The

ENERGY

LANDS

PROGRAM

of the

U.S. Geological 

Survey

Fiscal Year 1976

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

CIRCULAR 778
Cover. Low-altitude aerial photographs taken by F. W. Osterwald, 1975. Top, view southwest across 

the Navajo mine near Farmington, N. Mex. Dragline spoil piles in foreground were levelled and 

revegetated, leaving only the highwall and haulage roads to be reclaimed. Dragline shown 

stripping overburden in the dark-gray areas in upper left. Center, Belle Ayr mine near 

Gillette, Wyo. Caballo Creek in upper left is diverted around the pit. Coal bed 21 meters 

thick is being removed in two benches by shovels and trucks. Overburden is being removed at 

right center for stockpiling. Below storage silos and railroad loop, land disturbed by 

construction has been revegetated. Bottom, subsidence pits resulting from collapse of 

underground workings of the Monarch mine near Sheridan, Wyo. Overburden is mostly 

Pleistocene alluvium and less than 31 meters thick. Although some pits are old enough to 

have large trees growing in the bottoms, others are still forming; occasional fires and 

explosions are reported by local residents. The Monarch mine was abandoned in 1914.
The Energy Lands 

Program of the 

U.S. Geological Survey, 

Fiscal Year 1976

By John O. Maberry, Compiler

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CIRCULAR 778

1978
United States Department of the Interior

CECIL D. ANDRUS, Secretary

Geological Survey

W. A. Radlinski, Acting Director

Free on application to Branch of Distribution, U.S. Geological Survey, 1200 South Eads Street, Arlington, VA 22202
CONTENTS

Page

Abs t r act 1 

Int roduct ion 1 

Structure of the Geological Survey Relative to the

Energy Lands Program 1

Program Objectives 3

Program Project Details 3

USGS In-House Projects 3

Grants and Contracts 14

Major Accomplishments of Program in FY 76 1?

Program Goals for FY 77 17

Summary of Results of Research, FY 76 18

Stratigraphy and Paleoclimate of the Black Mesa Basin,

by Thor N. V. Karlstrom 18 

Reclamation-Potential Mapping of Strippable Coal

Lands in Semiarid Regions, by David W. Moore 22 

Surficial Geologic Mapping in the Eastern Powder

River Basin, by Donald A. Coates 24 

Geochemical Baselines, by Richard J. Ebens, Ronald 

R. Tidball, James A. Erdman, Gerald L. Feder, and 

Walter E. Dean 27 

Energy Lands Mapping in the Northwest Powder River

Basin, Wyoming, by S. P. Kanizay 28 

Landslide Mapping and Slope-Stability Analysis in 

the Big Horn Quadrangle, Sheridan County, Wyoming, 

by Walter F. Ebaugh 28

III
Page 

Engineering Geophysical Investigations in the Powder

River Basin, Wyoming and Montana, by Carter H.

Miller 29 

Regional Geotechnical Investigations, by Alan F.

Chleborad 30 

Geotechnical Properties of the Fort Union and

Wasatch Formations, by Edward E. McGregor,

Richard A. Farrow, and Harold W. Olson 31 

Coal Mine Deformation, Western Powder River Basin,

by C. Richard Dunrud - 33 

Stability of Highwalls in Surface Coal Mines, Western

Powder River Basin, by William Z. Savage and

William K. Smith 35 

Quaternary Chronology in Northwest Colorado Energy

Lands, by R. F. Madole 36 

Environmental Geologic Investigations in the

Kaiparowits Plateau, by K. A. Sargent 36 

Water Resources Investigations in the Kaiparowits

Coal Basin Area, Utah, by Don Price 36 

The Improvement of Available Void Capacity of Soils

on Mine Spoils in Arid and Semiarid Regions, by

B. E. Munson, University of Denver- 38 

Land Resources and Environmental Impact, East Texas

Lignite Belt, by John 0. Maberry 38

IV
ILLUSTRATIONS

Page 

Figure 1. Diagram of structure of the Survey relative

to the Energy Lands Program 1

2. Maps of Western Interior of the United 

States and Alaska, showing location 

of Energy Lands projects 4

3. Photograph of discovery tree of buried 

juniper forest in Dead Juniper Wash, 

Black Mesa, Arizona 19

4. Diagram of different types of terraced

stratigraphy on Black Mesa 20

5. Predictive model of climate records at

Black Mesa 21

6. Map of strippable coal, Campbell County, 

Wyoming, showing study area and 

existing or proposed mines 22

7. Six major environmental factors for

reclamation 23

8. Diagram showing main steps in preparation

of composite map of reclamation potential 24

9. Composite map of reclamation potential of

strippable coal region 24 

10. Index to surficial geologic mapping in 

progress, FY 76, eastern Powder River 

Bas in 25
Page 

Figure 11. USGS drilling crew sampling and instrumenting

a landslide in Wasatch Formation 29

12. Aerial photograph of large landslide in Fort

Union Formation near Sheridan, Wyoming 31

13. Index map of northern Powder River Basin

showing locations of drill holes 31

14. Typical geotechnical-properties log of drillhole B-l, Buffalo, Wyoming 32

15. Photographs of effects of room-and-pillar

mining, western Powder River Basin 33

16. Aerial photograph showing effects of past 

and present mining activities north of 

Sheridan, Wyoming 34

17. Photograph of deteriorated highwall of strip 

mine in Fort Union Formation south of 

Acme, Wyoming 35

18. Map of geography and principal drainage 

system of the Kaiparowits coal basin,

TT|_ ULdEl 0 U .» »» ».» »» ».» ._»____»__».«»___ Q"7 _> j

19. Map of eastern Texas, showing the extent of

lignite-bearing formations 39

TABLE

Table 1. Mapped surficial geologic units and underlying 

bedrock in the eastern Powder River Basin, 

Wyoming 2o

VI
The Energy Lands Program of the 

U.S. Geological Survey, Fiscal Year 1976

By John O. Maberry, Compiler

ABSTRACT

The Energy Lands Program of the U.S. 

Geological Survey comprises several projects 

that conduct basic and interpretive earthscience investigations into the environmental 

aspects of energy-resource recovery, 

transmission, and conversion. More than half 

the coal reserves of the United States occur 

west of the Mississippi River; therefore, the 

program concentrates mostly on coal-producing 

regions in the Western Interior. Additional 

studies involve the oil-shale region in 

Colorado, Wyoming, and Utah, and coal-related 

work in Alaska and Appalachia. The work is done 

both by USGS personnel and under USGS grants and 

contracts through the Energy Lands Program to 

universities, State Geological Surveys, and 

private individuals. Maps and reports characterizing many aspects of environmental earth 

science are being prepared for areas of Alaska, 

Montana, North Dakota, Wyoming, Utah, Colorado, 

New Mexico, Arizona, Oklahoma, Kansas, and 

Texas. Types of studies underway include 

bedrock, surficial, and interpretive geology; 

engineering geology, geochemistry of surface 

materials and plants; climatic conditions as 

they influence rehabilitation potential of mined 

lands; and feasibility of surface vs. 

underground mining. The purpose common to all 

investigations in the Energy Lands Program is to 

provide timely earth-science information for use 

by managers, policy-makers, engineers, scientists, planners, and others, in order to 

contribute to an environmentally sound, orderly, 

and safe development of the energy resources of 

the Nation.

INTRODUCTION

The Energy Lands Program began in 1975 as 

an outgrowth of the Geological Survey's 

contribution to the Northern Great Plains 

Resources Program and the Resources and Land 

Information Program Demonstration Project in the 

Powder River Basin. Since its inception, the 

Energy Lands Program has been part of the 

environmental aspects of energy program in the

Office of 

Division.

Environmental Geology, Geologic

The program has grown slowly until, in 

Fiscal Year 1977, it supports the work of 38 

geologists in the Office of Environmental 

Geology and important investigations by the 

Branches of Regional Geochemistry and Isotope 

Geology. About 10 percent of program funds is 

dedicated to grants and contracts to non-USGS 

organizations helping to assess the environmental aspects of energy-resource recovery.

This circular is the first formal public 

report of progress by the program. Work and 

progress prior to Fiscal Year 1976 are recorded 

in administrative reports of the Geological 

Survey and in Geological Survey annual reports 

to State geologists.

STRUCTURE OF THE U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

RELATIVE TO THE ENERGY LANDS PROGRAM

Geological Survey activities are supervised 

by the Director, who is supported by his staff 

of the Associate Director and five Assistant 

Directors (Land Resources, Energy and Mineral 

Resources, Environmental Conservation, Programs, 

and Administration; fig. 1). A wide variety of 

the Geological Survey's activities are drawn 

upon for support for the Energy Lands Program, 

and many Survey scientists use results of the 

program in their activities.

The basic structure of the Geological 

Survey comprises four operating Divisions 

(Geologic, Water Resources, Topographic, and 

Conservation) and three support Divisions 

(Computer, Publications, and Administrative). 

All divisions are headquartered at the USGS 

National Center in Reston, Va.

The Conservation Division supervises energy 

and mineral resource leasing and extraction 

activities on certain Federal lands. The 

Topographic Division is the Government's 

principal mapmaker, producing topographic and
Office of

Land Information

and Analysis

Environmental

Impact

Analysis

Program

Office of

Earthquake

Studies

Office of

Scientific

Publications

Office of 

Geochemistry

and 

Geophysics

Office of

Environmental

Geology

Office of

Energy

Resources

and Marine

Geology

Office of

Mineral

Resources

Office of

International

Geology

BRANCHES

Regional 

Eastern 

Kentucky 

Central 

Western

Specialized 

Engineering 

Special Projects 

Astrogeology 

Paleontology and 

Stratigraphy

PROGRAMS

ENERGY LANDS

Reactor Hazards 

National Environmental

Overviews 

Radioactive Waste

Disposal 

Landslide Hazard

Reduction 

Geologic Framework

and Synthesis 

Engineering Geology 

Paleontology and Stratigraphy

Figure 1. Structure of the U.S. Geological Survey relative to the Energy Lands Program.

special map products of the United States and 

certain foreign countries. Water Resources 

Division is responsible for investigation and 

assessment of the Nation's ground-water and 

surface-water resources, and for investigations 

into scientific aspects of hydrology. This 

division maintains offices in every State and in 

several universities and other learning centers, 

and thus is able to keep in close touch with 

local and state concerns.

The Geologic Division, under the direction 

of Dallas B. Peck, Chief Geologist, conducts 

geologic investigations in the United States and 

certain foreign countries. It is made up of six 

operating offices (Environmental Geology,

Mineral Resources, Geochemistry and Geophysics, 

Energy Resources and Marine Geology, Earthquake 

Studies, and International Geology) and the 

support office of Scientific Publications.

The Chief of the Office of Environmental 

Geology, John C. Reed, Jr., directs wide-ranging 

geologic investigations consisting of such 

activities as regional geologic mapping, 

paleontology and stratigraphy, engineering 

geology, volcanic-hazards research, energy lands 

research, reactor-hazards research, environmental overview mapping, landslide-hazardreduction research, radioactive waste disposal, 

environmental impact analysis, climate change, 

urban geology, and nuclear reactor site 

investigations.
The Office Chief and his immediate staff 

are aided in the direction of office activities 

by Branch Chiefs and Program Managers who 

coordinate and cooperatively supervise the 

progress of projects. The Office of Environmental Geology is made up of four regional 

branches (Eastern, Kentucky, Central and 

Western) and four specialized branches 

(Engineering Geology, Special Projects, Astrogeology, Paleontology and Stratigraphy). Both 

Engineering Geology and Paleontology and 

Stratigraphy, because of the specialized nature 

of their basic work, are also designated as 

programs. The remainder of the programs are 

Geologic Framework and Synthesis, Energy Lands, 

Reactor Hazards, National Environmental Overviews, Landslide Hazard Reduction, and Radioactive Waste Management.

Of extreme importance to the successful 

implementation of the mission of the Energy 

Lands Program is cooperation with the Offices of 

Energy Resources and Geochemistry and 

Geophysics, the Public Lands Hydrology Program 

of the Water Resources Division, and the 

Geography Program and Environmental Impact 

Analysis Program of the Office of Land 

Information and Analysis. Without the 

cooperation of these elements, the Energy Lands 

Program could not exist.

PROGRAM OBJECTIVES

The objectives of the Energy Lands Program 

are to assist in the analysis and solution of 

environmental problems associated with energyresource extraction and utilization and the 

planning, siting, and construction of energy 

conversion and distribution facilities. This is 

accomplished through the acquisition, interpretation, and dissemination of geologic, 

hydrologic, geochemical, and related information. Considerable emphasis is placed on the 

communication of technical and scientific 

information in a manner that is readily 

understood and of direct use to those who are 

responsible for formulating policies and 

rendering decisions that affect energy-resource 

development, but who are not specifically 

trained in earth science. Results and findings 

of the investigations are published as written 

reports and folios of maps showing basic data 

and derived and interpreted data.

The program is designed to assist in 

planning safe, orderly, and efficient 

development of the Nation's energy resources 

with minimum impact on the environment. To this 

end, investigations include the environmental 

geologic aspects of accelerated development and 

production of solid fossil fuels. These studies 

are designed to evaluate and minimize hazards 

and adverse impacts of extraction, processing, 

conversion, and transportation of energy

resources and of urbanization related to energyresource development. Work is concentrated in 

the Western United States because there are 

extensive tracts underlain by thick surfaceminable oil shale and coal deposits, rapid 

development on a very large scale is imminent, 

and the environmental setting is complicated and 

is largely not well understood. Complex surface 

and subsurface ownership involves extensive 

Federal, State, and private interests that 

require major Federal legislation and policy 

decisions that undoubtedly will be tested in the 

courts. Most Energy Lands studies emphasize 

regional environmental analysis with special 

emphasis on mapping and active geomorphic 

processes, in an effort to provide reliable 

earth science information useful in these and 

other issues.

PROGRAM PROJECT DETAILS

In the project descriptions that follow, 

all Project Chiefs are based in Denver at the 

following address, unless otherwise noted: U.S. 

Geological Survey, Box 25046, Federal Center, 

Lakewood, CO 80225. Reports published in Fiscal 

Year 1976 are listed for each project instead of 

in a bibliography at the end of the report.

USGS In-House Projects 

Project Number/Name: 9530-01931

Program Manager, Energy Lands Program 

Branch: Office of Environmental Geology

Project Chief: J. 0. Maberry, 

Denver (303-234-4857)

Total Project Area: Nationwide in energy lands 

Objectives:

Major objectives are to coordinate and 

participate in the collection, assessment, 

and interpretation of earth science information on environmental aspects of energy 

resource recovery, transportation, and 

utilization; to direct and conduct basic 

bedrock, surficial, and engineering geologic 

investigations; and to coordinate the design 

and scheduling of the Program's interpretive 

and derivative program reports with 

individuals and organizations charged with 

carrying out all implications of the Nation's 

energy policies, at local, State, and 

National levels. Further objectives are to 

help program scientists to present their 

results in broadly understandable formats.

Progress in FY 76:

New project FY 77; previous Program Manager 

was Project Chief of Eastern Powder River 

Basin Investigations (9530-01565).
Products in FY 76:

Grants and contracts to State Geological 

Surveys and universities.

Work in progress in FY 77:

Compilation of administrative reports; review 

of folios of program reports; encouraging 

requests and making new grants to State 

Surveys and universities.

Project Number/Name: 9510-01927 

Carbonates for SO,-, Scrubbing

Branch: Eastern Environmental Geology

Project Chief: J. B. Epstein, USGS National 

Center, Reston, VA 22092 (703-860-6409)

Total Project Area: Nationwide (fig. 2).

Objectives:

The objectives of this project are to 

identify, through literature research and 

consultation with appropriate authorities, 

those carbonate rock types most suitable for

scrubbing SO,-, emissions in flue gases from 

coal-fired generating plants. A generalized 

map of the United States (scale 1:7,500,000) 

will be prepared showing the distribution of 

those rock types. A summary report will 

describe the relationship of carbonate 

reactivity to chemical and physical properties of the rocks, the existing technology of 

the scrubbing process, and engineering and 

environmental problems related to the 

scrubbing process. A study of the economics 

of transporting carbonates having different 

reactivities and other properties over 

varying distances will be initiated. Followup research, such as problems of waste and 

sludge disposal and utilization, will be 

identified for possible future efforts by 

USGS. Areas deserving more detailed map 

compilation and subjects for topical studies 

will be identified for future work. The map 

to be prepared for this project will be 

coordinated with a series of maps being 

prepared or proposed by the National 

Environmental Overview Program; it will be 

one element in a national assessment of 

geoenvironmental characteristics of coal 

extraction.

so

775°

7 Western

8 Southwestern

9 Mississippi

10 Texas

11 Fort Union

12 Powder River

13 Black Hills

14 North Central

15 Tertiary lakebeds

REGION

16 Big Horn Basin 

1 7 Wind River

18 Hams Fork

19 Uinta

20 Southwestern Utah

21 San Juan River

22 Raton Mesa

23 Denver

24 Green River

EXPLANATION 

Coal region

Energy Lands Program project 

Energy Resources Map Project

KILOMETERS 80o

I I I I I I I

Map compiled by Mark D Williams

Figure 2. Maps of Western Interior of the United States and of Alaska showing coal regions and

location of Energy Lands Program projects.
Progress in FY 76: New project FY 77 

Reports in FY 76: None

Work in progress in FY 77:

Investigating the existing technology of 

scrubbing processes, and compiling a map 

showing distribution of various carbonate 

rock types in the United States.

Planned changes in FY 77:

Proposal for more detailed maps and topical 

studies for post-FY 77.

Project Number/Name: 9530-01552 

Black Mesa Basin, Arizona

Branch: Central Environmental Geology and 

Astrogeology Branches

Project Chief: T. N. V. Karlstrom, USGS Center, 

2255 North Gemini Drive, Flagstaff, AZ 86001

Total Project Area: lat 35°30'-37° N. ; long 

109°-111° W.; 75,000km2 (Arizona) (fig. 2).

Objectives:

The objectives of this project are to map in 

detail the surficial geology of the region, 

using remote sensing and conventional field 

procedures; and to conduct experiments using 

computer-enhanced satellite photographs as 

base maps in order to evaluate the use of 

telegeology for rapid regional mapping of 

surficial geology and for geoenvironmental 

analysis. Further objectives are to 

reconstruct the erosional, depositional, and 

vegetational history of the region to aid in 

constructing baselines against which to 

measure future reclamation efforts. This is 

accomplished through detailed analysis of 

alluvial, colluvial, and eolian sediments 

containing C and other datable materials. 

The project is designed to resolve, as 

precisely as possible, the pattern of past 

changes in the rates of geologic processes 

and in the physical environment of trie region 

as a means for assessing the impacts of 

modern man's activities, including largescale mining operations, on the current and 

future environmental quality.

Progress in FY 76:

Field observations and measurements were 

made, and samples were collected for 

analysis. Photogeologic compilation was in 

progress for the entire area; a natural 

vegetation map was in progress. A detailed 

Holocene stratigraphic section was compiled, 

keyed to different heights and numbers of 

alluvial terraces, to deduce the depositional 

and erosional history of the area. Surficial

geologic mapping in the region has revealed a 

systematic pattern of past hydrologic and 

climatic changes (Karlstrom and others, 1974; 

Hevly and Karlstrom, 1974) that have 

repeatedly affected agricultural potential; 

prehistoric cultures; and the rates and 

frequencies of erosion, alluvial and eolian 

deposition, and landsliding. Projection of 

this pattern into the future indicates that 

the present drier climate and arroyo cutting 

may shift in the next few decades towards a 

wetter climate and general aggradation of 

arroyo floors. These geologically derived 

insights into the magnitude and frequency of 

past natural environmental shifts help 

provide an objective base for evaluating the 

current and possible future effects of 

surface-mining operations in a marginal 

southwest desert environment.

Reports in FY 76:

Sutton, R. L,, Pleistocene and Pliocene 

deposits in the Hopi Buttes area, southern 

Black Mesa Basin, Arizona: Am. Assoc. Adv. 

Science Ann. Mtg., Abs. with Programs, (in 

press).

Hereford, R. E. , 1977, Deposition of the 

Tapeats Sandstone (Cambrian) in central 

Arizona: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 88, 

no. 2, p. 199-211.

Karlstrom, T. N. V., Gumerman, George, and 

Euler, R. C., 1975, Paleoenvironmental and 

cultural changes in the Black Mesa Region, 

northeastern Arizona, in Horie, S. , ed., 

Paleo limnology of Lake Biwa and the 

Japanese Pleistocene, Volume 3: Kyoto, 

Japan, p. 494-517.

Helvy, R. H., and Karlstrom, T. N. V., 1975, 

Southwest paleoclimate and continental 

correlations, in Horie, S., ed., 

Paleolimnology of Lake Biwa and the 

Japanese Pleistocene, V. 3: Kyoto, Japan, 

p. 455-493.

Work in progress in FY 77:

Specific investigations in FY 77 include 

engineering materials of the Black Mesa 

Region; studies of Colorado Plateau 

prehistoric cultures and changing geologic 

environments; buried forests and the alluvial 

record of the southwest; climate, 

geomagnetism, and volcanic history; statistical analysis of paleoclimatic time-series; 

development of the landscape of northeastern 

Arizona; and Quaternary and Tertiary timestratigraphy of the Colorado Plateaus, 

continental correlations, and paleoclimatic 

complications.

Planned changes in FY 77:

Shift in emphasis from regional stratigraphic 

to topical energy-related studies; shift in
priorities from bedrock geology (already 

existing) to interpretive and derivative maps 

and reports pertinent to environmental 

geologic aspects of strip mining at Black 

Mesa.

Project Number/Name: 9530-01560

Geologic Factors for Mapping Reclamation 

Potential of Western Coal Lands

Branch: Central Environmental Geology

Project Chief: H. E, Malde, Denver (303-234- 

2864)

Total Project Area: Selected areas (fig. 2, 

areas 12, 19, 21).

Objectives:

The project objectives are to determine the 

major geologic factors that influence 

reclamation of surface-mined lands in regions 

of strippable coal in the western United 

States, and to determine a quantitative 

geomorphologic assessment of selected lands 

in differing physical environments. To this 

end, project scientists compile maps, 

diagrams, and photographic records showing 

differing degrees of potential for reclamation based on differences in geologic 

factors.

Progress in FY 76:

The reclamation potential for surface-mined 

lands was evaluated and mapped for areas 

underlain by strippable coal near Gillette, 

Wyo. The evaluation of potential for 

reclamation was based on 8-hectare parcels of 

land, and is classed as potentially good, 

fair, or poor. The map shows the likelihood 

of returning the environment to a set of 

desired physical conditions after surface 

mining, and is designed to be used for 

resource management in areas of planned 

surface mining. The map shows specific sites 

for which stipulations written into the mine 

plan might be considered in order to reduce 

environmental disturbance.

A composite-mapping system that uses a 

computer was adopted to evaluate reclamation 

potential. Using this system, the 

reclamation potential of a variety of 

environmental factors was combined to obtain 

the overall reclamation potential. The 

definition of realistic standards of 

reclamation for six major environmental 

factors and assessment of their likelihood of 

successful implementation required compilation of much field data and other information 

from reclamation research. The final map was 

a composite of 16 factor-source maps. The 

method has high transfer values and can be 

used in other regions having sufficient 

environmental baseline data.

The method also has been used to evaluate the 

natural variability of premining natural 

resources in areas of impending resource 

development. This provides a method of 

evaluating previously unquantified resource 

values such as scenic values and recreation 

desirability. A map of environmental values 

was made for The Gap 7 1/2-minute quadrangle 

south of Gillette.

Alluvial valley floors were mapped in areas 

of proposed and active surface coal mining in 

North Dakota, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, and 

New Mexico in order to provide data requested 

by the House Subcommittee on Mines and Mining 

of the U.S. Congress.

Additional stations for observation of 

landscape change were established in Chaco 

Wash, N. Mex., and sites of historical 

photographs were rephotographed.

Reports in FY 76:

Malde, H. E., and Boyles, J. M. , 1975, Maps 

of alluvial valley floors and strippable 

coal in forty-two 7 1/2-minute quadrangles, 

Big Horn, Rosebud, and Powder River 

Counties, southeast Montana: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Open-File Report 76-162.

Malde, H. E. , [1975], Reclamation of mined 

land, in Kennedy, W. J. D., ed., and 

others, Coal in the West The reclamation 

question: Rocky Mountain Center on 

Environment and Federation of Rocky 

Mountain States, Summit on Coal, Conf,, 

Denver, 1975, 18 p.

Moore, D. W., and Boyles, J. M. , 1976, A map 

of environmental values as an aid to 

planning reclamation of surface-mined 

areas The Gap quadrangle, Wyoming: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Open-File Report 76-434.

Moore, D. W., 1976, A method of mapping reclamation potential for an area of 

strippable coal in northeastern Wyoming: 

Geol. Soc. America Abs. with Programs, v, 

8, no. 7, p. 1016.

Work in progress in FY 77:

Investigations into diverse aspects of the 

potential for reclamation of surface-mined 

lands, including observations of contemporary 

arroyo cutting near Santa Fe, N, Mex.; 

further refinements in the technique of 

reclamation-potential mapping in semiarid 

regions of strippable coal, and of evaluating 

and mapping environmental resources.

Planned changes in FY 77: None

Project Number/Name: 9530-01565

Environmental Aspects of Coal Development, 

Eastern Powder River Basin
Branch: Central Environmental Geology

Project Chief: D. A, Coates, Denver 

(303-234-5260)

Total Project Area: lat 43°30'-45°00' N, long 

105°-106° W.; 6,100 km2 (Wyoming) (fig. 2, 

region 12),

Objectives:

The major objectives are to acquire, compile, 

and interpret environmental geologic aspects 

of basic information on coal resources and on 

materials and processes of the land surface. 

This information will be used for evaluating 

the environmental resources of the coal area 

of Campbell County, Wyo.; for identifying 

potential environmental problems in the 

accelerated development of coal mining and 

associated industries; and for assisting 

concerned groups at the local, State, and 

National levels in recognizing the problems, 

in determining solutions, and in rational 

planning of land use and resource management.

Progress Progress in FY 76:

The surficial geology in all or parts of 

thirty 7 1/2-minute quadrangles in the 

strippable coal zone that extends the length 

of Campbell County, Wyo., was mapped in FY 

76. The necessary field studies in the total 

of forty-six 7 1/2-minute quadrangles and 

half of each of two 15-minute quadrangles in 

the project area will continue in FY 77. 

Photointerpretation to complete the maps will 

continue. About 20 different surficial 

geologic units are delineated on these maps. 

The information provided on these maps is 

fundamental to land-use planning, siting of 

construction, and evaluating environmental 

impacts. In addition, soil scientists, 

geochemists, and bedrock geologists have 

requested this information to assist in their 

work.

Derivative maps begun in FY 76 show geologic 

hazards and constraints to development or 

land use. Factors shown include potentially 

unstable slopes, flood-prone areas, areas of 

difficult access, areas of strippable coal, 

areas underlain by potential sources of 

aggregate, and areas containing hard rock 

near the surface. These maps will be made 

for selected quadrangles in which the most 

development is expected. Although the maps 

provide explicit, easily read information on 

possible hazards and limitations, they do not 

replace detailed inspection of a given site 

if development is proposed.

Simulated post-mining terrain maps were begun 

in FY 76 for a tract of land 30 km long that 

is underlain by strippable coal of the 

Wyodak-Anderson coal deposit. These maps, at

the scale 1:24,000 and with a contour 

interval of 20 ft, depict the land surface as 

it would be if mining were to be carried out 

using certain standard mining methods that 

are defined in the map explanation. Advance 

knowledge of the potential landscape modification is necessary to produce mining plans 

that will minimize adverse physiographic and 

hydrologic changes in the most economical 

way. Potential adverse effects of mining in 

this region include extensive areas of 

internal drainage and disrupted flow of 

through streams.

Studies underway on alluvial valley floors 

show that the history of alluvial cutting and 

filling is more complex than was previously 

understood. Further information on the chronology and processes involved in this cutting 

and filling may help in predicting the 

consequences of large-scale mining on the 

stream valleys.

Project personnel are assisting in the 

preparation of maps showing coal resources in 

southern Campbell County, This is a 

continuing cooperative project with N. M. 

Denson (Uranium and Thorium Branch, Geologic 

Division) to correlate and evaluate coal 

resources throughout the Powder River Basin.

Reports in in FY 76:

Coates, D. A., Williams, V. S., and 

Fullerton, D. S., 1976, Surficial geology 

mapping in the eastern Powder River Basin, 

Wyoming A progress report: Geol. Soc., 

America Abs. with Programs, v. 8, no, 5, p. 

577-578.

Keefer, W. R. , and Hadley, R, F., 1976, Land 

and natural resource information and some 

potential environmental effects of surface 

mining of coal in the Gillette area, 

Wyoming: U.S. Geol, Survey Circ, 743, 27 

PWork in progress in FY 77:

Investigations include surficial geologic 

mapping in the following 7 1/2-minute 

quadrangles, Wyoming: Larey Draw, Spotted 

Horse, Croton, Truman Draw, Moyer Springs, 

Green Hill, Gillette East, Fortin Draw, Appel 

Butte, The Gap, Coyote Draw, Coon Track 

Creek, Scaper Reservoir, The Gap SW, 

Saddlehorse, White Tail Creek, Rough Creek, 

Highlight, Open A Ranch, Reno Reservoir, 

Piney Canyon NW, Teckla, Piney Canyon SW. 

Further research is being conducted into 

usefulness of maps at different scales and 

the feasibility of compilation of data at 

small scales.

Planned changes in FY 77: None

Project: Geochemical Survey of the Western 

Energy Regions
Organizational Designation: Geologic Division, 

Office of Geochemistry and Geophysics, Branch 

of Regional Geochemistry

Project Chiefs:

R. J. Ebens (rocks), Denver (303-234-2924)

R. R. Tidball (soils), Denver (303-234-4244)

J. A, Erdman (vegetation), Denver (303-

234-5240)

G. L, Feder (waters), Denver (303-234-2404)

W. E. Dean (oil shale), Denver (303-234-2310)

Total Project Area: Western United States 

(fig. 2).

Project Status and Plans:

The prime objective of the work is to make a 

broad-scaled reconnaissance geochemical 

survey of the landscape of the Western Energy 

Regions with a view to establishing 

provisional geochemical baselines for immediate use and setting up cost-effective 

guidelines for future sampling aimed at more 

detailed baselines. The original focus of 

the work was on the coal-bearing lands of the 

West, and the primary interest remains there; 

but field studies have been expanded to 

include the oil shale region of Colorado, 

Utah, and Wyoming, and a preliminary 

assessment has been made of the geochemical 

impact of uranium mining and milling on the 

trace-element character of the local 

landscape.

Progress in FY 76:

The work is directed at describing the 

geochemistry, particularly the trace-element 

geochemistry, of the rocks, soils, plants, 

and waters of the major energy-bearing 

regions of the Western United States. Work 

to date has been directed primarily to the 

northern Great Plains, including the Powder 

River Basin (fig 2, region 12) and the oil 

shale region; but field collections also have 

been made throughout the Big Horn and Wind 

River Basins of Wyoming and adjacent to four 

coal-fired powerplants (Colstrip, MT; Dave 

Johnston, WY; Jim Bridger, WY; and Four 

Corners, NM), as well as from scattered sites 

of investigations by the EMRIA Program of the 

Bureau of Land Management. Plans for 

fieldwork in the immediate future are aimed 

at the more southern coal-bearing areas in 

Utah, Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona, with 

greatest emphasis directed to the San Juan 

Basin.

Reports in FY 76:

U.S. Geological Survey, 1976, Geochemical 

survey of the western energy regions Third 

annual progress report, July 1976; U.S. Geol. 

Survey Open-File Report 76-729, 135 p.

Project Number/Name: 9550-01631

Engineering Geologic Studies, Powder River 

Basin

Branch: Engineering Geology

Project Chief: F. W. Osterwald, Denver 

(303-234-3818)

Total Project Area: lat 44°07'30"-46°00' N. 

long, 106°52'30"-107°22'30" W.; 10,430 km2 

(Wyoming, Montana) (fig. 2, region 12).

Objectives:

Principal objectives of the project are to 

provide a better understanding of the 

behavior of bedrock and surficial geologic 

materials related to surface and underground 

coal mining, energy conversion, facility 

siting, and future urban and industrial 

growth along the western margin of the Powder 

River Basin. These highly transferrable data 

are deduced through studies of stability of 

cut slopes in strip mines, surface subsidence 

over abandoned underground coal mines and in 

areas of burning coal beds, seismic 

monitoring of strip mines and proposed mine 

sites, investigation of regional geotechnical 

properties and associated slope stability 

processes, engineering geologic mapping of 

projected urban areas and regional 

engineering geologic mapping of the 

northwestern part of the Powder River Basin, 

engineering geophysical investigations to 

support geologic mapping and associated 

geotechnical studies, and geotechnical 

analysis of drill cores from selected sites.

Progress in FY 76:

The seismicity of felt earthquakes in the 

Powder River Basin was compiled on a map of 

the basin. The area is classed as one of 

less-than-minor damage. A seismic survey of 

a landslide near Sheridan, Wyo., disclosed an 

apparent relation between the slide plane and 

the base of the weathered zone. Engineering 

seismic and magnetic surveys of baked and 

fused rocks (clinker) show that the material 

has low strength and that buried margins of 

clinker deposits can be located using 

magnetic methods. Interpretation of 

geophysical well logs aimed at correlating 

physical properties with subsidence of 

underground openings was begun.

Physical properties of rocks in and near 

open-pit mines of western Powder River Basin 

were incorporated into a finite element 

limit-equilibrium analysis, and the factor of 

safety was found to be less than one 

(indicating imminent failure) under some 

conditions when mining slows or stops. Timedependent nature of the deformation of 

highwalls is critical.
On the basis of mining methods used 25 to 50 

years ago, it was concluded that open-pit 

mining has been significantly less damaging 

to the environment in the western Powder 

River Basin than underground mining. Based 

on percent of recovery, open pit mining is 

far superior in production of coal. Further, 

subsequent reclamation of land disturbed by 

surface mining results in stable ground, 

whereas unstable and differentially subsiding 

ground is common above old underground mine 

workings.

The integrated Tongue River-Goose Creek 

drainage basin west of Sheridan is marked by 

extensive pediments and terraces and 

coincidentally is marked by thinning coal 

beds that grade westward into carbonaceous 

shales. The Roland marker coals thin and 

become lenticular and more carbonaceous in 

that area, making the boundary between the 

Paleocene Fort Union and Eocene Wasatch 

Formations very tenuous.

Five coal zones were delineated in a 133-mdeep core hole drilled at Buffalo, Wyo. 

Results of geotechnical tests showed the coal 

units to be the most competent units. 

Artesian flow from a near surface aquifer of 

unconsolidated sand must be considered in any 

coal mining plans.

Mapping of the Buffalo 7-1/2-minute 

quadrangle was completed. Geologic hazards 

in and near Buffalo consist of stream 

flooding from cloudbursts in the Clear Creek 

drainage basin, local landsliding along the 

south valley slope of Clear Creek, and 

surface subsidence resulting from pre-1912 

underground coal mining in the southeast part 

of Buffalo and about 2,4 km northeast of the 

town.

Project scientists sampled and instrumented a 

landslide in the Wasatch Formation 16 km 

south of Sheridan, Wyo. Core samples 

indicate a failure zone less than 7 m below 

the surface of the landslide that involves 

weathered bedrock and colluvium. The 

transition from disturbed to undisturbed 

material corresponds both to changes in 

natural moisture content from generally above 

to generally below the plastic limit and to 

an increase of pocket penetrometer indices 

from 2.5 kg/cm to more than 5.0 kg/cm .

Rocks from 250 core samples at Recluse, Wyo. 

and Bear Creek, Mont. were tested for 

geotechnical properties; the tests are about 

90 percent complete. Tentative conclusions 

are that most rocks have low compressive and 

tensile strengths which, with other 

properties, suggest the need for careful 

design of mining procedures and careful 

consideration of geology in mine planning.

Geologists reexamined records of seismic 

activity at the long-abandoned and burning 

Acme coal mine near Sheridan, Wyo. In the 

past 12 months the seismicity related to 

burning coal in and around the old mine and 

the subsidence of the ground surface have 

increased markedly. Both the total number of 

microseisms and the amplitudes of individual 

microseisms have increased. These increases 

apparently are associated with accelerated 

burning when coal in and near the old mine 

has ignited spontaneously. Gases emitted 

from the burning areas contain methane, 

carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, carbon 

oxysulfide, carbon disulfide, and more 

nitrogen and helium than normal air, and 

would pose a serious problem to human 

population if they were released in a 

populated area.

Reports in FY 76:

Chleborad, A. F., Nichols, T. C., Jr., and 

Ebaugh, W. F., 1976, A preliminary 

inventory, profile, and statistical 

evaluation of landslides in a region of 

projected urban development, Sheridan, 

Wyoming: U.S. Geol. Survey Open-File 

Report 76-571, 50 p. 26 figs., 4 tables.

Dunrud, C. R. , 1976a, Coal mine subsidence, 

in Sargent, K. A., and Hansen, D. E. , 

General geology and mineral resources of 

the coal area of south-central Utah: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Open-File Report 76-811, p. 

83-98 (also Project No. 9550-00644).

________1976b, Surface subsidence and coal mine

fires, in Trimble, D. E., and others, 

Summary description of the geologic 

environment of the Williston Basin lignite 

fields, North Dakota: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Adm. Rept., p. 65-68 (for EIS Tech. Support 

Doc.) (also Project No. 9550-00644).

Ebaugh, W. F., 1976, Preliminary surficial 

and bedrock geologic map of the Big Horn 

quadrangle, Sheridan County, Wyoming: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Misc. Field Studies Map MF801, 20 p. text.

Ebaugh, W. F. , Chleborad, A. F., and Nichols, 

T. C., Jr., 1976, Geologic investigation of 

landsliding in the Big Horn quadrangle, 

Sheridan County, Wyoming [abs.]: ColoradoWyoming Acad. Sci. Jour., v. 8, no. 1, p. 

34.

Fahy, M. P., and Smith, W. K. , 1976, 

Geotechnical properties of some upper Fort 

Union rocks from the Decker area, Big Horn 

County, Montana: U.S. Geol, Survey OpenFile Report 76-596, 31 p., 90 figs., 14 

tables.
Farrow, R. A., 1976, Preliminary report on 

the geotechnical properties of the Wasatch 

Formation at Buffalo, Wyoming: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Open-File Report 76-877, 78 p.

Kanizay, S. P., Obernyer, S. L., and 

Catermole, J. M. , 1976, Preliminary 

geologic map of the Buffalo area, northwest 

Powder River Basin, Wyoming: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Misc. Field Studies Map MF-806.

Osterwald, F. W. , compiler, 1976a, Engineering geologic characteristics, Part B of 

Summary of the geology, mineral resources, 

and engineering geologic characteristics of 

the northern Powder River coal region, 

Montana: U.S. Geol. Survey Adm. Rept., 51 

p. (for EIS Tech. Support Doc.).

____1976b, Some engineering geologic 

characteristics of the Sweetwater-Kemmerer 

area, Wyoming: U.S. Geol. Survey Adm. 

Rept., 22 p. (for EIS Tech. Support Doc.).

Osterwald, F. W. , and Dunrud, C. R. , 1976, 

Engineering geologic characteristics of the 

central Utah coal mining region: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Adm. Rept., 26 p. (for EIS 

Tech. Support Doc.).

Work in progress in FY 77:

Investigations include preliminary assessments of natural slope stability in the coal 

resource area of southwestern Wyoming; 

mapping of natural slopes in the Big Horn 

quadrangle, Wyo.; experimentation with a new 

technique for inclinometer casing 

installation; and instrumentation studies of 

highwall stability in surface coal mines of 

the western Powder River Basin in Wyoming and 

Montana. Other work in progress includes 

feasibility studies pertaining to 

environmental and resource recovery problems 

associated with past underground coal mining 

activities in the western part of the Powder 

River Basin; field studies of seismicity of 

parts of the western part of the Powder River 

Basin and assessment of seismic risks; 

geotechnical and geophysical investigations 

of clinker deposits; geologic mapping in the 

Buffalo-Sheridan urban corridor; surface 

effects of coal mine subsidence in the 

western Powder River Basin; and 

investigations into the geotechnical and 

geophysical properties of the Fort Union 

Formation.

Planned changes in FY 77: None

Project Number/Name: 9530-01598

Northwest Colorado Oil Shale Environmental 

Geology

Branch: Central Environmental Geology

Project Chief: R. B, Raup, Denver (303-234-4189)

Total Project Area: lat 39°-41° N., long 106°- 

110° W.; 60,700 km (Colorado, Utah) (fig. 2, 

regions 19, 24).

Objectives:

Principal objectives are to make bedrock and 

surficial basic geologic maps (1:250,000), 

and derivative and interpretive maps of 

aspects of environmental geology from basic 

data. Publication of the maps will be on new 

county-map bases at 1:50,000 or 1:100,000 

scale. Land capability maps and reports will 

be produced to aid persons charged with 

deciding land use and land restoration 

following mining. The maps and reports will 

help in evaluating constraints to land use by 

industry and individuals. Other objectives 

are to conduct research into rates of erosion 

and deposition, landform analysis, and plant 

distribution as a function of geologic 

terrane.

Progress in FY 76:

detailed bedrock mapping in the Dinosaur 

National Monument area, Utah and Colorado, 

continues to confirm that drape folds are the 

main structural feature in the southeastern 

Uinta Mountains. Thus, sharp monoclines and 

asymmetrical folds dominate, but their 

controlling high-angle faults rarely reach 

the surface. Landslides in the eastern 

Uintas also are extremely abundant, 

especially in areas underlain by the Upper 

Jurassic Morrison Formation and Upper

Cretaceous Mancos Shale; several landslides o

cover areas that are larger than 20 km .

Two early man fire pits containing datable 

charcoal were found at depths of 3.3 and 

7.1 m in the older of two alluvial deposits 

in the basin of Piceance Creek, northwestern 

Colorado, According to historic records, 

present arroyos were cut between the 1880's 

and 1900, when large herds of cattle and 

sheep were introduced to the basin. After 

1900, the principal activity of the arroyos 

has been channel widening in the main valleys 

at rates as fast as 1 m per year in some 

isolated areas.

Previous maps of the Vernal 2° quadrangle 

showed only a few landslides. Recent 

fieldwork and airphoto analysis reveal 

approximately 500 rotational slumps and 

earthflows in this region that are large 

enough to be shown on maps at a scale of 

1:250,000. Other smaller deposits of mass 

movement such as talus, debris flow, rock 

avalanches, and soil creep also are abundant 

in the area. Large areas of eolian sands and 

numerous gravel terraces occur along the

10
Little Snake and Yampa Rivers in northwestern 

Colorado. Large areas of pediment gravels 

lie along the south flank of the Uinta 

Mountains in Utah. Some of these gravels 

probably are pre-Quaternary in age because 

they are several hundred meters above present 

stream levels or because their lithologies 

are different from those of modern gravels. 

A humate-rich sample from the base of a bog 

behind a small moraine approximately 2 km 

from the cirque headwall yielded a date of 

6,210+250 B.P. As this sample consisted of 

wood fragments and peat, its date provides 

only a minimum date for the formation of the 

associated moraine, which probably represents 

a late-Pinedale standstill.

Abundant fluvial stratigraphy along the five 

major rivers that drain the Craig 2° 

quadrangle (Colorado, Yampa, North Platte, 

White, and Little Snake) provides the 

potential for establishing a chronology for 

Quaternary units and is vital to 

environmental studies of a variety of 

geologic processes. Correlation of stream 

terrace deposits based on their heights above 

stream level is unreliable; terrace deposits 

vary both in number and geometry from basin 

to basin, indicating that individual basins 

have independent erosional and tectonic 

histories. (For example, a thin bed of type 

0 Pearlette ash (0.6 m.y. old) occurs in a 

terrace deposit 134 m above the Little Snake 

River.) The same ash occurs in terrace 

deposits in the Front Range Urban Corridor of 

Colorado about 67 m above stream level of the 

South Platte River. Hence, it appears that 

net erosion over the past 600,000 years has 

been twice as great in the upper Little Snake 

River drainage as in the upper South Platte 

drainage. Amino acid dating of two molluscan 

faunas found beneath Pearlette ash at two 

localities may provide a calibration 

applicable to other fauna not associated with 

ash, which were collected from several other 

localities in the Yampa drainage basin. 

Holocene sediments datable by radiocarbon 

techniques have been obtained at several 

sites on or near valley floors. Age 

determinations are in progress on two sets of 

samples from a dune field south of the Little 

Snake River. Soil and stratigraphic 

relations indicate that the dune fields 

predate "Altithermal" time. The C samples 

are from a hearth whose associated artifacts 

suggest an age of about 5,000 yrs B.P., and 

from a buried paleosol 0.5 m below the dune 

surface. Other samples tested for C ages 

are from lake and bog deposits near Buffalo 

Pass in the Park Range and in the Never 

Summer Range. Analysis of the diatom record 

at the Never Summer Range site was carried on 

in FY 76 and extends into FY 77. The 14C 

ages and paleontology will supply information 

about time of deglaciation and postglacial

history, information useful in evaluating 

peat as a resource.

Reports in FY 76:

Carrara, P. E,, 1976, Erosion rates from 

exposed tree roots, Piceance Creek area, 

Colorado [abs] : Fourth Biennial Meeting of 

the American Quaternary Assoc., Tempe, 

Arizona, p. 131.

Hansen, W. R. , Geologic map of the Canyon of 

Lodore south quadrangle, Moffat County, 

Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Geol. Quad. 

Map GQ-1403.

____, Geologic map of the Zenobia Peak 

quadrangle, Moffat County, Colorado: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Geol. Quad. Map GQ-1408.

____, Geologic map of the Jones Hole 

quadrangle, Uintah County, Utah, and Moffat 

County, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Geol. 

Quad. Map GQ-1401.

Pipiringos, G. N., Geologic map of the White 

Peak quadrangle, Moffat and Rio Blanco 

Counties, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Misc. Field Studies Map MF-837.

____, Geologic map of the Indian Valley 

quadrangle, Moffat and Rio Blanco Counties, 

Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Geol. Misc. 

Field Studies Map MF-836

Work in progress in FY 77:

Investigations include geologic mapping in 

the Indian Water Canyon quadrangle, Moffat 

County, Colo.; surficial geologic mapping in 

the Grand Junction, Craig, and Vernal 2° 

areas; studies of Quaternary stratigraphy 

along the Little Snake River near Baggs, 

Wyo,; soil stratigraphy of glacial deposits 

in the upper Canadian River, Jackson County, 

Colo.; and detailed studies of the alluvial 

and erosional history of the Piceance Basin.

Planned changes in FY 77:

Focus of project will be changed somewhat in 

view of lessened private, corporate, and 

governmental interest in oil shale to 

provide environmental geologic data pertinent 

to coal surface and underground mining, as 

well as to compile information for future oil 

shale utilization.

Project Number/Name: 9530-01637

Kaiparowits Coal Basin Environmental Geology

Branch: Central Environmental Geology

Project Chief: K. A. Sargent, Denver 

(303-234-5368)

11
Total Project Area: lat 37°-38° N.,long 111°-

112° w.; 9,900 km2 ; region 20 (Utah) (fig. 

2),

Objectives:

Objectives of the project are to acquire, 

compile, interpret, and publish basic land 

and coal resource data in order to evaluate 

potential environmental impacts related to 

future Kaiparowits coal development and 

related activities for land-use planners and 

decision-makers.

Progress in FY 76:

Fifty percent of the geology of the project 

area was compiled at 1:125,000 scale from 

published 1:24,000- and 1:48,000-scale maps. 

An additional 35 percent was compiled from 

preliminary geologic maps prepared by 

scientists in Conservation Division and from 

unpublished maps.

Three maps have been completed on the 

hydrology of the Kaiparowits coal basin area: 

chemical quality of ground water; general 

availability of ground water; and principal 

drainage basins, mean annual runoff, and 

selected streamflow data. These maps should 

be of great value to land-use planners and to 

future coal developers in determining sources 

of domestic-potable, industrial, and generaluse water.

Three coal maps were nearly completed: 

distribution and thickness of coal, thickness 

of overburden over the Alvey coal zone, and 

thickness of overburden over the Christensen 

coal zone. These maps are for general 

overview use, and, when coordinated with 

other maps in the series, should be useful in 

developmental planning, such as for 

transportation and communication routes and 

townsites.

The first draft of a terrain analysis map 

emphasized the well-known fact that access 

and transportation in the Kaiparowits area 

are difficult. Clarification of existing map 

units and the addition of local geomorphic 

units are still needed.

Reports in FY 76:

Sargent, K. A., and Hansen, D. E., 1976, 

General geology and mineral resources of 

the coal area of south-central Utah, with 

sections on Landslide hazards by R. B. 

Colton, Coal mine subsidence by_ C. R. 

Dunrud, and Landscape geochemistry by 

J. J. Connor: U.S. Geol. Survey Open-File 

Report 76-811, 122 p., 24 figs., 4 pi., 12 

tables.

Price, Donald, Map showing general chemical 

quality of ground water in the Kaiparowits 

coal basin area, Utah: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Misc. Investigations Map I-1033-A, in 

press.

____Map showing general availability of

ground water in the Kaiparowits coal basin 

area, Utah: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. InvMap I-1033-B, in press.

__Map showing principal drainage basins,

mean annual runoff, and selected streamflow 

data in the Kaiparowits coal basin area, 

Utah: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. 

Investigations Map I-1033-E, in press.

Work in progress in FY 77:

Investigations include mapping of the general 

chemical quality of surface water; 

distribution and thickness of the coal; 

thickness of overburden on coal beds in the 

Alvey zone; thickness of overburden on coal 

beds in the Christensen and Henderson coal 

zones; and mapping of geology, terrain 

analysis, and scenic and recreational 

features.

Planned changes in FY 77: None

Project Number/Name: 9530-01932

Environmental Geology, San Juan Basin Energy 

Lands

Branch: Central Environmental Geology

Project Chief: 

(303-234-3545)

G. R. Scott, Denver

Total Project Area: lat 35°-38° N.,long 106°- 

109° W.; 50,000 km2 (New Mexico, Colorado 

Region 21, fig. 2)

Objectives:

Project geologists will compile existing 

bedrock geologic mapping at 1:250,000 scale 

from published information and work in 

progress in the Cortez area of the San Juan 

Basin in parts of the Durango, Shiprock, 

Aztec, Gallup, and Albuquerque quadrangles. 

Reconnaissance mapping of surficial deposits 

will be carried out. A 1:250,000-scale map 

of the San Juan Basin within the area 

underlain by coal will be compiled from 

reconnaissance results and from existing 

information. All surficial deposits will be 

mapped in detail, and existing geologic maps 

will be used to compile the bedrock contacts 

at 1:48,000 scale for the parts of the San 

Juan Basin underlain by strippable coal 

deposits as a basis for predicting regional 

environmental effects of strip mining. 

Engineering geologic aspects of certain 

potentially troublesome units .will be 

investigated and evaluated.

12
Other objectives are to interpret basic land 

and resource data to evaluate the potential 

environmental impacts of extensive surface 

mining of coal and to provide bases for 

geologic assessment of sites for energy 

conversion and transportation facilities.

Environmental studies will be coordinated 

with work of other branches of Geologic 

Division (Coal Resources and Regional 

Geochemistry) and other Divisions (Water 

Resources and Conservation) of USGS, as well 

as with the New Mexico Bureau of Mines and 

Mineral Resources, in order to achieve a 

comprehensive knowledge of regional 

environmental problems. Results of the 

studies will be regularly communicated to 

planners and decision-makers.

Progress in FY 76: New project FY 77 

Reports in FY 76: None

Work in progress in FY 77:

Geologic and environmental mapping and other 

investigations, as described above, will make 

up all work in progress in FY 77.

Planned changes in FY 77: None

Project Number/Name: 9530-01933

Environmental Geology of Eastern MontanaWestern North Dakota Coal Lands

Branch: Central Environmental Geology

Project Chief: 

(303-234-2825)

D. E. Trimble, Denver

Total Project Area: lat 45°-49° N., long 100°- 

107° W.; 100,000 km2 (Montana, North Dakota) 

(fig. 2, region 11).

Objectives:

Objectives are to provide small-scale 

geologic baseline data relevant to projected 

development of the lignite and subbituminous 

coal resources of the Williston Basin in 

Montana and North Dakota. Geologic hazards 

maps will be made and will include areas of 

present and potential landslide hazard and 

surface-subsidence hazard and geomorphological terrain studies. Maps showing areas 

of nonmetallic mineral occurrence will be 

compiled from existing data. Coordination 

will be effected with appropriate State 

Geological Surveys and other organizations.

Progress in FY 76:

Project Chief headed a team of geologists who 

produced a summary report on the geologic 

environment of the lignite fields of the

Williston Basin for inclusion in the regional 

EIS (Environmental Impact Statement 

currently in preparation).

Reports in FY 76:

Trimble, D. E., Team Leader: Summary 

description of the geologic environment of 

the Williston Basin Lignite Fields, North 

Dakota: US Geol. Survey Open-file report 

in preparation.

Work in progress in FY 77:

Surficial geologic maps are being compiled 

from a large amount of existing data. The 

maps are at a scale of 1:100,000 in order to 

provide input to USGS map folios as part of 

the Survey's coal exploration plan. Original 

mapping will be done to fill holes in 

existing information, and field checking of 

completed maps will be carried out. Maps 

showing geologic hazards and geologic 

constraints to development will be started.

Planned changes in FY 77: None

Project Number/Name: 9550-01889

Environmental Geology of Alaska Coal Lands

Branch: Engineering Geology

Project Chief: H. R. Schmoll, Denver 

(303-234-2999)

Total Project Area: Portions of lat 55°-70° N., 

long 141°-166° W.; 500,000km2 (Alaska) (fig. 

2).

Objectives:

Principal objectives are to provide an 

understanding of the nature, location, and 

extent of general environmental concerns and 

potential problems caused by response of 

geologic materials, both surficial deposits 

and bedrock, to surface and underground coal 

mining, energy conversion, facility siting, 

and accompanying land utilization for 

associated development (including 

transportation routes and urban development) 

throughout Alaska. The project has two 

phases: an overview to delineate all areas 

of the State in which reasonable potential 

for coal mining activity or intense 

exploration exists and to outline in general 

terms the environmental-geologic aspects of 

each, and more detailed studies to be 

undertaken in selected areas most likely to 

be sites of major development in the 

foreseeable future.

Progress in FY 76: New project FY 77 

Reports in FY 76: None

13
Work in progress in FY 77:

Investigations include literature research, 

coordination with field parties of other USGS 

groups, coordination with Alaska Geological 

Survey personnel, and mapping of 

environmental geologic aspects of energyresource recovery.

Planned changes in FY 77: None

Project Number/Name: 9540-01591

Geologic Aspects of Off-Road Vehicle Use in 

Desert Areas, U.S.A.

Branch: Western Environmental Geology

Project Chief: H. G. Wilshire, USGS Center, 345 

Middlefield Road, Menlo Park, CA 94025 

(415-323-2214)

Total Project Area: San Juan Basin, New Mexico 

(fig. 2, region 21).

Objectives:

This project is designed to determine the 

amount of soil destabilization and amounts of 

resulting erosion as a consequence of the use 

of off-road vehicles in fragile desert 

environments. The Energy Lands Program part 

of the project will focus on environmental 

problems in using unpaved haulage roads and 

the use of different vehicles on those roads 

over different geologic terranes in various 

coal strip-mining areas in New Mexico and 

Arizona.

Progress in FY 76: New project FY 77 

Reports in FY 76: None 

Work in progress in FY 77:

Literature research and field investigations 

are the only work presently taking place.

Planned changes in FY 77: None

Grants and Contracts

The Energy Lands Program disbursed 10 

percent of its appropriations each year in 

Fiscal Years 1975 and 1976 in the form of grants 

and contracts. In Fiscal Year 1977, some grants 

have been completed and some have been renewed. 

New proposals for grants to fund energy-related 

environmental geologic studies have been 

submitted by various State Geological Surveys 

and universities. To date, the program has 

granted funds to the Texas Bureau of Economic 

Geology, Oklahoma Geological Survey, University 

of Denver, Kansas State Geological Survey, 

University of Wyoming, and Colorado Geological 

Survey. One contract was let to a consulting 

mining engineer for coal mining studies.

Program Grant and Contract Details

Grant Number/Name: 14-08-0001-G-158 and -316

Land Resources and Environmental Impact East 

Texas Lignite Belt

Grantee: Texas Bureau of Economic Geology, Box 

X, University Station, Austin, TX 78712. 

Principal Investigator: E. G. Wermund.

Project Area: Parts of Navarro, Freestone, 

Limestone, Leon, Falls, Robertson, Milam, 

Williamson, Burleson, Lee, and Bastrop 

Counties, and the lignite-bearing region of 

northeast Texas (fig. 2).

Objectives:

Objectives of the study are to assess effects 

on the physical environment resulting from 

development of Texas' lignite resources, and 

to map and report on such effects in a timely 

manner so as to contribute to orderly 

development.

Progress through FY 76:

The Eocene Calvert Bluff Formation of Sharp 

(1966) was recognized as the major lignitebearing unit; active and proposed strip mines 

were located and plotted on maps; aquifers in 

the Simsboro Formation of Sharp (1966) and 

Carrizo Sand were recognized as the aquifers 

most likely to receive mine runoff.

Twelve mappable land resource units were 

identified and mapped; baseline ground- and 

surface-water chemistry of the lignite area 

was compiled as a baseline for the evaluation 

of pollution; bibliographies of the geology 

and hydrology of the lignite belt were 

compiled; the major floral assemblage of 

varied substrate units was identified, as 

well as the floral assemblage that first 

occupies unreconstructed mine spoil.

Environmental geologic maps were made for the 

Wilcox Group and Carrizo Sand outcrop ' belt 

between the Trinity River and the TexasLouisiana border; lignite potential of a test 

unit of the Jackson and Yegua Formations 

(Eocene) was mapped in Madison County; traceelement chemistry of algae from streams in 

the lignite belt was determined and land use 

was mapped in vicinities of active strip 

mines.

Reports through FY 76:

Henry, C. D., 1976, Land-resources inventory 

of lignite strip mining areas, east Texas 

An application of environmental geology: 

Texas Univ., Bur. Econ. Geology Geol. Circ. 

76-2, 29 p.

14
Henry, C. D., Kaiser, W. R. , and Groat, C. 

G., 1976, Reclamation at Big Brown steam 

electric station near Fairfield, Texas 

Geologic and hydrologic setting: Texas 

Univ., Bur. Econ. Geology Research Note 3, 

10 p.

Henry, C. D., and Kastning, E. H., 1975, 

Toward evaluating the potential 

environmental impact of lignite strip 

mining in east Texas: Geol. Soc. America 

Abs. with Programs, v. 7, no. 7, p. 1110.

____1976, Environmental geology of the East 

Texas Lignite Belt: in Kaiser, W. R., ed., 

Geology, utilization, and environmental 

aspects: Gulf Coast Lignite Conf. Proc., 

p. 11.

Holm, Melody,, 1975, A preliminary study of 

biologic assemblages of East Texas Lignite 

Belt: Texas Univ., Bur. Econ. Geology 

Research Rept. 1, 23 p.

Seagle, Shirley, 1976, A preliminary study of 

aquatic plants in the vicinity of the Alcoa 

aluminum plant and Big Brown generating 

plant: Texas Univ., Bur. Econ. Geology 

Research. Note 18, 20 p.

Work in progress in FY 77:

Progress toward successful completion of work 

under the grant includes compilation of a 

base map of the lignite area at 1:125,000, 

sampling and measurement of water quality, 

compilation of environmental geologic maps of 

the Wilcox-Carrizo belt between the line 

separating Franklin and Titus Counties and 

the Texas-Arkansas border, and writing the 

summary report for the project.

Grant Number/Name: 14-08-0001-G-163

The Powder River Basin Mapping Program

Grantee: University of Wyoming Remote Sensing 

Laboratory, Laramie, WY 82070. Principal 

Investigator: R. W. Marrs.

Total Project Area: Johnson, Sheridan, and 

Natrona Counties, Wyoming (fig. 2 region 12).

Objectives:

The objectives of the study are to map 

existing land use, native vegetation, and 

undisturbed landforms in the north-central 

portion of the Wyoming part of the Powder 

River Basin. This is to be accomplished 

through use and interpretation of remote 

sensing data including satellite imagery and 

aerial photography. These efforts are 

designed to provide natural land-resource 

information in advance of widespread 

development of thick stripping-coal resources 

of the basin, in order to contribute to

orderly and sound resource development and 

rehabilitation of mined lands. A secondary 

objective is to provide comparison of map 

results with USGS projects in the Montana 

portion of the Powder River Basin and in the 

eastern and western parts of the basin.

Progress in FY 76:

Scientists compiled land use, natural 

vegetation, and landform maps of Johnson 

County and most of Sheridan County, Wyo., and 

began work on similar maps for Natrona 

County.

Reports in FY 76:

Johnson County maps are in proof stage. 

Work in progress in FY 77:

Compilation and evaluation of the Johnson 

County and Sheridan County maps continues; 

Natrona County maps are begun and compilation 

is in the early stages.

Planned changes in FY 77:

A shift of the study area into Natrona County 

is planned as soon as Johnson County maps are 

completed. These maps will contribute to 

folios of the Powder River Basin.

Grant Number/Name: 14-08-0001-G-187

A Climatic Appraisal of the Rehabilitation 

Potential of Strippable Coal Lands in the 

Powder River Basin, Wyoming and Montana

Grantee: University of Denver (Colorado) 

Geography Department, University Park, 

Denver, CO 80210. Principal Investigator: 

T. J. Toy.

Total Project Area: Powder River Basin; 8,000 

km (Wyoming, Montana) (fig. 2, region 12).

Objectives:

This project was designed to study the annual 

precipitation and evapotranspiration rates in 

the Powder River Basin and to develop a 

comprehensive and reliable basis for 

measuring the availability of water and the 

need for irrigation for revegetation of 

spoils from coal mining. A further objective 

was to adapt existing computer procedures in 

order to produce valid results for 

Environmental Impact Statements and other 

evaluations of impacts of mining on the 

environment.

Progress in FY 76:

The project was completed and eight climate15
factor maps were submitted for publication. 

The report and maps are titled:

Maps of the Powder River Basin, Wyoming and 

Montana, showing:

A) Average annual precipitation

B) Average monthly precipitation

C) Length of growing season

D) Growing-season precipitation 

E) Average monthly growing-season precipitation

F) Growing-season consumptive-water-use 

factor

G) Consumptive water use by natural irrigation

H) Irrigation water requirement; scale 

1:500,000 with explanatory text, U.S. Geol. 

Survey Misc. Investigations Map ___, in 

preparation. Submitted to USGS January, 

1977.

Work in progress in FY 77: None; grant 

completed

Planned changes in FY 77: None 

Grant Number/Name: 14-08-0001-G-415

A Climatic Appraisal of the Rehabilitation 

Potential of Strippable Coal Lands in the 

Four Corners Area, Colorado-New MexicoArizona-Utah

Grantee: University of Denver (Colorado) 

Geography Department. Principal Investigator: T. J. Toy.

Total Project Area: San Juan Basin, Colorado 

and New Mexico and Black Mesa Basin, Arizona; 

about 100,000 km2 and 4,600 km (fig. 2, 

region 21).

Objectives: The study is designed to determine 

climatic factors that will influence 

rehabilitation of mined lands in the arid 

southwest and to develop a reliable and 

comprehensive basis for estimating water 

availability and need for irrigation in 

reclamation efforts. Secondary objectives are 

to adapt existing computer models to suit 

these particular circumstances, arrive at a 

valid estimate of irrigation water necessary 

for revegetation of coal mine spoil, and 

provide a comparison to a similar study 

carried out in the Powder River Basin.

Progress in FY 76: New grant FY 77 

Reports in FY 76: None 

Work in progress in FY 77:

An interim report is being compiled; single 

climate-factor maps of the San Juan Basin,

with explanatory text, are being prepared; 

papers, some dealing with the grant, probably 

will be given at national meetings of 

scientific societies.

Planned changes in FY 77: None

Grant Number/Name: 14-08-0001-G-211

Inventory of Surface-Mined Lands and 

Assessment of Reclamation Practices in 

Oklahoma

Grantee: Oklahoma Geological Survey, 830 Van 

Vleet Oval, Norman, OK 73069. Principal 

Investigator: K. S. Johnson.

Total Project Area: Statewide (Oklahoma)

(fig. 2, region 7).

Objectives:

Principal objectives of this grant are to 

make an inventory of past and present 

surface-mining activity of all kinds 

throughout the State in order to determine 

the extent of mining, types and quantities of 

material removed, conditions resulting from 

this activity, and the type and success of 

reclamation efforts at each site. Surfacemined materials include zinc, lead, copper, 

coal, asphalt, limestone, dolomite, clay, 

gypsum, granite, silica sand, and sand and 

gravel. Maps, diagrams, and reports will be 

compiled.

Progress in FY 76:

Amounts and locations of disturbed lands were 

compiled for about two thirds of Oklahoma's 

77 counties. Field investigations were 

conducted into details of mining operations, 

amounts of disturbance, and environmental 

effects. Structuring of a computer file for 

storage and retrieval of data was completed 

and filing was begun.

Reports in FY 76:

Friedman, S. A., 1976, Map of eastern 

Oklahoma showing active coal mines: Oklahoma 

Geol. Survey Map.

Work in progress in FY 77:

Investigations will lead to the production of 

maps showing the location and extent of 

surface-mined lands since statehood, the type 

and amount of material removed, and the 

reclamation procedures followed.

Planned changes in FY 77: None

Grant Number/Name: 14-08-0001-G-241

Assessment of Environmental Effects of Strip 

Mining and Reclamation in Southeastern Kansas

16
Grantee: Kansas Geological Survey, 1930 Avenue 

A, Campus West, Lawrence, KS 66044. 

Principal Investigator: R. G. Hardy.

Total Project Area: Southeast Kansas, 

approximately 10,000 knr (fig. 2, region 7).

Objectives:

Objectives are to acquire and compile 

extensive and detailed information on the 

geology, coal and other resources, groundand surface water conditions, soil, climate, 

biology, and land use in the coal mining area 

of southeastern Kansas. This information is 

to be used as a baseline against which to 

predict environmental changes as mining and 

restoration take place. The study includes a 

detailed study of overburden for reclamation 

purposes.

Progress in FY 76:

Progress toward project goals, compiled maps, 

and computer program.

Reports in FY 76: None 

Work in progress in FY 77:

Progress continues toward successful 

fulfillment of the project objectives. Maps 

are being prepared, reports are being 

written, and computer programs are being 

developed.

Planned changes in FY 77: None

Major Accomplishments of Program in FY 76

The major accomplishments of the Energy 

Lands Program in Fiscal Year 1976 include the 

following:

 Completion of a contract with Mr. Horst 

Ueblacker, Consulting Mining Engineer, 

Lakewood, Colo,, upon the submittal of his 

report, Surface Mining of Coal; A_ 

Discussion of Mining Methods, Reclamation 

Practices, and Environmental Regulations of 

Foreign Countries.

 Publication or completion to branch 

submittal of several maps and reports, 

including surficial, interpretive, water, 

engineering geologic, and statewide energyresources maps.

 Response to congressional requests for 

information on alluvial valley floors as 

they might be affected by coal mining 

through a project of very rapid field 

reconnaissance mapping of alluvial valley 

floors in forty-eight 7-1/2-minute 

quadrangles in the Montana portion of the 

Powder River Basin.

 Contribution to Regional Environmental 

Impact Statements through compilation of 

state-of-geologic-knowledge reports on the 

southern Utah and western North Dakota coal 

regions and contribution of expertise to 

the eight other regional reports.

 Geologists now working in the Landslide 

Hazards Reduction Program mapped slope 

stability in a significant portion of the 

central and western Appalachian coal basin 

in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia.

 Underwriting of the cost of and 

encouragement of investigations in baseline 

geochemistry of the Powder River Basin and 

other, smaller coal basins in the Western 

Interior.

 Monitoring and administering grants to 

State Surveys or universities in Oklahoma, 

Texas, Colorado, Kansas, Wyoming, West 

Virginia, and Ohio.

 First identification of large active and 

incipient landslides in urban and suburban 

areas of the Appalachian bituminous coal 

region, and open-filing of detailed maps of 

especially hazardous areas.

 Definition of regional climate and climatic 

needs of natural vegetation in the Powder 

River Basin, including amounts of water 

needed to augment natural precipitation.

 Preparation of a folio of detailed maps of 

the Gillette area, Wyoming, and of the 

entire Powder River Basin to show geologic, 

hydrologic, and other earth science 

influence on coal recovery and to show the 

energy facilities of the basin for planning 

purposes.

 Production of a series of maps of Johnson

County, Wyo., to illustrate the value of 

remote sensing methods in regional 

environmental assessment.

 Publication of a report on stability of 

highwalls in the strip mines in the western 

Powder River Basin that delineates factors 

of safety in designing highwall steepness.

 Publication of the Energy Resources Map of 

Colorado, which shows energy mineral 

deposits; handling, conversion, and 

transportation facilities; and power plants 

and major transmission lines; with similar 

maps of Wyoming and Utah, it contributes to 

regional planning.

Program Goals for FY 77

The emphasis of the Energy Lands Program 

will be shifted somewhat in its geographic scope

L7
in FY 77. A major goal is to respond to the 

Coal Exploratory Program of USGS and to the 

needs for geologic information pertinent to 

national and local legislation. Other principal 

goals include the following:

 Work closely with local, State, and Federal 

groups concerned with development of natural 

energy resources and national energy policy, 

and tailor the program even more closely to 

the national need.

 Coordinate investigations in western energy 

lands with those of Water Resources and 

Conservation Divisions to avoid duplication 

of effort, contribute to the national 

scientific effort to aid in responsible 

development of energy resources, and 

contribute to folio maps of coal regions 

currently being prepared by USGS.

 Begin new projects in coal-bearing areas of 

the San Juan Basin, Alaska, Montana-North 

Dakota, and east-central Utah; a nationwide 

project of carbonates for S0 2 scrubbing; a 

climatic study of the Four Corners coalbearing region; and a study of effects of 

off-road vehicles on soil breakdown.

 Develop new grants to appropriate State 

Geological Surveys and universities to help 

states in appraisal of the environmentalgeologic problems of their energy lands.

 Complete surficial geologic mapping in the 

eastern Powder River Basin and begin 

preparation of derivative and interpretive 

reports based on that basic information.

 Complete compilation by remote sensing 

techniques of land-use, landform, and 

vegetation maps of Johnson and Natrona 

Counties, Wyoming.

 Continue engineering-geologic studies in the 

western Powder River Basin, completing 

reports in specialized parts of the studies.

 Continue research into rates of erosion and 

surficial and bedrock geologic mapping in 

northwest Colorado energy lands.

 Complete some basic mapping in the Kaiparowits 

Plateau and begin interpretive phases; 

continue research in rates of erosion on 

Black Mesa.

 Complete environmental-geologic studies of the 

Texas Lignite Belt, and continue them in 

Oklahoma and Kansas.

 Begin age-dating studies in energy lands, 

based on radioactive decay of natural 

isotopes.

 Continue baseline geochemistry studies in 

western energy lands.

SUMMARY OF RESULTS OF RESEARCH, FY 76

Scientists working in the Energy Lands 

Program investigated several diverse subjects as 

part of the research aspect of the missionoriented program. Paleoclimatic conditions in 

the arid southwest, having long-range bearing on 

potential for reclamation of mined lands, were 

deduced from tree-ring analysis, fission-track 

and C dating, comparative alluviation, and 

archaeological remains. Quantification of 

abstract aesthetics was applied to computercomposite mapping of the potential for minedland reclamation in a portion of the Northern 

Great Plains. Surficial and engineering 

geologic maps of parts of the Powder River Basin 

were constructed as bases for interpretive and 

derivative maps that will help in regional 

planning. Topical studies in landslide hazards, 

coal-mine deformation, and the stability of 

strip-mine highwalls and of surfaces over 

underground mines were completed and their 

transfer value was assessed. A new Quaternary 

stratigraphy in northwestern Colorado was 

compiled, based in part on age dating of 

volcanic ash contained in sediments and 

sedimentary rocks. The State geological 

agencies in Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas carried 

out research in environmental geology of coal 

lands in those states.

STRATIGRAPHY AND PALEOCLIMATE 

OF THE BLACK MESA BASIN

By 

Thor N. V. Karlstrom

Paleoclimatic studies in the Black Mesa 

region suggest that a substantial change toward 

cooler, wetter climate should occur within the 

next few decades. Converging lines of 

scientific evidence provide a basis for the use 

of past climatic changes to project future 

climatic trends. Understanding these trends is 

essential to meaningful long-range environmental 

evaluation and planning.

A major objective of the Black Mesa project 

is to provide a geologic basis for evaluation of 

the effect of surface mining on a fragile 

southwest desert environment. Geologic, 

biologic, and archeologic indices allow 

objective assessment of the magnitude and 

frequency of past natural environmental changes 

and open the way to prediction of natural change 

in the future.

A major breakthrough in microstratigraphic 

analysis resulted from work done jointly with 

Dr. Jeffrey Dean, Tree-ring Laboratory, 

University of Arizona. Dean discovered that 

tree sections collected from numerous buried 

juniper forests in the region (fig. 3), and from 

buried detrital wood, have ring patterns that 

commonly are cross-datable with southwest

18
?» -j^a^^&Vi. 

Figure 3. Discovery tree of buried juniper 

forest in Dead Juniper Wash, Black Mesa, 

Ariz. Tree-ring cross dating of sections 

cut from this and numerous other buried and 

living trees in the area indicates that the 

buried forest germinated on an ancient 

arroyo floor between A.D. 1350 and A. D. 

1450, and was buried by the Z sediments 

exposed in the arroyo wall.

dendrochronologic records. This cross-dating 

technique permits precise geologic dating 

(within 1-25 years) of enclosing sediments. 

Tree-ring germination and death dates have been 

obtained from more than 100 tree sections. The 

results confirm the validity of dates obtained 

archeologically and the general validity of most 

C results obtained from charcoal and other 

buried organic material.

Project scientists recognize a systematic 

pattern of past hydrologic changes that were 

essentially contemporaneous within the drainage 

basins of the Black Mesa region. Dating of 

stratigraphic sections reveals a series of thick 

primary depositional units with intervening 

thinner erosional units and developed soils. 

The main component of the emerging hydrologic 

pattern is a cycle with primary soil-forming or 

drought intervals recurring every 500-600 years. 

Each primary depositional unit, informally 

designated T (oldest) through Z (youngest), is 

made up of a series of subordinate units whose 

grain size becomes finer toward the top of the 

unit. Subunits directly dated by tree-rings, 

archeology, and C define a pattern of 

secondary depositional impulses (about 100 years 

or less in duration) centered on the peaks of 

the broader (about 550-year) alluvial epicycles.

On the basis of these discoveries, 

scientists have defined three principal types of 

alluvial stratigraphy: superposed stratigraphy, 

inset-terrace stratigraphy, and mixed 

stratigraphy (fig. 4). The data demonstrate 

similar depositional histories of drainage 

basins throughout the region, although the dated 

local sections are associated with differing 

numbers and heights of terraces. Numerous dated 

sections in the region show superposed 

stratigraphy (fig. 4A) and various combinations 

of mixed stratigraphy (fig. 40. As yet no 

sections have been dated that comprise only 

inset-stratigraphy having only one depositional 

unit beneath each terrace level (fig. 4B).

The correspondence of alternating 

depositional and nondepositional epicycles at 

widely separated localities indicates that 

essentially synchronous, climatically induced 

hydrologic changes have been the main factor 

controlling alluvial processes throughout the 

region since Pleistocene time. The same 

conclusion was reached by Haynes (1968) from his 

pioneer analysis of C-dated alluvial sections 

throughout the southwest; and by Hevly and 

Karlstrom (1974), who based their evaluation on 

numerous C-dated pollen and depositional 

records available from the southwest, Alaska, 

and the midcontinent.

19
A SUPERPOSED 

STRATIGRAPHY

8 INSET-TERRACE 

STRATIGRAPHY

C MIXED STRATIGRAPHY

Figure 4. Different types of terraced stratigraphy on Black Mesa. Depositional units W to Z are 

defined by dated reference boundaries representing estimated midpoints of intervening 

nondepositional intervals marked by soils and unconformites. The Y-Z boundary is about A.D. 

1450; the X-Y boundary about A.D. 875; and the W-X boundary about A.D. 350. Deposition of 

units is associated with young arroyo-floor terraces dated between about A.D. 1900 and 1973. 

Variable soil (T-l to T-5) thickness (hachures) is a function of relative duration of 

subaerial exposure and weathering before burial beneath younger terraces.

Dated depositional breaks in the alluvial 

record coincide closely with ceramic dated 

phase-breaks in the Black Mesa archeological 

record and with drought intervals recorded in 

the regional dendroclimatic record (combined 

normalized tree-ring indices of Rio Grande, Mesa 

Verde, Navajo Monument, and Flagstaff, Ariz; 

Fritts, 1965). These temporal coincidences 

strongly suggest that prehistoric cultural 

adaptations occurred on Black Mesa largely in 

response to repeated intervals of environmental 

stress (Karlstrom and others, 1974; fig. 3). As 

noted by Gumerman and Euler (1976, p. 170), this 

conclusion does not preclude the important 

effect of population pressures and other social 

factors, but emphasizes that episodic changes in 

past physical environments played a significant 

role in the general timing and direction of 

rapid human adaptive change, migration, and site 

abandonment. The fact that secondary drought 

intervals evidently were of sufficient magnitude 

to influence the cultural development of 

prehistoric man favors the conclusion that 

future comparable high-frequency events on Black 

Mesa will affect modern man's activities and 

environmental planning as well.

The apparent systematic pattern of the 

emerging geologic record and its consistency

with archeological and biological indices 

suggest a sound basis for estimating the 

magnitude and frequency of future environmental 

changes on Black Mesa. Figure 5 summarizes the 

critical geologic, archeologic, and biologic 

data from Black Mesa for the past 1,300 years 

and schematically provides a first approximation 

for predicting future trends. The apices of the 

reconstructed low-frequency hydrologic curve are 

approximately centered in the primary 

depositional units and coincide with minor 

unconformities and weak soils dated at about 

A.D. 600, A.D. 1150, and A.D. 1700. The troughs 

of the curve are placed at the estimated 

midpoints of the intervening major 

nondepositional intervals, as these are closely 

bracketed by dated stratigraphic horizons.

Extrapolation of the geologically derived 

low-frequency trends suggests that the modern 

arroyo-cutting episode, which began after the 

1850's in the southwest, may represent a drought 

interval of a magnitude corresponding to the 

about 550-year cycle that should terminate (and 

reverse itself) around the beginning of the 21st 

century (or within 25 years). One likely 

extrapolation of the superposed higher frequency 

and more sensitive tree-ring record of change 

suggests a turning point in the major drought

20
CO

<

FUTURE

TIME-FREQUENCY 0 

OF DATED 

CULTURAL 

BOUNDARIES 6

OF REGION ABANDONED BY 

PREHISTORIC PEOPLES

floors buried 

beneath © 

deposits -

PRESENT AND PREDICTED CYCLES 

EXPLANATION

Tree-ring drought intervals 

Coincident with clusters of dated

cultural boundaries 

Coincident with dated stratigraphic 

breaks

Beginning of major

arroyo-cutting episode

Dated stratigraphic breaks--Arrows 

indicate directions to 

bracketed features

0 Archeology

o Tree rings

 '"C

TS 

LO

Y-2

Culture phase 

Tsegi 

Lomoki

Depositional unit 

Main subdivision

First

Y Z

Figure 5. Predictive model of climate records at Black Mesa, Ariz.: first approximation; ba

geologic, archeologic, and tree-ring data. Low-frequency hydrologic curve is inferred fr

superimposed high-frequency aridity curve is derived from normalized regional tree-ring in

Mesa Verde, Navajo Monument, and Flagstaff indices Fritts, 1965). Indices represent 

further smoothed by standard arithmetic means (equation: b' = (a+2b+c)/4). Positive de

and negative departures (down, narrow rings) are referenced to the dashed lines represent

trends. The dated cultural boundaries are as defined in representative prehistoric ch

Plateau, including Grand Canyon, Hayhollow Valley, Hopi Buttes, Jeddito Valley, Black Mes

Canyon De Chelly, Mesa Verde, Chaco Canyon, and Navajo Reservoir District. The scale is 

in 25-year intervals.
trend at about A.D. 1990 years, with an abrupt 

recovery to wetter conditions within 50 years. 

If so, drying conditions that resulted in arroyo 

cutting and progressive deterioration of 

agricultural potential in the region during the 

past 100 years may shift toward wetter climate, 

general aggradation of arroyo floors, rising 

water tables, and increasingly favorable grazing 

and farming conditions in the near future. It 

is clear from the record that static persistence 

of the present range of hydrologic and climatic 

fluctuations is extremely unlikely, and that 

comparable ranges of environmental change as 

geologically recorded for the past should be 

considered in environmental planning for the 

future.

RECLAMATION-POTENTIAL MAPPING OF STRIPPABLE 

COAL LANDS IN SEMIARID REGIONS

By 

David W. Moore

Reclamation potential, as used in this 

study, is the likelihood of returning the 

environment to a desirable physical condition 

following surface mining. A procedure for 

mapping this abstract concept has been developed 

by the U.S. Geological Survey. In this 

procedure, the overall reclamation potential of 

land parcels is obtained by adding the 

reclamation potentials of several component 

environmental factors which have been estimated 

from available results of reclamation research. 

The factors include water, wildlife, and scenic 

resources, as well as land use by man.

The need to show the potential for 

reclaiming the environment in regions of 

strippable coal was a major conclusion of the 

1974 report of the National Academy of Sciences 

(1974, p. 10). More recently, this need was 

noted throughout the 1976 congressional hearings 

on the new Federal Coal Policy (U.S. Congress, 

1976, p. 97, 144, 166, 172). Retention of 

environmental quality in coal lands requires 

knowledge of the reclamation potential of land 

parcels, so that unusually vulnerable and 

valuable environments may be considered for 

exclusion from mining or for special reclamation 

practices.

Relative reclamation potential, expressed 

as high, intermediate, or low, has been mapped 

at 1:100,000 scale in about 500 km2 of land 

underlain by strippable coal near Gillette in 

northeastern Wyoming. The maximum resolution of 

mapping is a rectangular cell the size of an 

upper case typewriter character (3.2 x 2.5 mm) 

which represents 8 hectares on the ground. The 

mapped area lies within a larger region trending

northward along the eastern margin of the Powder 

River Basin, which is underlain by about 18 

billion metric ton of strippable coal (fig. 6).

105°00'

The 8-hectare parcel of land has sides 

320 x 250 m.

Figure 6. Strippable coal (patterned) in the 

Powder River Basin, existing or proposed 

surface mines (circles), and study area 

within the Gillette 1:100,000 quadrangle 

map.

Evaluation of Reclamation Potential

Reclamation standards and predictions about 

the chances of actually fulfilling these 

standards are needed to evaluate reclamation 

potential. Reclamation standards define the 

minimal physical conditions to which disturbed 

land must be returned after cessation of mining; 

they were defined following federal reclamation

22
guidelines for coal lands (U.S. Department of 

the Interior, 1976). Reclamation potentials of 

individual environmental factors were estimated 

from the available results of reclamation 

research (for example, Van Voast and others, 

1975) and were ranked on a likelihood scale 

ranging from 0 to 9. Zero is the lowest 

(essentially impossible) and 9 is the highest 

estimated likelihood of successfully reclaiming 

the factor to its standard. The sum of 

likelihood scores for six environmental factors 

is used as an indicator of the overall 

reclamation potential of the environment. 

Predictions of reclamation potential in 1977 

are, of necessity, estimates, because data are 

too few to permit formal probability analysis. 

Probability analysis, as a basis for predicting 

reclamation potential, would require much data 

resulting from the ideal situation of 5-10 years 

of instrumented measurements of physical, 

chemical, and biological systems on mine spoil 

in semiarid regions.

The past several years of research are 

beginning to yield data for a few factors, 

notably revegetation of spoil in semiarid 

regions. Revegetation research has been 

underway at Colstrip, Mont., since 1971, for 

instance (Hodder and others, 1971). However, 

few measurements exist for other factors such as 

ground-water quality, livestock grazing, and 

surface-water quantity in mine spoil 

environments.

Procedures of Composite Mapping

The main steps of composite mapping of 

reclamation potential are preparing maps of 

environmental factors at a common scale, 

recording the likelihood ranking scores for 

individual factors on grids, converting gridded 

information to matrices (creating computer 

files), and overlaying matrices by computer to 

produce the reclamation potential map (composite 

map) .

Six environmental factors were mapped and 

evaluated in the pre-mining environment of the 

strippable zone of the Wyodak-Anderson coal

RECLAMATION POTENTIAL

Ground-water 

quality

Surface-water 

quantity

Revegetation 

potential

Scenic 

value

Wildlife 

habitat

Figure 7. The six major environmental factors 

which were evaluated for their reclamation 

potential. High values of revegetation potential contribute to high reclamation 

potential. Revegetation potential is a 

composite of evaluations of moisture requirements, slope, topographic aspect and 

closed depressions, soil quality, and sediment yield. Wildlife habitat is a composite of large- and small-game habitats.

deposit in the Gillette quadrangle: groundwater quality, surface-water quantity, 

revegetation potential, land use, scenic value, 

and wildlife habitat. Factor subtypes (for 

example, big-game and small-game habitat 

subtypes make up the wildlife habitat factor) 

were mapped for each factor from field 

observations, aerial photographs, or data and 

maps of previous workers (for example, Maiss, 

1976). These factors and factor subtypes were 

determined to be of greatest use for 

experimental map purposes through the writer's 

personal knowledge and discussions with 

colleagues in USGS, U.S. Forest Service, U.S. 

Soil Conservation Service, and State agencies.

Reclamation-potential scores for all 

subtypes of each environmental factor were 

determined, using the likelihood scale for each. 

These scores were recorded as single digits from 

0-9 inclusive, on an 8-hectare cell grid laid 

over the factor map. In this digitized format, 

the information is uniquely locatable on the 

base map and is easily processed by the 

computer. The computer created a matrix of 

reclamation-potential scores from the digitized 

data using a set of programs called GMAPS 

(Turner, 1976) . A composite map was made by 

adding the matrices of all factors using the 

computer (fig. 8). Matrices may be weighted so 

that changes on the composite map caused by 

emphasizing the importance of one or more 

factors over the others may be seen. For an 

assessment that emphasizes factors important to 

wildlife habitat and scenic resources, the 

following weighting was used:

RP = 1 GW + 2 SW + 2 RVP + 1 LU + 4 SV + 3 WH,

where RP is the matrix of sums of reclamationpotential scores and members on the right side 

of the equation are matrices for environmental 

factors: GW, ground-water quality; SW, surfacewater quantity; RVP, revegetation potential; LU, 

land use; SV, scenic value; and WH, wildlife 

habitat. Elements of the resultant matrix of 

sums indicate numerically the relative 

reclamation potential of small individual 

parcels of the strippable coal region. Three 

classes, high, intermediate, and low, were 

determined by dividing the frequency 

distribution of sums into thirds. A composite 

map then was printed by the computer line 

printer with different symbols creating 

contrasting gray tones representing the three 

classes of reclamation potential (fig. 9).

Applications

The following example is pertinent to 

illustrate the need for reclamation-potential

General Map Analysis and Planning System 

(GMAPS), developed by A. K. Turner, 

Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colo.

23
GROUND-WATER 

QUALITY

RESULTANT MATRIX OF SUMS

Figure 8. Diagram showing main steps of composite mapping used to make the 

reclamation-potential map (modified from 

Turner, 1976), L, I, and H on the map 

represent low, intermediate, and high 

potential for reclamation.

mapping. The total area that will be disturbed 

by the year 1990 in the strippable coal region 

shown in figure 6 (diagonal pattern is about 815 

km ) is estimated at about 140+15 km . After 

about 1980, the disturbed terrain that will be 

apparent during any given year may be about 25- 

40 km . These figures assume 12 mines, each 

producing about 5-18 million metric tons per 

year, and they assume that reclamation will be 

contemporaneous with mining operations. 

Operations at these scales will cause great 

environmental disruption and ensuing reclamation 

efforts; potential maps illustrate the scope of 

these efforts.

Reclamation-potential maps can be used by 

resource managers in selecting areas suitable 

for leasing. The maps also can be used in areas 

already leased to locate environmentally 

sensitive sites which may require provisions in 

the mine plan to reduce environmental losses. 

This method of mapping reclamation potential can 

be used in other regions having considerable 

variety and density of environmental "baseline" 

data. The size of the land parcel represented 

by the map cell should be chosen before mapping 

of environmental data begins, so that the 

implied areal reliability of the reclamationpotential map is representative of the 

environmental source data.

EXPLANATION 

Reclamation potential 

I::::::::: Low 

: :::::;:: Intermediate 

?!::!::::: High

Wyodak Mine location 

andmine

Figure 9. Reduced map of reclamation potential 

for the strippable-coal region of the WyodakAnderson coal deposit in the Gillette 

1:100,000 quadrangle. Individual cells represent 8 hectares. The right edge of the zone 

is about 0.5 km east of the coal outcrop; the 

left edge shows where depth to the top of the 

coal is about 90 m.

SURFICIAL GEOLOGIC MAPPING IN 

THE EASTERN POWDER RIVER BASIN

By 

Donald A. Coates

Surficial geologic maps are being made of 

forty-four 7-1/2-minute quadrangles and half of 

each of two 15-minute quadrangles along a 

corridor of strippable coal that runs the length

24
of Campbell County in northeastern Wyoming (fig. 

10). This area, underlain by gently westwarddipping rocks on the eastern flank of the Powder 

River Basin, contains some 14 billion metric 

tons of subbituminous coal in beds 15-30 m thick 

beneath less than 60 m of overburden (Keefer and 

Hadley, 1976). Several large strip mines 

currently are in operation, and by 1985 each of

about a dozen such mines are projected to be 

producing on the order of 10 million metric tons 

of coal annually.

The bedrock exposed at the surface in the 

study area comprises the Fort Union Formation, 

deposited in Paleocene time (between 65 and 53 

million years ago), and the Wasatch Formation,

EXPLANATION

Outline of 7 1 /2 and 15-mmute quadrangles in 

which surficial geologic maps are being made

Outline of blocks of quadrangles that will be 

combined for publication at 1:50 000

Approximate area of strippable coal deposits, 

modified from Keefer and Schmidt (1973)

Location of active or proposed coal strip mine

7 l/2-minute quadrangles

1 Black Draw

2 Dead Horse Lake

3 Corral Creek

4 Homestead Draw

5 Kline Draw

6 Reservoir Creek

7 Homestead Draw SW

8 Whitetail Butte

9 Larey Draw

10 Spotted Horse

11 Recluse

12 Pitch Draw

13 Croton

14 Truman Draw

15 Wildcat

16 Calf Creek

17 Orlva NW

18 Rawhide School

19 Moyer Springs

20 Green Hill

21 Oriva

22 Gillette West

23 Gillette East

24 Fortin Draw

25 Four Bar J Ranch

26 Appel Butte

27 The Gap

28 Coyote Draw

29 Pleasantdale

30 Scaper Reservoir

31 The Gap SW

32 Saddle Horse Butte

33 Eagle Rock

34 Neil Butte

35 Rough Creek

36 Reno Junction

37 Hilight

38 Open A Ranch

39 Little Thunder Reservoir

40 Reno Reservoir

41 Piney Canyon NW

42 Teckla SW

43 Teckla

44 Piney Canyon SW

15-minute quadrangles

45 North Star School (east half)

46 Turnercrest (east half)

Figure 10. Location of surficial geologic mapping in progress in FY 76 in the eastern Powder

River Basin, Campbell County, Wyo.

25
deposited in Eocene time (between 53 and 38 m.y. 

ago). There are many coal seams in both 

formations, but the seam that is of greatest 

economic interest, the Wyodak-Anderson seam, 

lies in the upper part of the Fort Union 

Formation and extends westward downdip beneath 

the Wasatch Formation.

Although there are some differences between 

the rocks of the Wasatch and the Fort Union, 

both formations are mainly soft shale and 

sandstone that disintegrate upon weathering. As 

a result, the surface materials in the region, 

including the stream sediments, are mostly fine 

grained. Generally the significant distinctions 

among surface materials are related more to

processes of weathering, erosion, and deposition 

than to grain size. Therefore, the surficial 

units mapped are defined in terms of the 

processes that formed them (table 1).

The landscape formed on Wasatch Formation 

south of Gillette is characterized by rolling 

terrain having a few tens of meters of gentle 

relief, punctuated by scattered groups of steep 

hills capped by "clinker" (bedrock that has been 

baked and fused by the burning of coal beds). 

Unbaked bedrock generally crops out only on the 

edges of hilltops and on the sides of steep 

valleys. Flat uplands in some places areancient 

erosion surfaces. Northwest of Gillette the 

landscape developed on the Wasatch is more

Table 1. Mapped surficial geologic units and underlying 

bedrock in the eastern Powder River Basin, Wyo.

Type of unit Map unit

Alluvial 

sediments

Flood-plain and channel alluvium

Tributary alluvium

Terrace alluvium

Fan and pediment alluvium, undifferentiated

High-level alluvium and residuum, undifferentiated

Slopewash and slack-water alluvium

Residuum and slopewash alluvium, undifferentiated

Lacustrine sediments Playa-lake sediments

Eolian 

sediments

Dune sand

Eolian sand and silt, undifferentiated

Residuum and eolian sand and silt, undifferentiated

Mass-wasting sediments Colluvium and residuum, undifferentiated

Residual 

deposits

Residuum on Wasatch Formation

Residuum on Fort Union Formation

Residuum and slopewash alluvium, undifferentiated

Residuum and eolian deposits, undifferentiated

Colluvium and residuum, undifferentiated

Baked and fused bedrock ("clinker") 

Bedrock Wasatch Formation (EOCENE)

Fort Union Formation (PALEOCENE)

Other Disturbed terrain

26
rugged, having up to 150 m of local relief. 

"Clinker" outcrops here are more common on the 

slopes than on the hilltops.

The dominant surface material in the area 

underlain by the Wasatch Formation is residuum, 

weathered bedrock that has not been transported. 

Residuum is porous, permeable, moderately 

weathered, arkosic, sandy material, which forms 

land commonly used for grazing and, where water 

is adequate, for dry-land farming. Slopewash 

alluvium is abundant in this landscape and is 

thick enough to be mapped on many of the lower 

slopes. It is especially common bordering the 

many depressions that have been produced by wind 

erosion and now contain playa lake sediments. 

Stabilized sand dunes are present in some areas, 

and thin, discontinuous deposits of windblown 

sand and silt are widespread, especially on the 

flatter land south of Gillette.

The part of the study area underlain by the 

Fort Union Formation lies mostly in the steep, 

dissected region known as the Rochelle Hills. 

Where the thick coal bed in the upper part of 

the Fort Union Formation has burned, the 

overlying bedrock has been baked and fused 

through a thickness of commonly more than 30 m. 

Because these baked rocks are substantially more 

resistant than are rocks above and below, 

erosion has produced a landscape in which the 

baked zone forms broad flat divides that are 

separated from the major valleys by steeply 

dissected areas having as much as 100 m of 

relief. Surface materials in these dissected 

breaks are chiefly residuum, bedrock outcrop, 

colluvium, and slopewash alluvium. Pediments, 

which are gentle bedrock slopes partly covered 

with alluvium, are common at the base of the 

breaks; and alluvial fans have formed where 

tributaries enter the main valleys.

Rocks of the upper Fort Union Formation 

generally are less permeable than rocks of the 

Wasatch Formation and form less fertile soil. 

Bedrock is more commonly exposed in the Fort 

Union terrane, and a finer textured, better 

developed drainage network typically has 

developed. Pasture is more sparse in this Fort 

Union terrane and dryland farming is uncommon.

Repeated downcutting, filling, and widening 

of the major stream valleys has produced a 

sequence of terraces and fill deposits, the 

history and timing of which is not yet wholly 

understood. The valley bottoms are important in 

this study because a significant amount of the 

bottom land is used for hay production, which 

supports the local cattle industry. The 

productivity of the valleys depends on 

subirrigation from the water table or flood 

irrigation during flow of these ephemeral 

streams. These alluvial valley floors, which

"Alluvial valley floors" are defined as the 

unconsolidated stream-laid deposits holding 

streams where water availability is sufficient 

for subirrigation or flood irrigation 

agricultural activities: . . .(U.S. Senate, 

1977, ms. p. 132).

figure importantly in environmental constraints 

in recent proposed strip mine legislation (U.S. 

Senate, 1977), are estimated to cover about 3 

percent of the surface-minable coal of the 

Powder River Basin (John Hardaway, Environmental 

Protection Agency, Denver, oral comtnun., 1976).

Interpretive maps at the scale 1:24,000 are 

being prepared for selected quadrangles in which 

rapid development is expected, in order to 

delineate areas where specific geologic and 

topographic conditions may constrain 

development. These maps are derived from 

surficial and bedrock geologic maps and from 

additional interpretation of aerial photographs 

and topographic maps. At least six factors 

bearing on land use decisions will appear on 

most of these maps: (1) near-surface coal that 

can be strip-mined economically, (2) subsurface 

or surface source of aggregate (generally 

"clinker"), (3) hard rock near the surface, (4) 

potentially unstable slopes, (5) high water 

table and flooding risk, and (6) difficult 

access for vehicles. Each of these factors will 

be represented by a single-digit number, one 

through six, in the areas where it appears on 

the map. Thus the user interested in a given 

site can consult the map to see what numbers 

and, therefore, what possible constraints appear 

at the site. Or the user can color all areas 

having a given number to produce a map showing 

the distribution of that constraint.

All maps and explanatory material produced 

in this project are designed to be useful to the 

nongeologist.

GEOCHEMICAL BASELINES

By 

Richard J. Ebens, Ronald R. Tidball,

James A. Erdman, 

Gerald L. Feder, and Walter E. Dean

Three years of work in the coal-bearing 

regions of the Northern Great Plains and Rocky 

Mountains have resulted in the provisional 

establishment of regionally useful geochemical 

baselines in 17 near-surface ("landscape") 

materials. These results are based on work from 

25 independent field studies of regional scope 

in the Powder River Basin, the Northern Great 

Plains, and the oil shale region of Colorado, 

Wyoming, and Utah. Baselines have been 

established for as many as 45 elements in rocks, 

soils, sediments, waters, and plants, although 

the element suite varies from material to 

material and only partial data are currently 

available from many of the studies (U.S. 

Geological Survey, 1976).

Materials studied in the Powder River Basin

include sandstone and shale of the Fort Union

Formation; surface and subsurface soil;

27
sediments of the Powder River; and sagebrush, 

lichen, and grass. Rocks of the Fort Union, 

surface and subsurface soil, and stream 

sediments also were collected in the Northern 

Great Plains, as were wheat and shallow ground 

water. In the oil shale region, soils were 

collected from Colorado, stream sediments from 

Colorado and Utah, and sagebrush from Wyoming.

Adjuncts to this regional work have 

included attempts to measure geochemical change 

in landscapes disturbed by activities related to 

energy production. Examination of the 

geochemistry of spoil material at eight stripmined areas (both reclaimed and abandoned) in 

the Northern Great Plains revealed that the 

average concentration of a number of elements 

(including F, Hg, U, Li, and Th) at one or more 

of the mined areas that were studied nearly 

equals or exceeds the probable maximum 

concentration expected in nearby native surface 

soil. The geochemical impact observed on 

vegetation growing on mined spoils includes 

altered Cu/Mo ratios in sweetclover (the 

observed average ratio was two, compared to an 

optimum for forage of seven or more) and 

increased concentrations of Cd, Co, F, U, and Zn 

in wheatgrass when compared to controls. 

Vegetation impacts around coal-fired electricgenerating plants include elevated 

concentrations of Se in both sagebrush and 

lichen near the Dave Johnston powerplant 

(Wyoming) and in grass near the Four Corners 

powerplant (New Mexico). In addition, Sr was 

elevated in all three vegetation types and Fe 

was elevated in lichen and grass at sampling 

sites close to the plants.

Additional findings of interest include (1) 

the demonstration that As, Hg, and Se (three 

elements commonly viewed as among the most 

hazardous of the trace metals) tend to occur in 

in situ oil shale in concentrations about five 

times that found in surface soils of the 

surrounding region, (2) the discovery of 

apparently natural levels of F and gross alpha 

radiation in shallow ground water of the 

Northern Great Plains that exceed current 

Environmental Protection Agency standards for 

safe drinking; and (3) weak, but generally 

significant differences in trace-element levels 

between soils north and south of the glaciation 

boundary in North Dakota and Montana. In order 

to better assess potential health hazards that 

might result from a geochemical disturbance of 

the natural landscape, a synopsis of doseresponse relations reported in the literature 

has been compiled.

ENERGY LANDS MAPPING IN THE NORTHWEST 

POWDER RIVER BASIN, WYOMING

By 

S. P. Kanizay

Geologic mapping of the Buffalo-Sheridan, 

Wyo., corridor at a scale of 1:50,000 was

undertaken in FY 1976. A preliminary geologic 

map of the Buffalo area, northwest Powder River 

Basin, Wyo., has been published (Kanizay and 

others, 1976). The Sheridan area is being 

mapped in FY 1977. Each map comprises about 

1,684 km . The maps are intended to serve as 

bases for regional interpretive maps showing 

 engineering geologic conditions.

Detailed engineering geologic maps at 

scales of 1:24,000 or larger are being prepared 

for specific areas that may be impacted by 

energy development or that will yield geologic 

information for broad regional geotechnical 

studies. The Big Horn 7 1/2-minute quadrangle 

was published (Ebaugh, 1976), and field mapping 

for the Buffalo 7 1/2-minute quadrangle is 

complete.

LANDSLIDE MAPPING AND SLOPE-STABILITY

ANALYSIS IN THE BIG HORN QUADRANGLE,

SHERIDAN COUNTY, WYOMING

By 

Walter F. Ebaugh

Extensive landslide deposits (Chleborad and 

others, 1976) are important in planning 

industrial and residential construction that 

will accompany development of coal resources in 

the Buffalo-Sheridan area, Wyoming. The Big 

Horn quadrangle, located 7 km south of Sheridan, 

is an area in which future urban growth is 

planned. This study includes mapping of 

landslides and a drilling program to measure the 

geotechnical properties of material involved in 

a landslide typical of those in the area.

The 172 landslide deposits that were mapped 

cover only 1 percent of the Big Horn quadrangle 

area, but that 1 percent is in an area deemed 

likly for development. Eight-two percent of 

these deposits (74 percent by area) occur on 

slopes of greater than 25 percent (14°). 

Eighty-five percent of the landslides (90 

percent by area) occur on east-facing slopes. 

Thirty-eight percent of the landslides (41 

percent by area) cross coal or carbonaceous 

zones in the bedrock, and 55 percent occur on 

slopes capped by alluvial sand and gravel. 

Alluvium and carbonaceous bedrock and coal are 

major aquifers in the Big Horn quadrangle and 

are believed to contribute ground water to 

slopes, thereby increasing the weight of the 

surficial mass and contributing intergranular 

buoyancy to the materials.

A landslide in the Wasatch Formation on the 

Springer Ranch (Lowry and Cummings, 1966, pi. 1) 

was drilled, sampled, and instrumented (fig. 11) 

to obtain information about the geometry, the 

physical properties of materials, and the nature 

of movement of the landslide. A geotechnical

28
Figure 11. U.S. Geological Survey drilling crew sampling and installing instrumentation in a 

landslide in the Wasatch Formation on the Springer Ranch in the Big Horn 7 1/2-minute 

quadrangle, Wyo. The slide scarp is beyond the water truck and drill truck. Although the 

slope is gentle, the surface on the slide is hummocky and contains several small berms.

profile of the slide mass was obtained from 

observations and measurements of color, grain 

size, density, pocket-penetrometer strength 

indices, moisture content, and Atterberg limits 

from samples collected from three boreholes 

spaced along the centerline of the slide. The 

geotechnical profile reveals a two-layer system 

of colluvium overlying bedrock, with the 

landslide failure surface occurring at the 

colluvium-bedrock interface.

Triaxial testing of undisturbed samples 

from the landslide will yield strength and 

stiffness values applicable to slope-stability 

analysis.

Information obtained from the analysis will 

be combined with other data such as occurrence, 

slope aspect, natural moisture, and thickness of 

unconsolidated or poorly consolidated material. 

These integrated data then will be extrapolated 

throughout the Big Horn quadrangle to prepare a 

map of relative susceptibility of various 

geologic units to slope failure.

ENGINEERING GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATIONS

IN THE POWDER RIVER BASIN,

WYOMING AND MONTANA

By 

Carter H. Miller

The historical seismicity of the Powder 

River Basin indicated by both earthquake

intensities (felt by humans) and earthquake 

magnitudes (instrumentally measured), has been 

compiled from data files of the National 

Geophysical and Solar-Terrestrial Data Center, 

the U.S. Geological Survey, and LASA (Large 

Aperture Seismic Array).

These data indicate that the area is 

historically seismically quiet. From about 1870 

to 1976, the northern part of the basin was a 

zone of few earthquakes of low magnitudes and 

intensities, and it is classed as an area of no 

damage to minor damage.

Several low-magnitude earthquakes, however, 

have been recorded in the last few years by LASA 

(Daryl Gress and Robert Matkin, written commun., 

1976) and local U.S. Geological Survey 

monitoring (F. W. Osterwald and C. R. Dunrud, 

written commun., 1976).

Many chemical explosions are detonated 

during coal strip mining; they are routinely 

recorded by LASA and sometimes by local U.S. 

Geological Survey monitoring. Of interest to 

future mining and urban development are many 

aftershocks, which apparently are similar to 

rock bursts, that occur in the strip mines 

following the explosions.

Many landslides in the Powder River Basin 

occur on slopes underlain by sand shale 

sequences. These slides cause damage to 

highways and agricultural land, and some

29
construction may inadvertently be sited on a 

potential slide.

One landslide in the basin was chosen for 

detailed study. Thirteen seismic-refraction 

compressional-wave and two shear-wave profiles 

were run on the slide. The objective was to 

determine the buried configuration of the slide 

and compare the shear strength of materials in 

the slide with that of the nearby hillslope on 

which failure had not occurred. Preliminary 

interpretation indicates that a "weathered" lowvelocity layer overlies a "nonweathered" highvelocity layer. The low-velocity layer is about 

3.1-6.2 m thick, and apparently all slide 

failure occurs in it. The shear strength of the 

low-velocity layer is about 5-10 times less than 

that of the underlying high-velocity layer.

A study was undertaken by R. A. Farrow, C. 

H. Miller, and A. L. Ramierz (USGS) to relate 

certain engineering properties of the quality 

and minability of clinkers from burned coal beds 

and to develop geophysical methods useful in 

exploring for buried clinkers. An outcrop of 

clinker was measured for engineering, magnetic, 

and seismic properties.

A magnetic profile was run with a hand-held 

magnetometer over the contact of clinker with 

unburned clastic rocks. A distinct anomaly of 

at least 800 gammas was measured, and the 

position of the contact could be discerned 

within about 6.2 m.

Magnetic and seismic surveys were also run 

on a line parallel to the outcrop; and Schmidt 

hammer, color, and magnetic hand-sample tests 

were run at the outcrop. Laboratory tests 

included drillability, sonic, density, and 

porosity tests. Preliminary results show that 

many laboratory tests are difficult to perform, 

because the clinkers are highly fractured and 

porous. In situ seismic compressional and 

shear wave data and some laboratory data show 

that the clinkers are a low-strength rock, and 

care should be used in siting heavy structures 

on them or in using them as critical wearing 

surfaces. Seismic tests showed that all 

clinkers tested could be easily quarried using a 

D-9 tractor having No. 9 teeth. Most quarried 

clinkers in the basin are loosened with much 

lighter equipment, but sometimes overlying 

clastic rocks must be loosened by explosives.

Two holes in the Powder River Basin were 

cored to depths of more than 122 m, and 

geophysical logs were run (R. A. Farrow, U.S. 

Geological Survey, written commun., 1976). 

Interpretation of the geophysical logs has 

progressed to partial interpretation of the 

sonic and electric logs.

The sonic logs show a velocity gradient 

caused by overburden stress of about 1.07 m/sec

per vertical 0.305 m (3.5 ft/sec per vertical 

foot) of depth. These logs also will be 

interpreted for certain physical properties and 

rock strengths associated with the design of 

underground openings.

Resistivities and ash content of about 50 

core samples of coal have been measured in the 

laboratory, and these will be compared with the 

electric logs. There may be a correlation 

between ash content, which is contributed mainly 

by clay impurities in the coal, and resistivity 

of the coal.

Magnetic, gravity, electromagnetic, and 

seismic-refraction surface geophysical surveys 

were carried out over the grid. Standard data 

corrections were begun, and, as of January 1977, 

about two thirds of the data had been reduced 

and interpreted. Preliminary and partial 

results indicate that contour maps of the 

magnetic, gravity, and electromagnetic data show 

trends of the underground coal mine but probably 

are not individually diagnostic. Preliminary 

seismic data reduction indicates that seismic 

methods may help in locating the underground 

openings. Surface detection of subsurface voids 

long has been a problem in geophysics. A series 

of experiments were designed for this project to 

try to find a solution. First, a system of 

underground coal mines in the eastern Powder 

River Basin was selected as an experimental 

site. A 1930's map of the underground workings 

was used to lay out outlines of the workings on 

the surface. A grid then was established so as 

to cross the boundary between mined and unmined 

areas.

REGIONAL GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS

By

Alan F. Chleborad

A preliminary study of geotechnical 

characteristics of the Fort Union and Wasatch 

Formations near Sheridan, Wyo., indicates that 

the following natural or manmade conditions are 

dominant factors contributing to landsliding in 

the area: (1) much of the bedrock and colluvial 

materials are fine grained, rich in clay, and 

plastic; (2) terrace gravels, and sandstone and 

carbonaceous aquifers deliver water to unstable 

slopes; (3) steep slopes commonly occur at the 

outcrops of these aquifers; and (4) moisture is 

concentrated on some slopes as a result of 

drifted snow from heavy spring storms, the 

gentle easterly dip of the beds (aquifers), and 

irrigation by local ranchers.

A statistical study of the relationship 

between slope aspect and landsliding occurrence 

for 558 landslides shows that 82 percent of the 

slides are on easterly facing hillsides and most

30
Figure 12. Aerial oblique photograph of a large 

landslide in the Fort Union Formation near 

Sheridan, Wyo. View westwrd.

the USGS. The study was begun in 1974 in 

cooperation with USER (U.S. Bureau of 

Reclamation) drilling projects for BLM (U.S. 

Bureau of Land Management). Physical properties 

tests also were performed in the field at 

Recluse, Wyo., during 1975 and 1976, in 

cooperation with the Coal Resources Branch of 

USGS.

McGregor (1975) described the results of 

selected physical properties tests from two 

USBR-BLM drill holes near Ashland, Mont. Farrow 

(1976) described the results of a core-hole 

testing program at Buffalo, Wyo. Similar 

programs are underway at Sheridan and Acme, Wyo. 

Physical-properties test data from a USBR-BLM 

drilling program near Bear Creek in the West 

Moorhead coal field, Montana, and from Recluse, 

Wyo., also are being evaluated in FY 1977. 

Locations of all the drill sites are shown in 

figure 13.

are on northeasterly slopes. This preference 

may be accounted for by moisture concentrated by 

snowdrifts resulting from the prevailing 

northwest wind direction and from the slight 

easterly dip of the beds, which preferentially 

delivers water to easterly slopes (fig. 12).

Twenty-two landslides were randomly 

selected and profiled in detail. Statistical 

analysis of measured slope angles indicates a 

mean slope angle for the 22 slides of 14°, with 

a range of 10° to 20°. The lesser slope angles 

are associated with slides on easterly slopes.

A landslide south of Sheridan in the Big 450 

Horn quadrangle was drilled and sampled. 

Preliminary analysis of core samples indicates a 

shallow failure zone (less than 6 m deep) 

involving weathered bedrock (Wasatch) and 

colluvial material. Piezometers were installed 

in this landslide, and several inclinometer 

boreholes were drilled to obtain information on 

pore-water pressure and slide movement.

A report on landsliding in the Sheridan 

area (Chleborad and others, 1976) was 

enthusiastically received by the Sheridan County 

Planning Commission in a July 1976 meeting in 

Sheridan. The Commission felt that the 

information in the report was badly needed and 

would be a valuable tool in future planning in 

Sheridan County.

107° 106°

Ashland ( OTTER CREEK 

>^STUDY SITE

Broadus,

Decker 

mine

Sheridan

0 20 KILOMETERS 

Buffalo^

BEAR CREEK

I* STUDY SITE MONTANA 

WYOMING

RECLUSE MODEL 

STUDY SITE

Recluse

Gillette H

GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF THE 

FORT UNION AND WASATCH FORMATIONS

By

Edward E. McGregor, Richard A. Farrow, 

and Harold W. Olsen

Testing of rocks from the Fort Union and 

Wasatch Formations in the Powder River Basin for 

geotechnical properties is an ongoing study in

Figure 13. Index map of northern Powder River 

Basin, showing locations of drill holes (x) 

from which cores were tested. Geophysical 

logs also were obtained from drill holes in 

Buffalo and Sheridan, Wyo.

Geotechnical data from these drilling 

programs are intended to serve the public need 

for information on geologic conditions that 

influence coal mining operations in the Powder 

River Basin. Of particular interest are the 

roof and floor rocks (strata above and below

31
major coal beds) because of their importance to 

both underground and surface mining. The data 

are intended for use by government agencies and 

public groups involved in planning, evaluation, 

and other decisions regarding coal mining; the 

data also should be useful to the coal-mining 

industry. An example of the information in the 

published reports is given in figure 14 (Farrow, 

1976).

The work in late 1976 consisted primarily 

of both field and laboratory measurements on 

cores from drill sites located near Buffalo, 

Sheridan, Acme, and Recluse, Wyo. A regional 

interpretation of the geotechnical conditions of 

rocks in the Powder River Basin is planned.

Physical-properties tests on samples of the 

Fort Union Formation in the northern and western 

Powder River Basin show that, with few 

exceptions, the rocks of the Fort Union 

Formation are so weak that they cannot be tested 

as rocks but must be considered as strong soils. 

The rocks were tested at natural-moisture 

conditions; and, in general, the siltstones and

shales behave plastically at high-natural 

moisture conditions. Sandstone and silty 

sandstone with natural moisture either are 

plastic or crumble when removed from a core 

barrel. Dehydrated (surface case-hardening) 

surface exposures are cemented and hard, and do 

not reflect the character of the rock at depth. 

The rocks have very low tensile and compressive 

strengths (as determined by testing), which 

suggests the need for very careful design of 

slopes, mine faces, and pit floors.

The Wasatch Formation at Buffalo, Wyo., was 

cored to a depth of 133 m (Farrow, 1976). Five 

lithologic units were recognized from sample 

testing and examination of geophysical logs. A 

poorly cemented sandy unit largely barren of 

coal, but containing water under an artesian 

head, occurs from the surface to a depth of 28 

m. An upper sequence of coal, claystone, and 

shale occurs in the interval from 28 to 45 m and 

is underlain by about 11 m of sandstone and 

claystone; a second coal unit extends from 56 to 

100 m in depth. Below the second coal unit is a 

partly fossiliferous claystone and sandstone

GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES LOG DRILL HOLE B ]

u.s. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY COUNTY Johnson STATE Wyoming ELEVATION 1,402m 

LOCATION NE NW sec. 35, T. 51 N., R. 82 W. 4,600 ft

DEPTH

METRES FEET

5- 

10- 

15- 

20- 

2SsoZO-j

1 80-

i ooCORE

RECOVERY

170

ley

J70

If

J6 6 

I76

E|68

61,

=

LITHOLOGY

Jill

W

' ~''~?':

K==i-=-f-v:

? $<£

sssas

& ?: $: 

H

^^^^^^H

Artificial fill: soil,

pieces of clinker and 

limestone. 

Sand, tan to brown, very 

fine to very coarse, 

clean, 2-cm cobbles. 

Sandstone, It. to med. 

gray, very coarse tosil 

size, cross bedded, thin 

coal beds and carbonaceous inclusions, very 

friable, sparse clay 

binder. 

Claystone, dark olive 

gray, silty to sandy.

Claystone, dark olive 

gray, sandy zones, lignitic, micaceous.

Coal, brown, soft, 

argillaceous, and black, 

hard, interbedded.

Schmidt Hammer 

type L

20 40 60

t

mmm

^ M

^

 MM

m^^m

mm

m 

""

l^^m 

 ^IB

^^m

m 

m

» fe ___

|_ ^

Point load

MN/m 2

0.1 0.5 1.0 1.5

_

^~-

^=

^^

SET

P wave velocity 

K ft/sec

6.5 7.0 7.5

M^

^^^

1^^

^^^

^ _

 i*

 

Figure 14. Typical geotechnical-properties log of drill hole B-l, Buffalo, Wyo. (modified from 

Farrow, 1976). MN/m , milliNewton/m^; K ft/sec, thousands of feet per second.

32
unit with only thin coal beds extending to the 

total depth of 133 m. Test results (fig. 14) 

show that the coal is the most structurally 

competent material present. Sandstones and 

claystones, even at depth, are weakly cemented 

and almost without cohesive strength. Artesian 

water flow from the weak sandstone near the 

surface may cause serious stability problems for 

highwalls of open-pit mines in the unit. 

Disturbance of artesian pressure, which possibly 

could be caused by surface mining, would affect 

local domestic water wells for an unknown period 

of time.

COAL MINE DEFORMATION, 

WESTERN POWDER RIVER BASIN

By

C. Richard Dunrud

This element of the engineering geologic 

studies, Powder River Basin Project, focuses on 

the engineering geologic factors that control 

the response of bedrock and surficial material 

to past large-scale mining activities and on an 

overview of selected present surface mining 

operations. Results of this study, together 

with results of other elements of the project, 

will provide a knowledge base from which to 

determine the relative merits of surface mining 

and underground mining in dominantly weak rocks 

of the Fort Union and Wasatch Formations. 

Information on subsidence effects on rocks of 

the Mesaverde Group (Upper Cretaceous) in deeper 

overburden in Utah and Colorado has been 

published (Dunrud, 1976; Sargent and Hansen, 

1976).

Results to date show that the effects of 

past underground room-and pillar mining in a 91- 

km area, 10-16 km north of Sheridan, Wyo., were 

more damaging to the environment and less 

productive than those of current surface mining 

operations. Surface subsidence features, such 

as depressions, pits, tension cracks, and 

compression bulges, as well as coal mine fires, 

are a continuing threat to the environment and 

commonly decrease values of land above 

underground mines that were abandoned 25 to 50 

years ago (figs. 15, 16).

Many abandoned mines have caught fire and 

are burning out of control (fig. 15). 

Apparently the processes of oxidation and 

hydration, resulting from the introduction of 

air and water into the abandoned mine workings, 

raised the temperature of the coal to the level 

of spontaneous combustion. Burning then 

produced more underground voids, which in turn 

provided more air to the fire and continually 

maintained the burning on a broadening front. A 

fire also was observed on the highwall of an 

abandoned surface mine in the study area. Coal 

mine fires are a serious environmental hazard, 

as well as a waste of energy resources.

Figure 15. Effects of past underground roomand-pillar coal-mining activities in the 

western Powder River Basin about 20 km 

north of Sheridan, Wyo. A, oblique aerial 

view of pit in which an underground coalmine fire has breached the surface; note 

concentric cracks within "fire pit" and 

cracks at the margin of depression surrounding "fire pit. H Pits in left background are located above individual rooms 

of abandoned coal mine; overburden is an 

estimated 15-23 m thick. B^, westward oblique aerial view of the effects of a coal 

mine fire. Pits above individual mine 

openings can be seen in left foreground. 

Steam and noxious gases issuing from subsidence pits and cracks can cause severe air 

pollution. Photographs by C. R. Dunrud.

Past underground mining extracted only 10- 

20 percent of the coal, because the coal beds 

were too thick to be mined completely by thencurrent underground methods. Coal recovery 

commonly exceeds 90 percent (fig.16) on lands 

that are mined by surface methods and where the 

overburden rocks are weak and less than 60 m 

thick. Also, these land areas can be restored 

to further use in a more practical manner than

33
. /-
XI Figure 16. Vertical aerial infra-red photograph showing the effects of past and present mining 

activities in an area about 10 km north of Sheridan, Wyo. Present-day surface-mining 

activities, located in the northern (top) part of picture, extract more than 90 percent of 

three coal beds having an aggregate thickness of 14-18 m. The overburden is removed by cat 

and scraper, stored to the right of the pit, and hauled and graded in an area to the left of 

the pit. The graded and restored areas around part of the lobe are revegetated in sequence 

with the mining operation. The pit-and-trough topography in the southern part of the picture 

was caused by subsidence of the ground surface into individual room-and-pillar mine workings, 

driven in the early 1900's, 8-46 m below the surface. The underground mining activities 

removed only an estimated 10-25 percent of the coal resource. Subsidence is currently active 

and a hazard to man and beast, even though the mines were abandoned 50-75 years ago.

land areas disturbed by underground mining 

operations. However, the highwalls should be 

graded to stable slopes to prevent landslides, 

and coal should be covered with enough 

incombustible material to minimize the chances 

for spontaneous ignition (fig. 17).

STABILITY OF HIGHWALLS IN SURFACE COAL MINES, 

WESTERN POWDER RIVER BASIN

By 

William Z. Savage and William K. Smith

Field and laboratory investigations into 

the stability of highwalls in open-pit coal

mines in the western Powder River Basin of 

Wyoming and Montana suggest that several factors 

influence highwall stability. Some of these 

factors are rebound of overconsolidated rocks, 

desiccation, water, orientation and spacing of 

fractures, and strength and deformation 

properties of the rocks and coal (fig.17).

The strength and deformation properties 

have been experimentally determined for rocks of 

the Tongue River Member of the Fort Union 

Formation (Paleocene). These properties, which 

include Young's moduli, cohesion, internal 

fraction angles, densities, and tensile 

strengths, are given in Lee, Smith, and Savage

Figure 17. Deteriorated highwall of a strip coal mine in Fort Union Formation 1.3 km north of 

Sheridan, Wyo., along Goose Creek. The mine was abandoned prior to 1968; the highwall is 

failing in a series of slumps resembling classic landslides. The coal at water level near 

right center has ignited spontaneously along one of the landslide slip surfaces. Photograph 

by F. W. Osterwald.

35
(1976) and in Fahy and Smith (1976); the results 

of all laboratory and field investigations to 

date are also given.

The most critical factor appears to be the 

degradation of strength and deformation 

properties of highwall rocks with time after 

excavation. Factors of safety, calculated by 

the finite-element method for highwalls that 

have degraded, are in many cases lower than 1.0. 

Because the highwalls do deteriorate and become 

progressively less stable with time, postmining 

failures are common and could be critical if 

mining were delayed and then resumed after a 

period of several months.

QUATERNARY CHRONOLOGY IN 

NORTHWEST COLORADO ENERGY LANDS

By 

R. F. Madole

Construction of the Quaternary chronology 

needed to evaluate the rates at which processes 

such as erosion, sedimentation, and mass 

movement operate in the Craig region of 

northwest Colorado is progressing well. 

Pearlette ash in terrace deposits 122 m above 

the Little Snake River has been identified as 

type 0. Hence, net denudation in this part of 

northwest Colorado during the past 600,000 years 

appears to have been twice as great as in the 

northern Colorado Piedmont east of the Front 

Range. However, the rate of dissection in these 

two regions during Holocene time apparently was 

comparable. This conclusion is based on the 

amount of dissection of parabolic dunes on the 

valley floor of the Little Snake River, dunes 

which are tentatively assigned to early or 

middle Holocene time on the basis of soilprofile development. Radiocarbon ages for a 

paleosol and for the remains of a hearth 

containing charred bones are expected to provide 

a minimum age for the dunes.

Work just east of the southeast corner of 

the Craig 2-degree quadrangle, done jointly with 

Professor E. E. Larson, University of Colorado, 

and R. G. Baker, University of Iowa, has 

demonstrated that paleomagnetic study of 

lacustrine rhythmites offers great promise for 

providing interregional correlation of 

Quaternary events. Rhythmites of the type 

studied are relatively common in mountainous 

portions of Colorado. In addition, radiocarbon 

ages obtained for sections of the rhythmites 

established that Pinedale Glaciation was at 

least close to its maximum in the Front Range by 

21,180+2,360 years ago (laboratory sample 

DIC-574).

ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGIC INVESTIGATIONS 

IN THE KAIPAROWITS PLATEAU

By 

K. A. Sargent

As the geologic map of the coal area nears 

completion, several aspects of the relation 

between structure and erosional history become 

apparent. Early workers concluded that the main 

period of folding in the Colorado Plateau was 

near and following the end of Late Cretaceous 

time. In earliest Tertiary time an interior 

drainage basin developed chiefly north of the 

Kaiparowits Plateau. At the south end of the 

basin, coarse gravels and mudstones, and later, 

in Eocene (Wasatch) time, freshwater limestones 

and sandstones were deposited. Large-scale 

sedimentation ceased at the onset of regional 

uplift and was followed by volcanism and normal 

faulting. By early Miocene time (about 20 

million years ago), volcanism ceased and much of 

the extent of the Escalante and Paria Rivers 

(fig. 18) had been superimposed across the 

structural grain. Their headwaters were near 

the southern extent of the lava field. As 

regional uplift continued, the tributaries 

developed an extensive pediment and terrace 

network. Some surfaces cut on various levels of 

Mesozoic rock still exist in the upper reaches 

of the Escalante and Paria Rivers. The highest 

surfaces above the Escalante River are capped 

with a deposit of large rounded basalt boulders 

derived from flows on the Aquarius Plateau, a 

few kilometers to the north. These pediment 

surfaces are about 550-730 m above the presently 

entrenched Escalante River bed at elevations 

between 2,260 and 2,2440 m, above all 

topographic barriers except the Aquarius 

Plateau. Other tributaries to the Colorado 

River are chiefly consequential streams. 

Between the Escalante and Paria Rivers, large 

quantities of Upper Cretaceous coal are 

preserved in the downwarp under the Kaiparowits 

Plateau. Geologic structure and erosional 

history will influence the development of this 

remote area. Access is difficult because of 

rugged topography, landslide and rockfall 

hazards, and steep grades. Thickness of 

overburden, local steep dips, lateral rock 

variations, zones of burned coal, and the 

lenticular nature of coal deposits will limit 

the amount of coal recovered.

WATER RESOURCES INVESTIGATIONS IN

THE KAIPAROWITS 

COAL BASIN AREA, UTAH

By 

Don Price

The water resources studies in the 

Kaiparowits coal basin area, Utah, are based 

largely on file data collected over the years by 

the USGS in cooperation with other Federal

36
agencies and the Utah Department of Natural 

Resources. Two maps showing general 

availability and general chemical quality of 

ground water in the area have been published 

(Price, 1976a,b). Two additional maps will show 

runoff, streamflow characteristics, and surfacewater quality in the area.

The Kaiparowits coal basin area is arid to 

semiarid. Normal annual precipitation ranges

from less than 152 mm along the shore of Lake 

Powell to about 635 mm in the headwater area of 

the Escalante River (fig. 18). Mean annual 

runoff ranges from much less than 25 mm 

throughout most of the area to about 254 mm in 

the headwaters of the Escalante River. Most 

runoff occurs during melting of the winter 

snowpack, but significant runoff also occurs as 

cloudburst floods during summer cloudburst 

activity.

10 KILOMETERS 

I

Figure 18. Map of geography and principal drainage system of the Kaiparowits coal 

basin area,Utah. Modified from U.S. Geological Survey 1:500,000 map of Utah, 1959.

37
Concentrations of dissolved solids in 

runoff range from less than 200 to about 1,800 

mg/L (milligrams per liter) during high flow 

periods, and from about 250 to more than 3,000 

mg/L during low flow periods. Concentrations of 

dissolved solids in the water in Lake Powell 

average about 550 mg/L.

Most of the ground water available for 

development in the area occurs in sedimentary 

rocks consisting chiefly of interbedded strata 

of sandstone, siltstone, shale, conglomerate, 

and limestone. The most productive aquifers are 

in the Navajo Sandstone (Triassic? and Jurassic) 

and are capable of yielding 6.3 to 63 L/sec of 

fresh to slightly saline water to wells. The 

Navajo Sandstone crops out around the margins of 

the Kaiparowits Plateau, but is overlain by 220 

to 610 m of younger strata beneath the plateau.

Concentration of dissolved solids from 

ground water in the Kaiparowits coal basin 

ranges from less than 500 to about 1,000 mg/L, 

except beneath the Kaiparowits Plateau and in 

the Waterpocket Fold area (fig. 18) where 

concentrations range from about 1,000 to more 

than 3,000 mg/L locally.

Not considering existing water rights, the 

best potential sources of water for development 

of the area's coal resources are Lake Powell, 

which has a maximum usable storage capacity of 

about 34,500 hm ; the Escalante River, which has 

an average annual discharge below Escalante of 

about 15.4 hm (based on 19 years of records); 

and aquifers in the Navajo Sandstone.

THE IMPROVEMENT OF AVAILABLE

VOID CAPACITY OF SOILS ON MINE SPOILS

IN ARID AND SEMIARID REGIONS

By 

B. E. Munson, University of Denver

Investigations are beginning into a means 

of improving the capacity of soils to transmit 

and store moisture at depth. This method could 

aid rehabilitation (and irrigation) of stripmined areas in arid and semiarid regions. The 

feasibility of such a method is based on shrinkswell properties of soils.

Investigations are being carried out in the 

coal fields in Routt, Moffat, Jackson, and 

Fremont Counties, Colo. Spoils of recent age 

can be found in these fields. Sites were 

selected from coal fields on the basis of soil 

type (texture). Four plots will be established 

on each site, each of which will receive a 

different number of applications of irrigation 

waters (one to four). A soil sample will be 

taken from each plot after it has received the 

designated number of applications.

Subsequent laboratory analysis will 

determine the VMC (Void Moisture Capacity), or 

quantity of water required to fill voids to 

capacity, and the (Moisture Retention 

Capability) MRC, or quantity of moisture 

retained and absorbed by soil-particle surfaces 

in the form of multimolecular layers, for each 

sample. The quantity VMC minus MRC will be 

determined for each sample and will be referred 

to as AVC (Available Void Capacity). This is 

defined as "free" moisture, or that moisture 

available for use by plants. All above 

quantities will be expressed in grams of 

moisture per gram of dry weight.

Graphs of the quantity AVC versus the 

number of applications received should reveal 

the effect of irrigation on increasing voids in 

soils of different textures. Not only should 

this increase the ability of soils to store 

moisture for use by plants, but it could also 

conceivably increase the soil's infiltration 

capacity. By aiding in the establishment of a 

vegetal cover and increasing the infiltration 

capacity of soils, this method could provide an 

additional means of inhibiting erosion on mine 

spoils.

LAND RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT, 

EAST TEXAS LIGNITE BELT

By 

John 0. Maberry

Progress through 1976 by the Texas Bureau 

of Economic Geology in studies of the lignite 

belt can be roughly categorized into three major 

parts: (1) environmental geologic mapping, (2) 

water chemistry-hydrology studies, and (3) 

biologic studies. The study area is shown in 

figure 19.

The Wilcox Group-Carrizo Sand outcrop belt 

(fig. 19) from the Colorado River to the Trinity 

River was selected for environmental mapping for 

the following reasons: the Calvert Bluff 

Formation (Sharp, 1966) of the Wilcox Group 

(Eocene) is the major lignite-bearing unit; the 

area includes two active lignite strip mines, a 

probable 2.7 billion metric tons of near-surface 

(less than 60-m depth) lignite, and at least 

three mines planned to be in operation by about 

1980; and three major aquifers have their 

recharge areas within the map area.

Environmental geologic mapping under the 

leadership of G. M. Wermund has been completed 

using 1:20,000-scale airphotos and extensive 

field checking of the entire pilot area, which 

includes all or part of sixty-three 7 1/2-minute 

quadrangles (approximately 8,000 km ). Twentythree different environmental units have been 

distinguished on the basis of substrate, soil,

38
100° 98° 96° 94°

32' i _ o

30C

28C

DEEP YEGUAJACKSON

Lignite-bearing formations-- 

Shallowest to deepest 

Shallow Wilcox 

Deep Wilcox 

Yegua 

Jackson 

Deep Yegua-Jackson

Figure 19. Map of eastern Texas, showing the extent of lignite-bearing formations,

39
biologic assemblage, geomorphology, and geologic 

process. The mapping clearly identifies such 

problem areas for surface mining as aquifer 

recharge zones and flood-prone areas. It also 

provides an inventory of many other mineral 

resources (besides lignite), such as ironstone, 

sand and gravel, and other aggregate-type 

materials.

That the map units have a sound basis in 

terms of land use in the area has been assured 

by extensive discussions between Bureau 

scientists and personnel from the U.S. Soil 

Conservation Service and from the biology 

departments of the University of Texas and 

Stephen F. Austin University.

The bureau also tested the feasibility of 

continuing the mapping of the Wilcox-Carrizo 

outcrop belt into far northeast Texas and the 

Sabine uplift. Preliminary observation of 

1:80,000-scale airphotos proves the feasibility 

of identifying and mapping units similar to 

those found in the pilot area.

Comparison of surface mapping with 

subsurface analysis of the Calvert Bluff 

Formation by W. R. Kaiser of the Bureau of 

Economic Geology, whose work demonstrates that 

the Calvert Bluff was deposited by a fluvial 

depositional system, shows excellent correlation 

between sands mapped at the surface and channel 

complexes extrapolated from the subsurface. 

Taken together, the two pieces of work clearly 

define the aquifer system within the Calvert 

Bluff, the aquifer most likely to receive mine 

discharge. With this information, mine

discharge could possibly be routed away from the 

aquifer, or at least the best locations for 

wells to monitor water quality could be chosen.

Though not a goal of this project, the 

surface mapping, along with the subsurface 

information, could have been used as an 

excellent exploration tool had it existed during 

exploration phases. Lignite deposits are 

clearly in interchannel basins between major 

channel complexes.

Project personnel edited available waterquality data for the Wilcox-Carrizo aquifers 

using a Fortran program which evaluates the 

completeness and accuracy of the analyses. 

Usable analyses were then plotted and contoured 

by another computer program to determine three 

things: (1) baseline ground-water quality, with 

which to compare the effect of mine effluent; 

(2) a possible relationship between water 

chemistry and depositional system; and (3) the 

change in chemistry as water moves downdip 

through the various aquifers. The third 

determination can explain what chemical 

reactions are going on within the aquifer and 

what potential exists for "self-cleaning" of 

mine waters as they move downdip.

Items 1 and 3 together should be 

particularly useful in monitoring mine drainage 

and predicting its effect on overall water 

quality within an aquifer. Item 2 was 

relatively unsuccessful except in a gross 

sense the Carrizo Sand can readily be 

distinguished from the more clayey Calvert Bluff 

Formation.

A second part of the water chemistry 

program has been the monitoring of surface-water 

quality. On a regular basis, the Bureau has 

collected water samples from medium-sized 

streams which primarily drain areas within the 

Wilcox outcrop. Sites that were monitored fall 

into three categories: (1) streams draining 

areas previously or currently mined, (2) streams 

draining areas that definitely will be mined in 

the future, and (3) streams that drain areas of 

similar geology to (1) and (2), but that do not 

contain sufficient lignite deposits ever to be 

mined. Samples are analyzed for basic water 

quality and selected trace elements.

Early results indicate that although mine 

drainage is altering the surface-water quality, 

any acid waters are being neutralized before 

they move very far downstream. An important 

adjunct to this study would be to determine 

exactly how and where neutralization is taking 

place. The program also provides careful 

control of background water quality, so that 

future effects of mine drainage can be 

accurately measured.

Several smaller projects involved the 

investigation of the hydrology of the area and 

of individual mine sites. These included a 

geomorphologic study of the drainage density 

variation on surface exposures of the Wilcox 

Group and the relationship between drainage 

density, substrate composition, base flow, and 

mean annual flood. The study has shown a clear 

correlation between substrate and drainage 

density, which has been useful in environmental 

mapping.

A second hydrologic study examined the 

situation in which a mine pit intersects part of 

an aquifer. Assuming various geologic and 

hydrologic parameters, the study determined a 

range of ground-water discharges into the pit. 

It also illustrated the possibility that mine 

drainage may enter an aquifer without ever 

appearing at the surface.

Both studies have aided in evaluation of 

the hydrologic balance at a mine site and in 

monitoring the effect of mine drainage on ground 

water.

Biologic studies have also been conducted: 

(1) a study of the major floral assemblages in 

the lignite belt and the floral succession on 

unreclaimed spoil, and (2) a study of the effect

40
of mine drainage on algal communities in streams 

draining mining areas.

The first study provides background 

information with which to evaluate the 

effectiveness of reclamation programs. 

Preliminary results from the second study 

indicate some differences in algal populations 

between waters that receive mine drainage and 

those that do not. The significance of these 

differences awaits careful evaluation of all the 

factors that could affect the algal variety. 

This study is being coordinated closely with the 

surface-water-quality monitoring program.

A measure of the initial success of this 

program is the interest shown by various groups 

in the methodology and application of 

environmental geologic mapping. The Texas 

Railroad Commission, the State agency charged 

with regulating surface mining, and several 

private companies active in lignite exploration 

have sought advice from the Bureau on 

identification of surface mining problems and 

planning of reclamation.

REFERENCES CITED

Chleborad, A. F., Nichols, T. C., Jr., and 

Ebaugh, W. F., 1976, A preliminary inventory, 

profile, and statistical evaluation of 

landslides in a region of projected urban 

development, Sheridan, Wyoming: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Open-File Kept. 76-571, 50 p. , 26 

figs., 4 tables.

Dunrud, C. R., 1976, Some engineering geologic 

factors controlling coal mine subsidence in 

Utah and Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. 

Paper 969, 39 p.

Ebaugh, W. F., 1976, Preliminary surficial and 

bedrock geologic map of the Big Horn 

quadrangle, Sheridan County, Wyoming: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Misc. Field Studies Map MF-801, 

20 p.

Fahy, M. P., and Smith, W. K. , 1976, 

Geotechnical properties of some upper Fort 

Union rocks from the Decker area, Big Horn 

County, Montana: U.S. Geol. Survey Open-File 

Rept. 76-596, 110 p.

Farrow, R. A. , 1976, Preliminary report on the 

geotechnical properties of the Wasatch 

Formation of Buffalo, Wyoming: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Open-File Rept. 76-877, 78 p.

Fritts, H. C.., 1965, Tree-ring evidence for 

climatic changes in western North America: 

Monthly Weather Review, v. 93, no. 7, p. 421- 

443.

Gumerman, G. J. , and Euler, R. C., 1976, Black 

Mesa retrospect and prospect, in Gumerman, G.

J., and Euler, R. C., eds., Papers on the 

archaeology of Black Mesa, Arizona: 

Carbondale and Edwardsville, Illinois, 

Southern Illinois University Press, p. 162- 

170.

Haynes, C. V., Jr., 1968, Geochronology of late 

Quaternary alluvium, in Morrison, R. B., and 

Wright, H. E., Jr., eds., Means of 

correlation of Quaternary successions: Salt 

Lake City, Utah Univ. Press, p. 591-631.

Hevly, R. H. , and Karlstrom, T. N. V., 1974, 

Southwest paleoclimate and continental 

correlations, in Karlstrom, T. N. V., and 

others, eds., The geology of northern Arizona 

with notes on archaeology and paleoclimate: 

Geol. Soc. America Field Guide, Vol. I; 27th 

Ann. Mtg. Rocky Mountain Section, Flagstaff, 

Arizona, p.257-295.

Hodder, R. L. , Ryerson, D. E. , Mogen, R., and 

Buchholz, J., 1971, Coal mine spoils 

reclamation research project: Montana Agr. 

Expt. Sta. Research Rept. 8, 56 p.

Kanizay, S. P., Obernyer, S. L., and Cattermole, 

J. M. , 1976, Geologic map of the Buffalo 

area, northwest Powder River Basin, Wyoming: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Field Inv. Map MF806, scale 1:24,000.

Karlstrom, T. N. V., Gumerman, G. J., and Euler, 

R. C., 1974, Paleoenvironmental and cultural 

changes in the Black Mesa region, 

northeastern Arizona, in Karlstrom and 

others, eds., The geology of northern Arizona 

with notes on archaeology and paleoclimate: 

Geol. Soc. America Field Guide Vol. II; 27th 

Ann. Mtg. Rocky Mountain Section, Flagstaff, 

Arizona, p. 768-792.

Keefer, W. R., and Hadley, R. F., 1976, Land and 

natural resource information and some 

potential environmental effects of surface 

mining of coal in the Gillette area, Wyoming: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Circ. 743, 27 p.

Lee, F. T. , Smith, W. K. , and Savage, W. Z., 

1976, Stability of highwalls in surface coal 

mines, western Powder River Basin, Wyoming 

and Montana: U.S. Geol. Survey Open-File 

Rept. 76-846, 54 p.

Lowry, M. E. , and Cummings, T. R., 1966, Ground 

water resources of Sheridan County, Wyoming: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 1807, 

77 p.

Maiss, Francis, 1976, Wildlife habitat, Campbell 

County, Wyoming: available from Bureau of 

Land Management, Buffalo Resource Office, 

Buffalo, Wyoming, 70 p., 5 maps.

McGregor, E. E., 1975, Preliminary study of

41
geotechnical properties of the Fort Union 

Formation from two drill holes near Ashland, 

Montana: U.S. Geol. Survey Open-File Kept. 

75-644, 19 p.

Price, Donald, 1976a, Map showing general 

chemical quality of ground water in the 

Kaiparowits coal basin area, Utah: U.S. 

Geol. Survey, Misc. Geol. Investigations Map 

I-1033-A, in press.

____1976b, Map showing general availability of 

ground water in the Kaiparowits coal basin 

area, Utah: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. 

Investigations Map I-1033-B, in press.

Sargent, K. A., and Hansen, D. E., 1976, General 

geology and mineral resources of the coal 

area of south-central Utah, with a_ section on 

Coal mine subsidence, by C. R. Dunrud: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Open-File Rept. 76-811, 122 p.

Sharp, W. W., Jr., 1966, Example of 

stratigraphic confusion: Type locality of 

Butler Clay Member of Rockdale Formation 

(Wilcox Group), Bastrop County, Texas: Am. 

Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 50, 

no. 7.

Turner, A. K. , 1976, Computer aided 

environmental impact analysis, Part 1, 

Procedures: Colorado School of Mines 

Industrial Bull., v. 19, no. 2, 23 p.

U.S. Congress, 1976, Oversight hearing on 

federal coal leasing, Mar. 26, Apr. 1 and 5: 

Washington, D.C., Serial No. 94-53, 221 p.

U.S. Department of the Interior, 1976, Code of 

Federal regulations, Title 30, Part 211 Coal 

mining operating regulations; reclamation and 

performance standards: Federal Register, v. 

41, no. 96, May 17, 1976, p. 20252.

U.S. Geological Survey, 1976, Geochemical survey 

of the western energy lands (third annual 

progress report, July 1976): U.S. Geol. 

Survey Open-File Rept. 76-729, 44 p.

U.S. Senate, 1977, Surface mining control and 

reclamation act of 1977, Senate Bill S-7: 

95th Congress, 1st Session, January 10, 1977, 

145 ms. pages.

Van Voast, W. A., Hedges, R. B., and Pagenkopf, 

G. K., 1975, Hydrologic impacts of coal mine 

effluents and spoils leachates: Montana 

Acad. Sci., Ft. Union Coal Field Symposium 

Proc., v. 3, p. 289-303.

ft U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1978 777-102/22 REGION NO. 8

42