. Only 17, 

or 12J per cent, furnished less than 2 gallons a minute. About 15 gallons a minute is the average yield, although some yield over 30 gallons a minute on continuous pumping. They are 

remarkably constant, showing little variation in yield, either annually or through a period 

of years. Some have shown increased and others decreased yields, but generally the change 

is inappreciable. The level to which the water rises is nearly as unchangeable as the yield, 

usually being little if at all affected by dry seasons. Generally the water regains its original level very quickly after pumping has ceased, although in some wells it returns very 

gradually.

Some details are given in the following table:

Yield in gallons per minute at various depths (beneath surface covering) in various types of

rock.

Depth below 

surface covering (feet).

0- 30........

30-50........

50-70........

70-90........

90-110........

110-200........

200-300........

300-400........

400-500........

500-650........

Schist.

No. 

of 

wells.

2

4 

,3 

6

2

Yield.

3.2

9.5 

21.6 

22.1 

8.5

Granite.

No. 

of 

wells.

1 

9 

5 

2 

8 

5 

3 

1 

1

Yield.

7 

6.7 

9.8 

20.5 

14.4 

13 

16 

0 

0

Gneiss.

No. 

of 

wells.

1 

13 

14

7 

2 

8 

2

1 

o

Yield.

1.0 

11.9 

12.4 

7.6 

, 5.5 

8.3 

33.0 

22.0 

50 

14

Granodiorite.

No. 

of 

wells.

1 

1 

6 

3 

1

Yield.

8.0 

0 

46 

12.7 

2

........

Quart zite 

schist.

No. 

of 

wells.

1

1

1

Yield.

6.0

0

2

Tetal.

No. 

of 

wells.

4

23 

14 

17 

21 

9 

4 

2 

3

Yield.

3.6 

9.75 

11.3 

12.4 

15.2 

20.2 

16.7 

11.5 

26 

5.2

There is, in general, a slight increase in the yield of water with increased depth from 15 

feet down to 200 feet, beyond which the chances decrease, wells over 400 feet being in 

many cases failures. The results of observations on the latter class are summarized in 

the following tables:
OCCUKRElirCE OF WATER IN CRYSTALLINE BOOKS.

Yield ofioells over 400 feet deep.

25

Location.

Hills...........................................................................

Depth.

Feet.

583

690

603 

425

850

548

420 

485

f 610

i 645 

1,465

Yield per 

minute.

Galls.

25

10

26 

50

40

Small.

2 

Dry.

12

4 

«3

a Salty.

The average depth in rock of 163 wells is 88.8 feet and the average total depth, including 

the surface material overlying the rock, is 108.4 feet. Ninety per cent of the wells are 

less than 300 feet in depth and 82 per cent less than 200 feet in depth. In many of the 

wells which have gone below 250 feet the main and in several cases £he entire supply has 

come from seams at less than 250 feet in depth. From a study of the recorded wells it 

would appear, therefore, that if a well has penetrated 250 feet of rock without success the 

best policy is to abandon the place and sink in another location. In the case of wells in 

granodiorite which have been successful at an average greater depth than an other rocks 

this depth might be somewhat too small, while in other rocks it is very possible that a 

maximum depth of 200 feet should be adopted.

The following table, summarizes the depths of the wells under 400 feet and the proportions 

of each in rock and drift:

Average depths of surface material and of the entire ivell, exclusive of wells over Jf.00 feet in 

depth and of wells known to be dry.

Position.

Hills ..........................................................

Average thickness of 

drift.

Feet. 

36

17

21

10

Average 

depth in 

rock.

Feet. 

104.5

94.0

79.4

74.0

Average 

total 

depth.

Feet. 

140.5

111.0

100.4

84.0

Number 

of 

records.

26

67

54

16

The average total depth of the 168 wells is 108.4 feet.

TOPOGRAPHIC LOCATION.

It has been found that on an average water is encountered in the crystalline rocks at a 

less depth on the hills than in the valleys, but this is due largely to the heavier deposits 

of drift that must be penetrated before rock is reached in the valleys.
.26 UNDERGROUND-WATER PAPERS, 1906.

Average depth from surface to water level.

Position.

Hill?...............................................................................

Depth 

to water.

Feet. 

19

11

15

8

Number 

of 

records.

76

30

44

30

The average yield of the wells in the valleys is, however, somewhat greater. Wells on 

the slopes for some reason have an average yield of less than one-half that of those in either 

of the other locations.

Average yield of wells in various locations.

Location.

Hills...............................................................................

Yield 

per 

minute.

Galls. 

24.4

20.5

8.7

18.8

Number 

of 

records.

18

27

25

9

Some rather puzzling features are brought out by the following table, showing the relation of the water level to the level of the rock surface (bottom of overlying drift) in wells 

in various topographic locations:

Relation of water level to surface of rock (bottom of overlying drift). 

POSITION OF .WATER LEVEL.

Material.

Hills. .....................................

Hills......................................

Hills.............. ............. .. ......

Hills..... . ....... -....-.... ...........

Topographic location.

Wells 

observed.

Below 

rock 

surface.

Per cent. 

37

11

41

60

62.5

0

50.0

69

99

44

0

71

0

60

33

Above 

rock 

surface.

Ptr cent. 

50

89

50

50

37.5

100

33

21

78 

36

50

0

100

40

67

At rock 

surface.

Per cent. 

13

0

8

0

0

0

17

10

0

20

50

29

0

0

0

SUMMARY OF ALL WELLS.

Hills. ......................................................... 42

24

35

61.9

12.5

48.5

26.2

87.5

40.0

11.9

0.0

11.5
OCCURKENCE OF WATEK CKY8TALLINE BOOKS. 27

It is seen that in nearly all valley wells, no matter in what kind of rock they may occur, 

the water is under artesian pressure and rises above the rock surface. In schists, gneisses, 

and granodiorites the percentage of wells on hills and slopes in which the water is below the 

rock surface is invariably and rather uniformly greater than those in which the water 

level is above the rock'surface, the percentage ranging from 62 to 70. In the granites, on 

the contrary, exactly the opposite is true, the water failing to reach the rock surface only 

in 37 per cent of the wells. In other words, in hill wells the granite waters rise to the rock 

surface nearly twice as frequently as in the case of other rocks.

The situation of the wells with reference to the sea is very important, most of the wells 

which fail to get pure water being fti fact located along the coast or tidal rivers. Wells 

within 100 feet of the sea are always liable to be spoiled by the entrance of salt water, 

while there are cases where the latter has penetrated to wells 500 feet distant. There are, 

however, exceptions to this rule, some good wells being obtained even close to the water. 

Much may depend on the amount pumped, as a well which yields fresh water when only 

a little water is used may become salty if heavily pumped. When a choice of location can 

be had a point as high and as far removed from the sea as possible should be selected.

NATURE OF ROCK.

The amount of water in a well depends to a considerable extent on the nature of the 

rock in which it is made, largely Because of the greater frequency of joints in some rocks 

than in others. In general the yield from wells in granite, gneiss, and common schist does 

not vary greatly from 13 gallons a minute. In those in granodiorite, however, two and 

one-half times as much is obtained, in quartzite schist only about one-half as much, while 

in the slaty rocks the supplies are very small. The details are well brought out by the 

following table.

Yield of wells in various types of rock.

Material.

Schist other than quartzite. ....

Depth of surface covering.

No. of 

records.

45 

69 

3 

23

15 

4

Feet.

20.6 

16.3 

32,5 

13.7 

24.1 

14.4

Depth in rock.

No. of 

records.

45 

70 

3 

23 

16 

5

Feet.

102 5 

112 (5 

411.0 

96 

138.5 

80 2

Total depth.

No. of 

records.

54 

73 

3 

23 

19 

5

Feet.

122.5 

131.4 

443.5 

109-7 

156.6 

93.8

Yield.

No. of 

records.

35 

50 

3 

16

13

Gallons 

per 

minute.

13 

12.3 

7.25 

13.9 

33 

Very poor.

The drift plays a very important part in the occurrence of water in the crystalline rocks. 

When drift is absent over the catchment area the rain runs rapidly off the surface, of the 

smooth, bare rock and little is absorbed, but when there is a considerable thickness of drift 

large amounts of water are absorbed by its porous materials and are legularly and continuously supplied to the underlying crystalline rocks through their joints. The importance 

of a drift mantle in affording conditions favorable tp flows at the well sites has already 

been mentioned. It is apparent, then, that in gcneuil water will both be more abundant 

and rise to a higher level when the crystalline rocks in the catchment areas and at the wells 

are covered with dntt than when they are bare. This is especially true when the drift 

occupies basinlike depressions in the rock surface.
28 UNDERGROUND-WATER PAPERS, 1906.

COST OF WELLS.«

The cost of wells is very variable, depending on the diameter of the hole, whether the well 

is sunk by the day or by the foot, and whether or not a supply is guaranteed. Two-inch 

wells are the most common, and cost about $2 a foot for the wells under 100 feet in depth, 

$2.50 for wells between 100 and 200 feet, $3 for wells between 200 and 300 feet, and $3 to 

$4 for wells over 300 feet. The cost of a well drilled by the day will vary greatly according 

to the depth at which water is struck, but seems to average a little higher than by the foot. 

The cost when water is guaranteed is probably slightly higher than under either of the other 

methods. For wells of larger diameter the price is much higher. The average cost of 123 

wells, averaging 108 feet in depth and yielding a mean of 12.7 gallons a minute, is $4.25 per 

foot.

SUMMARY.

The water of the crystalline rocks occurs, so far as it can be secured by wells, wholly 

in joints, faults, or other fracture openings, the pores and schistosity planes being too close 

to permit active circulation. The water seems to occur largely in the vertical joints or 

faults, especially in the sheeted zones consisting of numerous crowded fracture planes. 

In Connecticut a common spacing between the surface joints is 3 to 7 feet, but in some cases 

they are much farther apart. At depths of more than 50 feet the space becomes greater 

owing to the dying out of subordinate joints.

The spacing of the horizontal joints is rather regular. In the first 20 feet below the surface they average 1 foot apart, for the next 30 feet from 4 to 7 feet, and in the following 

50 feet they are from 6 to 30 feet or more apart.

The most favorable points for water are at the intersection of two or more of the joint 

systems, the circulation often being concentrated at these points.

It is impossible to foretell the success or yield of a well in crystalline rocks, but the chances 

of a moderate supply are at least as good as 9 in 10. The character of the water obtained 

is in general excellent, both for domestic and manufacturing purposes, and is usually soft. 

Hills and places where the soil is thick are the most desirable locations for drilled wells. 

In general, it is better to abandon a well and seek a new location if not successful when a 

depth of 250 feet has been reached, as the possibilities of a supply below this depth are much 

less than at shallower depths.

« Data mainly by M. L. Fuller.
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

S U F> E R I O

600 feet
FLOWING-WELL DISTRICTS IN THE EASTERN PART OF 

THE NORTHERN PENINSULA OF MICHIGAN.

By FRANK LEVEBETT.

GENERAL STATEMENT.

The flowing wells of the northern peninsula of' Michigan are obtained in part from the 

Pleistocene deposits and in part from Silurian and Cambrian formations. The rocks dip 

southward toward the basins of Lakes Huron and Michigan and southeastward toward the 

Green Bay basin and the adjacent portion of the Lake Michigan basin. In consequence of 

this arrangement of the strata, water absorbed in the part of the peninsula bordering Lake 

Superior, which is as a rule an elevated tract, passes toward the basins of Lakes Huron and 

Michigan and Green Bay under sufficient hydrostatic pressure to yield flows at moderate 

elevations above the surfaces of these water bodies. Already flows have been obtained 

along the western side of Green Bay throughout its entire length, in wells ranging from 200 

feet or less up to about 800 feet in depth. They have been obtained on Garden Peninsula, 

lying between Big Bay de Noc (at the northern end of Green Bay) and Lake Michigan. 

They have also been obtained along the northern shore of Lake Michigan at several points 

from Manistique eastward. On the borders of Keweenaw Peninsula there are also flowing 

wells from the Cambrian sandstones, but these are outside the district covered by the writer.

Wells from the drift have already been extensively developed in a low district lying 

north of the "Niagara" escarpment in Chippewa and Luce counties and on the western 

shore of Whitefish Bay at Emerson, and there are small areas in other parts of the peninsula 

where they are either already obtained or may be expected to be obtained.

Very little information could be secured from drillers or well owners concerning the character of the rock formations which yield flows. In most cases they report that the flows 

are obtained under a bed of rock, which was hard to penetrate with the drill, and which 

seems to have served as a cover to prevent the natural escape of the water. In some cases, 

as at Gladstone and other points along the western side of Green Bay, water is obtained at 

more than one horizon, but because of the meagerness of the data the writer did not attempt 

to work out the stratigraphy of these water-bearing beds. Some identifications made by 

Lane and by Alden appear in the Annual Report of the State Geologist for 1903.

The flowing wells obtained in the drift deposits usually penetrate a bed of clay and obtain 

water in sand or gravel. In Chippewa County the clay is a laminated, nearly pebbleless 

deposit, apparently laid down in the bed of a great glacial lake, Lake Algonquin, which 

covered this region, after the retreat of the ice. But in Luce County the clay deposits are 

in some cases found to be stony, and are probably of glacial rather than lake deposition. 

Beneath the clay deposits of Chippewa County a bed of sandy material full of water generally occurs, but is not a good source for flowing wells, since it is too fine grained to furnish 

water rapidly. It is termed slush by the drillers, and it is their custom to continue through 

it t%o a bed of gravel.

In the division of the wells into districts (PL I) there is usually the probability that over 

part of the intervening territory the altitude is too high to permit flows. But in some cases 

further exploration may develop wells between districts now placed in separate groups. 

An attempt is made to indicate possible extensions of the flowing-well areas as well as their 

present limits. The districts are taken in order from east to west, those in the drift deposits 

being first considered and then those in rock.

IER 160 06 3 29
30 UNDERGROUND-WATER PAPERS, 1906.

FLOWING-WELL AREAS. 

PLOWS PROM DRIFT.

McCARRON.

Two shallow flowing wells have been obtained in a ravine near McCarron post-office, 

Chippewa County, at an altitude of about 650 feet above tide. One at the residence of 

David McCarron in sec. 4, T. 45 N., R. IE., is 30 feet in depth and has a head of about 3 

feet. The water is sulphurous and has a temperature of 45° F. About one-eighth mile 

northeast of the McCarron well, at the residence of Samuel Boyle, in sec. 34, T. 46 N., R. 

1 E., is a well 37 feet deep, with similar head and quality of water, and a temperature of 

44.9°. The temperatures were taken August 10, 1905, when the air temperature was 

85° F. Both wells penetrate a laminated, pebbleless, red clay and enter a bed of gravel.

DONALDSON.

A flowing well was obtained in the autumn of 1905 at Donaldson, by Robert McKee, 

which was reported by the driller, Judson Daley, of Pickford, to be 78 feet in depth and to 

flow one-third gallon a minute. It is located in a ravine about 15 feet above a tributary 

of Charlotte River, at an altitude of about 650 feet, and penetrated clay to the gravel bed at 

its bottom. It lies in sec. 31, T. 46 N., R. 1 E., and is used as a public well.

MeEVOY.

This is probably the oldest flowing well in Chippewa County, having been running for 

at least twenty-five years. It is located in sec. 14, T. 46 N., R. 1 W., on the Mackinaw 

road running from Sault Ste. Marie to St. Ignace. It stands in a slough tributary to Charlotte River, about 15 feet below the bordering plain at an altitude of 700 feet above tide. 

It has a depth of 45 feet and a head of about 5 feet or less above the surface. The well, 

which is said to have maintained its strength, yields over a gallon a minute.

?ICKFORD DISTRICT.

The Pickford flowing-well district is a narrow strip along Munuscong River and its 

tributaries, in the vicinity of the village of Pickford, most of the wells being in Chippewa 

County, but a few in Mackinac County. Of the 32 wells already developed 26 are within 

the village limits. The outlying wells, however, seem to indicate that flows may be obtained 

from the junction of the two forks of Munuscong River northeast of Pickford for a distance 

of 5 or 6 miles up the west fork and 2 or 3 miles up the east fork. The water obtained 

is suitable for boiler use, there being only a moderate amount of lime present. It has a 

little iron and in some cases a slight sulphurous odor. The temperature of the water 

where not surface heated is 43.5° to 45° F., but in most cases the flow is so weak that it 

can not overcome the effect of the air on the portion of the pipe above the surface, nor of 

the warm soil around the upper portion of the pipe. The data contributed by Mr. Daley 

are from careful records in his notebook. They show an interesting variation in the thickness of the laminated red clay and the underlying sandy slush, the cause of which is not 

clearly understood. It is possible, however, that a change to more sandy texture may 

set in at 50 feet or less in wells where the driller has classified material as red clay to a depth 

of over 100 feet. In the table given below several wells are included which would not flow 

at the level of the ground, but are made to flow by being piped into cellars or basins 

below the surface.
Flowing wells at Pickford (T. 43 N., R. 1 T

Owner.

A. Roe............

Geo. Wilson.......

H. Miller.. ........

F. Green..........

J.O'Niel. .........

J. McDonald......

F. Taylor.........

D. Aldridge .......

S. Crawford.......

H. Blair. ..........

F. H. Taylor......

Chippewa Hotel . . .

Location.

.....do............

.....do............

.....do............

.....do............

.....do....l.......

.....do............

.....do............

.....do............

.....do............

.....do............

.....do............

.....do............

.....do............

.....do............

.....do............

.....do............

.....do............

.....do............

.....do............

.....do............

.....do............

.....do............

Driller.

(a)

J.I).

J. S.

J. D.

J. D,

J. D.

J. D.

J. D.

J. S.

J. D.

J. D.

(?)

J. D.

(?)

(?)

J. D.

J. D.

J. D.

(?)

J. D.

J. D.

J. D.

(?)

I. M.

made.

1905

1895

1904

1902

1905

1903

1901

1900

1903

1901

(?)

1901

(?)

(?)

1902

1905

1902

(?)

1901

1901

1902

(?)

1895

tude &

Feet. 

630

630

630

630

631

631

635

628

632

625

630

630

630

630

630

635

620

625

632

635

635

614

630

Depth.

Feet. 

128

128

128

128

129

131

127

67

127

88

98

87

89

119

127

87

95

122

140

122

87

126

eter.

Inches. 

2

4

2

2

9

2

2

3

9

2

9

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

9

9

2

4

Flow

minute.

Galls. 

1.0

.25

.10

.5

.1

Head.

Feet. 

+3.5

+ 2

+3

-3

'+6

-1

-3

+ 3

+5

0

-1.5

-4

+ 3

Temperature.

°F. 

46.2

43.5

46

45

50

46

54

Re

cla

Fe

o J. D. = Judson Daley, professional driller, Pickford. J. S. = James Somerville, professional driller, Newb

6 Altitudes are barometric. 

Drawn off 3.5 feet below surface and piped to gristmill on lower ground to cool a gasoline engine. It is 22 fe

piped to lower ground.

3 Can be easily lowered only to 8 feet below surface by heavy pumping. 

« Flows into open well 12 feet below surface. New pipes were driven in11900, as the old ones had begun to le
Flowing weUs ofPickford (T. 43 N., R.I W.) Con

Owner.

W. P. McDonald . .

W. Bacon.........

J.Clagg..... ......

J. Taylor.......... 

Wm. Wise.........

Location.

Pickford. ........

.....do............

.....do............

Sec. 7.. ...........

Sec. 12............

Sec. 13............ 

Sec. 14............

Driller.

J. S.

(?)

(?), 

J. D.

J. D.

J. D.

J. D.

J. D. 

J. D.

made.

1899

1899

(?)

1903

1903

1904

1902

1905 

1905

tude.

Feet. 

630

622

630

635

615

620

635

635 

650

Depth.

Feet. 

128

68

78

151

86

120

1 

98

114 

112

eter.

Inches. 

3

9

9

2

^

, 2

2 

2

Flow

minute.

Galls.

Weak.

.25

6.0 

.2

Head.

Feet. 

0

+ 6

0

0

+ 2

0

+ 4

+ 8

Temperature.

°F.

45.8

45.4

1 Red 

clay

Fee

10

7

11

5

11

11

o Piped to barrel 7 feet below the well mouth; flows three-fourths-inch stream. Water is from sand.

b Flows over top of pipe 8 feet above surface. Present discharge is through a three-fourths-inch hole in side 

and stands on the creek bank. 

c Twenty feet above Munuscong River. An older well near it, 65 feet in depth, has a head 15 feet below the s
FLOWING-WELL DISTRICTS IN PAKT OF MICHIGAN. 33

In a district so flat as that near Pickford it is somewhat difficult to determine by barometer the slight differences in altitude of the wells. If we may trust the barometric readings, 

there is a slight decrease in the height to which water will rise along a line running southwest and northeast through this district, or in the direction of drainage of the west fork of 

Munuscong River. As indicated in the table, the flow from the westernmost well (that of 

W. Wise) appears to rise to an elevation 15 feet greater than is reached by flows from the 

wells in Pickford, while the wells a mile east of Pickford, in the valley of East Fork, on the 

farms of William Bacon and J. Clagg, have a head several feet less than that of wells in the^ 

village. The high land lying a few miles southwest of Pickford seems likely, therefore, to 

be the main catchment area for this district. The drift is loose textured in that region, 

the compact laminated clay penetrated by the flowing wells not being present.

A number of wells with strong hydrostatic pressure have been obtained in the vicinity 

of Pickford on ground a little higher than that within the flowing-well district, as indicated 

in the table below. They are probably supplied from the same catchment area.

Wells near Pickford having head nearly at surface.

Owner.

R. Smith..........

E. Cottle.. ........

Bronson estate ....

F. Bye............

W. Best...........

Kirkbride.........

J. Henderson ......

C. Pennington . . . . . 

I. McDonald. ......

J. Hill's store .....

Location.

T.

43 N. 

43 N.

43 N.

43 N.

43 N. 

44 N. 

44 N.

44 N. 

43 N.

44 N. 

Pickfo

Sterlin

R.

1 W. 

1 W.

1 W.

1 W.

1 W. 

1 W. 

IE.

IE. 

IE.

IE. 

d......

Sec.

6 

5

5

4

2 

30 

31

31 

6

33

Driller, a

J.D. 

J.D.

O.

J.D.

J.D. 

J.D. 

J.D.

J.D. 

J.D.

J.D. 

J.D.

made. When 

1905

1905

1905

1905 

1905 

1904

1903 

1905

1897 

1901

Altitude. 6

Ft. 

670 

665

660

650

650 

670 

645

640 

630

635 

635

635

a 'ft

O)

ft

Ft. 

160 

104

120

92

88 

82 

91

105 

92

92 

130

125

Diameter.

In. 

2 

3

2

2 

2 

2

2 

2

2 

2

3

'd

cS

OJ M

Ft. 

-30 

-30

-27

-14

-10

- 7 

-11

- 8 

- 3

-10 

_ 4

-10

Section and remarks.

Clay to gravel at bottom.

Largely sand, gravel at 

bottom 18 feet.

Mr. Bronson dug a well 

27 feet, which caved in 

and killed him. The 

well was then driven 

to 127 feet. Said to be 

mainly sand.

Clay to gravel at bottom. Cost $23.

Clay to gravel at bottom. 

Do.

Red clay 73 feet; sand 

and gravel 18 feet.

Red clay 95 feet; gravel 

10 feet.

Near east Munuscong 

River, 8 feet higher 

than Bacon flowing 

well and 150 yards distant. Clay to gravel 

at bottom.

Well entered gravel 8 

feet.

Red clay 115 feet; gravel 

15 feet. Supplies engine in planing mill.

Mainly bluish gray 

"putty sand." Dug 

27 feet; driven 3-inch 

pipe below.

« J. D. = Judson Daley, driller, Pickford. O. 

& Altitudes are barometric.
34 VNDERGROUND-WATER PAPERS, 1906.

B.TIDYARD-FIBER DISTRICT.

This flowing-well district is located in the drainage basin of Pine River and the extreme 

headwaters of the west branch of Munuscong River. It occupies about 60 square miles 

in Tps. 43,44, and 45 N., Rs. 2,3, and 4 W. The Soo Line Railroad traverses it from a point 

2 miles northeast of Rudyard westward to a point 2 miles west of Fiber. At the time of 

the investigation, in the autumn of 1905, there were 66 flowing wells. They are obtained 

on the general level of the plain, and not, as in the Pickford district, confined'to the stream 

borders. The general elevation of the plain is about 690 feet, or higher than the head of 

any of the wells in the Pickford district.

The wells show greater head in the northern and western parts of the district than in the 

southern and eastern parts, thus indicating that the catchment area is on the north and 

west. There is a range of high limestone hills south of the eastern portion of the area which 

apparently serves as the catchment area for the Pickford district but not for the RudyardFiber district, there being a decided falling off in head in passing southward toward this 

limestone ridge in the latter district. There are sandy tracts on the northern and western 

borders of this district, while an elevated limestone tract lies southwest of it. Both the 

sand and the limestone are readily absorbent, and likely to be sources of supply for the 

flowing-well district.

In the flowing-well district there is a heavy coating of red laminated clay nearly free from 

pebbles, which, like that in the Pickford district, appears to have been deposited in the 

Glacial Lake Algonquin. This clay is underlain by a sandy slush, which in turn rests upon 

gravel. Wells are usually driven through the slush, but if screens are used flows of considerable strength may be obtained in it. Without the use of screens the wells soon become

The water contains a small amount of iron and is moderately hard, though in most cases 

suitable for boiler use. In a few cases it is sulphurous.

It will be observed by reference to the table that the wells differ greatly in rate of flow. 

This difference is in part attributable to the texture of the water-bearing bed, the slower 

flow being obtained in sand and the more rapid flow in gravel.

The temperature is about 45° F. in wells that are not greatly affected by surface influences. 

In one case a well flows so slowly that the stream freezes in the coldest weather, and rises 

about 10° above its normal temperature in the hottest; but in wells of rapid flow there 

appears to be only a fraction of a degree variation in temperature in the course ol the year.
FLOWING-WELL DISTRICTS IN PAET OF MICHIGAN. 35

S OS <BSH 1H cli ID 3

E SB 

S

«*HS «

S "?

i O -jf fi &

.

+-++

O O

*o io

+ +

?? ?? IM IN

O COOO 

O O3O3«

8 8

"O "O O iO

CO CO CO CO

W ffl

 g .S ill

fill

JQ|B
Flowing wells in Rudyard-Fiber district Con

Owner.

H. H. Wyatt.......

G. Kelly. ...........

A. Pitsen... ........

 Nacnic

Michigan Land Co . . 

 Habella... '.....

Kev. G. A. Smith...

A. Wice. ............

 Jacobson .......

Location.

T.N.

45

44 

44 

44

44 

44 

44 

44 

44 

44 

44 

44 

44 

44

44 

44 

44

44

44 

44

44 

44.

44

R.W.

2

2 

2 

2

2

2

2 

2

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2

2

2 

2

2 

2 

2

Sec.

33

4 

5 

17

17 

7 

8 

5 

8 

5 

9 

4 

8 

9 

4 

3 

10

9

3 

10

10 

16 

9

Driller.

G. D.

G. D. 

J. S. 

D. B.

G. L. 

G. L. 

J. D. 

J. S. 

G. H. 

G. H. 

G. H. 

G. H. 

J. S. 

G. L. 

G. L.

J. D.

G. L. 

J. D.

G. H.

When 

made.

1905

1898

1905 

1905

1896 

1896 

1897 

1§98 

1900 

1898 

1904 

1904

1903

1904 

1903

1899 

1901

Altitude.

Ft.

695

700 

700 

685

685 

685 

680 

680 

680 

680 

680 

680 

680 

680 

680 

685 

680

680

680 

680

680 

680 

680

Depth.

Ft. 

68

72 

104 

220

216 

270 

113 

100 

98 

96 

92 

92 

98 

104 

82 

100

108

151 

171

100 

88 

113

Diameter.

In. 

3

2 

3 

2

2

3 

3 

3 

3 

5 

3 

3 

2 

2 

3

2

2 

2

3

3 

2

Flow 

per 

minute.

Galls. 

5

.5 

.3

1

8 

3 

3 

4 

5 

.5

.1

f 32

3 

1.25

Head.

Ft.

+ 8

-T* -J

+ 4 

+ 4

+ 25

+ 4

0 

+ 2

+ 3 

+ 5

+ 5

0 

0 

0

Temperature.

46 

46

46

45 

45 

45 

45 

44.5

48

45 < 

45

44.5 

43.5
J.T.Joyal. .........

C. Everett. .........

R. G. Trimble ......

T.Askwith. ........

J.B.Wilson........

T.Holland..........

Armstrong Mill. ....

Boss & Bros, mill 

(2 wells). 

 Savoie..........

44 

44

44

44 

44 

44

44 

Dryt 

d

3 

3

3

3 

3 

3

3

urg ..

n. . . ..

12 

10

11

11 

11 

11

9

dn

44 

44 

44 

44 

44 

44 

Fiber

d

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3

n _ .

17 

17 

17 

17 

16 

16

2 miles west of Fiber.

44 31 21

G. L.

J.S.

J. S.

(?) 

(?)

J.S. 

J.S.

J.S. 

J. S.

J. D. 

J.S. 

G. L.

J. D.

J.S. 

J.S.

J.S.

1905 

1896

1897

1902

(?)

1901 

1904

1899

1901 

1900 

1904 

1900 

1901 

1901 

1903

1900 

1898

1903

685

686

678 

688

688

695

680

685

690

685

690

690

690 

690

680

697

697 

735

685

165

167

160 

±160

-tieo

145

158

153

147

104

130

138

135 

116

115

110?

110 

115

113

2

3

3

3

3

3

3

2

3

3

2 

2

3

3

U 

1}

2

.25

{5

2.5

f 2.5 

\ 1.25

.6

.2

1.5

5

2.5 

.25

1

10

1 

10

.5

/ + 1

I 0 

1 1 i o

+ 7 

0

0

+ 10

+ 5 

+ 3

+ 2

+ 15

+ 13

+ 13

+ 13 

+ 3

+ 12

+ 17

+ 18

+ 5

\ <tfi

1

I AR I- 46

45.7

45.75

46

} 46

45

47

46

45.5

45

45

45

44.3

46

a If the Johnson well is allowed to flow freely it will lower the head of the Dolman well 7 inches within a

the wells about one-eighth mile.

6 A well near this was dug 50 feet and bored 24 feet. It obtained a flow, but the water had a rank odor

ently sulphurous. The well was filled and the present well, which apparently missed the black sand, was d

gravel, 20 feet.

cThis well is in a ravine 100 to 150 yards distant from the Loughheed and Poirier wells and is thought 

appears, however, that the Loughheed well began losing head before the Turcot well was sunk.

d The Baril'well is about 300 yards northeast of the Joyal well and appears to be influenced by the flow i

flowing for two days, and then came back to a head 2 feet lower than when first made and to half its origin

«An old boring about 20 feet distant and on ground 6 feet higher still flows, though the pipe has been p

/ Two wells only 10 yards apart each flowed a full pipe, lj-mcn stream. Holes 3 inches in diameter wer

ceased operation the pipes have been pulled and the water escapes around the holes. 
Flowing wetts in Rudyard-Fiber district Cont

Owner.

R. Cartright........

1)0. .............

 Dersher. .......

S. N. Pefler. ........

P. Stevenson .......

Location.

T.N.

44 

44 

44 

44 

44 

43

44 

44

44 

44

R.W.

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3

3 

3

2

2

Sec.

22 

22 

22 

27 

28? 

4

35 

36

31 

31

Driller.

J. S. 

(?) 

J. S. 

J.S 

J. D.

G. L. 

G. L.

G. L. 

G. L.

When 

made.

1902 

1900 

1898 

1903 

1901 

1904

1904 

1904

1904 

1904

Altitude.

Ft. 

685 

685 

680 

680

670 

670

670 

670

Depth.

Ft.

132 

(?) 

147 

150 

114 

117

188 

186

173 

208

Diameter.

In.

2 

2 

3 

2 

2 

2

2 

2

2 

2

Flow 

per 

minute.

Galls.

.25 

.75 

1

.25

f 36 

t 12.5

2.4

3 

.5

Head.

Ft.

+ 5 

+ 1.5 

+ 3 

+ 2

+ 2

Temperature.

 ».

47 

46.5

45

46

46 

46.5

a This well when first drilled, in August, 1904, was one of the strongest flows in this district,the discharg

to decrease perceptibly in May, 1905, and on August 22,1905, discharged only 12* gallons a minute.
FLOWING-WELL DISTRICTS IN PART OF MICHIGAN. 39

el iy

at

About 2 miles northeast of .Rudyard there is a tract of land whose 

feet, cr about 30 to 45 feet above Rudyard station. The red 

on this prominent tract, and w«lls are obtained in gravelly sand 

In three of the wells on ground about 715 feet above tide the 

below the surface. One of these, at the residence of J. C. Sass, 

rels in seven minutes without lowering, though it has only a 3-inch 

supply for these wells is probably to the north in the higher land 

and free from the capping of red clay.

altitude is 715 to 730 

is comparatively thin 

depths of 28 to 42 feet, 

water stands only 6 fet»t 

ill stand pumping 2 baipipe. The source of 

which is loose textured

STRONGVILLE.

Several deep wells near Strongville, 2 to 3 miles south of the eas 

Fiber flowing-well district, on ground 10 to 20 feet lower than 

water level several feet below the surface, as indicated in the 

stated, the passage of underground water appears to be from nort 

rally results in the decrease of head here displayed.

Wells near Strongville (T. 44 N., R. £ W.) with strong hyd

Owner.

L. R. Adamson. .......

Location.

Sec. 21 . . 

Sec. 26..

Sec. 28..

Sec. 22..

Altitude."

 Feet.

670

670 

670

670

Depth.

Feet.

147

120 

144

67

Head.

Feet.

-12

-20

-16

-20

Red clay 130 fe 

gravel 2 fee' 

pipe in lowei 

to depth of 3

Similar to A 

strong.

Weak well.

Remarks.

it, black sandy slush 15 feet, 

;. Strong well with 3-inch 

part, but dug 4 feet square 

7 feet.

damson well, but not so

era part of the Rudyardhe. flowing wells, have a

able below. As already

to south, and this natu-

 ostatic pressure.

« Altitudes are barometric.

EMERSON. 

There are nine flowing wells at Emerson, on the shore of White ish Bay, all on the property of the Cheesbrough Lumber Company. They range in dep 

In each well a 5-inch hole was made and cleaned out, then a 1Jwells passed through 17 feet of sand and then 90 to 95 feet of bhu 

The clay is said to be laminated and pebbleless and is apparently 

glacial deposit. The rate of flow ranges from less than a pint a

h from 116 to 123 feet, 

inch pipe inserted. The 

clay to sand at bottom, 

a lacustral rather than a 

minute in the weakest to

gallons a minute in the strongest wells. The escape pipes are from five-sixteenths to

three-eighths inch in diameter, and the water will rise to a heighl of 5 or 6 feet above the

level of Lake Superior. It carries a small amount of iron, but appears to have very little 

lime, as is natural, in view of the fact that this well district is nort i of the limestone formations. The temperature ranges from 44° to 49° F in the differer t wells. These wells are 

distributed over a space of about half a section and the area of flows might perhaps be 

extended 2 or 3 miles along the shore of the bay.

TAHQTTAMENON DISTRICT.

Occurrence. The Tahquamenon district embraces several groi 

tributed along the southern border of a large swamp traverse* 

branches of Tahquamenon River in western Chippewa and southe 

have been obtained at Strong and Eckerman, and near Soo Junci 

larville, and can probably be obtained along the swamp betwt 

district, like the Pickford and Rudyard-Fiber districts, lies in 1 

the "Lorraine" (Hudson) and "Utica" formations, in a belt 

is no heavy and continuous deposit of laminated clay here as ii 

mentioned. Instead the wells often penetrate a large amount o

.ps of flowing wells dis- 

. by the east and west 

n Luce counties. Flows 

Ion, Newberry, and Dolin these stations. This 

~.e lowland underlain by

of thick drift. There 

. the other two districts

fine sand and, in some
40 UNDEEGEOUND-WATEE PAPEES, 1906.

cases, scarcely any clay. Located^ as this district is, in a trough-like lowland, it seems 

to afford favorable conditions for receiving water both from the south and north. On the 

south is a morainic belt with pervious drift, largely of sandy gravel^ which will readily 

absorb water to supply the low tract where the wells are found; On the north also is a 

moraine of loose-textured drift, under which the rocks dip southward beneath this swamp. 

The altitude of the wells ranges from about 725 feet at Dollarville and points farther east, 

near Tahquamenon River, to nearly 850 feet at Strong. The wells of high altitude are along 

the east branch of Tahquamenon River, a stream that descends rapidly westward, but 

the wells of low altitude are along the west branch, a sluggish stream flowing eastward. 

It is probable that the underground drainage of the east fork leads westward, conforming 

to the slope of the surface, and this may be a leading cause for the westward decline in 

head. The head declines northward toward the west fork, from the southern moraine a 

distance of from 1 to 3 miles, but it can scarcely be expected to continue farther north, 

in view of the northward rise of both the drift surface and the underlying rock formations. 

The water is of fair quality for boiler use, though moderately hard. It contains a small 

amount of iron.

Strong. At Strong, in western Chippewa County, are two flowing wells, one at Turner's 

mill and one at the boarding house, both driven in 1899 by James Somerville. The altitude of the mill well is about 840 feet and that of the boarding-house well 845 feet. The 

mill well was driven to rock at 220 feet, but the pipe was pulled back to 185 feet because 

of a flow of water from the sand bed at that depth. The well passed through clay to this 

water-bearing sand. The flow is only a quart a minute from a 2-inch pipe and the temperature is 45.8° F.

The boarding-house well is 203 feet in depth and discharges about 2 gallons a minute from 

a 2-inch pipe. Part of the water is piped to the mill. It has a temperature of 46° F. 

After passing through 7 feet of surface sand, the well penetrated 168 feet of clay that 

changed in color from red to gray toward the bottom. Beneath this clay was 10 feet of 

gravelly hardpan, then 16 feet of quicksand, followed by a hard crust 2 feet thick, under 

which a flow of water was struck.

Eckerman. At Eckerman three shallow flowing wells have been obtained at about the 

level of the railroad station, or 800 feet above tide. They are at the base of the moraine 

that passes Eckerman on the south and are probably supplied from it. The well at George 

Johnson's hotel, made in 1896, is 47 feet in depth, 3 inches in diameter, and discharges 6 

quarts a minute through a half-inch pipe about 5 feet above the surface, or 808 feet above 

tide. The flow at first was 2 gallons a minute. The temperature of the water is 44.2° F. 

The well penetrated reddish till for 40 feet and sand for 7 feet.

A flowing well at Lake's livery stable is 35 feet deep and flows 2 quarts a minute, the 

water having a temperature of 44.8° F.

At the dwelling now used as the post-office, just east of the railroad depot, is a 35-foot well, 

which penetrated 15 feet of sand before entering clay, and terminated at the bottom of 

the clay bed. Although the water overflowed, a pump is now used, and the temperature 

by pumping is 44.8° F.

Soo Junction. A flowing well 172 feet deep and 3 inches in diameter was made in 1893 

by James Somerville on the White and France property north of Soo Junction, on the 

north side of Tahquamenon River at an altitude of about 720 feet above tide. It was 

largely through a "putty clay," but there was a thin bed of gravel resting on the rock. 

The head was 8 feet above the surface when drilled. This well was not visited by the 

writer and its present condition was not ascertained.

Neivberry. There have been several shallow flowing wells at Newberry, on the low 

ground in the northwestern part of the village. These are now drained by deeper wells 

at the furnace and chemical works. The shallow wells pass through a thin bed of 

clay 6 to 18 feet, beneath which is a fine sand that changes to coarser at a depth of about 

30 feet. The flows are of moderate strength, one being as high as 3 gallons a minute. 

The altitudes are 765 to 760 feet.
FLO WING-WELL D1STBICTS IN PART OF MICHIGAN. 41

The well at the furnace, at an altitude of 760 feet, is 80 feet deep, and flows if pumping 

is discontinued for a few hours.

At the chemical works, 100 yards north of the furnace, are ten w^lls with depths ranging 

from 80 to 108 feet, all 6 inches in diameter. The first well was put down 128 feet and 

entered a hard material, possibly bed rock, for a few inches. Thte pipe was then pulled 

back to about 100 feet. All these wells will flow after a brief intermission from pumping. 

The water is sufficiently hard to form a coating of lime on the stills. It is struck at about 

20 feet from the surface in fine sand under a clay bed. The sand increases in coarseness 

below, and for this reason the wells are extended to the depths named. The amount of 

water obtained seems unlimited. No temperature observations were taken, since the 

water is carried some distance through surface pipes before discharging.

At Harris's celery farm, in the northeastern part of Newberry, is a driven well 60 feet 

in depth, which formerly flowed, but now has a pump attached, tjie water scarcely rising 

to the surface. Near this well, at a railroad section house, is a wtell 765 feet above tide, 

which has flowed, but is now pumped. It was sunk in 1889 to a depth of 54 feet. The 

temperature of the water is 45° F.

On the Ryberg farm, about half a mile east of the wells just mentioned and at the same 

altitude, is a well 142 feet deep which is still flowing 3J feet above the surface, discharging 

3 pints a minute. The temperature is 45° F.

The public supply of the village of Newberry is from three 6-inch wells 110 feet in depth, 

which have a head of about 10 feet, the ground being about 15 feet above the level of the 

railroad station, or 780 feet above tide. The wells are through sand to a depth of 90 feet, 

where a bed of gravel is struck which furnishes an unlimited supply of water. It is of 

moderate hardness and carries but little iron.

DoUannlle. The Danaher Lumber Company has three flowing wells at the village of 

Dollarville, 2 miles west of Newberry, one of which has a flow of 10 gallons a minute; the 

other two are much weaker. There is a fourth well with water Hear the surface, but it 

has a pump attached. The strong well is located about 200 yards east of the railroad 

station at an altitude of about 725 feet above tide. It is thought to be 95 feet in depth 

and is 3 inches in diameter with a 1-inch discharge pipe. The watejr supplies several families and is piped to a livery barn. It has a slight iron taste and is pioderately hard. The 

temperature is 45° F. A well about 300 yards farther east flows 3 quarts a minute and 

has a temperature of 46° F. The water carries considerable iron and stains boards and 

other objects over which it flows. The well is thought to be about 130 feet deep and 

appears to have/struck rock at the bottom. Another well, now plugged, also appears to 

have reached rock at 120 feet; its water tastes of sulphur, which seems to indicate that it 

may be supplied in part from the rock. All the wells penetrate a bed of clay above the 

water bed.

South of Dollarville. In a recess of the moraine 2 or 3 miles south of Dollarville are 

flowing wells at an altitude 15 to 20 feet higher than those in the vijlage, or about 740 feet 

above tide. A prominent ridge stands between these wells and the village of Dollarville. 

The first well of this group was dug in 1889 on the John Carlson estate in the west part of 

sec. 9, T. 45 N., R. 10 W. It was through red clay nearly to the bottom, ending in sandy

slush at a depth of 102 feet. The water barely rises to the top of the well, so a pump is

now attached. About one-fourth mile east of this well and on slightly lower ground John 

Hunter has a strong flowing well 103 feet deep, which penetrated only 40 feet ot red clay

and was then in sandy slush to a gravel bed at the bottom. The svater in this well rises

at least 11 feet above the surface, or to fully 750 feet above tide. It once discharged a full 

stream from an inch pipe at an estimated rate of 20 gallons a minlute, but now burst up 

around the pipe, thus lessening the discharge through the latter. The water is hard and 

carries a little iron. The temperature is 45 F°. There are several strong boiling springs 

near this well. About one-half mile southeast of the Hunter well, in the southwestern 

part of section 10, is a flowing well 103 feet deep on the farm of A. P^ntland. It discharges 

2 quarts a minute, with a temperature of 45.5° F. It was largely through red clay to sand
42 UNDERGROUND-WATER PAPERS, 1906.

at 90 feet. In the northwestern part of section 11, on the farm of John Peterson, is a flowing well 53 feet deep which yields a gallon a minute, the temperature being 45° F. This 

well was mainly through red clay to sandy slush at bottom, in which the pipe is suspended. 

If unsupported the pipe would sink several feet into the slush. About 300 yards east of 

the Peterson well, in the southwestern part of section 2, on the farm of John Swanson, is 

a flowing well 84 feet in depth. The altitude appears to be about 10 feet higher than that 

of the other flowing wells of this group, or 750 feet, and the head is only 2 feet above the 

surface, so a siphon is used to carry the water into a tub. This well passed through sand 

for its entire depth. A 3-inch hole was made, but the pipe is only 1J inches. The flow is 

3 quarts a minute and the temperature. 45° F. Near this well, along a small stream, 

are boiling springs covering an area several yards square, which probably have a similar 

source with the wells. Other strong boiling springs occur one-half mile south on the borders of a lake.

The flowing wells near Dollarville are the westernmost yet developed, but it is probable 

that flows can be obtained along the swamp westward across the divide between the Tahquamenon and Manistique drainage basins, and possibly throughout the southern part of 

the great swamp drained by Manistique River. The latter swamp is uninhabited and is 

so flooded with surface water that there is no occasion to test for flowing wells. The village of Germfask, which stands near the southeastern edge of the swamp, may, however, 

find it worth while to test for such wells.

ISOLATED WELLS IK BASINS.

It is probable that flowing wells may be obtained in small basins on the borders of lakes 

or in swamps.

Slielldrake. One such well is reported to have been obtained in a swamp west of Shelldrake, in Chippewa County, at a lumber camp in sec. 28, T. 49 N., R. 7 W. It is only 16 

feet deep and apparently passed through nothing but swamp muck to the sand bed that 

yields the flow. The swamp is surrounded by sand ridges rising 20 to 30 feet above it, 

and they probably serve as a catchment area and furnish the head.

Helmer. Another isolated flowing well is at Helmer post-office at the east end of Manistique Lake, in the southwestern part of Luce County. The depth is 70 feet, and water is 

from gravel below clay. The head is at least 8 feet, or about 15 feet above Manistique 

Lake and 715 feet above tide. The water is piped into the hotel owned by Mr. Helmer. 

The natural rate of flow could not be determined, because a stone had become lodged at 

the bottom of the pipe, greatly obstructing the discharge. The temperature is 46° F. 

This lake is in a basin in a morainic belt, and it is probable that flowing wells Van be obtained

at other points on the shore.

ONTONAGON COTJNTY.a

A flowing well 355 feet in depth was made by Mr. Geismar in 1893 near Ewen, Ontonagon County, in sec. 21, T. 48 N., R. 39 W. It is at about the same altitude as Ewen station 1,134 feet. It penetrated a pebbleless, gritless red clay for 125 feet, under which 

was found a gravel bed 13 feet thick, yielding a weak flow. A sandy clay slush was then 

struck, which extended to 354 feet, where gravel with a strong flow of water was found. 

The well discharged a full 1-inch stream 16 feet above the surface. The well is remarkable because of great variations in the temperature of the water. In the winter months 

this is about 44° F., but in the spring, about the time of the snow melting, a lowering of 

temperature is noted, which continues till about June 1, when it reaches 38° F. This low 

temperature continues well into the summer before a rise begins. Mr. Geismar refers the 

low temperature to the access of snow water to the bed of gravel from which the well flows.

There are three flowing wells at Ewen, belonging to the village, with depths of 208 to 

224 feet. They penetrated red clay to the water-bearing gravel at the bottom. Beneath 

the gravel is a reddish rock, thought by the drillers to be granite. The wells flow with 

considerable strength.

"Data furnished by Superintendent Leo Geismar, of the State experimental farm at Chatham, Mich.
FLOWING-WELL DISTRICTS IN PART OF ^MICHIGAN. 43

FLOWS FROM ROCK. 

NORTHERN BORDER OF LAKE MICHIGAN.

Occurrence. Flowing wells have been obtained at several points near the Lake Michigan shore from St. Ignace westward to Manistique, and at various depths. So far as ascertained they are all from the rock, and there appear to be two or more horizons from which 

flows are obtainable. Part of the data concerning these flows are from the annual reports 

of the State geologist for 1901 and 1903, and the only interpretations as to geologic horizons are those presented by him. As already stated, the present writer had no opportunity to examine samples of well drillings nor to get accurate data on the formations penetrated. The flowing wells now obtained range in altitude from near lake level up to 

about 100 feet above, or from 600 feet or less up to about 680 feet above tide. It is not 

certain, however, that wells may generally be expected to flow to levels 100 feet above the 

lake. More likely the upper limit will be found to be generally within 50 feet above lake 

level. This opinion is based on the fact that some of the wells near lake level, such as those 

at Manistique, have not sufficient pressure to rise 50 feet above the lake.

St. Ignace. Two deep flowing wells have been made in the vicinity of St. Ignace at an 

altitude of 20 feet above the lake, or 600 feet above tide, the first in 1887 and the second 

in 1901. In the first the Monroe beds extend down to about 500 feet and yield a small 

amout of bitter salt water. The Niagara and "Clinton" limestones extend 400 feet farther down, the Medina (?) sandstone being struck at 900 feet and penetrated 19 feet. In 

the second well, located about 2 miles north of the old one, in sec. 31, T. 41 N., R. 3 W., 

the Niagara is reached at 400 feet and supplies a flow of water from a depth of 575 to 681 

feet and more at 1,040 feet. This well was stopped at 1,155 feet. The temperature of 

the flow was found to be 51° F., or about 6° above the temperature of shallow flowing 

wells, though 2° less than in wells of similar depth at Cheboygan and Alpena.

Engadine. A strong" flowing well was made in 1905 on the farm of Peter Praten north 

of Engadine, in sec. 4, T. 43 N., R. 10 W., at the altitude of Engadine station (674 feet). 

It is only 60 feet deep, but enters limestone for some distance. At the village of Engadine 

are two deeper wells, one of which, 206 feet deep, had a weak flow, and the other, 146 feet 

deep, had water nearly level with the surface. The deeper of these two was made by the 

lumber company in July, 1905, and flowed for a month or more, but became clogged with 

sand. The other, located at the mill, has never flowed. The sand is thought to work 

down into crevices in the limestone outside the pipe in the deeper well, thus choking it.

Deuels Lake. The Simmons Lumber Company has an intermittent flowing well on the 

shore of Deuels Lake, about 10 miles southwest of Engadine, in sec. 23, T. 42 N., R. 11 W. 

The well is 108 feet in depth and is in limestone from a depth near the surface. The water 

rises 3 feet above the surface in the spring and early summer, but in the fall it drops below 

the surface, apparently on account of drought. The altitude is estimated to be scarcely 

50 feet above Lake Michigan, and the well is less than 2 miles from that lake. It is probable that similar flows can be obtained along the shore of Deuels Lake at other points. 

Possibly a deeper well might obtain water with sufficient head to flow through the dry 

season.

Hunt Spur. A well was made about 1890 by the Michigan Cedar Company at Hunt 

Spur, on the Soo Line Railroad, near the western border of Mackinac County, which discharged a stream with sufficient force to throw a jet 20 feet in the air. A hose was attached, 

and the flow was used in cleaning off logs. No data were obtained concerning the depth, 

but it is thought not to exceed 200 feet. The altitude of the well mouth is 684 feet, and 

the well is in limestone from a depth near the surface. Another well at a barn- of the same 

company has a weaker flow.

Manistique. There are several flowing wells in Manistique with depths between 200 

and 300 feet and one (at the Hiawatha Hotel) with a depth of 800 feet. The shallower 

wells have a head in some cases about 16 feet above the surface, or 630 feet above tide, 

while the deep well at the Hiawatha Hotel is said to have a head 30 or 40 feet above the
44 UNDERGROUND-WATER PAPERS, 1906.

surface, or about 650 feet above tide. The State geologist in the report for 1903 interprets 

the horizon of the deep flow to be Trenton, and of all the others to be Niagara. The temperature of the shallower wells is 45° to 46° F., as noted by both the State geologist and 

the writer.

Several of the flowing wells are furnished with fire hydrants and are drawn on in case of 

fire, the yield by pumping being sufficient to supply all the water needed.o

SHORE OF BIG BAY DE NOG.

Garden Peninsula. On the western side of Garden Peninsula, at Vans Harbor and Garden village, strong flowing wells have been obtained, concerning which the following data 

were furnished by the driller, George W. Gray, of Cooks Mill, Mich.:

Flouring wells on Garden Peninsula.

Owner.

L. Van Winkle........

W. Still wagen.........

Bondreau & Disco.....

Garden village:

No. 1.... ..........

No. 2.. ............

No. 3. .............

When 

made.

1905

1902

1903

1902

1903

190S

Altitude.

Feet.

590

592

588

593

595

588

Depth.

Feet.

233

175

199

195

220

104

Diameter.

Inches.

5

5

' 5

Flow 

per 

minute.

Galls.

GO

40

30

25

8

Head.

Feet.

+ 18

+ 16

+18

+ 6

Remarks.

The only flow at Vans Harbor. Cased 40 feet; limestone at 18 feet under

bowldery clay.

Deepened an old well 82 feet.

First flow at 107 feet;

stronger flow at 173 feet.

Used for flsh pond and

house.

Two water beds, as in preceding well. Limestone

under bowldery clay at 20 

feet. Cased 38 feet and at

a leakage at 60 feet.

Limestone under red clay

and sand at 14 feet. Cased

52 feet. Flow weaker

than 25 gallons July to

October and January to

April.

Now plugged because it

drained well No. 1, but

water comes up around

pipe. Main flow at 193

feet.

Drift, very bowldery at 12

feet.

The decrease in the flow of the village well No. 1 seems referable to drought in the late 

summer and the frozen condition of the ground in the winter. The second village well, 

although on slightly higher ground, apparently has an advantage over the first by drawing 

water from a lower depth.

Conditions seem very favorable for obtaining flowing wells along the Lake Michigan 

slope of the Garden Peninsula, but no instances of the occurrence of such wells came to 

the writer's notice. The shore rises gradually back from the lake and the flowing-well belt 

should extend a mile or more inland.

Nahma. At Nahma, on the western side of Big Bay de Noc, opposite Garden, are two 

flowing wells made by the Big Bay de Noc Lumber Company. One sunk in 1883 is 133 feet 

deep, 2 inches in diameter, and flows scarcely a gallon a minute. It ends in limestone. 

Another sunk in 1895 is 80 feet deep, 4 inches in diameter, and will fill a barrel in about five 

minutes. It does not enter rock.

Probably flowing wells are obtainable at moderate depths both along the shore of the 

bay and up the Sturgeon River Valley, but no others have come to the writer's notice.

«The city is now (1905) building a waterworks plant which will obtain water from Indian Lake, 

which, lies about 3 miles to the northwest.
FLOWING-WELL DISTRICTS PART OF MICHIGAN. 45

BORDER OF LITTLE BAT DE NOC.

Rapid River. In the village of Rapid River, at the head of Little Bay de Noc, several 

flowing wells are in operation and two flows have been obtained in test wells for oil several 

miles north of the village, which show a possible extension of the district in that direction. 

It is probable that flowing wells may be obtained along the entire western side of the bay 

on ground below the 600-foot contour, and in places at higher altitudes, as in the Hendricks 

boring noted below.

Flowing wells at Rapid River.

Owner.

H. W. Coles.. ................

Village No. 1..... ..........

Village No. 2................

A. Schaible.................

A. Bodah. ...... ............

Mrs. J. Fish.................

Location.

.....do........................

.....do........................

.....do........................

When 

made.

1895

1897

1897

1898

1903

1904

1899

1897

1905

Altitude.

Feet. 

588

586

588

590

590

588

590

593

590

Depth.

Feet. 

270

258

273

275

273 "273

275

273

Flow 

per 

minute.

Galls. 

0.75

2.00

4.00

1.5

2.0

6.0

Temperature.

o F. 

46.8

45.0

45.5

45.5

45.5

45.2

The wells at Masonville, which are located a mile southwest of Rapid River, and the 

Fish and Bodah wells in Rapid River, were not visited. The head was not determined 

in any of the wells, though it is known to exceed 8 feet, some of the wells having been carried to that height without reaching the full limit.

The two oil-well borings, 7 miles north of Rapid River, in sec. 34, T. 42 N., R. 21 W., 

were each drilled to a depth of 800 feet or more. Samples inspected by the State geologist 

form the basis for the following interpretation of the strata penetrated:

Hypothetical log of Rapid River oil well.

Marl...................................................................................

 ,,. . , ,. Iwith strong flow of water, temperature 47.3° F...... Undifferentiated Calciferous j

Decomposed chloritic schist, like Archean rocks, at bottom.

ness.

Feet. 

6

10

264

350 

80

50

10

30

Total.

Feet. 

6

16

280

630 

710

760

770

800

ThickGladstone. At the furnace in the northern part of Gladstone there are several flowing 

wells which range in depth from 230 to 700 feet and have diameters of 4 and 6 inches. They 

are about 5 feet above lake level, and one has a head 27 feet above the lake, or 607 feet above 

tide. There are two horizons from which flows are obtained, one being at about 230 feet 

and the other about 700 feet, with small quantities of water at intervening levels. The lowest water horizon is reported to be^the strongest and the water is thought to be softer than 

in wells of shallower depth. This, however, was not verified by chemical analyses. The 

earliest well was made about 1899 and others have been sunk from time to time as needed.

IKK 160 06 t
46 UNDERGROUND-WATER PAPERS, 1906.

Temperatures reported by Lane are found to range from 44.9° to 49.3° in the different wells, 

the highest being in a well 500 feet deep.

At a boarding house kept by Mrs. Martin adjacent to the furnace is a well 230 feet deep 

and 4 inches in diameter, made in 1902, which yields a moderate flow.

At the roundhouse in the western part of Gladstone a well made by the Minneapolis, 

St. Paul and Sault Ste. Marie Railway in 1903 reached a depth of about 700 feet and obtained a strong supply of water at 690 feet, which stands a test by pumping of 150 gallons a minute and has a hardness of 5.86° on Clark's scale. The water rises to 12 feet below 

the surface or about 600 feet above tide, the railroad station near by being 612 feet. The 

following record appears in the report of the State geologist for 1903:

Log of railroad well at Gladstone.

Thickness.

Feet. 

51

10.5

15

14.5

234

S9

228

100

Total.

Feet. 

51

61.5

76.5

91

325

414

642

742

Hendricks. A boring in sec. 8, T. 41 N., R. 24 W., obtained a weak flow from a reddish 

sandstone which was struck at 350 feet and penetrated for 146 feet. It is a 4-inch well 

and was made in the winter of 1901-2, at a cost of about $1,000. a

WEST SHORE OF GREEN BAY.

Several flowing wells have been sunk in the cities of Escanaba and Menominee, Mich., 

as well as at cities and villages on the borders of Green Bay in Wisconsin. The flows are 

partly from the St. Peter sandstone and partly from the Potsdam. Possibly the sandy 

beds of the " Calciferous " also yield flows, and they may be obtainable from the Trenton 

limestone at certain points. The few data here presented are from the annual report of 

the State geologist for 1903:

Log of Wagner well n&ar Escanaba.

Trenton limestone, with geodes or quartz inclusions, at 406 and 457 feet and shale at

Thickness.

Feet. 

9

192

50

271

38

78

Total.

Feet. 

9

201

KO9

560

CfiO

640

a Reported by J. M. White, Wells, Mich.
FLOWING-WELL DISTRICTS IB" PART OF MICHIGAN. 47

In a recent well near by, a broken formation, perhaps the conglomerate of the Archean 

quartzite, was struck at 860 to 900 feet; above it was a good body of sandstone.

A flowing well at Flatrock near Escanaba is reported to be 800 to 900 feet deep.

At Menominee S. M. Stephenson has a flowing well in town and another on his farm 3 

miles west. The latter is 720 feet deep on ground 30 feet above Lake Michigan and has a 

head of only 1 foot. Water was found at various levels, but the main supply is at 620 feet. 

The water of the town well has a temperature of 55.5° F., but no data as to depth of the 

water bed are reported. A well near the Stephenson Hotel in Menominee is thought to be 

in Potsdam sandstone, but no definite data are given as to depth, the statement being 

500 to 1,000 feet. "

There are a number of other flowing wells in Menominee, Marinette, and Escanaba, but 

the writer is not in possession of data concerning them.

LAKE SUPERIOR SHORE.

Grand M amis. A deep boring was made at Grand Marais a few years ago, with the 

expectation of obtaining a flowing well. It is on ground about 30 feet above Lake Superior. It penetrated 100 feet of drift before entering Potsdam sandstone, and was carried 

1,100 feet into that rock. The water, though abundant and of good quality, will not overflow, and in consequence no use is made of it. The dip of the rock formations being southward from the shore of Lake Superior, the underground flowage is probably in that direction, 

or away from the lake shore. This being the case, the further testing of this shore for flowing wells can not be encouraged.

NONFLOWING WELLS.

In the districts where flowing wells can not be obtained a number of records were collected which throw light on the distance to water, and in some cases on the head. In general 

it may be stated that an exceptionally good water is obtainable, at moderate depths, 

throughout the part of the northern peninsula underlain by Cambrian and Silurian rock 

formations. It need scarcely be stated that it is decidedly softer in the sandstone districts 

bordering Lake Superior than in the limestone districts bordering Lakes Michigan and 

Huron, a feature which also characterizes the lakes. The water table, except in prominent glacial and limestone ridges and elevated gravel and sand plains, is near enough to the 

surface to be easily reached by dug wells, a common depth being 20 to 30 feet. Probably 

80 per cent of the farm wells are less than 30 feet in depth. The records collected are 

mainly of wells of exceptional depth, no attempt having been made to compile a complete 

list. In the statements which follow, the well districts are taken up in order from east 

to west.

OHIPPEWA COUNTY.

Sugar Island. On Sugar Island wells are 15 to 25 feet deep. On clay plains they penetrate to underlying sand and gravel, while on gravelly ridges they go down about to the 

level of the bordering plains.
48 UNDERGROUND-WATER PAPERS, 1906.

St. Marys Ewer. Along St. Marys River from Sault Ste. Marie to the mouth of the 

Munuscong the wells are generally only 15 to 30 feet in depth, corresponding to their altitude above the river. There are, however, places where a solid bed of clay extends some 

depth below the river level, as indicated in the following table:

Wells along St. Marys River.

Owner.

B.Gilroy..............

Do................

D. F. Grier............

J .W. Hinds...........

J. Wright... ..........

Location.

T. N.

47

47

47

46 

46

46 

46

R.E.

1

1

1

1 

1

1 

1

Sec.

22

22 

22

22 

13

25 

26

Altitude.

Feet. 

620

615

" 615

610 

590

600 

600

Depth.

Feet. 

60

77 

70

70 

100

80 

78

Head.

Feet. 

-18

-10 

-10

f - 2 

\ -25

- 4 

- 4

Remarks.

Sand 12 feet, red clay 45 feet, gravel and sand 3 feet.

Section same as preceding.

Clay to water bed in gravel at 

bottom.

Head at first near surface, but 

now 25 feet below.

No water obtained. Clay to bottom.

Sand 9 feet, clay to gravel at bottom.

Sand 7 feet, clay 68 feet, gravel 3 

feet.

Wells on the high plain above the Nipissing beach, south of Sault Ste. Marie, at altitudes between 670 and 700 feet above tide, are from 35 to 100 feet in depth, and obtain 

water from gravel or sand under a laminated, nearly pebbleless, clay. The head is generally 30 feet or more below the surface. Temperatures wherever tested were 45° F. or 

slightly less.

Pickford. Wells on the gravelly table-land northwest of Pickford are 55 to 75 feet or 

more in depth when at an altitude of about 775 feet, and the water rises but little in the 

wells.

Wellsburg. On the high sandy plain at Wellsburg, at an altitude of 225 feet above Lake 

Superior, a well was sunk by the railroad company in 1885 to a depth of 280 feet, entirely 

through sand. The water rises to 45 feet, or about 180 feet above the lake. A well in 

the ravine south of the station, about 15 feet lower, obtains water at only 25 feet depth. 

North of Wellsburg on the same plain are wells 100 to 160 feet in depth. A well on the 

Van Leuven homestead in sec. 25, T. 47 N., R. 4 W., on a morainic ridge overlooking Lake 

Superior, and at an altitude'about 225 feet above lake level, is 140 feet in depth.

Rexford. At Rexford, on a high sand plain about 325 feet above Lake Superior, a well 

was obtained at only 45 feet, and a similar well was obtained at the target range, about a 

mile west of Rexford. South of these high sand plains, in the vicinity of Trout Lake and 

Alexander, wells are obtained at slight depth, much of the region being swampy.

SheUdrdke. At Shelldrake, on the shore of Lake Superior, a boring was sunk by Colonel 

Culhane to a depth of 250 feet without reaching rock, although at an altitude of only 5 feet 

above Lake Superior. It passed through clay with associated thin beds of sand and 

obtained a weak supply of water with a head of 60 feet. Several wells in Shelldrake are 

from 75 to 85 feet, there being but little water obtainable at less than 75 feet.

LUCE COTTNTY.

Newberry and vicinity. In the vicinity of Newberry several deep wells have been made 

on elevated ground, at the State Insane Asylum, and on surrounding farms. One well at 

the asylum, 457 feet deep, struck rock (limestone) at 320 feet, and entered shale in the 

lower 70 feet. Water is from near the top of the limestone, and the well will yield by 

pumping 200 gallons a minute. It has a diameter of 7| inches. The head is 104 feet, 

and the altitude of the well mouth about 865 feet. Another asylum well is 245 feet, and 

there are four wells 186 feet in depth. All these wells struck the first water bed at a depth
FLO WING-WELL DISTRICTS IN PAET OP MICHIGAN. 49

of about 100 feet, and there is little if any rise of water, that depth being apparently the 

level of the ground-water table. Other wells have been made at wood camps on the asylum 

property, 1 to 2 miles south and east of the buildings, one well being 100 feet and another 

170 feet deep. The deeper well penetrated sand 100 feet and below this a blue hardpan 

65 feet, obtaining water in sand under the hardpan. The altitude of these wells is about 

the same as that of those at the institution. At a schoolhouse near the asylum the well has 

a depth of 138 feet. A partial analysis of water from a well adjacent to the asylum grounds, 

made in 1893 by Doctor Nicholson of Newberry, showed the presence of only 65 parts per 

million of calcium and magnesium carbonates, and but a trace of iron, while chlorides 

seemed to be entirely absent. The depth of this well is 128 feet and the head 110 feet.

About 2 miles west of the asylum, on a prominent knoll of similar altitude, are three deep 

wells. One at a schoolhouse, in the western part of section 9, is 192 feet deep and has a 

head of 135 feet. It was largely through sand. Across the road, in section 10, at the 

residence of John Templeton, is a well 196 feet deep, with a similar head. About a mile 

northeast of these wells A. Carlson made a well 150 feet in depth, with a head of 130 feet. 

The altitude of these three wells is about 850 feet. Another well on lower ground (760 feet 

above tide), in the southeastern part of section 4, has a depth of 106 feet and a head of 26 

feet. There were nearly 20 feet of clay near the top, but the remainder was through sand.

At a limestone quarry 12 miles southeast of Newberry (sec. 6, T. 44 N., R. 8 W.) are 

two wells 100 feet in depth, with a head 80 feet below the surface. The altitude of the wells 

is about 900 feet. An analysis of the boiler scale, made by the Dearborn Drug and Chemical Company, Chicago, gave the following proportion of mineral constituents:

Analysis of boiler scale from quarry well water.

Per cent. 

Silica............................................................................................ 3.20

Oxides of iron and alumina..................................................................... 1.16

Calcium carbonate............................................................................... 80.08

Magnesium carbonate.....'..................................................................".... 14.01

Calcium sulphate................................................................................ 1.40

Loss, etc......................................................................................... .15

100.00

'McMUlan. Ai McMillan the schoolhouse well has a depth of 80 feet and an altitude of 785 

feet. The water is from sand under clay. The well at the cooperage company's mill, on 

ground 35 feet lower, is 60 feet in depth and has a head of 16 feet.

Manistique Lake. North of Manistique Lake are several wells nearly 100 feet in depth. 

One at the schoolhouse in sec. 29, T. 45 N., R. 12 W., is 96 feet and has a head of 60 

feet. It entered limestone at 40 feet. Jerry Holland has a well on the eastern side of section 30, which is 85 feet deep and enters limestone at 18 feet. The head is 20 feet. 

Across the road, in section 29, at the residence of Charles McKenna, is a well 86 feet deep, 

on ground about 35 feet higher than the Holland well. It has a head of 56 feet and 

entered limestone at 40 feet. John Richards has a well in the southern part of section 21 

with a depth of 76 feet and a head of 68 feet. It penetrated clay for 12 feet and sand 

for 64 feet, striking rock at the bottom.

A well east of Little Manistique Lake on the farm of J. Fyne, in sec. 17, T. 45 N., 

R. 11 W., with a depth of 58 feet, has a head of only 7 feet. It penetrated clay 40 feet, 

below which was a sandy gravel.

MACKINAC COUNTY.

Wells on the Niagara limestone, in southeastern Mackinac County, are often sunk to 

depths of 60 to 75 feet, and in 'most cases there is little rise of the water.

Palms. At Palms (Kenneth post-office) are two wells 108 and 117 feet in depth, made by 

W. J. Ross, which have an altitude of 795 feet and a head of 35 feet. Another well at 

Leonard's mill, at an altitude of 770 feet, is 75 feet deep and has a head of 8 feet.
50 UNDERGROUND-WATER PAPERS, 1906.

Ozark. On a limestone hill east of Ozark, a well having an altitude of about 875 feet, 

reached a depth of 100 feet. Farther south, near Allenville, wells are difficult to obtain, 

because of the large amount of shale in the Monroe beds, and borings 100 to 150 feet are not 

rare.

Lewis and Rex. In wells in the vicinity of Lewis and Rex, water is obtained at very 

shallow depths, although the altitude is about 860 feet. Those at Lewis are from sand at 

about 16 feet. Some near Rex enter rock at 10 feet, but others are entirely from sand.

GUchrist. At Gilchrist, at an altitude of 780 feet above tide, the railroad company made 

a well 1,180 feet in depth, which entered rock at 80 feet and has a head of 70 feet.

West end of county. From Millecoquins Lake southwestward past Engadine and Gould 

to Corinne nearly all the wells enter rock at slight depths. The shallowest are about 40 

feet and the deepest over 200 feet, the common depth being about 80 feet. The water 

seldom rises to more than 40 feet below the surface. A test boring made at Corinne in 1888, 

for the purpose of obtaining a flowing well, reached a depth of 180 feet and had a head of 

 25 feet, or 748 feet above tide. A well at Ferguson's store, in Gould, is 116 feet deep and 

has a head of 12 feet, or 724 feet above tide. The majority of wells around Corinne and 

Gould are 65 to 80 feet in depth. Deep flowing wells at Engadine have already been 

discussed (p. 43), and also the flowing well at Deuels Lake (p. 43).

SCHOOLCRAPT COUNTY.

Seney. At Seney wells were made some years ago, with a depth of 110 to 115 feet, which 

obtained a strong supply but not a flow.

Germfask. East of Germfask are wells about 80 feet deep, on the Stafford farm, in sec. 

12, T. 44 N., R. 13 W., with a head of 45 feet. A well on Thomas Kennedy's farm, on 

section 14 has a depth of 70 feet and very little rise of water. A neighboring well at S. 

Burns's residence, on a high ridge in section 15 has a depth of only 14 feet.

Blaney. The William Mueller Lumber Company, of Blaney, sunk a well 214 feet for the 

purpose of procuring a supply for waterworks, but an insufficient and unsuitable supply was 

obtained. The water tastes "like bog ore." The supply is partly from a depth of 42 feet 

and partly from near the bottom of the well. The head is about 40 feet below the surface. 

There were 113 feet of drift and 101 feet of shale. The following drift beds were penetrated: 

Clay loam and sand, 15 feet; quicksand, 26 feet; gravel, 4 feet; blue bowlder clay with sand 

streaks, 68 feet.a

Manistique. On a table-land east of Manistique wells are 30 to 60 feet in depth without 

reaching rock. The deeper wells are near the edge of the table-land, and are reported to be 

entirely through sand.

Hiaioatha. In the Hiawatha settlement, about 12 miles north of Manistique, wells are 

40 to 65 feet in depth, through gravel and sand, and there is very little rise of water, the 

ground-water table being about 40 feet below the surface, or near the level of the small 

lakes which occur in that region in basins in the gravel plain.

Indian Lake. On each side of Indian Lake, from a point near Manistique to Cooks Mill, 

is a limestone district in which wells are often 50 to 75 feet in depth, and have very little 

rise of water, the ground-water table being near the level of Indian Lake.

DELTA COUNTY.

Garden Peninsula. On Burnt Bluff, on Garden Peninsula, are two wells 228 feet in depth, 

which have a head of 203 feet, which is about at the Lake Michigan level. Rock was 

entered at 3 feet. Several wells in that vicinity are 100 to 140 feet in depth. Rock is 

usually entered at a depth of 30 feet or less on Garden Peninsula, and in some cases wells 

are carried to 25 to 30 feet below Lake Michigan level before a strong supply is obtained &.

St. Jacques. At St. Jacques the hotel well is 35 feet in depth and obtains a supply from 

gravel under a bed of sandy loam. Two dug wells near the hotel are only 26 feet in depth,

oData furnished by George W. Gray, driller, Cooks, Mich.

i> Data on Garden Peninsula furnished by George W. Gray, driller.
FLOWING-WELL DISTRICTS IN PART OF MICHIGAN. 51

but a well one-fourth mile east on slightly higher ground is 65 feet deep. The altitude is 15 

to 25 feet higher than at the railroad station, or 630 to 640 feet above tide.

Ensign. At Ensign rock is struck at about 10 feet, but wells are usually obtained at the 

base of the drift, the rock being a shale with very little water.

ALGER COUNTY.

From the head of Little Bay de Noc northward to Lake Superior is a district in which rock 

is found at shallow depth, usually less than 20 feet, and wells are obtained either at the base 

of the drift or at a moderate depth in the rock, a well more than 40 feet in depth being rare. 

The altitude near the head of Little Bay de Noc is only about 600 feet above tide, but on 

the brow of the calciferous escarpment in the vicinity of Rumely, Lawson, and Carlshend 

it is 1,050 to 1,150 feet, yet the water table is sufficiently near the surface to furnish wells at

very slight depth.

MENOMINEE COUNTY.

The drift is also of moderate depth west of Little Bay de Noc and Green Bay, in Delta 

and Menominee counties, and wells are usually obtained at the base of the drift or in the 

upper portion of the rock at depths of 40 feet or less. The drift is a sandy or clayey loam 

with thin beds of clear gravel or sand associated with or underlying it.

MARQUETTE COUNTY.

In eastern Marquette County, from Little Lake northward to Harvey and Mangum, is a 

belt of very heavy drift in which wells 90 to 200 feet in depth have not reached rock, while 

a boring to test for iron ore near Little Lake found rock at a depth of about 250 feet. A 

well at S. C. Miller's, in the southwestern part of sec. 35, T. 47 N., R. 25 "W., at an altitude of about 1,150 feet above tide, is 205 feet in depth, and strikes- water at 191 feet. It 

was mainly through sand, though there is a little clayey material near the surface. The 

water does not rise above the level at which it was struck. Mr. Miller has a shallow well 

only 18 feet in depth, which gives out in dry seasons. A neighboring well on the farm of 

James Kindlen is 184 feet in depth, in it the water stands at 164 feet below the surface. The 

altitude is slightly lower than at Miller's, being probably 1,130 feet above tide. This well 

Is thought to have struck bed rock at the bottom, though it may perhaps have been merely 

a cemented crust in the drift, for the Miller well penetrated a crust at 186 feet. Both these 

deep wells are on a prominent moraine, about 2 miles northeast of Sands station, on the 

Chicago and Northwestern Railway. A few miles farther north, on the same moraine, a 

well was made some years ago at Frazier's lumber camp, in sec. 21, T. 47 N., R. 25 W., 

190 feet in depth, which penetrated only gravel and sand. It is at an altitude of over 1,200 

feet. Near this well in the southwestern part of section 16, at an altitude only a few feet 

lower, is a shallow dug well having water standing within 10 feet of the surface, thus 

repeating the conditions noted at the Miller wells.

On a moranic ridge west of Mangum are several wells 80 to 90 feet deep on the farms of 

James Barry, Carl Whitler, William Preab, and Mr. Huebner. They penetrate a large 

amount of white sand, but in some cases pass through a thin bed of bowlder clay at the surface and another near the bottom of the well.

In the vicinity of Skandia wells are 30 to 50 feet in depth and in some cases enter rock 

near the bottom.

PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES.

About half the population of the Northern Peninsula is found in cities and villages provided with public water supply. The sources of supply set forth in the table below are 

chiefly from surface water, only a few villages drawing a public supply from wells. This 

is a natural condition,'in view of the contiguity of large bodies of fresh water, and, in most 

cases, the supply is fully as good as can be obtained from underground sources. The 

principal danger appears to be that of sewage contamination around the intake pipes, and 

this may be guarded against by placing these pipes out of reach of the sewage.
UNDEUGSOtTND-WATBB PAPERS, 1906.

Municipal and institutional ivater supplies.

Town.

Bay Mills..........

Iron Mountain.....

Laurium and Red

Jacket.

State asylum ......

Rapid River and 

Masonville.

SaultSte. Marie....

Stambaugh. . ......

Wakefield....._...

Population, 1900.

±3,000

3,911

± 300

3

OQ1

±1,500

9,549

500

465

3,380

2,000

4,050

3,359

9,242 

1,482

9,705

13,255

2,597

620

10,311

4,126

10,058

c300

12,818

2,014

6,935

c600

1 °67

799

±1,200

2,271

10,538

695

1,191

Ownership, a

P.

P.

P.?

M.?

M.

P.

M.

P.

P.

M.

M.

M.

M.

M.

M.

P.

M.?

P.

M.

M.

M.

P.

P.

M.

M.

St.

P.

M.

M.

M.

St.

M.

M.

P.

M.

M.

M.?

P.

M.

M.

M.

M.

Source.

(?) -

pounded water. 

Creek

Rock wells 104 ^20 feet

Infiltration wells .....

Indian Lake. .........

peri or.

.....do................

Rock wells, 275 feet . . .

Whitefish Bay. .......

System. 6

T.

D,

D.

D.

R.

R.

R.

T.

G. andD.

D.

G.

D.

R.S

G.andD.

D.

D.

T.

D.

D.

T.

T.

WM.

D.

WM.

T.

T.

D.

Remarks.

from well.

Springs for domestic use.

pany.

Partial distribution for employees of Lake Superior 

Mining Co.

works. 

Reservoirs, high pressure

and low pressure.

The wells are developed 

springs.

works. 

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Runs to reservoir in city.

vate tanks.

works.

gency.

works.

Do.

works'. 

Do.

Fire hydrants on flowing 

wells.

Lake Superior.

works.

^Abbreviations under ownership as follows: P= Private; M=Municipal; St.= State. 

^Abbreviations under system as follows: T=Tank or standpipe; R=Open reservoir; G= Gravity; 

D= Direct pressure; WM= Windmill. c Population in 1906.
FLOWING-WELL DISTBICTS IN PAET OF MICHIGAN. 53

QUALITY OF WATER.

Analyses of Lake Superior water have been published by the State geologist in the 

annual report for 1903, pages 113 to 118, and analyses of water from Green Bay on pages 

119 to 120, while several analyses of Lake Michigan water appear in Water-Supply Paper 

No. 31 of the United States Geological Survey. The sanitary analysis of a flowing well at 

Menominee also appears in the annual report, of the State geologist for 1903, pages 121 to 

122. It appears from these analyses that the hardness of the waters in Lake Michigan and 

Green Bay is about twice that of Lake Superior, being 7° to 9° or more on dark's scale, 

while on Lake Superior it is only about 3° in several of the analyses.
DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS IN ARKANSAS BY WELLS.

By A. F. CBIDKB.

INTRODUCTION.

The disposal of surface waters and sewage in level countries where there is insufficient 

natural drainage, has long been a serious problem, and one that is becoming more pressing 

as the country becomes more thickly settled.

The method of drainage into the underlying subsoil by means of wells is not new, although 

little practiced in the United States. It has long been successfully used in the low provinces 

of France, and it was tried in Michigan as long as twenty-five years ago. Here, however, 

it was found to be impracticable, at least so far as the subsoil and shallow wells were concerned. Later, success was attained by the use of deep wells. Such wells will often 

penetrate sandy strata into which the water from overlying strata can be drained, thus 

lowering the ground-water level. In the Coastal Plain, where there are numerous porous 

strata of sand alternating with beds of clay, the possibility of reclaiming swampy districts 

by such well drainage is promising and at least deserves a thorough test.

WELL DRAINAGE IN OTHER STATES THAN ARKANSAS.

DRAINAGE BY WELLS IN MICHIGAN.

On the retreat of the glaciers a large part of Canada and the northern United States was 

left covered with glacial accumulations. In places large areas were left with a very irregular 

surface, marked by numerous sink holes, ponds, and lakes. The glaciated area, in places, 

had little relief, so that many of these ponds and lakes are still undrained.

In the spring the heavy rains and melting snows fill these undrained depressions to a 

depth depending on the area drained and the amount of precipitation. Many of the larger 

ponds contain more or less water throughout the year. The soil in these depressions is 

very fertile, and when drained becomes of great value for farming. An attempt was made 

about twenty-five years ago, in Parma Township, Jackson County, Mich., to draiii one of 

these depressions into the subsoil underlying the surface hardpan. The attempt failed, 

but within the last few years a large number of ponds in Jackson County have been drained 

into the underlying porous strata by means of deep wells. The methods used and results 

obtained have been described by Robert E. Horton in Water-Supply Paper No. 145, pages 

30 to 39. Mr. Horton describes a deep-drain well on Fred Watkins's place in Parma 

Township. The well is located in the center of a pond, which drains about 35 acres of 

sloping tilled land of permeable' gravelly loam. The water covered an area of about 2| 

acres, and rarely dried up. When first drilled, the well was stopped in the first water bed 

at a depth of about 90 feet, and the unprotected open pipe was allowed to project upward 

in the water near the surface. The water was drawn down very rapidly at first, but was 

soon greatly checked by organic material which clogged the pipe and perhaps the water 

bed at the bottom of the well. Two months of flow failed to drain the pond. This result 

being unsatisfactory, the well was drilled to a depth of 170 feet and the top of the pipe 

protected with a screen. In a short time the pond was completely drained.

54
DRAINAGE BY WELLS IN ARKANSAS. 55

DRAINAGE BY WELLS IN GEORGIA.

During the summer of 1903 Mr. S. W. McCallie, in cooperation with the United States 

Geological Survey, made some Valuable experiments in Quitman, Ga., on the drainage of 

sewage into deep wells.

A well was bored to improve the city's water supply. At a depth of 123 feet the drill 

entered an apparent opening in the limestone 6| feet deep and the water immediately rose 

to within 77 feet of the surface. Efforts were made to lower it by continuous pumping, 

but without success. It was likewise found that large volumes of water could be forced 

into the well without raising the static head above 77 feet below the, surface. The well was 

then bored deeper and a second water-bearing horizon encountered at a depth of 321 feet.

To test the carrying capacity of the upper water-bearing stratum, a second well, 6 inches 

in diameter, was bored near Russell's pond, a stagnant pool, the water from which was 

drained into the well. About one-half million gallons of water were drawn down in a few 

hours without raising or lowering the static head of the water, which stood at 77 feet 

below the surface.

The town authorities concluded that the underground water course could be used for 

carrying away the city's sewage. The results of an elaborate experiment carried on by 

Mr. McCallie, however, proved conclusively that a pollution of the other wells would result 

from such a procedure, and the proposed disposition of the sewage was therefore abandoned.

DRAINAGE BY WELLS IN ARKANSAS.

In the Coastal Plain of northeastern Arkansas are millions of acres of flat lands, occupied 

by swamps, old sloughs, and shallow lakes. Thousands of acres of this area are covered 

with water in the spring and early summer, and thereby made worthless for agricultural 

purposes. Attempts have been made in a few instances to drain small portions of this area 

by means of deep wells, but the difficulties encountered have not been overcome, and the 

success of the work is still much in doubt.

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE AREA.

The area of northeastern Arkansas, extending from the Paleozoic hills to Mississippi 

River, is a level plain, with a minimum elevation of about 100 feet at the mouth of Arkansas 

River on the south and of 296 feet near the Missouri line. The monotony of the surface 

is broken by Crowleys Ridge, a low swell, from 1 to 12 miles wide, extending from Commerce, 

Mo., to Helena, Ark. The highest points of the ridge are about 120 to 140 feet above the 

flat lands on either side.

West of the ridge the country is diversified with wooded lands, prairies, and broad swells 

15 to 20 feet above the general level. These low ridges have a general north-south direction 

roughly parallel to Crowleys Ridge. The region is drained by White River and its tributaries, Black, Cache, and L'Anguille rivers. East of the ridge the country is much flatter. 

St. Francis and Mississippi rivers are the only streams of any importance. The St. Francis 

and its tributaries are very crooked and have very little grade. In many places near the 

Missouri line St. Francis River is little more than a series of broad lakes. The country is 

known as the "sunken lands" of St. Francis River. The numerous lakes were caused by 

the earthquakes of 1811 and 1812.

After a long rainy season the country east of Crowleys Ridge is completely inundated. 

There is not enough drainage to carry off the water in rainy seasons, so it collects in the 

lower lands and often remains for months. The great amount of water is a hindrance in 

the spring to putting in the crops, and occasionally destroys them after they have become 

more or less mature.
56 UNDERGROUND-WATER PAPEES, 1906.

CHARACTER OF SURFACE STRATUM.

A large area adjacent to Oowleys Ridge on the west and a narrow fringe on the east 

have a thin surface stratum of light-gray sandy clay nearly impervious to water and containing numerous nodules of limonite. Along the present streams and old water courses 

of the entire region, the limonitic hardpan has been removed or covered with stream alluvium, consisting of fine silt and sand. The clay, therefore, where not present as a surface 

stratum, spreads over the region as a subsoil. The nodules of limonite and the impervious 

clay soils have given rise to the terms "buckshot" and "slash lands." On the higher 

ridges, the clay loam is very similar to the Columbia formation, and is doubtless the 

reworked product of the loess and Columbia, which are present on the top and sides of 

Crowleys Ridge. <

CHARACTER OF THE UNDERLYING STRATA. _ .4.

The material underlying the surface hardpan consists of interstratified beos of sands and 

clays. The following are typical well sections, which show the relations* of the strata 

underlying the surface clay:

Tupelo, Tomberlins, Hazen, \\fynne Weiner,

Jackson County Lonoke County Prairie County Cross County Poinsett County

O 

IO

20

30

40 

50 

60

70

80

90

100

no

120

130

140

rFeet ppn 

'- '-', Sand arid clay

 : Sand

-. ^ Hardpan

£ v: Sand

i: ~ Hardpan 

g£ Sand

B =

if

1:

%l

i Red clay

Red and white 

sand

\ Clay

' Water-bearing 

. sand 

1 Clay

" Water-bearing P 

J sand *

^ &

: 3

E =

ii

Yellowclay -_ Red clay and sand =

Fine sand i

Red clay ;

Blue clay

Coarse sand !

i

; s

:

^i

i|

! ^

j j

= if

 :_ g

: &

gg

I

I

Yellow loam

White.tough clay i Red clay 1 

Variegated sand, ;

water bearing ;-

Rne white sand :

\ Black and white 

sand,water bearing t

i ji

.' ;-:.

i Is

I |

ii

Soil 

Clay

Sand

Coarser sand

to gravel 

Hard clay

Sand,grading 

intoa coarse

gravel at bottom.

water baa ring

White sand and

gravel, water bearing

FIG. 4. Well sections west of Crowleys Bidge in Arkansas, showing the variation of the strata and 

the source of the well waters in different localities. The Tupelo section is after Purdue.

DEPTH OF STANDING SURFACE WATER.

The depth of the water on the lowlands depends on the amount of rain and the elevation 

of the area compared to the surrounding country.

The average amount of rainfall of northeastern Arkansas is usually between 40 and 50 

inches a year. After weeks of continuous rain, especially in the spring, the streams become 

swollen and the water often covers the lowlands to a depth of 1 to 10 feet.

In May and June, 1905, much of the country between Blytheville >and Jonesboro was 

covered with water to a depth of from 6 inches to 2 feet. West of Crowleys Ridge, between 

Jonesboro and Wynne, is a flat swampy area which is usually covered-with a thin sheet of 

water that rarely dries up early enough in the spring to permit cultivation; In this region 

deep-well drainage has been tried.

HEIGHT OF THE WATER TABLE.

The height of the water table varies in different parts of the area and in different seasons 

of the year. There are in most places three water horizons, the first at a depth of 18 to 

20 feet, the second at from 30 to 40 feet, and the third at from 50 to 60 feet. Water in 

most places is obtained at the base of the surface clay loam. ! '

During the dry season of the year the water rises in the wells to within 12 to 15 feet of 

the surface; in the wet season it stands within 3 to 5 feet of the surface, and occasionally 

rises to the top.
DBAINAGE BY WELLS IN ABKANSAS. 57

NUMBER OP WELLS NECESSARY TO DRAIN AN ACRE.

The well owned by Fred Watkins, in Parma Township, Jackson County, Mich. (see p. ), 

drains about 35 acres; but this is in the center of a depression, and the water has a tendency to collect about the mouth of the well. In Arkansas the conditions are somewhat 

different. The entire country on which the water stands is practically level. It is hardly 

possible that one well will drain so large a territory where the area is level. It is estimated 

by an experienced well digger at Harrisburg, Ark., that it will require about four 12- to 

16-inch wells to drain an aere, or one well to each quarter of an acre. This estimate, however, is doubtless too large. A fairer estimate would be one 12- to 16-inch well to the acre, 

and this would bring drainage within reach of all.

After a period of four to six months the wells are apt to become clogged and cease to 

carry off the water, but the silt and debris can often be removed from a 12- or 16-inch well 

with a sand bucket and the well be restored to its former carrying capacity.

COST PER ACRE.

The cost of putting down the wells depends, of course, on their depth. A 12- to 16-inch 

well can be bored and curbed with wood for 50 cents per foot. This is the cheapest well, 

and is doubtless as good as any other for drainage purposes. Wells of this class usually 

can easily be cleaned out with a sand bucket when they become clogged with silt and 

vegetable matter.

The first sands encountered, immediately underlying the surface hardpan or clay, are 

sufficiently porous to carry off the surface waters. The hardpan varies in depth from 10 

to 40 feet over the larger part of the wet areas. The minimum cost, therefore, of a 12- to 16- 

inch well, curbed with wood, is $5 and the maximum cost $20. There must be added to 

this the cost of tile, ditching, and laying of tile. The cost of tile varies greatly, according 

to its size and the distance from the factory. An average price for all sizes is about $12 

per thousand. But the smallest tile would be large enough to carry off the water, and the 

price per thousand would therefore be much less than $12. So far as known no tile has 

been used in carrying water to the drain wells, and the amount of tile necessary to drain 

an acre is not known.

VALUE OF DRAINAGE.

When the land is drained it is very desirable for corn, cotton, and alfalfa. Similar land 

is found in southeastern Missouri east of St. Francis River, where a large area has been 

drained by means of canals. Dredge boats were used to open up the main canals, at State 

and national expense, and the landowners then cut small canals to drain into the larger 

ones. The land, which could have been bought for from $1.50 to $3 an acre before it was 

drained is now selling at from $50 to $100 an acre. Similar results could be expected in 

Arkansas if deep-well or surface drainage could be perfected. Before the land is drained 

it is practically worthless, except in very dry seasons. After it is thoroughly drained it 

will produce to the acre from 75 to 100 bushels of corn or four to five cuttings of about 

1 ton of alfalfa which readily sells for $10 a ton.

RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS.

Well drainage in Arkansas has been considered impracticable, owing to the large amount 

of clay in the surface soil, which, when taken into solution and permitted to enter the 

well, silts up the water-bearing sands and prevents further escape of the water. The 

experiments made have not on the whole been successful. No effort has been made to 

overcome the difficulty, but it could be obviated by digging a series of settling pools into 

which the water from the surrounding land could be drained and permitted to settle before 

it entered the well. The number of pools would depend on the amount of clay in the soil. 

The greater the amount of clay the greater the amount of material which would be taken 

into solution and the more settling it would require to clear the water. Doubtless two or
58 UNDERGROUND-WATER PAPERS, 1905.

three pools would be a sufficient number to clear the water. The water from the surrounding land should be permitted to enter only one of the pools and then should be conveyed to the second and third by means of pipes or open troughs near the tops of the pools, 

the water flowing out of a pool on the opposite side from which it entered. In this way 

it would have a chance to settle. The well should be located in the third or last pool, 

with the open pipe projecting upward near the surface of the water. The well should be 

curbed to prevent the water which enters it from becoming impregnated with clay.

SANITARY EFFECTS OF WELL DRAINAGE.

In the United States few experiments have been made in regard to the sanitary effects 

of draining surface waters into underground water beds, the only authentic experiment 

being that made by Mr. S. W. McCallie at Quitman, Ga., in which he found that there 

was an intimate relation between wells in the same vicinity deriving their waters from 

the same geologic horizon, and that the pollution of the first water-bearing bed at a depth 

of 123 feet of the surface likewise contaminated the water in the second bed at a depth 

of 321 feet.

Large bodies of stagnant water highly impregnated with organic matter should not be 

drained into underground water horizons which supply the wells of a community with 

drinking water. It is quite probable that in northeastern Arkansas the surface water 

could be drained into the first or second sands from the surface, and the drinking water 

be obtained from a much lower horizon without any injurious effects.
TOTAL AMOUNT OF FREE WATER IN THE EARTH'S CRUST.

By MYRON L. FULLER.

INTRODUCTION.

The problem of the amount of water in the earth's crust is of paramount interest to 

drillers and others seeking deep underground supplies, as well as to those interested in the 

problems of underground circulation as affecting mining. Probably no other question is 

so frequently asked in the field as that in regard to the water zone which most people suppose to exist somewhere below the surface and which they invariably believe will always 

be found if a well only " goes deep enough." The present paper considers the subject of the 

total free water in rocks of various types, incidentally showing the absence of the immense 

"underground lakes" of popular imagination.

By free water is meant the water which occupies the joints, solution passages, pores, or 

other openings of the rock. It should be carefully distinguished from the chemically combined water in the minerals of the rocks. The free water is present in the form of a liquid 

which possesses a more or less definite circulation even in the densest rocks, while the water 

in combination is not in liquid form, but is a part of the mineral compound itself. The free 

water should also be distinguished from the available water, since some materials, like clay, 

hold great quantities of water and yet often give up only insignificant amounts. It is in 

fact possible for a rock to hold 35 or 40 per cent of water and yet yield almost none to a 

pump; that is, almost none of its water is available.

From the nature of the case the discussion necessarily deals with average conditions, as 

local conditions vary so greatly and so rapidly that generalizations of value can not be made 

from isolated regions. While it is believed that the present estimate of the amount of 

underground water is fairly close for the earth as a whole, it is to be expected that the 

amount in certain materials and at certain localities will depart considerably from the figures 

given.

PREVIOUS ESTIMATES.

ESTIMATE OF DELESSE.

Of the many estimates of the total ground water that of Delesse a is among the most widely 

quoted, possibly because of the striking results reached. The estimate is based on the 

assumption that the water in rocks diminishes from 5 per cent of their weight or 12| per 

cent of their volume at the surface to nothing at a depth of 6 miles, and that water may exist 

in liquid form at a temperature of 600° C., which was considered as equivalent to a depth 

of 18,500 meters. Under these, conditions the amount of ground water is calculated as 

1,175,089 million million cubic meters or 1,530,000 million million cubic yards, which is 

equivalent to g^ of the earth's volume or to a sheet water over 7,500 feet thick surrounding 

the earth.

ESTIMATE OF SLIGHTER.

Of the attempts made in America to estimate the total ground water since a definite 

knowledge of the porosities of rocks has been available that of C. S. Slichter & is among the 

most notable. The amount postulated, though less than half that of Delesse, is still immense, being equivalent to a uniform sheet from 3,000 to 3,500 feet in thickness.

a Delesse, Achille, Bull. Soc. geol. France, 2d ser., vol. 19, 1861, p. 64.

» Motions of underground waters; Watei-Sup. and, Irr. Paper No. 67, U. S, Geol. Survey, 1902, p. 14.

59
60 UNDERGROUND-WATER PAPERS, 1906.

As a basis for his estimates Slichter has taken the results of L. M. Hoskins,a accidentally 

crediting them, however, to C. R. Van Hise,& whose statements were in reality based on the 

calculations of Hoskins. These calculations, to summarize them briefly, tended to show 

that cavities can not exist at depths of more than 6,520 meters when water free, or, where 

occupied by waters under hydrostatic pressure, at depths of more than 10,350 meters.

Slichter says:

The writer estimates the entire amount to be about 565,000 million million cubic yards, or about 

430,000 million million cubic meters. He has arrived at this result by considering that the geologic 

limit of the existence of ground water is at an average depth of 6 miles below the surface of the land and 

5 miles below the floor of the ocean. The land surface and water surface he has assumed to be 52,000,000 

square miles and 144,700,000 square miles, respectively. The average pore space of the surface rocks 

which is occupied by water or moisture he has taken as 10 per cent of their total volume. He believes 

that the estimate of 10 per cent is too large rather than too small. It forms, however, a convenient 

basis for the estimates.

According to these estimates, the total amount of underground water is sufficient to cover the entire 

surface of the earth to a uniform depth of from 3,000 to 3,500 feet. Assuming a mean depth of the ocean 

of 12,000 feet leads to the conclusion that the total amount of oceanic water is about 1,800,000 million 

million cubic yards, so that the total quantity of ground water is nearly one-third the amount of the 

oceanic water.

ESTIMATE OF VAN HISE.C

Van Hise's estimate is the most moderate yet made. Taking one-fifth of Dana's estimate d 

(2.67 per cent of the weight of the rock) of the amount of water in the rocks at the surface 

and assuming the pore space to diminish to zero at the lower limit of the zone of fracture at 

10,000 meters, he obtained an average porosity of 0.69 per cent, which would be equivalent 

to a sheet 69 meters, or 226 feet, thick over the continental areas. No computations were 

made regarding the oceanic areas.

ESTIMATE OF CHAMBERLIN AND SALISBURY.

The estimate of T. C. Chamberlin and R. D. Salisbury, e while not based on anything like 

a complete analysis of the problem and not claimed to be of the nature of a measurement, is 

of interest in connection with the discussion.

The estimate is based on the assumption that the average porosity of rocks is between 5 

and 10 per cent of their volume at the surface and decreases to 0 at a depth of 6 miles. With 

the lower value, giving an average porosity of 2J per cent, the water in the earth would be 

equivalent to a layer 800 feet deep over its entire surface, while with an assumed porosity of 

5 per cent it would form a layer 1,600 feet in depth.

FACTORS IN ESTIMATES OF UNDERGROUND WATERS.

GENERAL STATEMENT.

As a more intimate knowledge of the occurrence of subterranean waters of the United 

States has been obtained through the work of the division of the Geological Survey dealing 

with underground waters, it has become clear that the problem is not as simple as has been 

postulated by previous writers. Not only are there certain factors affecting the problem 

which are not taken into account in earlier computations, but a more, careful analysis of the 

data appears to show that a closer approximation can be made in the values of the factors 

used. It is believed that the pore space of the -rocks has been overestimated and that the 

assumptions as regards complete saturation are incorrect. This has resulted, it is thought, 

in estimates considerably in excess of the true amount.

The more important factors affecting the estimates are considered in detail below. Nothing need be said in regard to temperature, which was once thought to be a limiting factor 

to the penetration of water, as it has been shown and is now well known that the increase

a Flow and fracture of rocks as related to structure: Sixteenth Ann. Kept. U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 

1, 1896, pp. 845-875. 

6 Principles of North American pre-Cambrian geology: Sixteenth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 

1,1896, p. 593.

" Van Hise, C. R., a treatise on metamorphism: Mon. U. S'. Geol. Survey, vol. 47. 1904. pp. 128-129, 

570-571.

d Dana, J. D., Manual of Geology, 4th ed., 1895, pp. 205, 311,

e Geology, vol. 1, pp. 206-207.

J
AMOUNT OF FEEE WATER IN EABTH's CRUST. 61

of pressure is sufficient to prevent the conversion of the water into steam at temperatures 

under the critical temperature, beyond which point, although a gas, the behavior of the 

water, so far as its relations to the rocks are concerned, differs but little from its behavior 

below the. critical temperature, since it is far below the depth of critical pressure.

POROSITY OF ROCKS.

The absorptive capacities of rocks are commonly expressed in terms either of porosity or 

of the ratio of absorption. The first may be defined as the percentage of pore space, while 

the second is the ratio between the weight of water absorbed and the weight of the rock 

tested. The relationship between porosity and ratio of absorption is not constant, but 

varies with the specific gravity of the rock. The tendency of the most advanced workers 

is to state porosity rather than the ratio of absorption, but in the table given below, with 

the exception of the determinations credited to Buckley, all figures represent recalculations 

from the ratios of absorption. The determinations of Buckley are the most recent and are 

probably the most accurate of those quoted, but being limited to the rocks of a single State 

are in some ways not so representative as those taken from the book of Professor Merrill, 

in which the results, which appear to have been the work of several different laboratories, 

cover a wider range of rock types. Unfortunately part of the ratios of absorption are expressed as decimals and part as common fractions, but no explanations are given. The 

common fractions only have been used in the present computations, as the decimals taken as 

they are expressed in the book give results manifestly incorrect. '

In connection with the figures credited to Delesse and Geikie it should be stated that, in 

the absence of statements of the specific gravity of the specimens tested, this has been 

assumed throughout to be 2.65.

Porosity of rocks.

Rock.

gniess. 

Do.............

Do.............

Do.............

and dolomite. 

Chalk..............

Oolite..............

Sand (mixtxirp)

Clay............... 

Do.............

Soils ...............

Authority.

Merrill 6..........

.....do............

.....do............

Merrillft. .........

.....do............

Giekie*.. .........

Geikied...........

Merrill^.. ........

Geikied...........

.....do............

.....do. ........... 

Geikied...........

U.S.Dept.Agr...

Number 

of tests.

14

1

2

11

8

....do...

....do...

Many . . .

Minimum.

.37

90

4.81

3 46

49

.53

3.28

26

35

44

45

Maximum.

7.55

13.36

12.44

47

40

47

65

Average 

or mean.

1.2

.84

1.01

.52

15.89

10.22

.8

.21

3.95

4.85

53

7.18

2.64

35

38

45 

53

55

Remarks.

given.

given.

Wisconsin rocks only.

Specific gravity not

given. 

Indiana stone only.

Specific gravity not

given. 

Theoretical porosity;

actual results similar.

Specific gravity not

given 

Common range.

« Buckley, E. R., Building and ornamental stones (of Wisconsin): Bull. Wisconsin Geol. Survey 

No. 4, 1898, pp. 400-403.

6 Merrill, G. P., Stones for Building and Decoration, Appendix.

< Delesse, A., Bull. Soc. geol. France, 2d ser., vol. 19, 18«2, p. 64.

d Geikie, A., Text-book of Geology, vol. 1, p. 410.

t King, F. H., Principles and conditions of the movements of ground water: Nineteenth Ann. Kept. 

U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 2, 1898, pp. 209-215.

IBB 160 06 5
62 UNDERGKOUND-WATEK PAPERS, 1906.

- THICKNESS OF SEDIMENTS.

Evidence of sections. From the nature of their occurrence it is usually very difficult to 

obtain any accurate idea of the thickness of the sedimentary rocks, especially in the flatter 

portions of the surface where the outcrops are often covered by drift or by mantles of 

residual soil. In mountainous regions, especially where the rocks are strongly folded or 

 upturned in gre'at monoclines, immense thicknesses are sometimes exposed. A single 

section recently measured by C. D. Walcott in Montana shows about 40,000 feet of preCambrian shales and limestones. The sediments in eastern Pennsylvania have also been 

estimated by some to attain a similar thickness, but in the western portion of the State 

they are probably not much over a mile thich. In Europe the sediments in the Alps are 

estimated by Judd to have a thickness of nearly 8 miles, and it is not impossible that as 

great or greater thicknesses are exposed in other mountain masses.

Eindence cf faults. The evidence of faults is of interest in this connection, for by them 

sediments previously deeply buried have frequently been brought to the surface. The 

thickness exposed is generally much less than that shown in folded regions, for the greatest faults, such as those of the Appalachians of this country one of which is estimated 

to have a displacement of 5 miles are often inclined at a low angle to the horizon and the 

thickness of sediments elevated is relatively slight. Even if the greatest faults yet recognized were vertical the strata brought up would be thinner than in sections such as those 

measured by Walcott in Montana.

Evidence of borings. While even in the case of the deepest borings only a little over a 

mije of sediments has been penetrated, they are of interest as furnishing accurate data 

concerning the underlying beds at the points at which they are drilled. The deepest 

wells are those sunk in Germany, South Africa, and the United States, the maximum depths 

reached being 6,572, 5,582, and 5,575 feet, respectively. There are, however, many deep 

wells in other localities.

Estimates of total thickness. Of the various estimates of the thickness of the sedimentary 

beds, one of the earl-'est to be widely quoted was that made by J. D. Dana a in 1875. He 

estimated the thickness of the sediments over the land area as not exceeding 5 miles, 

which would be equivalent to 1.3 miles over the whole surface. A few years later T. Millard Reade stated b that a moderate estimate of the sedimentary crust of the earth is 

10 miles, but on a later page c says it may safely be provisionally assumed that the actual 

average thickness of the sedimentary crust of the globe is not less than a mile, an estimate 

very similar to Dana's.

In 1894 G. K. Gilbert,^ from a study of the chemical analyses summarized by F. W. 

Clarke e and of the composition of sea water, calculated the amount of crystalline rocks 

necessary to furnish the sodium of the ocean. His conclusions were "that somewhat 

more than a mile in thickness of crystalline rocks upon areas equal to all the present land 

of the globe must have been worked over to give our sedimentary rocks." Allowing for 

an increase of one-third in volume, this would be equivalent to 1J miles of sediments over the 

land or about one-third of a mile over the whole surface. Nothing is said of the sodium 

locked up in undecomposed crystalline fragments in the sediments, as in the Carboniferous 

conglomerates and in the arkose sands of the Potomac (Cretaceous), as well as in smaller 

quantities in nearly all sedimentary rocks. If this was not considered in the estimate 

something should be added to the figures given by Gilbert, but in any case- it is clear that 

the result would be something less than half a mile of sediments over the whole surface 

of the earth.

Recently F. W. Clarke has made a similar calculation on the basis of the sodium chloride 

in sea water, reaching the conclusion that the total thickness of the sediments, if distributed

a Manual of Geology, 2d ed., 1875, p. 657.

b Chemical Denudation in Relation to Geologic Time, 1879, p. 29.

cOp. cit., p. 53.

d The chemical equivalence of crystalline and sedimentary rocks: Am, Geologist, vol. 13, 1894, pp.

t Bull, IT. g. Geol. Survey, No. 78, 1891, pp. 34-42.
AMOUNT OF FREE WATER IN EARTH'S CRUST. 63

over the earth's surface as.a whole, would be only about half a mile. The details of the 

calculation and the results will be published soon.

C. R. Van Hise, in his Treatise on Metamorphism,a after quoting previous writers, 

estimates the thickness of the metamorphosed sediments at 2 kilometers (1J miles) over 

the land surface, which is equivalent to three-tenths of a mile over the entire surface of 

the earth.

In view of the fact that later refined investigations have shown that the thickness of 

sedimentary series encountered in the field has been almost invariably overestimated when 

first studied, it seems probable that the figures given by the earlier writers must be considered in general as representing maximum estimates, especially as considerable thicknesses of sediments have sometimes been postulated beneath the ocean deeps. The best 

evidence seems to show, however, that except in the continental platforms and their 

extensions, the deposits of the ocean may be neglected in rough computations of the thickness of sediments.

It is believed that, in view of the general tendency to overestimate the thickness of 

exposed rock series and the great areas in which crystalline rocks constitute the surface, the 

estimates postulating a thickness of sediments of from three-tenths to one-half mile over 

the whole earth's surface are most probable. In the present paper the writer has taken 

approximately oneJialf mile, or 2,600 feet, as a conservative estimate of the thickness of 

the unaltered sediments.

PROPORTIONS OF THE VARIOUS SEDIMENTS.

Summary of estimates. A number of interesting estimates of the proportions of the 

various sediments have been made. Reade,& in his study of the chemistry of sea and 

river waters, estimated a thickness of 528 feet of limestone. Dana,c apparently from 

general stratigraphic data, estimated the thickness of limestone as 1,000 feet. Gilbert,d 

as a result of his chemical studies, estimated the limestones to comprise 19 per cent, the 

shales 42 per cent, and the sandstones 39 per cent of the sedimentary beds.

Van Hise, e after pointing out several sources of error in the calculations of Reade, computes the proportion of limestones on the basis of the depletion of calcium oxide in the sandstones and shales as compared with the original rocks,/ and reaches the conclusion that 

an estimate of 5 per cent of the mass of sediments for limestones is as near the truth as 

can be made at the present time. The shales are estimated to comprise 65 per cent and 

the sandstones 30 per cent of the total thickness of metamorphosed sediments.

The writer's estimate. It is believed by the writer that Van Hise's estimate of the limestone will prove to be somewhat too low, while that of Gilbert may be slightly high. In 

the deposits of this country, which may be taken as fairly typical, shales almost everywhere predominate over sandstones. Even in the Carboniferous rocks of the Appalachian 

region, where the sandstones reach a great development, they probably do not comprise 

more than 40 per cent of the whole. For the purposes of the present discussion the following 

values are assumed: Sandstone 40 per cent, shales 50 per cent, aitd limestone 10 per cent.

DEPTH OF ZONE OF FRACTURE.

As already pointed out (p. 60), the studies of L. M. Hoskins have shown that in rocks of 

ordinary specific gravities cavities free from water can not exist at depths of more than 

6,520 meters, or where occupied by waters under hydrostatic pressure at depths of more 

than 10,350 meters. Rock-inclosed, liquid-filled cavities can, however, exist to an indefinite depth at which water and rocks are miscible in all proportions. As this is in no sense 

free ground water it need not be considered in the present discussion.

<*Mon. U. S. Geol. Survey, vol. 47,1904, p. 939.

b Chemical Denudation in Relation to Geologic Time, p. S3.

"Manual of Geology, 2d ed., p. .

J> Am. Geologist, vo'l. 13, 1S94, pp. 213-214.

e Mon. U. S. Geol. Survey, vol. 47, 1904, p. 941.

/ Op. cit., pp. 990-991.
64 UNDERGROUND-WATER PAPERS, 1906.

The results of drilling in sedimentary and crystalline rocks, as well as studies of deep 

mines, show that in all probability water does not commonly exist in the rocks under great 

hydrostatic pressure, although such may be exerted in an occasional crevice. It is not 

believed that hydrostatic waters exist, except possibly in rare instances, at depths of over 

10,000 feet, and it is almost certain that water plays no part in preventing the closing of 

cavities and that in reality the estimate of a depth of 6,520 meters, or 20,000 feet, as the 

limit of the zone of open cavities is closely approximate to the truth.

Beneath the land, then, it seems safe to assume that all physical pores are closed at a 

depth of about 20,000 feet, but under the sea the conditions are different. The average 

depth of the ocean is estimated at 14,000 feet, and since the ratio of its specific gravity to 

that of the rocks is approximately 1 to 2.65, it follows that the pressure at a depth of 20,000 

feet will be considerably less than at a similar depth on the land. In reality it is only 

where a depth of 28,700 feet from sea level is reached that all cavities will become closed. 

Of this depth, as has been seen, 14,000 feet are of water, hence the rock within the zone of 

fracture has a thickness of only 14,700 feet.

Assuming 17,400 feet (20,000 minus 2,600 feet, the thickness of the sediments) as the 

thickness of the crystalline rocks in the zone of cavities over th# land (one-fourth of the 

earth's surface) and 14,700 feet as the thickness beneath the sea (three-fourths of the surface) we obtain an average thickness of 15,375 feet.

DEPTH OF ACTIVE CIRCULATION.

Evidence of thermal springs. The evidence of thermal springs as to the. depth of penetration of waters is of considerable interest. Notwithstanding the numerous and profound 

faults and the even more numerous joints, we have in this country, outside of what may 

be considered as igneous regions, or regions of very recent disturbance, only a few scattered examples of hot springs, the Georgia, Virginia, North Carolina, and Arkansas springs 

being about the only examples of note. These conditions are similar to those prevailing 

on other continents. If waters were freely circulating at great depths within the zone of 

fracture, hot springs would certainly be more common along the numerous faults or joints 

of the Piedmont, Appalachian, and similar regions.

Again, the temperature of the springs appears to indicate an essentially superficial origin. 

Tests made on wells by the writer show that with a steady and moderately rapid flow of 

water through a pipe with a diameter of one-half inch the change in temperature, due to 

a difference of 15° in that of the surrounding material, amounted to only about 1° for 1,000 

feet. It is therefore clear that the temperature of the larger warm springs, if undiluted 

by the ingress of surface water, would be essentially that which they possessed at the point 

of heating. In most instances, however, there will probably be some dilution, but in no 

case could any copious circulation from great depths take place without its being felt in 

the temperature of the springs.

Springs with a temperature of over 150° F. are rare, if they occur at all outside of igneous 

regions. As this temperature represents only a depth of 5,000 feet on the basis of an increment of 1° to each 50 feet of depth, it is readily seen^that we have ordinarily no truly deepseated springs whatever. Springs at the boiling point would represent a depth of only 

about 8,000 feet. The rarity, even in igneous regions, of solfataras and fumaroles, which 

in some cases may be considered to represent waters approaching the surface at a temperature of more than 212°, is of significance.

Evidence of deep mines. There are two quite diverse views held in regard to the significance of the evidence afforded by mines as to underground-water conditions, one being 

that they show the waters to increase in amount with depth, and the other that the circulating waters are largely of meteoric origin and are essentially superficial. This diversity 

of opinion is the natural result of a familiarity with a certain class of mines to the exclusion 

of others. In many instances the conditions as regards the ground waters are controlled 

by accidents of topography, especially in the case of the shallow mines, the evidence presented by which is, in fact, of slight value. In order to bring out the general undergroundwater conditions, the following summary of the conditions in the deeper mining districts 

has been prepared, together with statements of the character of the rock and topography:
Summary of ground-water conditions in deep mines in 

Mining district.

Ely, Vt.. ...................

Lincoln County, N. Mex. 

(Old Abe mine).

Nevada City and Grass Valley, Cal.

Maximum 

depth of 

mines 

(feet).

5,000

800

1,600

1,800

2,400

1,370 

1,500

1,500

1,950

2,200 

2,800

Character of rocks.

sitic conglomerates.

limestone; intrusivesnear.

Calcareous shales and porphyry.

and shales. Faulted and 

folded into local basins.

breccia in granite.

Granodiorite and diabase. . . .

some granite.

Topographic conditions.

drainage.

springs 200 to 400 feet 

below mines.

Sidehill, 600 feet above

drainage.

Sidehill, 400 feet above

drainage.

Sidehill, 500 feet above 

drainage.

tains 1,000 feet or thereabouts above drainage. 

Others in valleys.

above drainage.

drainage level.

Undulating foothills, slightly above drainage.

.....do......................

wat

from 

All dr

vein 

wate

case

at 1

dry. 

Damp

week

faul

in l

dept

Joints 

dim

lowe

Water 

wat

dry.

feet

to b

o3,600 feet on incline of about 25°. b Am
Summary of ground-water conditions in deep mines in the Unit

Mining district.

Globe.......................

Maximum 

depth of 

mines 

(feet).

1,200 

1,200

Character of rocks.

Fault in diabase limestone' 

and quartzite.

Topographic conditions.

In valley, within 200 feet of 

drainage level.

Hillside, 50 to 200 feet above 

drainage.

Water 

lecte

hoist

sary

Much 

necte

Not m

necti

basin

a California Mines and Minerals, California Miners Association
AMOUNT OF FREE WATEE IN EARTH'S CRUST. 67

An examination of the foregoing table will show a considerable range of conditions as 

regards the occurrence of underground waters in mines. Certain generalizations, however, can be made. For instance, it appears that in the deep mines in the crystalline rocks 

of the eastern portion of the country, in which there has been no igneous activity since 

early geologic times, water is rarely found below the 600-foot level, the mines in some 

instances being practically dry from surface to bottom.

In the West, where igneous activity is more recent, the underground waters are more 

abundant, especially where the rocks are severely shattered, as in the Colorado mines, 

where much water occurs, even at the lowest levels. In the Arizona mines there is considerable water locally along faults, although the amount in other portions of the rock is 

not usually excessive. In the Mother Lode, California, water occurs in such slight amounts 

that it can be hoisted with the ore without pumping, although the workings reach a depth 

of 2,700 feet. In Nevada City and Grass Valley, Cal., and in some of the Montana mines 

the water is generally confined to the upper 1,000 feet. In other of the Montana mines, 

however, local water-bearing fissures or solution channels occur to depths of at least 1,600 

feet. The mass of the rock, however, is relatively free from water. In three of the fifteen 

districts included in the table water occurs in abundance without much diminution to the 

bottom of the workings. In four it occurs in abundance, at least locally, up to a depth of 

1,500 feet. In the remaining eight, or more than half of the deep mines, there is a general 

absence of water below the 1,000-foot level.

Evidence of deep borings. The nonsaturation of the rocks at many localities is clearly 

brought out by deep borings. For instance, a well recently reported to the writer was sunk 

to a depth of over 1,000 feet in limestones near Lexington, Ky., without finding any water 

whatever. Another conspicuous example is the widely quoted well sunk by the Wheeling 

Development Company 4 fhiles southeast of Wheeling, in which the lower 1,500 feet were 

drilled in absolutely dry rock. Still other examples are the deep wells sunk at Northampton, Mass., to a depth of 4,022 feet, and the 4,000-foot well reported to have been sunk 

in red sandstone, etc., at New Haven, by the Winchester Repeating Arms Company, both 

of which failed to obtain water.

This absence of water is, moreover, not due to lack of porous rock, as shown by the two 

wells last mentioned and by the W. J. Bryan well No. 11, Aleppo Township, Greene County, 

Pa. This well is 3,397 feet deep and is cased to 3,110 feet, which represents the last water. 

Below the casing, however, were found the Thirty Foot, Fifty Foot, and Gordon sands, 20, 

60, and 18 feet in thickness, respectively, making a hundred feet of porous, but perfectly dry 

sandstones. The depth at which water was found in this well is greater than the normal, 

no fresh water being found in many wells beyond a depth of 500 feet.

Examples of wells failing to encounter water at great depths might be multiplied indefinitely, for wells in which water has to be poured for the purposes of drilling are of everyday 

occurrence. The above specific citations, however, are sufficient to show the nature of the 

evidence. Considerable light is also thrown by wells on the nature of the crevices, including 

both solution passages and actual or potential openings along joint and fault planes, which 

are frequently encountered in rocks of all types. Frequently the joints are open or are 

bordered by sufficiently disintegrated material to cause the drill to "jam." Notwithstanding all this, many carry no water whatever, although others may carry considerable. The 

theory of the cementing of the portion of the joint planes near the surface, as advanced by 

G. O. Smith « to explain the artesian conditions in crystalline rocks near York, Me., may 

also offer an explanation of the absence of water in certain joints.

It is well recognized by those who have investigated the occurrence of underground 

waters in crystalline rocks that joints sufficiently open to constitute water passages are 

almost uniformly a surface feature. While it is true that a water-bearing joint was encountered at 1,160 feet in the deep Atlanta well,& no more were found, although the well was

a Water resources of the Portsmouth-York region, New Hampshire and Maine: Water-Sup, and 

Irr. Paper No. 145, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1905. pp. 120-128. 

6 McCallie, S. W., Artesian-well system of Georgia: Bull. Geol. Survey of Georgia No. 7,1898, p. 205.
68 UNDERGROUND-WATER PAPERS, 1906.

continued to 2,175 feet, and in general investigators are agreed that it is not advisable to 

drill more than a few hundred feet into crystalline rocks in search of water. J. A. Holmes a 

concluded, from investigations in the Piedmont area of crystalline rocks in North and South 

Carolina, that the chance for obtaining water in deep wells was about one in ten.

The present writer has stated & in an earlier publication, as a result of his experience 

with wells in granites, gneisses, and schists, that water supplies, if obtained in these at all, 

are usually found within 200 or 300 feet of the surface and that it is generally useless to go 

deeper than 500 feet. These views have received substantial corroboration through the 

detailed work of E. E. Ellis on the occurrence of water in the crystalline rocks of Connecticut. His investigations, which are summarized on pages 19-28 of this report, show 

that practically all supplies are obtained at depths not greater than 250 feet.

Evidence of drift waters. Not only do the consolidated rocks, as outlined in the preceding section, in many cases fail to carry water even where porous, but many very porous 

unconsolidated sediments are free from water, even where below the water table. Many 

examples were encountered in the 300 artesian localities in Michigan examined by Frank 

Leverett and others for the United States Geological Survey in 1904. One of the most 

conspicuous examples is that found in the extensive sand plain at Clinton, Mass., in which 

many hundreds of borings were made in connection with the construction of dikes for the 

big metropolitan reservoir. These borings developed a normal, gently sloping water table 

in sand. Below the sand an impervious clay was encountered, while below the clay was 

found a "hard-packed" sand destitute of water. The same feature was Drought out 

repeatedly in boring after boring. In fact, the finding of porous deposits capable of holding immense quantities of water, but in which none whatever is actually found, is a common 

experience of almost every driller working in deposits of stratified drift in this country. 

Often they are found several hundred feet below the surface, far below the true water table 

or that lying above the first impervious stratum and, in many instances, much below the 

level of the lowest surface drainage.

Evidence of oil, gas, and associated brines. The evidence afforded by these closely related 

substances is very convincing to one who has investigated their occurrence in the field. 

Commonly they occur in large amounts only in relatively flat rocks, their tendency being 

to accumulate beneath the highest point of the confining impervious roof. When this roof 

is broken by a prominent joint or by a fault, or when the beds are highly upturned, the 

hydrocarbons are no longer found in any but the smallest amounts. In other words, 

as soon as a passage is opened in the impervious cover, either by jointing, faulting, folding, 

or erosion, meteoric waters penetrate, a circulation is set up, and the oil, gas, and salt water 

are soon removed to the surface, appearing as the oil, gas, and salt springs so common in 

certain parts of the country. The oil and gas of the productive pools, so far as known to 

the writer, are, however, never associated with fresh waters, and although oil-bearing rocks 

near the surface may be invaded by fresh waters, as indicated by the oil and gas springs, the 

mere presence of either in pools as ordinarily known indicates an absence of circulation of 

meteoric waters.

Evidence of gypsum and anhydrite deposits. Anhydrite, or anhydrous calcium sulphate, 

is deposited from solutions saturated with sodium chloride and calcium sulphate at 26° F., 

a temperature often reached in the summer seasons even in high latitudes, and, although 

doubtless formed under a variety of other conditions, it has probably been most commonly 

deposited from supersaturated sea water through evaporation.

When fresh waters are brought into contact with the anhydrite, however, water is taken 

on and the rocks are converted into gypsum, or hydrous sulphate of calcium. The occurrence of anhydrite in the rocks, therefore, is of special interest in Connection with the problem of underground waters, pointing to the absence of circulation at the points at which the 

anhydrite occurs.

«Trans. Am. Inst. Mm. Eng., vol. 25, p. 936.

& Underground waters of eastern United States: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 114, U. S. 'Geol. 

Survey, 1905, p. 29.
AMOUNT OF FREE WATER IN EARTH^S ORUST. 69

When the beds are exposed at the surface the calcium sulphate is usually in the hydrous 

form, owing to the circulation of fresh ground waters. In the large quarries near Windsor, 

New Brunswick, however, onlyi the upper few feet have been converted into-gypsum, the 

great mass of the deposit still bdng in the anhydrous state.

Deposits have been frequently penetrated by deep borings in both this country and in 

Europe, but in most cases, unfortunately, no distinction is made between the anhydrous 

and hydrous types. At Stassfurt, however, the salt beds, which have an aggregate thickness 

of 1,197 feet, include thousands of anhydrite layers averaging about one-fourth of an inch in 

thickness and occurring at intervals of from 1 to 8 inches. At Hartlepool, in Yorkshire, 

borings show the limestone to be " interleaved with anhydrite and to be overlain by more 

than 250 feet of that deposit, ""a Again, in the Mont Cenis tunnel in the Alps over 1,500 feet 

of alternating anhydrite, talcose schist, and limestone are reported.&

From these and numerous other instances that might be cited it is clear that not only are 

circulating waters practically absent in many regions, even near the surface, but interstitial water is also absent. If any fresh water whatever was present in the pores of the 

anhydrite, hydration to gypsum would take place.

Evidence of salt deposits. While less conclusive than that of anhydrite and of oil and gas 

deposits, the occurrence of salt, including sodium chloride and the more soluble potassium 

salts, affords considerable evidence as to the absence of circulating ground waters. The 

evidence, of such circulating waters would be apparent at once on the thin laminae of salt 

interstratified with other materials, and even the thick beds would present evidences of 

circulating waters if the latter occurred in any considerable amounts. So great is the 

rapidity of solution that even the larger masses in any but the most recent geologic formations would have long since been removed if active circulation existed. Nothing but 

analyses would show the presence of small amounts of interstitial water in the salt itself, 

but the evidence of the interlaminated anhydrite conclusively proves the absence of water 

in many instances.

Evidence of brines in Coastal Plain deposits of eastern United States. Near the outcrop of 

most of the Coastal Plain deposits, at least of those of the coarser types, the waters are fresh, 

the salts in solution being practically all obtained from the containing materials. As the 

distance from their landward boundary increases, however, and the dip carries the beds 

farther below the surface, the waters often become more mineralized and in some instances 

are distinctly saline. At Fort Monroe and at Norfolk, Va., about 60 miles from their border, 

only salt waters were encountered for about 700 feet down to the granite at about 2,250 feet. 

Again, at Wilmington, N. C. about 115 miles from the border, the waters are salt, while at 

Charleston, S. C., and Savannah, Ga., wells at similar distances yield fresh waters. The 

depth to which circulation extends downward is not, therefore, dependent on distance from 

the outcrop. In reality it seems to be related, to some extent at least, to the character of 

the materials, being greater in prevailingly sandy beds than in more clayey beds, as at Wilmington. It is probable that leakage through vertical joints, which are common even in 

unconsolidated materials, has much to do with determining the distance of penetration of 

surface waters. The age of the strata also appears to be a factor of importance, since the 

more recently deposited beds, as in the vicinity of Wilmington, often show higher salinity 

than older beds occurring under similar conditions.

It is clear, therefore, that while active circulation may extend to considerable depths and 

distances in the Coastal Plain deposits, such circulation is often absent, in which case the 

originally inclosed sea water probably constitutes most of the water present.

Evidence of joint studies. Recent investigations in Connecticut, made by E. E. Eliis for 

the United States Geological Survey, have shown that in the ordinary granites and gneisses 

of the region the water occurs largely in the vertical joints, which have an average spacing of 

between 3 and 7 feet at the surface. At depths of more than 50 feet the spacing is greater,

a Geikie, Text-Book of Geology, vol. 2, 1903, p. 1071.

6 Hunt, T. Sterry, Chemical and Geological Essays, 1875, p. 335.
70 UNDEEGEOUND-WATEE PAPEES, 1906.

owing to the dying out of subordinate joints. At still greater depths there appear to be 

very few water-bearing joints, 250 feet being the depth fixed as a limit beyond which it is not 

advisable to go for water. Of the horizontal joints, almost all are confined to the upper few 

feet of the rock, being generally above the water table. Mr. Ellis finds that while the joints 

may be^half an inch or more in width at the surface, they rapidly narrow with depth, and 

that the common width in the upper 200 or 300 feet is 0.01 inch. With a double system of 

joints, each with the fractures at an average distance of 5 feet from one another, there would 

be, even if they were completely filled with water, only 1 cubic inch of water to 125 cubic 

feet of rock, equivalent to aryinre or less than 0.000046 of the mass.

If we assume an average width of the joints of 0.1 inch, which may be regarded as a maximum, the amount of water in them would still be only 0.00046 of the volume of the rock.

The joints do not always carry water to their full capacity. In fact, water in amounts 

sufficient to supply even domestic wells is seldom obtained at depths greater than 300 or 400 

feet. The writer estimates the relative amounts of water in joints as follows:

Relation of actual water in joints in crystalline rocks to their full capacity.

Depth in feet.

0-100. ......................................................................

100-200. ......................................................................

200-300. ......................................................................

300-500. ......................................................................

500-2,000. ....................................................................

2,000-34,000................................ ...................................

Proportion of full 

surface capacity.

Full.

One-half.

One-fifth.

The water present in joints in the upper 2,000 feet of the crystalline rocks is estimated, 

therefore, to be only 16 per cent of their capacity, or 0.000007 of the rock volume.

In the case of sedimentary rocks the joints are still farther apart than in crystalline rocks, 

and while they carry much water, the proportion so held to that held in the pores is very 

small. Caverns may be considered in the same class with joints. Being larger, they carry 

large amounts of water, as evidenced by the large springs, etc., coming from such passages, 

but even in completely honeycombed rocks the actual volume is very slight indeed as compared with the whole mass of the rock while, moreover, the circulation is essentially superficial.

. The amount of water in both joints and caverns is so small compared with that in the 

pores of the rock itself that they have no material effect on the computations and may be 

disregarded.

What the amount occupying the pores may be we have no way of determining, but it is 

believed that not over 25 per cent of the pore space is occupied. To be on the safe side, 

however, 50 per cent is here assumed.

MAGMATIC WATERS.

In recent years much has been said, in connection with the discussion of ore deposits, in 

regard to magmatic waters as a source of vein solutions. All molten rocks reaching the 

surface carry water, usually in considerable amounts, and from contact phenomena it is 

equally evident that the same is true of many intrusive magmas, especially those of pegmatites 

and other acidic rocks. It is not impossible, therefore, that considerable additions to the 

underground-water body may take place from magmatic intrusions which fail to reach the 

surface, but the number of such intrusions giving off water at any one time will be exceedingly small and confined to limited areas. In a consideration of the crust of the earth as a 

whole their amount can be practically disregarded.
AMOUNT OF FREE WATER IN EARTH'S CRUST. 71

DEGREE OP SATURATION.

The theoretical absorptive capacities of rocks are essentially the same as their porosities, 

since, as has been shown, the amount in joints, etc., can be disregarded. In the preceding 

section evidences tending to shoV that the actual amounts are considerably less than the 

theoretical amounts have been adduced along a considerable number of lines. From the 

nature of the information available, however, it is impossible to make definite quantitative 

statements, but it is believed that a reasonable estimate may be made. The following is 

an estimate by the writer, based on his underground-water investigations for the Geological 

Survey:

Relation of actual water in sedimentary rocks to their full capacity.

- - - - 

Depth in feet.

0-250. . .........................................................................

260-600 ...........................................................................

500-1,000........... .......... . ..... . . ... . .. ............................

1,000-2,000. .........................................................................

Proportion of full 

surface capacity.

Full.

One-half.

One-third.

One-fifth.

Average per cent of full capacity, 37.

The relation of the actual water in joints to their full capacity has been discussed, it being 

estimated that only 16 per cent of the joint spaces are occupied. What the amount occupying the pores rn^y be we have no way of determining, but it is believed to be. much less than 

the capacity as indicated by their porosity.

SUMMARY.

FACTORS IN PROBLEM.

Porosity factors. The various factors assigned in the computation of the underground 

waters occurring in the pores of the rocks are summarized below. In the summary the 

unconsolidated surface deposits are disregarded, partly for the reason that they are of inconsiderable thickness as compared with the total thickness of sediments and partly because of 

the fact that, while they are more porous than most of the consolidated beds, only a part 

of their mass lies below the water table and is saturated, the remainder being relatively 

water free. It is believed, therefore, that on the average the amount of water held is not 

greatly different from that in the consolidated sediments.

For the sandstones, shales, and limestones full porosity values are given, as in most cases 

the pressure has done little toward closing the pores. In the crystalline rocks, on the contrary, it is assumed that the porosity decreases from the normal at the surface to nothing 

at the level of no openings, hence one-half of the surface value is used in the computations. 

Summarizing the porosity, we have: Sandstones, 15 per cent; shales, 4 per cent; limestones, 5 per cent, and crystalline rocks, 0.2 per <*nt.

Saturation factors. These have already been discussed in a preceding paragraph, but 

the results may be repeated as follows:

Average percentage of the theoretical capacity of stratified rocks actually taken up by water..... 37 

Average percentage of the theoretical capacity of igneous rocks actually taken up by water...... 50

Thickness factor. The average thickness of the sedimentary rocks, as outlined on page 63, 

is taken as 2,600 feet, while that of the portion of the crystalline rocks in which water can 

occur is estimated to be 15,375 feet (p. 64).
72 UNDERGROUND-WATER PAPERS, 1906.

Recapitulation. The various factors affecting the computation of the volume of underground water may be tabulated as follows:

Factors in computation of volume of underground waters.

Rocks.

Shale. ................................................

Limestone ..................... . . . ....

Thickness.

Feet. 

1,040

1,300

260

15, 375

17,975

Porosity.

Per cent. 

15.0

4.0

5.0

Saturation 

factor.

Per cent.

I ,

1

50

Volume 

occupied 

by water.

Per cent. 

15.25

1.48

1.75

1

a See p. 64. 

Average per cent of rock occupied by water, 0.52.

CONCLUSION.

On the basis of these factors the total free water held in the earth's crust would be equivalent to a uniform sheet over the entire surface with a depth of little less than 100 feet (96 

feet), which is only about one seventy-fifth of the amount postulated by Delesse, one thirtyfifth of that of Slichter, one-sixteenth to one-eighth of that of Chamberlin and Salisbury, 

and three-sevenths of that of Van Hise.

If the average depth of the ocean is 14,000 feet, its volume is equivalent to a layer 10,500 

feet deep over the whole earth's surface. The underground water would, therefore, be 

roughly only one one-hundredth of the volume of the ocean, instead of one-half, as indicated by the figures of Delesse; one-fourth, as indicated by Slichter's estimates,** and oneninth to one-eighteenth on the basis of the estimate of Chamberlin and Salisbury'.

It is recognized that locally, where the sediments are very porous and of considerable 

thickness, several times the amount of water estimated may exist in unconsolidated deposits, 

or in the stratified rocks alone. There is a general tendency, however, to overestimate the 

amount of water in the ground owing to the impression of great volume which a large well 

often conveys, the fact that a large area is drained being frequently overlooked. The writer's studies of the conditions in deep wells in the United States lead him to the belief that 

the average amount of water present in the earth is probably under, rather than over, the 

amount estimated.

" Slichter takes 12,000 feet as the mean depth of the ocean, which would raise the underground water 

factor to one-third of its volume.
USE OF FLUORESCE'iN IN THE STUDY OF UNDERGROUND WATERS."

By R. B. DOLE.

NTRODUCTION.

Tliis paper is an account of the use of fluorescei'n for tracing the course of subterranean 

waters. The methods for its application and detection are described, a brief discussion is 

given regarding its fitness for use under various conditions, and the results of practical 

experiments are cited. Nearly all of the material is taken from reports and papers on work 

of this character undertaken by the city of Paris. At the end is given a partial bibliography of articles relating to the subject. For copies of the original reports and discussions acknowledgment is made to the courtesy of M. Max le Couppey de la Forest, inge"nieur 

agronome de la commission scientifique de perfectionnement de 1'observatoire municipal 

de Montsouris.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.

It frequently happens that the chemical and bacteriological examinations of a water do 

not show whether it is polluted. This failure results from several causes. Sometimes the 

polluting matter has been so diluted that the tests employed are not sufficiently delicate to 

find it. Frequently it is intermittent in character, so that the samples examined may have 

been taken at a time when no afflux occurred, though at other times the water may be in a 

dangerous condition. If a decision is based on chemical results alone, the presence of harmless organic material may be used to condemn a water, because the data do not distinguish 

between the organic matter which is vegetable and that which is animal in its origin. These 

troubles are experienced to a greater extent in the study of underground than in that of 

surface waters, first because the sources of pollution are obscure in their relation to the 

subterranean beds, and, second, because variations in the chemical constituents of a given 

spring or well under study are usually neither so large nor so diverse in character as the 

changes in the same figures for rivers or lakes. Chloride-bearing rocks or drift deposits 

sometimes give so high a chlorine content to waters in them that slight changes caused by 

the introduction of fecal matter are either inappreciable or can be attributed as well to 

natural sources as to dangerous contamination. Other constituents besides chlorine may 

change from similar causes without affording the analyst an opportunity to distinguish 

harmless from dangerous affluents.

Consequently every means for determining the flow and pollution foci of underground 

waters should be used. In studying the potability of a well or spring water it is important 

to know not only its chemical composition, but also its source, its rate of flow, the area 

tributary to it, the nature of the material through which it passes, and the contaminations 

to which it may be subjected before or during its underground journey. It is often a 

matter of much importance to know whether the flow is from a cesspool toward a neighbor-, 

ing well or in the opposite direction; it may be necessary to determine whether or not water

a Prepared in connection with the work of the division of hydroeconomics; M. O. Leighton, hydrographer in charge.

73
74 UNDERGROUHD-WATER PAPERS, 1906.

seeps from a contaminated brook into wells of a neighboring region; whether collecting 

galleries for public water supplies receive seepage from well-established sources of contamination; whether, in general, known foci of pollution are in immediate, though obscured, 

connection with sources of drinking water. Knowledge of this nature is especially important in the study of waters passing through formations full of seams or crevices, where there 

is opportunity for rapid circulation without much purification. The determination of the 

area draining to the underground supply affords data in regard to the quantity of available 

water as well as its quality. These and many other considerations make the study of conditions in the subterranean basin more important than laboratory examinations into the 

nature of the water itself.

FLOW INDICATORS.

MATERIALS.

For such hydrologic studies as have been indicated above much knowledge has been 

gained by introducing some foreign material into the aquifer under study and tracing its 

journey by samples from wells, springs, or temporary borings along its possible course.

A large number of substances have been proposed for this purpose. A few of those which 

have been more or less extensively employed are given in the following lists:

A. Materials dissolved in the water and recognized by chemical or physical tests: Sodium 

chloride, calcium chloride, ammonium chloride, potassium nitrate, lithium salts, and iron 

salts.

B. Materials dissolved in the water and recognized by their color: Potassium permanganate, fuchsine, Kongo red, methylene blue, and fluorescei'n.

C. Materials suspended in the water and recognized by microscopic examinations: 

Starch, flour, etc.

D. Cultures of bacteria suspended in the water and recognized in samples taken by 

their cultural characteristics: Bacillus prodigiosus, B. subtilis, Saccharomyces cerevisise, and 

Mycoderma aceti.

The principal,requisites in the choice of a proper so-called flow indicator are 

1. It should descend to and traverse the aquifer in a manner and rate similar to the water 

itself.

2. It should be easily and quickly detectable in the samples of water taken.

3. It should not be decomposed nor its intensity greatly affected by the materials with 

which it comes in contact.

For different purposes and in different materials the selection of an indicator is varied. 

For determining the percentage of water entering one level from another the chlorides 

are especially fitted, because the amounts present can be accurately and rapidly determined. 

When, however, the volumes of water are extremely large and the subterranean journey 

is long the amount of salt or other chloride necessary to cause an estimable change in 

chlorine content is so great that the experiment is often impracticable. For the study 

of underground flows in alluvial deposits the use of ammonium chloride and sodium 

chloride as electrolytes appears to be especially good.a For investigating the purification 

power of strata through which water passes, cultures of beer yeast have proved very 

satisfactory. & For tracing the flow, however, of large or small underground streams 

through well-defined channels of sjze in rocks, especially calcareous formations, fluorescei'n 

has proved superior to anything else which has been tried. Its diffusion is rapid, it is 

applicable under many conditions, and it can be easily detected in enormous dilutions 

by means of the fluoroscope when it is not present in quantities large enough to be visible 

to the naked eye. On account of its many admirable qualifications, fluorescein has been 

extensively used by the city of Paris in the study of springs from which the major part

a Slichter, C. S., Rate of movement of underground waters: Water-Sup, and Irr. Paper U. S. Geol. 

Survey No. 140, 1905.

>> Le Couppey de la Forest, M., L'e'tude des eaux de sources: Bull. Soc. sci. hist.et nat. de 1'Yonne, 

pt. 2, 1902.
USE OF FLUORESCE'm IN TRACING WATEES 75

of the drinking water is taken. The records given on page 81 of experiments with 

fluorescem are taken from published reports of the Commission scientifique de perfectionnement de 1'Observatoire municipal de Montsouris and from various articles published 

elsewhere by members of the laboratory staff.

Probably the first coloration experiments to establish the water origin of typhoid fever 

were made by Dr. Dionis des Carrieresa in 1882, during a severe epidemic at Auxerre, a 

city about 85 miles southeast of Paris. Since that time the use of various dyes has been 

frequent for studying the underground movements of water. In 1887 fluoresce'in was 

used in the valley of the Avre.6 M. Trillat in 1899 conducted elaborate investigations 

into the delicacy of certain dyes for flow indicators and the effect on them of passage 

through common soils, c The fluoroscope invented by him and perfected by M. Marboutin d 

is capable of detecting minute traces of fluorescein, and has made possible the extensive 

studies of ground flow now being conducted with that material. The work has assumed 

such proportions that the so-called sanitary analysis of water plays a rather subordinate 

role in the consideration of the springs. Under the direction of the Montsouris commission 

geologists, hydrologists, chemists, physicians, and other skilled professional men make a 

detailed study of the region in order to ascertain the purity of the water and the means 

for preventing avoidable pollution. Their work embraces a study of the water flow and 

of the geology of the formations, determination of the supply basin, inquiry into epidemics 

and hygienic conditions on the watershed, as well as the study of the water itself as regards 

chemical and bacteriological condition, discharge, temperature, etc. From the results 

of all these researches a definite decision concerning the availability of the supply and its 

chances of pollution can be made.

FLUORESCEIN.

CHARACTER AND APPEARANCE.

Fluoresce'in (resorcin-phthalein, diresorcin phthalein, tetraoxyphthalophenone, uranin, 

Kruger's indicator) is a coal-tar product. It can be prepared by heating two molecular 

weights of resorcin with one molecular weight of phthalic anhydride, on an oil bath, 

between 190° and 200° C., until aqueous vapors are no longer evolved. The mass is then 

extracted with hot water and the residue powdered, dissolved in a solution of potassium 

hydrate, and reprecipitated with an acid. It is important to use pure materials in order 

to obtain a pure product, otherwise the final purification of the fluoresceiin is rendered 

extremely difficult. It occurs as crystalline powder or amorphous masses, varying in color 

from reddish yellow to dark brown. It is insoluble in water, c slightly soluble in cold, 

and more readily in hot alcohol, and easily soluble in ether, dilute acids, or alkaline solutions. 

The sodium or potassium salts of fluorescein are soluble in alkalies and in water. In the 

presence of alkalies its solution is red by transmitted light and bright green by reflected 

light a phenomenon known as green fluorescence. Though fluorescein is not affected by 

free carbonic acid, its solution is rendered colorless by acetic and the mineral acids./

The red color shown by transmitted light is not apparent in very dilute solution, but 

by the use of a long tube filled with the alkaline liquid the green appearance shown by

<? Dionis des Carrieres, IStiologie de 1'epidemie typhoiide qui a eclate & Auxerre en septembre 1882: 

Bull, et mem. Soc. med. des h&pitaux de Paris, vol. 9, 2d ser., 1882, p. 277.

6 Brard, Etude des pertes de 1'Avre et de ses affluents: Comptes rendus Soc. ingenieurs civils de 

France, octobre 1899.

c Trillat, Sur 1'emploi des matieres colorantes pour la recherche de I'origine des sources et des eaux 

d'infiltration: Comptes rendus Acad. sci., vol. 128, 1899, p. 698.

d Marboutin, Nouvelle methode d'etude des eaux de sources: Mem. Soc. ingenieurs civils de France, 

fe>rier 1901, vol. 131, p. 365; Sur la propagation des eaux souterraines: Bull. Soc. beige geol., etc., vpl. 

15, 1901, mem., p. 214.

« This statement of insolubility applies especially to chemically pure fluorescein sold ordinarily 

in the form of a yellow powder. The fluorescein commonly used in the coloration experiments.has a 

reddish brown or slightly orange color and is completely and rapidly soluble in water.

/ Cohn, Indicators and Test Papers, 2d ed., p. 75.
76 UNDEBGBOUND-WATER PAPEKS, 1906.

reflected light is apparent when extremely small quantities of fluoresce'in are used. For a 

flow indicator it is important to use fluorescein of good quality, as otherwise the coloration 

will not be visible in a solution sufficiently dilute. The commercial article varies greatly 

in intensity of fluorescence according to the purity of the materials from which it is manufactured and the care used in its preparation and storage. Nine different samples from 

the market examined by M. Marboutin a had greatly different fluorescent powers. With 

the fluoroscope their limits of visibility ranged from 1 part in 500,000,000 to 1 part in 

10,000,000,000. The most practical test of the applicability of a given sample of fluoresce'in 

seems to be that when suspended in water it should show with the fluoroscope a perceptible 

fluorescence in a dilution of 1 part in 10,000,000,000. If weaker materials are used it 

is of course necessary to use larger quantities of them. Fluorescein costs from $2.25 to 

$12 a pound

THE FLUOROSCOPE.

The instrument known as the fluoroscope is used for detecting the presence of minute 

quantities of fluoresceiin in solution by observing the green fluorescence in a great depth 

of liquid against a dark background. As perfected by M. Marboutin,o chemist of the 

Montsouris laboratory, it consists of 12 tubes of pure-white glass of even bore, each 95 cm. 

long and about 15 mm. in diameter. The white tubing used for manufacturing certain 

kinds of burettes would answer the purpose very well. Each tube is closed at its lower 

extremity by a rubber stopper blackened with powdered plumbago. The box for carrying 

the apparatus is provided with a rack in which the tubes may be held side by side in a 

vertical position. When they are filled with the samples to be examined the presence of 

fluoresce'in is recognized by the appearance, projected on the black stopper, of a greenish 

reflection which is entirely different from the natural tint of the water itself, though sometimes confused with it by inexperienced observers. It is often convenient to use for comparison standard tubes containing quantities of fluorescein varying from 0 to 0.002 part 

per million. The use of a little ammonia to excite the fluorescein is suggested when the 

dye is present in small amount. This is of course impossible in magnesium-bearing waters 

on account of the white turbidity produced. The limit of visibility depends a great deal 

on the nature of the fluorescein used. It has been placed at 0.0001 part per million or 1 

part in 10,000,000,000 of clear water. For practical demonstrations of its presence 0.0005 

part per million is better. The limit of ordinary visibility with the unaided eye seems to 

be 0.025 part per million. Therefore a quantity of fluorescein may be used which is 

detectable with the fluorescope and still not visible to the naked eye.

By comparison with tubes of known content the^'amount of fluorescein in the samples may 

be estimated by the. intensity of the green coloration. With this and other data the amount 

of seepage from one water-bearing stratum to another may be determined, b

APPLICATION OF FLUORESCEIN.

Fluorescein can be poured down where there is expected to be a connection with the underground flow in general at any point of higher elevation than the water level in the bed under 

study. Sink holes, cesspools, privy vaults, temporary borings, or the beds of degravelling 

streams are all desirable places to introduce the dye. A solution containing about 300 grams 

per liter is a convenient one for use. If it is poured down where there is no considerable flow 

of water toward the lower strata, such as in a dry boring or in a vault, enough water should be 

poured on it to wash it down. The quantity of fluorescein to be used varies with the distance traveled, the time of the journey, the size of the water sheet, and the nature of the 

material traversed. The amount generally employed is between one-half pound and 2 

pounds, though experiments have been made with much larger weights. From tables 

given later (pp. 79-81), an idea may be formed of the amounts desirable to use. In general

a Marboutin, Contribution a 1'etude des eaux souterraines: Comptes rendus Acad. sci., vo . 132, 

1901, p. 365. 

t> See experiment at Auxerre, p. 82. *
USE OF FLUORESCEIN IN TRACING WATERS. 77

the quantity is 2 pounds of fluorescein per hour for a flow of about 31,700 gallons per minute 

from the bed. It is of course necessary to add enough to produce a detectable coloration in 

the water of the well or spring under examination. Having determined the flow of the 

latter, an approximation may be made of the amount of fluorescein necessary to insure the 

presence of between 0.02 and 0.0005 part per million in the effluent. Since, however, all of 

the water of the underground bed will probably not be delivered at the points of examination, it will be seen that with the distance traveled the amount of fluorescein should be 

increased.

METHOD OF TAKING SAMPLES.

A preliminary determination of the water level in the wells and springs in the region will 

eliminate those points round the spot at which the fluorescein is put down that are manifestly outside of the circulation zone. All other wells or springs should be marked for examination, whatever their apparent disconnection with the water sheet under study. The most 

economical manner of taking the samples is hourly oy concentric circles successively 

removed from the point of putting in the color. An agent supplied with 12 bottles is 

stationed at each well or spring to be examined in the nearest circle. In general, samples 

taken hourly for twelve hours will mark the arrival and departure of the fluorescein. Sampling, however, should not cease at any point until the passage of the dye or its nonarrival 

is established. The first sample should be a blank taken at the instant when the fluorescein 

is put down, and each should be plainly marked with, the name of the well or spring and the 

date and hour of sampling. After the color has passed one zone of wells, the agents can 

be moved to another circle. Their advance will, of course, depend on the rapidity with 

which the coloring matter progresses. The 12 samples representing the water for twelve 

hours are then examined in series as rapidly as possible.

EXAMINATION OF SAMPLES.

The 12 tubes of the fluoroscope are filled from the 12 bottles representing one well water. 

Care is taken to arrange them in chronological order. Then, by looking at the tubes along 

their axes, those showing fluorescence .can be readily selected. It is often convenient for a 

beginner to use for comparison tubes containing dilute fluorescei'n solutions. With practice, 

however, the natural tint of the water will not be confused with traces .of fluorescein. The 

examination should be made in broad daylight before a white wall. Special care must be 

taken to avoid a green background. By these tests the hours of arrival and of departure of 

the color at each point of examination are. determined, and if desired the intensity of the 

fluorescein can be estimated.

ACTION OF FLUOEESCEIN.

Method of movement. Generally fluorescein progresses more slov^ly than the water in which 

it is suspended; on account of the greater density of its solution it tends to accumulate in 

low places along the route traversed. M. le Couppey de la Forest* has noted that, when 

fluorescein is poured into a small stream which later widens out into a basin of still water, 

coloration is visible for a certain length of time in the stream below the basin; the coloration 

grows weaker, till finally not a trace can be found, though relatively large amounts of fluoresce'in-tinted water remain at the bottom of the basin; if finally the basin be agitated i>y the 

sudden influx of larger amounts of water, the more densely colored water will be washed out 

and the fluorescein will once more appear in the effluent. It may be conjectured that large 

subterranean caverns could effect a retention of fluorescein in a similar manner. The first 

appearance of the dye at the outlet might be unnoticed on account of its small amount, so 

that a later one caused by heavy inflows of water to the caverns would lead to a wrong conclusion regarding the rate of flow in the bed. Several instances of this character have been 

noted where one introduction of fluorescein has caused two or more distinct colored flows at 

springs in relation. (See p. 81.)

« Le Couppey de la Forest, M. t Mode de propagation de la fluoresc&ne sous terre: Bull. Soc. beige 

g6ol., etc., vol. 17, 1903, proc.-verb., p. 249; m&n., p. 515.

IKE 160 06 6
78 UNDERGROUND-WATER PAPERS, 1906.

The usual method of expressing the rate of flow of the fluorescein underground is in meters 

per hour or feet per minute, found by dividing the horizontal distance in a straight line from 

the point of entry to the point of appearance by the time which elapses between the hour of 

putting down the solution and its first appearance at the spring under consideration.

It has been mathematically demonstrated by M. de la Forests that the rate thus expressed 

is always less than the real rate of progress in the subterranean stream, from the fact that a 

certain length of time, generally indeterminate, is consumed by the solution in soaking into 

the lower stratum. If V = rate in'feet per second, D = distance in feet, and T = time in 

seconds, then the rate is calculated thus:

V=D

T

Now T is evidently made up of two parts, or T = t1 -\-t2 , where <t =time consumed in infiltrating through the material separating the surface where the dye was put down from the bed in 

which the water circulates, and t2 = real time during which the fluorescein is traversing the 

water stratum. Therefore the true rate Vt is found thus:

Vl== 72=T=^

And the difference between the true and the calculated rate Is:

*~ ~T^l ~T~W2

Whence it will be seen that the greater the time consumed by the preliminary infiltration 

the larger will be the error of the calculated rate; and the error will vary inversely with the 

permeability of the soil where the coloring matter is put down. If, furthermore, several 

wells are sampled at various distances from the entrance of the dye, it is usually found that 

the greater the distance traveled the greater is the calculated velocity for this reason:

V=D= D

v T <!+/ 

But in the same experiment ^ is constant, while (2 varies in proportion with D. It is clear, 

therefore, that t2 = KD where K is a constant indeterminate for the same experiment. So, 

substituting this value for /2 in the above equation,

Fk 1 

V=J A , K 

D

In other words, the calculated rate varies directly with the distance traveled. In many 

cases this has been found to be true. (See p. 81.)

Decomposition of fluorescem. In its underground passage certain substances exert a 

decomposing influence on fluorescein. Since its color is destroyed by acid solutions, it is 

evident that it can not be used in waters containing any free acids, except carbonic acid. A 

large amount of calcareous matter in solution, especially the carbonates, will decolorize the 

dye to some extent. M. Trillat & has reported the effect on fluorescein of contact with soils of 

widely different character. Fluorescein solution containing 1 part per million was passed 

through 30 cm. of soils containing large amounts of selected materials. The effluent was

«Op. cit., p. 251.

& Sur I'emploi des matieres colorantes pour la recherche de I'origine des sources et des eaux-d'iiifiltration: Bull. Soc. beige geol., etc., vol. 17, 1903, proc.-verb., p. 301.
USE OF FLUOKESCElW IW TRACING WATERS. 79

then examined for change in the intensity of the color. The result may be summarized 

thus:

Effect of certain soils on ftuoresce'in.

Soil containing 

Clay............................................. ...

Peat ............................................. ...

Percentage of 

organic 

matter.

0

4.56

7.96

49.07

Percentage of 

clay.

6.09

0

79.20

35

Change in fluorescem.

Do.

From this table it is seen that peaty soil will destroy the color, but that ammoniacal 

organic matter has practically no effect on it. Sandy soils and clay have almost no effect. 

By contact with water containing a large quantity of carbonate of calcium for twenty-four 

hours M. Trillat found that the intensity of the color was decreased about one-third.

EXPERIMENTS WITH FLUORESCEIN.

Experiments in the Dhuis region. The springs of Dhuis, an important part of the city 

water supply, are situated about SO miles from Paris. The geologic strata in the region 

are a succession of permeable and impermeable beds loam, limestone and millstone, (meulieres de Brie), green clay, Champigny travertine, and Pholodomya ludensis marl, of which the 

travertine is the principal aquifer. This formation, 60 to 80 feet thick, is permeable and 

cut by fissures. Water circulates in it witti great ease, often excavating large caverns by 

its action. It forms the bottom of all the valleys and ravines and a great part of their 

slopes. Since it is extremely permeable, it absorbes rain water and frequently engulfs the 

waters of brooks through sink holes (be"toires). From this bed the springs of Dhuis flow 

at a mean rate of about 3,670 gallons a minute. In 1901 experiments were made to determine the connection of these springs with possible sources- of surface pollution. Fluorescei'n in varying amounts was poured into sink holes at different parts of the watershed and 

its progress noted by samples taken along its possible course. The results are as follows:

Experiments with jluorescem in Champigny travertine.®

No. of experiment.

1.. .............................

la.............................

Ib... ..........................

Ic. .............................

Id.............................

2...............................

2a.............................

2b. ............................

2c..............................

2d. ............................

3...............................

3a.. ...........................

Fluorescem used.

Pounds. 

1.1

.66

Distance 

traveled.

Feet. 

0

10 004

10, 332

9 CIO

0

4 756

4,920

6, 396

8,8T>6

0

17. 384

Difference in 

elevation.

Feet.

169

166

-ICC

fCQ

1R9

on?

226

164

126

Mean 

rate of 

slope.

Per cent.

1.6

1.6

1.6

1.6

3.4

4.2

3

C

1.8

.72

Time 

elapsed.

Hours.

10

14

TO

7

g

19

18

33

Rate of 

flow.

Feet per 

minute.

12.8

12.3

11.3

9 1

8 9

8.2

8.8

Hardness.6

Parts per 

million 

CaCOa.

OQC

218

762

238

9Q>1

949

365

« Commission de Montsouris, Travaux des annees 1900 et 1901, p. 208.

6 The hardness of these waters was expressed in " degres hydrotimetriques," 1° is equivalent to 10 ing. 

of calcium carbonate per liter. Post, Analyse chimique appliquee aux essais Industriels, p. 9.
80 UNDERGROUND-WATER PAPERS, 1906.

Experiments tviih Jluorescem in Champigny travertine Continued.

No. of experiment.

3b.. ...........................

3c........... ...................

3d.............................

3e.... ..........................

4...............................

4a. ....... .....................

4b. ............................

5...............................

5a................ .............

5b. ............................

iw>

5d. ............................

6...............................

6a.............................

6b. ............................

Fluorescein used.

Pounds.

1.76

.22

1.98

Distance 

traveled.

Feet.

1,640

1,640

1,640

0

8,856

8,856

Difference in elevation.

Feet. 

189

188

188

188

117

42

40

40

40

Mean 

rate of 

slope.

Per cent.

1.01

1.01

1 08

3.2

2.4

2.4

2.4

Time 

elapsed.

Hours. 

30

30

30

32

12

4

5'

5

5

18

14

Rate of 

flow.

Feet per 

minute.

10

9.6

5.5

5.5

5.5

5.5

8.2

10.5

Hardness.

Ports per 

million 

CaCOs. 

226

218

232

218

249

710

214

220

210

220

In column 1 the number of the experiment is given; the lettered numbers indicate points 

at which samples were taken; in experiment No. 1, for instance, samples were taken at four 

different places, numbered, respectively, la, Ib, Ic, Id. Column 2 shows the amount of 

fluorescein used in each experiment. In column 3 is given the distance in a straight line 

between the point at which the fluorescein was put down and the point at which the sample 

was taken. In column 4 is shown the difference in elevation between the entering point 

of the"fluorescein and the sampling point. Column 5 gives the average rate of slope of the 

water bed; it is found by dividing the difference in elevation by the distance between the 

points. In column 6 the time elapsed between the hour of putting down the fluorescein 

and its first appearance at each sampling point is given, while column 7 expresses the rate 

of flow of the fluorescein underground in each case. The total hardness of the water in 

column 8 is given to show that experiments with fluorescein may be conducted even when 

the amounl of lime in the water is rather high.

One of the most striking features of these experiments is the distances that the fluorescein 

traveled. In experiment 3c, 3d, and 3e it went considerably over 3 miles and the time 

taken for the journey was over a day. Even for this great distance, however, the amount of 

fluorescein necessary was not excessive, being a little over 2.5 pounds. The" rate of flow 

varied in different parts of the formation from 5.5 feet to 15 feet per minute, a figure which 

is influenced both by the slope of the water bed and the size of the apertures through which 

the water passes. In experiment 3 to 3e particular attention is called to the concordance 

of the results. In 3a, with a distance traveled of 17,384 feet and a total fall of 126 feet, the 

fluorescein progressed at the rate of 8.8 feet per minute. With an increase of the slope 

and some increase of distance traveled as shown in 3b to 3d there was, as would be expected, 

a corresponding increase in the rate of flow. In 3e, through some underground influence, 

there was a slight decrease in the rate of flow. Though these waters contained amounts of 

calcium, corresponding to a total hardness of 218 to 762 parts per million, yet no difficulty 

was experienced in making the experiments, even when the fluorescein was in contact with 

the calcareous rock from five to thirty hours.

These have been chosen as typical results in formations where there is free circulation of 

water through well-defined veins or seams, and not a slow seepage through beds of rock 

having small interstices. The principal points to be noted are:

1. Fuorescem is capable of traveling long distances.
USE OF FLUORESCEIN IN TRACING WATERS. 81

2. Large amounts of calcium may be present without preventing the experiment.

3. Fluoresce'in is not destroyed by comparatively long contact with underground waters.

Experiments in the region ofYonne and Cure. The results of only five experiments in the 

valleys of Yonne and Cure are noted in the following table, but they are noteworthy on 

account of the various conditions under which they were performed:

Experiments with fuoresce'in in ike valleys ofYonne and Cure.a

No. of experiment.

la........................................

26

2a... ..........."..........................

2b. .......................................

2c.. ......................................

2d... ............................. ........

2e............... ........................ _

3c. .......................................

3a............... ........................

4<Z........................................

4b. ........... ............................

4c

4d.. ......................................

4e............ ............................

5«. .......................................

5b.. .....................................

Fluorescei'n used.

Pounds. 

0.6

6.6

2.2

4.4

Distance 

traveled.

Feet. 

492

0

15,580

15, 744

15, 744

16, 794

19,680

0

4,100

0

19,680

37,884

38 9 1°

49 934

42, 984

43,558

Difference in elevation.

Feet.

228

226

226

^94

OQA

322

322 

328

328

Mean 

rate of 

slope.

Per cent.

1.4

1.4

1.4

1.3

1.1

1.6

1.5

1.1

1.1

1.1

1.1

1.1

1.1

1.1

.76

.76

.75

.75

Time 

elapsed.

Hours. 

24

100

100

101

74

72

1.25

34

32

42

60

40

66

43

59

168

220 

172

222

Rate of 

flow.

Feet per 

minute.

0.34

2.5

2.6

2 6

3.8

4.6

55

9.6

14

15

10

16

9.6

14.8

10.8

4,3

3.2 

4.2

3.3

a Le Couppey de la Forest, M., Commission de Montsouris, Travaux de I'annfe 1902, pp. 38, 284. 

6 Idem, p. 259. 

c Idem, p. 272. 

d Idem, p. 286. 

e Idem, p. 262.

In experiment 1 a small amount of fluorescei'n was put into a well about 160 feet deep 

bored in the compact limestones of the Rauracian. It required twenty-four hours for the 

coloring matter to progress a distance of about 500 feet. This experiment shows how slow 

the rate of flow is in limestone when that rock js compact and not cut up by large fissures. 

It also shows that fluorescei'n can permeate fairly solid rock even when it is not full of 

fissures.

Experiment 2 to 2e indicates the progress of the seepage from an irrigated tract of land 

about one-fourth mile from the hamlet of Souille. A brook flowing a little over 10 gallons 

a minute was diverted on a field of about 5 acres, where its waters were slowly but entirely 

absorbed into the soil. In the belief that this water reached springs of the region 6.6 

pounds of fluorescei'n were poured into the brook; it appeared in these springs after intervals varying from seventy-two to one hundred and one hours. The rates of flow were low. 

Moreover, the springs farthest removed from the point where the fluorescei'n was put down 

had the highest rates of flow, though the mean slope toward them was less than in the 

nearer springs. This fact shows, as discussed on page 78, that the time consumed for the
82 TJNDEBGROUND-WATER PAPEES, 1906.

infiltration of the fluorescei'n from the surface to the underground aquifer was considerable 

and concealed the true rate of flow in the subterranean channels of the lithographic limestones of the Sequanian and the Rauracian. Another interesting fact is that springs 2a, 

2b, and 2c, namely, those nearest the irrigated field, were but slightly colored for twelve 

hours; on the other hand, springs 2d and 2e were colored for thirty-six hours with an 

intensity visible to the naked eye. The connection of springs 2d and 2e with the infiltration from the irrigated field would probably never have been suspected from a topographic 

survey of the region, because three dry valleys and considerable distances intervened.

On the left bank of Cure River a cavern called La Grotte des Goulettes is in direct communication with the river and engulfs a considerable portion of its water at all seasons of 

the year. At the time when experiment 3 to 3a was performed the cavern absorbed about 

100 gallons a minute. After 2.2 pounds of fluorescem had been put into the water at the 

entrance to this cave it appeared in the water of a spring (3a) 4,100 feet distant, in one hour 

and fifteen minutes, after traveling at the high rate of 55 feet a minute. In this instance 

there was undoubtedly a well-defined subterranean channel of good size connecting La 

Grotte des Goulettes with the spring in question.

At Petit-Banny (experiment 4 to 4e), located in the valley of Druyes, 4.4 pounds of fluorescei'n were put on the porous bed. It traveled for the extraordinarily long distances of 

19,680, 27,552, 38,048, 37,884, and 38,212 feet, through fissured limestone formations. 

It will be noted that in this experiment and in others where the distance traveled was less,' 

with an increase of distance there is a corresponding increase inthe rate of flow, showing 

that some time is taken for absorption into the underground channel. For springs 4c, 4d, 

and 4e two rates of flow are given, corresponding to two successive influxes of colored water, 

separated from each other by eighteen, fourteen, and fourteen hours, respectively. Probble reasons for two influxes, as previously discussed (p. 77), are either that the colored 

water arrived at the outlets by two different routes or that it became sedimented in some 

cavity and was then washed out by a later influx of water.

Experiment 5 to 5b gives the greatest distance for the underground journey of fluorescei'n 

noted in the reports at hand, namely, 43,558 feet in the experiment at Courson. Courson 

Brook is absorbed by progressive infiltration in the permeable beds of the Sequanian in a 

distance of about 650 feet along its bed. Four and four-tenths pounds of fluorescei'n were 

put into the stream. It was found at Crisenon (5a) and Grosse-Pierre (5b), over 8 miles 

away, after having traversed the fissured limestones of the Sequanian and the Rauracian 

at the rate of 4.3 and 4.2 feet a minute, respectively. At both of these springs a second 

flow occurred as noted. Even after such long journeys as these there is an apparent influence of the time taken for infiltration through the absorption bed.

Experiment at Auxerre. An especially noteworthy experiment 3 was conducted at 

Auxerre to demonstrate the passage of polluted water from a ditch through alluvial 

deposits of sand and gravel into a collecting gallery from whiofc the city supply was 

taken.

A collecting gallery about 300 feet long in the alluvium of the Yonne is situated 130 

to 230 feet from the river. Its top is 2.8 feet and its water plane 4.3 feet below the surface. A polluted brook ran directly toward the collecting gallery until within 28 feet, 

then turned nearly at a right angle and paralleled it at about the same distance. Its 

water surface was from 1.2 to 3.5 feet above that of the gallery, from which 1,130,000 

gallons of water were pumped daily. Two and two-tenths^ pounds of fluorescei'n were put 

into the brook 254 feet in a straight line from the collecting galleries, and samples were 

then taken of the water pumped from the galleries. Fluorescei'n was shown two and onefourth hours after the dye was put into the brook, and an intense coloration was clearly 

visible to the naked eye in about ten hours, lasting thirteen hours. By examining samples from many sources throughout the city and estimating the amount of fluorescem present, it was found that the city water was colored for thirteen hours at an average of 1 

part of fluoresce'in in 30,000,000. During that period about 600,000 gallons were pumped

« Le Couppey de la Forest, M., La fievre typhoide a Auxerre en 1902: Revue d'hyglene et de police 

sanitaire, vol. 24, pt. 6,1902.
USB OF FLUOEESCEIN IN TEACING WATEES. 83

from the galleries, containing, therefore, 0.17 pound of fluoresce'in. Since 2.2 pounds were 

put into the brook and 0.17 pound reached the city water, it may be estimated that the 

ditch water reaches the galleries in the proportion of 2.2 to 0.17, or, to allow for some 

small error, about one-fifteenth of the brook water infiltrates to the townjsupply. Since 

the stream flowed at that time 950 gallons a minute, or about 1,370,000 gallons a day, 

while the gallery consumption was 1,130,000 gallons a day, it will be seen that about 8 

per cent of the city supply was water from the polluted brook.

As previously stated, it took two and one-fourth hours for the fluorescein to reach the 

filter galleries. Assuming that the infiltration extended from the point at which the fluorescein was put down, the coloring matter would have progressed with a rate of 113 feet 

an hour through the alluvial deposits. If, on the contrary, the infiltration took place 

between the ditch and the gallery at the nearest point, it occurred at the rate of 12.4 

feet per hour. Assuming a maximum filtration rate of 3,000,000 gallons per acre per day 

for an efficient sand filter, it may be inferred that this brook water reached the collecting 

galleries with practically no purification.

SUMMARY.

1. In determining the sanitary value of a well or spring it is more important to study 

the underground flow than to analyze the water itself.

2. Foreign substances put into the aquifer and traced from point to point are of great 

use in this study.

3. With the fluoroscope one part of fluorescein can be detected in 10 billion parts of 

water.

4. Fluorescein is a particularly valuable flow indicator for fissured or cavernized rocks.

5. It is also available in gravels, where it has been used with success.

6. It progresses at a slightly lower rate than the water in which it is suspended. .

7. It is not decolorized by passage through sand, gravel, or manure; it is slightly decomposed by calcareous soils.

8. It is entirely decolorized by peaty formations and by free acids, except carbonic acid.

9. It has been used with much success for several years by the city of Paris.

PARTIAL BIBLIOGRAPHY.

ALBERT-LEVY. Rapport sur les experiences a la fluoresceine. Commission de Montsouris: travaux de 

1899-1900, p. 225.

 Vallees de la Vanne et de 1'Yonne: Hydrologie souterraine. Communications entre les eaux

superflcielles, les eaux souterraines et les sources. Commission de Montsouris: travaux de 1899-

1900, p. 291; travaux de 1900-1901, p. 249. 

BEARD. Etude des pertes de 1'Avre et de ses affluents. Comptes rendus' Soc. inge'nieurs civils de

France octobre, 1899.

BREUILLE. Ville d'Auxerre: Adduction d'eaux des sources. Le Bourguignon, December 27,1902. 

COMMISSION SCIENTIFIQUE DE PERFECTIONNEMENT DE L'OBSERVATOIRE DE MONTSOURIS. Travaux

sur les eaux d'alimentation et les eaux d'egouts de la ville de Paris. 1899 et seq. 

COMMISSION DE MONTSOURIS. Programme des travaux de la commission technique pour 1'etude des

eaux potables captees pour 1'alimentation de la ville de Paris. Travaux de 1899-1900, pp. 83-88. 

CUONY. Emploi de la fluoresce'ine dans 1'hydrographie. Bull. Soc. fribourg. sciences naturelles, C. R.

1901-1902, No. 10, p. 34. 

DIENERT. Les sources de la craie. Revue g^nerale des sciences, 1901, p. 1014.

 Etude des sources de Fontaine-sous-Jouy. Commission de Montsouris: travaux de 1900-1901, 

p. 347.

 Premier rapport sur le courant souterrain des Boscherons. Commission de Montsouris; travaux de 1900-1901, p. 387.

 Etudes sur les sources de la ville de Paris captees dans la region de 1'Avre. Commission de 

Montsouris: travaux de 1900-1901, p. 219; travaux de 1899-1900, p. 263.

 Premier rapport sur les sources du Loing et du Lunain. Commission de Montsouris: travaux 

de 1900-1901, p. 159.

Quelques remarques sur les experiences faites avec la fluoresceine et le se! marin. Bull^Soc.

beige gSol., etc., vol. 17, 1903, proc.-verb., p. 

DIENERT ET GUILLERD. Sources du bassinde la Haute-Seine. Commission de Montsouris: trasaux 

de 1900-1901, p. 565. .
84 TJNDEKGBOUND-WATEE PAPERS, 1906.

DIONIS DES CABBIEBES. Etiologie de 1'epidemie typho'ide qui a eclate" a Auxerre en septembre 1882.

Bull, et mem. Soc. med. des h&pitaux de Paris, vol. 9, 2e s6i., 1882, p. 277.

FOEEL. Le lac de 1'Orbe souterraine. Bull. Soc. beige geol., etc., vol. 17,1903, proc.-verb., p. 340. 

FOUENIEE. Lettre sur la fluoresceine. Bull. Soc. beige geol., etc., vol. 17,1903, proc.-verb., p. 262. 

FOURNIEE ET MAGNiN. Essai sur la circulation des eaux souterraines dans les massifs calcaires du

Jura. Bull. Soc. beige de geol., etc., vol. 17, 1903, mem., p. 523. 

 Sur la propagation des eaux souterraines. Bull. Soc. beige geol., etc., vol. 17,1903, proc.-verb.,

p. 269.

Sur la vitesse d'ecoulement des eaux souterraines. Comptes rendus Acad. sci., No. 14, April

6, 1903, p. 910. Also Bull. Soc. beige geol., etc., vol. 17, 1903, proc.-verb., p. 444. 

GOLLIEZ. Note sur les essais de coloration des eaux de 1'ecoulement souterrain des lacs de la vallee

de Joux. Bull. Soc. beige geol., etc., vol.'17, 1903, proc.-verb., p. 336. 

IMBEAUX. Note sur une experience a la fluoresceine dans le plateau de Have. Bull. Soc. beige ge'ol.,

etc., vol. 17, 1903, proc.-verb., p. 353.

 Lettre sur la fluoresceine. Bull. Soc. beige geol., etc., vol 17,1903, proc.-verb , p. 267. 

JANET. Note sur le captage et la protection des sources des eaux potables. Comptes rendus Acad. 

sci., vol. 131, 1900, p. 301.

 Note sur 1'emploi de la fluoresceine. Bull. Soc beige ge'ol, vol. 17, 1903, proc.-verb., p. 267.

 Conference de geologie appliquee sur lecaptageet la protection des sources d'eau potable. Bull. 

Soc. geol. France, 3«- ser., vol. 27, 1899, p. 534.

 Programme propose pour les experiences de coloration & la fluoresceine. Commission de Montsouris: travaux de 1899-1900, p. 216.

 Travaux de captage des sources des valiees du Loing et du Lunain. Livret-guide publie par 

le comite d'organisation du huitieme congres geologique international. Paris, 1900.

JER&ME. Exemple de la solution de menus problemes d'hydrologie par le precede de la coloration des 

eaux a 1'aidede la fluoresceine. Bull. Soc. beige ge'ol., etc., vol. 16,1902, proc.-verb., p. 166.

KEMMA. Enquete sur les eaux de Paris. Bull. Soc. beige g<k>l., etc., vol. 15,1901, proc.-verb., p. 226.

 Des differences de vitesse et de densite des eaux et sur les obstacles au melange. Bull. Soc.

beige geol., etc., vol. 17, 1903, proc.-verb., p. 292. 

LE COUFFEY DE LA FoEEST. Lettre sur 1'emploi de la fluoresceine. Bull. Soc. beige geol., etc., vol. 17,

1903, proc.-verb., p. 265.

 Choix de 1'emplacement des cimetieres. Bull. Soc. beige geol., etc., vol. 17,1903, proc.-verb., 

p. 112.

 Etude des sources de valiees de 1'Yonne et de la Cure; deuxieme rapport. Commission de 

Montsouris: travaux de 1902, p. 151.

 Etude du perimetre d'alimentation de la Dhuis. Commission de Montsouris: travaux de 1900 

et 1901, p. 179; travaux de 1902, p. 151.

 La fievre typho'ide a Auxerre en 1902, Eevue d'hygiene et de police sanitaire, vol. 24, p. 486.

 Les experiences a la fluoresceine et les reeherches hydrologiques effeetuees pour la ville 

d'Auxerre. Bull. Soc. sci. hist, et nat. de 1'Yonne, pt 1,1903.

 Methode employee par la ville de Paris pour retude des eaux de sources. Bull. Soc. sci. hist, 

et nat. de 1'Yonne, pt. 2, 1902, p. 27

 Note sur une experience a la fluoresceine effectuee a Cerisiers. Commission de Montsouris: 

travaux de 1902, p. 127.

 Sources de la Dhuis: resume du rapport presente a la Commission de Montsouris.

Sur le mode de propagation de la fluoresceine sous terre. Bull. Soc, beige geol., etc., vol. 17,

1903, proc.-verb., p. 249; mem., p. 515. 

LOHEST. Lettres sur la fluoresceine. Bull Soc. beige geol., etc., vol. 17,1903, proc.-verb., p. 265. 

MARBOUTIN. Sur 1'observation du trouble dans les eaux de sources Bull. Soc. beige geol., etc., vol,

17, 1903, proc.-verb., p. 447.

 Essai sur la propagation des eaux souterraines. Bull. Soc. beige geol., etc., vol. 17,1903, proc.- 

verb., p. 273.

 Contribution a retude des eaux souterraines. Comptes rendus Acad. sci., vol. 132, p. 365.

 Etudes hydrologiques, mission du Val d'QrWans Commission de Montsouris; travaux de 

1900-1901, p. 401.

 Nouvelle methode d'etude des eaux de sources, Mem. Soc, ingenieurs civils de France, vol. 131- 

1901, p. 365.

 Sur la propagation des eaux souterraines; nouvelle methode d'emploi de la fluoresceine. Bull.

Soc. beige geol., etc., vol. 15, 1901, mem., p, 214. 

MARTEL. Sur I'application de la fluoresceine a 1'hydrologie souterraine. Comptes rendus Acad. sci.»

vol. 137,1903, p. 225, Also Bull Soc. beige geol., etc,, vol. 17, 1903, proc.-verb., p. 475.

 Notes sur la vitesse et les retards de la fluoresceine. Bull. Soc. beige geol., etc., vol. 17, 1903, 

proc.-verb., pp. 265, 409.

 Sur 1'emploi de la fluoresceine en hydrologie. Bull. Soc. beige geol., etc., vol. 17, 1903, proc.- 

verb, p. 342.

Experiences compiementaires sur la fluoresceine. Bull. Soc. beige geol., etc., vol. 17, 1903,

proc.-verb., p. 543.
USE OF FLUORESCEIN IN TRACING WATERS. 85

PTJTZEYS. Note sur la fluoresceine. Bull. Soc. beigegeol., etc., vol. 17,1903, proc.-verb., p. 263. 

RABOZEE. Notes sur la fluoresceine. Bull. Soc. beige geol., etc., vol. 17, 1903, proc.-verb., pp. 351, 541. 

RABOZEE ET RAHIE, Resume synthetique de la discussion relative a 1'emploi de la fluoresceine pour

1'etude de la vitesse des eaux courantes souterraines et a 1'air libre. Bull. Soc. beige geol., etc.,

vol. 17, 1903, p. 620. 

RAHIE. Une experience au sujet du mode de propagation de la fluoresceine. Bull. Soc. beige geol.,

etc., vol. 17, 1903, proc.-verb., p. 398. 

RUTOT. Nouvelles instructions a suivre pour 1'etude des projets d'alimentations d'eau potable des

communes de France. Bull. Soc. beige geol., etc., vol. 15, 1901, proc.-verb., p. 74. 

SCHAEDT. Notes concernant la Vitesse de propagation de la fluoresceine. Bull. Soc. beige geol., etc.,

vol. 17, 1903. proc.-verb., p. 293. 

THIEEEY. Etude hydrologique et hygienique sur le courant souterrain des Boscherons. Commission

de Montsouris: travaux de 1902, p. 161. 

TEILLAT. Sur 1'emploi des rnatieres colorantes pour la recherche de 1'prigine des sources et des eaux

d'inflltration. Comptes rendus Acad. sci., vol. 128, 1899, p. 698.

 Note sur la fluoresceine. Bull. Soc. beige geol., etc., vol. 17, 1903, proc.-verb., p. 261.

 Essai sur 1'emploi des matieres colorantes pour la recherche des eaux d'inflltration. Bull. Soc. 

beige geol., etc., vol. 17,1903, proc.-verb., p. 301. Also Annal. Inst. Pasteur, vol. 18, pp. 444-451.

VAN DEN BEOECK. Les recherches de MM. Marboutin et Schloesing au sujet de 1'etude des eaux potables. Bull. Soc. beige geol., etc., vol. 15, 1901, proc.-verb., p. 155.

 La Lesse souterraine et sa traversee sous les deux boucles dei.Furfooz et Chaleux, demontree 

par la fluoresceine. Bull Soc. beige de geol., etc., vol. 17, 1903, proc.-verb., p. 70; mem., p. 119.

 L'independance de sources d'origines et de temperatures differentes inflrmee par la fluoresceine.. Bull. Soc. beige geol., etc., vol. 17, 1903, proc.-verb., p. 403.

Notes sur la fluoresceine. Bull. Soc. beige g6ol., etc., vol. 17, 1903, proc.-verb., pp. 240, 355, 391.

VAN DEN BEOECK ET RAHIE. Exhibition d'un tholometre, nouvel appareil pratique destine a mesurer 

le degre de transparence des eaux. Bull. Soc. beige geol., etc., vol. 17, 1903, proc.-verb., p. 448.

 Experiences sur la densite de la fluoresceine dissoute dans 1'eau et sur la vitesse de propagation 

de cette matiere colorante. Bull. Soc. beige geol., etc., vol. 17, proc.-verb., 1903, p. 531.
PECULIAR MINERAL WATERS FROM CRYSTALLINE 

ROCKS OF GEORGIA.

By MYRON L. FULLER.

INTRODUCTION.

In this paper are described a number of wells and springs in the Piedmont area of Georgia 

which, in view of the character of the rotfk in which they are sunk, afford mineral waters 

of remarkable character. The attention of the writer was called to the springs by Mr. 

S. W. McCallie, assistant State geologist of Georgia, who accompanied him on a visit to 

the locality and courteously furnished a number of analyses made by Dr. Edgar Everhart, 

of the local survey.

The waters, which, for supplies coming from crystalline rocks, are enormously high in 

chlorine and sulphates, are obtained from a number of wells and springs situated near the 

town of Austell, on the Southern Railway, in Cobb County, near the Douglas County line, 

20 miles northwest of Atlanta and a little west of Sweetwater Creek, a tributary of Chattahoochee River. They are included in the Marietta quadrangle of the United States 

Geological Survey. One spring and three wells have been developed within a short distance of the town, their waters being placed on the market for medicinal purposes.

DESCRIPTION OF WELLS AND SPRINGS.

BORDEN LITHIA SPRING.

This spring, which is situated about a mile south of Austell and a similar distance northeast of Lithia Springs station, is stated to be the most important spring in Georgia from 

the standpoint of value of shipments. The water issues from a crevice in the bottom of 

a basin blasted out to a depth of several feet in the gneissoid granite, which here outcrops 

in strong ledges of almost unweathered rock. The basin is protected by a glass covering, 

and all surface seepage is carefully excluded. The yield, which is about 3 gallons a minute, is very constant, and the water has shown no noticeable change in composition since 

first discovered many years ago. In fact, the locality, because of the visits of deer to it 

for salt, has been known to the Cherokee Indians as the "deer-lick" from the time of their 

earliest traditions.

The composition of the water is shown in the table of analyses on page 88. The temperature is normal.

The principal spring at Austell was originally a few hundred feet west and across the 

strike from the Borden spring, but was ruined some years ago by an ingress of fresh water 

brought about by blasting in an effort to increase the flow.

Another salt spring, known as the Medlock spring, is located a short distance from the 

Medlock well (see p. 87), but is no longer used, and no analysis of its water was made. In 

composition, however, the water appears to be similar to those of neighboring wells and of 

the Borden Lithia Spring.

86
WATERS FROM CRYSTALLINE BOOKS OF GEOEGIA. 87

ARTESIAN LITHIA WELL.

This well, which is located near Sweetwater Creek, a little north of Austell, is 2 inches in 

diameter and is reported by some to be 900 feet deep, though others state that it is not 

over 750 feet. It appears to have been put down in search of anthracite coal, which someone imagined could be found in the granite of the region. The well penetrated for most of 

the way a gneissic rock, with which, it is said, some thin hornblendic layers were interbedded. The water, which is encountered in fissures at a number of different depths, 

rises nearly to the surface. It has a distinct saline taste, similar to that of the Borden 

Lithia Spring. An analysis is given in the table on page 88. This water, which is supplied at the rate of several gallons a minute without reference to season, is sold somewhat 

extensively as a mineral water.

An interesting point in connection with the occurrence of this saline water is that the 

Sulpho-Magnesia well, which was drilled to a depth of 750 feet only a short distance from 

the Artesian Lithia well, obtained only fresh water, although, so far as could be determined, the same succession of rocks was penetrated.

MEDLOCK WELL.

This well is located near the left bank of Sweetwater Creek, five-eighths of a mile northwest of Austell station and a few hundred yards southwest of the Sulpho-Magnesia well. 

It is 6 inches in diameter, 65 feet deep, and yields a supply of several gallons a minute 

from a fissure near the bottom of the well, the water rising to within a few feet of the 

surface. Except 5 feet of surface alluvium, the well is in a fine-grained gneiss. The composition of this water, which is highly saline, is shown in detail in the table on page 88.

J. H. LOUCH WELL.

This well, which was drilled in 1903, is located a few hundred feet from the Medlock well. 

It is 6 inches in diameter, 80 feet deep, and furnishes 1,500 gallons of water per day of 

twenty-four hours, the water rising to within 5 feet of the surface. The rock, as in the 

Medlock well, is a fine-grained gneiss. The water, which is very similar to the preceding, 

is put on the market in considerable amounts. The analysis is given in the table on page 88.

OTHER WELLS.

In addition to the saline wells already described and the Sulpho-Magnesia nonsaline well, 

there are four deep wells within the corporate limits of Austell. Two of these, near the 

railroad station, are 133 and 150 feet deep, respectively. Of the two others one is located 

at the Lithia Springs Hotel, and is 5J inches in diameter and 150 feet deep. The other is 

the Brunk well, near Spring street, one-half mile south of the station. It is 6 inches in 

diameter and 110 feet deep. -

The water in all four wells is low in mineral matter, soft, and free from salt, and is well 

suited for domestic or boiler purposes. So far as can be determined it comes from crevices 

similar to those from which the saline waters are obtained and from the same kind of rock. 

The locations are not such as to suggest any difference in geologic conditions.

COMPOSITION OF THE WATERS.

ANALYSES.

The composition of the waters is best shown by chemical analyses, a number of which 

made by Doctor Everhart, are given in the table below. The analyses in the first four 

columns are of the saline mineral waters, while that in the fifth column is of the nearly 

normal water from the Sulpho-Magnesia well, which is given for purposes of comparison.
88 UNDERGROUND-WATER PAPERS, 1906.

Analyses of well and spring waters, AusteH, 6a. 

[Parts per million.]

Ionic statement. 

Iron (Fe) ..................................... ....

Lithium (Li) ......................................

Silica (SiOz) .......................................

Phosphate ion (PO<) ..............................

Chlorine (Cl)..... .................................

Analyst's combinations.

Lithium chloride (LiCU) ..........................

Saline waters.

Bowden 

Lithia 

Spring.

1.05 

1.33 

.20

116 8 

9.2 

.18 

5 6 

.702 3 

20 3 

32 6 

80 3 

70.9 

181.4 

27 

1,101 6 

20.7

.10

4 4 

10 9 

50 

156 6 

183.9

45 9 

30 

34.0

.30 

.80 

,40

1785. 0

Artesian 

Lithia 

well.

0.21 

.48

120 8 

12 9 

.14 

17 0 

650.9 

5.3 

24.3 

113.6 

80.0 

178.1 

.54 

1,032.0

Trace.

.90 

3.9

189.3 

153.2

64.2

47.0

21.1 

.80

1634.3 

4.0

.30 ..........

30. 8 16. 2

2, 286. 6 2, 159. 2

Medlock 

well.

Trace. 

473.8 

53.8

14.5 

2, 790. 6 

64.3 

26.2

709. 8 

.15 

4, 769. 3

18.4

Trace.

40.7 

787.4 

267.6

41 9

.20

7093.8

122.8

9,058.0

Louch 

well.

0.45 

.40 

Trace. 

194.5 

26.9 

.22 

8.8 

1,995.1 

63.9 

11.6 

35.0 

70.1 

581. 2 

Trace. 

3, 134. 2 

2.8

1.22 

1.36

670.8

133.3

.38

24.6

Trace.

5070. 9

119.5 

4.2

6,096.0

Nonsaline 

waters.

SulphoMagnesia 

well.

0.61 

.66 

Trace. 

25.0 

3.6 

Trace. 

2.5 

11.1 

4.2 

18.0 

51.5 

82.7 

3.6 

.47 

7.7

Trace.

Trace. 

2.6 

5.5

62.5

12.6

7.2 

24.8 

1.2 

.66 

Trace.

5.1 

3.7 

Trace.

131.4

. Edgar Everhart, Geological Survey of Georgia, analyst.

COMPARISON WITH NORMAL WATERS.

A comparison of the analyses of the mineral waters near Austell with the normal waters 

of the region brings out some interesting features. Although the total solids in the mineral waters are from 16 to 70 times as great as in the normal water, the iron constituent is 

practically the same and in one case even less than in the ordinary water. The calcium, on 

the other hand, varies from 4 to 20 times, the magnesia from 3 to 15 times, the sodium from
WATEES FROM CRYSTALLINE ROCKS OF GEORGIA. 89

60 to 250 times, and the potassium from about the same to 15 times as much as in the normal water. The silica, though varying from less than the amount in the unminerah'zed 

water to twice this amount, is essentially normal.

Not only does the absolute amount of the mineral ingredients vary greatly, but the proportion of the principal mineral substances also varies considerably, as shown in the following summary of the relative percentages of chlorine, sodium, magnesium, calcium, and 

potassium five of the more important constituents of the waters.

Summary of percentage composition

Chlorine (Cl) ..........................................................

Average of 

four Austell mineral waters.

5.2

.6

35.4

.9

57.9

100.0

Sea 

water.

1.2

3.5

28.2

1.0

66.1

100.0

Normal 

Austell 

water.

48.6

6.9

21.4

8.2

14.9

100.0

In no instance does the amount of an ingredient in the Austell mineral waters occur in 

anything like the same proportion as in the normal water. The disagreement in the principal constituents chlorine, sodium, and calcium is especially marked, being as 57.9: 

14.9, 35.4:21.4, and 5.2:48.6, respectively.

GEOLOGIC CONDITIONS.

LOCATION.

The Austell springs and wells are situated about 20 miles northwest of Atlanta, and are 

therefore located within the limits of the Piedmont Plateau. The distance from Austell 

to the borders of the Coastal Plain area to the southwest is about 90 miles, while the. metamorphosed sedimentary Ocoee beds lie at a distance of about 10 miles to the northwest. 

The nearest point at which the later Paleozoic rocks occur is over 20 miles to the northwest.

The rocks in the vicinity of the spring and in the adjacent region in general are prevailingly of the gneissic type so common in the Piedmont area of this part of Georgia, although 

some more basic rocks occur as interbedded bands in the near vicinity. No unaltered sedimentary rocks occur nearer than the later Paleozoic border, 20 miles" to the northwest.

CHARACTER OF ROCKS.

The rock from which the water issues is a light-gray granite with a well-marked gneissoid structure, which strikes with considerable uniformity in a north-south direction and 

is inclined at an angle of about 45° to the east. The granite appears to be interrupted by 

bands ot a dark hornblende schist, a belt of which outcrops a short distance east of the 

wells and springs. The same or a similar rock was also encountered in the deeper wells.

A microscopic examination of the granite by Albert Johannsen showed it to consist essentially of quartz, microcline feldspar with a little albite and biotite-mica. The accessary 

minerals are titanite, apatite, and a little zircon. The composition was normal, no minerals being recognized which could have furnished the chlorine that is so abundant in the 

waters of the wells and springs.

The dark schist when examined under the microscope was found to consist mainly of 

hornblende, with quartz, augite, and a little plagioclase feldspar. As in the case of the 

granite, nothing was recognized which could have afforded the chlorine of the mineral 

waters.
90 UNDERGROUND-WATER PAPERS, 1906.

Owing to the mantle of decomposed rock constituting the surface throughout the Piedmont belt, joints are not so noticeable as in many regions. They are, however, to be seen 

in greater or less abundance in practically all the quarries throughout the belt. There are 

several different series which in a given district are generally fairly constant in direction. 

The best developed joints, according to T. L. Watson, have nearly due east-west or northsouth directions, although in many instances the major series trend northwest and southeast.

SOURCES OF MINERALIZATION.

SURFACE ROCKS.

With the exception of the apatite in the gneissoid granite no mineral capable of yielding 

chlorine is present in the surface rocks of the region, and even the apatite is present only 

in exceedingly small amounts no more than in all of the granites of the region and" is 

not sufficient to account for the wide variation of the Austell waters from the normal. 

The same is true of the hornblende schist, making it clear that the source of mineralization lies outside the rocks from which the springs issue and from which the wells draw 

their supplies.

DEEP-SEATED ROCKS.

The derivation of the mineral matter from the surface rock by meteoric waters being 

apparently ruled out because of the absence of minerals capable of furnishing to the water 

the dissolved substances, especially the chlorine, a deeper-seated origin suggests itself. To 

furnish chlorine in the amounts observed contact of the meteoric waters with some.rock 

rich in sodalite or apatite must be postulated. This might be a sodalite-syenite or other 

syenite rich in sodalite, or a granite or similar rock high in apatite, and might be assumed 

to occur as a granitic or pegmatite intrusion reaching within the limit of circulating waters, 

but failing to reach the surface. An analysis made by N. Sahlborn of a pyroxene-apatitesyenite from Finland showed 14 per cent of apatite,« which if it was a chloro-apatite 

would be equivalent to 0.9 per cent of chlorine. In the sodalite-syenites the chlorine may 

run even higher, one sample of such rock from Greenland analyzed by N. V. Ussing showing 2.25 per cent chlorine.& Bearing in mind that the chloride minerals are in general 

much more soluble than the silicate minerals, one easily sees that rocks of the character 

indicated might well be the source of saline waters. No such rocks, however, have been 

reported in the part of Georgia under consideration, and if they occur they must be deep 

below the surface.

MAGMATIC WATERS.

It may be conceived that instead of forming a part of the circulating system of meteoric 

waters and deriving its mineral matter from some deep-seated rock with which it came into 

contact, the mineral water may represent what is known as magmatic water, or that 

excluded on cooling from some molten rock such as may have been intruded at some point 

below the surface near Austell. What has been said in regard to the absence of evidence 

as to the existence of chlorine-bearing rocks applies with equal force to intrusions capable 

of furnishing the magmatic waters. There is little evidence of disturbance of any kind in 

this region, either dynamic or igneous, in late geologic time, and if the water is of magmatic origin it probably represents an intrusion of considerable age.

IMPRISONED SEA WATERS.

As the general character of the Austell mineral water was suggestive of a sea water, figures 

showing the relative composition of the latter have been inserted in the summary. The 

resemblance of the two is very marked in the case of nearly every constituent.

a Washington, H. S., Chemical analyses of igneous rocks: Prof. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 14, 

1903, p. 313. 

6 Op. cit., p. 303.
WATEES FEOM CEYSTALLHSTE EOCKS OF GEOBGIA. 91

In the case of silica, however (not included in the summary), a difference is noted. The 

lowest amount in the Austell waters is 11.6 and the highest 32.6 parts per million. In sea 

water, however, ordinarily only from 2 to 5 parts per million are present. The difference, 

however, is probably not so great as would appear, as in the process of analyses the sea 

water was filtered before determination of the silica, while the spring waters»were probably not filtered. Unfiltered sea water often gives results quite as high as that of the Austell 

springs.

SUMMARY.

Four possible explanations of the source of mineralization of the abnormal waters of 

the Austell springs have been suggested. These are: (1) That the mineral matter has 

been derived from the superficial country rock^ (2) that it has come from deep-seated 

sodalite or apatite-bearing rocks; (3) that it represents water excluded from an igneous 

magma, and (4) that the water is in the main an imprisoned sea water conducted by joints 

and faults, etc.. from the area of sedimentary rocks to the northwest.

The difficulty to be met by the first supposition is that the granite and schist in the 

vicinity of the springs and wells are normal and incapable of furnishing the observed chlorine. Except near the north-south line, along which the wells and springs described are 

located, none of the waters from the granite are saline.

The second and third views seem more probable, but the rarity of rocks high in sodalite 

or apatite, and the improbability that buried masses of such rocks or recent intrusions 

occur at the particular point under discussion, since they are not known elsewhere in the 

region, throw doubt on these explanations.

The origin from imprisoned sea water is favored by the percentage composition of the 

mineral waters, which is almost identical with that of sea water. The few minor points of 

difference are readily explained by the admixture of the normal fresh waters of the rock. 

The presence of such waters in close proximity to the fissures bearing the salt water is 

shown by the breaking in of fresh waters when blasting out the basin of the original spring, 

and by the fresh waters encountered by the four nonsaline wells described. The slightly 

high calcium in the mineral waters as compared with sea water could be produced by a 

very slight admixture of the normal waters of the locality.

The difficulty under the last hypothesis of origin lies in the absence of any source for 

the water. The crystalline rocks have not, as far as known, been covered by the sea since 

Archean time. The distance of the springs from sedimentary rocks, the metamorphism 

of the latter at the points nearest the springs, the rarity of saline waters even within the 

area of the sedimentary rocks, and our present lack of knowledge of any connection by 

faulting or jointing with these rocks are further difficulties in the way of the acceptance of 

such an origin. At the same time the lateral transition of water through joints or similar 

passages for long distances is not unknown. The writer has called attention to such a 

case on Fishers Island, New irork,o the distance in that instance being at least 6 or 7 miles.

While the waters of the sedimentary area are in general not saline, such waters have 

been noted in the region. A well in Chickamauga Park, the waters of which were analyzed 

by Dr. Edgar Everhart, of the Geological Survey of Georgia, showed a total of nearly 

60,000 parts of sodium chloride, or several times the amount in the Austell waters.

CONCLUSION.

It is the opinion of the writer that of the four sources of mineralization enumerated the 

first may be omitted from consideration. Of the remainder the probabilities of the second 

and third are primarily about equal and either may well be the true explanation. Owing, 

however, to the close agreement in percentage composition between the Austell mineral 

and ordinary sea water, the hypothesis of imprisoned sea water conducted from the sedimentary area by joints or faults to the point of emergence is not considered entirely impossible, notwithstanding the serious difficulties in the way of such transmission.

a Geology of Fishers Island: Bull. Geol. Soc. America, vol. 16, 1905, p. 372.
PROBLEMS OF WATER CONTAMINATION.

By ISAIAH BOWMAN.

INTRODUCTION.

There exists at tne present time a considerable body of legal decisions relating to the 

disposition or the pollution of underground waters. These decisions are the outgrowth of 

controversies between well owners, and are based on real or supposed facts concerning the 

nature and movement of subterranean waters. In recent years our knowledge of the relation of water movement to rock structure and other factors has been greatly extended, and 

it is not*surprising, therefore, that the decisions which would be affected by new acquisitions 

of knowledge should be inadequate when applied to cases at present under consideration. 

To secure justice in an action in tort decisions should be rendered not in accordance with 

precedent, but in accordance with the principles of justice sought to be established in preceding cases, the present better knowledge of the facts being taken into account.

This condition is illustrated in several sections of the country to-day, and it is desired here 

to present such cases in the hope that they may lead to worthy results both in the construction and care of wells of every variety and in the revision or promulgation of statutes 

intended to cover adequately the principles involved.

OIL AND GAS WELLS.

In the oil and gas regions of Pennsylvania, Indiana, Kansas, Texas, and other States considerable damage has been done by improperly allowing water to enter oil and gas sands to 

the exclusion of the oil and gas. The results have been so grievous that laws have been 

enacted in nearly every State where these substances are prospected looking toward their 

protection. By properly plugging abandoned holes wherever such water is known to enter, 

the driller has discharged his duties according to law by preventing contamination.

WATER WELLS.

DECAY OF CASINGS.

In the case of water wells, which, as a class, are of much wider distribution than either oil 

or gas wells, the same care is not exercised, though the results are sometimes as pernicious as 

in the preceding cases, if not of as great economic importance. In many States, as, for example, in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Washington, it has been made unlawful for a well owner to 

allow water from an artesian well to escape in needless amounts through the opening in the 

pipe at the surface. Often, however, it can be shown that even where such precautions are 

taken large amounts of water are being lost continually through defective casing.

When iron piping is put into the ground in the form of a sewer, it is not expected to last 

more than ten or fifteen years at the longest, but if it is put into the earth in the form of 

well casing there is usually no consideration of its longevity. It is tacitly assumed to last 

forever, while observations on casing withdrawn after having been in the earth both short 

and long periods show conclusively that it suffers deterioration and decay, and should be 

examined at short intervals for resulting defects.

No rule can be laid down as to the rate of decay, which will depend entirely on the conditions in individual cases. Casing withdrawn from wells fifteen to twenty years old has been 

found to be in reasonably good condition except at the joints, though the usual experience is 

that casing of this age is too badly decomposed to be withdrawn at all, except in sections, 

and even this is not always possible. On the other hand, if the waters which come into contact with the casing are heavily charged with minerals, their reaction on the pipe usually 

results in more rapid decay. At Dallas, Tex., the writer observed holes the size of a cent in 

casing withdrawn after having been in the earth but one year. The strong mineral waters

92
PROBLEMS OF WATER CONTAMINATION. 93

in one of the formations of that State, the Glen Rose, had so damaged the casing that it was 

little better than a sieve.

CONDITIONS OF CONTAMINATION.

Some general considerations at this time will make clearer the cases discussed in a later 

paragraph and may also throw light on future difficulties in problems of water supply or 

contamination. 

Let us assume a condition which is so frequent throughout the country as to need no specific illustration that of deep waters under much greater head than those lying nearer the 

surface, and further assume the no less common condition of defective casing and we arrive 

at the result that large quantities of water must be lost before reaching the surface. Again, 

let us assume that the deeper water has been found to be unsatisfactory for domestic purposes because of dissolved minerals and that, while it rises in the well hole with artesian 

effect, it does not flow at the surface. If the well is now abandoned, the decay of the casing 

will in time allow this water access to higher water-bearing strata, and its entrance will mark 

the beginning of pollution of the upper waters. Before the condition is remedied, at the 

average speed with which municipal authorities move in matters of this sort, enough of the 

mineral substances will have entered and been deposited in the upper strata to make their 

redemption by natural filtration long and difficult.

PREVENTION OF CONTAMINATION.

Plugging. The primary cause of the trouble must be dealt with, the polluting waters 

being shut out by plugging the bore hole above the point where such waters enter. This 

is done by driving down a wooden plug, which expands under the action of water and fits the 

well wall snugly. Earth is then thrown over the plug, which compacts, and by the time the 

plug has decayed is itself a preventive of further trouble. Various modifications may be 

introduced into specific cases which will complicate the problem, but a remedy can undoubtedly be found in each case.

Use of packers. Where a hole is drilled in firm rock, throughout its entire length water 

may and often is derived from several strata let us suppose three. If one of the sources 

proves unpalatable, it is necessary to separate the different waters and determine the source 

of the undesirable water. This may be done by temporarily shutting off two of the sources, 

thereby testing each one separately. If it is desired to test the lowest source, an expanding 

hollow rubber plug or packer is inserted above it, with a pipe connecting the top of the packer 

and the well head. Clutches, working automatically, keep the lower part of the packer in 

position, while the weight of the attached pipe presses down the upper part of the packer. 

By this means the middle part of the packer is forced to expand and to fit the walls of the 

well tightly. The lowest water is then drawn from the well through the attached pipe, being 

by the above means entirely separated from the waters above. By the proper adjustment of 

pipes, packers, and plugs each of the waters can be separated and examined in turn. '

The remedy applied to a particular case will, of course, depend on the nature of the above 

determinations. If the lowest water is found to be the source of trouble, it may be plugged 

off, as already explained. Should the uppermost water be unpalatable, it may be shut off 

by applying a rubber packer below the undesirable water-bearing stratum and drawing 

water for use from the pipe connecting with the lower waters. In some cases it may be possible to keep a water of inferior quality in the rock by natural means. For instance, in drilling for an additional supply the driller may come to a sand in which the water is of lower 

head than the upper waters through which he has passed. In this event he may allow natural infiltration from the upper waters into the undesirable bed to take place. Unless the 

well is pumped too vigorously this will serve as a remedy, but the total yield of sweet water 

could in this case be utilized only by plugging the lowermost water.

NEED OF CAREFUL INVESTIGATIONS.

The only way by which municipal interests could be protected under any of the above conditions would be by making a thorough examination of the well hole and an exploration of 

- IRR 160 06 7
94 UNDERGKOUND-WATER PAPERS, 1906.

the amount and quality of each water contributing to the yield of the well. This would be 

very greatly facilitated by having at hand a log of the well that is, a record of the character 

and extent of each of the formations through which the bore hole had been drilled. This 

has been recognized by one State at least. South Dakota requires this in the following 

statute:

It is hereby made the duty of the township board to embody in the contract for the sinking of said 

public artenan wells a proviso that the person sinking said wells shall ipake a record of the depth of each 

well and the formations entered or passed through'in the construction of the same, and such provision is 

hereby made an essence of the contract, and a violation thereof shall be const rued to be a violation of the 

contract. (Laws, 1891, chap. 80, sec. 35.)

It is interesting to note that this same State also requires that every person sinking an 

artesian well shall provide for such well a proper casing, in order to prevent the well from 

caving in, and to prevent the escape of the water when it is desirable that such water be confined. It is not clear, however, under the terms of the law, precisely what is meant by a 

proper casing, inasmuch as through the decay of the casing it may fulfill its function of confining strata er water for several months only, while again it may last for years.

It is not possible at this time to take up in greater detail the means by which the bore hole 

in various conditions may be explored. It is sufficient here to state that such exploration 

can in every case be accomplished along scientific lines, and that more and more this is actually being done.

To further suggest a way in which these ideas may be applied in a practical way to specific 

cases, let us take the instance of the partial failure of a given water supply as expressed by a 

loss of head. Heretofore this has generally been assumed to indicate that the limit of available waters had been passed and that in someway means should be adopted looking toward 

the maintenance of head. May it not be that in such cases the loss of head is partly or even 

entirely due to defective casing, which allows the water from lower sources to escape 

through the pipe and enter porous nonwater-bearing strata at a higher level, or to enter 

water-bearing strata the water of which is standing at a lower head? Several cases have 

come to the writer's notice in which the conditions were almost identical with the assumed 

case above, and it can not be too strongly emphasized here that some such result as the one 

above outlined must follow.

SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF CONTAMINATION.

Two specific illustrations of some of the above-mentioned conditions have been supplied 

to the writer by Mr. J. E. Bacon and are a result of experiments conducted by him looking 

toward the improvement of the water supply in the cities of Saginaw, Mich., and Dallas, 

Tex. Mr. Bacon's kind assistance in gathering these data and putting them at the disposal 

of the writer is hereby gratefully acknowledged.

Conditions at Saginaw, Mich. At Saginaw, Mich., there are a large number of salt wells, 

many of which have been abandoned for one cause or another. In the abandoned wells 

the bore hole allows salt or brackish water to reach the surface under the influence of the 

natural head of the water, together with convection currents and diffusion. A part of the 

city supply had, previous to 1902, been drawn from a deep-well system consisting of about 

20 bored wells having an internal diameter of 4 inches and a depth ranging from 89 to 230 

feet. Most of these wells are in the bed rock and draw their supply from sources which 

have been contaminated by the infiltration of brine from the salt wells. Up to the time 

that Mr. Bacon began his investigations almost no attention had been paid at Saginaw to 

the protection of surface water from contamination of this kind. The seriousness of the 

situation may be appreciated from the fact that possible sources of ground-water supply 

at Saginaw are limited to the loose sands and gravels which overlie the rock an4 the top 

of the rock itself. Manifestly the only way in which this water can be conserved in its 

original purity is by plugging abandoned salt wells at a suitable distance below the surface 

and exercising great care in maintaining the casing in others intact. The condition has
PEOBLEMS OF WATEE CONTAMINATION. 95

been partly remedied by the above means and water obtained for municipal purposes from 

the glacial sands and gravels overlying the sandstone.

Conditions at Dallas, Tex. The second case is the one illustrated by conditions at Dallas, 

Tex., where Mr. Bacon is at the present time (January, 1906) investigating the source and 

yield of potable water for city use. Water is yielded by four formations the Woodbine, 

the Paluxy, the Glen Rose, and the Trinity named in the order of their occurrence downward. While these are locally separated, the Glen Rose is really a part of the Trinity 

division. The lower Trinity sands have never been explored in the Dallas region, and their 

value as water producers is therefore unknown, but both the Paluxy and Woodbine formations contain sweet water. Most of the city wells derive water at the present time from 

the Woodbine, and it is the inadequacy of the supply from these sands which has led to the 

present investigations.

The peculiar conditions which are to be recognized here are those arising from the fact 

that one of the city wells penetrates the Glen Rose formation, and the water supplied from 

these sands is under a greater head than that from the overlying Paluxy. Moreover, the 

Glen Rose water is strongly mineral. Its exact composition has not been determined for 

this locality, but west of Austin the. upper Glen Rose beds yield water containing strontium, 

magnesium, and sodium. Many residents of Dallas use the. water for its real or supposed 

medicinal value.

This mineral water attacks the well casing so strongly that casing which had been in the 

well but one year exhibited breaks and checks in great number, and several of these were 

observed the. size of a cent. The threads at the joints were completely decayed and 

unserviceable, so that when an attempt was made to pull the casing each length was lifted 

out as if it had no connection with the next lower length. Its value, therefore, as a tight 

casing was practically zero. Add to the conditions outlined the fact that the Glen Rose 

water is under greater head than the Paluxy and it is seen that gradually the Paluxy sands 

must become impregnated with the mineral substances in the Glen Rose water. While the 

water is used for medicinal purposes by a number of the citizens of Dallas, it is unpalatable 

as drinking water, and attempts to use it as such have proved unsuccessful. Its temperature is high and the contained salts give it a most unpleasant taste.

By inserting a packer with casing to the surface between the Glen Rose and Paluxy sands 

the two waters were separated, the mineral water with high temperature coming up inside 

the pipe and the Paluxy coming up between the pipe so inserted1 and the well casing. Differences in head and quality and temperature of water were at once noticeable, although the 

Paluxy waters were to some extent mineralized. The mineral content, however, steadily 

decreased as the experiment was continued.

RECOMMENDATIONS.

These two examples with the general discussion preceding are sufficient to show the vital 

character of the problems wriich they involve, and ought to lead to the following definite 

results:

1. An accurate log should be kept of every well drilled.

2. Every water-bearing formation should be carefully examined as to its thickness and 

the quality of the watei yielded.

3. The head of each separate water should be accurately determined and its relation 

established with respect to other waters encountered.

4. The casing should be intact when the well is completed and should be kept so, its condition being determined from time to time by suitable experiments.

5. A change in the head or quality of the water should be interpreted only after the 

possible effects of defective casing are taken into account.

6. In those States in which the geologic conditions are known to favor contamination 

through the operation of one or the other of the causes noted herein, laws should be framed 

making the examination of the well casing and the determination of the exact relations of 

separate water-bearing strata the duty of each well owner or well driller.
INSTANCES OF IMPROVEMENT OF WATER IN WELLS.

By MYRON L. FULLER.

INTRODUCTION.

Instances in which well waters which were pure at the time of drilling have later become 

mineralized and unfit for use are not uncommon, but cases in which waters originally high 

in mineral matter have later become fresh and pure are so seldom reported that they excite 

considerable comment.

Such an improvement in the quality of the water, however, is perfectly natural and is to be 

expected under certain definite conditions which are somewhat widespread. The water in 

soaking downward through the ground dissolves a certain amount of mineral matter from 

the materials with which it comes into contact. The longer the water remains in the ground 

the more mineralized it tends to become. Where underground circulation is active the 

water which has been in contact with the soluble materials of the rock is constantly being 

replaced by pure waters from the surface, and in such instances the ground waters are 

relatively low in dissolved solids. Where the circulation is slow, on the other hand, the 

water remains in contact with the surrounding mineral grains" for long periods of time and 

often becomes highly mineralized. Such waters are especially likely to be found in bed3 

which, while porous at the surface, pinch out or become impervious in their lower portions, 

thus tending to limit or prevent the free downward circulation of the water. Sometimes 

only a slight circulation is needed to improve the water, especially where it is in materials 

containing only small amounts of soluble matter. In such instances a single small well may 

sometimes effect a change in the composition of the water. A number of such instances 

were brought to light by work conducted under the direction of the writer near Wilmington, 

N. C., in 1905, and are described in the following paragraphs of this paper. For the facts 

regarding the wells the writer is indebted to Mr. L. W. Stephenson.

DESCRIPTION OF WELLS.

The wells here described may be taken as types of their class. They are located on the 

Atlantic coast at a point nearly due east of Wilmington, N. C., 10 miles or more from the 

city. One of them is on the mainland, near the shore of Greenville Sound, another on 

the Hammocks, just inside of the barrier separating the sound from the ocean, while the 

other two are on the barrier beach itself.

TARRVMORE HOTEL WELL.

The well of the Tarrymore Hotel, which is situated on the barrier near the inlet opposite, 

the mouth of Wrightsvllle Creek, was drilled in 1905 by J. D. Lowry. It is 4J inches in 

diameter at the top and 3| inches at the bottom and has a depth of 195 feet. It passed 

through alternating beds of sand and thin layers of rock varying from soft to hard. Water 

was associated with the rock at 65 feet and at the botton of the well, the principal horizon 

being at the latter point. The water rises to within 4 feet of the surface, or about 5 feet 

above the level of the sea, the height varying somewhat with the tide. The well yields 25 

gallons a minute when pumped.

When the well was drilled the water possessed a noticeable salty taste, but after it had 

been in use for some time the salt became less noticeable and eventally the water became 

entirely fresh.

96
IMPROVEMENT OF WATER IN WELLS. 97

LUMINA PARK WELL.

The Lumina Park well is located on the barrier a short distance south of the well just 

described. It was likewise drilled by J. D. Lowry in 1905, and is 3 inches in diameter and 

198 feet deep. The elevation is somewhat lower than that of the Tarrymore well, and the 

well flows at high tide, although at {ow tide the water does not quite reach the surface. 

Twenty-five gallons a minute are obtained by pumping. This well passes through about 

the same succession of materials as the hotel well and obtains water from similar sand rocks.

When drilled this well also yielded water which was decidedly salty, but on continued 

use the salt taste gradually disappeared until at the present time the amount of chlorine is 

not much higher than in the ordinary fresh-water wells of the region.

HAMMOCKS WELL.

The Hammocks well, owned by the Consolidated Eailway, Light, and Power Company 

of Wilmington, was drilled several years ago to a depth of 259 feet. The diameter is 8 

inches at the top and 6 inches at the bottom. At 98 feet a cavity was encountered in hard 

shell rock and yielded a large supply of salty water. This was more or less effectively cased 

off and the well continued. Later a supply of fresh water began to appear through the 

larger casing surrounding the smaller one, but it is said that no water was encountered in 

the 6-inch portion of the well. The water may come from the cavity or along the lower 

casing from some lower horizon. The data were given from memory, and the cavity may 

in reality have been struck at a depth considerably greater than was reported, in which 

case it may possibly be correlated with the horizon in the Tarrymore Hotel and Lumina 

Park wells. At any rate fresh water is now obtained from some horizon which at the 

time of drilling yielded salt water or none at all.

QUARANTINE STATION WELL.

The well at the quarantine station is built on piles about half a mile from shore, near the 

mouth of Cape Fear Eiver. It was drilled some years ago by Mr. De Witt, of Washington, 

D. C., and has a diameter of about 3 inches and a depth of 400 feet. Its elevation is several 

feet above high tide. The water level fluctuates with changes of tide, the water generally 

standing about 2 feet above tide level. It is pumped by steam at the rate of 4,500 gallons 

an hour.

When the pump is started after standing idle for some time, salt water, similar to that 

in the wells previously described, is obtained, but after a few minutes the salt rapidly 

decreases in amount and in less than twenty minutes it can no longer be detected by the 

taste.

CHANGE IN COMPOSITION.

NATURE OF CHANGE.

In the preceding paragraphs two instances of permanent change in the composition of 

.the water from salt to fresh, under normal conditions of pumping or flow, are described. 

These changes were exhibited by the Tarrymore Hotel and Lumina Park wells. No analyses 

of the original waters from these wells were made, but in their saline content they were 

similar to the water yielded by the well at the quarantine station before, pumping, a partial 

analysis of which is given herewith.

Field analysis of water from quarantine station well before pumping.

[L. W. Stephenson, analyst, 1905.]

Parts por 

million. 

Iron (Fe)....................................................................................... 1.5

Calcium (Ca)............................................. ..................................... 550

Carbonate radicle (CO3)........................................................................ 195

Sulphate radicle (SO<).......................................................................... 622

Chlorine (Cl).................................................................................... 8,374
98 UNDERGROUND-WATER PAPERS, 1906.

The type of water yielded after the wells have been pumped or have flowed for some 

time is illustrated by the analysis of water from the C. W. Worth well. This well, which 

is located near the shore of Greenville Sound, just south of the mouth of Wrightsville Creek 

and about opposite the Tarrymore Hotel and Lurnina Park wells, was drilled in 1904. It 

is 3 inches in diameter and 152 feet deep and obtained water from a bluish sandstone 

about 150 feet from the surface. The well is 8 or 9 feet above sea level and flows at the 

rate of 10 gallons a minute at a height of about 6 feet above the surface, the level varying 

somewhat with the tide. Like the other wells in the vicinity it was probably salty at the 

start. A partial analysis of the water now obtained is as follows:

Field, analysis of water from C. W. Worth ivell.

[L. \V. Stephenson, analyst, 1905.]

Parts

per 

million.

Iron (Fet........................................................................................ 1

Calcium (Ca)............................................................................,....... 200

Carbonate radicle (CO3 i......................................................................... 224

Sulphate radicle (SO.|)........................................................................... None.

Chlorine (Cl)..................................................................................... 85

The analysis of the water from the quarantine-station well before pumping may probably 

be taken as typical of the salty waters obtained from the wells in this region when drilled, 

while that of the water from the Worth well represents the maximum purity likely to be 

attained in these wells. Between the two there will be all gradations, one of which is represented by a second analysis of water from the quarantine-station well, made on a sample 

taken after pumping twenty minutes at the rate of 4,500 gallons an hour. This is as follows:

Field analysis of water from quarantine-station well after pumping. 

[L. W. Stephenson, analyst, 1905.]

Chlorine (Cl )....................................................

Parts

per 

million. 

................................. 1

.................................. 209

................................. 122

................................. 36

................................. 298

The decrease of mineral matter in the water of the quarantine-station well is gradual, and 

the water is unquestionably even lower in chlorine after pumping for thirty minutes than 

after twenty minutes.

It will be noted that the relative as well as the absehite amounts of the mineral ingredients of the fresh waters are entirely different from those of the saline waters. From over 

8,000 parts per million at the start the amount of chlorine, for instance, may fall to less than 

100, while the sulphates may decrease from 600 to nothing. At the same time the carbonates may actually increase, notwithstanding less than a tenth of the original total solids is 

present.

CAUSE OF CHANGE.

The change of the water from salt to fresh is believed to be due to the drawing in of fresh 

supplies from the surface after the exhaustion of the mineralized waters by pumping or by 

their natural removal through flowing wells. Whether the salinity was due to originally 

included sea water, to salt dissolved from the sediments, or to a penetration of sea water now 

going on can not be absolutely determined. The high percentage of calcium present, 

arhounting to over 500 parts per million, indicates that sea water was not the only source of 

the salinity, since such water rarely carries over 5 parts per million.

The ease with which the salt water was removed and the composition of the water itself 

suggest that the derivation of the salinity from contemporaneous leakage of salt water is 

very improbable. Some of the salts may come from imprisoned sea water, but the general
IMPROVEMENT OF WATER IN WELLS. 99

character of the waters indicates that solution of matter from the deposits in which they 

occur or from beds with which they have been in contact is the predominating factor in 

determining their composition.

It is evident that the wells, although striking the water bed below the limit reached by the 

active circulation of the surface waters, were not beyond the limit of feeble circulation, for 

otherwise the mineral content of the water would have been much higher and more nearly 

that of the deep wells at Wilmington, in which the salinity approaches if it does not exceed 

that of ordinary sea waters. -

APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLE.

The principle that originally inclosed sea or other highly mineralized waters may be 

removed by flowing or pumped wells is one which may prove to be of broad application to 

waters in the Coastal Plain and similar regions elsewhere. It means that a well should not 

necessarily be regarded as a failure if only salt water is obtained at the start. Instead of 

abandoning and plugging such a well it should be allowed to flow as freely as possible. No 

harm to underground supplies will in such instances be brought about by allowing free flow, 

while, on the other hand, as shown by the wells described, fresh water may be drawn into the 

water-bearing bed as the salt water is removed and a valuable well eventually secured. 

After the water has become fresh the flow or pumping, as the case may be, should be regulated and only enough water to meet actual needs taken. Otherwise the drain on the ground 

water may become so severe that the supply will be exhausted, as has often been the case.
INDEX.

Page 

A.

Absorption by rocks. (See Porosity.) 

Alabama, publications on.................. 3

Arkansas, drainage of wet lands in......... 54-58

publications on......................... 3

Artesian, original use of term.............. 9-10

present use of term..................... 10-12

significance of.......................... 9-15

Artesian area, definition of................. 15

Artesian basin, conditions in, figure showing. ............................. 14

definition of............................ 14

Artesian Lithia well, Ga., description of... 87 

Artesian pressure, definition of............. 14

Artesian principle, definition of............ 14

Artesian slope, conditions in, figure showing.............................. 15

definition of............................ 14

Artesian system, definition of.............. 14

Artesian water, definition of............... 14

Artesian well, definition of................. 15

Austell, Ga., peculiar mineral waters found

near............................ 86-92

B.

Bay de, Noc, Mich. (See Big Bay de Noc;

Little Bay de Noc.) 

Bayley, W. S., work of..................... 2

Big Bay de Noc, Mich., flowing wells near.. 44-46 

Blaney, Mich., well at...................... 50

Borden Lithia Spring, Ga,, description of.. 86 

Borings, evidence of, on depth of underground water circulation....... 67

Bowman, Isaiah, paper by, on problems of

water contamination........... 92-95

work of................................. 2

Brard, on use of fluorescein................ 75

Brines, evidence of, on depth of underground water circulation....... 68,69

Buckley, E. R., on porosity of rocks....... 61

C.

California, publications on................. 3

Chalk, porosity of.......................... 61

Chamberlin, T. C., and Salisbury, R. D., on 

amount of free water in the 

earth's crust. .................... 60

Circulation of underground water, depth of. 64-70 

Clapp, F. G., work of....................... 1

Clarke, F. W., on thickness of sedimentary

rocks........................... 62

Clay, porosity of........................... 61

Colorado, publications on.................. 3

Connecticut, geologic sketch map of........ 20

publications on.. ...................... 3

Page.

Contamination of water in wells, laws relating to........................... 92-95

Oorinne, Mich., well at..................... 50

Crider, A. F., paper by, on drainage of wet

lands in Arkansas by wells..... 54-58

work of................................. 2

Crystalline rocks, character of............. 19-20

of Georgia, peculiar mineral waters

from............................ 86-92

water in................................ 19-28

depth to............................ 26

quality of........................... 23

quantity of......................... 24-28

wells in. cost of ........................ 28

Cuba, publication on....................... 3

P.

Dallas, Tex., contamination of wells at..... 95

Dana, J. D., on proportion of various sediments .......................... 63

on thickness of sedimentary rocks..... 62

Decay of well casing, discussion of......... 92

Deep borings, evidence of, on underground

water circulation............... 07

Delaware, publications on................. 3

Delesse, Achille, on amount of free water in

the earth's crust................ 59

on porosi ty of rock"s.................... 61

Devils Lake, Mich., flowing well at........ 43

Diabase, porosity of....................... 61

Dionis de Carrie res, on coloration experiments..... ..................... 75

District of Columbia, publications on...... 3

Dole, R. B., paper by, on use of fluorescein 

in the study of underground 

waters.......................... 73-85

Dcllarville, Mich., flowing wells at and near. 41-42 

Dolomite, porosity of...................... fil

Donaldson, Mich., flowing well at.......... 30

Drainage by wells in Arkansas, paper on ... 54-58 

by wells in Michigan.................... 54

publications on......................... 8

Drift, character of, in Connecticut......... 20

flowing wells obtained from, in northern

Michigan....................... 30-42

Drift waters, evidence of, on depth of underground circulation............. 68

Drilling in crystalline rocks, productsfrom 20

E.

Earth's crust, free water in, amount of..... 59-72

Eckerman, Mich., flowing wells at.......... 40

Ellis, E. E., paper by, on occurrence of water

in crystalline rocks............. 19-28

work of................................. 1,2

Emerson, Mich., flowing wells near......... 39

101
102 INDEX.

Page. 

Engadine, Mioh., flowing wells near.....'... 43

Ensign, Mieh., wells at...................... 51

Escanaba, Mioh., flowing wells near........ 46-47

Ewen, Mich., flowing wells at and near..... 42

F.

Faults, evidence of, on thickness of sedimentary rocks...................... 02

Fiber, Mich., flowing wells near............ 34-39

Florida, publications on................... 4

Flow, measurements of, publications on... 8 

Flow indicators, discussion of.............. 74

Fluorescein, action of...................... 77-79

application of.......................... 76-77

bibliography on........................ 83-85

character and appearance of........... 75-76

experiments with...................... 79-83

use of, in study of underground waters. 73-85 

Fluoroscope, description of ................ 76

Fracture, zone of, depth of................. 63-64

Fuller, M. L., paper by, on improvement of

water in wells.................. 96-99

paper by, on peculiar mineral waters 

from crystalline rocks of Georgia. ............................ 86-92

paper by, on representation of wells and

springs on maps................ 16-18

paper by, on significance of term

"artesian" .................... 9-15

paper by, on total amount of free water

in the earth's crust............. 59-72

work of................................. 1,2

Gabbro, porosity of........................ 61

Garden Peninsula. Mich., wells on......... 44,50

Gas and oil wells, contamination of, laws

relating to...................... 92

Geikie, A., on occurrence of anhydrite deposits .......................... 69

on porosity of rocks.................... 61

Georgia, crystalline rocks of, peculiar mineral waters from............... 86-92

drainage by wells in.................... 55

publications on......................... 4

Germfask, Mich., wells at.................. 50

Gilbert, G. K., on proportion of various

sediments...................... 63

on thickness of sedimentary rocks ..... 62

Gilchrist, Mich., well at.................... 50

Gladstone, Mich., flowing wells at......... 45-46

Glenn, L. C., work of....................... 2

Gneiss, porosity of......................... 61

wells in, yield of........................ 24,27

Gould, Mich., well at....................... 50

Grand Marais, Mich., flowing well near..... 47

Granite, porosity of........................ 61

wells in, yield of........................ 24,27

Grano-diorite, wells in, yield of............ 24,27

Green Bay, Mich., flowing wells near....... 46

Gregory, H. E., work of.................... 2

Ground water, definition of................ 12

movements of, publications on......... 7

Gypsum, evidence of, on depth of underground circulation............. 68-69

porosity of............................. 61

H.

Hall, C. W., work of.......................

Hawaii, publication on.....................

Helnier, Mich., flowing well at.............

Hendricks, Mich., flowing wells at and near.

Hiawatha, Mich., wells at..................

Holmes, J. A., on water in deep wells......

Horton, R. E., on drainage by wells.......

Hoskins, L. M., on amount of free water in 

the earth's crust...............

on depth of free water..................

Hunt, T. S., on occurrence of anhydrite deposits. .........................

Hunt Spur, Mich., flowing well at..........

I. 

Idaho, publications on.....................

Illinois, publications on....................

Indian Lake, Mich., wells at...............

Indiana, publications on...................

Iowa, publications on......................

43

Johnson, B. L., work of.................... 2

Joints, evidence of, on depth of undergroundwater circulation ............... 69-70

inclination of, in Connecticut rocks..... 21

occurrence of water in.................. 21-23

openings at, width of.................. 23

spacing and continuity of.............. 22

Kansas, publications on..........

Kentucky, publications on........

King, F. H., on porosity of rocks. 

Knapp, G. N., work of.............

L.

Lake Superior, Michigan, flowing wells near 

Lands, drainage of, in Arkansas by wells...

drainage of, in Michigan by wells.......

Le Couppey de la Forest, on beer yeast as a 

flow indicator..................

on fluorescein..........................

Leverett, Frank, paper by, on flowing-well 

districts in eastern part of 

Northern Peninsula of Michigan.

work of.................................

Lewis, Mich., wells at......................

Limestone, porosity of.....................

Lines, E. F., work of.......................

Little Bay de Noc, Mich., flowing wells near. 

Louisiana, publications on.................

McCallie, S. W., on artesian well at Atlanta

Ga.

TTn drainage by wells in Georgia.

work of..........................

McCarron, Mich., flowing wells near. 

MacDonald, D. F., work of..........

McEvoy, Mien., flowing well at......

McMillan, Mich., wells at............

Magmatic waters, occurrence of.....

Maine, publications on..............

47

54-58 

54

74

77

29-53 

2 

50

21,61 

2

45-46
INDEX. 103

Page. 

Manistique, Mich., wells at and near.... 43-44,50

Manistique Lake, Michigan, wells at....... 49.50

Maps, representation of springs and wells

on ............................. 16-18

Marble, porosity of........................ 61

Marboutin, On use of fluoroscope........... 75,76

Maryland, publications on................. 4

Massachusetts, publications on............ 4-5

Menominee, Mich., flowing well near....... 47

Merrill, G. P., on porosity of rocks......... 61

Michigan, drainage of lands by wells in .... 54

flowing well districts in eastern part of

Northern Peninsula............ 29-53

publications on......................... 5

watersupplies,public, in Northern Peninsula. .,...._................._ 52

Mineral waters from crystalline rocks of

Georgia........................ 86

publications on......................... 7

Mines, evidence of, on depth of und agroundwater circulation............... (i4

ground-water conditions in............ ti5-M>

Minnesota, publications on................. 5

Mississippi, publications on................ 5

N.

Nahma, Mich., flowing wells near..........

Nebraska, publications on.................

New Hampshire, publications on, list of... 

New Jersey, publications on...............

New Mexico, publications on ...............

New York, publications on............'....

Newberry, Mich., wells at and near .. 40-41,48-49 

Noc, Bay de, Mich. See Big Bay de Noc;

Little Bay de Noc. 

North Carolina, publications on........... 6

wells in, improvement of water in...... 96-99

North Dakota, publications on............ 6

Norton, W. H., work of.................... 2

O. 

Obsidian, porosity of...................... 61

Ohio, publications on...................... 6

Oil and gas wells, eoatamination of, laws 

relating to....................

Oklahoma, publications on..............

Oolite, porosity of.......................

Oregon, publications on..................

Ozark, Mich., wells near.................

P.

Packers in wells, use of..................... 93

Palms, Mich., wells at...................... 49

Pennsylvania, publications on............. 6

Pickford. Mich., wells near...............30-33,48

Plugging wells, method of.................. 93

Pores, occurrence of water in.............. 21

Porosity of rofks, discussion of............ 61

Publications on underground waters, list of 3-8

Quartzite, porosity of...................... 61

Quartzite schist, wells in, yield of.......... 24,27

Quitman, Ga., drainage by wells in........ 55

R.

Rapid River, Mich., flowing wells at....... 45

Reade, T. M., on proportion of various sediments .......................... 63

on thickness of sedimentary rocks...... 62

Rex, Mich., wells at........................ 50

Rexford, Mich., wells at.................... 48

Rhode Island, publications on............. fi

kocks, porosity of......................... 61

Rudyard, Mich., flowing wells near........ 34-39

S.

Saginaw, Mich., contamination of wells at. 94 

St. Ignace, Mich., flowing wells near....... 43

St. Jacques, Mich.-, wells at................ 50

St. Marys River, Mich., wells near......... 48

Salisbury, R. D. , and Chamberlin, T. C., 

on amount of free water in the 

earth's crust......:\........... 60

Salt deposits, evidence of, on deptli of underground water circulation.... 69

Sand, porosity of.......................... 61

Sandstone, porosity of....:................ 21,61

Sanford, S., work of........................ 1

Sanlt Ste. Marie, Mich., wells near......... 48

Schist, porosity of......................... 61

wells in, yield of........................ 24,27

Sedimentary rocks, proportions of different

kinds of........................ 63

thickness of............................ 62-63

Seney, Mich., wells at...................... 50

Sewage, drainage of, into wells............. 55

Shales, porosity of......................... 21

Shelldrake, Mich., wells at and near........ 42,48

Shepard, E. M., work of.................... 2

Simpson, H. E., work of................... 2

Slate, porosity of.......................... 61"

Slichter, C. S., on ammonium and sodium

chloride as flow indicators..... 74

on amount of free water in the earth's

crust........................... 59

on use of term artesian ................ 10

Smith, E. A., work of...................... 2

Smith, G. O., on cementing of joint planes. 67 

Soo Junction, Mich., flowing wells at., .... 40

South Carolina, publications on............ 6

South Dakota, publications on............ 6

Springs, representation of wells and, on

maps........................... 16-18

Springs, thermal, evidence of, on depth of 

underground water circula 

tion...........-..-.....--...--.. 64-67

Springs and spring deposits, publications

on.............................. 7

Stephenson, L. W., work of................ 2

Strong, Mich., flowing wells at............. 40

Strongville, Mich., Bowing wells near...... 39

Sugar Island, Mich., wells near............ 47

Tahquamenon district, Mich., flowing wells

in............................... 39-42

Tennessee, publications on................. 6

Texas, publications on..................... fi
104 INDEX.

Page. 

Thermal springs, evidence of, on depth of

underground water circulation. 64 

Trillat, on flow indicators.................. 57

U. 

Underground waters, flow of, materials

used to indicate................ 74

use of fluoresce'in in study of........... 73-85

Van Hise, C. R., on amount of free water in

the earth's crust............... 60

on proportion of various sediments.... 63

on thickness of sedimentary rocks...... 63

Vans Harbor, Mich., flowing wells near.... 44

-Veatch, A. C., work of..................... 2

Vermont, publications on.................. 6

Virginia, publications on... ............... 6

W. 

Washington, publications on.............. 7

Water, circulation of, in earth's crust, depth

of............................... 64-70

improvement of, in wells............... 96-99

occurrence of, in crystalline rocks...... 19-28

free, in th^ earth's crust, amount of.... 59-72

mineral, from crystalline rocks of Georgia............................. 86

Page. 

Water, underground, use of fluoresce'in in

studj of........................ 73-85

Water wells, contamination of, discussion

of............................... 92-95

Well casing, decay of....................... 92

Well-drilling methods, publications on..... 7

Wells, drainage by, in Arkansas........... 54-58

drainage by, in Georgia................ 55

in Michigan........................ 54

representation of springs and, on maps. 16-lg 

water in, contamination of, discussion

of............................... 92-95

improvement of.................... 96-99

Wells, flowing, in eastern part of northern

peninsula of Michigan.......... 29-53

Wellsburg, Mich., wells near............... 48

West Virginia, publications on.----........ 7

Wet lands, drainage of, in Arkansas, by

wells........................... 54-58

drainage of, in Michigan, by wells...... 54

Wilmington, N. C., wells near, improvement of waTer in............... 96-99

Wisconsin, publications on................. 7

Wyoming, publications on................. 7

Z.

Zone of fracture, depth of.................. 63-64
CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL

SURVEY.

[Water-Supply Paper No. 160.]

The serial publications of the United States Geological Survey consist of (1) Annual 

Reports, (2) Monographs, (3) Professional Papers, (4) Bulletins, (5) Mineral 

Resources, (6) Water-Supply and Irrigation Papers, (7) Topographic Atlas of United 

States folios and separate sheets thereof, (8) Geologic Atlas of the United States 

folios thereof. The classes numbered 2, 7, and 8 are sold at cost of publication; the 

others are distributed free. A circular giving complete lists may be had on application.

Most of the above publications may be obtained or consulted in the following ways:

1. A limited number are delivered to the Director of the Survey, from whom they 

may be obtained, free of charge (except classes 2, 7, and 8), on application.

2. A certain number are delivered to Senators and Representatives in Congress for 

distribution.

3. Other copies are deposited with the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, 

D. C., from whom they may be had at prices slightly above cost.

4. Copies of all Government publications are furnished to the principal public 

libraries in the large cities throughout the United States, where they may be consulted by those interested.

The Professional Papers, Bulletins, and Water-Supply Papers treat of a variety of 

subjects, and the total number issued is large. They have therefore been classified 

into the following series: A, Economic geology; B, Descriptive geology; C, Systematic geology and paleontology; D, Petrography and mineralogy; E, Chemistry and 

physics; F, Geography; G, Miscellaneous; H, Forestry; I, Irrigation; J, Water storage; K, Pumping water; L, Quality of water; M, General hydrographic investigations; N, Water power; (), Underground waters; P, Hydrographic progress reports. 

This paper is the fifty-eighth in Series 0, the complete list of which follows (PP=Professional Paper; B=Bulletin; WS=Water-Supply Paper):

SERIES O, UNDERGROUND WATERS.

WS 4. A reconnaissance in southeastern Washington, by I. C. Russell. 1897. 96 pp., 7 pis. (Out of

stock.) 

WS 6. Underground waters of southwestern Kansas, by Erasmus Haworth. 1S97. 65 pp., 12 pis.

(Out of stock.)

WS 7. Seepage waters of northern Utah, by Samuel Fortier. 1897. 50 pp., 3 pis. (Out of stock.) 

WS 12. Underground waters of southeastern Nebraska, by N. H. Darton. 189S. 56 pp., 21 pis. (Out

of stock.)

WS 21. Wells of northern Indiana, by Frank Leverett. 1899. 82 pp., 2 pis. (Out of stock.) 

WS 26. Wells of southern Indiana (continuation of No. 21), by Frank Leverett. 1899. 64pp. (Out

of stock.) 

WS 30. Water resources of the lower peninsula of Michigan, by A. 'C. Lane. 1899. 97 pp., 7 pis. (Out

of stock.)

WS 31. Lower Michigan mineral waters, by A. C. Lane. 1899. 97 pp., 4 pis. (Out of stock.) 

WS 34. GeoL'gy and water resources of a portion <>f southeastern South Dakota, by J. E. Todd. 1900.

34 pp., 19 ]ils. 

WS 53. Geology and water resources of Nez Perces County, Idaho, Pt. I, by I.C. Russell. 1901. 86

pp., 10 ]>ls. (Out of stock.) 

WS 54. Geology and water resources of Nez Perces County, Idaho, Pt. II, by I. C. Russell. 1901.

87-141 pp. (Out of stock.)

I
II SERIES LIST.

WS 55. Geology and water resources of a portion of Yakima County, Wash., by Q. O. Smith. 1901.

68 pp., 7 pis. (Out of stock.) 

WS 57. Preliminary list of deep borings in the United States, Ft. I, by N. H. Darton. 1902. 60 pp.

(Out of stock.) 

WS 59. Development and application of water in southern California, Pt. I, by J. B. Lippincott. 1902.

95 pp., 11 pis. (Out of stock.) 

WS 60. Development and application of water in southern California, Pt. II, by J. B. Lippincott.

1902. 96-140 pp. (Out of stock.) 

WS 61. Preliminary list of deep borings in the United States, Pt. II, by N. H. Darton. 1902. 67 pp.

(Out of stock.)

WS -67. The motions of underground waters, by C. S. Slichter. 1902. 106 pp., 8 pis. (Out of stock.) 

B 199. Geology and water resources of the Snake River Plains of Idaho, by I. C. Russell. 1902. 192

pp., 25 pis.

WS 77. Water resources of Molokai, Hawaiian Islands, by Waldemar Lindgren. 1903. 62 pp., 4 pis. 

WS 78. Preliminary report on artesian basin in southwestern Idaho and southeastern Oregon, by I. C.

Russell. ^1903. 53 pp., 2 pis. 

PP 17. Preliminary report on the geology and water resources of Nebraska west of the one hundred

and third meridian, by N. H. Darton. 1903. 69 pp., 43 pis. 

WS 90. Geology and water resources of a part of the lower James River Valley, South Dakota, by

J. E. Todd and 0. M. Hall. 1904. 47 pp., 23 pis. 

WS 101. Underground waters of southern Louisiana, by G. D. Harris, with discussions of their uses for

water supplies and for rice irrigation, by M. L. Puller. 1904. 98 pp., 11 pis.

WS 102. Contributions to the hydrology of eastern United States, 1903, by M. L. Fuller. 1904. 522 pp. 

WS 104. Underground waters of Gila Valley, Arizona, by W. T. Lee. 1904. 71 pp., 5 pis. 

WS 110. Contributions to the hydrology of eastern United States, 1904; M. L. Fuller, geologist in

charge. 1904. 211 pp., 5 pis. 

PP 32. Geology and underground water resources of the central Great Plains, by N. H. Darton. 1904.

433 pp., 72 p'.s. (Out of stock.) 

WS 111. Preliminary report on underground waters of Washington, b'y Henry Landes. iy04. 85 pp.,

Ipl. 

WS 112. Underflow tests in the drainage basin of Los Angeles River, by Homer Hainlin. 1904.

55 pp., 7 pis. 

WS 114. Underground waters of eastern United States; M. L. Fuller, geologist in charge. 1904.

286 pp., 18 pis. 

WS 118. Geology 4 pis.' and water resources of east-central Washington, by F. C. Calkins. 1905. 96 pp.,

B 252. Preliminary report on the geology and water resources of central Oregon, by I. C. Russell.

1905. 138pp., 24 pis. 

WS 120. Bibliographic review and index of papers relating to underground waters, published by the

United States Geological Survey, 1879-1904, by M. L. Fuller. 1905. 128 pp. 

WS 122. Relation of the law to underground waters, by D. W. Johnson. 1905. 55 pp. 

WS 123. Geology and underground water conditions of the Jornada del Muerto, New Mexico, by C. R.

Keyes. 1905. 42 pp., 9 pis.

WS 136. Underground waters of the Salt River Valley, by W. T. Lee. 1905. 194 pp., 24 pis. 

B 264. Record of deep-well drilling for 1904, by M. L. Fuller, E. F. Lines, and A. C. Veatch. 1905.

106 pp. 

PP 44. Underground water resources of Long Island, New York, by A. C. Veatch and others. 1905.

394 pp., 34 pis. 

WS 137. Development of underground waters in the eastern coastal plain region of southern California,

by W. C. Mendenhall. 1905. 140 pp., 7 pis. 

WS 138. Development of underground waters in the central coastal plain region of southern California,

by W. C. Mendenhall. 1905. 162 pp., 5 pis. 

WS 139. Development of underground waters in the western coastal plain region of southern California,

by W. C. Mendenhall. 19U5. 105 pp., 7 pis. 

WS 140. Field measurements of the rate of movement of underground waters, byC. S. Slichter. 1905.

122 pp., 15 pis. 

WS 141. Observations on the ground waters of Rio Grande Valley, by C. S. Slichter. 1905. 83 pp.,

5 pis.

WS 142. Hydrology of San Bernardino Valley, California, by W. C. Mendenhall. 1905. 124 pp., 13 pis. 

WS 145. Contributions to the hydrology of eastern United States; M. L. Fuller, geologist in charge.

19U5. 220 pp., 6 pis.

WS 148. Geology and water resources of Oklahoma, by C. N. Gould. 1905. 178 pp., 22 pis. 

WS 149. Preliminary list of deep borings in the United States, second edition, with additions, by

N. H. Darton. 1905. 175 pp. 

PP 46. Geology and underground water-resources of northern Louisiana and southern Arkansas, by

A. C. Veatch. 1906. 

WS 153. The underflow in Arkansas Valley in western Kansas, by C. S. Slichter. 1906. 90 pp., 3 pis.
SERIES LIST. Ill

WS 154. The geology and water resources of the eastern portion of the Panhandle of Texas, by C. N.

Gould. 1906. 64 pp., 15 pis. 

WS 155. Fluctuations of the water level in wells, with special reference to Long Island, New York,

by A. C. Veatch. 1906. 83 pp., 9 pis. 

WS 157. Underground water in the valleys of Utah Lake and Jordan River, Utah, by G. B. Richardson.

1906. 81 pp., 9 pis. 

WS 158. Preliminary report on the geology and underground waters of the Roswell artesian area, by

C. A. Fisher. 1906. 29 pp., 9.pls. 

PP 52. Geology and underground waters of the Arkansas Valley in eastern Colorado, by N. H. Darton.

1906. 90 pp., 28 pis. 

WS 159. Summary of underground-water resources of Mississippi, by A. F. Crider and L. C. Johnson.

1906. 83 pp., 10 pis. 

PP 53. Geology and water resources of the Bighorn basin, Wyoming, by C. A. Fisher. 1906. 69pp.,

14 pis. 

WS 160. Underground-water papers, 1906, by M. L. Fuller. 190C. 101 pp., 1 pi.

The following papers also relate to this subject: Underground waters of Arkansas Valley in eastern 

Colorado, by G. K. Gilbert, in Seventeenth Annual, Pt. II; Preliminary report on artesian waters of a 

portion of the Dakotas, by N. H. Dartou, in Seventeenth Annual, Pt. II; Water resources of Illinois, 

by Frank Leverett, in Seventeenth Annual, Pt. II; Water resources of Indiana and Ohio, by Fiank 

Leverett, in Eighteenth Annual, Pt. IV; New developments in well boring and irrigation in eastern 

South Dakota, by N. H. Darton, in Eighteenth Annual, Pt. IV; Rock waters of Ohio, by Edward 

Orton, in Nineteenth Annual, Pt. IV; Artesian-well prospects in the Atlantic coastal plain region, by 

N. H. Darton, Bulletin No. 138.

Correspondence should be addressed to

THE DIRECTOR,

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY,

- WASHINGTON, D. C. 

JULY, 1906.

o