March 2014 

NASA/TM–2014-218186 

Electric Vehicle Charging Stations as a Climate 

Change Mitigation Strategy 

Bridget Cave 

The Governor’s School for Science and Technology, Hampton, Virginia

 

Russell J. DeYoung 

Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia 
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March 2014 

NASA/TM–2014-218186 

Electric Vehicle Charging Stations as a Climate 

Change Mitigation Strategy 

Bridget Cave 

The Governor’s School for Science and Technology, Hampton, Virginia 

Russell J. DeYoung 

Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia 
Available from: 

NASA Center for AeroSpace Information 

7115 Standard Drive 

Hanover, MD 21076-1320 

443-757-5802 

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Abstract: 

 In order to facilitate the use of privately owned electric vehicles by NASA Langley 

Research Center (LaRC) employees, charging stations would need to be made available to LaRC 

employees. The implementation of charging stations would decrease the need for gasoline thus 

decreasing CO2 emissions and mitigating climate change, improving local air quality and 

providing a per mile cost savings for LaRC employees. The rationale for charging stations and a 

charging station pilot program are described that would install stations as the need increased. A 

business model is presented that pays for the electricity and installation of these stations at no 

cost to the government. Langley could be an example for the federal government of how to 

integrate charging stations for climate change mitigation. 

I. Introduction 

 Greenhouse gas emissions from transportation were about 28% of total U.S. greenhouse 

gas emissions for 2011, making it the second largest contributor of U.S. greenhouse gas 

emissions after the electricity sector. Greenhouse gas emissions from transportation have 

increased by about 18% since 1990. This increase is due to increased demand for travel and the 

stagnation of fuel efficiency standards across the U.S. vehicle fleet. The number of vehicle miles 

traveled by passenger cars and light-duty trucks increased 34% from 1990 to 2011. The increase 

in travel miles is attributed to several factors, including population growth, economic growth, 

urban sprawl, and low fuel prices over much of this period. However, vehicle fuel economy 

began to improve in 2005, in part due to higher fuel efficiency standards. The largest sources of 

transportation-related greenhouse gas emissions include passenger cars and light-duty trucks 

(including sport utility vehicles, pickup trucks, and minivans). These sources account for over 

half of the emissions from the transportation sector which released 1800 million metric tons of 

CO2 in 2011[EPA]. 

Our environment is threatened by climate change and pollution, and national leaders are 

starting to address this problem as stated by President Obama in his 2013 inaugural address: 

 “We will respond to the threat of climate change, knowing that the failure to do so 

would betray our children and future generations. Some may still deny the overwhelming 

judgment of science, but none can avoid the devastating impact of raging fires, and 

crippling drought, and more powerful storms. The path towards sustainable energy 

sources will be long and sometimes difficulty. But America cannot resist this transition; 

we must lead it. We cannot cede to other nations the technology that will power new jobs 

and new industries-we must claim its promise. That is how we will maintain our 

economic vitality and our national treasure-our forests and waterways; our croplands and 

snowcapped peaks. That is how we will preserve our planet, commanded to our care by 

God.” [Inaugural Address January 21, 2013] 

1
Langley Research Center’s (LaRC) Science Directorate performs studies on climate 

change and its impacts to LaRC research facilities but also how to mitigate carbon emissions that 

drive climate change. In order to address the threat of climate change, LaRC is researching 

possible ways to decrease the use of fossil fuels to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. 

One possible solution is the use of battery powered electric vehicles for transportation 

where the electricity is generated by nuclear or clean fuel sources. The Department of 

Transportation [OmninStats] has determined that 51% of one way U.S. commuters travel 10 

miles or less to work each day which makes electric vehicles attractive due to their currently 

short range. Although electric vehicles are environmentally advantageous, they only made up 3.3 

percent of vehicles on the road in 2012 [Read 2013]. Charging stations for these vehicles are 

equally scarce. However, making the switch to electric vehicles would decrease CO2 emissions 

and increase air quality [Carlsson 2010]. Figure 1 shows the rapid introduction of electric 

vehicles into the U.S. market [ANL]. To achieve greater acceptance of electric vehicles at LaRC, 

the implementation of electric vehicle charging stations is essential. 

The large scale change to electric vehicles in the transportation sector has both positive 

and negative implications, which will be addressed here. Some of the negative issues of using 

electric vehicles are outlined below. 

Coal is the major fuel used to produce electricity and the expansion of electric vehicles 

will thus produce more CO2 in the atmosphere unless a comparable gasoline vehicle is 

withdrawn. Also it was found that cars and trucks running off the electric grid consume three 

times more water per mile than their equivalent gasoline powered vehicle [McKenna]. A major 

shift to renewable energy production would be needed to offset this increased CO2 production 

and water use. The lithium ion batteries have an environmental impact and must be recycled in 

order to keep corrosive materials from entering the environment [Carter]. Current batteries do 

not match the energy stored in a regular tank of gasoline. So driving range is a severe problem 

and this coupled with a meager charging infrastructure means that drivers must carefully 

consider driving distance. Also in cold weather the battery driving range can be reduced as much 

as 30%. Charging at home is always available but to fully charge in less than four hours requires 

expensive equipment adding cost to the vehicle. Just like our cell phones, the vehicle batteries 

will eventually not accept a full charge and require an expensive replacement [Bell]. The 

purchase price for electric vehicles is high compared to a comparable gasoline vehicle. The price 

varies greatly from about $21,000 for a Mitsubishi iMiEV to more than $100,000 for a Tesla 

Roadster. Even with the maximum tax credit of $7,500, the cost is still higher. In addition there 

are few auto repair shops with trained technicians that can service electric vehicles. The fuel 

savings somewhat offsets the higher cost [Carter]. 

The advantages of electric vehicles are substantial for the environment and the individual 

and are outlined below. 

A well respected 2007 study done by the Electric Power Research Institute and the 

Natural Resources Defense Council analyzed the “wells to wheels” carbon emissions from 

driving a mile on gasoline compared to driving a mile using grid electricity. The electric vehicle 

had lower carbon emissions than a 25 mpg gasoline vehicle even if the electric vehicle were 

changed on an electric grid using mostly coal. In coastal states, such as Virginia, where power is 

2
cleaner (nuclear) then electric vehicles will produces less carbon emissions that any gasoline 

vehicle reducing greenhouse gases by more than 450 million metric tons annually by 2050 

(equivalent to removing 82 million passenger cars from the road). There is an abundant supply of 

electricity for electric vehicle transportation. A 60% U.S. market share of electric vehicles would 

use about 8% of the grid supply in 2050. Electric vehicles can improve air quality as well by 

reducing petroleum consumption by almost 4 million barrels per day in 2050 [Environmental]. 

While the initial cost of electric vehicles (moderated by federal tax credits) is higher than 

a comparable gasoline vehicle, the cost of operating the electric vehicle is substantially lower. 

Electric vehicles require little maintenance; brakes last longer due to regenerative braking and 

the cost per mile is much lower. Electricity costs from 3 to 25 cents per kWh in the U.S. but at 10 

cents per kWh a fully charged Nissan Leaf costs about $2 for 70-100 miles which for a 33 mpg 

conventional car and $4 per gallon would cost $12 [Voelcker] [Nissan]. Many electric utilities, 

including Dominion Virginia Power, have reduced electricity rates for charging electric vehicles 

at home during the night when overall electric demand is low. 

All fully electric vehicles have zero emission, thus substantially improving air quality. 

With large numbers of gasoline vehicles emitting hydrocarbons that eventually produce ozone, a 

pollutant near the ground, air quality alerts are a constant summer problem in major cities. The 

shift to electric vehicles would substantially reduce this problem. 

For the electric vehicle driver there are a number of advantages. In some states electric 

vehicles can use the HOV highway lanes, electric vehicles have fast acceleration and the vehicles 

are very quiet [Robertson]. 

This paper describes the preliminary design of a pilot program that would install electric 

vehicle charging stations at Langley. Such stations would encourage electric vehicle use by 

Langley employees, improve local air quality and reduce green-house emissions of CO2. The 

cost of the charging stations and electricity usage is completely covered in the charging fee. 

II. Benefits of Electric Vehicles at LARC as a Climate Change Mitigation Strategy 

Approximately 7,000 cars enter LaRC every day. Assuming each of these vehicles travels 

approximately 20 miles per day, then nearly 140,000 miles are traveled per day by those 

frequenting LaRC. Additionally, the average car gets 19.6 miles per gallon [Ken Katz, U.S. 

Dept. of Transportation, Washington D.C. private communication] resulting in the consumption 

of 7,142 gallons of gasoline per day. Moreover, a single gallon of gasoline produces nearly 20 

pounds of carbon dioxide [How Can, 2012]. Consequently, nearly 142,857 pounds of CO2 are 

released into the atmosphere by vehicles traveling to and from LaRC each day. The substitution 

of battery powered electric vehicles would therefore result in reducing the demand for gasoline 

by 7,142 gallons per days and reduce CO2 emissions by 142,857 pounds per day. 

In addition to reducing the demand for gasoline and CO2 emissions, switching to electric 

vehicles saves the employee money each day. For example, the Chevrolet Volt has a 16 kWh 

battery capacity and can travel 35 miles on a single charge [“2012 Chevy Volt Models & 

Specs”]. The standard electricity cost for Virginia is 12 cents per kWh. Therefore, the Chevy 

Volt costs $1.92 per charge and $0.055 per mile. Another example is the Nissan Leaf, which has 

3
a 24 kWh battery capacity and a 73 mile range [“Nissan LEAF Versions & Specs”]. Given these 

values, the Leaf costs the owner $2.88 per change and $0.039 cents per mile. Lastly, the Ford 

Focus Electric has a 23 kWh battery capacity and a 76 mile charge [“2012 Ford Focus 

Specifications”]. Therefore, it costs $2.76 per charge and $0.036 per mile. Conversely, assuming 

the average gasoline vehicle gets 19.6 miles per gallon and assuming $3.60 per gallon [“Fuel 

Efficiency in 2012”], the average owner of a gasoline-fueled vehicle pays over $0.184 per mile, 

well over three times as much as an electric vehicle owner assuming $3.60 per gallon 

(http://www.virginiagasprices.com/Prices_nationally.aspx). The Department of Energy website 

www.energy.gov/egallon gives an updated cost for operation of electric as opposed to gasoline 

powered vehicles. 

III. Charging Station Types 

Currently, there are three types of electric vehicle charging stations. Alternating Current 

(AC) Level 1 chargers have 120 volts and a max current of 12 amps. Level 1 chargers are the 

cheapest, but take the longest amount of time to charge an electric vehicle. Since the charger 

needs to provide a full charge within an 8-hour work day, they were not considered a workable 

option for LaRC. An AC Level 2 charger has 208-240 volts and a max current of 40 amps. The 

Level 2 charger can provide a full charge in three to four hours [Fox 2011]. Table 4 shows a 

comparison of different levels of electric vehicle charging stations. The ultimate implementation 

would be a solar photovoltaic array, as shown in Figure 2, generating electricity for the electric 

vehicle charging stations below [Baily]. 

IV. Commercial Electric Vehicle Charging Stations 

There are several commercial vehicle charging stations available. While there are 

multiple configurations, for this study we have chosen the dual charging station configuration. 

All charging stations have a standard (SAE J1772 EV) connector. 

Figure 3a shows the AeroVironment EVSE-RS+. The EVSE-RS+ is a dual, 240 VAC 

charging station. It has an output current of 30 amps and a maximum input current of 40 amps. 

The dimensions are 12” width, by 12” depth by 42” height and has a 25 foot cord length. 

Figure 3b shows the Charge Point CT4021 dual charging station. Similarly, it is a 240 

VAC charging station with an output current of 30 amps and an input maximum current of 40 

amps. The dimensions are 15” width, 12” depth and 56” height and the cord length is 18 feet. 

Figure 3c shows the Schneider Electric EV230PDRR station, which is the cheapest of the 

four examples. Like the others, it is a dual, 240 VAC 30 Amp charging station. The dimensions 

are 33” width, 13” depth and 56” height with a cord length of 18 feet. 

Lastly, Figure 3d shows the General Electric Dura Station NEMA3R station. Likewise, 

the Dura Station is a dual, 240 VAC charging station with current of 30 amps. The dimensions 

are 14” width, 15” depth and 51” height with a 20 foot cord. 

Table 2 compares all commercial charging stations. However, the costs in the table are 

the retail value. NASA would receive GSA pricing, which would be lower. 

4
V. LaRC Charging Station Placement and Use 

There are thirteen parking lots at LaRC being considered for electric vehicle charging 

stations, which can be seen in Figure 4. Most of the parking spaces on LaRC were counted and 

recorded in Table 1 and 10 percent, or 257, of these were considered to be reserved for electric 

charging vehicles in the future. Installing these charging stations would be a 5 year plan but over 

15-25 years, 90 percent of the spaces could be electric charging stations. 

ChargePoint by Coulomb Technologies allows for the collection of electricity usage 

history for public charging stations. This includes start and stop times, energy use, greenhouse 

gasses saved, occupied time and location. ChargePoint cards can be purchased for $5.00 at for 

example the Langley Exchange. The user then can put money on the card, and the card can be 

used to pay for electricity at the charging station location. 

The steps to starting a charging session with a ChargePoint station are very simple. 

Figure 5 shows a close up of a ChargePoint CT 2021 screen. To start, swipe the ChargePoint 

cards across the reader symbol, and the station will display a ready-to-charge message. Then, 

press the button on the charge connector to remove it from the holster. Finally, plug the 

connector into the electric vehicle. To end the charging session, swipe the ChargePoint card 

again, and the station will display an end-of-charge message. Then, return the connecter to the 

holster by pressing the button on the connector. 

VI. Business Model for Charging Fees 

In July, 2012, a bill was passed by Congress allowing the implementation of electric 

vehicle charging stations on federally owned property (H.R. 1402 and S-739). As long as there is 

no net cost to the Federal Government, this bill authorizes plans for the installation of electric 

vehicle charging stations for privately owned vehicles (H. R. 1402 and S-739). Therefore, the 

legal precedent for electric vehicle charging stations on federal property has been established. 

A business model is described here that demonstrates how charging stations can be 

implemented at LaRC without cost to the government. The station cost is divided between 

electricity, installation, software monitoring and infrastructure cost. The day time LaRC 

electricity cost from Dominion Virginia Power is $0.06 kilo-Watt-hour (kWh) at five percent 

increase due to inflation added each five years. The cost of one dual charging station is 

approximately $4500. Charging stations are anticipated to last a minimum of 15 years due to the 

protected property at LaRC. Thus the infrastructure cost will be amortized over 10 years. Table 2 

shows the retail price for each of the commercial electric vehicle charging stations, but GSA 

pricing should reduce the retail cost. 

Table 3 shows a 15 year plan to pay for a single dual charging station. Costs include the 

station infrastructure, hourly electricity usage, installation and yearly electricity usage software 

monitoring. The infrastructure costs are assumed to be $4,500 and will be spread over ten years. 

The standard LaRC electricity cost is $0.06 per kWh. For example, a full charge of 24 kWh can 

be provided in four hours, and a work day is eight hours, which comes to a charge of $2.88 per 

5
 6

day. Assuming employees will be accessing these stations 260 days, this results in a $749 electricity 

usage charge. Installation will be approximately $5,000 and will be spread over five years. From 

this, the price that LaRC would have to charge per kWh is approximately $0.12-$0.15 per kWh. 

This cost is very close to the electricity cost for current civilian electricity, thus there is no 

disadvantage to charging electric vehicles at LaRC. These charging stations can easily be 

expanded as needed, as determined by the electricity usage, which is constantly monitored for 

optimum operational efficiency. 

VII. Conclusion 

Electric vehicles have several advantages over fossil fuel powered vehicles including 

reduced atmospheric carbon dioxide emission, improved air quality and lower operating cost. 

NASA Langley has the opportunity to be the agency leader in encouraging the use of privately 

owned electric vehicles, but the lack of charging stations hinders electric vehicle expansion. This 

study shows that a gradual program of station installation can be implemented as need arises at 

no cost to the government with economical electricity usage rates. Langley could be an example 

for the federal government in the installation of charging stations. 

. 

Figure 1. Number of electric vehicles (x1000) produced in U.S. from 2010-2013. [ANL] 
Figure 2. Charging station with solar panels at the University of Iowa. 

7
 

a. AeroVironment EVSE-RS+ b. Charge Point CT2021 

 

c. Schneider Electric EV230PDRR d. GE DuraStationNEMA3R 

Figure 3. Typical commercial charging stations available. (Used with permission from 

AeroVironment, ChargePoint, Scheider, GE) 

Table 1. Comparison of commercial charging stations. 

8
Figure 4. Map of NASA Langley Research Center with numbered parking lots. 

Table 2. Long term plan for parking lots of NASA Langley Research Center, locations, number 

of parking spots in each and estimated number of charging stations per lot. 

9
Figure 5. Close up of ChargePoint CT2021 screen. (Used with permission from ChargePoint) 

10
Table 3. Total cost per dual station spread over 15 years. 

11
Table 4. Comparison of Level 1, 2 and 3 electric vehicle charging stations from Charging While 

You Work: A guide for expanding electric vehicle infrastructure at the workplace.

This project was funded by the Climate Adaption Science Investigator program funded by Jack 

Kaye NASA Headquarters. 

12
References: 

2012 Chevy Volt Models & Specs; chevrolet.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 7 Oct. 2012. 

<http://www.chevrolet.com/volt-electric-car/features-specs/options.html>. 

2012 Ford Focus Specifications; ford.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 7 Oct. 2012. 

<http://www.ford.com/cars/focus/specifications/ 

Argon National Laboratory (ANL); 

http://www.transportation.anl.gov/technology_analysis/edrive_vehicle_monthly_sales.ht

ml 

Bailey, John; Charging While You Work: A guide for expanding electric vehicle infrastructure at 

the workplace, Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, www.pca.state.mn.us, 2012. 

Bell. Claes: Pros and Cons of electric cars, Bankrate.com Jan 18, 2011. http://www.bankrate

.com/financing/cars/pros-and cons-of-electric-cars/ 

Carter, Michael: Going electric-The pros and cons of battery electric cars, Times-Mirror, Jul 1, 

2013. 

Carlsson, Fredrik and Olaf Johansson-Stenman; "Costs and Benefits of Electric 

Vehicles." Journal of Transport Economics and Policies 37, no. 1 (2010): 1-28. 

Cole, Stuart K. and Russell De Young; “Preliminary Design of a Solar Photovoltaic Array for 

Net-Zero Energy Buildings at NASA Langley.”: National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration, NASA/TM-2012-217787 2012. 

Environmental assessment of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles: Electric Power Research Institute 

and Natural Resources Defense Council, July 2007, Vol. 1. National Greenhouse Gas 

Emissions; Vol. 2. United States Air Quality Analysis Based on AEO-2006 Assumptions 

for 2030. 

EPA: Transportation Sector CO2 Emissions; 

http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/ghgemissions/sources.html 

Fox, Gary H 2011; “Getting Ready for Electric Vehicle Charging Stations.” 

Helmers, Eckard and Patrick Marx; "Electric Cars: Technical Characteristics and 

Environmental Impacts."Environmental Sciences Europe 24, no. 14: 1-15, 2011. 

13
House of Representatives; H. R. 1402, 2011. 

How Can a Gallon of Gas Produce 20 Pounds of Carbon Dioxide?; fueleconomy.gov. N.p., n.d. 

Web. 10 Oct. 2012. <http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/co2.shtml 

McKenna, Phil: NewScientist March 2008. www.newscientist.com/article/dn13418-thirstyelectric-carsthreaten-water-resources 

Nissan LEAF Versions & Specs; nissanusa.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 7 Oct. 2012. 

<http://www.nissanusa.com/leaf-electric-car/versionsspecifications?next=ev_micro.section_nav>. 

OmninStats data US Department of Transportation, 

http://www.bts.gov/publications/omnistats/volume_03_issue_04/ 

Read, Richard; "Hybrid and electric car sales jump 73 percent in 2012 - CSMonitor.com." The 

Christian Science Monitor - CSMonitor.com, http://www.csmonitor.com/Business/InGear/2012/1228/Hybrid-and-electric-car-sales-jump-73-percent-in-2012 (accessed March 

14, 2013). 

Robertson, Nicole: “The pros and cons of electric cars”, Cereplast, Mar. 1, 2012, 

http://www.cereplast.com/the-pros-and-cons-of-electric-cars/. 

Voelcker, John: “Five real world facts about electric cars”, Rocky Mountain Institute, Jun. 27, 

2012, http://blog.rmi.org/blog_five_real_world_facts_aboutelectric_cars. 

14
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Technical Memorandum

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Electric Vehicle Charging Stations as a Climate Change 

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Cave, Bridget; DeYoung, Russell J.

 7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES)

NASA Langley Research Center

Hampton, VA 23681-2199

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National Aeronautics and Space Administration

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14. ABSTRACT

In order to facilitate the use of electric vehicles at NASA Langley Research Center (LaRC), charging stations should be made 

available to LaRC employees. The implementation of charging stations would decrease the need for gasoline thus decreasing 

CO2 emissions improving local air quality and providing a cost savings for LaRC employees. A charging station pilot program 

is described that would install stations as the need increased and also presents a business model that pays for the electricity

used and installation at no cost to the government. 

15. SUBJECT TERMS

climate; climate mitigation; electric vehicle

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