Epilogue 307

Epilogue

On July 19, 1916, Senator J. H. Gallinger refreshed the memories of his 

colleagues in the Senate chamber on Sternberg’s remarkable career and 

accomplishments. His intention was to sponsor a bill that would obtain a 

more adequate pension for Mrs. Sternberg. Congress had become more parsimonious in granting pensions to the widows of general officers, and $50 per month 

was the limit set by the committee on pensions in both the House and Senate. 

Gallinger acknowledged this fact, but declared Mrs. Sternberg’s case was unique 

because of her husband’s accomplishments. He presented supporting letters from 

Surgeon General William Gorgas, General Leonard Wood, George Kober, and Elihu 

Root. Root’s eloquent words summarized the feelings of these men and many others who had known and worked with Sternberg: “Senator Gallinger’s bill does not 

rest alone upon long and faithful service...but chiefly and distinctively upon the 

great part which General Sternberg played in the service rendered by the Medical Corps of the Army in the nine years during which he was Surgeon General. 

The practical extirpation of yellow fever in Cuba and on the Isthmus of Panama 

and the development of methods of preventive medicine, which have secured the 

phenomenal freedom from typhoid in recent years, are achievements in which 

the Medical Corps of the Army bore a great part and won the highest distinction. 

Congress has paid great honor to the medical officers who in the field and in the 

camp became distinguished for their part in this extraordinary work. Let no one 

think, however, that the man who was at the head of the corps can be left out of account of this creditable record. Such things do not happen by accident. No body of 

men accomplishes what our medical officers accomplished except in response to 

leadership, incitement, encouragement, opportunity, motive, power, coming from 

the head of the corps. The Medical Corps accomplished what it did largely because 

the man at the top was a pioneer in bacteriology, an advance worker in protective 

medicine, and had the enthusiasm and devotion through which science wins victories. 
308 The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 

That spirit communicated itself to the corps, directed its energies, made the field 

of opportunity for scientific effort, kept good men in it, brought good men into it, 

and furnished the indispensable element of leadership without which the good work 

could not have been done. General Sternberg was the general commanding in that 

campaign. Congress has been honoring his subordinates gratefully and properly. It is 

all wrong that there should be no appreciation for the commander.”1 Gallinger called 

it “the simple truth” and moved to have her pension raised to $100 per month.2 After 

some discussion, the amendment was agreed to and the action went into conference 

committee.

Two weeks later, Mr. Edward Keating, of Colorado, called up the conference report 

on pension bills, which included that of Mrs. Sternberg, in the House of Representatives. A great deal of discussion occurred over Sternberg’s role in the conquest 

of yellow fever. This may have been the subject upon which passage of the bill 

hinged. Kober had submitted the testimony of Aristides Agramonte, the last surviving member of the Yellow Fever Board, in which the Cuban doctor affirmed 

that Sternberg’s “...instructions to Major Reed were so precise yet so complete that 

they embraced even human experimentation, a thing until then considered will 

nigh impossible, and, without the moral support which his reputation as a scientist 

of the highest order and his official position rendered us, I am sure we would 

have never undertaken the method of investigation with which you are familiar.”3

Even with this evidence, Representative Clarence B. Miller, of Minnesota, fearful 

the bill would fail, had prepared a speech in support of the bill and asked for 10 

minutes on the floor. Keating—perhaps aware of what was to come—graciously 

relinquished the remainder of his time to his northern colleague.4 

The representative from Minnesota delivered the most comprehensive, concise, 

and accurate biography of George Sternberg that has ever been written. Miller’s 

words captured the soldier, the scientist, the philanthropist, and the man. If any 

opposition remained by the time he reached his final remarks, it faded away as he 

closed: 

“Had General Sternberg devoted even a portion of his lifetime to acquiring remuneration for 

his services, he might have died a rich man.... He has contributed more for the well being of 

humanity than almost any other man I can name in the whole realm of medical science during 

the last half century. It seems to me that a great – I do not mean to say generous, but I think 

I have a right to say a fairly considerate government will recognize the lifetime of service, the 

heroic devotion and the splendid achievements of this man and honor his memory, a memory 

that ought to be blessed and hallowed by every man in the South. He has done more for you 

than any other living man. I believe you agree with me that his widow, who is now in advanced 

years, ought to be able to live in reasonable comfort during the remaining period of her life, 

and the distinguished services of this noble man thereby in some degree recognized by an appreciative Government.”5

The bill passed.

In early November 1919, friends and students from the Army Medical School 

gathered at Arlington National Cemetery to dedicate the large monument to General 

Sternberg. Army Surgeon General Merritte W. Ireland, Brigadier General Walter 
Epilogue 309

D. McCaw, MC, and Colonels Edward L. Munson and Frederick F. Russell, MC, 

provided tributes to their old chief and mentor. But long-time family friend and 

colleague George Kober touched Mrs. Sternberg the most when he said Sternberg 

left “a memory of patriotism and good citizenship, a memory of brotherly love and 

good deeds.”6 

Martha Sternberg, the General’s beloved “Mattie,” resided in Washington, DC, 

until her death in February 1936.7
310 The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 
Acronyms and Abbreviations xv

Acronyms and Abbreviations

ACP Ammunition Control Point

AFIP Armed Forces Institute of Pathology

AGO Adjutant General’s Office

AMA American Medical Association

AMEDD Army Medical Department

Am Jour Med Sci American Journal of the Medical Sciences

AMS Army Medical School

AMSUS Association of Military Surgeons of the United States

APHA American Public Health Association

ARIG Annual Report of the Inspector General

ARSG Annual Report of the Surgeon General

ARSW Annual Report of the Secretary of War

ARWD Annual Report of the War Department

BDE Brooklyn Daily Eagle

B&L Battles and Leaders of the Civil War

BM&SJ Boston Medical & Surgical Journal

CB Commission Branch

CMH Center for Military History

DAR Daughters of the American Revoluion

DCR Dodge Commission Report

FGO Field General Order

FY fiscal year

GMS George Miller Sternberg

GO General Order
xvi The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 

GPO Government Printing Office

GWU George Washington University

HIV human immunodeficiency virus

HQ headquarters

HR House of Representatives

HRC Hench-Reed Collection

JAMA Journal of the American Medical Association

LOC Library of Congress

Med Rec Medical Record

MHP Medical History of Post

MR Muster Rolls

M&SHCW Medical & Surgical History of the Civil War

M&SHWR Medical & Surgical History of the War of the Rebellion

NARA National Archives and Records Administration

NBH National Board of Health

n.d. no date

NGU nongonococcal urethritis

NLM National Library of Medicine

NMH National Museum of Health and Medicine

NMM National Medical Museum

NOM&SJ New Orleans Medical & Surgical Journal

n.p. no publisher

n.s. new series

NTA National Tuberculosis Association

NYEP New York Evening Post

NYS New York Sun

NYT New York Times

OR The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official 

Records of the Union and Confederate Armies

PH Post History

PHRP Public Health Reports and Papers

PPPMO Personal Papers of Physicians and Medical Officers

PR Post Returns

RG Record Group

Rpt. report

Sen. Doc. Senate document

SFO Special Field Order

SGO Surgeon General’s Office
Acronyms and Abbreviations xvii

SO Special Order

Ther Gaz Therapeutic Gazette

TN&HR The Trained Nurse and Hospital Review

USSC U.S. Sanitary Commission

USUHS Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences

UVA University of Virginia

WES Washington Evening Star

WRAIR Walter Reed Army Institute of Research

WSHC Washington Sanitary Housing Company

WSIC Washington Sanitary Improvement Company
xviii The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 
Endnotes xix

Endnotes

Chapter One

Palatines, Pietists, and Medicine

1. Levi Sternberg, Story of My Life (privately published by Martin A. Lambert, Decatur, AL, 1997), 1, 36.

2. Ibid., 1–2.

3. Bailey, Hartwick College: A Bicentennial History, 43, 44; Jensson, American Lutheran 

Biographies, 322; Kuenning, The Rise and Fall of American Lutheran Pietism, 47, 75–

89; Wolf, The Lutherans in America, 355; M. Sternberg, George Miller Sternberg, 2.

4. Kreider, History of the United Lutheran Synod of New York and New England, 70–93; 

L. Sternberg, Story of My Life, 3–4; Sternberg genealogy, Albert A. Martin, Decatur, 

AL.

5. This condition became epidemic among clergymen in the 1830s and 1840s, and 

some lost the use of their voice completely. Levi may have suffered from chronic 

laryngitis with secondary nodule formation on his vocal cords that developed from 

prolonged use and abuse of his vocal cords. Cassedy, “An American Clerical Crisis: 

Minister’s Sore Throat, 1830–1860,” 23–38.

6. L. Sternberg, Story of My Life, 5–8.

7. GMS, My Life, MS C100 George Miller Sternberg Papers, 1861–1917, Box 1, Folder 

7, n.d., NLM, 3; GMS, “Presidential Address,” Association of Military Surgeons of 

the United States, 11; M. Sternberg, GMS, 2; 1850 New York census, NARA.

8. A. Hiller to Martha L. Sternberg, 1917, Biographical Sketch of George Sternberg by 

Alfred Hiller, MS C100 George Miller Sternberg Papers, 1861–1917, Box 1, Folder 

23, NLM.

9. Sternberg genealogy. 

10. Bailey, Hartwick College, 44; Hiller, “Biography of Rev Miller,” 75–78.
xx The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 

11. GMS, My Life, 5.

12. GMS, My Life, 2; Hiller, “Biography of Rev Miller,” 75–80.

13. Kreider, History United Lutheran Synod, 201; L. Sternberg, Story of My Life, 9, 14, 17, 31.

14. GMS, My Life, 4.

15. Ibid.

16. Livermore, Condensed History of Cooperstown, 161–162; M. Sternberg, GMS, 2.

17. GMS, My Life, 4.

18. Ibid., 5.

19. Annual Catalog of the Officers and Students of Hartwick Theological and Classical 

Seminary, Academic Year Ending Aug. 25, 1852, 4–7.

20. Bailey, Hartwick College, 48; Bruce, Launching of American Science, 1846–1876, 121, 

122; Daniels, American Science in the Age of Jackson, 7, 20, 47, 48, 50–53. See also 

Stanley Guralnick, Science and the Ante-Bellum American College (Philadelphia: 

American Philosophical Society, 1975).

21. GMS, My Life, 5.

22. “A letter from Rev. G. B. Miller, D.D., Written to his Daughter Henrietta, now Mrs. 

A. Hiller, 55 years ago,” The Monthly, Hartwick Seminary, Oct 1908, 4. Rogers, 

Dinosaur Dynasty: Sternberg Fossil Hunters, 10.

23. “A letter from Rev. G. B. Miller, D.D., Written to his Daughter Henrietta, now Mrs. 

A. Hiller, 55 years ago,” The Monthly, Hartwick Seminary, Oct 1908, 4.

24. Annual Catalog of the Officers and Students of Hartwick Theological and Classical 

Seminary, Academic Year Ending Aug. 23, 1854, 6–7; GMS, My Life, 6.

25. GMS, My Life, 6–7; Sternberg genealogy.

26. GMS, My Life, 7.

27. GMS’s comment on missing his mother is difficult to reconcile with his actions. At 

13 he spent a year living in Cooperstown and there is no comment by him or Mrs. 

Sternberg suggesting that separation was a trial. GMS, My Life, 7; Kaester, Pillars of 

the Republic: Common Schools and American Society, 1780–1860, 20–22.

28. GMS, My Life, 8; Annual Catalog of the Officers and Students of Hartwick Theological 

and Classical Seminary, Academic Year Ending Aug. 26, 1857, 2.

29. GMS, My Life, 8.

30. Ibid., 8–9.

 31. GMS, My Life, 9. In the two autobiographical essays Sternberg wrote during his 

life—the short biography he provided the Medical Examining Board in May 1861 

and My Life written after 1875—he was vague about the true sequence of events 

between 1856 and 1858. When these essays are combined with the records of Hartwick Seminary, it is evident he must have returned from New Jersey in the summer 

of 1856. “Prelim. Exam. Dr. Sternberg, May 13, 1861,” Personal Papers of Physicians and Medical Officers (cited herein as PPPMO), MO, Box 551, RG94, NARA; 

Gibson, Soldier in White, 10; Minutes, Board of Trustees, 1857, Cooper Archives, 

Hartwick College, Oneonta, NY.
Endnotes xxi

32. Biographical Review of Otsego County, 153–154; Gibson, Soldier in White, 11–12.

33. Material for medical education, practice, and personalities in this chapter was derived from the following sources: Starr, The Social Transformation of American 

Medicine, 81–83; Norwood, Medical Education in the United States Before the Civil 

War, 393–394; Bonner, Becoming a Physician: Medical Education in Great Britain, 

France, Germany, and the United States, 1750–1945, 229–230; Haller, American 

Medicine in Transition, 1840–1910, 197–199; Shryock, Medicine and Society in 

America, 1660–1860, 141, 144, 148, 149, and The Development of Modern Medicine: 

An Interpretation of the Social and Scientific Factors Involved, 183; Porter, The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical History of Humanity, 290, 354; Mettler, History of 

Medicine, 527–528; Rothstein, American Physicians in the 19th Century: From Sects 

to Science, 85, 88–89, 92; Bynum, Science and the Practice of Medicine in the Nineteenth Century, 26, 31–33, 41–42; Ludmerer, Learning to Heal: The Development of 

American Medical Education, 21–22; Warner, The Therapeutic Perspective: Medical 

Practice, Knowledge, and Identity in America, 1820–1885, 13, 14, 15; Rothschuh, 

History of Physiology, 187–188; Lesch, Science and Medicine in France, 5, 14, 54, 

58; Warner, Against the Spirit of System: The French Impulse in Nineteenth Century 

American Medicine, 3–4, 7–9; Kelly and Burrage, Dictionary of American Medical 

Biography; Atkinson, ed., Physicians and Surgeons of the United States; Garrison, An 

Introduction to the History of Medicine, 4th ed., 601, 278; Walsh, History of Medicine 

in New York, v2, 492–493; Duffy, The Healers: A History of American Medicine, 167, 

172, 174–175.

34. GMS, My Life, 9.

35. The College of Physicians and Surgeons of New York required six-month terms 

during the early 1850s, but had returned to four-month terms by the time of GMS’s 

matriculation.

36. Ludmerer, Learning to Heal, 13; Smith, The Emergence of Organized Clinical Instruction in the Nineteenth Century American Cities of Boston, New York, and Philadelphia, 236–237.

37. Atlas of Otsego County, 18; Map of Otsego County, 1868, New York State Historical 

Society, Cooperstown, New York.

38. Bylebyl, “William Beaumont, Robley Dunglison, and the ‘Philadelphia Physiologists’,” 3–21; Warner, “The Campaign for Medical Microscopy in Antebellum 

America,” 371–372; Cassedy, “The Microscope in American Medical Science, 

1840–1860,” 76–97.

39. Bonner, Becoming a Physician, 152.

40. Haller, American Medicine in Transition, 206.

41. GMS, My Life, 9; GMS, “Presidential Address,” 7.

42. Eleventh Annual Announcement, Medical Department, University of Buffalo, 1856–

57, 16.

43. Ibid., 9.

44. Ibid., 9.

45. Ibid., 9.

46. Ibid., 9.
xxii The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 

47. Editorial, Buffalo Medical Journal, Jul 1857, 13(2):127, Jan 1858, 13(8):512, Aug 

1858, 14(3):180–182, Aug 1857, 13(3):190.

48. Editorial, Buffalo Medical Journal, Aug 1857, 13(3):190.

49. White’s presentation of a woman in labor to his class outraged some Buffalo physicians, but his methods survived the criticism and lawsuit.

50. Editorial, “Medical Department – University of Buffalo,” Buffalo Medical Journal, 

Aug 1857, 13(3):190 and Aug 1858, 14(3):180–182; Annual Announcement, Medical 

Department of the University of Buffalo, 1858–1859 (Buffalo, NY: Chas. E. Felton, 

1859), 8; Sentz, Medical History of Buffalo, 4–5, 7, 43; Smith, “Austin Flint and Auscultation in America,” 129–149; Peltier, “A Brief History of Traction,” 1603–1617; 

Fye, “Growth of American Physiology, 1850–1900,” 48; Rothschuh, History of Physiology, 189.

51. 11th Annual Announcement, 10.

52. Editorial, Buffalo Medical Journal, 14(5), Oct 1858, 316 and 14(6), Nov 1858, 374–

375.

53. Sternberg attended the College of Physicians and Surgeons during the 1859–1860 

session; however, he wrote that he did this the winter following his Buffalo instruction, which he stated was in the winter of 1857–1858. Since he graduated in March 

1860, presumably he made an error and attended Buffalo in the winter of 1858–

1859. GMS, My Life, 9–10.

54. Shrady, ed., The College of Physicians and Surgeons of New York and Its Founders, 

Officers, Benefactors, and Alumni, v1, 106–107.

55. Walsh, History of Medicine in New York, v2, 427.

56. Walsh, History of Medicine in New York, v2, 427–429; 53rd Annual Catalogue, College of Physicians and Surgeons in the City of New York, 1859–60, 12; Smith, Emergence of Organized Clinical Instruction, 169, 170, 173; Rosenberg, “The Practice of 

Medicine in New York a Century Ago,” 140.

57. 53rd Annual Catalogue, College of Physicians and Surgeons in the City of New York,

2; Sentz, Medical History in Buffalo, 7; Ruhrah, “Willard Parker,” 205–214; Smith, 

“A Historical Overview of the Recognition of Appendicitis – Part I,” 571–647; 

Baldwin, “The Detmold Method of Controlling Inoperable Hemorrhage,” 34–36; 

Shrady, College of Physicians and Surgeons, 107, 111, 112–113; Smith, Emergence 

of Organized Clinical Instruction, 173; Norwood, Medical Education in the United 

States, 164.

58. According to the college catalog of 1860–1861, Sternberg’s essay was titled “Necrosis,” but 14 months later he told the Army Medical Examining Board the paper was 

on the subject of “Cynanche Trachealis.” The essay has not survived, but presumably, the catalog entry was a misprint. “Prelim. Exam. Dr. Sternberg, May 13, 1861,” 

PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, NARA; 54th Annual Catalogue, College of Physicians and 

Surgeons in the City of New York, 1860–1861.

59. Rosenberg, The Care of Strangers, 72, 74, 78, 83, 93.

60. M. Sternberg, GMS, 245.
Endnotes xxiii

61. Cassedy, “The Microscope in American Medical Science,” 76, 82 & n, 83, 97; Schaeffer, “Nineteenth Century American Microscopy,” 464; Gage, “Microscopy in America (1830–1945),” 47–49, 57; Warner, “The Campaign for Medical Microscopy in 

Antebellum America,” 369, 374–375, 377, 379.

62. See GMS Civil War reports in: The Medical and Surgical History of the Civil War, v2, 

(Wilmington, NC: Broadfoot Publishing, 1990), 8, 88.

63. 54th Annual Catalogue, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Session of 1860–1861, 

15–16. Rosenberg, “The Practice of Medicine in New York a Century Ago,” 151, and 

Care of Strangers, 65.

Chapter Two

From First Bull Run to Hospital Command

1. M. Sternberg, GMS, 245.

2. Ibid.

3. Starr, Transformation, 64, 89.

4. M. Sternberg, GMS, 245.

5. Although GMS’s forefathers had served in the Seven Years and Revolutionary Wars, 

and his paternal grandfather had owned slaves, he had grown up in a religious 

environment that was both pacifist and abolitionist. Yet, where the struggle for 

abolition was concerned the Evangelical Lutherans believed that the end justified 

the means. GMS, and later his brothers Theodore and Frederick, probably received 

support for their decisions to enter the service. GMS to Cameron, 14 Apr 1861, 

PPPMO, Box 551 (Sternberg), RG94, NARA; Gibson, Soldier in White, 13, 14.

6. Ludmerer, Learning to Heal, 15–16; Cameron to GMS, 22 Apr 1861 and GMS to 

Surgeon General, 4 May 1861, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, NARA.

7. William A. Hammond, older than most of the other candidates and with prior army 

service, stood first in the class. Charles C. Gray, Charles E. Goddard, Blencoe E. 

Fryer, and Henry R. Silliman, who would work closely with GMS in the very near 

future, also performed well. Merit Rolls Regulars, Entry 77, RG112, NARA; Brown, 

The Medical Department of the United States Army from 1775 to 1873, 212, 216, 217; 

William Sloan to Surgeon General, 16 May 1861 and Contract of Service, 20 May 

1861, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, NARA.

8. GMS Narrative of Service to Surgeon General, Jul 29, 1863, PPPMO, Box 551, 

RG94, NARA; Marcus, ed., Washington During Wartime, Appendix B; Bryan, A 

History of the National Capital, v2, 3n, 479. Reese, Sykes’ Regular Infantry Division, 

32, 33.

9. Weigley, History of the United States Army, 189, 190, 200, 566.

10. Gillett, The Army Medical Department, 1818–1865, 128.
xxiv The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 

11. Gillett, The Army Medical Department, 1818–1865, 127–132; Otis, Report on the 

Transport of Sick and Wounded by Pack Animals, 4, 5.

12. Leech, Reville in Washington, 55.

13. Mitgang, ed., Noah Brooks, Washington, D.C. in Lincoln’s Time, 13; Elden Billings, 

“Military Activities in Washington in 1861,” 131; Battles & Leaders of the Civil War,

v1, 171 (hereafter cited as B&L); Warner, Generals in Blue, 298; GMS Narrative of 

Service to Surgeon General GMS to SGO, Jul 29, 1863, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, 

NARA.

14. B&L, v1, 174–175; Davis, Battle at Bull Run, 73–76; W. S. King, “Report of Events 

Connected with the First Bull Run Campaign,” Medical and Surgical History of the 

Civil War, v2, 1–4, 6 (hereafter cited as M&SHCW); Gillett, AMEDD, 1818–1865, 

163, 164; Duncan, The Medical Department of the United States Army in the Civil 

War, 21, 26; Cunningham, Field Medical Services at the Battles of Manassas, 20; 

Adams, Doctors in Blue, 26.

15. Sykes Regular Battalion consisted of two companies: 2d U.S. Infantry, 5 from the 

3rd U.S. Infantry, and one from the 8th U.S. Infantry Reese, Sykes’ Regular Infantry, 

34. Adams, Doctors in Blue, 25; B&L, v1, 178; Hennessy, First Battle of Manassas, 

2d ed., 12; The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the 

Union and Confederate Armies (hereafter cited as OR), Series 1, v2, 315, 390; Duncan, Medical Department in the Civil War, 38; Johnston, Bull Run, 114–115, 120, 

130–136.

16. “Capture and Escape of Dr. Sternberg,” Freeman’s Journal, Cooperstown, NY, Aug 

1861, George Miller Sternberg Papers, 1861–1917, Box 1, Folder 8, NLM; Davis, 

Battle at Bull Run, 159, 160, 162; Johnston, Bull Run, 144. 

17. Davis, Battle at Bull Run, 167; Haynes, A History of the Second Regiment, New 

Hampshire Volunteer Infantry in the War of the Rebellion, 23–28; Woodbury, The 

Second Rhode Island Regiment, 31; Fairchild, History of the 27th Regiment New York 

Volunteers, 9–11. Sternberg thought the flank march to be about 10 miles. According to measurements from battlefield maps contemporary with the battle, the distance from where Hunter’s Division turned off the Warrenton Turnpike to the Sudley Ford was about 6 miles. B&L, v1, 186; “Capture and Escape of Dr. Sternberg”; 

Parker, “The Regular Infantry in the First Bull Run Campaign,” 525; Johnston, Bull 

Run, 184–185; Davis, Perrin, and Kirkley, Official Military Atlas of the Civil War, 

Plate 3.

18. OR, Series 1, v2, 319, 383–387, 488, 559; Parker, “The Regular Infantry in the First 

Bull Run Campaign,” 527; “Capture and Escape of Dr. Sternberg.”

19. “Capture and Escape of Dr. Sternberg.” 

20. “No. 35, Report of Maj. George Sykes,” 390–391 and “No. 110, Report of Brig. Gen. 

Nathan G. Evans,” 559, OR, Series 1, v2; Davis, Battle at Bull Run, 173–174. “Capture and Escape of Dr. Sternberg.” For an analysis of how Union soldiers reacted 

to battle, see Hess, Union Soldier in Battle (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 

1997).

21. W. S. King, “Report of Events Connected with the First Bull Run Campaign,” 

M&SHCW, v2, 4, 5.
Endnotes xxv

22. “No. 110, Report of Brig. Gen. Nathan G. Evans, OR,” Series 1, v2, 559; Davis, Battle at Bull Run, 175, 177, 180–185, 187–188; Reese, Sykes’ Regular Infantry, 37, 40; 

Parker, “Regular Infantry in the First Bull Run Campaign,” 529. Cunningham, Field 

Medical Services, 15, 36; Duncan, Medical Department in the Civil War, 31.

23. “Capture and Escape of Dr. Sternberg.”

24. GMS sent Colonel Jones to Sudley Church for definitive care. Jones died at Orange 

Hospital, Orange, Virginia, from complications of his injuries on 3 Sep 1861. Compiled Service Records of Confederate Soldiers, M–311, Roll 124, NARA; Davis, 

Battle of Bull Run, 181.

25. Davis, Battle of Bull Run, 191–195, 214, 236.

26. Reese, Sykes’ Regular Infantry, 38–40; Parker, “Regular Infantry in the First Bull Run 

Campaign,” 528–529; Hennessy, First Battle of Manassas, 78; “Capture and Escape 

of Dr. Sternberg”; “No. 35, Report of Maj. George Sykes,” 390–399, and “No. 83, 

Report of Col. J. E. B. Stuart,” OR, Series 1, v2, 484. 

27. “Capture and Escape of Dr. Sternberg.” GMS probably tethered his horse at the 

Lewis home. Undoubtedly, his unattended mount had been the vehicle of someone’s headlong flight from the battlefield. He humorously remarked years later, “I 

tied him to a tree, and unless some one else took him away he is still there, for 

I have never seen him since.” GMS, “Presidential Address,” 13. Among surgeons 

ordered to Sudley Church were Charles C. Gray, Regular Army, William W. Keene, 

5th Mass, and C. S. Degraw, 8th NY. M&SHCW, v2, 5, 7, 8, 18.

28. Taken prisoner with GMS were: Charles Gray, Regular Army; Foster Swift, G. S. 

Winston, and C. S. DeGraw, 8th NY; Homiston and William F. Swalm, 14th NY; 

Eugene E. R. Peugnet, 71st NY; James Harris, 2d RI; Jacob H. Stewart and Charles 

W. Boutillier, 1st Minn; Benjamin F. Buxton, 5th Maine, William Allen, 2d Maine, 

James M. Lewis, 2d Wis, and Edward F. Taylor, 2d NJ. Cunningham, Field Medical 

Services, 6, 20; Duncan, Medical Department in the Civil War, 31, 34–35; C. C. Gray, 

“Extract from a Report of Services at the First Battle of Bull Run,” M&SHCW, v2, 7; 

“No. 83, Report of Col. J. E. B. Stuart,” OR, Series 1, v2, 484.

 29.“Capture and Escape of Dr. Sternberg”; PPPMO, Boxes 453 (Peugenet), 566 

(Swalm), 646 (Winston), RG94, NARA; Alan Goff, ed., George H. Otis, The Second 

Wisconsin Infantry, 236, 295; Mundy, Second to None: The Story of the Second Maine 

Volunteers, 81–82; Bilby and Goble, Remember You Are Jerseymen! 66; Blackford, 

War Years with JEB Stuart, 41–42.

30. Cunningham, Field Medical Services, 14, 15; “Capture and Escape of Dr. Sternberg.”

31. G. M. Sternberg, “Extract from a Report on Duties Assigned to Him from the Outbreak of the Rebellion,” M&SHCW, v2, 8.

32. “Capture and Escape of Dr. Sternberg.”

33. Ibid.

34. Winston, PPPMO, Box 646, RG94, NARA; “Capture and Escape of Dr. Sternberg.”

35. “Capture and Escape of Dr. Sternberg.”

36. Ibid.
xxvi The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 

37. Ibid.

38. Ibid.

39. “Capture and Escape of Dr. Sternberg.” Poultices of red oak were used for their 

astringent properties on wounds and abscesses, and decoctions of the bark, fortified with opium, were used orally to control chronic diarrhea. Neill and Smith, An 

Analytical Compendium of the Various Branches of Medical Science, 705–706.

40. “Capture and Escape of Dr. Sternberg.”

41. GMS’s course from Centreville to the Maryland side of the Potomac west of Washington can be recreated with a reasonable amount of certainty. He paralleled present day state route 28 to its junction with state route 7, a distance of about 15 miles. 

State route 7 (Leesburg Pike) was the road patrolled by the South Carolina Regiment. From the junction of routes 28 and 7, GMS proceeded about 7 miles east to 

the banks of the Potomac just north of Great Falls in the River Park area. This is 9.5 

miles above the Little Falls Dam. From Little Falls Dam to Rock Creek, the southwestern edge of the city is about 5 miles. The Union Army, v1, 43; Davis, Official 

Military Atlas, Plate 7.

42. The Union Army, v1, 42; “Capture and Escape of Dr. Sternberg.”

43. Warner, Generals in Blue, 291; Billings, “Military Activities,” 131; Bryan, History of 

the National Capital, 478–479, 481, 484; Green, Washington, 262; Brooks, Washington, D.C. in Lincoln’s Time, 13–14.

44. Steiner, Disease in the Civil War, Table 105, 106, 107, 109, 115–116.

45. GMS Narrative of Service to Surgeon General GMS to SGO, Jul 29, 1863, PPPMO, 

Box 551, RG94, NARA; C. E. Goddard, “Extracts from a Report of His Services in 

the Medical Staff,” M&SHCW, v2, 74; Lowry, Civil War Bawdy Houses of Washington, D.C., 10, map.

46. Sears, George B. McClellan, 167 and To the Gates of Richmond, 5, 12–14, 18–20; 

B&L, v2, 167–168.

47. Charles S. Tripler, “Report of the Operations of the Medical Department of the 

Army of the Potomac,” M&SHCW, v2, 44–57.

48. Ibid.

49. Tripler, “Report of Operations,” M&SHCW, v2, 49–50; Gillett, AMEDD, 1818–1865, 

186.

50. George M. Sternberg, Carded Medical Records, RG94, NARA; Register of Letters 

Received, 1862, RG112, NARA; Reese, Sykes’ Regular Infantry, 70.

51. Foote, The Civil War, v2, 410, 417; B&L, v2, 168–173; Reese, Sykes’ Regular Infantry, 73.

52. Gillett, AMEDD, 1818–1865, 188–189; Tripler, “Report of Operations,” M&SHCW, 

v2, 58.

53. “No. 137, Report of Brig. Gen. George Sykes,” 348–349 and “No. 141, Report of 

Capt. Thomas W. Walker,” 361–363, OR, Series 1, v11; Reese, Sykes’ Regular Infantry, 76–84; Sears, To the Gates of Richmond, 223–225; B&L, v2, map 334, 335; G. M. 

Sternberg, “Second Extract from a Report on Duties Assigned to Him,” M&SHCW, 

v2, 88.
Endnotes xxvii

54. G. M. Sternberg, “Second Extract from a Report on Duties Assigned to Him,”

M&SHCW, v2, 88.

55. Surgeons provided a primitive version of advanced trauma life support. Without intravenous fluid replacement and the means for airway management, this consisted 

of applying compression dressings and immobilization devices, and administering 

anodynes and stimulants as the case may warrant. Narratives and Reports of Service, M&SHCW, v2, 69 (Brown), 72 (Bentley), 73 (Woodhull and Greenleasf), 76 

(Schell), 80 (waters), 81 (Spencer and Hand), 82 (Middleton).

56. Reese, Sykes’ Regular Infantry, 89–90; Sears, To the Gates of Richmond, 236–242; 

Hess, Union Soldier in Battle, 17, 19, 21, 27; B&L, v2, 339–340; “No. 137, Report 

of Brig. Gen. George Sykes,” OR, Series 1, v11, 348–349. Tripler stated there were 

1,300 casualties at Savage Station, but his estimate is not substantiated by others 

who were there and contemporary historians. Tripler may have made this estimate 

prior to the arrival of wounded from the Gaines’ Mill engagement. Tripler, “Report 

of the Operations of the Army of the Potomac” and Greenleaf, “Narrative of Medical Services,” M&SHCW, v2, 57, 73; B&L, v2, 386; Foote, Sumter to Perryville, 501.

57. “No. 137, Report of Brig. Gen. George Sykes,” OR, Series 1, v11, 350; Reese, Sykes’ 

Regular Infantry, 96–97.

58. “No. 137, Report of Brig. Gen. George Sykes,” OR, Series 1, v11, 352.

59. Ibid.

60. “No. 35, Report of Maj. George Sykes,” OR, Series 1, v2, p 391.

61. “No. 140, Report of Lieut. Col. Robert C. Buchanan,” OR, Series 1, v11, 360; Reese, 

Sykes’ Regular Infantry, 99; GMS Narrative of Service to Surgeon General GMS to 

SGO, Jul 29, 1863, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, NARA, 6; Narrative Reports of Service, M&SHCW, v2, 45–57 (Tripler), 81 (Spencer), 82 (Middleton), 88 (Sternberg), 

93–94 (Letterman); Duncan, Medical Department in the Civil War, 102; GMS to 

Letterman, Jul 19, 1862, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, NARA. Volunteer medical staff 

and 650 wounded were left to the enemy at Savage Station. “Narratives and Reports 

of Service,” M&SHCW, v2, 72 (Bentley), 76 (Schell).

62. Letterman, Medical Recollections, 5–8; Stille, History of the USSC, 159–160. 

63. The USSC fitted out the Daniel Webster and Ocean Queen and the Medical Department renovated the Cosmopolitan, Western Metropolis, Connecticut, and State of 

Maine. M&SHCW, v12, 982, 984; Stille, History of the USSC, 154–158; Letterman, 

Medical Recollections, 9–11. Adams commented that the transport vessels were 

filthy, poorly equipped, and inadequately staffed until the USSC assumed control 

of them. This is contradictory to Letterman’s assessment of these floating hospitals. 

Adams, Doctors in Blue, 71–72.

64. Steiner, Disease in the Civil War, 125; Reports, M&SHCW, v2, 93–96 (Letterman).

65. GMS to Hammond, Jul 9, 1862, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, NARA.

66. Ibid.

67. SGO to GMS, Jul 15, 1862, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, NARA.
xxviii The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 

68. GMS to Letterman, Jul 19, 1862, GMS Narrative of Service to Surgeon General 

GMS to SGO, Jul 29, 1863, SGO to GMS, Aug 29, 1862, and GMS to SGO, Sep 

18, 1862, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, NARA; Sternberg, GMS, 28; Gibson, Soldier in 

White, 31.

69. Gibson, Soldier in White, 31; M&SHCW, v3, 15 and v6, 935, 939, 940, 956; GMS, 

“Disease Germs,” 451–455.

70. Editorial, “The Hospital at Portsmouth, R.I.,” 115, 116.

71. GMS, “Address to the Pan–American Medical Congress,” 371.

72. GMS to SGO, Nov 19, 1862 and SO#355, Adj Gen Office, Nov 20, 1862, PPPMO, 

Box 551, RG94, NARA; Harrington, Fighting Politician, 86.

73. Johnson, Red River Campaign, 10–25, 28; Harrington, Fighting Politician, 85, 86; 

Halleck to Banks, HQ of the Army, Nov 9, 1862, Minority Report, Report of Red 

River Expedition to the 38th Cong (Millwood, NY: Kraus Reprint Company, 1977), 

16; SO#17, HQ Banks Expedition, Nov 26, 1862, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, NARA.

74. Duffy, History of Medicine in Louisiana, v2, 319; OR, Series 1, v26, 13, 14; Johnson, 

Red River Campaign, 32–33; Harrington, Fighting Politician, 121–122, 124. SO#28, 

HQ Banks Expedition, Dec 14, 1862, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, NARA; Chaille, “The 

Yellow Fever, Sanitary Condition, and Vital Statistics of New Orleans,” 570–571; 

M&SHCW, v6, 676; Woodward to GMS, Woodward Letter Book, Curatorial Records, Otis Archives. Alexander installed GMS as secretary of the Board of Health. 

Brown, Report on Quarantine, 54.

75. GMS accompanied Banks’ to the desolate, windswept flats of Brazos Island and 

Brownsville, Texas, in October. By mid-December, he was back at his desk in New 

Orleans. OR, Series 1, v26, 20, 397, 399; SO#16, HQ, Dept of the Gulf, Jan 19, 1864; 

GMS to Barnes, Feb 6, 1864, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, NARA.

76. SO#74, Feb 15, and SO#84, War Dept, Washington, DC, Feb 20, 1864, PPPMO, Box 

551, RG94, NARA.

77. Cleveland General Hospital, consisting of 11 wards, was located on an open plain 

in the University Heights suburbs, one mile from Cleveland proper. GMS commanded the camp until mid-August when Colonel Charles C. Smith, 10th Ohio 

Vol. Cavalry, assumed control of Camp Cleveland. SO#37, HQ, Northern Dept, 

Mar 12, 1864, GMS to Barnes, Mar 12, 1864, Tripler to GMS, Apr 16, 1864, SO #76, 

May 2, SO, May 5, 1864, SO#92, May 21, 1864, and SO#159, Aug 12, HQ, Northern Dept, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, NARA; Indexes to Field Records of Hospitals, 

1821–1912, Records of the AGO, RG94, Box 5, NARA; Stark, “The United States 

General Hospital at Cleveland, Ohio,” 125–128.

78. GMS to Wood, Aug 19, 1864 and GMS to Wood, Nov 15, 1864, PPPMO, Box 

551, RG94, NARA. Lutheran Church conservatives had advocated a more defined confessional position based on a revision of the Augsburg Confessions and 

symbolical books of the church. Levi became outraged, particularly over the suggestion Lutherans accept the Roman doctrine of transubstantiation, and led the 

opposition at Hartwick in an article titled “The Lord’s Supper.” Dr. Miller agreed 

with Levi’s arguments, but pleaded with him not to publish it for fear of repercussions to the seminary. The dissension that rocked the church found its way 

into the seminary, polarized the student body, and caused a schism between Levi 
Endnotes xxix

and Miller. The growing conservative movement in the Lutheran church was extinguishing the evangelical fire, and Levi saw himself surrounded by adversaries. 

A moderate, George Miller was a burr under Levi’s saddle as he fought the good 

fight for evangelicalism. By virtue of Miller’s seniority at the school and his relationship as mentor and father-in-law, Rev. Sternberg had felt some obligation to 

be deferential, but as pressures mounted so did his insecurities, and he became 

ever more suspicious that opponents in the synods, on the board of trustees, and 

possibly Miller, were subverting his authority as principal. L. Sternberg, Story 

of My Life, 12, 14, 15 and “The Lord’s Supper,” 558–578; Jacobs, A History of the 

Evangelical Lutheran Church in the United States, 416, 418, 424–425; L. Sternberg to Lintner, Mar 10, 1864, Weiskotten to Lintner, Mar 21, 1864, and L. Sternberg to Lintner, Apr 24, 1864, Cooper Archives, Hartwick College, Oneonta, NY.

79. Miller to Pohlman, Nov 27, 1864, Cooper Archives, Hartwick College. 

80. Pohlman to Miller, Dec 16, 1864, and Miller to Lintner, Dec 19, 1864, Cooper Archives, Hartwick College; L. Sternberg, Story of My Life, 12; GMS to Tripler, Nov 

15, 1864, Tripler to GMS, Dec 17, 1864, SO#104, Dec 20, 1864, Medical Director’s 

Office, Gen Hospital, Louisville, KY, GMS to Tripler, Dec 21, 1864, and GMS to 

Tripler, Mar 18, 1865, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, NARA.

81. Gillett, AMEDD 1865–1917, 11; Tripler to GMS, Jul 4, 1865, PPPMO, Box 551, 

RG94, NARA.

82. SO#425, Aug 8, 1865, GMS to Tripler, Aug 29, 1865, and GMS to Wood, Aug 31, 

1865, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, NARA.

Chapter Three

The Kansas Plains

1. Biographical Review, Otsego County, NY, 117; Freeman’s Journal, Oct 27, 1865; 

Sternberg, GMS, 11.

2. The Military Division of the Missouri was composed of the Departments of the Missouri (Missouri, Kansas, Colorado, and New Mexico), the Platte (Iowa, Nebraska, 

Utah and parts of Dakota and Montana), Dakota (Minnesota and the remainder of 

Dakota and Montana), and the Arkansas (Indian Territory, now Oklahoma). Utley, 

Frontier Regulars, 2, 13–14, 45, 93, 94. Billings, Report on Barracks and Hospitals, 

276; Weigley, The American Way of War, 157–158; Leckie, Military Conquest of the 

Southern Plains, 3, 28; Gillett, AMEDD, 1865–1917, 63; Sherman, Memoirs, v2, 412, 

413.

3. Gillett, AMEDD, 1865–1917, 12; Ashburn, History of the Medical Department of 

the United States Army, 89; Brown, Medical Department United States Army, 244; 

GMS to Barnes, Jan 31, 1866, SO#89, Apr 14, 1866, and GMS to Barnes, Apr 30, 

1866, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, NARA. GMS was promoted to captain on 28 May 

1866. At the end of the war, he had received “brevet” promotions, for gallantry 

in combat, to Captain and Major and therefore wore the rank of, and was addressed as, Major. Brevet promotions were honorary ranks given for gallantry and 
xxx The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 

meritorious service. Although brevet rank had little practical significance, officers 

could be assigned on the basis of their brevet rank; however, for pay and retirement purposes, their regular, or permanent, rank applied. The issue of brevet versus 

regular rank can become confusing, therefore, only regular army rank will be used. 

Heitman, Historical Register, 921; Official Army Register 1893, 10; Weigley, United 

States Army, 110–111; Utley, Frontier Regulars, 13, 37 n. 13; Utley, personal communication, Aug 12, 1997.

4. Louisa returned to Cooperstown on account of “frail health.” No other sources substantiate she was in poor health, and, as will be seen, her later actions contradict the 

idea that she lacked physical or emotional strength. M. Sternberg, GMS, 11; Billings, Report Barracks and Hospitals, 290; Post Returns, Fort Harker, M617, Roll 453, 

NARA; Zornow, Kansas, 137; Clapsaddle, “Conflict and Commerce on the Santa Fe 

Trail,” 2, 133–134. In 1863, the railway was designated the Union Pacific, Eastern 

Division and in 1869 the name was changed to Kansas Pacific. Garfield, “Defense 

of the Kansas Frontier, 1866–1867,” 326–344; Carriker and Carriker, eds. An Army 

Wife on the Frontier, 35; Medical History of Post, 1865–1872, (Fort Harker), vol 

128, E547, RG94; Gibson, Soldier in White, 33–34; Rogers, Dinosaur Dynasty, 10, 

11; Coffman, The Old Army, 254; Oliva, Fort Harker, 26-28.

5. Jennie Barnitz to Albert Barnitz, Jul 21, 1867, Albert Barnitz Papers, Beineke Library, Yale University.

6. The reasons for Lamb’s incarceration are unknown. Clary, “The Role of the Army 

Surgeon in the West,” 53–66; Lynch, “The Day of Small Things in the United States 

Army, 1865–1898,” 44; SO#43, May 8, 1866, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, NARA; Post 

Returns, Ft. Harker; Wengert, “The Contract Surgeon,” 67–76; Rickey, Forty Miles 

a Day on Beans and Hay, 131, 132; Gillett, AMEDD, 1865–1917, 49, 73, 74, 77; 

Knight, Life and Manners in the Frontier Army, 172–173.

7. Post Returns, Ft. Harker M617, Roll 453, NARA; Medical History of Post, Ft. Harker, 2, 15–16; Oliva, Fort Harker, 43.

8. M. Sternberg, GMS, 19; Dobak, Fort Riley and its Neighbors, 41, 62; Dykstra, “Ellsworth, 1869–1875: The Rise and Fall of a Kansas Cowtown,” 162, 163 and Cattle 

Towns, 31; Rogers, Dinosaur Dynasty, 11–12; C. Sternberg, Life of a Fossil Hunter, 

11; Land Records, Registrar’s Office, Ellsworth Kansas. Congress granted a 33.3 

percent pay raise to all officers in the spring of 1867 retroactive to July 1, 1866, but 

for only two years. Coffman, Old Army, 84, 85, 265. Utley, ed., Life in Custer’s Cavalry, 59.

9. L. Sternberg, Story of My Life, 21, 24.

10. After resigning from the seminary, Levi had accepted an oil company superintendency in Pennsylvania. Although the annual salary of $2,000 was more money than 

Levi had ever contemplated earning, he was not fit for the job and after four months 

he resigned. In the fall of 1865, he accepted the Iowa position and began his duties 

in January 1866. L. Sternberg, Story of My Life, 12, 13, 20, 24. As of October 1867, 

Levi was still living in Albion, Iowa. CB Files, M1064, Roll 376, NARA.

11. Mrs. Sternberg indicated GMS was not in favor of settling his mother in Kansas, but 

Rogers noted it was part of his plan to coax his parents to Kansas from the time he 

purchased the ranch. Gibson does not refer to the episode, and Charles Sternberg 
Endnotes xxxi

merely stated he and his brother Edward moved to the ranch in 1867. GMS had 

good reason not to want his educated and refined mother near Ellsworth. Soon 

after its founding in 1867, it gained a reputation as a rough, seedy cowtown harboring the worst elements of society; however, this does not appear to have deterred his 

plans and his parents eventually moved into the town. M. Sternberg, GMS, 18–19; 

Rogers, Dinosaur Dynasty, 1–12; Sternberg, Life of a Fossil Hunter, 5-6, 13–14; Dykstra, Cattle Towns, 113; Clapsaddle, “Conflict and Commerce,” 136.

12. Moore, Cheyenne Nation, 46; Utley, Frontier Regulars, 93, 97, 103–107, 113, 114; 

Leckie, Military Conquest, 9, 30–32; Zwink, “E. W. Wynkoop and the Bluff Creek 

Council, 1866,” 217; Garfield, “Defense of the Kansas Frontier,” 326, 328; Carriker, 

Fort Supply, 3.

13. Billings, Report Barracks and Hospitals, 290; The railroad was not completed to Ellsworth until July 5. Zornow, Kansas, 152; Jennie Barnitz to Albert Barnitz, Jul 21, 

1867, Albert Barnitz Papers, Beineke Library, Yale University.

14. Jennie Barnitz’s Journal, Jul 20, 1867, Utley, Life in Custer’s Cavalry, 91.

15. Utley, Life in Custer’s Cavalry, 59, 91.

16. Utley, Life in Custer’s Cavalry, 59; Carriker and Carriker, Army Wife on the Frontier, 42.

17. Utley, Life in Custer’s Cavalry, 59; Jennie Barnitz to Albert Barnitz, Jul 21, 1867, 

Albert Barnitz Papers, Beineke Library, Yale University.

18. Early on July 4, an Indian scouting party did approach the Sternberg ranch, but dispersed at the site of a troop of cavalry. C. Sternberg, Life of a Fossil Hunter, 11; Utley, 

Frontier Regulars, 114–120; Leckie, Military Conquest, 47, 48, 56; Garfield, “Defense 

of the Kansas Frontier,” 329–332; Medical History of Post, Ft. Harker, 9; Woodward, 

Report on the Epidemic Cholera...During the Year 1867, 29.

19. Powers and Younger, “Cholera on the Plains,” 368; Woodward, Report Epidemic 

Cholera, 1867, 29–30, 41, 43. In 1874, line officers were further motivated to implement sanitary recommendations by the post surgeon when the army required them 

to routinely submit reports on the sanitation of their units to their commanding officer. Gillett, AMEDD, 1865–1917, 4, 39; Utley, Frontier Regulars, 86; Medical History of Post, Ft. Harker, 13.

20. Rosenberg, Cholera Years, 198–200; Woodward, Report Epidemic Cholera, 1867, 

16–18, and Report Epidemic Cholera, 1867, 37, 43; Powers and Younger, “Cholera 

and the Army,” 49.

21. Powers and Younger, “Cholera on the Plains,” 360–361.

22. Woodward, Report Epidemic Cholera, 1867, 28, 29, 43.

23. Woodward, Report Epidemic Cholera, 1867, 29, 35 (tables).

24. Woodward, Report Epidemic Cholera, 1867, 29.

25. Armes, Ups and Downs, 231–232.

26. GMS to Post Commander, Jul 9, 1867, Letters Received, SGO, 1818–1870, Box 96, 

RG112, NARA.

27. GMS to Post Commander, Jul 13, 1867, Letters Received, SGO, 1818–1870, Box 96, 

RG112, NARA.
xxxii The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 

28. GMS to Post Commander, Jul 17, 1867, Letters Received, SGO, 1818–1870, Box 96, 

RG112, NARA.

29. Woodward, Report Epidemic Cholera, 1867, 32.

30. PPMO, Boxes 354 (McClellan), 451 (Perry), and 545 (Squier), RG94, NARA; Powers and Younger, “Cholera on the Plains,” 367, 372–373; Woodward, Report Epidemic Cholera, 1867, 31.

31. Powers and Younger, “Cholera on the Plains,” 368; Clapsaddle, “Conflict and Commerce,” 137; Utley, Life in Custer’s Cavalry, 89; Custer, Tenting on the Plains, 381.

32. Post Returns, Ft. Harker, M617, Roll 453, NARA; Armes, Ups and Downs, 234–235; 

Custer, Tenting on the Plains, 382.

33. Woodward, Report Epidemic Cholera, 1867, 29, 30, 31, 36; Leiker, “Voices from a 

Disease Frontier, 244–245; Utley, Life in Custer’s Cavalry, 89.

34. Carriker and Carriker, Army Wife on the Frontier, 42.

35. Woodward, Report Epidemic Cholera, 1867, 29, 31, 33, 34, 37.

36. Woodward, Report Epidemic Cholera, 1867, 35.

37. Woodward, Report Epidemic Cholera, 1867, 33, 34, 35.

38. Ibid., 35.

39. Woodward, Report Epidemic Cholera, 1866, xvi, 43, and appendices.

40. Wood, Treatise on the Practice of Medicine, 732–733; Howard-Jones, “Cholera Therapy,” 382; Rothstein, American Physicians, 51, 59, 183–185, 188. Duffy, “History of 

Asiatic Cholera,” 116; Rosenberg, Cholera Years, 222, 223; Report Epidemic Cholera, 

1867, 30, 31, 35, 36; Powers and Younger, “Cholera and the Army,” 49–54; Woodward, Report Epidemic Cholera, 1867, 35.

41. Woodward, Report Epidemic Cholera, 1867, 37. 

42. Woodward, Report Epidemic Cholera, 1867, 29, 37, 38.

43. Woodward, Report Epidemic Cholera, 1867, 37.

44. Woodward, Report Epidemic Cholera, 1867, 38.

45. Ibid.

46. SO #163, HQ Dept of the Missouri, Fort Leavenworth, Jul 30, 1867, Box 2, Folder 

13, George M. Sternberg Papers, 1861-1917, MS C100, NLM; Post Returns, Fort 

Harker, KS, M617, Roll 453, NARA. Wood was scarce, and those who died at Harker that summer were buried in coffins hastily constructed from hardtack boxes. 

Custer, Tenting on the Plains, 381.

47. Kappler, Indian Treaties, 982–989; Utley, Frontier Regulars, 132–133, 137–138, 142, 

147 and Life in Custer’s Cavalry, 147; Leckie, Military Conquest, 64, 67; Wooster, 

Military and United States Indian Policy, 130; Sheridan, Personal Memoirs, v2, 283–

284, 286.

48. Post Returns, Ft Riley, KS, Jan 1868, M617, Roll 1012, NARA; Leckie, Buffalo Soldiers, 27–28; Leckie, ed., Colonel’s Lady, 13, 15. The act to increase the Military 

Peace Establishment of the United States on July 28, 1866, created six U.S. Colored 
Endnotes xxxiii

Regiments: the 9th and 10th Cavalry, and the 38th, 39th, 40th, and 41st Infantry. 

Unit pride and morale were high in these regiments; alcoholism extremely low; 

and desertion rates the lowest in the army. Dubbed “buffalo soldiers” by the Indians, they wore the sobriquet proudly, but whether it was their black curly hair 

or their ferocity, uncommon stamina, and courage in battle that was reminiscent 

of the buffalo is uncertain. White officers were assigned to these regiments. Utley, 

Frontier Regulars, 11; Leckie, Buffalo Soldiers, 6, 8, 26, 26 n. 14; Foner, Blacks and 

the Military, 52, 53; Smith, Fort Huachuca, 1; Orders, HQ Dept of the Missouri, 

Mar 23, 1868, and SO#70, HQ Dept of the Missouri, Apr 8, 1868, Box 2, Folder 

14, George M. Sternberg Papers, 1861-1917, MS C100, NLM; Muster Rolls, 10th 

Cavalry, Apr 1867 and Apr–Sep 1868, Boxes 1140, 1141, 1147, 1149, 1151, 1153, 

and 1155, RG94, NARA; Utley, Life in Custer’s Cavalry, 143, 148–149.

49. Henry, AFIP, 58; SGO to GMS, Jul 30, 1868, and Woodward to GMS, Aug 6, 1868, 

Woodward Letterbook, 1868-69, Curatorial Records, Otis Archives, NMM; Lamb, 

“The Army Medical Museum in American Anthropology,” 625–632; M. Sternberg, 

GMS, 14; Gibson, Soldier in White, 37.

50. Sheridan, Memoirs, v2, 288, 289–291; Armes, Ups and Downs, 265; Muster Rolls, 

10th Cavalry, Apr–Sep 1868, Boxes 1138, 1140, 1141, 1147, 1149, 1151, 1153, and 

1155, RG94, NARA; Leckie, Military Conquest, 69–71, 74; Utley, Frontier Regulars, 

138; Godfrey, “Some Reminiscences, Including an Account of General Sully’s Expedition Against the Southern Plains Indians,” 419.

51. Leckie, Military Conquest, 74; Muster Rolls, 7th Cavalry; Burke, Buffalo Bill, 49; 

Armes, Ups and Downs, 273, 274.

52. When unwrapped at the Army Medical Museum, Sternberg’s prize was found to 

be the remains of a Cheyenne child. For the complete report, see George A. Otis to 

GMS, 15 Oct 1868, Box 2, Folder 14, George M. Sternberg Papers, 1861–1917, MS 

C100, NLM.

53. White, “General Sully’s Expedition to the North Canadian,” 75–98; Godfrey, “Some 

Reminiscences,” 421–425; Armes, Ups and Downs, 274; Sheridan, Memoirs, v2, 297, 

308–309; Utley, Frontier Regulars, 149–150 and Life in Custer’s Cavalry, 228–229; 

Carriker, Fort Supply, 14; FGO#2, HQ, Fort Dodge, GMS to Adj Gen, Nov 7, 1868, 

SFO#40, Nov 22, 1868, and SFO#41, Nov 22, 1868, Box 2, Folder 14, George M. 

Sternberg Papers, 1861–1917, MS C100, NLM; M. Sternberg, GMS, 13; Medical 

History of Post, Fort Supply, IT, Sep 1868–Feb 1893, 166, 1-3, RG94, NARA; Keim, 

Sheridan’s Troopers, 102.

54. Keim, Sheridan’s Troopers, 101; Utley, Life in Custer’s Cavalry, 204, 208, 229; Custer, 

My Life on the Plains, 210, 214; Sheridan, Memoirs, v2, 308, 311–312; PPPMO, Boxes No. 342 (Lippincott), No. 482 (Renick), No. 19 (Asch), RG94, NARA; Medical 

History of Post, Camp Supply, 1, 2. Quarters and storehouses consisted of “pits, 

four and a half feet deep, walled with cottonwood logs extending above the ground 

about three feet and covered with logs, straw, and earth.” Carriker, Fort Supply, 3, 

17, 20, 21.

55. Carriker, Fort Supply, 22, 23; Hoig, Battle of the Washita, 118, 127, 129–134, 142; 

Custer, My Life on the Plains, 232–234, 240–248, 250; Keim, Sheridan’s Troopers, 

115–121, 124–125; Utley, Frontier Regulars, 150–152 and Life in Custer’s Cavalry, 

225–227, 237. 
xxxiv The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 

 56.Utley, Life in Custer’s Cavalry, 237. The greater omentum is a fold of peritoneal 

membrane passing from the greater curvature of the stomach to the transverse portion of the large intestine and hangs like an apron in front of the intestines. Barnitz recovered and was medically retired from the army in June 1870. He died July 

18, 1912, from a growth around the wound received at the Washita. Utley, Life in 

Custer’s Cavalry, 247.

57. Albert to Jennie Barnitz, Dec 8, 1868, Albert Barnitz Papers, Beineke Library, Yale 

University.

58. Medical History of Post, Fort Supply 2, 3; Godfrey, “Some Reminiscences, Including the Washita Battle, Nov 27, 1868,” 495; SGO to GMS, 4 Jan 1869, Otis Archives, 

NMM. There are very few direct references concerning the clinical care and specific 

instruments GMS used at this time. It is apparent the SGO was diligent in its efforts to keep frontier surgeons supplied with the most current medical instruments. 

SGO to GMS, Apr 4, 1868 and SGO to GMS, Jun 15, 1868, Letters & Endorsements 

Sent to Medical Officers, Sep 1862–Sep 1872, RG112, E7.

59. SFO#65, Dec 7, 1868, George A. Otis to GMS, May 15, 1869, SO#23, Mar 2, 1869, 

and SO#54, Apr 17, 1869, Box 2, Folders 14 and 15, George M. Sternberg Papers, 

1861–1917, MS C100, NLM; GMS to SGO, Mar 31, 1869, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, 

NARA; Gibson, Soldier in White, 39. Captain Leonard Young Loring, born Feb 1, 

1844 in St. Louis, was commissioned on May 14, 1867. Initially assigned to Downer’s Station, Kansas, he arrived at Fort Riley in July 1868. He again became post 

surgeon when GMS departed in May 1870. Loring retired in 1908. Omer, “An Army 

Hospital: From Dragoons to Rough Riders,” 337–367; Post Returns, Fort Riley, 

M617, Roll 1012, NARA.

60. Turner found the fossil skeleton of Elasmosaurus platyurus, a 34.5-feet-long mosasaur, 14 miles north of the fort, and dug it out of the chalk in late Dec 1867. 

Almy, “Thof ’s Dragon,” 184; Otis to GMS, Jul 30 and Nov 24, 1868, Woodward 

to GMS, Aug 6, 1868, Woodward Letterbook, 1868–1869, Otis Archives, NMM; 

Leidy, “Contributions to the Extinct Vertebrate Fauna of the Western Territories,” 

269–291.

61. The “considerable herd of cattle” noted by Levi became the Smoky Hill Dairy, a major butter producer for the area. Over the next five years, Levi became a successful 

farmer and then cattleman, being elected president of the Stock Growers Association of Kansas in 1873. While earning a statewide reputation as an agriculturist, 

he also was appointed pastor of the First Presbyterian Church of Ellsworth and 

was on one of the early boards of regents for Kansas State College. In another year, 

the elder Sternberg’s estate would be valued at $7,500, third largest in the county, 

and Theodore owned an additional $2,000 worth of real estate in his own right. L. 

Sternberg, Story of My Life, 24, 25–26; Dykstra, “Ellsworth: 1869–1875,” 163 and 

Cattle Towns, 309. Although still impressive, Fort Riley was entering the low ebb of 

its existence. When the Kansas Pacific Railroad reached Ellsworth in the summer 

of 1867, the army moved the quartermaster depot from Riley to Fort Harker. With 

it went jobs and civilian optimism that the fort would continue to support the local 

economy. In July 1869, General John M. Schofield, Commander, Department of the 

Missouri, converted Fort Riley into a school of instruction for light artillery, but the 

post’s garrison continued to decline through 1870. Registers, Medical Officers of 

the Regular Army arriving at the SGO, 1848–1889, RG112.
Endnotes xxxv

62. M. Sternberg, GMS, 14, 15, 16–17.

63. M. Sternberg, GMS, 16–17; Dobak, Riley and its Neighbors, 100, 120, 121; Post Returns, Ft. Riley, M617, Roll 1012, NARA.

64. Gibson, Soldier in White, 50.

65. Gibson, Soldier in White, 49. Although GMS had grown up in a home where alcohol was forbidden, it does not appear he was a teetotaler himself or a man who did 

not enjoy a friendly wager every now and again. He and Captain George Armes 

engaged in a horse race while in camp during the summer of 1868. The prize was a 

basket of wine, which Armes declared he would have won had his horse not commenced to bucking just short of the finish line. Armes, Ups and Downs, 271.

66. Gibson, Soldier in White, 41–42, 67–68; M. Sternberg, GMS, 16, 22–24, 38–39.

67. GMS to SGO, May 10, 1869 and Jul 1, 1869, Letters Received, SGO, 1818–1870, Box 

96, RG112, NARA.

68. Hamilton to SGO, Jun 12, 1869, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, NARA.

69. Ibid.

70. M. Sternberg, GMS, 14, 16–18; Gibson, Soldier in White, 45–49. The origin of GMS’ 

interest in photography is unknown, but Mrs. Sternberg mentions it at this time. 

GMS probably used two types of photographic plates, depending on what he had 

access to and could afford. From 1856, dry photographic plates coated with an 

emulsion of collodion gel and iodide was available. In 1864, Bolton and Sayce of 

Liverpool replaced iodide with silver bromide—a faster developer—and by 1867 

these were available in dry form. Gernsheim and Gernsheim, “The Photographic 

Arts: Photography,” 728. Experimentation with photomicrographs began in the 

early 1850s and, by 1856, had been refined enough that John W. Draper illustrated 

his text Human Physiology with original microscopic photographs. Cassedy, “The 

Microscope in American Medical Science,” 89, 90. Woodward and Major Edward 

Curtis pioneered the art of photomicrography in 1864. The description of their 

work in Circular #6, November 1, 1865 and in the second part of the Catalogue of 

the Microscopical Section of the Army Medical Museum were probably read by 

GMS. Henry, AFIP, 36. Bayne-Jones stated GMS made photomicrographs at the 

Army Medical Museum in the late 1860s. This author can find no other sources 

that substantiate or even discuss this event. Bayne-Jones, Evolution of Preventive 

Medicine in the United States Army, 112, 118; GMS, “Researches Relating to the Etiology of Yellow Fever,” 16; Flaumenhaft and Flaumenhaft, “Evolution of America’s 

Pioneer Bacteriologist: George M. Sternberg’s Formative Years,” 449. 

71. For a comparison of the careers of GMS and Woodward, see Gillett, “A Tale of Two 

Surgeons,” 404–414.

72. Hume, Victories of Army Medicine, 58-60; Kober, “General Albert J. Myer and the 

United States Weather Bureau,” 65–82; GMS, “Sterility of the Plains”; Patent Application for an Improved Anemometer, Box 2, Folder 16, George M. Sternberg 

Papers, 1861–1917, MS C100, NLM GMS Papers, NLM; M. Sternberg, GMS, 17; 

Gibson, Soldier in White, 44–45.
xxxvi The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 

73. G. M. Sternberg’s Electro-magnetic Regulator for Dampers and Valves Secured by 

Letters Patent, No. 100, 462, Granted Mar 1, 1870, Ltrs Rec’d by the SGO, 1818–

1870, Box 96, RG112, NARA.

74. Scientific American, Aug 27, 1870.

75. Gibson, Soldier in White, 41, 42, 50; Post History, Fort Harker, RG94; Miles, A History of the National Library of Medicine, 96–97. The American Journal of Medical 

Sciences was received from the SGO Library by the Fort Harker medical library. 

Medical History of Post, Ft Harker, RG94.

76. Collected Papers of Joseph, Baron Lister, v2, 2.

77. Pasteur’s work (1857–1865) established a germ theory of fermentation and destroyed the concept of spontaneous generation. As early as 1864, British surgeons 

were evaluating the relationship of Pasteur’s work on fermentation to postoperative infection. Lister believed the airborne germs that decomposed wine could 

also decompose human flesh in the same manner. At this time, he did not conceive of a specific germ theory of disease, i.e., individual microbes causing individual diseases. Lister’s article, “On a new method of treating compound fracture, 

abscess, etc., with observations on the conditions of suppuration,” appeared in 

the Lancet in the summer of 1867 and had reached Boston, Chicago, and New 

York a few weeks later. American medical journals, such as the Medical Record, 

Chicago Medical Examiner, and the American Journal of Medical Sciences, had 

reprinted or abstracted the article by the time autumn numbers were published. 

Progressive-minded surgeons J. Collins Warren, of Boston, and Faneuil Weisse, 

of New York, visited Glasgow and worked with Lister in 1868. Accounts of their 

experiences were published in U.S. journals in the spring of 1869. Pasteur, “On 

the Organized Bodies Which Exist in the Atmosphere,” 43–48; Geison, Private 

Science of Louis Pasteur, 36; Brieger, “American Surgery and the Germ Theory of 

Disease,” 136, 137; Gariepy, “Introduction and Acceptance of Listerian Antisepsis 

in the United States,” 167, 169, 170, 174; Tomes, “American Attitudes toward the 

Germ Theory,” 21–28; Bulloch, History of Bacteriology, 159, 160, 165–166, 182–

183; Curtis, “On the Cryptogamic Origin of Disease,” 467–471; Letzrich, “Fungus 

as a Cause of Whooping Cough,” 49.

78. GMS, “An Inquiry into the Nature of the Yellow Fever Poison,” 405; Bacterial staining was first performed by Hermann Hoffman of Giesen in 1869 using carmine and 

fuchsin in water. More durable aniline dyes would not come into vogue for another 

year. Oil-immersion lens was developed in the 1880s. Bulloch, History of Bacteriology, 213–214; Clark and Kasten, History of Staining, 91, 92.

79. GMS to Barnes, Mar 6, 1870, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, NARA. Garrison, John Shaw 

Billings, 150–151.
Endnotes xxxvii

Chapter Four

A Career in Medical Science Begins

1. Gillett, AMEDD, 1865–1917, 28; Shryock, American Medical Research, 42–44. The 

Sternbergs occupied one of four sets of officer’s quarters that faced onto the parade 

ground. Each of the two-story frame structures had a basement and attic, containing a total of 16 rooms and a backyard planted with fruit trees and shrubs. M. 

Sternberg, GMS, 20, 21.

2. Duffy, History of Public Health in New York City, 162; Shrady, “Yellow Fever and 

the Vagaries of the Board of Health,” 397–398; NYT, “The Governor’s Island Fever,” 

Sep 21, “Yellow Fever,” Oct 2, and “The Yellow Fever,” Oct 5, 1870. GMS said at the 

time, “I fear yellow fever,” but in 1880 he freely admitted he, Page, and the New York 

Board of Health “supposed they were dealing with a malignant form of malarial fever, until the distinguished Dr. Nott, formerly of Mobile, saw the cases and without 

hesitation made a diagnosis of yellow fever, which it undoubtedly was.” Sternberg, 

GMS, 21, 22; GMS, Letter to the Editor, 486–487.

3. NYT, “Yellow Fever,” Oct 2 and “The Yellow Fever,” Oct 5, 1870; Shrady, “Yellow 

Fever and the Vagaries of the Board of Health,” 397–398; Nott, “On the Natural 

History of Yellow Fever,” 451–453; M. Sternberg, GMS, 22.

4. M. Sternberg, GMS, 22–23.

5. M. Sternberg, GMS, 23.

6. M. Sternberg, GMS, 23–24; Gibson, Soldier in White, 53–54.

7. Duffy, Public Health in New York City, 200–201; Smith, “The New York Quarantine 

Establishment,” 202; Gibson, Soldier in White, 55; Smith, Governor’s Island, 113, 

141; McParlin to Barnes, Oct 2, 1870, PPPMO, Box 373 (McParlin), RG94, NARA.

8. NYT, “The Yellow Fever,” Oct 5, 9, and 11, 1870.

9. Gibson, Soldier in White, 55–56; M. Sternberg, GMS, 24; Smith, Governor’s Island, 

189.

10. M. Sternberg, GMS, 24; Smith, Governor’s Island, 111; SO#86, Apr 26, 1871, SO#110, 

May 26, 1871, and SO#129, Jun 20, 1871, HQ, Dept of the East, PPPMO, Box 551, 

RG94, NARA.

11. Billings, Rpt Barracks and Hospitals, 6–8; M. Sternberg, GMS, 25, 26; Gibson, Soldier in White, 59.

12. Simons to SGO, Sep 1, 1872, PPPMO, Box 524 (Simons), RG94, NARA; M. Sternberg, GMS, 26; SO#129, Jun 20, 1871, HQ Dept of the East, GMS to Adj Gen, Aug 

21, 1872, GMS to Barnes, Aug 31, 1872, and SO#137, Sep 2, 1872, HQ Dept of the 

Gulf, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, NARA; Gibson, Soldier in White, 62; Herrick, “Review of Yellow Fever in New Orleans,” 645–652; Humphreys, Yellow Fever and the 

South, 57; Carrigan, Saffron Scourge, 90; Duffy, History of Medicine in Louisiana, v2, 

459, 460, 461–464.

13. M. Sternberg, GMS, 28, 29; Simons to SGO, 3 Oct 1872, PPPMO, Box 524 (Simons), RG94, NARA; GMS to Barnes, Sep 4, 1872, GMS to Simons, Oct 11, 1872, 
xxxviii The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 

and GMS to Barnes, Oct 31, 1872, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, NARA; Billings, Report 

Hygiene of the United States Army, 115, 116.

14. M. Sternberg, GMS, 29.

15. Ibid.

16. M. Sternberg, GMS, 30; Eales, Army Wives on the American Frontier, 65; GMS, “An 

Inquiry into the Yellow Fever Poison,” 398.

17. GMS, “An Inquiry into the Yellow Fever Poison,” 398.

18. Ibid., 399.

19. Ibid., 403.

20. Ibid., 406.

21. Ibid., 406.

22. Surgeon Harvey Brown disagreed with GMS’s assessment that a port of entry could 

not be determined. He stated the disease “was undoubtedly due to the arrival...

of vessels which...had evaded the New York quarantine by entering at Perth Amboy, New Jersey, and coming thence to New York. The tide in the channel between 

the island and Brooklyn is such that articles thrown overboard from these ships 

would readily be carried to the island.” Brown, Report on Quarantine, 14. Dr. Carnochan, Health Officer for New York City, stated in the New York Times a number 

of ships infected with yellow fever arrived from August through September. NYT, 

“The Quarantine Troubles,” Aug 17, “Quarantine Affairs,” Sep 15, “Yellow Fever at 

Quarantine,” Sep 28, and “The Yellow Fever,” Oct 5, 1870.

23. GMS, “An Inquiry into the Yellow Fever Poison,” 399.

24. Ibid., 403, 404.

25. Ibid., 403–405.

26. Ibid., 406.

27. Reilly, “Yellow-Fever Epidemic of 1873,” 225.

28. Ibid.

29. GMS, “Yellow Fever in Pensacola, Fla., in 1873, 1874, and 1875,” n.1, 473, 474; 

Sternberg, GMS, 32. The urine of yellow fever patients will contain a small amount 

of albumin early in the infection and increase by days 4 and 5. During Sternberg’s 

era, a diagnostic precipitation test, either by boiling the urine or using nitric acid, 

was employed on days 2 or 3 of the infection. Brown, Medical Diagnosis, 207. 

30. Reilly, “Yellow-Fever Epidemic 1873,” 210, 215; ARSG 1874, 12; Herrick, “Review 

Yellow Fever in New Orleans,” 647; M. Sternberg, GMS, 33; GMS, “Yellow Fever in 

Pensacola,” 473.

31. GMS, “Yellow Fever in Pensacola,” 474.

32. GMS, “Yellow Fever in Pensacola,” 474–476; John Milton Brannon, 218 ACP, 1881, 

Letters Received by the Appointment, Commission, and Personnel Branch, AGO, 

1871–1894, RG94, NARA.
Endnotes xxxix

33. Petition of Grievances, 1874, George M. Sternberg Papers, MS C100, Box 2, Folder 

9, NLM; SGO to Sec of War, Apr 2, 1869 and War Dept Paymaster Gen to SGO, Mar 

31, 1869, M1064, Roll 446, NARA.

34. James Herron, “Yellow Fever at Pensacola in 1874,” Annual Report, Supervising Surgeon-General of the Marine Hospital Service of the United States for the Fiscal Year 

1874 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1874), 195–196.

35. Tryon, “Epidemic of Yellow Fever at the Navy-Yard, 454; Hamersly, Records of Living Officers of the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps, 446–447; General Navy Records, 

RG45; NARA; GMS, “Yellow Fever in Pensacola,” 476; M. Sternberg, GMS, 33, 34.

36. GMS, “Yellow Fever in Pensacola,” 476; ARSG 1875, 6.

37. Ibid., 477.

38. Gibson, Soldier in White, 66.

39. Woolsey to Sec Nav, Sep 12, 1874, Letters from Commandants, v235, General Records, Navy, E34, RG45, NARA. Why the mail from Florida was not fumigated is 

not mentioned. Since 1822, New Orleans had been fumigating mail during epidemics. This practice consisted of punching small holes in pieces of mail with a 

special mallet of nails and then exposing it to dilute fumes of sulfuric or carbolic 

acid gas in an enclosed railroad car. Meyer, Disinfected Mail, 311–320.

40. SO#99, Oct 2, 1873, General and Special Orders, Fort Barrancas, Box 13, Records 

US Army Continental Command, RG393, NARA; Tryon, “Epidemic of Yellow Fever at the Navy-Yard,” 454; Woolsey to Sec Nav, Sep 18, 1874, Letters from Commandants, v235, E34, RG45, NARA.

41. Tryon, “Epidemic of Yellow Fever at the Navy-Yard,” 454–456.

42. Gibson, Soldier in White, 67.

43. Ibid., 68.

44. Correspondence, Sept-Oct, 1874, Letters from Commandants, v235, RG45, Gen 

Records, Navy, E34.

45. GMS, “Yellow Fever in Pensacola,” 476, 478.

46. M. Sternberg, GMS, 34–35.

47. Herron, “Yellow Fever at Pensacola in 1874,” 199; GMS, “An Inquiry into the Modus 

Operandi,” 1–23, Billings, Report, Hygiene of the United States Army, Circular #8, 

118.

48. Sternberg surmised from the location of the mound, the workmanship and decoration of the pots, and the iron nails he found that Natchez Indians had inhabited 

the area by during the time of DeSoto’s exploration of Florida. His discovery was a 

small one, but proved to be significant enough to be reported to the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1879. M. Sternberg, GMS, 35, 36–38; 

GMS to SGO, Dec 7, 1874, PPPMO, Box 551, NARA; SO#22, Ft. Barrancas, Apr 

27, 1875, General and Special Orders, Fort Barrancas, Box 13, Records US Army 

Continental Command, RG393, NARA. 

49. GMS, “Yellow Fever in Pensacola,” 469–478; List of Members of the APHA, Appendix, PHRP, v5, 254.
xl The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 

50. GMS, “An Inquiry into the Modus Operandi of the Yellow Fever Poison,” 1.

51. Ibid.

52. Ibid., 2.

53. Ibid., 3–11.

54. Ibid., 7.

55. GMS, “An Inquiry into the Modus Operandi of the Yellow Fever Poison,” 9, 11–23. 

Fungi continued to hold center stage as the most acceptable life form to support 

the germ theory of disease. Barnhard, “Germ Theory of Disease and its Relations to 

Hygiene,” 71. 

56. GMS, “Yellow Fever in Pensacola,” 479; Cooper to Sec Nav, Jul 6, 1875, Letters from 

Commandants, v245, General Records, Navy, E34, RG45, NARA; Herron, “Yellow 

Fever at Barrancas,” 139.

57. GMS, “Yellow Fever in Pensacola,” 480; Herron, “Yellow Fever at Barrancas,” 141.

58. GMS, “Yellow Fever in Pensacola,” 480, 481, 484; Cooper to Sec Nav, Jul 22, 1875 Letters from Commandants, v245, General Records, Navy, E34, RG45, NARA; SO#47, 

Jul 22, 1875, SO#48, Jul 26, 1875, General Orders, Fort Barrancas, FL, RG393, Box 

13, NARA; GMS, “Study of the Natural History of Yellow Fever,” 638–674. 

59. M. Sternberg, GMS, 38.

60. Ibid.

61. Apparently, GMS had discussed Martha’s leaving with his commander earlier and 

he readily agreed. It is interesting that Brannan, experienced as he was with the 

disease, did not put his own wife in that wagon. He may have considered the effect 

of such action very demoralizing to the other wives, but the decision would soon 

come back to haunt him. M. Sternberg, GMS, 38, 39.

62. M. Sternberg, GMS, 39.

63. Beale to Cooper, Jul 23, 1875, Letters from Commandants, v245, RG45, Navy Records, NARA.

64. Cooper to Beale, Jul 23, 1875, Letters from Commandants, v245, RG45, Navy Records, NARA.

65. Cooper to Beale, 1:15 PM, Jul 26, 1875, Letters from Commandants, v245, RG45, 

Navy Records, NARA.

66. Cooper to Beale, 2:35 PM, Jul 26, 1875, Letters from Commandants, v245, RG45, 

Navy Records, NARA.

67. GMS, “Yellow Fever in Pensacola,” 481, 482; Herron, “Yellow Fever at Barrancas,” 

146; PPPMO, Boxes 264 (Herron), 504 (Salomon), 379 (Mandeville), RG94, NARA; 

Billings, Report Hygiene of the United States Army, Circular #8, 116; GMS, “Study of 

the Natural History of Yellow Fever,” 671.

68. GMS, “Study of the Natural History of Yellow Fever,” 667.
Endnotes xli

69. GMS, “Study of the Natural History of Yellow Fever,” 667–668 and “Yellow Fever 

in Pensacola,” 481–483; Faget, “Type and Specific Character of True Yellow Fever,” 

157–160. For the standard therapeutics used in yellow fever, see Wood, Treatise of 

Medicine, v1, 331–337, and Reynolds, System of Medicine, v1, 674–676.

70. M. Sternberg, GMS, 39–40.

71. Surgeon General Barnes wired Brannan to do everything in his power to see Sternberg through this crisis and sent Assistant Surgeon Harvey E. Brown, post surgeon 

at Fort Jefferson, Key West to Barrancas to assume post surgeon duties. By the time 

Brown arrived on August 5, Sternberg was recovering and the epidemic was in its 

final stages. GMS, “A Study of the Natural History of Yellow Fever,” 667 and “Yellow 

Fever in Pensacola,” 483; Herron, “Yellow Fever at Barrancas,” 139–140; M. Sternberg, GMS, 39; RG94, PPMO, Box 75 (H. E. Brown), NARA; SO#53, HQ Fort Barrancas, Aug 16, 1875, RG393, Box 13, General and Special Orders, Fort Barrancas, 

NARA; Gibson, Soldier in White, 77.

72. GMS, “Yellow Fever in Pensacola,” 483.

73. GMS, “A Study of the Natural History of Yellow Fever,” 667; “Yellow Fever in Pensacola,” 483.

74. Mrs. Sternberg’s parting from the brave, kindly old woman was somewhat bittersweet. For a month, she had provided shelter and comfort “even as my own mother 

would have done.” The trip to Pensacola was not without its difficulties, however. 

A severe rainstorm required a night in a logger’s camp, and once they were on 

the way again, a lone horseman hailed them. When the rider inquired if she were 

Mrs. Sternberg, her heart sank in fear of more bad news. He assured her that was 

not the case, and that he had been sent from Pensacola by Dr. Herron’s mother to 

meet them. At the request of her son and Sternberg, she had made arrangements 

for Martha’s travel and hoped that Martha would stop by for a rest and some tea 

before departing. Martha consented and the party continued on to Pensacola. M. 

Sternberg, GMS, 40, 41; SO#54, HQ Fort Barrancas, Aug 16, 1875, RG393, Box 13, 

General and Special Orders, Fort Barrancas, NARA; GMS to SGO, Aug 31, 1875, 

PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, NARA.

Chapter Five

Return to the Field

1. Theodore Sternberg, who had resumed his law practice in St. Louis once his father 

and younger brothers had firm control of the farm, most likely assisted with their 

rendezvous. M. Sternberg, GMS, 42; SGO to GMS, Aug 31, 1875, PPPMO, Box 

551, RG94, NARA. Butter and milk from the Smoky Hill were of superior quality 

and highly prized in the area. Levi had expanded the ranch by another 280 acres 

and built a herd of cattle that provided one or two car-loads of steers for market 

each year. Already recognized as a leader among the agriculturists and dairymen of 

the county, Levi had been elected president of the Cattleman’s Association in 1873. 
xlii The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 

His desire to remain active in higher education was well received at the Kansas 

State Agricultural College in Manhattan where he was appointed chairman of the 

examining committee and a few years later was elected to that institution’s board of 

regents. L. Sternberg, Story of My Life, 24–27.

2. M. Sternberg, GMS, 42.

3. SGO to Adj Gen, Sept 26, 1875, SGO to Adj Gen, Oct 7, 1875, GMS to SGO, Nov 5, 

1875, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, NARA; ACP files (Brannan), NARA; GMS, “Yellow 

Fever in Pensacola,” 484–485; Abstract of Minutes, Meetings of the APHA, Apr 18, 

1872–Nov 12, 1875, PHRP, v2, 551. 

4. M. Sternberg, GMS, 42–43, 45; GMS to SGO, Dec 24, 1875, PPPMO, Box 551, 

RG94, NARA. 

5. M. Sternberg, GMS, 45; GMS to SGO, Nov 30, 1875, Jan 31, Feb 29, and Mar 31, 

1876, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, NARA.

6. M. Sternberg, GMS, 46–47; GMS to SGO, May 16, 1876, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, 

NARA.

7. M. Sternberg, GMS, 46–47.

8. GMS to SGO, May 31, 1876, and GMS to SGO, Jun 8, 1876, PPPMO, Box 551, 

RG94, NARA; Utley, “Oliver Otis Howard,” 55–64.

9. GMS to SGO, Aug 31, 1876, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, NARA; M. Sternberg, GMS, 

47–48; Utley, Frontier Regulars, 258–260; Connell, Son of the Morning Star, 383.

10. Old Joseph claimed the Wallowa country, bounded essentially by the Snake River 

on the east, the Grand Ronde River on the west, and the Wallowa Mountains to the 

south and southwest, for the Nez Percé from that moment forward. The other chiefs 

claimed ownership of land extending northeast of this region into the Idaho Territory. Beal, I Will Fight No More Forever, 14–18, 24–26, 29–30, 33–37; Hampton, 

Children of Grace, 19–21, 28; McWhorter, Hear Me My Chiefs, 94, 97, 102, 107–108, 

132, 135. 

11. Utley, “O. O. Howard,” 59–60; Josephy, The Nez Perce Indians, 473–474, 475, 477; 

Birtle, U. S. Counterinsurgency and Contingency Operations Doctrine, 79.

12. GMS to SGO, Aug 31, 1876, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, NARA; M. Sternberg, GMS, 

48; Billings, Report on Hygiene, Circular #8, 490–491; Hart, Tour Guide to Old Western Forts, 190–191; Medical History of Posts, Ft Walla Walla, v797, RG94; Post 

Returns, Ft Walla Walla, M617, Roll 1344, NARA.

13. Weigley, United States Army, 271; Medical History of Posts, Ft Walla Walla, v797, 

RG94.

14. M. Sternberg, GMS, 49.

15. M. Sternberg, GMS, 49–52; C. Sternberg, Life of a Fossil Hunter, 171.

16. M. Sternberg, GMS, 51.

17. Ibid., 52.

18. M. Sternberg, GMS, 51–52; GMS to SGO, Dec 15, 1878, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, 

NARA.
Endnotes xliii

19. Josephy, Nez Perce Indians, 484, 486–494; Beal, I Will Fight No More, 37–38, 40. Mrs. 

Sternberg and a number of other ladies of the garrison attended the meeting, and 

were impressed by Ollikot’s tall, handsome, graceful presence and frank diplomatic 

manner. M. Sternberg, GMS, 54–55; Hampton, Children of Grace, 49–50.

20. Hampton, Children of Grace, 52–55; Josephy, Nez Perce Indians, 497, 500–505; Beal, 

I Will Fight No More, 40–42.

21. Beal, I Will Fight No More, 49–51, 55–56; ARSW 1877, v1, 601–602; Howard, My 

Life and Experiences, 287; Howard, Saga of Chief Joseph, 151, 153; Hampton, Children of Grace, 57, 60, 69–70, 81; Brown, Flight of the Nez Perce, 71–80, 131–133. 

22. Josephy, Nez Perce Indians, 518, 524–525; Howard to Wood, Jun 18, 1877, Bailey to 

Adj, 19 Jun 1877 (#978 and #979), Kress to Wood, Jun 20, 1877, Ltrs Rec’d, Dept of 

the Columbia, RG393, E715; Howard, Saga of Chief Joseph, 154.

23. Post Returns, Ft Lapwai, Roll 594, and Ft Walla Walla, Roll 1344, M617, NARA; 

Gibson, Soldier in White, 95; Jocelyn, Mostly Alkalai, 223–224; Howard, My Life 

and Experiences, 286–287; M. Sternberg, GMS, 58; Howard to Grover, Jun 19, 1877, 

Grover to Adj Gen, Jun 19, 1877, Ltrs Rec’d, Dept of the Columbia, RG393, NARA; 

Laufe, ed., An Army Doctor’s Wife, 254, 257, 259.

24. Sternberg’s surgical kit, including ether anesthesia, had not changed significantly 

since the Civil War. However, his dressing technique now included carbolic acid 

solutions. While carbolic acid was a well-known disinfectant and carbolated oil and 

ointments had been used on wounds in the Army as early as 1868, Baron Joseph 

Lister’s participation in the International Medical Congress at Philadelphia in June 

1876 did a great deal to stimulate interest in, and acceptance of, his antiseptic method in the United States. In 1877, Captain and Assistant Surgeon Alfred C. Girard 

reported on the success German army surgeons were experiencing with Lister’s 

method. He was greatly impressed with this system of wound care. He noted in his 

report to the Surgeon General that, with the exception of the antiseptic gauze, all of 

the equipment and materials used by Lister were available in the army supply table. 

Girard, “Report on the materials used in Lister’s system,” 4–12; M. Sternberg, GMS, 

58–59; Gibson, Soldier in White, 95; ARSW 1877, 602; Brown, Flight of the Nez 

Perce, 144–145; Jocelyn, Mostly Alkalai, 224; Farrow, “Assembling of the Soldiers 

and the Battle of Clearwater,” 151.

25. Gibson, Soldier in White, 95.

26. ARSW 1877, 602; Brown, Flight of the Nez Perce, 144–145; Jocelyn, Mostly Alkalai, 

224.

27. Farrow, “The Assembling of the Soldiers and the Battle of Clearwater,” 152–153; 

Jocelyn, Mostly Alkalai, 224–227; Muster Rolls, Co E, 4th Artillery, Box 1321, and 

Co H, 21st Infantry, Box, 625, RG94, NARA; Howard, My Life and Experiences, 

287; Bancroft to Wood, Jun 19, 1877, Burton to Wood, Jun 20, 1877, Throckmorton 

to Wood, Jun 20, 1877, and Grover to Wood, Jun 20, 1877, Ltrs Rec’d, Dept of the 

Columbia, Box 43, E715, RG393, NARA; Hampton, Children of Grace, 84; Parnell, 

“The Salmon River Expedition,” 127; ARSW 1877, 602; Gibson, Soldier in White, 97.

28. Hampton, Children of Grace, 87–88; ARSW 1877, 602; Brown, Flight of the Nez 

Perce, 158–159; Jocelyn, Mostly Alkalai, 227–228; Gibson, Soldier in White, 96.
xliv The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 

29. Gibson, Soldier in White, 97; Parnell, “The Salmon River Expedition,” 128; Hampton, Children of Grace, 90–91; ARSW 1877, 603.

30. Gibson, Soldier in White, 97.

31. Farrow, “Assembling of Soldiers and the Battle of Clearwater,” 154; Hampton, Children of Grace, 91; ARSW 1877, 603; Hall to SGO, Jul 31, 1877, PPMO, Box 240 

(Hall), RG94, NARA; Jocelyn, Mostly Alkalai, 228, 229; Brown, Flight of the Nez 

Perce, 160–161, 166.

32. Parnell, “The Salmon River Expedition,” 128; Gibson, Soldier in White, 97; Brown, 

Flight of the Nez Perce, 173; Hampton, Children of Grace, 96.

33. Hampton, Children of Grace, 96; Gibson, Soldier in White, 96.

34. Parnell, “The Salmon River Expedition,” 129.

35. Gibson, Soldier in White, 98.

36. Parnell, “The Salmon River Expedition,” 129; Hampton, Children of Grace, 96.

37. ARSW 1877, 603–604; Gibson, Soldier in White, 98. Medical duties remained few, 

and GMS entertained himself productively by fishing, which made an “agreeable 

change in our [his and tent mate Captain Miller’s] bill of fare.” Gibson, Soldier in 

White, 98.

38. Captain Marcus Miller prepared a statement of the incident. Were it not for the 

tragedy of the event, Miller’s concise summation would be rather amusing. Miller 

asked, “who shot the sentinel? Lt. Paddock came to my tent & said, ‘I shot him, 

Colonel, I thought he was an Indian, he had a blanket about him.’ I [Miller] said 

to him ‘that is because you are a young Officer, don’t you know better than that, 

no Indian would appear that way.’ Did you challenge him? He answered, ‘No, Sir.’ I 

saw that he felt as badly as anyone would feel about it and that it was an accident. 

I heard in the morning that the Officer was a somnambulist & gave orders to his 

Captain (Morris, who tented with him) to see that Lt. Paddock had no musket with 

him hereafter at night.... No further action was taken by me with the [exception] 

to recommend to send the Officer to the rear.” Miller to Wood, Jul 26, 1877, Ltrs 

Rec’d, Dept of the Columbia, Box 43, E715, RG393; Brown, Flight of the Nez Perce, 

174–175. 

39. McWhorter, Hear Me My Chiefs, 294–297; ARSW 1877, 604; Hampton, Children of 

Grace, 107–108. 

40. Hampton, Children of Grace, 109–111; ARSW 1877, 604; McWhorter, Hear Me My 

Chiefs, 297, 299, 301; Beal, I Will Fight No More, 73; Jocelyn, Mostly Alkalai, 232.

41. McWhorter, Hear Me My Chiefs, 305; Trimble, “Battle of the Clearwater,” 144–145; 

Farrow, “Assembling of the Soldiers and the Battle of Clearwater,” 159; Parnell, “The 

Salmon River Expedition,” 131; Jocelyn, Mostly Alkalai, 232, 237; ARSW 1877, 605; 

Post Returns, Fort Lapwai, Roll 594, and Fort Vancouver, Roll 1317, M617, NARA; 

McWhorter, Hear Me My Chiefs, 305; Brown, Flight of the Nez Perce, 188; Gibson, 

Soldier in White, 99.

42. Gibson, Soldier in White, 100–101; M. Sternberg, GMS, 60, 61.

43. Greenleaf to SGO, Jun 24, 1890.
Endnotes xlv

44. SGO to Adj Gen, Jan 15, 1891, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, NARA; Farrow, “Assembling of the Soldiers and the Battle of Clearwater,” 159; Gibson, Soldier in White, 

100–101; M. Sternberg, GMS, 60–61.

45. Farrow, “Assembling of the Soldiers and the Battle of Clearwater,” 159–160; ARSW 

1877, 605; Trimble, “Battle of the Clearwater,” 145, 146–147; Jocelyn, Mostly Alkalai, 233. 

46. Later at Ft Lapwai, GMS bought 4 or 5 ceremonial garments for $10 to $25 apiece. 

Laufe, Army Doctors Wife, 290; Post Returns, Ft Lapwai, Jul 1877, Roll 594 and Ft 

Vancouver, Aug-Sep, 1877, Roll 1317, M617, NARA; Muster Rolls, H troop, Jun–

Aug 1877, Box 869 and L Troop, Jul–Aug 1877, Box 876, 1st Cavalry, RG94, NARA; 

Jocelyn, Mostly Alkalai, 237; ARSG 1878, 11; ARSW 1877, 606; Hampton, Children 

of Grace, 117; Field Orders #28, Jul 14, 1877, Ltrs pertaining to Chief Joseph & 

Nez Perce Campaign, E721, RG393, NARA; GMS to SGO, Jul 15, 1877, PPPMO, 

Box 551, RG94, NARA; Gibson, Soldier in White, 102. Horse litters were easier on 

the wounded than jostling over rough trails in a wagon, well known to frontier 

surgeons, and Sternberg had employed it during his campaigns in Kansas. Otis, 

Report, Transport of Sick and Wounded, 17; M. Sternberg, GMS, 61–62.

47. M. Sternberg, GMS, 62; ARSW 1877, 606; Jocelyn, Mostly Alkalai, 237; ARSG 1878, 

11, 12.

48. Gibson, Soldier in White, 103.

49. Post Returns, Ft Vancouver, Sep 1877, Roll 1317, M617, NARA.

50. M. Sternberg, GMS, 62; Gibson, Soldier in White, 104.

51. M. Sternberg, GMS, 63; GMS to SGO, Jul 22, 1877, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, NARA; 

Gibson, Soldier in White, 105.

52. M. Sternberg, GMS, 63, 64.

53. Gibson, Soldier in White, 105.

54. Gibson, Soldier in White, 105–106; M. Sternberg, GMS, 63; GMS to SGO, Jul 22, 

1877, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, NARA.

55. M&SHCW, v11, 410.

56. Medical History of Post, Ft Lapwai, Roll 3, 903, NARA; Post Returns, Ft Lapwai, 

Jul 1877, Roll 594, M617, NARA; Thompson, “Summer of ’77 at Fort Lapwai,” 15; 

GMS to SGO, Jul 31, 1877, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, NARA; Laufe, Army Doctor’s 

Wife, 281, 288.

57. Bailey to Wood, Aug 6, 1877, Ltrs Rec’d, Dept of the Columbia, Box 43, RG393, 

NARA; M. Sternberg, GMS, 64, 65; Thompson, “The Summer of ’77 at Fort Lapwai,” 

15; Laufe, Army Doctor’s Wife, 286.

58. M. Sternberg, GMS, 64, 65; Laufe, Army Doctor’s Wife, 288.

59. M. Sternberg, GMS, 64.

60. Ibid., 65.

61. Bailey to Adj Gen, Dept of the Columbia, Aug 6, 1877, SO#114, HQ, Dept of the 

Columbia, Aug 13, 1877, and SO#139, Sep 26, 1877, Ltrs Rec’d, Dept of the Columbia, Box 43, RG393; M&SHCW, v11, n1, 410; Brown, Flight of the Nez Perce, 198. 
xlvi The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 

Chapter Six

Debut on the National Stage

1. Kober, Reminiscences, v1, 41–43, 59–62, 67, 229, 359 and Reminiscences, v2, Part 10, 

23–24, Box 18, MS C115 George M. Kober Papers, NLM.

2. M. Sternberg, GMS, 67. GMS declared he had initiated experiments with disinfectants in 1876, a year ahead of Robert Koch. GMS, “The Value of Carbolic Acid as a 

Germicide as Established by Experimental Data,” Med Rec 22 (Sep 1882):315.

3. GMS to SGO, December 15, 1878, GMS Papers, NARA. At this time, GMS was 

probably using collodion emulsion wet plates in his photographic work. Producing 

photomicrographs was a laborious, time-intensive process that began with a sunny 

day. The microscopic slide was placed on the stage and brought into focus, then the 

heliostat adjusted to direct sunlight onto the slide. In a darkroom, clean glass plates 

were then coated with collodion, a solution of cellulose nitrate in alcohol-ether 

saturated iodine. After the collodion drained off leaving a thin film, the plate was 

dipped in a bath of silver nitrate to form silver iodide crystals, the light-sensitive 

agent that would produce the desired image. The plate was enclosed in a wooden 

photographic plate holder and taken to the photomicrographic equipment. Once in 

place, the plate holder was opened and the exposure made that normally required 

four to five minutes. After exposure, the plate holder was closed and taken to the 

darkroom once again where it could be developed and fixed. This time-consuming, 

exacting, and expensive process could be completely ruined by a number of uncontrollable events, such as a fast-moving cloud that blocked the sun or by the reverberations of a wagon passing by the house that put the object out of focus. Gelatin 

emulsion dry plates, which developed faster than the collodion type, were on the 

market, but were not produced and exported in large quantities by British firms 

until early in 1878. Gernsheim, “The Photographic Arts: Photography,” 728.

4. Brock, Robert Koch, 58–60, 62–63, 68, 322; Woodward Obituary, 250. 

5. Sternberg, GMS, 67, 68, 93; M&SHCW, v11, 410; GMS, “The Value of Carbolic Acid 

as a Germicide,” 315; Brieger, “American Surgery and the Germ Theory of Disease,” 

139; Gariepy, “The Introduction and Acceptance of Listerian Antisepsis,” 177–182; 

Wangensteen and Wangensteen, Rise of Surgery, 512–513. Sternberg may have had 

no more success with the technique in Idaho than German surgeons did during 

the Franco-Prussian War. Lister’s original method was a relatively complex process 

meant to be applied in a hospital setting, and it required specific materials, equipment, and assistance to obtain desired results. For a discussion of the German success with Lister’s method, see Schuppert, “Results of Lister’s Antiseptic Treatment 

of Wounds in German Hospitals,” 613–642.

6. GMS, “A Study of the Natural History of Yellow Fever and Some Remarks upon the 

Treatment Based upon the Same; with Cases and Tables of Observations upon the 

Temperature and Urine,” NOM&S J 5 (Mar 1877):638–674.

7. Bruton, NBH, 64–67, 110; Humphreys, Yellow Fever and the South, 61, 62. For the 

complete history of the yellow fever epidemic of 1878, see Khaled J. Bloom, The 

Mississippi Valley’s Great Yellow Fever Epidemic of 1878 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana 

State University, 1993). 
Endnotes xlvii

8. Duffy, Sanitarians, 95–98, 100, 102; Duffy, History of Medicine in Louisiana, v2, 460; 

Cavins, “National Quarantine and Sanitary Conventions,” 404–426.

9. This strange collection of allies occurred because yellow fever was not as large a 

threat to the northern cities as it was to those in the south, and federal control 

would terminate a profitable system for revenue and graft that lined the pockets 

of northern state and local officials. Humphreys, Yellow Fever and the South, 63; 

Brown, Report on Quarantine, 90; Bruton, NBH, 51–53, 55–60.

10. Bruton, NBH, 115–116, 120–121; Woodworth, “A Brief Review of the Organization 

and Purpose of the Yellow Fever Commission,” 167–168. 

11. Bruton, NBH, 117; Barnes to Sec War, Nov 2, 1878 and Barnes to GMS, Nov 2, 1878, 

PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, NARA.

12. Woodworth found himself in trouble with the executive committee again the following morning when it became known the Yellow Fever Commission’s report 

had been published in New York newspapers against assurances to the contrary. 

Abstract of Discussions and Minutes, 6th Meeting, APHA, PHRP, v4, 352, 354, 

369–370; Ellis, Yellow Fever, 66–67; Bruton, NBH, 121–122. Gibson stated GMS 

was on a special committee on disinfectants, but the minutes of the meeting make 

no reference to such a committee. Gibson, Soldier in White, 112.

13. GMS, “Public Health Association and Yellow Fever,” 45.

14. Ibid.

15. Ibid., 46.

16. Ibid.

17. Bruton, NBH, 135.

18. Bruton, NBH, 166, 169–170; Miles, History NBH, Chap 17, MS C237, v2, 110, NLM.

19. Bruton, NBH, 169–170, 223, 224; Miles, History NBH, Chap 17, 112, 117, 118, 126–

128.

20. Sec War to GMS, Apr 18, 1879, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, NARA; M. Sternberg, 

GMS, 69.

21. GMS, “Preliminary Rpt, Havana Yellow Fever Commission,” 33.

22. Ibid., 33–34.

23. GMS received intensive training in the latest photomicrographic techniques from 

LTC Woodward, who also recommended all of the microscopic equipment used 

in Havana. GMS, “Preliminary Rpt, Havana Yellow Fever Commission,” 34, 64–73; 

Gibson, Soldier in White, 114; Brock, Robert Koch, 31–37.

24. The auxiliary commission was presided over by Dr. Marcelina Astray de Canada 

and included Doctors Feline Rodriguez, Vincente L. Ferrer, Vincente B. Valdez, 

Joaquin Garcia Lebredo, Antonio Pardinas, Casimiro Rome, Raphael Fleitas, Carlos Finlay, Serafin Gallardo, Francisco Zayas, and Emilio N. de Villavicencia. GMS, 

“Preliminary Rpt, Havana Yellow Fever Commission,” 34, 35; Bruton, NBH, 224; 

GMS to Billings, Jul 13, 1879, Billings Gen Correspondence, MS C26, MS Film 25, 

Reel 4, NLM.
xlviii The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 

25. Gibson, Soldier in White, 114. On July 24, the steamer Niagara delivered dogs, cats, 

rabbits, guinea pigs, chickens, pigeons, geese, and a monkey for the proposed experiments on lower animals. GMS exposed these animals to an infected brig, the 

John Welch, for two days, had the dogs sleep on blankets from the bed of a yellow fever patient, and injected the dogs with blood from yellow fever patients and 

culture media. All of these attempts to generate the disease were negative. GMS, 

“Preliminary Rpt, Havana Yellow Fever Commission” 64, 66–70.

26. GMS to Billings, Jul 15 and Aug 29, 1879, Billings Gen Correspondence, MS C26, 

MS Film 25, Reel 4, NLM.

27. GMS to Billings, Jul 15, 1879, Billings Gen Correspondence, MS C26, MS Film 25, 

Reel 4, NLM.

28. GMS, “Preliminary Rpt, Havana Yellow Fever Commission” 66–70; GMS to Billings, Aug 19, 1879, Billings Gen Correspondence, MS C26, MS Film 25, Reel 4, 

NLM. Until Robert Koch perfected the solid culture media technique in 1881 obtaining pure cultures was difficult. Joseph Lister obtained the first pure liquid culture by using a limiting dilution technique. He published his results in 1878, and 

GMS very likely used this method in his experiments in Cuba. Joseph Schroeter 

(1872) successfully used potato, starch paste, bread, and meat to grow pure cultures. Brock, Robert Koch, 94–103; Bulloch, History of Bacteriology, 217–229.

29. GMS to Billings, Aug 29, 1879 and GMS to Billings, Sep 12, 1879, Billings Gen Correspondence, MS C26, MS Film 25, Reel 4, NLM.

30. Gibson, Soldier in White, 116.

31. Ibid., 11.

32. GMS, “Preliminary Rpt, Havana Yellow Fever Commission,” 64.

33. Gibson, Soldier in White, 116.

34. M. Sternberg, GMS, 72.

35. GMS, “Preliminary Rpt, Havana Yellow Fever Commission” 33–73; Miles, History 

NBH, 121.

36. Miles, History NBH, 124–125.

37. Miles, History NBH, 119; M. Sternberg, GMS, 93. Sternberg published his results in 

late 1880; Koch published in April 1881. GMS, “Experiments Designed to Test the 

Value of Certain Gaseous and Volatile Disinfectants,” 320.

38. GMS, “Experiments Designed to Test the Value of Certain Gaseous and Volatile 

Disinfectants,” 318–320; Bulloch, History of Bacteriology, 235; Brock, Robert Koch, 

106–107.

39. GMS, “Microscopical Investigations of the Havana Yellow Fever Commission,” 

1019.

40. GMS, “Microscopical Investigations of the Havana Yellow Fever Commission,” 

1020–1023; NBH to GMS, Feb 4, 1880, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, NARA; GMS, 

“Report of Microscopical Examination of Suspended Particles,” 387–395.
Endnotes xlix

41. GMS lodged at 22 Rampart Street. Sternberg, GMS, 73; GMS, Malaria and Malarial 

Diseases, 69; NBH to GMS, Feb 4, 1880, GMS to SGO, Feb 7 and 29, 1880, PPPMO, 

Box 551, RG94, NARA; GMS, “Experimental Investigations Relating to the Etiology of Malarial Fevers,” 1–10; Miles, History NBH, 119.

42. GMS found a large number of organisms—predominantly pollen, starch granules, 

and crytogram spores—were constantly in the air of Havana and New Orleans, but 

fully developed bacteria were rarely found although their constant presence was 

proved by culture experiments. GMS, “Rpt, Microscopical Examination of Suspended Particles,” 395.

43. GMS, “Rpt, Microscopical Examination of Suspended Particles,” 387.

44. Dr. John Dell’Orto of New Orleans provided GMS with the translation. GMS, “Experimental Investigations Relating to the Etiology of Malarial Fevers,” 65. Neither 

Mrs. Sternberg nor Gibson mentioned the nature of his malady. GMS’s work history supports the notion he may have been suffering from fatigue brought on by 

too many hours in the laboratory and at his desk. Along with the two NBH studies, 

he was also translating Antoine Magnin’s The Bacteria from the French, and had 

just completed and presented a paper to the Louisiana State Medical Society. Once 

recovered he did not immediately return to New Orleans, but obtained leave for 

what he called a summer vacation. GMS to SGO, May 31, Jun 30, and Aug 31, 1880, 

PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, NARA.

45. Bemiss, “Fever on the Lower Coast,” 306; Bruton, NBH, 266–270, 279.

46. Ibid.

47. Carrigan, Saffron Scourge, 132; Gillson, Louisiana State Board of Health, 199–208; 

Ellis, Yellow Fever, 80–81; Humphreys, Yellow Fever and the South, 70–71.

48. GMS, “Report to Dr. Bemiss,” 384.

49. GMS, “Report to Dr. Bemiss,” 385.

50. Bemiss, “Fever on the Lower Coast,” 307; Bruton, NBH, 280–281.

51. GMS, “Report to Dr. Bemiss,” 386; Bruton, NBH, 280–281.

52. Bruns and Davidson, “The Rice Fever,” 391, 392.

53. Bruns and Davidson, “The Rice Fever,” 393, 394–395; GMS, “Letter to the Editor,” 

482–486.

54. Bruns and Davidson, “The Rice Fever,” 394–395.

55. GMS, “Minority Report,” 382–398.

56. Gillson, Louisiana State Board of Health, 213. In late October, Dr. Hays published 

an attack on GMS’s epidemiological assessment in the Picayune to validate his diagnosis of malaria and destroy GMS’s yellow fever hypothesis. Hays’ criticisms were 

poorly constructed and provided GMS with material to strengthen the findings of 

his recent investigations. He pointed out glaring diagnostic inconsistencies and, 

perhaps, outright falsehoods told to him by local physicians who wished to please 

Joseph Jones. GMS, “Letter to the Editor,” 482–487 and “The Diagnosis of Yellow 

Fever,” 601–602.
l The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 

57. Gillson, Louisiana State Board of Health, 214.

58. GMS, “Experimental Investigations Relating to the Etiology of Malarial Fevers,” 84.

59. Ibid., 5.

60. GMS, “Yellow Fever and Quarantine,” 353.

61. Ibid., 354.

62. Ibid., 355.

63. Ibid., 356–357.

64. Book reviews, Med Rec 19 (12 Mar 1881), 298, and Am Jour Med Sci 81 (Apr 1881), 

496–497. Antoine Magnin wrote Les Bactéries in a competition for a professorship. 

Flaumenhaft, “Evolution of America’s Pioneer Bacteriologist,” 456, n20.

65. Sanitary Congresses were held in Paris, 1851 and 1859, Constantinople, 1866, and 

Vienna, 1874. Although the Department of State had authorized U.S. delegates to 

act as plenipotentiaries for the government, foreign delegates did not feel so empowered nor did they care to extend such privileges to consuls in their home ports. 

The U.S. proposal was not passed. Howard-Jones, Scientific Basis of the Sanitary 

Conferences, 12, 17, 23, 35, 43, 45. GMS’s 1879 blood photomicrographs inspired 

Finlay’s theory. Finlay, “The Mosquito Hypothetically Considered as the Agent of 

Transmission of Yellow Fever,” 590–591, 606–607.

66. Howard-Jones, Scientific Basis of the Sanitary Conferences, 45.

67. The Sternbergs moved to 134 W. Madison Street in the Mount Vernon area of Baltimore. GMS to SGO, Feb 28, 1881, Mar 31, 1881, and GMS to Turner, Jul 26, 

1881, PPPMO, Box 551, NARA; GMS, “A fatal form of septicaemia in the rabbit,” 

781–783; Pasteur, “Sur une maladie nouvelle provoquee par la salive d’un enfant 

mort de rage,” 159. Klebs probably visualized S. pneumoniae in lung tissue preparations as early as 1875, as did Koch and Eberth prior to its recovery and culture in 

the laboratory. Austrian, Life with the Pneumococcus, 183–189. Dr. H. Newell Martin (1848–1896) taught physiology and conducted physiological research at Johns 

Hopkins from 1879–1891. Fye, “H. Newell Martin – A Remarkable Career destroyed by Neurasthenia and Alcoholism,” 133–166; Gossel, “Institutional Growth 

and the Fate of Bacteriology at Johns Hopkins,” 7; Chesney and Howell, The Johns 

Hopkins Hospital and the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, v1, 77–78. 

68. GMS, “A fatal form of septicaemia,” 781–783; GMS, “Etiology of Croupous Pneumonia – Parts 1 & 2,” 309–312.

69. M. Sternberg, GMS, 76, 77. C. J. Davaine (1872) injected putrid blood into rabbits 

and produced a disease he termed septicaemia. He found serial passage of blood 

from one rabbit to the next increased its virulence, and the lethal dose depended on 

species and animal size. Robert Koch (1878) published the Aetiology of Traumatic 

Infective Diseases in which he described six different diseases from the injection of 

putrid fluids. Others engaged in similar investigations include Edwin Klebs (1871), 

Vulpian (1872), Clementi and Thin (1873), U. Dreyer (1874), and Feltz (1874). 

Bulloch, History of Bacteriology, 142–148.

70. M. Sternberg, GMS, 78–79.
Endnotes li

71. Ibid., 81.

72. Ibid., 82.

73. Ibid., 83, 84. 

74. Interestingly enough, neither Pasteur nor Sternberg were the first to see, culture, or 

describe the organism. Klebs cultured it in 1875, but gave it no significance. Eberth 

described it in 1880, but thought it was a variety of pyemia producing micrococci. 

In the same year, Matray found the micrococcus in normal and pneumonic sputum 

samples and named it Pneummoniekokken. Not until Carl Friedlander and Charles 

Talamon (1883) and Albert Fraenkel (1886) linked the organism to the production 

of lobar pneumonia would these previous investigations be recognized as illuminating. White, The Biology of Pneumococcus, 237; Garrison, History of Medicine, 

582.

Chapter Seven

Exiled to California

1. Sanderson received his M.D. at Edinburgh. He began research work on infectious 

diseases for the medical department of the Privy Council, and, at the time of his 

communication with Martin, was professor of physiology at Oxford. Bulloch, History of Bacteriology, 395. Some of the non-gaseous disinfectants tested were iodine, 

chromic acid, ferric and cupric sulfates, thymol, caustic soda, and nitric, sulfuric, 

and hydrochloric acids. GMS, “Experiments with Disinfectants,” 210–211, “An Instructive Experiment,” 139, “A Contribution to the Study of the Bacterial Organisms Commonly Found upon Exposed Mucous Surfaces and in the Alimentary 

Canal of Healthy Individuals,” 157–181, “The Micrococcus of Gonorrhoeal Pus,” 

67–70, 96–99, 323–325, Bacteria, 293, 302–303, and “Bacillus Anthracis,” 149.

2. GMS, “A Contribution to the Study of the Bacterial Organisms Commonly Found 

upon Exposed Mucous Surfaces and in the Alimentary Canal of Healthy Individuals,” 157–181; GMS, Bacteria, 175.

3. GMS, Bacteria, 175; GMS, Manual of Bacteriology, 245, 246. 

4. This phenomenon was first proposed by John Muellendorf in his doctoral dissertation presented in Dresden in 1879. Cohn, Klebs, Koch, Weigert, Baumgarten, 

Sternberg, and presumably others were familiar with it, but none of them pursued 

it experimentally. In the autumn of 1883, Elie Metchnikoff, a Russian zoologist, put 

forth the theory of phagocytosis—the basis for understanding of cellular immunity—and his studies were published the following year. Bulloch, History of Bacteriology, 259; Bibel, “Sternberg, Metchnikoff, and the Phagocytes,” 550–553; GMS, 

“The Metchnikoff Theory,” 1, 1779–1780; Metchnikoff, Life of Elie Metchnikoff, 115, 

19–122; Tauber and Chernyak, Metchnikoff and the Origins of Immunology, 106–

107, 164–165.

5. GMS, “Experiments to Determine the Germicide Value of Certain Therapeutic 

Agents,” 323, and Manual of Bacteriology, 63–65.
lii The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 

6. Miles, NBH, Chap 17, MS C237, v2, 40–43; Dunnington, “A Sketch of Dr. John 

William Mallet,” 187; GMS to Turner, Jul 19 and 26, 1881, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, 

NARA.

7. GMS to Turner, Jul 19, 1881, GMS to Turner, Jul 26, 1881, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, 

NARA.

8. Cabell to GMS, Jul 17, 1881, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, NARA.

9. GMS to Adj Gen, Jul 17, 1881, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, NARA.

10. Cabell to GMS and GMS to Cabell, Jul 19, 1881, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, NARA.

11. GMS to Cabell, Jul 19, 1881, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, NARA.

12. GMS to Turner, Jul 26, 1881, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, NARA.

13. GMS to Crane, Jul 26, 1881, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, NARA.

14. GMS to Crane, Jul 31, 1881, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, NARA.

15. Crane to GMS, Aug 2, 1881, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, NARA.

16. AGO to Barnes, Aug 6, 1881, SO#182, AGO, Aug 10, 1881, and SO#148, HQ, Div 

of the Pacific & Dept of California, Sep 1, 1881, Box 2, Folder 9, MS C100, George 

M. Sternberg Papers, 1861-1917, NLM. Fort Mason was known as Fort Point San 

Jose when GMS arrived. For the purposes of clarity, Fort Mason will be used to 

designate this post. 

17. Mrs. Sternberg preferred not to mention it, presumably from the embarrassment it 

caused, and likely too because it cast her husband in less than a heroic light. Gibson 

did not allude to it either, and Wyndham Miles, who reviewed NBH records in the 

National Archives at length, only stated that he could find no reason for Sternberg’s 

abrupt departure. GMS to Crane and GMS to Turner, Jul 26, 1881, PPPMO, Box 

551, RG94, NARA.

18. M. Sternberg, GMS, 87.

19. Crane to GMS, Aug 10, 1881, Box 1, Folder 17, MS C100, George M. Sternberg 

Papers, 1861–1917, NLM.

20. M. Sternberg, GMS, 87.

21. GMS asked for a Keith’s heliostat, Woodward’s governor, actinic condensing lens, 

blue cell and holder with six diaphragms, diaphragm footplate, and a storage box 

for photomicrographic work totaling $115.25. Woodward to GMS, Nov 2, 1881, 

Woodward Correspondence, Curatorial Record Book, Otis Archives, NMM. 

Woodward was never convinced bacteria were linked to disease causation, and he 

mockingly called those who did “bacteriafanatics”; however, he and GMS shared a 

passion for photomicrography that appears to have transcended Woodward’s disregard for bacteriologists. Henry, AFIP, 66, 67; M&SHWR, Part 2, v1, 370, 374, 595. 

See also Mary C. Gillett, “A Tale of Two Surgeons.”

22. GMS presented “Bacteria and the Germ Theory of Disease” to the State Medical Society of California, described research with the micrococcus to the local San Francisco Medical Society, and the continued professional response to his work on septicemia in rabbits generated editorials and another paper. Other scientists, such as 
Endnotes liii

William Henry Welch at the Bellevue Medical School, and later at Johns Hopkins, 

and T. Mitchell Prudden at the College of Physicians and Surgeons of New York, 

would establish laboratories that pursued similar investigations before the close of 

the decade. SO#9, Jan 16, 1882, SO#140, Aug 11, 1882, SO#29, Mar 28, 1883, HQ, 

Div of the Pacific, Jan 16, 1882, GMS to SGO, Jan 31, 1882, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, 

NARA; GMS, “Bacteria and the Germ Theory of Disease,” 193–198; Photomicrographs and How to Make Them, 20–21, 92–96; “Poisonous Effects of Saliva,” 53; 

“Virulence of Human Saliva,” 332–334; “Induced Septicemia in the Rabbit,” 69–76; 

and “Is Tuberculosis a Parasitic Disease?,” Med News 41 (Jul 1, 1882), 6; Sternberg, 

GMS, 73, 94; Lightman, Victorian Science in Context, 391–393; Read and Mathes, 

History of the San Francisco Medical Society, v1, 81.

23. Mettler, History of Medicine, 645–646.

24. GMS, “The Micrococcus of Gonorrhoeal Pus,” 67–70. Joseph Oakland Hirschfelder 

(1854–1920) initiated his medical studies at the Medical College of the Pacific in 

1870. In 1872, he began a five-year medical sojourn in Germany. He completed his 

degree and was the first foreigner to sit for the German state examinations that he 

passed with honors. “Obituary, Dr. J. O. Hirschfelder,” 137–138.

25. GMS, “The Micrococcus of Gonorrhoeal Pus,” 69.

26. Jonsen, Short History of Medical Ethics, 89.

27. GMS, “The Micrococcus of Gonorrhoeal Pus,” and “Further Experiments with the 

Micrococcus of Gonorrheal Pus – ‘Gonococcus’ of Neisser,” 426–429.

28. His comments should not be considered an excuse for experimental failure. While 

GMS was a superb laboratory technician, he was also feeling his way in the dark 

abyss of a new field of science searching for facts that would illuminate his path. 

Since he did not find the gonococcus using a simple lab procedure and failed to 

produce the disease in volunteer subjects, his original diagnosis of the soldier at Ft 

Mason may have been wrong. Non-gonococcal urethritis (NGU), what was then 

known as non-specific urethritis, is extremely common today, but was considered a 

rare event by GMS. A more scientifically plausible explanation is that he was indeed 

working with the highly infectious gonococcus, but his culturing or inoculation 

techniques, and perhaps both, probably stymied his efforts. To obtain a pure culture 

for inoculation, he passed the organism through a series of cultures that reduced 

the virulence of the organism. Furthermore, his inoculation technique—inserting a 

cotton swab soaked with infected culture fluid into the distal urethra and allowing 

it to remain for one to two hours—may not have penetrated deep enough to reach 

the non-cornified epithelial cell layer of the urethra vulnerable to gonococcal invasion. Lastly, if his volunteers urinated within the first four to six hours after inoculation, they very possibly flushed out the inoculum. The two most common causes 

of NGU, Chlamydia trachomatis and Ureaplasma urealyticum, can cause urethral 

discharge and painful urination in males just as gonorrhea does, but GMS would 

never have seen either of these small intracellular organisms with the microscopes 

and staining techniques of his day. Hook and Handsfield, “Gonococcal Infections 

in the Adult,” 149, 152–153, 157; Evans and Brachman, Bacterial Infections of Humans, 2d, 265.

29. Koch, “Etiology of Tuberculosis,” 109–114.
liv The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 

30. Abstracts of Koch’s work were published in the Medical News and American Journal 

of the Medical Sciences. Dr. Watson Cheyne of King’s College Hospital attempted 

Koch’s experiments without result for nearly a year. Koch, “Etiology of Tuberculosis,” 109–114; Ehrlich, “A Method for Staining the Tubercle Bacillus,” 118–120. 

Sternberg quoted a number of researchers – Toussaint, Schottelius, Brunet, and 

Burden-Sanderson among them – who had found tubercular nodules originated 

from non-infectious sources. GMS, “Is Tuberculosis a Parasitic Disease?,” Med 

News 41 (Jul 1, 1882):6–7, (Jul 22, 1882):87–89, (Sep 16, 1882):311–314, (Nov 18, 

1882):564–566, and (Dec 30, 1882):730–731; GMS, Bacteria, 391; Landis, “Reception of Koch’s Discovery,” 531–537; Dormandy, The White Death, 135, 136. Sternberg lamented that Koch had superb financial support for his work from a liberal 

government, whereas he had to keep his culture chamber continually operating 

with an alcohol lamp, an expensive and unreliable alternative to gas, but all that 

was available at Fort Mason. GMS, “Is Tuberculosis a Parasitic Disease?,” (Nov 18, 

1882):566; “Injection of Finely Powdered Inorganic Material into the Abdominal 

Cavity of Rabbits,” 17–30; and “The Value of Carbolic Acid as a Germicide,” 314–317.

31. Mercuric bichloride (corrosive sublimate) and iodine were excellent germicides in 

current therapeutic concentrations. Carbolic and sulfuric acids and ferrous chloride, however, failed as germicides in doses then used, but were potent antiseptics. 

GMS, “Experiments to Determine the Germicidal Value of Certain Therapeutic 

Agents,” 321–343. 

32. GMS, “Malaria,” 31–54; GMS, Malaria and Malarial Diseases, iii.

33. M. Sternberg, GMS, 87. GMS, Bacteria, 2 ed., v. He was granted 10 days leave in 

early June, presumably to escape the responsibilities of the office, as the orders do 

not give him permission to leave the department nor was it sufficient time to travel 

to Kansas or Washington, DC. SO#63, Jun 8, 1883, SO#134, Oct 4, 1883, and GMS 

to SGO, Oct 6, 1883, HQ Dept of California, PPPMO Box 551, NARA.

34. Henry, AFIP, 73, 77, 79; Lamb, “The Army Medical Museum,” 89–140; Ashburn, 

History of the Medical Department, 137; Otis obituary release from SGO, 990–991; 

Billings to GMS, Jan 15, 1884, Box 1, Folder 15, MS C100 George M. Sternberg 

Papers, NLM.

35. GMS to SGO, Nov 27, 1883, PPPMO Box 551, NARA, also in Sternberg, GMS, 

87–89. Billings was commissioned in the army on Jul 16, 1862. Oblensky, “John 

Shaw Billings,” 286–291. 

36. Billings to GMS, Jan 15, 1884, Box 1, Folder 15, MS C100 George M. Sternberg 

Papers, NLM.

37. M. Sternberg, GMS, 89.

38. William H. Welch did not find the bacillus in his laboratory at the Bellevue Medical 

College until the fall of 1882; Dr. William T. Belfield, of Chicago, demonstrated it 

in October 1882 to the Chicago Pathological Society; T. Mitchell Prudden found it 

in his laboratory at the College of Physicians and Surgeons of New York in April 

1883; and Edward L. Trudeau did not see the organism by his own hand, in T. 

Mitchell Prudden’s laboratory, until at least the summer of 1883. Although Gibson 

gives Dr. Edward L. Trudeau his due for demonstrating the organism in T. Mitchell 

Prudden’s laboratory, Trudeau did not have an English translation of Koch’s paper 
Endnotes lv

until Christmas 1882 at the earliest and did not begin work with Prudden and Dr. 

Hodenpyl until the summer of 1883. Gibson, Soldier in White, 125–127; Article IX. 

Chicago Pathological Society, 518; Trudeau, An Autobiography, 174–179; Landis, 

“Reception of Koch’s Discovery,” 533. McFarland mentions English language bacteriology manuals in his 1937 article – Klein’s Microorganisms and Disease (1884), 

Crookshank’s Introduction to Bacteriology (1886), Satterthwait’s Introduction to 

Practical Bacteriology (1887), and Senn’s Surgical Bacteriology (1889) – but does 

not mention either of Sternberg’s translations. McFarland, “Beginning of Bacteriology in Philadelphia,” 149–200.

Chapter Eight

Dean of American Bacteriology

1. M. Sternberg, GMS, 89, 91.

2. SO#45, Apr 16, 1884, SO#103, May 3, 1884, SO#131, Jun 6, 1884, GMS to SGO, 30 

Apr, 1884, SGO to GMS, 12 May 1884, and GMS to SGO 8 Jun 1884, PPPMO, Box 

551, RG94, NARA; Gossel, “Institutional Growth” 7; M. Sternberg, GMS, 91.

3. While Martha’s interest in bacteriology emanated from a desire to remain connected in a meaningful way to her husband’s professional interests, she also developed 

into a respectable laboratory technician. M. Sternberg, GMS, 91.

4. Sternberg, GMS, 111; Gossel, “Institutional Growth,” 2; Warner, “The Fall and Rise 

of Professional Mystery,” 131.

5. Duffy, The Healers, 229, 262; Flexner, William Henry Welch and the Heroic Age of 

American Medicine, 128, 129, 134, 137, 140; Chesney and Howell, Johns Hopkins 

Hospital, v1, 74–76, 83.

6. SGO to GMS, 2 Oct 1884, GMS to SGO, 19 Oct 1884, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, 

NARA; GMS, “Disease Germs,” 452 and “Injection of Finely Powdered Inorganic 

Material,” 17–30.

7. GMS, “Disease Germs,” 453.

8. Ibid.

9. Coleman, “Koch’s Comma Bacillus,” 315–342. Koch led the German Cholera Commission in an eight-week investigation of a current disease outbreak and reported 

his isolation of the cholera organism from the rice water discharges of cholera patients in Calcutta on February 2, 1883. Brock, Robert Koch, 155, 159–162.

10. The Committee on Disinfectants consisted of Sternberg, Dr. Joseph H. Raymond, 

Professor of Physiology and Sanitary Science, Long Island College Hospital and 

Health Commissoner, City of Brooklyn, Dr. Victor C. Vaughn, Professor of Physiological Chemistry, University of Michigan, Major Charles Smart, NBH, Dr. W. H. 

Watkins, Medical Director of the Auxiliary Sanitary Association of New Orleans, 

Dr. Albert R. Leeds, Professor of Chemistry at Stevens Institute of Technology and 

Member of the New Jersey Board of Health, and Dr. George H. Rohe, Professor of 
lvi The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 

Hygiene, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Baltimore. GMS, et al., Report of the 

Committee on Disinfectants, 1885; Brock, Robert Koch, 167; Snowden, Naples in the 

Time of Cholera, 62, 64–67, 105; GMS, “The International Sanitary Conference at 

Rome,” 101–103.

11. GMS, et al., Report of the Committee on Disinfectants, 1885, xi.

12. Ibid., xii.

13. Ibid., vi–ix.

14. GMS, “Commercial Disinfectants,” 144–147 and “The Destruction of Cholera 

Germs,” 333.

15. Medicinal doses of mercuric chloride were 1:50,000 or 0.015 of a grain. GMS, 

“Commercial Disinfectants,” 144–147 and “The Destruction of Cholera Germs,” 

334–335.

16. Manuscript Commissions for State Department Employees, 1 May 1848–30 Jun 

1941, Gen Records, Dept of State, v2, E775, RG59, NARA; SGO to GMS, 24 and 

25 Apr 1885, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, NARA; GMS, “The Pneumonia-Coccus of 

Friedlander,” 109.

17. Countries represented at the conference included: the United States, Mexico, Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Peru, Uruguay, Guatemala, Great Britain, France, Belgium, 

The Netherlands, Germany, Spain, Portugal, Holland, Denmark, Norway/Sweden, 

Switzerland, Italy, Austria-Hungary, Romania, Serbia, Russia, India, China, and 

Japan. Howard-Jones, Scientific Basis, 52–56; Coleman, “Koch’s Comma Bacillus,” 326–327; Ogawa, “Uneasy Bedfellows,” n 106, 701; Moleschott and Erhardt, 

“Abstract of the Conclusions Adopted and Propositions Rejected by the Technical 

Commission,” 279–303; Brock, Robert Koch, 159–162, 167.

18. Howard-Jones, Scientific Background, 56; Moleschott and Erhardt, “Abstract of the 

Conclusions Adopted and Propositions Rejected by the Technical Commission,” 

279–303; Hardy, “Cholera, Quarantine, and the English Preventive System,” 250–

269; GMS, “International Sanitary Conference,” 101, 102, 103 and “Disinfection at 

Quarantine Stations,” 57–62. 

19. GMS, “International Sanitary Conference,” 101.

20. Ibid.

21. GMS, “The Malarial Germ of Laveran,” 299; Gibson, Soldier in White, 139.

22. M. Sternberg, GMS, 91–92; Gibson, Soldier in White, 140. Upon returning from 

Rome, Sternberg was also notified that his essay, “Disinfection and Individual Prophylaxis Against Infectious Diseases” had won the Lomb prize at the annual APHA 

meeting for its content and his extended research on the practical value of disinfectants. GMS, “Disinfection and Individual Prophylaxis,” 101–136; Sternberg, GMS, 

93. 

23. de Fousta to Bayard, 29 Jul 1885, PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, NARA. The summer of 

1885, although busy for Sternberg, was not without its family pleasures. His parents visited friends in Morristown, New Jersey, and he and Martha made time to 

see them. It was a bittersweet reunion for Sternberg. He had not seen his parents 
Endnotes lvii

in some time, and in the interim his mother had apparently suffered a mild stroke 

leaving her, according to Levi, “with a partial paralysis which prevented the free use 

of her limbs.” Sternberg, Story of My Life, 28.

24. GMS may have discussed a visit with Koch during their time in Rome. However, 

neither Mrs. Sternberg nor Gibson discussed this trip and, with the exception 

of three fleeting references, two in Sternberg’s papers and one in his Manual of 

Bacteriology, it remains almost completely enigmatic. GMS to SGO, 31 Oct 1885, 

PPPMO, Box 551, RG94, NARA; GMS, Manual of Bacteriology, 293, “PneumoniaCoccus of Friedlander,” 106–123, and Report upon the Prevention of Yellow Fever by 

Inoculation, 170.

25. Austrian, Life with the Pneumococcus, 6–7; White, Biology of Pneumococcus, 5–7.

26. GMS, “Pneumonia-Coccus of Friedlander,” 122.

27. Ibid., 113.

28. White, Biology of Pneumococcus, 5–7, 9; GMS, “Micrococcus Pasteuri,” 123–131. 

29. Reminiscences, v2, Part 15, 185, Box 19, Kober Papers, NLM; Sternberg, GMS, 92, 

93.

30. Sternberg, GMS, 93.

31. GMS, “Micrococcus Pasteuri,” 123, “Etiology of Croupous Pneumonia – Parts 1 & 

2,” 281–285, 309–312, and Manual of Bacteriology, 291–294.

32. GMS, “Micrococcus Pasteuri,” 123.

33. GMS, “Etiology of Croupous Pneumonia – Parts 1 & 2,” 281–285, 309–312.

34. GMS, “Pneumonia-Coccus of Friedlander,” 113, and Manual of Bacteriology, 40–41; 

White, Biology of Pneumococcus, 5–7, 33, 36–37; Joklik et al., eds., Zinsser’s Microbiology, 20th ed., 433, 434, 435; Austrian, “The Enduring Pneumococcus,” 3.

35. Austrian, Life with the Pneumococcus, 8; Brock, Milestones in Microbiology, 215–

217; White, Biology of Pneumococcus, 6, 11, 12, 13.

36. Austrian, Life with the Pneumococcus, 6–13; Brock, Milestones in Microbiology, 215–

217; White, Biology of Pneumococcus, 6, 11, 12, 13.

37. GMS, “Micrococcus Pasteuri,” 123–131 and Manual of Bacteriology, 291, 293.

38. GMS, Manual of Bacteriology, 294.

39. Ibid.

40. GMS, “The Etiology of Croupous Pneumonia – Parts 1 & 2,” 311–312.

41. GMS to SGO, 27 Dec 1885, PPPMO, Box 551, NARA. Abbott studied bacteria in 

drinking water, William D. Booker studied bacterial flora in stools of children with 

summer diarrhea, and Christian A. Herter experimentally produced inflammation 

of the spinal cord. Flexner, William Henry Welch, 151–152, 153; Gossel, “Institutional Growth,” 7, 9; Chesney and Howell, Johns Hopkins Hospital, v1, 91–92; GMS, 

“The Bacillus of Typhoid Fever,” 197–202 and “Thermal Death-Point of Pathogenic 

Organisms,” 146–160; Cushing, Life of Sir William Osler, v1, 269–271, 270. 
lviii The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 

42. Dennis had requested $50,000 from Andrew Carnegie to build a pathological laboratory in New York City to induce Welch to stay at Bellevue. Although Gilman 

trumped Dennis’s offer, the Carnegie Laboratory was built. Prudden, Biographical 

Sketches and Letters of T. Mitchell Prudden, 50, 54; Flexner, William Henry Welch, 

131; Winslow, Life of Hermann Biggs, 64–65; Eggerth, The History of the Hoagland 

Laboratory, 13, 17–18.

43. Hoagland may also have been familiar with Sternberg through his book on photomicrography. Eggerth, The History of the Hoagland Laboratory, 3, 4, 5–8, 17–18, 

23–25.

44. Eggerth, The History of the Hoagland Laboratory, 29, 30–31.

45. Ashburn, History Army Medical Department, 139, 140.

46. Eggerth, The History of the Hoagland Laboratory, 31; M. Sternberg, GMS, 127; Edson, Brooklyn First, 71.

47. Eggerth, The History of the Hoagland Laboratory, 34–35.

Chapter Nine

Yellow Fever Investigations

1. “Notes and News,” 535; Warner, “Hunting the Yellow Fever Germ,” 361–382; GMS, 

Prevention of Yellow Fever, 141, 155–157; “Freire’s Yellow Fever Microbe,” 547–551; 

“Carmona’s Yellow Fever Inoculation,” 626.

2. Holt, “The Yellow Fever Commission,” 623–625; “The Yellow Fever Commission,” 

NOM&SJ 13 (Feb 1886), 629–632; “The Yellow Fever Commission,” NOM&SJ 13 

(Mar 1886), 722–728; “The Yellow Fever Commission,” NOM&SJ 13 (Jun 1886), 

964–972 and 990–994; “The President’s Power in the Prevention of Epidemics, and 

the Yellow Fever Commission,” 140–142; “Yellow Fever Inoculations,” 623–624.

3. Holt to Bayard, 28 Feb 1887, Davis to GMS, 7 Mar 1887, Moore to Cleveland, 15 

Apr 1887, GMS to SGO, 3 May and 30 May 1887, PPPMO, Box 551, NARA.

4. GMS, Prevention of Yellow Fever, 142, 146–147, 158–159, 184–185; Sternberg, GMS, 

100.

5. As Sternberg spoke no Portugese, he was assisted in his study of Freire’s earlier 

results and visits to the inoculated population by Dr. R. Cleary and a Mr. Slaughter, 

both American ex-patriates who read and spoke Portugese. GMS, Prevention of 

Yellow Fever, 142–143, 159, 164.

6. GMS, Prevention of Yellow Fever, 157, 159.

7. Ibid., 159.

8. Ibid., 168–169.

9. Ibid., 178–182, 181.

10. Ibid., 181–183.
Endnotes lix

11. Ibid., 190.

12. Ibid., 194–213.

13. During the latter part of their stay in Rio, smallpox broke out in the city, and Sternberg had been exposed to the disease through his work in a number of hospitals. 

Mrs. Sternberg therefore was vaccinated with an English-made smallpox vaccine. 

A few days out from port, Mrs. Sternberg awoke with a severe chill and generalized 

body aches. Over the next 24 hours, she developed a high fever, and the vaccination 

site became extremely red and painful. Sternberg, disturbed by this unexpected reaction, commented, “That English virus must have been contaminated. There must 

have been a germ in it that has taken a long time to incubate in your system. The 

time for the virus of smallpox to take effect has long since expired.... This germ that 

you have developed must be from another family, it has been so long in developing.” Sternberg was correct. The incubation period did not fit smallpox, and vaccine 

quills at that time were notorious for inducing infections from bacterial contamination. Fortunately, she recovered without complications. M. Sternberg, GMS, 102, 

104–106.

14. M. Sternberg, GMS, 105.

15. Ibid., 105.

16. Ibid., 105, 106.

17. Mrs. Sternberg stayed home because she was tired of the excitement and tedium of 

traveling. Sternberg, GMS, 106.

18. GMS, “President’s Address,” 1–21, 9.

19. GMS, Prevention of Yellow Fever, 149.

20. GMS, Prevention of Yellow Fever, 149, 150, 213–217.

21. It was not known how many soldiers exposed to the epidemic in May were already 

immune to the disease. After exposure to the disease, these soldiers were inoculated, but another attack of yellow fever generated 28 cases and 19 deaths, a casefatality rate of 68 percent. GMS, Prevention of Yellow Fever, 218–219; GMS, “Investigations Relating to the Etiology and Prophylaxis of Yellow Fever,” 339–365, 364.

22. GMS, Prevention of Yellow Fever, 166–168.

23. GMS to SGO, 3 Dec 87, GMS to SGO, 24 Oct 87, GMS to SGO, 12 Dec 87, and GMS 

to SGO, Sep 27, 1886, PPPMO, Box 551, NARA; GMS, “President’s Address,” 1–21.

24. Eggerth, The History of the Hoagland Laboratory, 34.

25. This appears to be the last time he gave it serious consideration until very late in 

1887 or early 1888 even though he was aware that others, such as Dr. Edmund A. 

Parkes, a British military hygienist, considered fecal-oral transmission of the disease to be a genuine possibility. Gibson, Soldier in White, 148; GMS, “Hunting Yellow Fever Germs,” 253–256, 255; F. Chaumont, ed., Parkes’ Hygiene, 59, 131; GMS, 

Report on the Etiology and Prevention of Yellow Fever, 31.

26. GMS, “An Inquiry into the Modus Operandi of the Yellow Fever Poison,” 10, and 

Report on the Etiology and Prevention of Yellow Fever, 7, 31, 167–168.
lx The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 

27. GMS, Etiology and Prevention of Yellow Fever, 114, 167, 181.

28. Gibson, Soldier in White, 149; GMS, Etiology and Prevention of Yellow Fever, 181.

29. Gibson, Soldier in White, 149.

30. Gibson, Soldier in White, 149; GMS, Etiology and Prevention of Yellow Fever, 168.

31. Gibson, Soldier in White, 149, 150.

32. GMS, Etiology and Prevention of Yellow Fever, 182.

33. GMS, “Preliminary Note upon a New Method of Treating Yellow Fever,” 524–526, 

and Etiology and Prevention of Yellow Fever, 78–87, 90, 91, 92, 95.

34. GMS, Etiology and Prevention of Yellow Fever, 91.

35. Ibid., 91.

36. Ibid., 85.

37. Kemp was given a salary of $1,000 per year and the privilege of taking his medical 

degree at the Long Island College free of charge. Eggerth, The History of the Hoagland Laboratory, 36.

38. Eggerth, The History of the Hoagland Laboratory, 37.

39. New Orleans had had cases in all but three of the years from 1880 to 1887, but only 

nine deaths. Outbreaks had occurred at Matamoros and Brownsville, Texas, in 1882 

and 1883, in Biloxi, Mississippi in 1886, and Key West in 1887; however, these visitations remained small and were locally contained. Dr. Joseph Holt’s firm yet tactful 

diplomacy, understanding of state and national politics, and his system of maritime 

sanitation were crucial to the success of southern public health. Ellis, Yellow Fever,

121; Humphreys, Yellow Fever and the South, 113–118.

40. SO#203, Sep 1, 1888, SO#224, Sep 26, 1888, and GMS to SGO, Sep 29, 1888, PPPMO, Box 551, NARA; GMS, Etiology and Prevention of Yellow Fever, 7, 12, 87–88, 

98, 116, 117, 209–210.

41. GMS, Etiology and Prevention of Yellow Fever, 98, 116, 117, 209–210.

42. Sternberg’s formula provided a patient with 285 milligrams of sodium bicarbonate, 

1 milligram of inorganic mercury, and 53 milliliters of water per hour. If the nursing 

care was good, the patient probably received 12 to 15 doses per day, giving a moderate hourly dose of bicarbonate that probably provided some relief from stomach 

upset and allowed fluids to be retained; but it would not have had an appreciable 

effect on neutralizing acidic urine nor would it increase urine flow. Reduced urine 

production in yellow fever patients is due to virus-induced damage (acute tubular 

necrosis) of the kidney-filtering tubules in severe cases and dehydration secondary 

to vomiting and prolonged fever. As intravenous fluid replacement was unknown, 

fluid losses could only be corrected orally. The small amount of water in GMS’s 

treatment, even when combined with other liquids not immediately regurgitated, 

would not by itself be sufficient to meet the dehydrated patient’s fluid requirements 

and provide a diuretic effect. The amount of inorganic mercury he included as an 

antiseptic was also too small to cause an immediate toxic effect. However, mercury 

is extremely toxic to the filtering tubules of the kidney and is not rapidly cleared by 

them. At the end of 7 days of treatment—the average time in which a patient would 
Endnotes lxi

be on the road to recovery—a patient would have accumulated about 84 to 105 

milligrams of mercury in the kidneys, enough to produce toxic side effects in some 

individuals. GMS, Etiology and Prevention of Yellow Fever, 88–90, “Bicarbonate of 

Sodium and Bichloride of Mercury in the Treatment of Yellow Fever,” 298–304, and 

“Additional Note on the Treatment of Yellow Fever,” 388–389; Gibson, Soldier in 

White, 157.

43. GMS to SGO, Nov 4, 1888, PPPMO, Box 551, NARA; GMS, Etiology and Prevention 

of Yellow Fever, 140; Eggerth, The History of the Hoagland Laboratory, 46; BDE, “Dr. 

George M. Sternberg’s Lecture to his Professional Brethren,” Nov 18, 1888.

44. Eggerth, The History of the Hoagland Laboratory, 41–43; BDE, “A Brilliant Crowd of 

Citizens Gather at the Opening of the Institution,” Dec 16, 1888.

45. Eggerth, The History of the Hoagland Laboratory, 54; GMS, Etiology and Prevention 

of Yellow Fever, 8, 9, 12, 13, and “Hunting Yellow Fever Germs,” 253–256; GMS to 

SGO, Feb 11 and 28, Mar 3 and 16, and Aug 31, 1889, PPPMO, Box 551, NARA.

46. Finlay, “The Mosquito Hypothetically Considered,” 605.

47. Ibid., 607.

48. Culex cubensis was renamed Stegomyia fasciata and is known today as Aedes aegypti. Finlay, “Yellow Fever: Its Transmission by Means of the Culex Mosquito,” 

395–406, and “Inoculations for Yellow Fever by Means of Contaminated Mosquitoes,” 264–268.

49. Finlay, “The Mosquito Hypothetically Considered,” 591.

50. Ibid., 608–610.

51. Manson, “On the Development of the Filaria Sanguinis Hominis and on the Mosquito Considered as a Nurse,” Transactions Linnean Society 14 (Aug 31, 1878):304–

311. For a modern account of Manson’s work, see Douglas M. Haynes, Imperial 

Medicine: Patrick Manson and the Conquest of Tropical Disease (Philadelphia: Univ. 

of Pennsylvania Press, 2001). 

52. GMS, Etiology and Prevention of Yellow Fever, 164–165, and “Dr. Finlay’s Mosquito 

Inoculations,” 627–628.

53. GMS, “Dr. Finlay’s Mosquito Inoculations,” 627–628; Finlay, “Transmission of Yellow Fever by the Culex Mosquito,” 183.

54. GMS to Mall, Apr 6 and 15, 1889, PPPMO, Box 551, NARA.

55. Eggerth, The History of the Hoagland Laboratory, 55.

56. Billings, “Recent Work at the Pathobiological Laboratory State University,” 329.

57. GMS to Mall, Apr 11, 1889 and GMS to Mall, 15, 1889, PPPMO, Box 551, NARA.

58. GMS, Etiology and Prevention of Yellow Fever, 175–178.

59. Gibson, Soldier in White, 154.

60. Ibid.

61. Gibson, Soldier in White, 155; GMS, Etiology and Prevention of Yellow Fever, 98, 

121–131.
lxii The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 

62. Gibson, Soldier in White, 155.

63. Ibid., 156.

64. Ibid.

65. Ibid., 157.

66. Ibid.

67. GMS, Etiology and Prevention of Yellow Fever, 187–188; GMS to SGO, Aug 31, 1889, 

PPPMO, Box 551, NARA. GMS sustained a rather tardy and severe personal attack 

from Dr. Freire in response to a summary article of the Brazilian investigations 

that GMS had published in the Medical News in April 1888. Freire accused him 

of incompetence, myopia, and improper conduct during the 1887 investigations. 

Although GMS felt a response to “the violent attack which he has made upon me 

in detail would be a waste of time...”, he devoted a postscriptum of seven pages in 

his final report to the subject and in May 1890 prepared two articles, one of which 

he read at the annual meeting of the AMA, on the obvious statistical failures of the 

Brazilian physician. GMS, Etiology and Prevention of Yellow Fever, 221.

68. GMS, “Investigations Relating to the Etiology and Prophylaxis of Yellow Fever,” 

449–456, “Dr. Freire’s Protective Inoculation,” 524–526, “Facts Versus Figures,” 

142–144, and Etiology and Prevention of Yellow Fever, 13.

69. GMS, Etiology and Prevention of Yellow Fever, 28.

70. Ibid., 13.

Chapter Ten

Immunology and Cholera in New York City

1. Margaret Sternberg’s debilitating and wasting illness probably resulted from her 

earlier stroke or strokes. Levi to GMS, Dec 7, 1888, Box 2, Folder 2, George M. 

Sternberg Papers, 1861–1917, MS C100, NLM.

2. L. Sternberg, Story of My Life, 29.

3. M. Sternberg, GMS, 122, 124; SGO to GMS, Jun 11, 1890 and GMS to SGO, Jul 31, 

1890, PPPMO, Box 551, NARA.

4. Greenleaf to SGO, Jun 24, 1890, PPPMO, Box 551, NARA; M. Sternberg, GMS, 66.

5. Schofield to Sec War, Aug 12, 1890, Daniel S. Lamont Papers, LOC.

6. Ashburn, History Army Medical Department, 143; M. Sternberg, GMS, 125.

7. SO#232, Oct 3, 1890 and GMS to SGO, Oct 7, 1890, PPPMO, Box 551, NARA; M. 

Sternberg, GMS, 125.

8. M. Sternberg, GMS, 125.

9. M. Sternberg, GMS, 125; GMS to SGO, Oct 15 and 31, 1890, PPPMO, Box 551, 

NARA; Eggerth, The History of the Hoagland Laboratory, 67.
Endnotes lxiii

10. Reasoner, “The Development of the Medical Supply Service,” 2; Smith, Medicines for 

the Union Army, 7; ARSG 1891, 89.

11. Finlay, “Inoculations for Yellow Fever by Means of Contaminated Mosquitoes,” 

264–268; GMS, “Dr. Finlay’s Mosquito Inoculations,” 629.

12. GMS, “Dr. Finlay’s Mosquito Inoculations,” 630.

13. M. Sternberg, GMS, 297.

14. Ibid., 126.

15. M. Sternberg, GMS, 126; Fishbein, A History of the American Medical Association, 

676.

16. Gibson, Soldier in White, 160; Schofield to GMS, Dec 31, 1890, Box 2, Folder 2, 

George M. Sternberg Papers, 1861–1917, MS C100, NLM.

17. Schofield, Forty-Six Years in the Army, 183; GMS to Schofield, Jul 3, 1891, Series IV, 

Container 33, #237, John M. Schofield Papers, LOC.

18. GMS to Schofield, Aug 17, 1891, Series IV, Container 34, #305, John M. Schofield 

Papers, LOC.

19. SO#27, Feb 2, 1892 and SO#34, Mar 17, 1892, PPPMO, Box 551, NARA. In New 

York the Sternbergs lived first in a large house near the Windsor Hotel. Although 

the residence was spacious, Sternberg had a long and disagreeable early morning 

commute on the elevated streetcar to the south end of Broadway where the Army 

Building stood at 39 Whitehall Street. He soon tired of jostling in the crowded, 

poorly ventilated cars twice daily. They relocated to the Saint George Hotel in 

Brooklyn closer to his office, the Hoagland Laboratory, and a number of friends as 

well. M. Sternberg, GMS, 127; Eggerth, The History of the Hoagland Laboratory, 71; 

GMS, “Practical Results of Bacteriological Researches,” 1–15.

20. Plotkin and Orenstein, Vaccines, 3rd, 1–3; Jenner, An Inquiry into the Causes and 

Effects of the Variolae Vacciniae. See also Ola Winslow, A Destroying Angel, Boston: 

Houghton Mifflin, 1974, and Elizabeth Fenn, Pox Americana, New York: Hill & 

Wang, 2001. 

21. Baumgarten suggested the creation of an osmotically unfavorable environment in 

which bacterial cell walls ruptured, and von Behring suggested that an increasing 

alkalinity precluded further microbial growth. Silverstein, History of Immunology, 

16–21; GMS, “Infectious Diseases, Causation and Immunity,” 625–627 and “What 

Is the Explanation of the Protection from Subsequent Attacks, Resulting from an 

Attack of Certain Diseases, and of the Protective Influence of Vaccination against 

Smallpox?,” 373–374.

22. GMS, “What Is the Explanation of the Protection from Subsequent Attacks, Resulting from an Attack of Certain Diseases, and of the Protective Influence of Vaccination against Smallpox?,” 376.

23. Ibid.

24. Silverstein, History of Immunology, 16–21.
lxiv The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 

25. GMS, “Practical Results of Bacteriological Researches,” 1–15, “Infectious Diseases, 

Causation and Immunity,” 616–635, and “Protective Inoculations in Infectious Diseases,” 273–291, 273.

26. Bulloch, History of Bacteriology, 256–258; Silverstein, History of Immunology, 47; 

Behring and Kitasato, “The Mechanism of Immunity in Animals to Diphtheria and 

Tetanus,” 138–140 and “Studies on the Mechanism of Immunity to Diphtheria in 

Animals,” 141–144.

27. GMS, “Practical Results of Bacteriological Researches,” 73, and “Infectious Diseases, Causation and Immunity,” 616–635.

28. GMS, “Practical Results of Bacteriological Researches,” 80–81.

29. Ibid., 81–82.

30. Ibid., 82.

31. Ibid., 84.

32. Ibid.

33. Ibid., 85.

34. Ibid.

35. Ibid., 86.

36. Ibid.

37. Ibid., 84.

38. Evans, Death in Hamburg, 279–284; Markel, Quarantine!,16–19.

39. Evans, Death in Hamburg, 286–290.

40. Duffy, Public Health in New York City, 85, 86, 92, 93; NYT, “Three More Doctors 

Out,” Jul 6, 1892; Fee and Hammonds, “Science, Politics, and the Art of Persuasion,” 

158, 159.

41. Rauch, “Coast Defenses Against Asiatic Cholera,” 130, 138, 140; Bell, “Report of the 

Committee on Disinfection of Rags,” 170–196; Smith, “The New York Quarantine 

Establishment,” 201–207.

42. Duffy, Public Health in New York City, 92, 94, 95; Fee and Hammond, “Science, 

Politics and the Art of Persuasion,” 160; Winslow, Life of Hermann M. Biggs, 79, 81, 

90, 95.

43. Markel, Quarantine, 90–91, 97–99, 108, 130.

44. Dr. Welch had been invited, but declined to attend. Markel, Quarantine, 126, 

129; NYT, “Detention at Quarantine,” Sep 22, 1892; M. Sternberg, GMS, 128, 129; 

Greenleaf to GMS, PPPMO, Box 151, NARA; GMS, “Disinfection at Quarantine 

Stations,” 57.

45. GMS, “The Biological Characters of the Cholera Spirillum,” 387–391, and “Disinfection at Quarantine Stations,” 60; NYT, “Discussed By Physicians,” Sep 20, 1892.
Endnotes lxv

46. GMS, “Disinfection at Quarantine Stations,” 60, 61.

47. Ibid., 59.

48. Ibid., 61.

49. Information Slip, Oct 31, 1892, Sutherland to GMS, Nov 29, 1892, and GMS to 

Sutherland, Dec 5, 1892, PPPMO, Box 551, NARA.

50. GMS, “Report on Typhoid Fever at Madison Barracks,” 45–49.

51. Although Bolton claimed ill health—he had had a tuberculous kidney removed recently—both Cornelius Hoagland and GMS were somewhat irritated with his hasty 

departure that left no one in charge of bacteriology. Eggerth, The History of the 

Hoagland Laboratory, 71–72.

52. Eggerth, The History of the Hoagland Laboratory, 74, 75; M. Sternberg, GMS, 127.

53. M. Sternberg, GMS, 127, 128.

54. M. Sternberg, GMS, 128.

55. GMS encouraged Slee to establish his own private vaccine manufacturing laboratory. Four years later, he opened the Pocono Biological Laboratories in Swiftwater, Pennsylvania. It continues to produce vaccines today under the name Pasteur 

Merieux Connaught. Eggerth, The History of the Hoagland Laboratory, 73, 74; Jeff 

Widmer, The Spirit of Swiftwater, 11, 15, 17.

56. Welch to GMS, Dec 4, 1892, Box 2, Folder 4 and Osler to GMS, Mar 13, 1893, Box 

1, Folder 29, George M. Sternberg Papers, 1861–1917, MS C100, NLM.

57. M. Sternberg, GMS, 127.

58. Greenleaf to GMS, Dec 7, 1892 Box 1, Folder 21, George M. Sternberg Papers, 

1861–1917, MS C100, NLM.

59. Ashburn, History Army Medical Department, 147, 148.

Chapter Eleven

Surgeon General of the Army

1. M. Sternberg, GMS, 130.

2. Ibid.

3. Gibson, Soldier in White, 166, 167; Nevins, Grover Cleveland, v2, 129, 175.

4. Gillett, AMEDD 1865–1917, 95.

5. GMS to Dickinson, Feb 13, 1893, General Correspondence, Container 2, Lamont 

Papers, LOC.

6. Nevins, Grover Cleveland, v1, 196, v2, 467, 481.
lxvi The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 

7. GMS to Schofield, Apr 10, 1893, Letters Received, Container 34, #327, John M. 

Schofield Papers, LOC. Schofield, who had had a short tenure as Secretary of War 

(1868–1869), also replaced the traditional bureaucratic antagonism of the commanding general toward the Secretary of War with a cooperative spirit by assuming 

the role of a chief of staff, and he met regularly with the bureau chiefs to seek their 

advice and hear their concerns after he took command of the army in 1888. In the 

reform-minded, yet pragmatic, professionalism of Schofield, GMS had an understanding and sympathetic ally. Beaver, Modernizing the American War Department,

22; Connelly, John M. Schofield, 302–304.

8. Gibson, Soldier in White, 166, 167; Nevins, Grover Cleveland, v1, 129, 175.

9. M. Sternberg, GMS, 131.

10. Ibid.

11. M. Sternberg, GMS, 132; Information Slip, May 31 and Adj Gen to GMS, May 30. 

1893, PPPMO, Box 152, NARA.

12. Welch to GMS, Jun 2, 1893, Box 2, Folder 4, George M. Sternberg Papers, 1861–

1917, MS C100, NLM.

13. M. Sternberg, GMS, 135.

14. Ibid.

15. Ibid., 136.

16. Box 1, Folders 14, 24, 28, 30, and Box 2, Folders 3 and 5, MS C100, George Miller 

Sternberg Papers, 1861–1917, NLM.

17. M. Sternberg, GMS, 135.

18. Denver Medical Times, May 31, 1893.

19. The 10 officers passed over were: Colonels Charles Page, Joseph E. Smith, Bernard J. 

D. Irwin, Charles T. Alexander, Joseph C. Bailey, Charles H. Alden, and Lieutenant 

Colonels Charles G. Byrne, Joseph P. Wright, Francis L. Town, and Dallas Bache. 

Official Army Register, 1893; NYT, “Surgeon General Sternberg,” May 31, 1893, 12.

20. J. C. Culbertson, “Surgeon General of the United States Navy,” 594, and “The Surgeon General of the United States Army,” 617; Kelly and Burrage, Dictionary of 

American Medical Biography, 1228.

21. Remembered primarily for civil service reform, Cleveland really saw this as a small 

piece of a broader program of general administrative change to reduce corruption 

in a number of departments. Secretary of War William C. Endicott put an end to 

the habitual homesteading of officers in Washington and other posts. When Surgeon General Murray retired in 1886, Cleveland broke from precedent and chose 

Lieutenant Colonel John Moore over six senior officers for the position. NYT, “New 

Naval Surgeon General,” May 10, 1893, 4; Nevins, Grover Cleveland, v1, 207, 214–

215, 232, v2, 510.

22. Fryer to GMS, Jun 4, 1893, Box 1, Folder 19, George M. Sternberg Papers, 1861–

1917, MS C100, NLM.
Endnotes lxvii

23. Bailey to GMS, May 31, 1893, Box 1, Folder 14, George M. Sternberg Papers, 1861–

1917, MS C100, NLM.

24. Sherman and his successors also encouraged other professional activities, such as 

associations and journals. Through Sherman’s support, officers such as Colonel 

William B. Hazen, Emory Upton, and others evaluated and reported upon European and Asian military organizations. In 1891, Schofield required all combat officers to prepare and present professional papers at regular meetings on post. This, 

in Schofield’s words, was “to give officers an incentive to study...[and] stimulate 

professional zeal and ambition.” Nenninger, The Leavenworth Schools and the Old 

Army, 7; Weigley, History of the United States Army, 272, 273, 274, 276; Coffman, 

Old Army, 271, 272.

25. Rothstein, American Physicians, 285–286; Flexner, Medical Education in the United 

States and Canada, 234–235.

26. ARSG 1888–1891; Gillett, AMEDD 1865–1917, 18–20; Greenleaf, Excerpts from 

personal correspondence of BG Charles R. Greenleaf, MS C91 Charles R. Greenleaf 

Papers, 1890-1936, NLM; Senn, “Mission of the Association,” 547–550.

27. ARSG 1890, 3, 11; ARSG 1891, 3; ARSG 1892, 3.

28. ARSG 1893, 7, 13, 35.

29. No sources reveal when GMS began thinking about an Army Medical School. 

ARSG 1894, 21–23; Brinton, Personal Memoirs of John H. Brinton, 257–259; Thomas and Hyman, Life and Times of Lincoln’s Secretary of War, 366–368; Duncan, “The 

Strange Case of Surgeon General Hammond,” 100–101, 104, 107–108; “This Week,” 

10; GO’s #51 and #78, Records, AMS, WRAIR Archives.

30. GMS to Reed, Jul 3, 1893, Hench-Reed Collection, UVA. GMS and Reed may have 

met in early October 1890 as Sternberg packed his equipment and departed for San 

Francisco and Reed began his course work in Welch’s lab. Whether they did or not, 

GMS did not know Reed well enough to take him outright. Essay by William H. 

Welch concerning Walter Reed’s work at Johns Hopkins University. 19--, HenchReed Collection, UVA.

31. ARSG 1893, 15.

32. GMS, “Function of the Army Medical School,” 547–551.

33. M. Sternberg, GMS, 138–139.

34. M. Sternberg, GMS, 137–140; Gibson, Soldier in White, 173.

35. GMS, “Address to Members of the Pan-American Medical Congress,” 369.

36. Ibid.

37. Ibid., 371.

38. Ibid., 374.

39. Ibid., 374–375.

40. Surgeons such as Charles Nancrede and W. W. Keen in Philadelphia, R. A. Kinloch 

in Charleston, T. G. Richardson of New Orleans, and Moses Gunn and Nicholas 

Senn in Chicago had collected and reported on the treatment of a large number of 

gunshot wounds.
lxviii The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 

41. Smith, “Nicholas Senn and the Origins of Association of Military Surgeons of the 

United States,” 244.

42. Proceedings, AMSUS 1894, viii, xxiv, xxxii, xlv, xlvi, lxix, 1; Senn, “Mission of the 

Association,” 547–550.

43. Gillett, AMEDD 1865–1917, 18–20; ARSG 1893, 15; ARSG 1894, 35–37, and ARSG 

1895, 14; Greenleaf, Excerpts from personal correspondence of BG Charles R. 

Greenleaf, MS C91 Charles R. Greenleaf Papers, 1890–1936, NLM; John van R. 

Hoff, “What Is the Most Practicable Plan of Sanitary Organization for Active Service in the United States Army,” Proceedings, AMSUS 1896, 208, 212, 220.

44. As the Indian Wars waned, Congress had been paring down the number of, and 

support to, military posts. In 1880, 185 posts and detachments with the same requirements were covered by 125 assistant and 111 contract surgeons; 10 years later, 

164 posts were served by the same number of assistant surgeons and only 48 contract physicians. ARSG 1894, 14–15; Gillett, AMEDD 1865–1917, 15–17.

45. M. Sternberg, GMS, 137, 138; Gibson, Soldier in White, 176–177; ARSG 1894, 14–

15, 16.

46. ARSG 1894, 15–21.

47. Of the five new medical first lieutenants, Deane C. Howard stood first in the class, 

followed by A. S. Porter, W. H. Wilson, W. W. Quinton, and T. S. Bratton. ARSG 

1893, 15 and ARSG 1894, 35; Faculty Meeting Minutes, March 6, 1894, Records 

AMS, WRAIR Archives. For Osler’s complete address, see: Osler, Aequanimitas, 3rd 

ed., 99–113.

48. Bean, Walter Reed, 56, 57; GMS to Reed, Jan 19, 1894, Hench-Reed Collection, 

UVA; Reed, “Germicidal Value of Trikresol,” 204.

49. Bryant had orchestrated the President’s clandestine surgery for a malignant oral tumor earlier in the year; an operation that was kept from Congress, the nation, and, 

most impressively, the news media for nearly 25 years. Nevins, Grover Cleveland,

v2, 528–529; M. Sternberg, GMS, 136; Gibson, Soldier in White, 172.

50. GMS, “Introductory Address Delivered September 30 at the College Building, 

Georgetown University,” 689–696, “A National Health Bureau,” 529–533, “The Bacteriology of Pyelonephritis,” 664–669, and “The Proofs of Progress” 508–512; M. 

Sternberg, GMS, 149.

51. Gossel, “William Henry Welch and the Antivivisection Legislation,” 405; GMS, Immunity, Protective Inoculations in Infectious Diseases and Serum Therapy, 234–235, 

and “Scientific Researches,” 925, 927; Kinyoun, “Preliminary Report on the Treatment of Variola by Its Antitoxine,” 31–33.

52. Kinyoun, “Preliminary Report on the Treatment of Variola by Its Antitoxine,” 

31–33. GMS thought a dried precipitate preparation of the serum, which could be 

reconstituted in a smaller amount of fluid, might eliminate the volume problem in 

treatment. Reed pursued this goal with some success in laboratory animals, but it 

was never tested in humans. GMS and Reed, “Report on Immunity Against Vaccination Conferred upon the Monkey,” 57–58, 68.

53. M. Sternberg, GMS, 139; ARSG 1895, 7, 58.

54. ARSG 1896, 11–12, ARSG 1897, 14; Gillett, AMEDD 1865–1917, 99, 106–109.
Endnotes lxix

55. GMS, “Scientific Researches Relating to the Specific Infectious Agent of Smallpox,” 

926–927.

56. French, Antivivisection and Medical Science in Victorian Society, 1–35, 61–71, 85–

89. Gossel, “William Henry Welch and the Antivivisection Legislation,” 398–400, 

404–405, 406.

57. Gossel, “William Henry Welch and the Antivivisection Legislation,” 406–408; 54th 

Congress, 1 sess., Senate Bill 1552, Jan 14, 1896, LOC.

58. M. Sternberg, GMS, 140–141. The Silver Purchase Act, which required the Treasury 

to buy large amounts of silver every month and turn it into coinage, had destabilized the nation’s gold standard financial base. The tariff bill, meant to reduce 

federal income and protect farmers, tended to drive up the price of manufactured 

goods in the long run. Cherney, American Politics in the Gilded Age, 87–90, 110–

111, 114–116, 119–121.

59. McKinley’s struggle for the White House had received help from Cleveland and a 

splinter group, the Gold Democrats. They had sought not to win the election, but 

to ensure Bryan’s defeat by siphoning off votes for themselves or encouraging conservative Democrats to vote for McKinley. McKinley was not so very different from 

Cleveland politically. He supported the gold standard and was willing to revise the 

tariff act that carried his name in a manner more to Cleveland’s liking. Cherny, 

American Politics in the Gilded Age, 122, 126–128; M. Sternberg, GMS, 140–143; 

Leech, In the Days of McKinley, 17, 438; Hagedorn, Leonard Wood, v1, 133–135.

60. ARSG 1896, 13, 15–16 and ARSG 1897, 21–22; Chronology of events concerning 

the Army Medical Museum and Surgeon General’s Library, Otis Archives, NMHM; 

SO#241, AGO, October 15, 1895, AMS Records, WRAIR.

61. ARSG 1897, 6–8, 22 and ARSG 1896, 14.

62. M. Sternberg, GMS, 251; Reminiscences, v2, Part 10, Box 18, MS C115 George M. 

Kober Papers, NLM; Rosen, “From Frontier Surgeon to Industrial Hygienist,” 640, 

641; Kober, History and Development of the Housing Movement, 11, 23–24. Kober 

began teaching hygiene and state medicine at Georgetown in 1892. Easby-Smith, 

Georgetown University, v1, 349–350.

63. Green, Washington, v2, 43–45; Lamb, History of the Medical Society of the District of 

Columbia, 153–156; Report of the Committee on Public Health of the Medical Society 

of the District of Columbia, 3, 4, 17, 18; “Purification of Water,” Box 17, Kober Papers, NLM.

64. Kober, History of Housing, 4, 6–11, 13–20, 22–23; Hannold, “Comfort and Respectability,” 24, 26; Jones, Housing of Negroes, 29–32; Borchert, Alley Life in Washington,

33–34.

65. Gould’s company built sanitary tenements on Manhattan’s East and West Sides. 

These structures had wide central courts, fire-proofed staircases and partitions, gas 

appliances, and were only two rooms deep to ensure adequate light and ventilation. 

Rented at $8 to $16 per month, they were affordable only to skilled laborers. Kober, 

History of Housing, 20–21, 23–24 and Reminiscences, v2, Part 18, 304–305; Lubove, 

The Progressive and the Slum, 88–89, 100–102, 109; Hannold, “Comfort and Respectability,” 29.
lxx The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 

66. Kober, History of Housing, 27, 29, Reminiscences, v2, Part 18, 304–305, and Report 

on the Housing of the Laboring Classes, 116; GMS, “Report of the Committee on 

Building of Model Homes,” 18, 19.

67. GMS, “Housing Conditions in the Nation’s Capital,” 2; Ann. Rpts, Citizens Relief Association and Associated Charities, 12.

68. GMS, “Report of the Committee on Building of Model Homes,” GMS, “Housing 

Conditions in the Nation’s Capital,” 2.

69. M. Sternberg, GMS, 144.

70. M. Sternberg, GMS, 144; GMS, “The Bacillus Icteroides of Sanarelli,” 305; Warner, 

“Hunting the Yellow Fever Germ,” 373.

71. M. Sternberg, GMS, 144; GMS, “The Bacillus Icteroides of Sanarelli,” 303–322.

72. Mrs. Sternberg’s account of the nearly 2-month-long trip, with the exception of siteseeing in St. Petersburg, is disappointingly vague. GMS had been so convinced that 

Bacillus X was the agent he sought he had tissue preparations from autopsied yellow fever victims sent to him from Havana by Dr. Burgess during the last two years 

of his research in an attempt to increase the number of reportable positive cases. 

He sent these fresh specimens to others, such as Dr. William Councilman at Johns 

Hopkins and Dr. James Reeves of Chattanooga, to review and hopefully confirm his 

earlier findings; this was a hope that did not materialize. Sternberg, GMS, 144–147; 

GMS, “Bacillus Icteroides of Sanarelli,” 307–308.

73. GMS, “Bacillus Icteroides of Sanarelli,” 308.

74. Ibid., 312–317, 319–320.

75. M. Sternberg, GMS, 148; GMS, “Bacillus Icteroides and Bacillus X,” 233.

76. M. Sternberg, GMS, 149.

Chapter Twelve

War with Spain

1. Traxel, 1898, 82–84; Cashman, America in the Gilded Age, 3rd ed., 340–341; Trask, 

War With Spain, 8, 12, 21, 24, 28, 29, 41; Gould, The Spanish-American War and 

President McKinley, 29, 31, 32; Cosmas, Army for Empire, 2nd ed., 66.

2. Traxel, 1898, 82–84, 92–93; Trask, War With Spain, 41; Cosmas, Army for Empire,

2nd ed., 67; Gould, The Spanish-American War and President McKinley, 29, 31, 32.

3. Cosmas, Army for Empire, 70–71, 73–75, 77; DCR, v1, 169.

4. ARSG 1890–1898, budget reviews.

5. ARSG 1894–1897; Cosmas, Army for Empire, 81; Alger, The Spanish-American War,

9, 11–12; DCR, v1, 101, 169.
Endnotes lxxi

6. DCR, v1, 172, 717, 682–684, v6, 2812–2813, 2828, 2831, v7, 3325–3327; GMS, “Official Summary of the Annual Report of the Surgeon General of the Army,” 103; 

ARSW 1899, 490–496; M. Sternberg, GMS, 161–162; GMS to Alger, Mar 11 and 

15, 1898; GMS to Hawley and GMS to Hull, Mar 30, 1898 Box 152, RG112, E26, 

NARA.

7. Alden to Superintendents, April 20, 1898, RG112, E26, Box 66, NARA; ARSG 1898, 

107–108; Cosmas, Army for Empire, 81; Alger, Spanish-American War, 9, 11–12; 

DCR, v1, 169, v6, 2831–2833, v7, 3325–3327; GMS, “Official Summary of the Annual Report of the Surgeon General of the Army,” 103; ARSW 1899, 490–496; M. 

Sternberg, GMS, 161–162.

8. To fill the enlisted ranks of these units, individual states were named as recruiting 

areas for each regiment. Supplementary officers needed were drawn from the commissioned and non-commissioned ranks of the Regular Army and from civilian 

nominations by the President. Cosmas, Army for Empire, 82–84, 87–90, 98; Gould, 

Spanish-American War, 51.

9. Gould, Spanish-American War, 73–74; Cosmas, Army for Empire, 98, 108, 111, 114–

116; Shafter, “Capture of Santiago de Cuba,” 612; Estimate of the Surgeon General, 

May 3, 1898, RG112, E26, Box 129, NARA.

10. Cosmas, Army for Empire, 114–115; NYT, “Plans for Invading Cuba,” May 6, 1898, 

1, 9.

11. NYT, “Plans for Invading Cuba,” May 6, 1898, 9 and “Looking for Ships to Take 

Them,” May 10, 1898, 2.

12. Scott, History of Tropical Medicine, v1, 166–169. 

13. ARSG 1898, 140.

14. Miles, “The War with Spain, I,” 522–523; DeMontravel, A Hero to His Fighting Men, 

237.

15. Of the 97 physicians examined, 13 were accepted. ARSG 1898, 100–101; DCR, v6, 

2813, 2814, 2816; ARSW, 370; Cosmas, Army for Empire, 81; GMS to Greenleaf, 

May 2, 1898, Box 339; GMS to Pope, Apr 20, 1898, Box 164, RG112, E26.

16. ARSG 1898, 101; DCR, v1, 170, v6, 2814, 2824.

17. DCR, v1, 171–172, v6, 2825–2827; ARSG 1898, 101; Sarnecky, History of the U. S. 

Army Nurse Corps, 30. Male nursing programs existed at Bellevue and Charity Hospitals, New York, Philadelphia and Western Pennsylvania Hospitals, Cook County 

Hospital, and at the University of Maryland. SGO to Superintendents, Male Nurse 

Training Schools, Apr 20, 1898, Box 66, RG112, E26, NARA; Kalisch, “Heroines of 

’98,” 413.

18. DCR, v 1, 171.

19. Bache, “The Place of the Female Nurse in the Army,” 320.

20. Bache, “The Place of the Female Nurse in the Army,” 322; McGee, Women Nurses, 1.

21. DCR, v1, 725–726, v6, 2826.
lxxii The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 

22. Gillett, AMEDD 1865–1917, 123; Sarnecky, Army Nurse Corps, 30–32; McGee, 

Women Nurses, 1; M. Sternberg, GMS, 168; SGO Correspondence, Contract Nurses, Box 145, RG112, E26, NARA.

23. ARSG 1898, 140–142.

24. DCR, v1, 180, 643–644, v6, 2818–2619; GMS to Sec War, Jul 12, 1898, Box 164, 

RG112, E26.

25. GMS allowed 1 surgeon, 1 hospital steward, 10 privates, 10 beds, and supplies for 90 

days per regiment, which were adequate and allowed mobility on campaign. DCR,

v1, 173–174, 181.

26. Hospital facilities were established in convent buildings at Key West, empty barracks at Forts Thomas and Myer, and the Leiter Hotel at Chickamauga, while tents 

expanded existing hospitals at Forts McPherson and Monroe. Four nurses were 

on duty at the general hospital at Key West by mid-May, but only 50 contracts had 

been let by July 1, not more than 100 by mid month, and he continued to search for 

male nurses. DCR, v1, 172, 655-58, 731, v6, 2825; GMS to Ludington, May 30, 1898, 

Ludington to GMS, Jun 5, 1898, Box 189, and GMS to Matas, Jul 11, 1898, Box 171, 

E26, RG112, NARA.

27. Cosmas, Army for Empire, 119, 120.

28. For each regiment, this included two ambulances, four extra litters, a field hospital 

with a holding capacity for 10 patients, medical and surgical chests, and supplies 

for 90 days. DCR, v1, 681. Purveying officers Colonels Joseph P. Wright, J. V. D. 

Middleton, and Lieutenant Colonel J. M. Brown served at St. Louis, San Francisco, 

and New York, respectively. ARSG 1898, 105–106.

29. ARSG 1898, 103–106; DCR, v1, 681–682, 686, v6, 2836.

30. ARSG 1898, 104–106; GMS to Pope, May 17, 1898, Box 164, E26, RG112, NARA; 

Trask, War with Spain, 183; Cosmas, Army for Empire, 250.

31. Cosmas, Army for Empire, 173–174, 177, 193; Trask, War with Spain, 116, 132–134, 

172–175.

32. DCR, v1, 717–719, v6, 2831–2833, v7, 3328–3329.

33. Trask, War with Spain, 178; DCR, v1, 190, 709.

34. ARSG 1898, 107–109; Trask, War with Spain, 194, 213, 217; DCR, v1, 151, 196, 720; 

Wood to GMS, Jun 30, 1898, Box 164, E26, RG112, NARA.

35. Greenleaf to GMS, Jun 11, Box 164, E26, RG112, NARA.

36. GMS to Greenleaf, Jun 12, 1898, Box 164, E26, RG112, NARA.

37. GMS to Byrne, Jun 9, 1898, Box 195, E26, RG112, NARA.

38. DCR, v1, 573, 718.

39. The nurses were Amy Farquharson, Amanda J. Armistead, Lucy Ashley Sharp, Elsie 

Lempe, Louise Jones Block, and Esther Voorhees Hasson. NYT, “The Hospital Ship 

Relief,” Jun 16 and “Departure of the Relief,” Jul 3, 1898.
Endnotes lxxiii

40. Barton, The Red Cross, 557, 560, 561; DCR, v1, 195, 709–710, 720, v5, 2369; Wood 

to GMS, Jun 30, 1898, Box 164, and Barton to GMS, Jun 21, 1898, Box 195, E26, 

RG112, NARA.

41. ARSG 1898, 144–145; DCR, v1, 709, 710, v5, 1833–1834, 1836, 1966–1967; Trask, 

War with Spain, 295; NYEP, “The Yellow Fever Menace,” Jul 14, 1898; Shafter, “Capture of Santiago de Cuba,” 627–628.

42. GMS to Adj Gen and Adj Gen to Shafter, Jul 13, 1898, Box 212, E26, RG112, NARA.

43. Shafter to Adj Gen, Jul 14 1898, 139 and Greenleaf to GMS, Jul 14, 1898, 140, Correspondence, v1.

44. Greenleaf to GMS, Jul 14, 1898; Correspondence, v1, 140; ARSG 1898, 6.

45. DCR, v1, 719, 726; NYT, “Red Cross Relief Work,” Jul 17, 1898.

46. Concerned health officials in some of the Gulf Coast states had already registered 

their apprehensions about diseased soldiers returning to their states from Cuba 

and unfounded rumors were circulating that Tampa was now infected. Sanders to 

GMS, Jun 17, 1898, Corbin to Coppinger, and Coppinger to Corbin, Jul 17, 1898, 

and Porter to GMS, Jul 21, 1898, Box 194, E26, RG112, NARA.

47. NYT, “The Olivette’s Wounded,” Jul 18, 1898.

48. These vessels had not become filthy, pestholes overnight. The V Corps Surgeon and 

other medical officers had commented on the poor living conditions aboard the 

steamers before they left Tampa in June, but the urgency of the invasion necessitated their use. DCR, v1, 143–146, 616, v7, Torney Testimony, 3339–3340; ARSG 

1899, 190; NYT, “Gen Sternberg’s Visit,” Jul 27, 1898; NYEP, “Arrival of the Seneca,” 

Jul 20 and “Dr. G. M. Sternberg Here,” Jul 26, 1898; Trask, War with Spain, 330; 

GMS, “The Medical Department of the Army,” 214; Byrne to GMS Aug 1, 1898, Box 

219 and NYT, “The Concho,” Aug 2, 1898, Box 222, RG112, E26, NARA.

49. NYT, “Red Cross Relief Work,” Jul 17, 1898.

50. NYT, “Yellow Fever Checked,” Jul 20 and “Battling With the Fever,” Jul 31, 1898.

51. DCR, v1, 176; Trask, War with Spain, 328.

52. Trask, War with Spain, 328–329; Corbin to Shafter, Jul 19, 1898 and Shafter to Adj 

Gen July 25, 1898, Box 212, E26, RG112, NARA.

53. Trask, War with Spain, 330; Shafter to Adj Gen, July 29, 1898, Correspondence, v1, 

186; Cosmas, Army for Empire, 258; ARSG 1899, 217.

54. Miley, In Cuba with Shafter, 216–217; Havard to GMS, Jul 31, 1898, Box 164, RG112, 

E26, NARA. GMS calculated later the admission rate on Cuba was 1,175 per thousand troops, or nearly 20,000 cases. Disease incidence of this magnitude, when the 

treatment was known and there was plenty of quinine available throughout the 

campaign, is attributed to GMS’s reticence to use quinine prophylaxis and the fact 

that many physicians still confused typhoid fever with malaria. “Surgeon General’s 

Report” in ARWD, 1899, 640.

55. Havard to GMS, Jul 31, 1898, Box 164, RG112, E26, NARA.
lxxiv The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 

56. GMS and others had previously inspected the 15,000-acre site owned by the Long 

Island Railroad Company and recommended it to the Sec War. DCR, v1, 215–217; 

Cosmas, Army for Empire, 258–260; Trask, War with Spain, 330.

57. Shafter to Corbin, Aug 2, 1898, Box 164, E26, RG112, NARA; Miley, In Cuba With 

Shafter, 217–218.

58. Shafter to Corbin, Aug 3, 1898, Box 164, RG112, E26, NARA; DCR, v1, 217–218. 

Quite interestingly, “mild” type yellow fever was considered to be sporadic, not 

epidemic; however, they feared it had a very real potential to assume a virulent 

character at any time and become epidemic because of the weakened condition of 

the troops. Havard to GMS, Jul 31, 1898, Box 164, E26, RG112, NARA.

59. Shafter to Corbin, Aug 3, 1898, Box 164, RG112, E26, NARA; Miley, In Cuba With 

Shafter, 220–221.

60. NYT,“Generals Write a Round Robin,” Aug 5, 1898; Cosmas, Army for Empire, 261; 

Trask, War with Spain, 331–332; BDE, “Shafter Lays the Blame on Sternberg,” Aug 

8, 1898; GMS to Corbin, Aug 3, 1898, Box 219; and Corbin to GMS, Aug 4, 1898, 

Box 164, E26, RG112, NARA.

61. GMS to Forwood, Aug 6, 1898, DCR, v2, 740–741, v5, Forwood Testimony, 1888; 

Cosmas, Army for Empire, 262.

62. Editorials, “The Army and Quarantine,” and “The Wounded After Siboney,” Med 

Rec 54 (Jul 30, 1898), 161–162; GMS to Senn, Jul 30, 1898, Box 222, E26, RG112, 

NARA.

63. GMS to Gould, Aug 3, 1898, Box 222, RG112, E26.

64. GMS, “The Medical Department of the Army,” 213–214, “The Medical Department 

of the Army – Letter from Gen. Sternberg,” 182–183, and “General Sternberg’s Answer to His Critics,” 335–337.

65. NYS, “The Concho,” Aug 2, 1898; Byrne to GMS, Aug 1, 1898, Box 219, E26, RG112, 

NARA.

66. NYT, “Medical Orders Violated,” Aug 5, 1898.

67. Ibid.

68. Ibid.

69. NYEP, “Surgeon-General Sternberg’s Responsibility,” Aug 5, 1898.

70. Forwood to GMS, Aug 6, and GMS to Forwood, Aug 8, 1898, Box 224 and GMS to 

Alger, Aug 8, 1898, Box 129, E26, RG112, NARA; DCR, v1, 218, v5, Forwood Testimony 1888, 1893; Cosmas, Army for Empire, 263, 264; Burtenshaw, “Caring for the 

Sick and Wounded,” 236; Prescott, “Camp Wikoff,” 83; NYT, “Montauk Camp Not 

Ready,” Aug 28, 1898. Allen, “Conditions at Camp Wikoff,” 326–327; Pritchard, “A 

True Pen-Picture of Camp Wikoff,” 333.

71. Forwood to GMS, Aug 10, 1898, Box 224, E26, RG112, NARA; Forwood to GMS, 

Aug 11, 1898, Correspondence Relating to Camp Wikoff, DCR, v2, 742, 745–746, 

750, and Brown Testimony, DCR, v6, 2, 732.
Endnotes lxxv

72. Burtenshaw, “Caring for the Sick and Wounded,” 235–236; Cosmas, Army for Empire, 263.

73. Forwood to GMS, Aug 10, 1898, Box 224, RG112, E26; GMS to Forwood and Byrne, Aug 14, Young to GMS and Doty to GMS, Aug 16, and GMS to Doty, Aug 

18, 1898, Box 212, RG112, E26; DCR, v2, 743; NYT, “Contagion Feared at Camp 

Wikoff, Aug 17, and “No Quarantine at Camp Wikoff,” Aug 18, 1898. One medical 

authority, Dr. Frederick Castle, claimed that the water was insufficient for any 

length of time and that a tetanus epidemic was imminent, as Montauk was the only 

place in North America, with the exception of Nova Scotia, where the tetanus bacillus thrived in the soil. NYT, “Bad Water at Montauk,” Aug 11, 1898.

74. DCR, v1, 144 and v2, 746–748, 749, 750, v5, 1895.

75. The arrival of more ambulances alleviated difficulties with supply distribution, and 

although some physicians would complain later they could not get medicines, this 

was due more to obstinacy in not following request procedures than a genuine lack 

of items. DCR, v2, 754–755, 758, 759; Trask, War with Spain, 334.

76. DCR, v2, 749; Pritchard, “A True Pen-Picture of Camp Wikoff,” 332; NYT, “Conditions at Montauk,” Aug 31, 1898.

77. Forwood to GMS, Sep 10, 1898, Correspondence Relating to Camp Wikoff, DCR,

v2, 758.

78. DCR, v1, 219. 

79. NYT, “Camp Alger a Pest Hole,” Aug 6, “The Disappointed Eighth,” Aug 7, and 

“Awful Suffering at Camp Thomas,” Aug 10, 1898; Trask, War with Spain, 357–365; 

Ashford, “Observations on the Campaign in Western Porto Rico,” 162, 163, 167.

80. ARSG 1899, 109–115; Cirillo, Bullets and Bacilli, 62, 63, 69, 70; NYT, “Battling with 

the Fever,” Jul 31, 1898, “Camp Alger a Pest Hole,” Aug 6, 1898, and “Chickamauga 

a Pest Hole,” Aug 14, 1898.

81. NYT, “Sickness Not Alarming,” Jul 29, “Battling with the Fever,” Jul 31, “Camp Alger 

a Pest Hole,” Aug 6, and “The Disappointed Eighth,” Aug 7, 1898; GMS to Corbin, 

Jul 29, 1898, Box 236, RG112, NARA; Reed, Vaughn, and Shakespeare, Origin and 

Spread of Typhoid Fever, 3; ARSG 1899, 173–183.

82. DCR, v2, 773–776, v6, 2816, 2821, 2823.

83. Reed, Vaughn, and Shakespeare, Origin and Spread of Typhoid Fever, 3. See also 

ARSG 1899, 620–625.

84. Reed, Vaughn, and Shakespeare, Origin and Spread of Typhoid Fever, 6–9, 167–174, 

178–179, 182–184, 188, 190.

85. M. Sternberg, GMS, 184; BDE, “Shocking Scandal at Camp Thomas,” and “A Time 

for Plainness of Speech, Aug 25, 1898; NYEP, “Surgeon General Sternberg’s Responsibility,” Aug 5, 1898; NYT, “Sternberg Answers Shafter,” and “Sternberg May be 

Removed,” Aug 10, “Yellow Fever at Montauk,” and “Gen Sternberg Defense,” Aug 

30, and “Red Cross Works in Camps,” Aug 31, 1898.

86. M. Sternberg, GMS, 185.
lxxvi The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 

87. Secretary of War Alger and Adj. Gen. Corbin urged the President to order a formal 

investigation into the conduct of the war. Politicians and newspaper editors were 

quick to note that an investigation of the War Department was an investigation of 

the President, impartiality was impossible, and the entire effort would be a farce. 

Undaunted, McKinley made it clear he wanted to define the errors made, identify 

the guilty, and ensure they were prosecuted. This made finding a chair for the committee difficult, as many candidates saw a witch-hunt in the making to pacify voters 

and ensure Republican stability on Capitol Hill, while providing no legal protection for those accused. GMS, “The Medical Department of the Army,” 213–214 and 

“The Medical Department of the Army – Letter from Gen. Sternberg,” 182–183; 

Shrady, “Who is to Blame,” 269; Editorial, “The Responsibility for Army Medical 

Defects,” 453; NYT, “What Sternberg Says,” Aug 28, 1898, “Seeks No Inquiry Now,” 

Sep 2, “Alger Asks an Inquiry,” Sep 9, and “Alger’s Request Granted,” Sep 10, 1898; 

Cosmas, Army for Empire, 284–286.

88. NYT, “What Sternberg Says,” Aug 28 and “Seeks No Inquiry Now,” Sep 2, 1898; 

DCR, v8, 37.

89. DCR, v1, 188.

90. Ibid., 189.

91. Ibid., 188–189.

92. Leech, Days of McKinley, 300.

93. Leech, Days of McKinley, 301–303; Cosmas, Army for Empire, 254; Trask, War with 

Spain, 160–161.

94. Curtin, Disease and Empire, 26–27; Osler, Principles and Practice of Medicine, 155; 

Manson, Tropical Diseases, 125; GMS, Malaria and Malarial Diseases, 121–122.

95. ARSG 1899, 365.

96. Sarnecky, Army Nurse Corps, 30.

97. Leech, Days of McKinley, 300; Trask, War with Spain, 160.

Chapter Thirteen

Empire and Insurrection

1. Linn, Philippine War, 3, 5, 6; Trask, War with Spain, 384; Cosmas, Army for Empire,

199-200; Lippincott, “Reminiscences of the Expedition,” 168. 

2. The engagement claimed 6 American lives and wounded 92, of whom 47 required 

hospitalization. Linn, Philippine War, 3, 5, 23–24, 27, 30–31; Trask, War with Spain,

413–414, 418–442; Woodhull to Adj Gen, Jan 30, 1900, Box 33, S26, RG112, S26, 

NARA; ARSG 1899, 451, 475. 

3. Birtle, U.S. Army Counterinsurgency and Contingency Operations, 99-100; Foner, 

Spanish-Cuban-American War, 422.
Endnotes lxxvii

4. Linn, Philippine War, 29–30, 31. Officers making up the Manila Board of Health 

were Major Frank S. Bourns, and Acting Assistant Surgeons Charles McQuesten 

and B. Ffoulkes. ARSG 1899, 452–453, 471, 488.

5. ARSG 1899, 357, 362–363, 376–377, 505, 545, 556.

6. ARSG 1900, 609; Greenleaf, “A Brief Statement of the Sanitary Work,” 157; Gillett, 

“U.S. Army Medical Officers,” 570.

7. ARSG 1899, 498–503, 502.

8. ARSG 1899, 365, 503, 504.

9. The Medical Department purchased and distributed 26,000 mosquito bars in 1899. 

This netting was meant to keep annoying mosquitoes at bay purely for comfort. 

ARSG 1899, 503; ARSG 1900, 745; Ward, “The Influence of Ronald Ross,” 208; Ross, 

Memoirs, 330–331, 528; Editorial, “Malaria and Mosquitoes,” JAMA 35 (Oct 20, 

1900):1039.

10. Ross, Memoirs, 127.

11. GMS to Maus, Dec 30, 1898, Box 236, E26, RG112, NARA; ARSG 1899, 505–506, 

626–627; Truby, Memoir of Walter Reed, 27–28.

12. ARSG 1899, 453.

13. Ibid.

14. Ibid.

15. Linn, Philippine War, 44, 46–52.

16. ARSG 1899, 461.

17. Ibid.

18. ARSG 1899, 462.

19. Linn, Philippine War, 56–57, 88–91.

20. ARSG 1899, 372; GMS to Sec War, 30 Nov 1898, E26, Box 152, RG112, NARA;

ARSG 1900, 606.

21. GMS to Sec War, Feb 1, 1899, RG112, E26, Box 152, NARA; ARSG 1899, 372.

22. Gillette, AMEDD 1865–1917, 216.

23. Woodhull to GMS, May 23 and 24, Jun 4, 1899, Box 338, S26, RG112, NARA.

24. Ibid.

25. Woodhull to GMS, May 23 and 24, Jun 4, 1899, and Woodhull to Adj Gen, Jul 3, 

1899, Box 338, S26, RG112, NARA; ARSG 1899, 465.

26. ARSG 1899, 505–506; GMS to Reed, April 19, 1899, Box 236, S26, RG112, NARA; 

Truby, A Memoir, 27–28.

27. ARSG 1899, 626, 631–632.

28. GMS, “Sanitary Lessons of the War,” 1287–1294.
lxxviii The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 

29. Williams, United States Public Health Service, 222–223; GMS, “Bacillus Icteroides 

and Bacillus x,” 233, 234.

30. Agramonte, “Inside History,” 213.

31. ARSG 1899, 523; Truby, A Memoir, 37–39, 42, 43, 54; Geddings, “Causal Relationship of the Bacillus Icteroides,” 704; Agramonte to GMS, Oct 2, 1899, Box 1, Folder 

13, NLM.

32. Geddings, “Causal Relation of the Bacillus Icteroides,” 704–705; Reed and Carroll, 

“Bacillus Icteroides and Bacillus Cholerae Suis,” 514; GMS to Agramonte, Jun 5, 

1899, Reed-Hench Collection, UVA; GMS, “Yellow Fever Etiology,” 1039–1040.

33. Sanarelli, “Some Observations and Controversial Remarks,” 193–199 and Editorial, 

“Sanarelli and the Pathogenic Role of the Bacillus Icteroides,” 193–199; GMS, “Bacillus Icteroides as the Cause of Yellow Fever,” 225-228; Archinard, “Experiments 

Performed,” 85.

34. Woodhull to Adj Gen, Aug 3, 1899, Otis to Adj Gen, Aug 5, 1899, and Woodhull to 

GMS, Aug 15, 1899, Box 338, S26, RG112, NARA; Linn, Philippine War, 122–123, 

139.

35. ARSG 1900, 535; GMS to Adj Gen, May 29, 1899, Box 133, S26, RG112, NARA.

36. Acting Surgeon Gen to Corbin, Jul 1, 1899, and GMS to Woodhull, Jul 19, 1899, Box 

338, and GMS to Forwood, Jul 27, 1899, Box 10, S26, RG112, NARA.

37. GMS had the money and sent Major and Surgeon Daniel M. Appel to New Mexico 

to survey what was required. Appel reported the hospital, two sets of barracks, and 

16 sets of officer’s quarters would establish a comfortable sanitarium. By the end 

of the year, tubercular officers and enlisted men were enjoying the salubrious dry 

climate of New Mexico. ARSG 1900, 538–539; Ludington to Sec War, Aug 19, Appel 

to GMS, Oct 10, and GMS to Appel, Oct 26, 1899, Box 359, E26, RG112, NARA.

38. Jessup, Elihu Root, v1, 220, 224, 241–242; Weigley, History of the U.S. Army, 314–

319.

39. Sternberg, GMS, 219–220; GMS to Woodhull, Aug 28, Sep 23, and Oct 10, 1899, 

Box 338, S26, RG112, NARA. 

40. GMS to Forwood, Sep 30 and Oct 10, 1899, Box 338, S26, RG112, NARA.

41. Linn, Philippine War, 142–143, 147–148, 149, 151, 154–155, 158–159; Woodhull to 

GMS, Nov 13, Box 339, S26, RG112, NARA.

42. Woodhull to GMS, Nov 16, 1899, and GMS to Forwood, Nov 16, 1899, Box 339, 

S26, RG112, NARA; Woodhull to GMS, Nov 20, 1899, McKinley Papers, Series 1, 

Reel 9, LOC; ARSG 1900, 604–605.

43. Linn, Philippine War, 160, 180; Greenleaf to GMS, Feb 16, 1900, Box 339, S26, 

RG112, NARA; Wolff, Little Brown Brother, 289.

44. Brands, Bound to Empire, 63; Linn, Philippine War, 216.

45. ARSG 1900, 531–532; Hume, Victories of Army Medicine, 175; Meacham to GMS, 

Aug 22, 1899, Box 1, Folder 27, MS C100, George Miller Sternberg Papers, 1861–

1917, NLM; Ashford, Soldier in Science, 4–5; Curry, “U. S. Army Pathological Laboratories,” 175–176.
Endnotes lxxix

46. ARSG 1900, 531.

47. ARSG 1900, 532; Curry, “U. S. Army Pathological Laboratories,” 175–176.

48. Linn, Philippine War, 187; Wolff, Little Brown Brother, 288–289.

49. Greenleaf to GMS, Feb 10, 1900, Box 339, S26, RG112, NARA.

50. Greenleaf to GMS, Feb 10, 1900, Box 339, S26, RG112 and PPPMO, Box 654 

(Woodhull), RG94, NARA; ARSW 1900, 605.

51. Greenleaf to GMS, Feb 10, 1900, Box 339, S26, RG112, NARA.

52. Ibid.

53. ARSG 1900, 606; GMS to Root, Nov 29, 1899, GMS to McKinley, Dec 6, 1899, and 

GMS to Senator Hawley and Representative Hull, Apr 13, 1900, Box 152, E26, 

RG112, NARA.

54. GMS to Greenleaf, Mar 12, Letter, GMS to Greenleaf, and Telegram, GMS to Greenleaf, both Mar 29, 1900, Box 339, E26, RG112, NARA.

55. Sarnecky, Army Nurse Corps, 46.

56. More than just giving the Nurse Corps a black eye, these undesirables brought the 

difficulties of obtaining and maintaining competent female nurses in a combat zone 

to the fore once again. Sarnecky, Army Nurse Corps, 47; Circular No. 1, Mar 9, 1900, 

Box 171, and GMS to Greenleaf, Mar 13, 1900, Box 338, E26, RG112, NARA.

57. GMS to Greenleaf, Mar 13, 1900, Box 338, E26, RG112, NARA.

58. Sarnecky, Army Nurse Corps, 46; Greenleaf to GMS, Apr 30, 1900, Box 338, E26, 

RG112, NARA.

59. GMS to Greenleaf, Jun 30, 1900, Box 338, E26, RG112, NARA.

60. ARSG 1899, 377–382, and ARSG 1900, 534; GMS to Greenleaf, Jun 30, 1900, Box 

338; Sarnecky, Army Nurse Corps, 49–50; GMS, “Surgeon General Sternberg’s Report,” 123–125; Kalisch, “Heroines of ’98,” 425–426. 

61. GMS to Greenleaf, Jun 22, 1900, Box 339, Girard to GMS, Dec 28, 1899, Wells to 

GMS, Dec 31, 1899, and Hoff to GMS, Jan 2, 1900, Box 373, E26, RG112, NARA.

62. Linn, Philippine War, 206, 202, 208–209; Gates, Schoolbooks and Krags, 171; Wolff, 

Little Brown Brother, 309–310, 318.

63. Linn, Philippine War, 209–210; Wolff, Little Brown Brother, 310–312; Gates, Schoolbooks and Krags, 177.

64. Gates, Schoolbooks and Krags, 135; Greenleaf, “Brief Statement of the Sanitary 

Work,” 158; GMS to Greenleaf, Jun 23, 1900, Box 339, E26, RG112, NARA.

65. Greenleaf to Taft, June 27, 1900, Box 339, E26, RG112, NARA.

66. Ibid.

67. Ibid.

68. Ibid.

69. Taft Endorsement, Jun 30, 1900, Box 339, E26, RG112, NARA.
lxxx The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 

70. Corbin Endorsement, Aug 3, 1900, Box 339, RG112, E26, NARA.

71. Ibid.

72. Ibid.

Chapter Fourteen

Yellow Fever Loses Its Mystique

1. Hagedorn, Leonard Wood, 240, 242–243, 280–281.

2. Bean, Walter Reed, 108; Truby, A Memoir, 181.

3. GMS, “Transmission of Yellow Fever by Mosquitoes,” 229, 230.

4. GMS, “Etiology and Classification of Infectious Diseases,” 660; GMS to Reed, May 

29, 1900, Box 460, E26, RG112, NARA.

5. GMS to Reed, May 29, 1900, Box 460, E26, RG112, NARA.

6. GMS to Reed, May 29, 1900, Box 460, E26, RG112, NARA; Agramonte, “Inside Story,” 216; Truby, A Memoir, 61, 82–84; Bean, Walter Reed, 110; GMS to T. Roosevelt, 

Jan 25, 1905, Box 2, Folder 1, MS C100 George Miller Sternberg Papers, 1861–1917, 

NLM; Welch to GMS, Jan 12, 1900, Box 425, E26, RG112, NARA.

7. Truby, A Memoir, 87–89; Carroll to Surgeon General, 18 Aug 1906, Box 236, E26, 

RG112, NARA; Furman, Profile of the USPHS, 234, 236, 237.

8. Carter to Lazear, Jun 26, 1900, Box 1, Folder 3, MS C160 Henry Rose Carter Papers, 

1899–1968, NLM.

9. Carter, “A Note on the Interval between Infecting and Secondary Cases,” 636; Truby 

to Hench, Nov 30, 1941, Box 39, Philip Showalter Hench Series, Reed-Hench Collection, UVA; Finlay, “Transmission of Yellow Fever,” 73; John J. Moran, “Memoir 

of a Human Guinea Pig,” 6, Walter Reed Series, Box 25, #02571001, Reed-Hench 

Collection, UVA; Reed, “Propagation of Yellow Fever,” 203.

10. Reed to GMS, Jul 24, 1900, Walter Reed Series, Box 20, #02064001, Reed-Hench 

Collection, UVA.

11. Ibid.

12. Bean, “Walter Reed and the Ordeal of Human Experiments,” 84–85; Carroll, Statement to the Surgeon General, Aug 18, 1906, Box 236, E26, RG112, NARA; Truby, A

Memoir, 104. 

13. Hagedorn, Leonard Wood, v1, 324.

14. Ibid.

15. Preston, The Boxer Rebellion, 22–23, 32, 39, 92–96; Daggett, America and the China 

Relief Expedition, 13–14, 24–25; ARSW 1900, Part 7, 5–6.
Endnotes lxxxi

16. GMS to Stephenson, Jul 3, 1900, Box 101, E25, RG112, NARA and GMS to Adj Gen, 

Jun 27, 1900, Box 133, S26, RG112, NARA; GMS to Greenleaf, Jul 3 and Greenleaf 

to GMS, Jul 4, Jul 7, and Jul 14, 1900, Box 339, E26, RG112, NARA.

17. MacArthur to Corbin, Jul 26, 1900, Box 339, E26, RG112, NARA.

18 GMS to Corbin, Subject Hospital Corps, Jul 26, 1900, Box 339, E26, RG112, NARA.

19. Ibid.

20. Ibid.

21. GMS to Corbin, Subject Hospital Corps, Jul 26, 1900, Box 339, E26, RG112, NARA;

ARSG 1900, 575.

22. Corbin to GMS, Jul 27, 1900, Box 339, E26, RG112, NARA.

23. GMS to Root, Aug 7, 1900, Box 339, E26, RG112, NARA.

24. Ibid.

25. ARWD 1900, Part 7, 9–11, 13, 33–40, 42.

26. This action resulted in a quick rebuke from MacArthur, who thought his total medical supplies were being reduced by half because of a miscommunication from the 

supply officer in the SGO, but Sternberg held firm on his decision. GMS to Root 

and MacArthur to Corbin, Aug 9, 1900, Box 339, E26, RG112, NARA.

27. GMS to Greenleaf, Aug 9, and GMS to Greenleaf Aug 11, 1900, Box 339, E26, 

RG112, NARA. 1st Reserve Hospital: 187 sick; 5 surgeons (3 commissioned); 2d 

Reserve Hospital: 255 sick; 5 surgeons (2 commissioned); 3d Reserve Hospital: 

212 sick; 5 surgeons (2 commissioned); Santa Mesa Hospital: 448 sick; 10 surgeons 

(5 commissioned); Corregidor Hospital: 175 sick; 3 surgeons (1 commissioned); 

Board of Health: 6 surgeons (4 commissioned); Supply Depot: 2. GMS to Greenleaf, 

Aug 11, 1900, Box 339, E26, RG112, NARA.

28. GMS to Root, Aug 15, 1900, Box 339, E26, RG112, NARA.

29. Greenleaf put military and Manila hospitals in quotation for clarification in his letter to Sternberg. Greenleaf to GMS, Aug 15, 1900, Box 339, E26, RG112, NARA.

30. Greenleaf to GMS, Sep 23, 1900, Box 339, E26, RG112, NARA

31. GMS to Greenleaf, Sep 10, 1900, Box 339, E26, and Kean to GMS, Sep 24, 1900, Box 

93, E25, RG112, NARA.

32. GMS to Kean, Sep 25, 1900, Box 425, E25, RG112, NARA.

33. Agramonte, “Inside Story,” 220, 223, 224; Carroll, Statement to the Surgeon General, Aug 18, 1906, Box 236, E26, and Kean to GMS, Sep 26, 1900, Box 93, E25, 

RG112, NARA; Truby, A Memoir, 120.

34. Reed, Carroll, Agramonte, and Lazear, “The Etiology of Yellow Fever: A Preliminary Note,” 792–793; Bean, Walter Reed, 136, 141; GMS to Adj Gen, 19 Oct 1900, 

Box 236, E26, RG112, NARA; GMS to Howard Kelly, Dec 12, 1902, Jefferson Randolph Kean Series, Box 143, #14347001, Reed-Hench Collection, UVA.

35. Greenleaf to GMS, Aug 19 and GMS to Greenleaf, Oct 1, 1900, Box 339, E26, 

RG112, NARA.
lxxxii The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 

36. GMS to Greenleaf, Oct 18, 1900, Box 339, E26, RG112, NARA.

37. GMS to Corbin, Oct 8, 1900, Box 339, E26, RG112, NARA.

38. Linn, Philippine War, 272–273; Saxton, Soldiers in the Sun, 248–251; MacArthur to 

Corbin, Nov 22, 1900, Box 339, E26, RG112, NARA.

39. Bean, Walter Reed, 141–142; GMS to Reed, Oct 23, 1900, Box 236, E26, RG112, 

NARA; NYT, Oct 27, 1900.

40. Bean, Walter Reed, 142; Truby, A Memoir, 133.

41. Hagedorn, Leonard Wood, v1, 326; Bean, Walter Reed, 169, 175–176.

42. Reed, “The Etiology of Yellow Fever: A Preliminary Note,” 796.

43. Welch, Novy, and Archinard in the U.S., Roux in Paris, Lutz in Brazil, and the editor of the Centralblatt für Bacteriologie in Berlin received copies of Reed’s article. 

Bean, “Walter Reed and the Ordeal of Human Experiments,” 86; Truby, A Memoir,

133–134; GMS to DeArmond, May 16, 1901, Box 511, RG112, NARA; GMS to 

Reed, Nov 17, 1900, Walter Reed Series, Box 22, #02204001, Reed-Hench Collection, UVA.

44. Truby, A Memoir, 104.

45. GMS, “Yellow Fever and Mosquitoes,” 1391.

46. Truby, A Memoir, 132, 136; Hagedorn, Leonard Wood, v1, 326–328; Reed, “The Etiology of Yellow Fever: An Additional Note,” 132.

47. Reed, “The Etiology of Yellow Fever: An Additional Note,” 132; Sternberg, GMS,

222; Truby, A Memoir, 159–160.

48. Reed to Emilie Reed, Dec 11, 1900, Walter Reed Series, Box 22, 02233001, ReedHench Collection, UVA.

49. Ibid.

50. Reed, “The Etiology of Yellow Fever: An Additional Note,” 434, 438; Truby, A Memoir, 150.

51. Sternberg, GMS, 223, 224.

52. GMS to Reed, Dec 17, 1900, Box 236, E26, RG112, NARA; Reed to Emilie, Dec 18, 

1900, Walter Reed Series, Box 22, #02248001, Reed-Hench Collection, UVA.

53. GMS to Reed, Dec 19, 1900, Walter Reed Series, Box 22, #02250001, Reed-Hench 

Collection, UVA.

54. GMS to Adj Gen, Dec 27, 1900, Box 236, E26, RG112, NARA; and GMS to Reed, 

Dec 27, 1900, Jefferson Randolph Kean Series, Box 143, #14333001, Reed-Hench 

Collection, UVA. 

55. Reed, “The Etiology of Yellow Fever: An Additional Note,” 431, 436; Sternberg, 

GMS, 224; Reed to Emilie Reed, Jan 3, 1901, Walter Reed Series, Box 24, #02403001, 

Reed-Hench Collection, UVA.

56. Reed, “The Etiology of Yellow Fever: An Additional Note,” 431, 436; Bean, Walter 

Reed, 164, 165.
Endnotes lxxxiii

57. Morgan, William McKinley, 443; Linn, Philippine War, 273–275; Young, The General’s General, 280–281.

58. Clary and Whitehorne, Inspectors General, 391; Gillette, AMEDD 1865–1917, 318–

319; ARSG 1901, 571, 574, 576.

59. ARSG 1901, 571, 574–575.

60. GMS to Chief Surgeon, Department of California, Aug 24, 1901, Box 513, E26, 

RG112, NARA; ARSG 1901, 576.

61. ARSG 1901, 575, 577; Greenleaf to GMS, Jan 29, 1901, Box 513, E26, RG112, NARA.

62. Forwood to GMS, Feb 25, 1901, Box 529, E26, RG112, NARA.

63. Torney to GMS, Mar 1 and Bannister to GMS, Feb 21, 1901, Box 529, and Byrne to 

GMS, Mar 27, 1901, Box 406, E26, RG112, NARA.

64. ARSG 1902, 28. 

65. Gorgas, Sanitation in Panama, 42.

66. Gorgas, Sanitation in Panama, 50–61; Havard to Kean, April 19, 1925, KAMD0790, 

Reed-Hench Collection, UVA.

67. Smallpox vaccination techniques gave validity to this idea. The natural history of 

the disease on Cuba and the experimental results of the yellow fever board added 

weight to the theory. Of the 26 cases of experimentally induced yellow fever, the 

majority of them had been mild attacks. Gorgas, Sanitation in Panama, 42–43, 47, 

50, 52, 58; Gorgas to GMS, Feb 25, 1901, Box 218, E26, RG112, NARA.

68. Gorgas, Sanitation in Panama, 43–44.

69. GMS to Adj Gen, Mar 8 1901, Box 133, and GMS to Greenleaf, Mar 19, 1901, Box 

339, E26, RG112, NARA; Leech, Days of McKinley, 575; Sternberg, GMS, 228; Clary 

and Whitehorne, Inspectors General, 386.

70. Record Card #78292, Box 108, E25, RG112, E25; Sternberg, GMS, 227–228.

71. GMS to Nicholson, Jun 18, 1901, Box 133 and GMS to Adj Gen, Jan 17, 1901, Box 

236, E26, RG112, NARA; GMS, Manual of Bacteriology, 331.

72. Bean, Walter Reed, 164; Carroll to Surgeon General, Aug 18, 1906, Box 236, E26, 

RG112, NARA; Pierce and Writer, Yellow Jack, 198–200; Reed to Gorgas, Jul 29, 

1901, Box 1, Folder 9, MS C6 Walter Reed Memorial Association, NLM.

73. Reed to Emilie Reed, Dec 9, 1900, Walter Reed Series, Box 22, #02231001, ReedHench Collection, UVA.

74. GMS, “The Transmission of Yellow Fever by Mosquitoes,” 228–229.

75. Reed to Gorgas, Jun 27, 1901, Box 1, Folder 9, MS C6 Walter Reed Memorial Association, NLM.

76. Bean, Walter Reed, 166, 171; Warner, “Hunting the Yellow Fever Germ,” 374; Gillett, 

AMEDD 1865–1917, 246; Pierce and Writer, Yellow Jack, 205–206.

77. GMS, “Etiology and Classification of Infectious Diseases,” 658, 659–660.
lxxxiv The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 

78. GMS to Chaille, Feb 15, 1898, Walter Reed Series, Box 18, #01827001, Reed-Hench 

Collection, UVA.

79. Sternberg, GMS, 228–229; GMS to Forwood, Jul 21, 1901, Box 133, E26, RG112, 

NARA.

80. ARIG 1902, 433–434; Sternberg, GMS, 229-233; GMS to Forwood, Jul 21, 1901, Box 

133, E26, RG112, NARA.

81. Dysentery was still the major killer, followed by killed in action and drowning, but 

it only accounted for 13% of hospitalizations, behind venereal disease (16.8%) and 

malaria (13.5%), and just ahead of wounds and injuries (11.8%). ARSG 1902, 433–

434; M. Sternberg, GMS, 230–233; GMS to Forwood, Aug 5, 1901, Box 133, E26, 

RG112, E26, Box 133.

82. GMS to Forwood, Aug 13, 1901, McKinley Papers, Reel 16, LOC, GMS to Forwood, 

Jul 21, Aug 5, and Aug 17, 1901, Box 133, E26, RG112, NARA.

83. GMS to Forwood, Aug 17, 1901, Box 133, E26, RG112, NARA.

84. GMS to Chief Surgeon, Department of California, Aug 24, 1901, Box 513, E25, 

RG112, NARA; Corbin to Root, Sep 28, 1901, Root Papers, Box 16, LOC.

85. M. Sternberg, GMS, 233–234.

86. Sternberg, GMS, 235; Chaffee to Corbin, Sep 2, 1901, Corbin Papers, Box 1, LOC.

87. Gorgas, Sanitation in Panama, 43, 47, 50, 52, 58; Bean, Walter Reed, 164; Carroll to 

Surgeon General, Aug 18, 1906, Box 236, E26, RG112, NARA; Pierce and Writer, 

Yellow Jack, 198–200; Reed to Gorgas, Jul 29, 1901, Box 1, Folder 9, MS C6 Walter 

Reed Memorial Association, NLM.

Chapter Fifteen

A Proper Progressive in Washington

1. Sternberg, GMS, 235–236; Morgan, McKinley, 513, 520–525.

2. Hofstadter, Age of Reform, 131, 136, 144, 167; Cashman, America in the Gilded Age, 

23, 27; Wiebe, Search for Order, 12, 22, 45, 47, 53, 166, 167; Glaab and Brown, History of Urban America, 108–109, 136–138; Noble, The Progressive Mind, 3–4.

3. Pope to GMS, Dec 10, 1901, Box 340, E26, RG112, NARA.

4. GMS to Adj Gen, Dec 14, 1901, Box 1, Folder 12, MS C100, George Miller Sternberg Papers, 1861–1917, NLM.

5. GMS to Adj Gen, Dec 14, 1901, Box 1, Folder 12, MS C100, George Miller Sternberg 

Papers, 1861–1917, NLM.

6. ARSG 1902, 13.

7. Sen Docs 1679 and 3344, House Rpt 10075, LOC; GMS to Sec War, Feb 3, 1902, Box 

133, E26, RG112, NARA.
Endnotes lxxxv

8. GMS to Sec War, Feb 3, 1902, Box 133, E26, RG112, NARA.

9. Senate Bill 4889, Mar 10, 1902, LOC. Johnson to Hull, Apr 12, 1902, Box 1, Folder 

24 MS C100 George Miller Sternberg Papers, 1861–1917, NLM.

10. Hawley to GMS, 26 Apr 1902, Box 1, Folder 23 and Senate Calendar No. 1420, Report on Retirement of Medical Officers in the Army, 7 May 1902, Box 2, Folder 2, 

MS C100 George Miller Sternberg Papers, 1861–1917, NLM; Sen. Doc. S4889 and 

5213, and HR 13725, LOC.

11. Hull to Johnson, May 13, 1902, Box 1, Folder 23 and John F. Lacey to GMS, May 

26, 1902, Box 1, Folder 25, MS C100 George Miller Sternberg Papers, 1861–1917, 

NLM; “Association News,” JAMA 38 (Apr 19, 1902): 1024; Sternberg, GMS, 238.

12. GMS, “Function of the Army Medical School,” 547.

13. Ibid., 549.

14. Ibid., 547.

15. Edward G. Janeway presided as master of ceremonies and attendees included Frank 

Billings, William Welch, Alexander Abbott, George Kober, James Wilson, S. B. 

Ward, Victor Vaughn, Hermann Biggs, William Osler, Roswell Park, Navy Surgeon 

General Rixey, Marine Hospital Service Surgeon General Walter Wyman, Simon 

Flexner, William Gorgas, and Henry Lippincott. Forwood, Reed, and Borden to 

GMS, May 22, 1902, Box 1, Folder 20, MS C100 George Miller Sternberg Papers, 

1861–1917, NLM; Sternberg, GMS, 238–250.

16. Sternberg, GMS, 149, 249. 

17. Sternberg, GMS, 149. GMS became a member of the hospital Board of Incorporators and Directors and the Executive Committee in 1897. The following year, he became a member of the nurse Training School Committee. Annual Reports, Garfield 

Memorial Hospital.

18. By this time, Secretary of State John Hay and Sir Julian Pauncefote, British Minister 

in Washington, had signed a treaty in which the British gave up their claims in the 

region. The second Hay-Pauncefote Treaty was signed in Washington on November 

18, 1901. Campbell, Anglo-American Understanding, 237.

19. Gorgas, Sanitation in Panama, 139.

20. Gorgas, Sanitation in Panama, 139–142; GMS “Sanitary Problems,” 379.

21. GMS “Sanitary Problems,” 385–386.

22. GMS “Sanitary Problems,” 387.

23. Elizabeth Fee, Disease and Discovery, 61; Duffy, Sanitarians, 251–252.

24. Circular of Information, Georgetown University School of Medicine, 1903–1904, 

19, George M. Kober Papers, Georgetown University Archives; Sternberg, GMS,

237, 250; GMS, “Preventive Medicine,” 348, 358; Record of the Board of Trustees, 

Columbian University, Jun 18, 1902-May 26, 1910, 169–171, 174, 242, 419, Gelman 

Library Archives, GWU; WES, “Opening Session Monday,” Jan 10, 1903.
lxxxvi The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 

25. Hofstadter, Age of Reform, 186–187, 202; Tomes, Gospel of Germs, 139–141; GMS, 

Infection and Immunity, iii, 126–139, 159–180.

26. At the time Sternberg wrote, Congress had finally appropriated money to address 

the problem. GMS, Infection and Immunity, 130–131, 160–161, 164–165, 167, 169; 

Green, Washington, v1, 12–12, v2, 43–47, 89, 149; Lamb, History of the Medical 

Society of DC, 155–156; Report on Typhoid Fever in the District of Columbia, 3, 

4, 5, 15, 17, 18; “Purification of Water in the National Capital,” Box 17, MS C115, 

George M. Kober Papers, NLM; Annual Reports, Association for the Prevention of 

TB, 1908–1909, 9.

27. Kober, History of Housing, 31, 33, 50, 53–55; Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings, 15–16; 

“My Services on the Anti-Tuberculosis Campaign,” 13, Box 17, and Reminiscences, v2, Part 18, 305, Box 19, MS C115, George M. Kober Papers, NLM; Sternberg, 

GMS, 254.

28. Kober, History of Housing, 27, 39.

29. Kober, History of Housing, 27; GMS, “Housing Conditions in the Nation’s Capital,” 3.

30. Kober, History of Housing, 40–41, 46 and Reminiscences, v2, Part 18, 322, Box 19, 

MS C115, George M. Kober Papers, NLM; GMS, “Housing Conditions in the Nation’s Capital,” 4, and Report on Building Model Homes, 17.

31. This became evident when the popularity of two-room flats, constructed by the 

WSHC on an experimental basis, failed to materialize because tenants had no parlor in which to receive guests. GMS, Report on Building Model Homes, 88–89.

32. GMS, Report on Building Model Homes, 88–89 and “Housing Conditions in the Nation’s Capital,” 2.

33. Some form of meat and milk inspection existed in 62 cities, and milk pasteurization was becoming more common. Shryock, National Tuberculosis Association,

49, 51–54, 67–68; Knopf, History of the National Tuberculosis Association, 8–9, 16, 

18–20, 86; Ravenel, “Relation Between Human and Bovine Tuberculosis,” 31–38.

34. Koch’s introduction of tuberculin as a cure for the disease in 1890 was enthusiastically received by American physicians. Although a failure, tuberculin continued to 

be studied, prescribed, and fiercely debated for years. Koch, “Etiology of Tuberculosis,” 109; Ott, Fevered Lives, 13–16, 70, 101; Shryock, National Tuberculosis Association, 40, 42, 46–47, 107–108; Feldberg, Disease and Class, 37, 38, 44, 47, 55–58; 

GMS, Manual of Bacteriology, 375, and “Contribution to the Study of the Bacterial 

Organisms.”

35. By 1904, 96 sanatoriums and special tuberculosis hospitals had been established in 

the United States. Many were operated for the poor. Feldberg, Disease and Class,

52–53. Shryock, National Tuberculosis Association, 46–47; S. Knopf, “Sanitariums 

for the Treatment and Prophylaxis of Pulmonary Phthisis,” 419, “The Urgent Need 

of Sanatoria,” 303, Prophylaxis and Treatment of Pulmonary Tuberculosis, 169, and

History of the National Tuberculosis Association, 10–11, 12; Trudeau, An Autobiography, 89, 99, 154–155, 158, 304; Rothstein, American Physicians, 270–271; Dormandy, White Plague, 178–179. For construction details see, Thomas S. Carrington, 

Tuberculosis Hospital and Sanatorium Construction, New York, 1911. Sternberg’s 

younger brother, Albert, died at Saranac Lake in 1894. Sternberg, Story of My Life, 30.
Endnotes lxxxvii

36. Shryock, National Tuberculosis Association, 49, 70–72; Knopf, History of the National Tuberculosis Association, 24.

37. Knopf, History of the National Tuberculosis Association, 22–23.

38. Knopf, History of the National Tuberculosis Association, 28–29; Shryock, National 

Tuberculosis Association, 75–76.

39. Shryock, National Tuberculosis Association, 76–77, 80–82; Knopf, History of the National Tuberculosis Association, 30–32.

40. “My Service on the Anti-Tuberculsosis Campaign,” 6, Box 17, MS C115, George M. 

Kober Papers, NLM; Lamb, History of the Medical Society of DC, 177; M. Sternberg, 

GMS, 257, 260–262; Kober, Charitable and Reformatory Institutions, 1, 148, 149.

41. GMS, “Sanatorium Treatment,” 305–306, 308.

42. Trudeau claimed 20 percent of Adirondack Cottage patients were cured and 30 percent improved; the Loomis Sanatorium in Liberty, New York, reported 25 percent 

cured and 50 percent improved; and Dettweiller at the sanatorium in Falkenstein, 

Germany, boasted 28 percent cured or arrested and 45 percent improved. Nearly 

a year later, GMS presented treatment results from the first 50 cases admitted at 

Starmont to members of the Washington Medical Society. Although he had had 

far fewer incipient cases than he would have liked and many more advanced cases, 

he declared that all of the early cases had recovered and were sent home, and that 

60 percent of advanced cases had shown marked improvement. Starmont’s success 

paved the way for other sanatoriums in Maryland and Virginia. GMS, “Sanatorium 

Treatment,” 306–308, “First Fifty Cases of Tuberculosis,” 340–343, 345, and “Results of Treatment,” 1, 52; M. Sternberg, GMS, 258–259.

43. Knopf, History of the National Tuberculosis Association, 143; Borchert, Alley Life, 47 

M. Sternberg, GMS, 259–260.

44. Reynolds, “Report on the Housing of the Poor,” 2, 4; M. Sternberg, GMS, 260–261.

45. M. Sternberg, GMS, 261–262; Kober, History of Housing, 33, 37–38.

46. Reynolds, “Report on the Housing of the Poor,” 3–8, 10–15; Weller, Neglected Neighborhoods, 116–117; Greene, Washington, v2, 155. In 1905, the Sternbergs moved to 

2005 Massachusetts Avenue on Dupont Circle. Today, it is the Washington headquarters of the Konrad Adenauer Foundation. M. Sternberg, GMS, 262–263.

47. Baldwin, Report of the Committee on Improvement of Existing Houses, 4, 7, 9, 13, 23. 

48. Kober, Report of the Committee on Social Betterment, 5–9.

49. GMS, Report of Committee on Building Model Houses, 3–7, 41–60, 64, 66, 108–111.

50. Morris, Theodore Rex, 486, 496, 514–519; Roosevelt, An Autobiography, 445, 447; 

“Purification of Water Supply of the National Capital,” Reminiscences, Box 17, MS 

C115, George M. Kober Papers, NLM; Fisher, Report on National Vitality, 14–15; 

Shryock, National Tuberculosis Association, 100; Rosen, “The Committee of One 

Hundred,” 261, 262.

51. Knopf, History of the National Tuberculosis Association, 141, 144–145; Shryock, National Tuberculosis Association, 101, 103–105; M. Sternberg, GMS, 264; Transactions, 6th International Congress on Tuberculosis, v3, 1.
lxxxviii The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 

52. WES, “Cortelyou Greets White Plague Foes in World Congress,” Sep 28, 1908, 

“American Methods Best in the World,” Sep 30, “Health Supervision by Nation Favored”; Knopf, History of the National Tuberculosis Association, 146–147; Trans, 6th 

International Congress on TB, v1, part 1, 1.

53. Shyrock, National Tuberculosis Association, 107–110; Knopf, History of the National 

Tuberculosis Association, 147.

54. WES, “Delegates Dined,” Oct 2, and “In the World of Society,” Oct 3, 1908; M. Sternberg, GMS, 264.

55. WES, “Roosevelt Cheered by World Congress,” Oct 3, 1908; Shryock, National Tuberculosis Association, 111–112; Knopf, History of the National Tuberculosis Association, 148–149; Annual Report, Association for the Prevention of TB, 1908–1909, 

10–11.

56. Annual Report, Association for the Prevention of TB, 1908–1909, 12, 15, 16–17, 20.

57. Annual Report, Association for the Prevention of TB, 1908–1909, 12–13, 1909–1910,

24–25, 1910–1911, 10–12, and 1912, 17. Jacobs, “Tuberculosis Preventorium for 

Children,” 362; Shryock, National Tuberculosis Association, 119–120.

58. Annual Report, Association for the Prevention of TB, 1911, cover.

59. Alley residents established their own anti-tuberculosis campaign. Clubs for women 

and children were organized in Blagden’s Alley, a Children’s Temporary Home that 

was founded, and an Alley Improvement Association worked for the social betterment of the alley population. Green, Washington, v2, 156–157; Jones, Housing of 

Negroes, 39, 41.

60. Reminiscences, v2, Part 18, 333, Box 19, MS C115, George M. Kober Papers, NLM; 

Hannold, “Comfort and Respectability,” 35; Borchert, Alley Life, 47.

61. Reminiscences, v2, Part 18, 337, Box 19, MS C115, George M. Kober Papers, NLM; 

Annual Report, Assn for the Prevention of Tuberculosis, 1912–1914; M. Sternberg, 

GMS, 265, 266; Farrand to GMS, Nov 21, 1912, May 13, and May 16, 1913, Box 1, 

Folder 20, MS C100 George Miller Sternberg Papers, 1861–1917, NLM.

62. Dr. Richard Slee established the Sternberg Medal and invited GMS to present it. In 

1920, Slee relinquished his right of presentation to Mrs. Sternberg, who endowed 

the medal in perpetuity. The Sternberg Medal is still awarded for academic proficiency in preventive medicine. Hume, “Medals of the United States Army Medical 

Department,” 30–33, 34, 35. 

63. Reminiscences, v2, Part 18, 337, Box 19, MS C115, George M. Kober Papers, NLM.

64. Howard was in the Army Medical School’s first graduating class. GMS Death Certificate.

65. Martha Sternberg to Kober, undated, Box 4, MS C115 George M. Kober Papers, 

NLM.

66. GMS Death Certificate, District of Columbia Vital Records Office.
Endnotes lxxxix

67. Over the next decade, standard curricula evolved, physicians began to lose dominance in the field, and public health became recognized as a multi-occupational 

profession. Fee and Acheson, History of Education in Public Health, 159, 162–168. 

The national anti-tuberculosis crusade was just beginning to gather steam under 

the executive leadership of Charles J. Hatfield, 1914–1922. Shryock, National Tuberculosis Association, 192–193, 198; Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings, 189. 

68. “Memorial Meeting in Honor of George Miller Sternberg,” Washington Medical Annals, 15 (Mar 1916), 93–94; Baldwin, “General George M. Sternberg,” Journal of the 

Outdoor Life 12 (Dec 1915):389.

Epilogue

1. M. Sternberg, GMS, 219–220, 298–300.

2. Ibid., 220, 299.

3. Ibid., 218.

4. Ibid., 300.

5. Ibid., 304.

6. Ibid., 305–314, 317.

7. Martha Louise Pattison Sternberg Death Certificate, District of Columbia Vital Records Office.
xc The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 
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cxxxviii The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 
Index cxxxix

Index

A

A Treatise on Asiatic Cholera, 126

Abbott, Alexander C., 124, 133, 153, 196, 199

Ackley, John B., 65, 66

Acting Hospital Stewards, 269

Agramonte, Aristides, 161, 253–254, 266–267, 

272

Aguinaldo, Emilio, 245–246, 249–250, 258, 

272, 274, 278

Alden, Colonel Charles H., 78, 199, 281

Alexander, Charles T., 81

Alexander, Major Richard H., 34, 38

Alger, Russell A., 217, 219, 230–233, 235, 240, 

242, 251

AMA. See American Medical Association

American Association for the Advancement of 

Science, 301

American Congress on Tuberculosis, 296

American Congress on Tuberculosis for the 

Prevention of Consumption, 296

American Journal of the Medical Sciences, 106

American Medical Association, 8, 205

American Public Health Association

committee on protective inoculations in 

infectious diseases, 185

membership in, 93, 115, 205

position on yellow fever, 93–95, 163

presentation of papers, 68, 75, 98, 104, 119, 

124

presidency of, 168–169

Reed’s paper presentation, 273–274

American Red Cross, 305

American Social Science Association, 281

AMSUS. See Association of Military Surgeons 

of the United States

Anatomical Bill, 11

Anthrax research, 91, 111

APHA. See American Public Health Association

Appel, Major Aaron H., 226, 228, 230

Arlington Heights, Virginia, 20

Armes, Captain George, 47

Army Medical Department, 19, 203–204, 214, 

216–217, 241–242

Army Medical Museum, 46–47, 49, 50–51, 55, 

120, 199

Army Medical Museum and Library, 120, 158

Army Medical School, 157, 199–200, 209, 290, 

304

Army of Liberation, 246, 250, 256–257

Army Transport Service, 247

Asch, Morris, 48

Ashford, Baily K., 258

Associated Charities, 293–294, 297

Association for the Prevention of Tuberculosis 

for the District of Columbia, 302–303

Association of American Physicians, 133, 186

Association of Military Surgeons of the National Guard, 198

Association of Military Surgeons of the United 

States, 198, 202, 205

B

Bache, Colonel Dallas, 221

Bacillus a, 173–174, 177

Bacillus icteroides, 212–213, 253–254

Bacillus lepina lethalis, 169

Bacillus X, 177–178, 212–213, 253–254

Bacteria, 106, 112, 119–120

Bailey, Lieutenant Colonel Elisha J., 77, 78, 81

Bailey, Lieutenant Colonel Joseph C., 197
cxl The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 

Baird, Spencer, 49

Baker, B.N., 229

Baker, Captain James F., 65

Baldwin, William, 299

Baltimore, Maryland, 107, 112, 123–126, 

133–134, 152, 169–174, 178–179

Banks, Major General Nathaniel P., 34

Bannister, Major William B., 279

Baptista de Lacerda, Joao, 164

Barnes, Colonel Joseph K., 35, 49–50, 55, 65, 

93, 116

Barnitz, Captain Albert, 40, 44, 48, 77

Barnitz, Jennie, 40, 41

Barton, Clara, 228, 231

Barton, Edward H., 60

Baumgarten, Paul, 184

Baxter, Colonel Jedidiah H., 134–135, 180, 182

Bayard, Thomas F., 128, 163

Beale, Joseph, 71

Bear Point, Alabama, 68

Beaumont, William, 9

Belknap, William W., 65

Bemiss, Samuel, 101–102

Bentley, Edwin, 31

Bernard, Claude, 11, 117

Biggs, Hermann, 134, 188, 195–196, 296–297

Billings, Frank, 176–177

Billings, Major John Shaw, 54–55, 93, 95, 

120–121, 124, 194, 199

Black, Frank S., 236

Blanchard, Newton C., 163

Blanco, Captain-General Don Ramon, 96

Bluff Creek Council, 40

Board for the Condemnation of Insanitary 

Buildings, 299

Bolton, B. Meade, 190

Bolton, E. Meade, 133

Bonsal, Stephen, 215

Borden, Major William C., 191, 201, 206, 236

Bowditch, Henry P., 93, 207

Bowditch, Vincent, 296

Boxers United in Righteousness, 267–270

Brannan, Major John M., 64, 66, 70, 72

Bratton, 1st Lieutenant T.S., 157

Bray, Grandon, 7

Breckinridge, Joseph C., 281

Brewer, John, 44–45

Brooke, General John R., 246, 249, 265

Browne, John M., 196

Brucellosis, 258

Bruns, H.D., 102

Bruns, J. Dickson, 102–103

Bryan, William Jennings, 208, 258

Bryant, Joseph, 188, 205

Bubonic plague, 258

Buchanan, Lieutenant Colonel Robert C., 29

Buchner, Hans, 185

Buckley, W.C., 173

Budd, William, 238

Buffalo University, 10, 13, 141

Bull Run Campaign, 20–27

Burdon-Sanderson, John Scott, 111

Burgess, Daniel, 176

Burnside, Colonel Ambrose E., 21–22

Bymer, B.J., 66

Byrne, Colonel Charles C., 234

C

C Street Hospital, 18

Cabell, Captain Julian M., 199

Cabell, James L., 93, 95, 112–113

Caldwell, Daniel G., 190

Callender, Lieutenant George R., 304

Calvert, Lieutenant William, 258

Cameron, Simon, 17

Caminhos, Joachim, 164

Camp Cleveland, 35–36

Camp Dennison, 36

Camp Supply, 48–49

Carbolic acid dressings, 92

Carlin, Corporal Charles, 86

Carmona y Valle, Manuel, 163, 167–168

Carnegie, Andrew, 134, 182

Carnochan, J.M., 56

Carroll, James, 161, 200, 253–254, 266, 272, 

281, 285

Carson, W., 71

Carter, Henry R., 266–267

Cassidy, Private Michael W., 83

Ceccarini, G., 56

Celli, Angelo, 128, 154

Chaffee, Major General Adna R., 268, 270, 284

Chaille, Stanford, 59–60, 95–98

Chase, Thomas B., 39, 44, 45

Chaveau, Jean Baptiste, 184

Chickahominy fever, 29

Chief Joseph, 80–81, 83–84

Chief Looking Glass, 83

Chief Ollikot, 80

Chief Toohoolhoolzote, 80

China

Boxers United in Righteousness, 267–270

China Relief Expedition, 270

Cholera, 42–45, 106, 125–128, 187–191

Christmas Seal Campaign, 305

City and Suburban Homes Company, 211

Civil War

Bull Run Campaign, 20–27

Manassas-Sudley Road, 21–24, 143

Clark, Alonzo, 12–13, 143

Clearwater Valley, 83–84, 88, 150–151, 180

Cleveland, Grover, 126, 135, 163, 193–194, 

196, 205, 208

Cleveland Hospital, 35–36, 144
Index cxli

Cochran, Jerome, 172–173

Cody, Buffalo Bill, 46, 47

College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, 

11–13, 142

Columbian University, 292–293

Committee of One Hundred on National Health, 

301

Conyngton, E.J., 173

Coolidge, R. H., 20

Cooper, George, 69–71

Cope, Edward D., 49

Copeman, Sydney M., 191

Corbin, Adjutant General Henry, 248, 256, 264, 

268–270, 273–274, 284, 288–289

Cortelyou, George B., 301

Cottman, Thomas, 56

Councilman, William T., 133, 178, 196, 199

Cox, Walter, 258

Crane, Colonel Charles, 75, 76, 114–116, 120

Cross, B.F., 173

Cuba

Havana, 95–100, 169–172, 174–178, 249, 

265

post-war occupation, 245–249

public health conditions, 247

Spanish-American War, 215–244

typhoid outbreak, 252

yellow fever outbreak, 265

Culbertson, J.C., 196

Cunningham, David Douglas, 99

Curtis, Major Edward, 51, 54, 55

Custer, Elizabeth, 43

Custer, Lieutenant Colonel George A., 48, 77

Cuyler, Lieutenant Colonel John M., 56

Czolgosz, Leon, 287

D

Da Costa, John M., 196

Dalton, John C., Jr., 11, 12, 13, 142

DAR. See Daughters of the American Revolution

DAR Hospital Corps, 222

Darling, C.S., 45

Daughters of the American Revolution, 222

Davaine, Casimir, 109

Davidson, J.P., 102

Davis, Richard Harding, 215

Davis, Robert T., 163

de Cervera, Admiral Pascual, 224–225

Dean, Private William H., 272

Decatur, Alabama, 173–174

Delafield, Edward, 12

Delafield, Francis, 134

Demilt Dispensary, 11–12

Dennis, Frederick, 134

Department of Northeastern Virginia, 20

Department of the Columbia, 76–78

Department of the Gulf, 59–60

Detmold, William L., 12, 143

Dewey, Admiral George, 245

Dick, Charles W.F., 288–289

Dickinson, Don M., 194

Disinfectants research, 91–92, 99, 125–126, 189

Dodge, General Grenville M., 240–241

Dodge Commission, 241

Dom Pedro II, 164

Doty, Alvah H., 236

Doty, William, 230

Dunglison, Robley, 9

E

Eck, Nikolai, 127

Edger, First Lieutenant Benjamin J., 273

Edie, Major Guy L., 247

Edwards, Lewis A., 32

Elizabeth City, New Jersey, 17

Elliot, Lewellyn, 206

Ellsworth, Kansas, 39–40, 49–50, 75, 145

Eustis, James B., 163

Evans, Colonel Nathan G., 21

Excise Board, 304

Expeditionary Force, 245, 249–250

F

Faget, Jean-Charles, 60, 72

Farrand, Livingston, 297

Fauntleroy, First Lieutenant Powell C., 273

Ferguson, Frank F., 135

5th International Sanitary Conference, 106

Fifty Million Dollar Bill, 216

Finlay, Carlos, 96, 175–176, 181–182, 265–266, 

282

Finley, Clement A., 18, 19, 20

Fisher, Irving, 301

Fitzgerald, Jenkins (John) A., 81, 87

Flexner, Simon, 199

Flick, Lawrence, 295, 296

Flint, Austin, Jr., 10, 11, 142

Flint, Austin, Sr., 10

Formad, Henry, 125

Fort Barrancas, Florida, 60–73, 149

Fort Columbus, New York, 55–58, 60–63

Fort Ellsworth, Kansas, 38–39

Fort Hamilton, New York, 58–59

Fort Harker, Kansas, 39–46, 145

Fort Hays, Kansas, 46

Fort Lapwai, Idaho, 79–82, 87–88, 151

Fort Mason, California, 115–122

Fort McHenry, Maryland, 179

Fort Riley, Kansas, 42, 46, 49–54, 146

Fort Walla Walla, Washington, 78–81, 91–92

Fort Warren, Massachusetts, 59–60

Forwood, Colonel William H., 160, 199, 

233–237, 255, 279–281, 284
cxlii The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 

Forwood, William S., 48

Fraenkel, Albert, 129, 131–133

Franklin, Captain Charles, 66

Freire, Domingos, 163–166

Friedlander, Carl, 129–132

Fryer, Blencoe E., 46, 197

G

Gamaleia, Nikolai, 129, 132–133

Geddings, Henry, 253–254

German Palatines, 1

Gibbon, John, 40

Gibbs, Heneage, 127

Gibier, Paul, 169–171

Gilman, Chandler R., 12, 13, 143

Gilman, Daniel Coit, 124

Goffe, J. Riddle, 254

Gonorrhea research, 117–118

Gorgas, Major William C., 225, 229, 280, 282, 

285, 291–292

Gould, Elgin R.L., 211

Governors Island, New York, 55–58, 61–63, 123

Gram, Christian, 131–132

Grant, General Ulysses, 34, 65, 78

Grant, Hugh J., 187

Grassi, Giovanni, 219

Gray, Charles C., 23, 25

Greely, General Adolphus W., 284

Greenleaf, Colonel Charles R., 135, 179, 191, 

220, 226–229, 258–264, 270–273

Grierson, Colonel Benjamin H., 46

Griffiths, William E., 186

Groom, Private George, 42

Grover, Colonel Cuvier, 78

Guiteras, Juan, 95–98, 217, 219, 242, 280

Gunter, Carl, 129

H

Hall, Charles H., 174

Hall, H.C., 96

Hall, William R., 81

Halsted, William, 199

Hamilton, Frank H., 10–11, 141

Hamilton, Major John, 51

Hammond, William A., 29, 46–47, 196, 199

Hancock, General Winfield, 40, 41

Hardee, Thomas S., 95–96

Harrington, Private William, 56

Harris, Elisha, 93

Harrison, Benjamin, 180, 182–183

Harrison’s Landing, 32, 144

Hartwell, Edward M., 113

Hartwick Seminary, 1–6, 35, 139–140

Havana, Cuba, 95–100, 169–172, 174–178, 

249, 265

Havana Yellow Fever Commission, 95–98, 121, 

152

Havard, Major Valery, 228, 232, 262, 279

Hawley, Joseph R., 288, 289

Hayes, Rutherford B., 95

Hays, A.B., 103

Hazelius, Ernest Lewis, 2, 6, 139

Hebert, N.M., 102–103

Heinemann, John G., 86

Heintzelman, Major General Samuel P., 21, 35

Henry, Joseph, 49

Hibberd, James F., 125

Hickok, Wild Bill, 47

Hirschfelder, Joseph O., 117–118

Hoagland, Cornelius N., 134–135, 174–175, 191

Hoagland Laboratory, 135, 154, 169, 172, 174, 

181, 189–190

Hoffman Island, New York, 189

Hoffmann-Wellenhof, Georg, 127

Holt, Joseph, 60, 163, 172

Hospital Corps, 198, 202–204, 209, 221, 262, 

269

Hospital Stewards, 269

Housing reform, 293–295, 298–300, 305

Howard, Brigadier General Oliver O., 77, 78, 

79–87

Howard, Major Deane C., 157, 304

Hughes, Brigadier General Robert P., 246

Humane Society, 207–208

Humlong, Emily Sternberg, 179

Hunt, Sanford, 10

Hunter, Colonel David, 20, 21–22

Huntington, David Low, 120

I

Immunity, Protective Inoculations in Infectious 

Diseases, and Serum-Therapy, 205

Immunology research, 184–191

Indian Bureau, 78

Infection and Immunity with Special Reference 

to Infectious Diseases, 293

International Cholera and Sanitary Conference, 

126

International Congress of Medicine, 160, 

211–212

International Congress on Hygiene and Demography, 304

International Congress on Tuberculosis, 296, 

298, 301

International Sanitary Conference, 106

Iowa Lutheran College, 40

Ireland, Captain Merritte W., 273, 284

Irwin, Colonel Bernard J.D., 42, 181

J

Jacksonville, Florida, 173

Jacobi, Abraham, 187, 296

Jacobs, Henry, 297

Janeway, Edward G., 134, 187, 296
Index cxliii

Jefferson Barracks, Missouri, 36–38

Jenkins, William, 188

John Englis, 218, 225

Johns Hopkins Laboratory, 134

Johns Hopkins University, 107, 112, 123–124, 

133–134, 152, 171, 174, 178

Johnson, H.L.E., 289

Johnson, Wirt, 172

Johnston, General Joseph, 28

Jones, Colonel Egbert J., 22

Jones, Joseph, 60, 68–69, 101–102

Jones, William Henry, 303

K

Kapselbacterium, 131

Kean, Major Jefferson R., 272

Keen, William W., 23

Keeney, Charles C., 21, 23

Keeton, George W., 42

Kemp, George T., 172

Kidd, Major Merideth H., 46

Kilbourne, Henry S., 46

King, William S., 20, 22–23

Kinney, Dita H., 281

Kinyoun, Joseph J., 188, 206

Kissinger, Private John R., 276

Kitasato, Shibasaburo, 185, 186

Klebs, Edwin, 100, 104

Klebsiella pneumoniae, 131–132

Klein, Emmanuel, 127

Knopf, S. Adolphus, 296

Knowles, Colonel Abner, 27

Kober, George M., 91, 158, 210–211, 297, 

298–299, 302

Koch, Robert, 91, 109, 118–119, 127–130, 153, 

253–254, 301

L

Laboratory-based science, 14

LaGarde, Major Louis A., 228, 229

Lamb, John, 39

Lamont, Daniel S., 194, 209

Landouzy, Louis, 301

Lapwai Reservation, 80

Lathrop, Horace, 7, 9, 11, 13

Lawson, Colonel Thomas, 19

Lazear, Jesse, 161, 266–267, 272, 275

Leidy, Joseph, 49

Lemon, Benjamin H., 11

Letterman, Major Jonathan, 31–32

Lewis, James M., 25

Lincoln, Abraham, 19, 28, 29

Lippincott, Lieutenant Colonel Henry, 48, 220, 

250–251

Lister, Joseph, 53, 91–92

Little Arkansas treaties, 40

Littlejohn, E.M., 173

Long, John D., 219

Long Island College Hospital, 134

Loring, Leonard Y., 49

Lovell, Joseph, 51

Lovell General Hospital, 144

Ludington, General Marshall I., 284

Lutheran Pietists, 1–2

M

Maas, Clara, 285

MacArthur, Major General Arthur, 250–251, 

262–264, 268, 274, 277–278

Mack, Theophilus, 11

Magnin, Antoine, 119

Magruder, D.L., 22

Malaria, 100–106, 120, 233, 242–243, 248–249

Malaria and Malarial Diseases, 120, 123

Mall, Franklin P., 133, 176–177

Mallet, John W., 112–114

Malta fever, 258

Malvern Hill Battle, 31

Manassas-Sudley Road, 21–24, 143

Mancel, Henry, 95

Mandeville, William K., 71–72

Mansfield, General J.F.K., 20

Manson, Patrick, 175, 249

Manual of Bacteriology, 130, 132, 181, 191

Marchiafava, Ettore, 128, 154

Marine Hospital Service, 253

Marsh, Captain Elias J., 48

Marsh, Othneil, 49

Martin, H. Newell, 107, 111, 113, 124, 133, 

174, 207

Maryland Commission on Tuberculosis, 296

Matas, Rudolph, 95, 97

Mattocks, Brigadier General Charles P., 239

McClellan, Ely, 43, 44

McClellan, General George B., 27–29

McCloud, Mary J., 261–262

McDougall, Charles, 18

McDowell, General Irwin, 56, 58

McDowell, Major General Irvin, 20–23

McGee, Anita Newcomb, 222, 260–261

McGill, George, 43, 44

McHarg, Charles K., 37

McKinley, Ida, 208–209, 281, 287

McKinley, William, 208–209, 215–219, 

240–242, 245–246, 257, 280, 287

McKinley Tariff Bill, 208

McParlin, Lieutenant Colonel Thomas A., 57–58

Medical and Surgical History of the War of the 

Rebellion, 55

Medical education, 7–15

Medical Museum Laboratory, 200

Medical Record, 106, 234

Meikeljohn, G.D., 218

Merritt, Major General Wesley, 219, 245
cxliv The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 

Merriwether, Frank T., 190

Metchnikoff, Elie, 112

Mexico City, Mexico, 167–168

Micrococcus pasteuri, 129–130

Middleton, Lieutenant Colonel J.V.D., 31, 255

Miles, General Nelson A., 218–219, 229, 245, 

256, 306

Miller, Captain Marcus P., 82

Miller, Charles, 39

Miller, Charlotte, 5

Miller, Delia Snyder, 139

Miller, George Benjamin, 1–6, 35–36, 139

Mills, Madison, 43, 44, 49, 58

Miquel, Pierre, 99

Mitchel, Robert W., 102

Mitchell, John K., 9

Moleschott, Jacob, 127

Moore, Lieutenant Colonel John, 135, 163, 180

Moran, John, 277

Morris, Captain William F., 237

Morris, Moreau, 56

Munson, Captain Edward L., 200, 226, 228, 249

Murphy, Thomas, 47

Murray, Robert, 120, 134

N

National Board of Health, 95, 98–99, 101, 111–117

National Conservation Commission, 301

National Guard Hospital Corps, 221

National Medical College of Mexico, 167

National Quarantine Act, 101

National Tuberculosis Association, 296–298, 

302, 305

Navy Yard, Pensacola, Florida, 65–67

NBH. See National Board of Health

Neill, Lieutenant Colonel Thomas H., 56, 57

Neisser, Albert, 117

Nelson, Samuel, 17

New Orleans Medical and Surgical Journal, 163

New York City, New York, 184–191

Nez Percé tribes, 77–85

Nichols, Austin W., 11

Norton, J. Pease, 301

Nott, Josiah Clark, 56

NTA. See National Tuberculosis Association

Nurse Corps, 281

Nursing service, 261–262

Nuttall, George H., 185

O

Obermeier, Otto, 109

Olivette, 228, 230, 237

Orchitis, 29

O’Reilly, Lieutenant Colonel Robert M., 

247–248

Osler, William, 133–134, 191, 296–297

Otis, George A., 47, 55, 120

Otis, Major General Elwell S., 245–246, 

249–252, 254, 257–258, 262

Otis, 2nd Lieutenant Harrison G., 84

P

Page, Major Charles, 56

Paleontology, 49, 79

Pan-American Exhibition, 280, 287

Pan-American Medical Congress, 201, 276–277

Panama Canal, 291, 292

Paris Exposition, 293

Parker, Williard, 12, 143

Parnell, 2nd Lieutenant William, 83

Pasteur, Louis, 53, 107, 109, 129, 184

Pattison, Martha L. See Sternberg, Martha L. 

Pattison

Peninsula Campaign, 29–32

Pensacola, Florida, 65–67

Perley, Major Harry O., 284

Perry, Captain David, 80–82, 88

Perry, Ira, 43

Personal Histories of Medical Officers of the 

Army, 179–180

Philippine Commission, 257, 262, 264, 288

Philippine Insurrection, 250

Philippines

Army of Liberation, 246, 250, 256–257

Expeditionary Force, 245, 249–250

illness outbreaks, 249–250

medical supplies requested for, 270–272

public health conditions, 246–247

Second Battle of Manila, 250

Sternberg trip, 283–285

Phinney, Elihu, 4–6

Phinney, Henry, 4

Phinney’s Bookstore, 4–6

Phipps, Henry, 298

Photomicrographs and How to Make Them,

116, 119

Photomicrography, 91–92

Pneumonia research, 129–132, 153

Pope, Lieutenant Colonel Benjamin F., 220, 

226, 228, 230, 284, 288

Porter, Colonel Andrew, 20, 157

Porter, General Fitz-John, 29

Portsmouth Grove, Rhode Island, 32–34, 144

Pratt, Enoch, 182

Pratt Institute, 190

President’s Homes Commission, 299–300

Presidio, 255

Prevost, Chapot, 164

Princess Isabella, 164

Proctor, Redfield, 180

Progressive Reform Movement, 287–288, 293, 

304–305
Index cxlv

Proust, Adrien, 127

Provisional Army Nurse Corps, 260

Prudden, T. Mitchell, 134, 187

Public health education programs, 292–293

Puerto Rico

public health conditions, 246–247

Puerto Rican anemia, 258

Q

Quarantines, 93–95, 101, 105–106, 167, 187

Quartermaster Department, 235

Quinine, 243

Quinton, 1st Lieutenant W.W., 157

R

Ravenel, Mazyck, 296

Raymond, Joseph H., 134–135, 172

Reagan, John H., 163

Red Cross Association, 226–228, 231, 234

Red Cross Society, 303

Reed, Emilie, 276–277

Reed, Major Walter

Army Medical School position, 199–201, 

204–206

photograph, 161

yellow fever research, 213, 238–239, 

252–254, 265–267, 272–277, 280–283

Regular Infantry Battalion, 18–27

Regular Infantry Brigade, 29

Relief, 225–230, 236, 251, 261, 270, 284

Remsen, Ria, 124

Renick, William, 44, 45, 48

Report on Epidemic Cholera in the Army of the 

United States, During the Year 1866, 44

Report on the Etiology and Prevention of Yellow 

Fever, 178

Report Upon the Prevention of Yellow Fever by 

Inoculation, 170

Reynolds, James B., 298–299

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 163–166

Rixey, Marion, 218

Robertson, David, 57

Rochester, Thomas F., 10

Rockefeller, John D., 297

Rockefeller Foundation, 304

Rodman, William, 289

Roe, Brigadier General Charles F., 239

Roosevelt, Theodore, 287, 291, 293–294, 

298–299, 301–302

Root, Elihu, 255–256, 260, 269, 285, 302

Rose, Wickliffe, 304

Ross, Major Ronald, 219, 248–249

“Round robin” letter, 233

Royal Italian Academy of Medicine, 128

Ruiz, Daniel, 168

Russell, Louisa. See Sternberg, Louisa Russell

S

Sabine, J.A., 39

Salmon, D.E., 185

Salomon, L.F., 71

Salvioli, G., 129

Sampson, Admiral William T., 224–225

Sams, Stanhope, 235

San Francisco, California, 180–183

Sanarelli, Guiseppe, 160, 212–213, 253–254

Sanborn, E.R., 230

Sands, Henry B., 12, 143

Sanger, Colonel Joseph P., 239, 281

Schiff, Jacob, 297

Schofield, General John M., 180, 182–183, 194, 

196

Scott, General Winfield, 27

Second Battle of Manila, 250

Semmes, Captain Alexander A., 66–67

Semmola, Mariano, 127

Seneca, 230

Senn, Colonel Nicolas, 198, 202, 229, 234

Septicemia, 107–108

Seven Days Battles, 31–32

SGO. See Surgeon General’s Office

Shafter, Major General William, 219, 226, 229, 

231–233

Shakespeare, Edward O., 188, 239

Sheridan, General Philip H., 46, 47, 48

Sherman, General William T., 37, 40, 80, 

197–198

Sherman Silver Purchase Act, 208

Shrady, George F., 234

Silliman, Henry R., 23

Simons, James, 59, 60

Sisters of Charity Hospital, 10

Sixth International Sanitary Conference, 

126–128

Slee, Richard, 190–191

Sloan, William, 18

Smallpox epidemic, 167, 205–206

Smart, Major Charles, 99, 120, 135, 199, 210

Smith, Colonel A.J., 41

Smith, Joseph M., 12

Smith, Stephen, 56, 187, 196

Smith, Theobald, 185, 296

Smithsonian Institution, 49

Smoky Hill Dairy, 75

Solace, 227

Southern Expedition, 34

Spanish-American War, 215–244

Spencer, W.C., 31

Squier, Algernon, 43

St. John, Samuel, 12

Stanton, Edwin, 29, 199

Starmont Sanatorium, 162, 298

Stephenson, Major William, 268
cxlvi The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 

Sternberg, Charles Hazelius, 4, 40

Sternberg, Edward Endress, 4, 40

Sternberg, Emily, 4, 179

Sternberg, George Miller

as acting medical director for the Department of the Gulf, 59–60

as acting medical director for the Southern 

Expedition, 34

adolescence, 4–5

assignment as post surgeon at Fort 

McHenry, 179

as Attending Surgeon to Jefferson Barracks, 

36–38

Baltimore assignment, 123–134, 169

Bull Run Campaign, 20–27

as chief surgeon for third column of Sheridan’s forces, 47–48

childhood education, 3–4, 6

as dean of public health graduate program, 

292–293

death of, 304

Department of the Columbia assignment, 

76–78

as deputy medical director for the Southern 

Expedition, 34

disinfectants research, 91–92, 99

early years, 1838-1870, 139–146

election to AMSUS presidency, 202

as executive officer of Portsmouth Grove 

Hospital, 32–34

family history, 1–3

Fort Barrancas assignment, 60–73

Fort Columbus assignment, 55–58

Fort Hamilton assignment, 58–59

Fort Mason assignment, 115–122

Fort Warren assignment, 59–60

funeral of, 305–306

Havana, Cuba trips, 95–100, 169–171, 

174–178

as hospital commander at Camp Cleveland, 

35–36

immunology research, 184–191

inventions, 51–52

Johns Hopkins University assignment, 107, 

112

later years, 1893-1915, 157–162

malaria research, 100–106

marriage to Louisa Russell, 37

marriage to Martha L. Pattison, 50

medical activities in the Philippines, 

255–264

Medical Department representative to APHA 

meeting, 93–95

medical education, 7–15

medical support for 10th U.S. Colored Cavalry Regiment, 46–47

medical support for 21st Infantry Regiment, 

81–86

as member of the First Havana Yellow Fever 

Commission, 95–98

Mexico City trip, 167–168

middle years, 1870-1893, 149–154

National Board of Health assignment, 

112–115

New York City assignment, 184–191

paleontology interest, 49, 79

Peninsula Campaign, 29–32

Philippines trip, 283–285

photographs, 140, 144, 146, 149, 152, 157, 

160–162

as post surgeon at Camp Supply, 49

as post surgeon at Fort Ellsworth, Kansas, 

38–39

as post surgeon at Fort Harker, 39–45

as post surgeon at Fort Riley, 46, 49–54

as president of the American Medical 

Association, 213

as primary physician to the President and 

First Family, 205, 209

promotion to Surgeon, 76

rank of Captain, 38

rank of First Lieutenant, 17

rank of Lieutenant Colonel, 180

rank of Major, 76

responsibilities during post-war occupation 

of Cuba, 245–255

responsibilities during the Spanish-American War, 215–244

retirement of, 290–291

Rio de Janeiro trip, 163–166

San Francisco assignment, 180–183

southern Europe tour, 75–76

as Surgeon at Fort Lapwai, 81–82, 87–88

as Surgeon at Fort Walla Walla, 78–81, 91–92

Surgeon General appointment, 195

yellow fever illness, 72–73

yellow fever research, 60–63, 68–69, 92, 

96–100, 163–178

Sternberg, John Frederick, 2, 5, 40

Sternberg, Levi, 1–5, 35–37, 40, 49–50, 140

Sternberg, Louisa Russell, 37–38, 40–41, 44

Sternberg, Margaret Levering Miller, 1–2, 4–5, 

49–50, 140, 179

Sternberg, Martha L. Pattison

Baltimore assignment, 123–124

as chaperone for female Pratt Institute 

students, 190–191

comments on retirement, 290–291

comments on Surgeon General Charles 

Sutherland’s retirement, 193

Department of Columbia assignment, 77–82, 

86–88
Index cxlvii

Fort Mason assignment, 116–117, 120

marriage of, 50

New York assignment, 57–61

photograph, 161

relationship with the McKinleys, 240, 281

Rio de Janeiro trip, 166

San Francisco assignment, 182

southern Europe tour, 75–76

during yellow fever outbreak, 66–68, 70–73

Sternberg, Rosina, 1–3, 4–5

Sternberg, Theodore, 2, 5, 40

Sternberg, William Augustus, 6

Stevens, Alexander H., 12

Stevens, Isaac I., 77

Streptococcus pneumoniae, 129–132, 153

Strong, Lieutenant Richard, 258

Stuart, A.T., 303

Sudley Church, 22, 144

Sully, Lieutenant Colonel Alfred, 47–48

Surgeon General’s Library, 120, 200

Surgeon General’s Office, 268, 272, 281

Sutherland, Charles, 183, 193

Swift, Ebenezer, 44, 45

Swinburne Island Hospital, 57–58, 149

Sykes, Brigadier General George, 18, 20–21, 23, 

28, 30–31

T

Taft, William Howard, 257, 263

Talamon, Charles, 129

Taylor, B.N., 101–102

Taylor, Edward, 25–26

Teller, Henry M., 289

10th U.S. Colored Cavalry Regiment, 46–47

3rd U.S. Infantry, 29–32, 38

Thomsen, William J., 66

Thorne-Thorne, Richard, 127

Todd, George B., 66

Tommasi-Crudelli, Corrado, 100, 104

Torney, Major George H., 218, 225–227, 229, 

279

Torrey, John, 12

Treatise on the Practice of Medicine, 44

Treaty of Paris, 246

Tripler, Lieutenant Colonel Charles, 28–29, 31, 

35

Tropical Disease Board, 257–258

Truby, Albert E., 249

Trudeau, Edward L., 296–297, 301

Tryon, James Rufus, 67, 196–197

Tubercle bacillus research, 118–119, 125

Tuberculosis, 294–298, 301–305

Tuberculosis Dispensary, 302

Tuberculosis Exposition, 296

Turner, Theophilus H., 49

Turner, Thomas, 95, 113

12th International Congress of Medicine, 160, 

211–212

21st Infantry Regiment, 81–86

Typhoid Board, 239, 267

Typhoid fever, 236, 238–240, 243, 249, 

252–253, 293

Typhoid research, 133

U

Union Pacific Railroad, 38–39, 46

Urbana Plan, 28

U.S. Army Yellow Fever Board, 161

U.S. General Hospital, 32–34, 144

U.S. Sanitary Commission, 32, 144

USS Maine, 215

V

Van Cott, Joshua, 135, 174

Van Reypen, Admiral William, 289

Vaughn, Victor C., 186, 239, 267

Vera Cruz, Mexico, 168

Vibrio cholerae outbreak, 42–45

Visiting Nurses Association, 303

Vivisection, 207–208

von Behring, Emil, 184, 185

von Pettenkofer, Max, 42

W

Walla Walla Council, 77

Ward, Samuel B., 193

Warner, John Harley, 124

Wasdin, Eugene, 253–254

Washington, D.C.

housing reform, 293–295, 298–300, 305

public health, 293

sanitation efforts, 210–211

tuberculosis epidemic, 294–298, 301–305

water supply, 210

Washington Humane Society, 207–208

Washington Post-Graduate Medical School, 292

Washington Sanitary Housing Company, 159, 

294, 299, 300, 305

Washington Sanitary Improvement Company, 

293–294, 298–299, 305

Washington Territory, 77–78

Watts, Robert, 12

Welch, William Henry, 124, 133–134, 153, 

195–196, 289, 296, 301

Weller, Charles, 294, 298

Wendt, Edmund C., 126

Weston, General John F., 284

Whipple, Captain Stephen G., 78, 82

White, Captain Charles B., 65

White, James P., 11, 141

Whitman, Marcus, 77

Wiggins, Augustus, 44
cxlviii The Life and Science of Surgeon General George Miller Sternberg 

Wikoff, Colonel Charles, 233

Wilkinson, J.B., 101–103

Williams, Theodore, 301

Wilson, Charles G., 187–189

Wilson, Ezra, 189, 190–191

Wilson, 1st Lieutenant W.H., 157

Wood, George B., 44, 63

Wood, Major General Leonard, 201, 209, 265, 

275

Wood, Major Marshall W., 228

Woodhull, Lieutenant Colonel Alfred A., 

238–239, 251–252, 255–257

Woodward, Captain Joseph J., 44, 51, 55, 65, 

116, 120

Woodward, S.W., 299

Woodward, William, 297

Woodworth, John M., 93–94

Woolsey, Melancton B., 65–67

Wortman, J.L. “Jake,” 79

Wright, Lieutenant Colonel Joseph P., 184

WSHC. See Washington Sanitary Housing 

Company

WSIC. See Washington Sanitary Improvement 

Company

Y

Yellow fever

APHA conclusions, 94

Bacillus X theory, 177–178, 212–213, 

253–254

Cuban epidemic, 228–234, 242, 248, 253

disinfectants research, 99–100

Florida outbreak, 60–72

Governors Island outbreak, 56–58

Havana Yellow Fever Commission, 95–98, 

121, 152

New Orleans outbreak, 92–93, 101–106

research of government-sponsored investigative commission, 163–178

Yellow Fever Board, 265–266, 272–276, 

281–283

Young, Brigadier General Samuel M.B., 233, 

236, 256–257