John D. Wrbanek, Susan Y. Wrbanek, and Gustave C. Fralick

Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio

Advanced Space Radiation Detector Technology 

Development

NASA/TM—2013-216516

May 2013
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John D. Wrbanek, Susan Y. Wrbanek, and Gustave C. Fralick

Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio

Advanced Space Radiation Detector Technology 

Development

NASA/TM—2013-216516

May 2013

National Aeronautics and

Space Administration

Glenn Research Center

Cleveland, Ohio 44135

Prepared for

The Joint Machinery Failure Prevention Technology (MFPT) 2013 and 59th International Instrumentation 

Symposium (IIS)

cosponsored by the Society for Machinery Failure Prevention Technology and the International Society

of Automation 

Cleveland, Ohio, May 13–17, 2013
Acknowledgments

The authors thank Elizabeth McQuaid and Nicholas Varaljay of the GRC Space Power & Propulsion, Communication and 

Instrumentation Branch for their fabrication of the ZnO UV detector discussed in this work. The authors would also like to thank 

Dr. LiangYu Chen of the Ohio Aerospace Institute (OAI) for his packaging of the SiC detector diode detector discussed in this 

work, and Joseph M. Flatico of OAI and Michael Krasowski of the NASA Glenn Research Center (GRC) Optical Instrumentation 

and NDE Branch for designing and assembling the charge integrator for the SiC diode detector. The authors are grateful to

Dr. Jon Freeman of the GRC Electron and Opto-Electronic Device Branch and Dr. Stephen P. Berkebile of the Oak Ridge 

Associated Universities for their respective semiconductor and shielding material studies that supported the space radiation 

protection effort. Finally, the authors thank Dr. Lawrence G. Matus and Roger D. Meredith of the GRC Sensors and Electronics 

Branch for their review and helpful comments on this text. This work was accomplished at NASA Glenn Research Center with 

the support of the Space Radiation Protection Project as part of the NASA Enabling Technology Development and Demonstration 

(ETDD) Program, and with the support of the Center Innovation Fund as part of the NASA Space Technology Program, Offi ce 

of the Chief Technologist (OCT).

Available from

NASA Center for Aerospace Information

7115 Standard Drive

Hanover, MD 21076–1320

National Technical Information Service

5301 Shawnee Road

Alexandria, VA 22312

Available electronically at http://www.sti.nasa.gov

Level of Review: This material has been technically reviewed by technical management. 
NASA/TM—2013-216516 1 

Advanced Space Radiation Detector Technology Development 

John D. Wrbanek, Susan Y. Wrbanek, and Gustave C. Fralick 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

Glenn Research Center 

Cleveland, Ohio 44135 

Abstract 

The advanced space radiation detector development team at the NASA Glenn Research Center (GRC) 

has the goal of developing unique, more compact radiation detectors that provide improved real-time data 

on space radiation. The team has performed studies of different detector designs using a variety of 

combinations of solid-state detectors, which allow higher sensitivity to radiation in a smaller package and 

operate at lower voltage than traditional detectors. Integration of multiple solid-state detectors will result 

in an improved detector system in comparison to existing state-of-the-art instruments for the detection and 

monitoring of the space radiation field for deep space and aerospace applications. 

Nomenclature 

4π solid angle of a sphere (sr) 

 velocity as a fraction of the speed of light 

c speed of light in a pure vacuum (≡ 299,792,458 m·s–1) 

dE/dx stopping power; quantity of LET (keV·μm–1) 

e elementary charge of an electron 

 density effect correction of stopping power due to collision at high energy 

 Lorentz Factor ((1–2

)

–1/2) 

GaN gallium nitride 

GaP gallium phosphide 

GRC Glenn Research Center 

HEO High Earth Orbit (altitude 35,786 km) 

Hg mercury (elemental) 

HZE high energy heavy ions (High Z and Energy; Z2, kinetic energy 35 MeV·u–1) 

I mean excitation energy of material impacted by an ion 

K stopping power scaling factor (3070.75 MeV·m2·mol–1) 

LED Light Emitting Diode 

LEO Low Earth Orbit (altitude 2,000 km) 

LET Linear Energy Transfer 

me mass of an electron (0.511 MeV/c2) 

MEMS Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems 

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

NEO Near-Earth Objects 

Si silicon 

SiC silicon carbide 

Tmax maximum kinetic energy that can be imparted to an electron by an impacting ion 

TOF Time-of-Flight 
NASA/TM—2013-216516 2 

u unified atomic mass unit (12C mass ≡ 12 u) 

UV Ultra Violet light (wavelengths between 10 and 400 nm) 

WBG Wide Band Gap (electron energy band gap 1.7 eV) 

 frequency of light 

p plasma frequency (~1016 Hz in solids) 

Z atomic number, elementary charge of a cosmic ray ion 

z

/a fraction of atomic number to atomic mass of material impacted by an ion 

ZnO zinc oxide 

Introduction 

Data from new, robust compact detectors will allow improvements of existing radiation models that 

will impact spacecraft design and operation during planned missions. Deep space environments and outer 

planetary radiation belts also need improved understanding for localized time and statistical variations of 

steady state and “storm” conditions (Ref. 1). Closer to home, cosmic radiation is a concern for aircraft 

crews on intercontinental flights at very high altitude (Ref. 2), and is also suspected to be a driving 

mechanism in large-scale global cloud cover (Ref. 3). 

As part of the space radiation protection research effort at the NASA Glenn Research Center (GRC), 

the advanced space radiation detector development team is advancing the technology to develop a lowpower radiation detector system capable of monitoring a wide range of high energy heavy ions (HZE 

ions) over a spherical (4π) aspect area (Ref. 4). The technology applied to this 4π HZE Detector System 

enables (1) improved temperature insensitivity to changes induced by transitions from sunlight into 

shadow (and vise-versa), (2) improved precision with lower mass, power and volume requirements, 

(3) improved radiation discrimination and directional sensitivity, and (4) unique monitoring of radiation 

environment for planetary exploration from all directions of the celestial sphere. 

The realization of the detector system leverages in-house GRC expertise and facilities in (1) harsh 

environment thin films, (2) silicon carbide (SiC) devices and harsh environment packaging, (3) microoptics technology, and (4) structural radiation shielding materials. Integration of all of these technologies 

will result in an improved detector system in comparison to existing state-of-the-art capabilities. As 

mission needs change, the detector technology integration can be adapted for performance and optimal 

scientific benefits. 

Full-Field Space Radiation Detector System 

Current radiation detector technology is limited in lifetime, precision, discrimination, and directional 

sensitivity for the mass, power, and volume requirements for future missions. Miniaturizing and 

integrating instrumentation is a high priority for addressing the challenges of manned and unmanned deep 

space missions to High Earth Orbit (HEO), Near Earth Objects (NEO), Lunar and Martian orbits and 

surfaces, and outer planetary systems, as well as for improvements to high altitude aircraft safety. 

Advanced instrumentation technology for space radiation applications is specifically called for in the 

NASA Strategic Program Plan for Space Radiation Health Research (Ref. 5). Technology requirements are 

defined by the National Research Council’s NASA Space Technology Roadmaps and Priorities (Ref. 6), the 

NASA Science Instruments and Sensor Capabilities Road Map (Ref. 7), and the design goals of existing 

cosmic ray detectors (Ref. 8). These requirements include particle energy range and resolution, angular 

coverage and resolution, and the number of sensing elements as important design criteria in trade studies. 
NASA/TM—2013-216516 3 

Concept 

Solutions to these challenges require the use of precision rad-hard, thermally stable detector materials 

and integration of a variety of detector types in a more compact, spherical geometry. Our technology 

approach will develop new robust, low power solid-state detectors with improved lifetime, power and 

noise performance. Ultimately, we will demonstrate omni-directional measurements of radiation using the 

integration of multiple types of detectors and materials to expand detected energy range and sensitivity 

for lower mass, power and volume requirements. Thus, our objective is to develop the detector 

technologies that will create a low-power radiation detector system capable of monitoring a wide range of 

HZE ions over a spherical aspect area. A design concept for the technology approach to these solutions is 

illustrated in Figure 1. 

A variety of detector types, including low noise, wide band gap (WBG) semiconductors are 

considered applicable in this concept. The schematic of this spherical detector system is shown in 

Figure 2. The system is comprised of a central spherical Cherenkov detector surrounded by detector 

stacks of arrays of Linear Energy Transfer (LET) detectors as well as Triggering and Veto (rejection) 

detectors for signal processing. 

Figure 1.—Design concept illustration of a spherical space 

radiation detector assembly (cables and signal conditioning 

hardware not shown for clarity). 

Figure 2.—Schematic drawings of concept spherical space radiation detector system 

showing cross section (left) and operation (right). 
NASA/TM—2013-216516 4 

The technology challenge is to design and develop new detection methods in coordination with 

advancing these technologies. Some of the specific areas of these instrumentation efforts are: 

 Solid-state detectors to use with scintillator ribbon material for Trigger and Veto detector roles over 

large, irregular surfaces (Refs. 9 and 10) where photomultiplier tube placement is not feasible. The 

flexibility of an advanced fiber-based detector system is an attractive option to allow embedded 

multidirectional radiation characterization. 

 Fast solid-state spherical Cherenkov detector (Ref. 11) that can detect radiation from all directions, 

amplifying the signal through use of integrating sphere properties designed into the detector. Current 

detector designs have directional sensitivity along one axis, and this spherical detector increases the 

directional sensitivity to multiple directions. Immersed in the space environment, where radiation is 

omni-directional, measurements taken over an entire spherical area at once is a significant 

improvement from interpolating along discrete axes. 

 Stacked detector packages with various solid-state detectors, absorbers and converters for optimum 

detection of space radiation in a small, low-power package. A miniature detector stack will reduce 

mass, power, and volume requirements as well as improving particle species discrimination and 

spatial resolution. 

 Wide band gap (WBG) solid-state devices as practical large area detectors for LET measurements. As 

radiation detectors, WBG semiconductors have the advantages of their low ionization energy, high 

electron mobility, high density and structural rigidity (Ref. 12). Also, as a direct benefit for space 

applications, WBG semiconductors have negligible sensitivity to temperature changes. 

 Reconfigurable arrangements of detector technologies to allow geometries to maximize angle 

coverage of cosmic radiation measurement with minimal trade-off for improved angular precision. 

The ability to reconfigure detector integration more easily adapts the technology to changing 

exploration mission needs. 

Integration of all of these technologies will result in an improved detector system in comparison to 

existing state-of-the-art instruments. Potential improvements over the state-of-the-art are shown in 

Table 1. 

TABLE 1.—POTENTIAL IMPROVEMENTS TO CRITICAL METRICS FOR 

ADVANCED SPACE RADIATION DETECTION

Critical metric Current 

State-of-the-art 

Improvement enablers Proposed detector system 

performance 

Energy range → 140 MeV/u Integrated detectors → 1,000 MeV/u 

Energy resolution 30 keV Low noise detectors 25 keV 

Angle coverage 0.3 cm2-sr Spherical geometry 1 cm2-sr 

Angle resolution 14° Solid-state detectors; 

spherical geometry 

12° 

Particle species/Charge Multiple in multiple detectors Integrated detectors e → Fe 

Miniaturization 

(Mass, Power, and Volume) 

Defined by detectors Integrated solid-state detectors 30 percent improvement 

General Operation 

The general operation of the system is conceived as initiated by the Trigger detector for a stack of 

directional detectors to collect the signals from LET and Cherenkov detectors in a coincidence window. If 

the Veto detectors are triggered during this window, the processing is halted and signal collection buffers 

reset. Signal processing can occur on-board after the data collection during flight or after a data download 

to ground operations. The LET detectors and Cherenkov detector signals are processed in parallel. 

For processing, the signals from the LET detectors are fitted to a stopping power (dE/dx) or time-offlight (TOF) curve, determining the charge Z and velocity  of the incoming ion based on the Bethe 

equation (Eq. (1)) and an additional offset of the signal from secondary particle production (Ref. 13). 
NASA/TM—2013-216516 5 

   















     



 



 



  2

2 ln

2

1 2

2

max 2 2

2

2

I

m c T

a

Z z K

dx

dE e (1) 

Thus a minimum of three LET detectors are required for the stack, and four are planned. Electrons will be 

stopped in the first (outermost) LET detector of the stack, such that a bremsstrahlung/pair-production 

cascade effect from high energy electrons should be seen in the other LET detectors. The LET detector 

stack will be designed to not allow ions with energies less than 350 MeV/u to pass through. The signals 

from ions greater than that energy will produce a more discernable signal in the Cherenkov detector than 

the LET detectors. 

The Cherenkov detector returns a signal (Eq. (2)) as a function of the incoming ion Z and  for 

energies greater than 340 MeV/u using an interaction sphere with an index of refraction n() of 1.5 

(Ref. 14). 

 

     















 

    

 



 



  

d

c n

Ze

dx

dE p

n 2 1 2 2

2 1 1 (2) 

Using sapphire instead of acrylic or fused quartz lowers the minimum energy to produce a signal to 

200 MeV/u. The signal from the last (innermost) LET detector of the opposite detector stack is scaled to a 

Z 2 value, and the  will be determined from the Cherenkov detector signal. The combination of these 

signals thus produces a spectrum of charge Z and kinetic energy per atomic mass from 1-(1– 2)

–1⁄2. 

Detector Development 

Components of this system are under development, specifically the application of WBG devices for 

developing the Cherenkov detector and LET measurement detectors. Potential technologies have been 

demonstrated for lower power, more compact detector components. Packaging options for different 

applications will follow once these technologies have been more clearly defined. 

WBG LET Detectors 

The current design of the spherical space radiation detector requires four LET detectors per stack. The 

largest LET detector in a stack is 450 mm2 in area, with a total length of the stack to be 4.8 cm. The 

application of silicon carbide (SiC) in the LET detectors is based on the material’s wide band gap and 

high displacement energy. Sensors and electronic devices made from SiC have much better resistance to 

radiation damage from energetic charged particles that can form defects in the semiconductor (Ref. 15). 

The wide band gap nature of SiC also makes measurements by the detectors unaffected by thermal drift 

due to sun/shade transitions. 

Micro-electro-mechanical-system (MEMS) based devices fabricated from silicon carbide (SiC) to 

conduct low-noise neutron and alpha particle spectrometry have been reported in the context of reactor 

core monitoring (Ref. 16). A low power, low mass space radiation detector prototype system (as shown in 

Fig. 3) using a SiC Schottky power diode (Ref. 17) was developed at GRC for the NASA Exploration 

Technology Development and Demonstration Project for dosimetry use during future lunar missions 

(Refs. 18 and 19). The diode was selected based on the results from a study comparing the sensitivity in 

detecting α particles of a commercial SiC Schottky diode and a Si PIN diode (Ref. 20). The prototype 

system was demonstrated using a Pu-239 alpha particle source (Ref. 21). Specifications for the dosimeter 

system are given in Table 2. 
NASA/TM—2013-216516 6 

Figure 3.—SiC Dosimeter prototype developed for the NASA Exploration 

Technology Development and demonstration project. 

TABLE 2.—LOW–POWER SIC DOSIMETER SPECIFICATIONS

Detector SiC diode 

Active area 3.7 mm2 

Dose rate, max 1.27 Gy(SiC)/s (127 rad(SiC)/s) 

Dose sensitivity 1.27 mGy(SiC)/pulse (127 mrad(SiC)/pulse) 

DAC Charge integration, 4-Channel input, 

1 kHz TTL output 

Supply voltage, max 35 V 

Supply current, max 50 mA 

Weight 8 g single-channel, 30 g max 

Size 4 by 3 by 2 cm 

Though this prototype had one detector, the integrator can support four detectors, each with its own 

filter for discriminating particle type (shallow dose, deep dose, neutrons, HZE ions). For dosimetry 

applications, the incorporation of carbon as a significant portion of the SiC detecting medium also has the 

benefit of a more tissue-equivalent dose measurement over Si detectors. The approach to improve 

sensitivity of the dosimeter system to a broader range of space radiation in a small package was a 

significant improvement over the state-of-the-art radiation dosimeter devices. 

To assemble a large area LET detector, 112 of the diodes as used in the dosimeter are needed to 

assemble a detector mounted in a form as seen in Figure 4. The advantages to this approach would be to 

allow a more direct approach of assembling the LET detectors of difference sizes without machining the 

semiconductor and give the option of pixel resolution in the future. As the quality of SiC crystals 

improve, a parallel effort will be to fabricate a large area detector from a single wafer with custom doping 

for specific radiation environments, with or without pixel resolution capability. 

 
NASA/TM—2013-216516 7 

Figure 4.—Schematic for an array of 2 by 2 mm 

SiC diodes mounted in an aluminum frame to 

form a large area 450 mm2 LET detector. 

Fast Solid-State Cherenkov Detector 

At the heart of the spherical space radiation detector system is a spherical Cherenkov detector, 6.5 cm 

in diameter. Spacecraft-based radiation detector systems currently use Cherenkov detectors comprised of 

flat disks or blocks of sapphire or acrylic mounted on photomultiplier tubes. The goal is to replace the 

role of photomultiplier tubes in these types of detectors with solid-state devices, saving on size, weight 

and required power. 

The detector will require the development of solid-state ultraviolet (UV) photo-detectors fast enough 

(2 ns response time or better) to detect the shockwave of Cherenkov light emitted as the ions pass through 

a quartz, sapphire or acrylic ball. The detector must be small enough to fit in the system structure, but 

have a large enough active area to capture enough Cherenkov light from the sphere for a meaningful 

measurement. The Cherenkov light is a broad spectrum emission proportional to the inverse square of the 

wavelength, peaking in the extreme UV (wavelength 150 nm), thus making lower wavelength sensitivity 

desirable. 

Photodiodes based on wide band gap materials for detecting UV are currently limited by reaction time 

and/or small detector area. Commercial UV photodiodes are mainly based on three materials: gallium 

nitride (GaN), gallium phosphide (GaP), and silicon carbide (SiC). For all three there are tradeoffs 

between speed and wavelength–bandwidth sensitivity. 

In the research field, UV photodetectors based on zinc oxide (ZnO) epitaxial films grown on sapphire 

substrates (Ref. 22) and Schottky photodiodes on bulk ZnO substrates (Ref. 23) have been demonstrated. 

With active areas less than 0.03 mm2, these multi-layered devices used to investigate ZnO properties are 

not practical for use in Cherenkov detectors. 

A fast, large area solid-state UV detector intended for application to Cherenkov detectors have been 

recently developed at GRC. The detector is based on the wide band gap semiconductor ZnO, which in a 

bridge circuit can detect small, fast pulses of UV light like those required for Cherenkov detectors. A 

proof of concept detector was fabricated on commercially available bulk single-crystal undoped ZnO. 

Inter-digitated finger electrodes and contact pads were pattered via photolithography and formed by 

sputtered silver, as shown in Figure 5. The device tested had an electrode spacing of 20 μm and an active 

area of 1 by 2 mm (2 mm2), designed to have a 1 ns response time with 10 V applied bias voltage (Ref. 11). 
NASA/TM—2013-216516 8 

Figure 5.—Proof of concept ZnO-based UV detectors with 

20 μm electrode spacing. The sizes of the inter-digitated 

finger areas are 1 by 2 mm. 

TABLE 3.—RELATIVE MEASURED SENSITIVITY OF WBG UV DETECTORS TESTED

Diode ZnO 

(per volt bias) 

SiC 

(–10 V bias) 

GaP 

(–10 V bias) 

Detector area 2 mm2 0.96 mm2 4.8 mm2 

Average dark current 1.80.2 nAmps  50 pAmps 10020 pAmps 

Relative output to Hg lamp (254 nm) 58.73.8 0.1960.029 1 

Relative output to LED source (370 nm) 14.995.6 0.0410.0024 1 

Relative output to Hg lamp (254 nm) per unit area (mm–2) 14.090.91 0.9810.147 1 

Relative output to LED source (370 nm) per unit area (mm–2) 3.61.3 0.2070.012 1 

The ZnO-based detector was demonstrated to be sensitive to UV light at 254 nm and slightly less so 

at 370 nm, but not sensitive to room lighting (about 430 to 630 nm). Preliminary data is summarized in 

Table 3 that demonstrates the sensitivity of the detector to UV and compared to SiC and GaP detectors 

tested in parallel. These studies are preliminary, and further studies will verify the theoretical response 

time and general spectral sensitivity.

This study comparing WBG UV detectors also found a potential component for the Trigger and Veto 

detectors, which are planned to be scintillators made of thin sheets or ribbons. The study found GaP 

detectors to be more sensitive to 370 nm UV source than the SiC photodiode. With emission wavelengths 

between 370 and 430 nm, scintillators are typically dependent on photomultiplier tubes for measurement 

and readout. The application of fast GaP photodiodes attached to fiber scintillator could be used as to 

minimize the size and power requirements of the Trigger and Veto detectors. 

Summary 

To address the challenges of advancing space radiation detector technology, a low-power full-field 

spherical space radiation detector system is outlined. The system improves on the lifetime, precision and 

discrimination of radiation measurement, and allows improved performance for the mass, power, and 

volume requirements for future missions. The system requires technology advances to replace standard 

photomultiplier tubes with solid-state devices, miniaturizing detector stack geometry and improving large 

area detectors. 

Detector development is ongoing. Investigations in WBG semiconductors have identified potential 

applications in Cherenkov detectors, scintillator detectors and in forming large area detectors. 

Demonstrations of prototype detectors based on SiC, ZnO, and GaP have identified strong candidates for 

critical components for the advanced space radiation detector system. 
NASA/TM—2013-216516 9 

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