Jorge Fernandez-Cornejo

Richard Nehring

Craig Osteen

Seth Wechsler

Andrew Martin

Alex Vialou

Economic

Research

Service

Economic 

Information

Bulletin

Number 124

May 2014

United States Department of Agriculture

Pesticide Use in U.S. Agriculture: 

21 Selected Crops, 1960-2008
Economic Research Service 

www.ers.usda.gov

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Fernandez-Cornejo, Jorge, Richard Nehring, Craig Osteen, Seth Wechsler, Andrew 

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EIB-124, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, May 2014.
United States Department of Agriculture

Economic 

Research 

Service

Economic

Information

Bulletin

Number 124

May 2014

Abstract

Pesticide use has changed considerably over the past five decades. Rapid growth characterized the first 20 years, ending in 1981. The total quantity of pesticides applied to 

the 21 crops analyzed grew from 196 million pounds of pesticide active ingredients in 

1960 to 632 million pounds in 1981. Improvements in the types and modes of action of 

active ingredients applied along with small annual fluctuations resulted in a slight downward trend in pesticide use to 516 million pounds in 2008. These changes were driven 

by economic factors that determined crop and input prices and were influenced by pest 

pressures, environmental and weather conditions, crop acreages, agricultural practices 

(including adoption of genetically engineered crops), access to land-grant extension 

personnel and crop consultants, the cost-effectiveness of pesticides and other practices in 

protecting crop yields and quality, technological innovations in pest management systems/

practices, and environmental and health regulations. Emerging pest management policy 

issues include the development of glyphosate-resistant weed populations associated with 

the large increase in glyphosate use since the late 1990s, the development of Bt-resistant 

western corn rootworm in some areas, and the arrival of invasive or exotic pest species, 

such as soybean aphid and soybean rust, which can influence pesticide use patterns and 

the development of Integrated Pest Management programs.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Marc Ribaudo and James MacDonald, USDA, Economic Research 

Service; Sheryl Kunickis, David Epstein, Julius Fajardo, and Teung Chin, USDA, Office 

of Pest Management Policy; Cynthia Doucoure, U.S. EPA; Scott Swinton, Michigan State 

University; and David Shaw, Mississippi State University. We are grateful to Dale Simms 

for valuable editorial assistance and Cynthia A. Ray for graphics and layout.

Jorge Fernandez-Cornejo, Richard Nehring, 

Craig Osteen, Seth Wechsler, Andrew Martin, 

and Alex Vialou

Pesticide Use in U.S. Agriculture: 

21 Selected Crops, 1960-2008
ii

Pesticide Use in U.S. Agriculture: 21 Selected Crops, 1960-2008, EIB-124

Economic Research Service/USDA

Contents

Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Box 1—Agricultural Pests and Pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Economic Factors Influencing Pesticide Use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

Farmers’ Choice of Pesticides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Box 2—Pesticide Expenditures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Trends in Pesticide Use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Early Growth Driven by Herbicide Adoption for Major Crops. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Herbicide Adoption Driven by Relative Prices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Stabilization of Herbicide Use and Decline in Insecticide Use Driven by Demand 

 and Supply Factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Box 3—Pesticide Prices and Relative Price Trends. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Herbicide-Tolerant Crops Transform Herbicide Mix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Insecticide Use Declines as Herbicides Grow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Fungicides Used Mainly on Fruits and Vegetables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Cotton and Potatoes Are Major Users of Other Pesticides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Five Major Crops Account for Four-Fifths of Pesticides Use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Pesticide Quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Box 4—Quality Adjustment of Pesticides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Appendix 1—Human Health Effects and Pesticide Regulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

Appendix 2—Data Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Appendix 3—The Economics of Pesticide Use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Appendix 4—Trends in Pesticide Use on Five Major Crops. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

Corn Pesticide Trends. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

Soybean Pesticide Trends. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Cotton Pesticide Trends. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

Potato Pesticide Trends. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

Wheat Pesticide Trends. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
www.ers.usda.gov

What Is the Issue? 

Pesticides—including herbicides, insecticides, and fungicides—have contributed to substantial 

increases in crop yields over the past five decades. Properly applied, pesticides contribute to higher 

yields and improved product quality by controlling weeds, insects, nematodes, and plant pathogens. 

In addition, herbicides reduce the amount of labor, machinery, and fuel used for mechanical weed 

control. However, because pesticides may possess toxic properties, their use often prompts concern 

about human health and environmental consequences. The examination of pesticide use trends 

is critical for informed pesticide policy debate and science-based decisions. This report analyzes 

pesticide use trends using a new pesticide database compiled from USDA and proprietary data, 

focusing on 21 crops.

What Did the Study Find?

Total pesticide use, as well as the specific active ingredients used (for example, with novel target sites 

of action or improved toxicological profiles), has changed considerably over the past five decades.

Pesticide use on the 21 crops analyzed in this report rose rapidly from 196 million pounds of active 

ingredient (a.i.) in 1960 to 632 million pounds in 1981, largely because of the increased share of 

planted acres treated with herbicides to control weeds. In addition, the total planted acreage of corn, 

wheat, and, in particular, soybeans increased from the early 1960s to early 1980s, which further 

increased herbicide use. Most acres planted with major crops (particularly corn and soybeans) 

were already being treated with herbicides by 1980, so total pesticide use has since trended slightly 

downward driven by other factors, to 516 million pounds in 2008 (the most recent year for which 

we have enough complete data). 

The rapid adoption of herbicides was mainly driven by relative price declines that helped reduce 

the cost of herbicides relative to other pest control practices and encouraged substitution of herbicides for labor, fuel, and machinery use in mechanical weed control. The fluctuations in pesticide 

use over 1982-2008 were driven by several factors, including changes in planted acreage, crop and 

input prices, weather, pesticide regulations, and the introduction of new pesticides and genetically 

engineered (GE) seed. Changes in the acreages of corn, cotton, soybeans, potatoes, and wheat 

contributed to fluctuations in pesticide use from 1981 to 2008, with many high and low years in 

herbicide and pesticide use coinciding with high and low years in total acreage of these crops.

The pesticide types applied by U.S. farmers for the 21 crops analyzed changed considerably from 

1960 to 2008. Insecticides accounted for 58 percent of pounds applied in 1960, but only 6 percent 

in 2008. On the other hand, herbicides accounted for 18 percent of the pounds applied in 1960 but 

76 percent by 2008. The growth of herbicide use is also illustrated by the percent of acres treated. 

United States Department of Agriculture

A report summary from the Economic Research Service May 2014

ERS is a primary source 

of economic research and 

analysis from the U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, 

providing timely information on economic and policy 

issues related to agriculture, 

food, the environment, and 

rural America.

Find the full report 

at www.ers.usda.

gov/publications/eibeconomic-informationbulletin/eib-124.aspx

Jorge Fernandez-Cornejo

Richard Nehring

Craig Osteen

Seth Wechsler

Andrew Martin

Alex Vialou

Economic

Research

Service

Economic 

Information

Bulletin

Number 124

May 2014

United States Department of Agriculture

Pesticide Use in U.S. Agriculture: 

21 Selected Crops, 1960-2008

Jorge Fernandez-Cornejo, Richard Nehring, Craig Osteen, 

Seth Wechsler, Andrew Martin, and Alex Vialou

Pesticide Use in U.S. Agriculture: 

21 Selected Crops, 1960-2008
Approximately 5-10 percent of corn, wheat, and cotton acres were treated with herbicides in 1952. By 1980, herbicide 

use had reached 90-99 percent of U.S. corn, cotton, and soybean acres planted. Notably, the four most heavily used 

active ingredients in 2008 (glyphosate, atrazine, acetochlor, and metolachlor) were all herbicides. Fungicides’ share 

of pesticide use has remained at 7 percent or less since 1971, down from 11-13 percent in the early 1960s. Other pesticides—which include soil fumigants, desiccants, harvest aids, and plant growth regulators—generally accounted for 

5-11 percent of total pesticide use from 1960 to 1992, increased to 17 percent of use in 2002, and then declined to 13 

percent in 2008.

Total pesticide expenditures in U.S. agriculture reached close to $12 billion in 2008, a 5-fold increase in real terms 

(adjusted for inflation) since 1960, but well below the $15.4-billion peak reached in 1998.

In 2008, corn, soybeans, cotton, wheat, and potatoes accounted for about 80 percent of the pesticide quantity (measured 

in pounds of a.i.) applied to the 21 crops examined. Corn has been the top pesticide-using crop in the United States since 

1972 and received about 39 percent of the pesticides in 2008 (mostly herbicides). While corn is a major component of 

livestock feed, expansion of ethanol production for fuel use has boosted corn acres in recent years. The increase in corn 

acreage led to an increase in pesticide use and change in the active ingredients used. The change in active ingredients 

also reflects increased glyphosate use associated with the adoption of HT crops. 

Soybean production had the next largest share in 2008 (22 percent), almost all of which were herbicides. Potatoes’ 

share rose significantly in the 1990s and reached about 10 percent by 2008. Other pesticides, including soil fumigants 

and desiccants, constituted a large portion of the pesticides applied to potatoes in 2008. Cotton accounted for just over 

7 percent of the pesticides, mostly insecticides, in 2008, a major reduction from its 40-percent share in the early 1960s. 

The quantity applied to cotton trended downward since 1972 due to the replacement of DDT and other older insecticides 

with more effective products, eradication of the boll weevil, and adoption of Bt cotton. Wheat accounted for less than 5 

percent of the pesticides, mostly herbicides, in 2008. 

How Was the Study Conducted?

The study analyzes a new pesticide database that was compiled from pesticide use surveys carried out by USDA’s National 

Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS) and Economic Research Service (ERS), supplemented by proprietary data provided 

by a market research company to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and shared with ERS under an agreement between the two agencies. 

The data were collected for 1960-2008 

and focus on 21 crops: apples, barley, 

corn, cotton, grapefruit, grapes, 

lemons, lettuce, peaches, peanuts, 

pears, pecans, potatoes, oranges, 

rice, sorghum, soybeans, sugarcane, 

sweet corn, tomatoes, and wheat. 

These crops account for roughly 72 

percent of total conventional pesticide 

use in U.S. agriculture. This report 

discusses “conventional” pesticides 

defined by the EPA as substances 

developed and produced primarily 

or only for use as pesticides and 

excludes sulfur, petroleum distillate, 

sulfuric acid, and hydrated lime. In 

addition to data described above, the 

study used pesticide expenditure data 

covering all U.S. agriculture drawn 

from ERS publications. 

www.ers.usda.gov

Pesticide use by crop, 21 selected crops, 2008, percent total pounds of 

active ingredient applied

Note: "Other Crops" include: lettuce, pears, sweet corn, barley, peaches, grapefruit, pecans, 

and lemons.

Sources: Economic Research Service with USDA and proprietary data. See Appendix 2.

Corn

39.5%

Soybeans

21.7%

Potatoes

10.2%

Cotton

7.3%

4.5%

2.7%

2.5%

2.0%

1.9%

1.5%

1.5% 1.4%

0.8%

2.5%

Wheat

Sorghum

Oranges

Peanuts

Tomatoes

Grapes

Rice

Apples

Sugarcane

Other Crops
1

Pesticide Use in U.S. Agriculture: 21 Selected Crops, 1960-2008, EIB-124

Economic Research Service/USDA

Pesticide Use in U.S. Agriculture: 

21 Selected Crops, 1960-2008

Introduction

Prior to World War II, farmers managed pests using cultural practices and a few inorganic pesticides (see box, “Agricultural Pests and Pesticides”). After World War II, new, synthetic organic 

materials—such as the insecticide DDT and the herbicide 2,4-D—enhanced farmers’ pest control 

options. These pesticides made crop production more efficient by providing superior crop protection 

and reducing the need for tillage (Padgitt et al., 2000). 

Pesticides, together with fertilizers and improved seed varieties, have contributed to substantial 

increases in crop yields over the last 80 years. Average corn yields rose from 20 bushels per acre in 

1930 to more than 150 bushels per acre in recent years. During the same period, cotton yields rose 

nearly fourfold, and soybean yields increased more than threefold (Fernandez-Cornejo, 2004). 

Pesticides are used to prevent or manage pests such as weeds, insects, and plant pathogens, while 

reducing the amount of labor, fuel, and machinery used for pest control (Osteen and Szmedra, 1989; 

Fernandez-Cornejo et al., 1998; Gardner et al., 2009). These benefits translate into lower production costs, higher crop yields and/or quality, and increased profits for farmers. The benefits for U.S. 

farmers are evidenced by their willingness to spend approximately $12 billion on pesticides in 

2008 (USDA/ERS, 2010b). Many consumers also benefit from abundant, and relatively inexpensive, unblemished foods (Fernandez-Cornejo et al., 1998).1 However, not all consumers feel that the 

benefits of heavier reliance on pesticide use outweigh the costs, accounting for the recent growth in 

organically grown food sales.

The benefits of pesticide use are accompanied by potential risks to human health and the environment. Human health risks can result from direct exposure of farm workers to pesticides or from 

consumer exposure to pesticide residues on foods.2 Environmental risks can result from the movement of pesticides into ground and surface water and into the food chain (Council of Environmental 

Quality, 1993).

By the 1960s, concerns about wildlife and human health led to calls for more stringent pesticide 

regulation. In 1972, Congress empowered the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to 

review the safety of existing pesticides (table 1). The EPA determined that some pesticides, such 

as DDT, aldrin, dieldrin, chlordane, and heptachlor, posed unreasonable risks and their registrations were subsequently canceled. Other compounds faced rigorous scrutiny in the 1990s and 

2000s, as the EPA required additional studies of individual chemicals’ toxicity and focused on the 

human health risks associated with pesticide residues (see Appendix 1, “Human Health Effects and 

Pesticide Regulation”).

1By controlling insects, diseases, and other pests, pesticides can provide less costly food that is also free from harmful 

organisms and blemishes. 

2The EPA sets pesticide residue limits (known as tolerances) on food to protect consumers from harmful levels of 

pesticides (EPA, 2008).
2

Pesticide Use in U.S. Agriculture: 21 Selected Crops, 1960-2008, EIB-124

Economic Research Service/USDA

This report examines trends in pesticide use in U.S. agriculture from 1960 to 2008 focusing on 21 

crops that account for more than 70 percent of pesticide use and identifies the factors affecting these 

trends. The report also provides a detailed analysis of trends for the five crops that represent the 

largest users of pesticides: corn, cotton, potatoes, soybeans, and wheat.

Data

The data were compiled from pesticide use surveys carried out by USDA’s Economic Research 

Service (ERS) and National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS), as well as from proprietary data 

provided by a market research company to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and shared 

with ERS under an agreement between the two agencies (proprietary data for short). This report 

only uses published EPA estimates of aggregate pesticide use for comparison, because the EPA does 

not publish estimates of pesticide use for individual crops, as this report does.

The ERS surveys covered various crops and were conducted mainly in the 1960s and 1970s (Eichers 

et al., 1968, Eichers et al., 1970, Andrilenas, 1974; Eichers et al., 1978, Delvo et al., 1983; USDA/

ERS, 1984). The NASS pesticide surveys (USDA/NASS, various years) began in 1990, but not all 

crops were covered every year. 

Agricultural Pests and Pesticides

From the point of view of agriculture, pests are “organisms that diminish the value of resources 

in which man is interested as they interfere with the production and utilization of crops and livestock” used for food and fiber (NRC, 1975). The term pest includes insects, mites, nematodes, 

plant pathogens, weeds, and vertebrates. Pests can reduce crop yields or quality of production, 

while costs of managing pests increase production costs.

The term pesticide includes the substances used to control pests. It includes herbicides (to control 

weeds and other plants), insecticides (to control insects), fungicides (to control fungi or other 

plant pathogens), nematicides (to control parasitic worms), and rodenticides (to control rodents). 

The term pesticide also encompasses soil fumigants, plant growth regulators, defoliants, and 

desiccants. Pesticides can be synthetic (developed in laboratories and manufactured) or natural. 

According to a study conducted using 1996 data (Fernandez-Cornejo and Jans, 1999), weeds 

are by far the most important pests in U.S. agriculture in terms of the share of treatments used 

to control them.

The active chemicals used to control pests (the biologically active part of the pesticide) are 

called pesticide active ingredients. Pesticides are sold as mixtures of these active ingredients with inert materials used to improve safety and facilitate storage, handling, or application. 

Appendix table 1.2 provides a list of the pesticide active ingredients included in this report. All 

pounds of pesticides referred to in this report are in terms of active ingredients. 

The term pesticide used in this report includes what EPA defines as “conventional pesticides” 

(EPA, 2011). This means pesticides that are chemicals or other substances developed and 

produced primarily or only for use as pesticides. It excludes sulfur, petroleum oil and other 

chemicals used as pesticides (for example, sulfuric acid, hydrated lime, and insect repellents).
3

Pesticide Use in U.S. Agriculture: 21 Selected Crops, 1960-2008, EIB-124

Economic Research Service/USDA

Table 1

Basic Pesticide Legislation

The Insecticide Act of 1910 – Prohibited the manufacture, sale, or transport of adulterated or misbranded pesticides; protected farmers and ranchers from marketing of ineffective products. 

Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938 (FFDCA) – Provided that safe tolerances be set for residues of 

unavoidable poisonous substances, such as pesticides, in food.

Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act of 1947 (FIFRA) – Required pesticides to be registered 

before sale and the product labeled to specify content and whether the substance was poisonous.

Miller Amendment to FFDCA of 1954 – Amended the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA) 

to require that tolerances for pesticide residues be established (or exempted) for food and feed (Section 408). 

Allowed consideration of risks and benefits in setting tolerances.

Food Additives Amendment to FFDCA of 1958 – Amended FFDCA to give authority to regulate food additives against a general safety standard that does not consider benefits (Section 409); included the Delaney Clause 

prohibiting food additives found to induce cancer in humans or animals. Pesticide residues in processed foods 

were classified as food additives, while residues on raw commodities were not. When residues of a pesticide 

applied to a raw agricultural commodity appeared in a processed product, the residues in processed foods were 

not to be regulated as food additives if levels were no higher than sanctioned on the raw commodity.

FIFRA Amendments of 1964 – Increased authority to remove pesticide products from the market for safety 

reasons by authorizing denial or cancellation of registration and the immediate suspension of a registration, if 

necessary, to prevent an imminent hazard to the public.

Federal Environmental Pest Control Act (FEPCA) of 1972 – Amended FIFRA to significantly increase 

authority to regulate pesticides. Allowed registration of a pesticide only if it did not cause ”unreasonable adverse 

effects” to human health or the environment; required an examination of the safety of all previously registered 

pesticide products within 4 years using new health and environmental protection criteria. Materials with risks 

that exceeded those criteria were subject to cancellation of registration. Specifically included consideration of 

risks and benefits in these decisions. 

FIFRA Amendment of 1975 – Required consideration of the effects of registration cancellation or suspension on 

the production and prices of relevant agricultural commodities.

Federal Pesticide Act of 1978 – Identified review of previously registered pesticides as reregistration; eliminated 

the deadline for reregistration but required an expeditious process. 

FIFRA Amendments of 1988 – Accelerated the reregistration process by requiring that all pesticides containing 

active ingredients registered before November 1, 1984, be reregistered by 1995; provided EPA with additional 

financial resources through reregistration and annual maintenance fees levied on pesticide registrations.

Food Quality Protection Act of 1996 (FQPA) – Amended FIFRA and FFDCA to set a consistent safety standard for risks from pesticide residues in foods: “ensure that there is a reasonable certainty that no harm will result 

to infants and children from aggregate exposure.” Pesticide residues are no longer subject to the Delaney Clause 

of FDCA; both fresh and processed foods may contain residues of pesticides classified as carcinogens at tolerance 

levels determined to be safe. EPA was required to reassess existing tolerances of pesticides within 10 years, with 

priority to pesticides that may pose the greatest risk to public health. Benefits no longer have a role in setting new 

tolerances, but may have a limited role in decisions concerning existing tolerances. Included special provisions to 

encourage registration of minor-use and public health pesticides. 

Pesticide Registration Improvement Act of 2003 – Amended FIFRA to provide for the enhanced review of 

covered pesticide products, to authorize service fees for registration actions in the Antimicrobials, Biopesticides 

and Pollution Prevention, and Registration Divisions of EPA’s Office of Pesticide Programs. 
4

Pesticide Use in U.S. Agriculture: 21 Selected Crops, 1960-2008, EIB-124

Economic Research Service/USDA

The dataset aggregates pesticides applied by year, State, crop, and active ingredient (a.i.). When both 

USDA and proprietary data are available, ERS and NASS data are used. Proprietary data are used 

when USDA data are not available. If neither USDA data nor proprietary data are available for a 

specific year, crop, State, and active ingredient, estimates are made based on application rates (e.g., 

pounds of a.i. per acre) from contiguous years and planted acres reported by USDA (see appendix 

table 2.1 for a list of main sources). ERS did not have access to the proprietary data needed to estimate pesticide quantities beyond 2008 using this method.

The 21 (7 major and 14 minor) crops included in this report —apples, barley, corn, cotton, grapefruit, grapes, lemons, lettuce, peaches, peanuts, pears, pecans, fall potatoes, oranges, rice, sorghum, 

soybeans, sugarcane, sweet corn, tomatoes, and wheat—account, on average, for 72 percent of the 

total conventional pesticide use in U.S. agriculture (including all crops) as estimated by EPA from 

1964 through 2007 (EPA, 1999, 2011). Additional information is included in Appendix 2. 

This report also contains charts showing trends in the share of acreages treated with major pesticide types for cotton, corn, soybeans, wheat, and potatoes to provide insight into factors influencing 

trends in pesticide quantities. These charts only include published NASS estimates and linear interpolations between published estimates for years when NASS estimates were not available, because 

the estimates were difficult to obtain from the proprietary data. 

In addition to data described above, the study used pesticide expenditure data covering all U.S. 

agriculture developed for annual farm income accounts (USDA/ERS, 2010b). Additionally, a set of 

physical characteristics was obtained for nearly 200 of the active ingredients (appendix table 2.2) 

used in corn, cotton, sorghum, and soybean production (Wauchope et al., 1992; Kellogg et al., 2002) 

to illustrate the estimation of quality-adjusted indices for pesticide prices and quantities for four 

major crops.3

This report discusses conventional pesticides, defined by EPA as “chemicals or other substances 

developed and produced primarily or only for use as pesticides” (EPA, 2011). Conventional pesticides exclude chemicals “that are produced and marketed mostly for other purposes (i.e. multi-use 

chemicals).” Notably, this report excludes sulfur, petroleum distillate products, sulfuric acid, and 

hydrated lime. This report maintains consistency with previous ERS reports and comparability of 

these 1960-2008 estimates with the EPA 1964-2007 agricultural pesticide use estimates.4 (Unlike 

this report, which focuses on crop-specific pesticide use, EPA reports estimates of pesticide use 

for the whole agricultural sector.) Previous ERS pesticide use reports either separated sulfur and 

petroleum use estimates from conventional pesticides, or did not report their use; ERS summaries 

of national pesticide use surveys for 1964, 1966, 1971, and 1976 separated sulfur and petroleum use 

from conventional pesticide use, while the 1982 summary did not report their use. 

Among previous USDA pesticide use reports, Osteen and Szmedra (1989) discussed trends in 

agricultural chemical use through 1982; Lin et al. (1995) discussed trends for 11 crops from 1964 

through 1992, and Livingston and Osteen (2012) provided a brief summary of pesticide use for 5 

major crops using NASS data, all excluding sulfur and petroleum in their pesticide use summaries. 

3Pesticide quality has changed as materials more effective and less harmful to human health and the environment have 

been introduced while others have been banned or dropped by their manufacturers (Fernandez-Cornejo and Jans, 1995).

4EPA estimates also exclude pesticides on treated seed or applied as seed treatments, because neither the USDA nor the 

proprietary data include this information. While large acreages of corn, cotton, and soybeans may be planted with treated 

seed, the contribution to aggregate pesticide quantity is small.
5

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Similarly, EPA’s 1964-2007 series of national estimates of conventional pesticide use excludes sulfur 

and petroleum, as well as other chemicals used as pesticides (such as sulfuric acid and insect repellants), wood preservatives, specialty biocides, and chlorine/hypochlorites.5

5EPA publishes a time series that includes sulfur, petroleum, and other non-conventional pesticides, but only for 1979-

2007 and no breakdown by crop.
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Economic Factors Influencing Pesticide Use

Pesticide patterns, including changes in aggregate pesticide use and active ingredients applied, have 

been influenced by a number of factors over the last 50 years. Major factors affecting the demand 

and/or the supply of pesticides include: 

• Pest infestation levels. Commonly, at low densities, a pest causes little or no damage to agriculture, but potentially pests “can erupt to population densities that cause devastations of entire 

crops” (NRC, 1989, p. 27). From an economic viewpoint, an agricultural pest is an “animal or 

plant pathogen whose population density exceeds some unacceptable threshold level, resulting in 

economic damage” (Horn, 1988).

• Technical improvements that increase pesticide effectiveness and/or reduce environment/ human 

health consequences. For example, the development of new chemistries for herbicides such as 

the very active sulfonylureas and imidazolinones in the 1980s and 1990s reduced the application 

rates from multiple pounds per acre to a few ounces, or even fractions of an ounce. Similarly, 

low-use-rate insecticide compounds were introduced, such as synthetic pyrethroids (permethrin, 

cypermethrin) in the mid-1970s and neo-nicotinoids (imidicloprid, clothianidin) in the mid1990s, increasing effectiveness. 

• The use of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) practices by U.S. farmers, including crop rotations, mixing or alternating pesticides to reduce development of pest resistance to pesticides, 

biological monitoring of pests to better understand population densities and phenological development, predictive models that use local weather conditions along with pest phenology to optimize 

spray timings, improved and more accurate spray technologies, the optimization of planting and 

harvest dates, and the use of beneficial insects (Fernandez-Cornejo and Jans, 1999).

• The adoption of genetically engineered (GE) crops, including herbicide-tolerant corn, soybeans, 

and cotton, as well as insect-resistant corn and cotton (Fernandez-Cornejo and Caswell, 2004). 

GE seeds have genes that provide specific traits such as herbicide tolerance (HT) and insect resistance. HT crops tolerate potent herbicides, allowing adopters of these varieties to control pervasive weeds more effectively. Insect-resistant (Bt) crops contain genes from the soil bacterium 

Bacillus thuringiensis that produce a protein toxic to specific insects, protecting the plant over its 

entire life (Fernandez-Cornejo and McBride, 2002). 

• The use of conservation practices that yield environmental benefits and reduce soil erosion but 

may or may not increase pesticide use (Fuglie, 1999). For example, the adoption of conservation tillage by U.S. soybean growers rose from about 30 percent in 1996 to 63 percent in 2006 

(Fernandez-Cornejo et al., 2012).6 Glyphosate use has been associated with use of conservation 

tillage as it replaced more intensive tillage.

• Pesticide regulations. For example, the ban of DDT forced growers to use different insecticides 

and pesticide producers to develop new crop protection products (Osteen, 1987).

6Conservation tillage includes no-till and reduced till. No-till is often considered the most effective of all conservation 

tillage systems. Soybean farmers adopted no-till in 45 percent of their planted acres in 2006 (Horowitz et al., 2010).
7

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• Changes in crop acreage. Aggregate pesticide use has increased during periods of increasing 

planted acreage, and decreased during periods of decreasing acreage. Acreage planted reflects 

farm policy and economic factors that influence crop demand. In particular, changes in acreage 

under diversion programs and the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) influenced the acreage 

in crop production and thus pesticide use.7

• Increased corn acreage. While corn is a major component of livestock feed, expansion of 

ethanol production for fuel use since the early 2000s, reflecting energy policy, boosted corn acres 

even further (Westcott, 2007). The increase in corn acreage led to an increase in pesticide use 

and change in the active ingredients used. The change in active ingredients also reflects increased 

glyphosate use associated with the adoption of HT crops. 

In addition, many factors indirectly influence pesticide use, such as weather, cultivar susceptibility 

or resistance to pests or disease, and consumer demand for blemish-free produce that encourages 

growers to apply pesticide materials even when their IPM monitoring indicates otherwise. Other 

factors include commodity prices as well as the prices of other inputs such as labor and machinery. 

Farmers’ Choice of Pesticides

According to economic efficiency criteria, farmers choose the combination of pest control practices that maximizes the difference between pest damage reductions and control costs (Osteen and 

Szmedra, 1989). 

In contrast to other inputs such as fertilizers, capital, and labor, which affect yields directly, pesticides have an indirect effect on yields by reducing crop losses (NRC, 2002). The damage control 

framework developed by Lichtenberg and Zilberman (1986) recognizes this. This framework 

assumes that the observed yield (effective yield) is equal to the potential yield (that would obtain 

in the absence of the damage caused by pests) minus the losses caused by damaging agents (pests). 

Yield losses from pests are affected by the pest infestation levels (sometimes called pest density) and 

by the effectiveness of the pest control inputs in managing the infestation (see Appendix 3, “The 

Economics of Pesticide Use”).

Relative to yields prevailing at the time, estimates obtained in the 1970s and 1980s found that the 

expected losses from insects and plant pathogens without the use of insecticides and fungicides 

ranged between 1 percent and 26 percent for large-acreage crops like corn, soybeans, and wheat. 

Peanuts, fruits, and vegetables were estimated to have higher yield losses (Fernandez-Cornejo et al., 

1998). Crop losses from weeds not treated with herbicides ranged from 0 to 53 percent for the crops 

studied. Losses from all pests without pesticides ranged from 24 to 79 percent. 

Older estimates reported by the U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 1975) estimated 

global crop losses to pests at around 35 percent. As Yudelman et al. (1998) reported, FAO “estimated 

that preharvest losses in developing countries were around 40 percent, while postharvest losses 

added a further 10 to 20 percent.” More recently, Oerke (2006) estimated that, without pest control, 

production would decline worldwide by 54 percent for corn (maize), 46 percent for soybeans, 

7Historically, economists argued that price and income support and acreage diversion programs encouraged more 

intensive pesticide use per acre, but changes in farm legislation since 1977 have decreased those incentives (Osteen and 

Fernandez-Cornejo, 2013). Also, some economists have argued that crop insurance could discourage pesticide use, but 

empirical evidence is mixed. There is some evidence that crop insurance, including subsidized premiums, encourages 

producers to grow higher value crops and increase pesticide use (Wu, 1999; Claassen et al., 2011).
8

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75 percent for cotton, 58 percent for potatoes, and 30 percent for wheat, relative to production 

prevailing in 2001-03.8 Still, with the exception of controlled experiments, in most cases the estimation of the impact of a treatment is difficult, as they would require us to observe the counterfactual. 

Thus, caution should be exercised when considering these estimates. 

Pesticide Expenditures

Pesticide expenditures are correlated with pesticide use. Expenditures for all pesticides used in U.S. 

agriculture expressed in nominal terms increased steadily through most of the last half-century. 

In real terms (adjusted for inflation) expenditures increased from $2.3 billion in 1960 to about $10 

billion in the 1980s. Expenditures peaked at $15.4 billion in 1998 before falling to approximately 

$12 billion in 2008 (see box, “Pesticide Expenditures”).

The cost share of pesticides (relative to all input costs) peaked at 4.0 percent in 1998, up from 0.7 

percent in 1960 and 1.6 percent in 1970 (see box, “Pesticide Expenditures”). This trend reflects 

the rapid growth in pesticide use in this period. Between 1998 and 2008, the pesticide cost share 

declined to about 3.1 percent, reflecting a slowdown in the rate of increase in pesticide prices. Even 

when pesticide use is high, as in the peak year of 1998, pesticides represent a minor cost component 

in U.S. agriculture. That year, labor accounted for 20.4 percent, fertilizer for 4.5 percent, land for 

12.5 percent, and capital for 12.1 percent of agricultural costs (box table 2).

8Oerke (2006) also estimated production losses relative to attainable production, which consisted of actual losses 

that would occur with current pest control practices, additional losses without pest control, and remaining production 

without pest control. So, actual production was attainable yield minus actual (or current) losses. Oerke estimated that 

production would decline without pest control practices, relative to attainable production in 2001-03, by 37 percent for 

corn (maize), 34 for soybeans, 53 percent for cotton, 35 percent for potatoes, and 22 percent for wheat. The estimates did 

not account for any producer adjustments in response to changing costs and market prices. 
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Pesticide Expenditures

Nominal expenditures on all pesticides used in U.S. agriculture (box fig. 2.1), increased steadily 

through most of the last half-century. In real terms (constant 2008 dollars, adjusted for inflation), 

pesticide expenditures increased five-fold between 1960 and 2008. However, 2008 expenditures 

remain well below the 1998 peak (in real terms). 

Per-acre pesticide expenditures vary widely, generally increasing with the per acre value of the 

crop. For example, while corn and soybean farmers spend between $17 and $26 per acre, cotton 

farmers spend more than $65 per acre, and producers of potatoes (a high-value commodity) 

spend nearly $200 per acre (box table 2.1). Pesticide expenditures for many fruits and vegetables are even higher—$842 per acre for tomatoes and $1,588 per acre for strawberries in 1994 

(Fernandez et al., 1998). 

Box figure 2.1

Pesticide expenditures in U.S. agriculture, 1960-2008

Source: Data from USDA/ERS (2010b). Deflator: Index of Prices Paid by Farmers from USDA/NASS’

Agricultural Prices Summary (various years). 

Billion $

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005

Nominal

Real (2008 dollars)

Box table 2.1 

Value of the average product of pesticides for selected crops and years 

Item

Corn

2001

Corn 

2005

Potatoes

2008

Soybeans

2002

Cotton

2003

Sorghum

2003

Wheat

2004

Pesticide expenditure, 

$ per acre 26.44 22.84 193.62 17.12 65.81 17.32 22.84

Yield, unit per acre 

(bu, lb, cwt)1 144 149 395 40 742 47 39.8

Price, $ per unit 1.84 1.74 7.00 5.20 0.66 2.25 3.44

Total revenues, 

$ per acre 265 259 2,765 208 490 106 137

Average value 

product, $ of revenue 

per $ of pesticide 

expenditure

10.02 11.35 14.28 12.14 7.44 6.11 5.99

1Bushels for corn, soybeans, sorghum and wheat; cwt (100 pounds) for potatoes, lb (pounds) for cotton.

Source: ERS analysis of selected USDA Agricultural Resource Management Surveys (ARMS), Cost of Production 

Surveys and Costs and Returns Reports and proprietary pesticide data.
10

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At the national level, the cost share of pesticides (relative to all input costs, box table 2.2) 

peaked at 4.0 percent in 1998, up from 0.7 percent in 1960 and 1.6 percent in 1970. This trend 

reflects the rapid growth in pesticide use, particularly in herbicide applications on major field 

crops, since 1960 (see Appendix 1). Between 1998 and 2008, the pesticide cost share declined 

to about 3.1 percent, reflecting a slowdown in the rate of increase in pesticide prices. Thus, even 

when pesticide use is high, as in the peak year of 1998, pesticides represent a minor cost component in U.S. agriculture. That year, labor accounted for 20.4 percent, fertilizer for 4.5 percent, 

land for 12.5 percent, and capital for 12.1 percent of agricultural costs (box table 2.2). Other 

intermediate inputs, such as fuel and feed, account for the remaining cost shares. 

Box table 2.2 

Cost shares in U.S. agriculture (percent)

Year Labor Capital Land

Intermediate inputs

All intermediate 

Inputs1 Pesticides Fertilizer

2008 16.1 8.3 18.8 58.5 3.1 5.8

2005 21.7 9.6 14.7 54.0 3.2 4.2

2000 22.3 13.4 8.8 55.5 3.7 3.8

1998 20.4 12.1 12.5 55.0 4.0 4.5

1990 17.3 14.0 19.0 49.8 2.6 4.1

1985 15.1 20.1 14.8 50.0 2.5 5.7

1970 21.5 12.9 15.2 50.4 1.6 3.8

1960 21.8 10.0 19.2 49.1 0.7 2.9

1Intermediate inputs include pesticides, fertilizers, fuels, seeds, and other materials.

Source: ERS calculations from the productivity accounts (USDA/ERS, 2010).
11

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Trends in Pesticide Use 

Pesticide use has changed considerably over the past five decades (fig. 1; table 2). Rapid growth in 

pesticide use characterized the first two decades. The total quantity of pesticides applied to the 21 

crops analyzed in this study grew from 196 million pounds of pesticide active ingredients in 1960 to 

632 million pounds in 1981. Changes in the active ingredients applied and a slight downward trend 

in use since 1981 (with some fluctuations in total pesticide use) caused pesticide use totals to dip 

to 468 million pounds in 1987 before increasing to 601 million pounds in 1997, and ending at 516 

million pounds in 2008. 

This pattern of pesticide use for the 21 crops parallels the total use of conventional pesticides for 

U.S. agriculture as estimated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA, 1999, 2011). On 

average, the amount of pesticide used on the 21 crops included in this study represents 72 percent of 

the total estimated by EPA for U.S. agriculture (fig. 2).

Early Growth Driven by Herbicide Adoption for Major Crops

Pesticide use more than tripled between 1960 and 1981. Herbicide use increased more than tenfold 

(from 35 to 478 million pounds) as more U.S. farmers began to treat their fields with these chemicals. By contrast, insecticide use declined from 114 million pounds in 1960 to 97 million pounds in 

1981, and fungicide use increased only slightly (from 25 to 27 million pounds). 

While farmers have used insecticides and fungicides for many years, the widespread use of herbicides is a more recent phenomenon, as weed control was previously achieved by cultivation and 

other methods. Only 10 percent of U.S. corn acres planted were treated with herbicides in 1952. 

By 1976, herbicide use had grown to 90 percent of corn acres planted. Growth slowed in subsequent years, reaching 95 percent in 1982 before stabilizing at around 98 percent in recent years (fig. 

3). Herbicides applied to other major crops like soybeans and cotton experienced similar growth 

patterns (figs. 4-7). For example, approximately 5 percent of cotton acres were treated in 1952 while 

Figure 1

Pesticide use in U.S. agriculture, 21 selected crops, 1960-2008

Million pounds of pesticide active ingredient

Source: Economic Research Service with USDA and proprietary data. See Appendix 2.

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1960 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 2000 05

Other Pesticides

Fungicides

Insecticides

Herbicides
12

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Table 2

Pesticide use by crop and type, 21 selected crops, 1960-2008

Crop 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2008

Millions of pounds active ingredient (a.i.)

Corn 29.14 59.26 101.53 173.85 269.74 269.87 259.04 210.73 179.52 173.03 203.73

Soybeans 2.74 11.88 35.69 75.91 138.39 83.99 80.49 70.23 80.84 90.96 111.96

Potatoes 9.20 6.30 12.10 14.65 19.35 21.66 22.32 44.07 56.06 39.89 52.53

Cotton 76.54 77.27 97.05 76.62 49.19 34.10 37.90 85.88 87.16 63.06 37.56

Wheat 6.48 9.19 9.60 21.42 31.41 19.13 20.31 22.11 18.74 18.06 23.31

Sorghum 2.72 3.48 8.48 12.33 20.02 12.08 10.18 15.30 14.86 12.23 14.17

Peanuts 6.77 13.62 20.31 16.32 26.66 15.47 26.02 19.02 10.49 10.70 10.32

Rice 0.77 2.14 5.15 7.77 10.67 6.80 14.39 13.81 13.22 10.16 7.58

Tomatoes 9.88 8.82 9.17 5.31 5.94 5.93 13.94 18.02 14.30 15.30 9.70

Apples 9.17 6.31 2.85 2.39 5.34 4.27 8.80 8.10 10.05 7.96 7.28

Grapes 1.99 2.52 2.38 2.47 7.22 7.08 12.12 5.16 10.90 8.39 7.90

 Subtotal 157.68 204.46 309.63 411.05 587.45 485.11 510.66 519.89 506.13 455.75 499.16

Other crops1 38.79 43.07 40.73 37.82 42.59 42.86 14.30 22.02 25.05 19.29 16.95

 Total2 196.47 247.53 350.37 448.88 630.03 527.97 524.96 541.91 531.18 475.04 516.11

Herbicides 35.18 82.55 169.28 280.63 468.06 395.60 405.64 373.65 354.58 349.23 393.88

Insecticides 113.83 116.36 124.11 109.83 105.05 76.13 63.10 72.82 71.00 34.51 28.55

Fungicides 25.15 23.49 27.06 27.67 26.71 24.44 21.36 26.57 28.97 28.41 28.87

Other pesticides2

22.31 25.14 29.92 30.74 30.21 31.81 34.86 68.86 76.62 62.89 64.81

Total 196.47 247.53 350.37 448.88 630.03 527.97 524.96 541.91 531.18 475.04 516.11

1Other crops include: Barley, Grapefruit, Lemons, Lettuce, Peaches, Pears, Pecans, Sugarcane, and Sweetcorn.

2Other pesticides include soil fumigants, defoliants, desiccants, harvest aids, and plant growth regulators.

Sources: Economic Research Service with USDA and proprietary data. See Appendix 2.
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over 90 percent of cotton and soybean acres were treated by 1980.9 Thus, the diffusion of herbicides in U.S. agriculture followed the typical pattern of the diffusion of agricultural innovations 

(Griliches, 1957; Rogers, 1995).10 

Increasing crop acreage also increased pesticide use. Total planted acreage of corn, cotton, potatoes, wheat, and, in particular, soybeans increased from the early 1960s to early 1980s, from 178 

9Estimates of percent of acreage treated indicate how extensively herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, and other pesticides are used on a crop but not how intensively, since they do not reflect the number of treatments per acre, application 

rates, or the mixture of active ingredients applied. 

10Diffusion curves are based on the notion that the current adoption rate is a function of the ultimate adoption level 

(ceiling) and the current adoption level. Adoption initially increases slowly as only the innovators (more venturesome and 

willing to assume risks) adopt. As information spreads, adoption rates increase. Finally, as the rate approaches the ceiling, the rate slows. At this point, most producers that find the innovation profitable have adopted. This process results in 

an S-shaped (sigmoid) diffusion curve (Fernandez-Cornejo et al., 2002). 

Figure 2

Pesticide use in U.S. agriculture*—Comparing EPA estimates for total agriculture to ERS estimates 

for 21 crops and to planted acreage, 1960-2008

Million pounds of pesticide active ingredient

*Conventional Pesticides. **Includes acreage of corn, cotton, soybean, wheat, and potatoes.

Sources: Economic Research Service with USDA and proprietary data (see appendix 2); EPA (1999, 2011).

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1960 64 68 72 76 80 84 88 92 96 2000 04 08

EPA, all crops (million pounds)

ERS, 21 crops (million pounds)

Planted acreage** (million acres)

Million acres planted

Figure 3

Corn: acres treated with pesticides, 1952-2008

Percent of planted acres

Sources: Economic Research Service with USDA data. See Appendix 2.

0

20

40

60

80

1952 57 62 67 72 77 82 87 92 97 2002 07

Insecticides

Herbicides

100
14

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to 256 million acres. However, from 1960 to 1970, pesticide use increased faster than crop acreage, 

reflecting the effects of increasing share of crop acreage treated (fig. 2).11, 12

11Between 1960 and 1981, soybean acreage nearly tripled from 24 to 68 million acres, wheat acreage increased 60 percent from 55 to 88 million acres, cotton acreage decreased and potato acreage remained stable. While corn acreage was 

81 million in 1960 and 84 million in 1981, it declined to the range of 65 to 70 million acres during the early 1960s, but 

increased during the 1970s to more than 80 million acres from 1976 to 1981, a period of rapid growth in corn insecticide 

and herbicide use. 

12It could be argued that increased farm size increases pesticide use, but there is little economic research addressing 

this topic. Some economists have argued that risk-averse farmers increase pesticide use to reduce risk, and that increased 

farm size increases whole-farm risk aversion, encouraging more pesticide use (Osteen, 1987; Osteen et al., 1988; and 

Osteen and Fernandez-Cornejo, 2013). However, Osteen et al. (1988) showed that increased risk aversion could increase 

both application rates and the pest threshold for treatment. So, pesticide use could increase in some cases and decrease in 

others.

Figure 4

Cotton: acres treated with pesticides, 1952-2008

Percent of planted acres

Sources: Economic Research Service with USDA data. See Appendix 2.

0

20

40

60

80

100

Insecticides

Herbicides

Other pesticides

1952 57 62 67 72 77 82 87 92 97 2002 07

Figure 5

Soybeans: acres treated with pesticides, 1966-2006

Percent of acres treated

Sources: Economic Research Service with USDA data. See Appendix 2.

0

20

40

60

80

100

1966 69 72 75 78 81 84 87 90 93 96 99 2002 05

Insecticides

Herbicides
15

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Herbicide Adoption Driven by Relative Prices

The NASS pesticide price index fell relative to the NASS wage, fuel, and crop indices from the 

late 1960s to about 1980, a period of rapid growth in pesticide use (see box, “Pesticide Prices and 

Relative Price Trends”). As several new effective products were introduced, the cost of pesticides 

fell relative to other pest control practices over the period and encouraged substitution of pesticides 

(particularly herbicides) for labor, fuel, and machinery use in pest control. In particular, the longrun 

decrease in herbicide prices relative to wage rates induced a strong labor-saving and herbicideusing bias in technological change in U.S. agriculture from 1960 to 1994. Fernandez-Cornejo and 

Pho (2002) found that a 1-percent decrease in the expected price ratio of herbicides to labor led 

in the long run to a 13.5-percent increase in the quantity ratio of herbicides to labor. Moreover, as 

Szmedra (1991) observes, the adoption of herbicides to control weeds substituted for labor and farm 

machinery. For example, the labor required to produce an acre of corn dropped from 13.2 hours in 

1952 to 4.8 hours in 1976 while acreage treated with herbicides grew from 10 to 90 percent of corn 

0

20

40

60

80

100

1952 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 84 88 92 96 2000 04 08

Herbicides

Insecticides Fungicides

Figure 6

Wheat: acres treated with pesticides, 1952-2008

Percent of planted acres 

Sources: Economic Research Service with USDA data. See Appendix 2.

Figure 7

Potatoes: acres treated with pesticides, 1952-2008

Percent of planted acres 

Sources: Economic Research Service with USDA data. See Appendix 2.

0

20

40

60

80

100

Insecticides

Herbicides

Fungicides

 Other

1952 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 84 88 92 96 2000 04 08
16

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planted acres (labor used per acre of corn production ranged between 2.1 and 3.5 hours in 1996 

(Foreman, 2001)). 

Stabilization of Herbicide Use and Decline in Insecticide Use 

Driven by Demand and Supply Factors

After 1980, the growth in aggregate herbicide use largely stopped because most corn, cotton, and 

soybean acreage was already being treated with herbicides. Still, herbicide use has continued to 

dominate the pesticide market; over the past three decades, more than 60 percent of the pounds 

of pesticides applied annually by U.S. farmers have been herbicides (76 percent in 2008, table 1). 

Together corn, cotton, soybeans, potatoes, and wheat accounted for 89 percent of herbicide use and 

83 percent of total pesticide use in 2008 (fig. 8, appendix tables 3.1-3.5). 

Changes in the planted acreages of these crops contributed to fluctuations in pesticide use from 1981 

to 2008. Many of the high and low years in herbicide and pesticide use coincide with high and low 

years in total acreage of these crops (fig. 2).13 However, declines in average application rates due to 

the introduction and use of new pesticides contributed to reductions in quantities used after 1981, 

while increased corn acreage and higher herbicide application rates account for increased pesticide 

use after 2002.

In addition to changes in the total quantity of herbicides applied, there have also been shifts in the 

herbicide active ingredients applied to major crops, as well as reductions in insecticide use. In 1968, 

atrazine and 2,4-D were among the top five pesticides used, but the other three were insecticides: 

toxaphene, DDT, and methyl parathion (fig. 9). In 2008, each of the top five herbicides (glyphosate, 

atrazine, acetochlor, metolachlor, and 2,4-D) were more heavily used than the top insecticide (chlorpyrifos) (fig. 10).14 Figures 11 and 12 show the top herbicide active ingredients used in 1968 and 

13Years when highs in fluctuations of pesticide use and combined corn, cotton, soybeans, wheat, and potato acreage 

coincide are 1981, 1984, 1994, 1997, 2004, and 2008, while years when lows coincide are 1983, 1987, 1995, and 2005. 

14The fumigants metam-sodium and 1,3-dichloropropene (used in specialty crop production) are also among the top 

active ingredients used.

Figure 8

Pesticide use by crop, 21 selected crops, 2008, percent total pounds of active ingredient 

applied

Note: "Other Crops" include: lettuce, pears, sweet corn, barley, peaches, grapefruit, pecans, and lemons.

Sources: Economic Research Service with USDA and proprietary data. See Appendix 2.

Corn

39.5%

Soybeans

21.7%

Potatoes

10.2%

Cotton

7.3%

4.5%

2.7%

2.5%

2.0%

1.9%

1.5%

1.5% 1.4%

0.8%

2.5%

Wheat

Sorghum

Oranges

Peanuts

Tomatoes

Grapes

Rice

Apples

Sugarcane

Other Crops
17

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Pesticide Prices and Relative Price Trends

Relative price trends for crops, pesticides, and other inputs have influenced the cost effectiveness 

of pesticides and the amount used, given the comparative effects of different pesticides, nonpesticide practices, and management systems on pests and damages, which can also change over 

time. Overall, the NASS pesticide price index fell relative to the NASS wage and fuel indices 

from 1965 to 2008, while it increased relative to the NASS crop price index in some years and 

decreased in others, with essentially the same ratio between the pesticide and crop price indices 

in 1965 and 2007 (box figs. 3.1 and 3.2). 

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

1965 68 71 74 77 80 83 86 89 92 95 98 01 04 07

Pesticides/wages

Pesticides/fuels

Pesticides/crops

Box figure 3.1

Relative prices, 1965 - 2008: pesticides to wages, fuels, and crops

Source: USDA/NASS (Agricultural Prices Summaries).

Index, 1965 = 1.0

Box figure 3.2

Price indices, 1965 - 2008: crops, wages, fuels, and pesticides

Source: USDA/NASS (Agricultural Prices Summaries).

Index, 1965 = 1.0

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

1965

Crops

Wages

Fuels and energy

Pesticides

68 71 74 77 80 83 86 89 92 95 98 01 04 07
18

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The pesticide price index fell relative to wage, fuel, and crop indices from the late 1960s to about 

1980, a period of rapid growth in pesticide use. Relative price declines during that period helped 

reduce the cost of pesticides relative to other pest control practices and encouraged substitution 

of pesticides for labor, fuel, and machinery use in pest control. The increase in crop prices relative to pesticides (especially in 1973-74) also increased the returns to pesticides, encouraging 

greater use.

The pesticide price index rose relative to fuel and crop price indices from 1980 until the late 

1990s, before falling in recent years. Increasing relative pesticide prices during this time period 

may have reflected high demand for pesticide use in crop production and contributed to use 

stabilizing after 1980. Since the late 1990s, the pesticide price index has declined relative to 

crops, wages, and fuels, reinforced by large increases in crop prices during 2005-08 and fuel 

prices during 2002-08, thus reverting to the longer term trend, encouraging substitution of pesticides for labor, fuel, and machinery used in pest control and more pesticide use to protect crop 

values.1

Since 1990, NASS insecticide and fungicide price indices have risen more rapidly than the 

herbicide price index (box fig. 3.3). Nonetheless, because herbicides, particularly atrazine and 

glyphosate, dominate the pesticide market, we can identify underlying trends in pesticide prices 

by tracking major herbicide prices (box table 3.1). Among major agricultural herbicides, prices 

have risen sharply only for metolachlor; the price of atrazine grew only 1 percent per year and 

the price of glyphosate actually fell. In fact, in real terms, herbicide prices have fallen since 

1990. 

1Since 1990, pesticide prices have risen less rapidly than the prices of all agricultural inputs. While the NASS 

index for agricultural input prices (“Items Used for Production”) rose at an average annual rate of 3.7 percent from 

1990 to 2008, the NASS pesticide price index rose by only 1.7 percent per year. Recently, high fertilizer and fuel 

costs have accelerated the growth in the “all inputs” price index compared to the pesticide price index. From 2000 

to 2008, the NASS index for agricultural input prices grew at an average rate of 6.8 percent per year. The pesticide 

price index rose by only 1.9 percent per year. 

Box figure 3.3

Agricultural input price indices, 1990-2008

Source: USDA/NASS (Agricultural Prices Summaries).

Index, 1991=100

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

1990 92 94 96 98 2000 02 04 06 08

Items used for production

Agricultural chemicals

Insecticides

Fungicides

Herbicides
19

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2008. Atrazine, 2,4-D, and trifluralin maintain their top 10 ranking in both years. Some herbicides 

that were ranked in the top 10 in 2008, such as glyphosate and metolachlor were not available in 

1968. Other herbicides ranked among the top 10 in 1968 were not so ranked in 2008; for example 

dinoseb and vernolate, which were no longer used. 

Herbicide-Tolerant (HT) Crops Transform Herbicide Mix

Several factors appear to have driven changes in herbicide use: crop and input price changes, the 

introduction of new herbicides, adoption of herbicide-tolerant (HT) crops, a shift toward conservation tillage systems, pesticide regulation, and government policies such as the incentives for ethanol 

producers. 

In particular, the introduction of HT crops in the mid-1990s augmented pest management options 

by permitting the use of more effective and less toxic herbicides (such as glyphosate or glufosinate) 

than previous ones that would have destroyed the crops as well as the weeds. Cotton, soybean, and 

By contrast, prices of some insecticides and fungicides—such as carbaryl, propargite, and 

captan—showed robust growth. 

Box table 3.1

Selected pesticide prices, 1990-2008

Active 

ingredient 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Dollars

Selected herbicides (galllon)

Atrazine 

(Aatrex) 

4#/Gal L NA 14.4 13.6 12.5 12.2 12.3 12.2 12.4 12.1 12.2 15.3

Glyphosate 

(Roundup)

4#/Gal EC NA 54.1 43.3 44.5 43.5 43.3 39.7 33.8 29.3 28.9 40.5

Metolachlor 

(Dual) 

8#/Gal EC

55.5 67.7 82.6 94.5 99 104 106 108 107 NA NA

Selected insecticides (pound) 

Carbaryl 

(Sevin) 3.5 4.6 5.4 5.8 5.4 5.5 5.9 5.9 5.5 6.4 7.1

80% S, SP, 

or WP

Propargite 

(Comite) 30% 

WP

NA 5.9 6.9 6.1 6.3 6.6 6.4 7 7.5 8.7 9.2

Selected fungicides (pound)

Captan 50% 

WP 2 3.3 3.5 3.6 3.8 3.5 3.5 3.7 3.9 4.6 5.5

Formulations: EC - Emulsifiable Concentrate, G - Granular, L - Liquid, S- Solution, SP - Soluble Powder, 

WP - Wettable Powder. NA - Not avilable.

Source: USDA/ NASS (Agricultural Price Summaries).
20

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corn varieties designed to resist glyphosate, a broad-spectrum herbicide, were first marketed in 1996. 

Pounds of glyphosate per planted acre of soybeans, corn, and cotton rose in almost every year since 

1996 while pounds of all other herbicides (per acre) fell (figs. 13-15; appendix tables 3.1-3.3).

Due to the substantial benefits provided to farmers (Carpenter and Gianessi, 1999; FernandezCornejo and Caswell, 2006), HT seed adoption was most rapid and widespread among U.S. soybean 

farmers. By 2008, over 90 percent of soybean acres were planted with HT seeds (fig. 14). HT 

soybean production sharply boosted glyphosate use on soybeans from 0.17 pound per planted acre 

(a total of 11 million pounds applied) in 1996 to 1.26 pounds per planted acre (95 million pounds) in 

2008. Pounds of all other herbicides applied to soybeans declined considerably from 1.02 pounds per 

planted acre in 1996 to 0.14 pound in 2008.

HT corn adoption increased from 3 percent of planted acres in 1996 to just over 60 percent of 

planted acres in 2008 (fig. 13). Consequently, glyphosate use jumped from 0.04 pound per planted 

Figure 9

Pesticide use by active ingredient (a.i.), 21 selected crops in 1968, percent total pounds of a.i. applied1

1

This graph shows the top pesticide a.i. (herbicide = H, insecticide = I) used in 1968. 

Sources: Economic Research Service with USDA and proprietary data. See Appendix 2.

16%

13%

11%

7%

4%4%

2%

2%

2%

2%

37%

Atrazine (H)

Toxaphene (I)

DDT (I)

2,4-D (H)

Methyl Parathion (I)

Aldrin (I)

Trifluralin (H)

Propachlor (H)

Dinoseb (H)

Chloramben (I)

Other a.i.

Figure 10

Pesticide use by active ingredient (a.i.), 21 selected crops in 2008, percent total pounds of a.i. applied1

1

This graph shows the top pesticide a.i. (herbicide = H, insecticide = I, fungicide = F, and other = O) used in 2008.

Sources: Economic Research Service with USDA and proprietary data. See Appendix 2.

6%

6%

4%

4%

3%

2%

1%

1%

1%

21%

Glyphosate (H)

Atrazine (H)

Acetochlor (H)

Metolachlor (H)

Metam Sodium (O)

Dichloropropene (O)

2,4-D (H)

Chlorpyrifos (I)

Metam Potassium (O)

Pendimethalin (H)

Chlorothalonil (F)

Other a.i.

38%

13%
21

Pesticide Use in U.S. Agriculture: 21 Selected Crops, 1960-2008, EIB-124

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acre (a total of 3 million pounds) in 1996 to 0.79 pound per acre (68 million pounds) in 2008. 

Glyphosate is now the single most heavily used corn herbicide. Other herbicides applied to corn fell 

from about 2.6 pounds per planted acre in 1996 to 1.5 pounds in 2008.

By 2008, about 70 percent of cotton acreage was planted with HT seed. Correspondingly, glyphosate 

use increased from about 0.09 pound per planted acre (1.3 million pounds) in 1996 to 1.45 pounds 

(14 million pounds) in 2008 (fig. 15). Other herbicides applied to cotton fell from about 2 pounds per 

acre in 1996 to 0.92 pounds per acre in 2008.

While the adoption of HT crops has led to the substitution of the more environmentally benign 

herbicide, glyphosate, for other herbicides (NRC, 2010),15 overreliance on a limited number of herbi15Atrazine, an herbicide widely used during the last half century despite environmental concerns, has remained the 

second most applied herbicide since 2000 even though its share of herbicide use has declined (fig. 11).

Figure 11

Herbicide use by active ingredient (a.i.), 21 selected crops in 1968, percent total pounds a.i. applied1

1

This graph shows the top herbicide a.i. used in 1968.

Sources: Economic Research Service with USDA and proprietary data. See Appendix 2.

38%

17%

6%

6%

5%

5%

4%

3%

2%

2%

12%

Atrazine

2,4-D

Trifluralin

Propachlor

Dinoseb

Chloramben

MSMA

Vernolate

Fluometuron

Propanil

Other herbicide a.i.

Figure 12

Herbicide use by active ingredient (a.i.), 21 selected crops in 2008, percent total a.i. applied1

1

This graph shows the top herbicide a.i. used in 2008.

Sources: Economic Research Service with USDA and proprietary data. See Appendix 2.

50%

17%

8%

7%

4%

2%

1%

1%

1% 1%

8%

Glyphosate

Atrazine

Acetochlor

Metolachlor

2,4-D

Pendimethalin

Simazine

Propanil

Trifluralin

MCPA

Other herbicide a.i.
22

Pesticide Use in U.S. Agriculture: 21 Selected Crops, 1960-2008, EIB-124

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cides may accelerate weed resistance to those chemicals. Resistance management strategies include 

weed scouting, rotating between crops treated with different herbicides and using weed management 

practices, rotating glyphosate with herbicides that have a different mode of action, limiting glyphosate applications to two over a 2-year period, or using cultivation or other mechanical weed control 

practices (Boerboom and Owen, 2006). Farmers can also manage resistance by using multiple 

herbicides—atrazine, s-metolachlor or acetochlor, and/or mesotrione with glyphosate on corn, for 

example (Loux et al., 2013). 

Insecticide Use Declines as Herbicides Grow

Insecticide use by U.S. farmers has fallen as herbicide use has grown. Insecticide use was much higher 

in the 1960s and 1970s than in later years. It peaked at 158 million pounds in 1972, and has declined 

most years thereafter, ending at 29 million pounds in 2008 (fig. 1). In the 1950s, insecticides were widely 

Figure 13

Pounds of herbicide active ingredient (a.i.) per planted acre and percent acres of herbicidetolerant corn, 1996-2008

Pounds a.i. per acre

Sources: Pesticides: Economic Research Service with USDA and proprietary data. See Appendix 2; HT corn: 

Fernandez-Cornejo (2012). 

0

20

40

60

80

100

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

1996 97 98 99 2000 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08

Pounds of glyphosate/acre

Pounds of other herbicides/acre

Total pounds of herbicides/acre

Percent acres HT corn (right axis)

Percent acres HT corn

Figure 14

Pounds of herbicide active ingredient (a.i.) per planted acre and percent acres of herbicidetolerant soybeans, 1996-2008

Pounds a.i. per acre

Sources: Pesticides: Economic Research Service with USDA and proprietary data. See Appendix 2; HT soybeans: 

Fernandez-Cornejo (2012). 

Percent acres HT soybeans

0

20

40

60

80

100

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

1.6

1996 97 98 99 2000 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08

Pounds of glyphosate/acre

Pounds of other herbicide/acre

Total pounds of herbicides/acre

Percent acres HT soybeans (right axis)
23

Pesticide Use in U.S. Agriculture: 21 Selected Crops, 1960-2008, EIB-124

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used on a variety of crops: cotton, tobacco, fruits, potatoes, and other vegetables. However, insecticides 

were applied to less than 10 percent of corn acreage during the 1950s. This share increased rapidly to 38 

percent by 1976, reached 45 percent in the mid-1980s, but fell to about 16 percent in 2008 (fig. 3). 

The proportion of cotton acreage treated with insecticides varied between about 50 and 70 percent 

from the 1950s to mid-1990s, exceeding 80 percent in 1999–2000 before declining to about 60 

percent in 2008 (interpolated) (fig. 4). In most years, insecticides were used on less than 10 percent 

of soybean and wheat acres (figs. 5 and 6). Historically, the proportion of many vegetable and fruit 

acres treated with insecticides has been high. For example, the share of treated potato acreage 

exceeded 75 percent since the 1950s, exceeded 90 percent most years between 1978 and 2001 but 

declined to around 80 percent in 2008 (fig. 7). 

Insecticide use and active ingredients applied have fluctuated with changes in crop acreage, changes 

in pest pressure, agricultural practices, pesticide regulation, technology, and other factors. For 

example, the Federal ban on some organochlorines, such as DDT, forced growers to find new pest 

control solutions and pesticide manufacturers to develop new crop protection products in the 1970s. 

Also, higher pest pressure in some years resulted in higher rates of insecticide application. As some 

older insecticides became less effective due to pest resistance, farmers applied at higher rates and/

or used new insecticides. DDT and toxaphene (used primarily in cotton production) dominated 

insecticide use in 1968 (fig. 16), but were displaced by other materials. Chloropyrifos and aldicarb 

became especially important in recent years (fig. 17).16 Newer insecticides applied at low rates, such 

as synthetic pyrethroids (e.g. permethin and cypermethrin) and neo-nicotinoids (e.g., imidicloprid 

and clothianidin), have become widely used. (Osteen and Fernandez-Cornejo (2013) provide a more 

detailed discussion of changing insecticide use over time.) Some insecticides are now applied as 

seed treatments and are not generally captured by pesticide use surveys.

In 1996, genetically engineered insect-resistant corn and cotton varieties (Bt corn and cotton) were 

introduced commercially. These Bt crops carry a gene of the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), which induces plants to produce a protein that is harmful to some insects, including the 

16In August 2010, EPA initiated action to terminate uses of aldicarb. It is being phased out with all uses scheduled to 

end in August 2018. http://www.epa.gov/oppsrrd1/REDs/factsheets/aldicarb_fs.html

Figure 15

Pounds of herbicide active ingredient (a.i.) per planted acre and percent acres of herbicide 

tolerant cotton, 1996-2008

Pounds a.i. per acre

Sources: Pesticides: Economic Research Service with USDA and proprietary data. See Appendix 2; HT cotton: 

Fernandez-Cornejo (2012). 

Percent acres HT cotton

0

20

40

60

80

100

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

1996 97 98 99 2000 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08

Pounds of glyphosate/acre

Pounds of other herbicides/acre

Total pounds of herbicides/acre

Percent acres HT 

cotton (right axis)
24

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European corn borer and corn rootworm. Adoption of Bt corn and cotton has been associated with a 

reduction in insecticide use (Fernandez-Cornejo and Caswell, 2006; NRC, 2010). For example, corn 

farmers using seeds without Bt traits applied 0.1 pound of insecticide per planted acre in 2001 and 

0.09 pound of insecticide in 2005. By contrast, corn farmers using Bt seeds applied 0.07 pound per 

planted acre in 2001 and 0.05 pound in 2005 (Fernandez-Cornejo and Wechsler, 2012).17

17Research by ERS and others suggests that, controlling for other factors, insecticide use declined with the adoption 

of Bt corn and Bt cotton (Fernandez-Cornejo and Caswell, 2004). It should be noted, however, that by protecting the 

plant from certain pests, Bt crops can also prevent yield losses compared with non-GE hybrids, particularly when pest 

infestation is high. This effect is particularly important for Bt corn, which was introduced in the mid-1990s to control the 

European corn borer. Since chemical control of the European corn borer was not always profitable, and timely application 

was difficult, many farmers accepted yield losses rather than incur the expense and uncertainty of chemical control. For 

those farmers, the introduction of Bt corn resulted in yield gains rather than pesticide savings. On the other hand, another 

type of Bt corn introduced in 2003 to provide resistance against the corn rootworm, which was previously controlled using chemical insecticides, does provide substantial insecticide savings (Fernandez-Cornejo and Caswell, 2006). 

Figure 16

Insecticide use by active ingredient (a.i.), 21 selected crops in 1968, percent total pounds a.i. applied1

1

This graph shows the top pesticide a.i. used in 1968. 

Sources: Economic Research Service with USDA and proprietary data. See Appendix 2.

30%

9% 25%

9%

5%

3%

2%

2%

2%

1%

12%

Toxaphene

DDT

Methyl Parathion

Aldrin

Carbaryl

Dicrotophos

Parathion

Malathion

Cryolite

Monocrotophos

Other insecticide a.i.

Figure 17

Insecticide use by active ingredient (a.i.), 21 selected crops in 2008, percent total pounds a.i. applied1

1

This graph shows the top pesticide a.i. used in 2008. 

Sources: Economic Research Service with USDA and proprietary data. See Appendix 2.

26%

12%

12%

10%

4%

4%

3%

3%

3%

3%

20%

Chlorpyrifos

Aldicarb

Acephate

Carbaryl

Clothianidin

Phorate

Dicrotophos

Cryolite

Phosmet

Propargite

Other insecticides
25

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The rapid adoption of Bt seed since 1996 may have contributed to declining shares of corn and cotton 

acreage treated with insecticides. Insecticide use for corn production, which had peaked in the late 

1970s and 1980s at 0.35-0.45 pound per acre, declined throughout the 1990s and 2000s to under 0.05 

pound per planted acre in recent years (fig. 18, appendix table 4.1).18 Insecticide use for cotton, which 

had peaked at 9.5 pounds per planted acre in 1967, trended downward to between 1 and 2 pounds per 

planted acre in the 1980s (as lower dose insecticides replaced older, higher dose insecticides). Since the 

adoption of Bt cotton, insecticide use in cotton has declined to less than 1 pound per planted acre (fig. 

19, appendix table 3.3). Higher insecticide application rates on cotton in 1999 and 2000 can be attributed to the boll weevil eradication program (see “Cotton Pesticide Trends” in Appendix 4).

18In terms of total pounds of insecticide active ingredient, corn producers reduced their use from 25-35 million pounds 

in the 1980s to about 19 million in 1995 and 4 million pounds in 2006-2008 (appendix table 4.1). Cotton producers 

reduced their use from their 1967 peak of 90 million pounds to 28 million pounds in 1995 and 5-8 million pounds in 

2006-2008 (appendix table 4.3).

Figure 18

Pounds of insecticide active ingredient (a.i.) per planted acre and percent acres of Bt corn, 1996-2008

Pounds a.i. per acre

Sources: Pesticides: Economic Research Service with USDA and proprietary data. See Appendix 2. Bt corn: 

Fernandez-Cornejo (2012).

Percent acres Bt corn 

0

20

40

60

80

100

0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

0.25

0.30

1996 97 98 99 2000 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08

Pounds of insecticide/acre

Percent acres Bt corn (right axis)

Figure 19

Pounds of insecticide active ingredient (a.i.) per planted acre and percent acres of Bt cotton, 1996-2008

Pounds a.i. per acre

Sources: Pesticides: Economic Research Service with USDA and proprietary data. See Appendix 2. Bt cotton: 

Fernandez-Cornejo (2012).

Percent acres Bt cotton 

0

20

40

60

80

100

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

Pounds of insecticide per cotton acre

Percent acres Bt cotton (right axis)

1996 97 98 99 2000 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08
26

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Fungicides Used Mainly on Fruits and Vegetables 

Fungicides’ share of pesticide use has remained at 7 percent or less since 1971, down from 11-13 

percent in the early 1960s (fig. 1). Excluding seed treatments, fungicides have generally been applied 

to a greater percentage of fruit and vegetable acres than to corn, soybean, cotton, and wheat acres, 

but treatments on corn, soybeans, and wheat have increased in recent years. For example, treated 

potato acres increased from 24 percent in 1966 to 85-95 percent in the 1990s onward (fig. 7). By 

contrast, the acreage of corn, cotton, soybean, and wheat treated with fungicides is generally less 

than 10 percent (excluding seed treatments). 

Among the most prominent fungicides used in 2008 were chlorothalonil (accounting for 24 percent 

of active ingredient pounds), copper compounds (17 percent), mancozeb (15 percent), captan (6 

percent), maneb (3 percent), and ziram (3 percent), all of which have been used for many years (fig. 

20). However, in recent years, corn, soybean, and wheat growers have applied such materials as 

pyraclostrobin (that accounted for 7 percent of all pounds a.i. in 2008), propiconazole (5 percent), 

azoxystrobin (4 percent), and tebuconazole (2 percent). In 2006 and 2007, EPA granted emergency 

exemptions for fungicides to control soybean rust (such as, cyroconazole, famoxadone, flusilazole, 

metconazole, and prothioconazole).

Cotton and Potatoes Are Major Users of Other Pesticides

Other pesticides—which include soil fumigants, defoliants, desiccants, harvest aids, and plant growth 

regulators—generally accounted for about 11 percent or less of total pesticide use from 1960 to 1992, 

but increased to 17 percent in 2002, before declining to 13 percent in 2008 (fig. 1). The total quantity increased from 22 million pounds in 1960 to 80 million pounds in 2002, declining to 65 million 

pounds in 2008. Despite their declining share of total use, the quantity of other pesticides applied to 

the 21 crops we examined has exceeded that of insecticides since the mid-1990s. These chemicals are 

commonly applied to cotton, potatoes, other vegetables, and many fruit crops, but cotton and potatoes 

accounted for 82 percent of other pesticide use in 2008 (appendix tables 4.3 and 4.4). 

Figure 20

Fungicide use by active ingredient (a.i.), 21 selected crops in 2008, percent total pounds a.i. applied1

1

Calcium polysulfide can be used as a fungicide, miticide, or insecticide. 

Sources: Economic Research Service with USDA and proprietary data. See Appendix 2.

23%

17%

15%

7%

6%

5%

4%

4%

3%

3%

2%

1%

1%

9%

Chlorothalonil

Copper compounds

Mancozeb

Pyraclostrobin

Captan

Propiconazole

Calcium Polysulfide

Azoxystrobin

Maneb

Ziram

Tebuconazole

Metiram

Fosetyl Aluminium

Other fungicide a.i.
27

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Cotton is a major user of plant growth regulators and harvest aids. Cotton acreage treated with other 

pesticides increased from 26 percent in 1966 to 70 percent in the late 1990s and about 85 percent in 

2007 (fig. 4). The share of potato acreage treated, including fumigants and harvest aids, increased 

from 9 percent in 1966 to over 50 percent in the late 1970s, and fluctuated between 40 and 70 

percent since 1998 (fig. 7). The increased use of fumigants on potatoes and other vegetables such as 

tomatoes, contributed to the increase in the quantity of other pesticide use through 2000. However, 

methyl bromide use on tomatoes and other vegetables declined since 1994 due to the Montreal 

Protocol phase-out. 

Five Major Crops Account for Four-Fifths of Pesticide Use

In 2008, corn, soybeans, cotton, wheat, and potatoes accounted for about 80 percent of the pesticide 

quantity applied to the 21 crops we examined (fig. 8). The share of pesticides applied to corn production reached a peak in 1985 (over half of the pesticides applied to all 21 crops), but has dropped in 

recent years (table 2). Corn continues to receive the highest share of pesticide use, about 39 percent 

of the pounds applied in 2008. Twenty-two percent of the total pesticide pounds applied were 

devoted to soybean production. Potatoes’ share rose significantly in the 1990s and reached about 10 

percent by 2008. Meanwhile, the pounds of pesticide applied to cotton has trended downward due to 

the replacement of DDT and other older insecticides with more effective products, the eradication 

of the boll weevil, and the adoption of Bt cotton. Cotton accounted for just over 7 percent of the total 

pesticide pounds applied while wheat accounted for less than 5 percent in 2008. 

Appendix 4 discusses these trends for the top five crops in more detail. 

Pesticide Quality 

Inherent differences in pesticide characteristics or quality complicate the direct comparison of 

observed prices and quantities of pesticides over time. This comparison can be facilitated by using 

price and quantity indices adjusted for quality. Quality-adjusted price and quantity indices have 

proven to be useful for products subject to rapid technological change such as pesticides. New and 

better pesticide active ingredients (more effective and less harmful to human health and the environment) have frequently been introduced while other active ingredients have been banned or voluntarily canceled by their manufacturers (Fernandez-Cornejo and Jans, 1995). As a result, there are 

several hundred pesticide active ingredients in use.19 (See box, “Quality Adjustment of Price and 

Quantity Indices for Pesticides,” which illustrates the estimation of the quality-adjusted price and 

quantity indices for pesticide applied to four major crops: corn, cotton, soybeans, and sorghum over 

1968-2008.) Appendix table 2.2 shows a list of the active ingredients considered in this study.

Because of quality improvements (improved pest control effectiveness or lower application rates), 

adjusted pesticide prices (constant quality) increase less than the unadjusted prices (unadjusted 

or actual prices reflect technological improvements and therefore are higher). Similarly, qualityadjusted quantities are higher than unadjusted quantities because farmers would have had to use 

more pesticides if pesticide quality had remained constant instead of improving (Fernandez-Cornejo 

and Jans, 1995). 

19Per EPA, there were 684 active ingredients registered for agricultural use in 2007

http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/pestsales/07pestsales/usage2007_2.htm
28

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Quality Adjustment of Pesticides 

As an illustration, the quality-adjusted prices were calculated using a hedonic approach and represent the prices 

that would have been obtained if quality had remained constant. The adjustment process uses a hedonic function, 

which entails expressing the price of pesticides as a function of their quality characteristics (Fernandez-Cornejo 

and Jans, 1995). After controlling for observable characteristics, it is possible to estimate quality-adjusted price 

indices. Quality-adjusted quantity indices are computed by dividing pesticide expenditures by the qualityadjusted price indices. 

The quality characteristics considered in this illustration are pesticide potency, hazardous characteristics, and 

persistence. Pesticide potency is inversely related to the application rate per crop year, which can be viewed as 

the dosage and is equal to the pounds of active ingredient applied per acre in one application multiplied by the 

number of applications made in a year (Fernandez-Cornejo and Jans, 1995). Thus, the lower the rate needed to 

achieve a degree of pest control, the more potent the pesticide is. Hazardous characteristics are measured by 

chronic toxicity scores, and persistence is measured by the pesticide’s half-life. The chronic toxicity index is the 

inverse of the water quality threshold (which measures the concentration in parts per billion) and serves as the 

environmental-risk indicator for humans from drinking water (Kellogg et al., 2002). The lower the index, the 

lower is the potential environmental risk for the chemical. The persistence indicator is defined by the share of 

pesticides with a half-life less than 60 days (Fernandez-Cornejo and Jans, 1995). The lower the indicator, the less 

persistent the pesticide is. 

To illustrate, box figure 4.1 provides an estimate of the (weighted) average quality measures for the pesticides 

used in four major crops. Three tendencies can be noted. First, pesticide potency has increased in the 1970s and 

2000s as the application rate per crop year needed to achieve a degree of pest control declined. This is due in 

part to the use of improved pesticides and GE seed. Second, average chronic toxicity declined, as toxic products 

applied to cotton (such as DDT and toxaphene) and to corn (such as aldrin) were banned (particularly in the 1970s 

and early 1980s). Other factors affecting toxicity were the use of less toxic insecticides, such as carbaryl and 

chloropyrifos, the introduction of pyrethroids, the use of malathion in the boll weevil eradication program, and 

the use of Bt cotton since 1996. Third, persistence fell during the 1970s after the bans of DDT and aldrin, then 

increased during the 1980s and early 1990s (in part with the use of high-persistence products such as metolachlor 

and pendimethalin); persistence has 

declined in recent years, reflecting 

the rapid increase in glyphosate use. 

Glyphosate has low chronic toxicity (a 

high chronic score) and relatively low 

persistence relative to the herbicides 

that it has replaced. As the NRC (2010) 

report states, glyphosate “is biodegraded by soil bacteria and it has a very 

low toxicity to mammals, birds, and 

fish (Malik et al., 1989).” Also, some 

newer insecticides such as clothianidin, 

and herbicides, such as mesotrione 

and nicosulfuron in corn production, 

are applied at low rates and have low 

chronic toxicity and low persistence.

Box figure 4.1

Average quality characteristics of pesticides applied to four major 

crops, 1968-2008

Rate: Pounds of active ingredient applied per acre in one application times the 

number of applications per year. 

Sources: Estimates based on USDA and proprietary data (Appendix 2) for four major 

crops: corn, soybeans, cotton and sorghum.

Unit

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

1965 70 75 80 85 90 95 2000 05 10

Rate (left)

Toxicity (left)

Persistence (right)

Unit
29

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Unadjusted (actual) pesticide prices stopped rising in the mid-1990s despite quality improvements 

(fig. 21), and the decline in glyphosate price associated with its patent expiration in 2000 may have 

been a factor. Glyphosate replaced other herbicides, as adoption of herbicide-tolerant (HT) crops and 

conservation tillage increased. Quality-adjusted prices have declined since the mid-1990s because 

unadjusted prices stagnated and the quality of pesticides improved. In particular, glyphosate contributed to quality improvement because it is more effective and less toxic than many of the conventional herbicides that it replaced (NRC, 2010).

While unadjusted pesticide quantities show little upward movement after 1997 (fig. 22), the quantity 

indices adjusted for quality (i.e., at constant quality) show a substantial increase. This implies that if 

pesticide quality had not improved (e.g., if herbicides had not become more effective), total pesticide 

use would have increased rapidly from 1996 to 2008. 

Figure 21

Quality adjusted pesticide prices applied to 4 major crops, 1968-2008

Price index 1968=100

Note: Quality adjusted indices were calculated for pesticides applied to four major crops: corn, soybeans, cotton and 

sorghum.

Source: Estimates based on USDA and proprietary data (Appendix 2). 

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

1968 72 76 80 84 88 92 96 2000 04 08

Non-adjusted index

Adjusted index

Figure 22

Quality adjusted pesticide quantities applied to 4 major crops, 1968-2008

Quantity index 1968=100

Note: Quality adjusted indices were calculated for pesticides applied to four major crops: corn, soybeans, cotton and 

sorghum.

Source: Estimates based on USDA and proprietary data (Appendix 2). 

0

100

200

300

400

500

1968 72 76 80 84 88 92 96 2000 04 08

Non-adjusted index

Adjusted index
30

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Conclusion

Agricultural producers use pesticides on millions of crop acres, primarily to prevent or manage pest 

infestations. Their use generates economic benefits for farmers and consumers. However, public 

concerns since the 1960s about the adverse human health and environmental effects of pesticides 

have led to tighter regulation of these products. This report examines trends in pesticide use from 

1960 to 2008. The report employs a new database compiled from USDA pesticide use surveys 

supplemented by proprietary data, focusing on 21 selected field and specialty crops. 

Pesticide use has changed considerably over the past five decades. Rapid growth characterized the 

20 years ending in 1981. The total quantity of pesticides applied to the 21 crops analyzed grew from 

196 million pounds of pesticide active ingredients in 1960 to 632 million pounds in 1981. Changes 

in the active ingredients applied, and small annual fluctuations in the annual pesticide use amid a 

slight downward trend occurred between 1982 and 2008. All these changes were primarily driven by 

economic factors that determined crop and input prices and were influenced by pest pressures, crop 

acreage, agricultural practices, and innovations in pest management systems and practices such as 

IPM, and regulations. 

USDA, the Land Grant Universities, and EPA have collaborated in promoting IPM, including 

support for four regional IPM centers, to develop new methods to manage pests and educate 

growers about how to use them. This effort may have reduced reliance on pesticides and influenced use patterns by developing pest management approaches that integrate use of chemical, 

biological, and cultural controls, including new seed varieties, crop rotation, and other practices, 

often including pest and weather information and predictive models to use pesticides and other 

practices more efficiently.

An emerging pest management issue is the development of glyphosate-resistant weed populations associated with the large increase in glyphosate use since the late 1990s,20 largely due to the 

widespread adoption of herbicide-tolerant corn, cotton, and soybeans. Glyphosate (which replaced 

other herbicides more toxic to mammals) accounted for about 50 percent of total herbicide quantity 

in 2008.21 Resistance to it has induced growers to use other herbicides more toxic to mammals in 

conjunction with glyphosate in resistance management strategies. This has increased the quantity of 

herbicides applied and the total cost of weed control. As a result, Federal, State, and private-sector 

research and extension analysts are working to increase awareness of the problem and to develop 

resistance management strategies that will maintain the economic effectiveness and environmental 

benefits associated with the use of herbicides such as glyphosate.

Another important issue is the development of Bt resistance in western corn rootworm, cotton bollworm, and fall armyworm populations leading to reduced efficacy of Bt corn and Bt cotton recently 

documented in some U.S. crop fields.

Finally, a broad topic with policy implications for pesticide use is the arrival of important invasive 

species evidenced by the spread since 2000 of the soybean aphid, originally from East Asia. Another 

case is the arrival of soybean rust, detected in 2004, which increased the application of strobilurin 

and triazole fungicides and total soybean fungicide use after 2004. As IPM programs for managing 

20Any herbicide widely used alone over time may result in resistant populations.

21Glyphosate has low toxicity to mammals, birds, and fish (Malik et al., 1989; NRC, 2010).
31

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insect pests are built upon the existing pest complexes, the introduction of a significant invasive pest 

can result in heavy pesticide use in the early years of introduction until the biology and ecology of 

the pest become known.
32

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Appendix 1—Human Health Effects and Pesticide 

Regulation

EPA’s regulatory process influences risks by defining what pesticides and practices are legal. The 

hazard or risk of using a pesticide depends on toxicity and exposure (Lorenz, 2009). In a general 

sense, toxicity is the “quality or degree of being poisonous or harmful to plant, animal, or human 

life” (Cohrssen and Covello, 1989, p. 374). Pesticide-specific requirements—such as crops that can 

be treated, product formulations, application rates and methods, and protective clothing and equipment—can limit exposure to the pesticide’s toxicities. 

Toxicity to humans is usually characterized as acute or chronic. The effects of acute toxicity can 

result from one-time exposure to relatively large amounts and range from skin irritation to death. 

The effects of chronic toxicity can result from long-term exposure to small amounts, such as routine 

exposure while mixing, loading, or applying pesticides, or working in fields after application 

(Criswell et al., 2013; Nesheim, 2005). Additional concerns include pesticide residues in food or 

drinking water and non-occupational exposure (such as homeowner use), including risks to children. 

Potential chronic effects include benign or malignant tumors, birth defects, genetic changes, reproductive effects, blood disorders, and endocrine disruption (Criswell, et al., 2013). 

By registering new pesticides that meet health, safety, and environmental standards, and cancelling or restricting registrations of pesticides that do not meet them, the regulatory process induces 

changes in pesticide use, and has reduced overall worker, dietary, drinking water, and non-occupational risks. 

The regulatory process addresses risks from acutely toxic pesticides, including some carbamate and 

organophosphate insecticides, which affect the nervous system and have caused pesticide poisonings 

(Lorenz, 2009; Criswell et al., 2013). As a result, growers reduced use of such acutely toxic insecticides and rely on less acutely toxic materials.

• For example, among organophosphates, all fruit, nut, and vegetable uses of ethyl parathion were 

cancelled in 1992, and all uses of mevinphos were cancelled in 1994 (Extoxnet, 1993; EPA, 

1994).

• EPA listed all carbamate and organophosphate insecticides in the highest priority for FQPA 

(Food Quality Protection Act) tolerance reassessment and reregistration in 1997, resulting in 

many regulatory actions to reduce worker, dietary, and environmental risks (Federal Register, 

1997). 

• Since 2000, carbamate and organophosphate shares of insecticide use have decreased, while 

shares of less acutely toxic insecticides, such as pyrethroids (e.g., permethrin, cypermethrin, 

tralomethrin, and esfenvalerate) and neo-nicotinoids (e.g., imidicloprid, acetamiprid, thiamethoxam, and clothianidin) increased (Osteen and Fernandez-Cornejo, 2013). 

• The adoption of BT corn and cotton, which produce a protein toxic to some insect species but 

with very low acute toxicity to humans, reduced use of synthetic insecticides, whether acutely or 

chronically toxic. 
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However, the regulatory process also addresses chronic risks of pesticides that have low acute toxicities. For example:

• The use of the growth regulator, daminozide (trade name Alar), on apples created a major controversy in the 1980s because of dietary carcinogenic risk. A Special Review resulted in voluntary 

cancellation of all food use registrations in 1989, while reregistration required practices to reduce 

greenhouse worker risks in 1993 (EPA, 1993). 

• EBDC fungicides (maneb, mancozeb, metiram, zineb), used on many fruits and vegetables, 

raised concerns about carcinogenic, developmental, and thyroid effects during the 1970s (NRC, 

1987). From the early 1980s to the mid-2000s, two Special Reviews and reregistration resulted 

in cancelled food use registrations, application rate reductions and method restrictions, and other 

requirements to reduce risks to consumers, agricultural workers, and some aquatic and terrestrial 

species (EPA, 2005 a-c). 

Some widely used herbicides, with relatively low acute toxicities, came under regulatory scrutiny 

in the 1980s and 1990s, among them triazines (atrazine, cyanazine, and simazine) and acetanilides 

(alachlor and metolachlor). Primary concerns were dietary and drinking water carcinogenic or oncogenic risks, but also worker safety and homeowner risks. The scrutiny resulted in use restrictions, 

advisories, and drinking water monitoring, which encouraged changes in herbicide use. 

• Atrazine, simazine, and alachlor were detected in drinking water and subjected to compliance 

monitoring under the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) in the 1990s (EPA, 2013).

• Regulatory actions on triazines from the late 1980s to the mid-2000s included cancellation of 

atrazine use on some crops and of all cyanazine uses; and restrictions in application rates and 

methods, worker protection requirements, setbacks from wells and waterways, and drinking 

water monitoring for atrazine and simazine (EPA, 2006 b, c). (EPA reclassified atrazine in 2003 

and simazine in 2005 as “not likely to be carcinogenic,” but developmental and reproductive 

effects remained concerns (EPA, 2006 b, c).) 

• Regulatory reviews of alachlor and metolachlor in the 1980s and 1990s resulted in advisories and 

requirements addressing groundwater and worker protection (EPA, 1995 and 1998). Two newer 

acetanilides, acetochlor and s-metolachlor (a metolachlor isomer applied at lower rates), introduced in the 1990s, largely replaced alachlor and metolachlor use (EPA, 2006 a). 

• Increased glyphosate use, associated with adoption of herbicide-tolerant crops since the mid1990s, reduced herbicide use shares for triazines, acetanilides, and other materials (Osteen and 

Fernandez-Cornejo, 2013). Glyphosate has low acute toxicity and is viewed as more environmentally benign than many other herbicides, but has been regulated under the Safe Drinking Water 

Act since 1994 (EPA, 2013).
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Appendix 2—Data Sources

This appendix summarizes the pesticide use surveys used to construct the pesticide use database (appendix table 2.1) and the active ingredients included in the study, classified by pesticide 

type (appendix table 2.2). The pesticide use database focuses on 21 crops: apples, barley, corn, 

cotton, grapefruit, grapes, lemons, lettuce, peaches, peanuts, pears, pecans, potatoes, oranges, rice, 

sorghum, soybeans, sugarcane, sweet corn, tomatoes, and wheat, and covers 1960 through 2008.22

The data were compiled from pesticide use surveys carried out by USDA’s Economic Research 

Service (ERS) and National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS) and proprietary data from a 

market research firm provided to EPA and shared with ERS (proprietary data for short). The ERS 

surveys were conducted mainly in the 1960s and 1970s and covered selected crops (Strickler and 

Hinson, 1962; Eichers et al., 1968, 1970; Fox et al, 1968; Andrilenas, 1974, 1975; Eichers et al. 

(1978); USDA/ERS, 1984, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989a, 1989b, 1990a, 1990b). The NASS pesticide 

surveys (USDA/NASS, various years) began in 1990, but not all crops were covered every year. 

USDA data were used if available for a specific year, crop, State, and active ingredient. When USDA 

data were not available, proprietary data were used. If neither USDA nor proprietary data were available, estimates were made based on application rates (e.g., pounds of a.i. per acre) of contiguous 

years (using USDA or proprietary data) and planted acres reported by USDA.23 ERS did not have 

access to proprietary data needed to use this method to estimate pesticide quantities beyond 2008.

In some cases, inferences were made. For example, methyl bromide use was inferred for tomatoes in South Carolina (1992-1998); Arkansas, Tennessee, and Georgia (1997); Florida (1997 and 

1999); and California (1998, 1999, and 2001). Metam sodium use was imputed for tomatoes in 

California (1993, 1995, and 1997), potatoes in Idaho (1996, 1998, 2000, 2002, 2004, 2006, and 

2007), Oregon (1996 and 1998), and Washington (1996, 1998, 2000, 2002, 2004, 2006, and 2007). 

Dichloropropene use was inferred for potatoes in Idaho (1996 and 2004), Oregon (1996 and 1998), 

and Washington (1996, 1998, 2000, 2002, and 2004).

Proprietary data for oranges were dropped in all years that were bordered by NASS data. Linear 

interpolations of the NASS data were used to infer active ingredient totals in those years. Since no 

data were available for wheat fungicides for 1990 and 1992, estimates from Lin et al. (1995) were 

used to account for fungicide use during those years. 

The shares of acres treated with pesticides were obtained from the following sources: Strickler 

and Hinson (1962); Fox et al. (1968); Andrilenas (1975); Eichers et al. (1978); USDA, ERS Inputs 

Outlook and Situation reports, (USDA/ERS, 1984, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989a, 1989b, 1990a, 1990b); 

and USDA/NASS, Agricultural Chemical Usage Summaries (1991-2008). Since there were no 

NASS survey data for 2008, shares of acres treated with pesticides were estimated by linear interpolation using 2009 data for wheat and 2010 data for corn, cotton, and potato obtained from NASS 

Chemical Use Data in Quick Stats 2.0. 

22However, data for shares of acreage treated with pesticides are available for some crops beyond 2008 (corn, cotton, 

and potatoes for 2010 and wheat for 2009). These data were used to interpolate the 2008 shares when 2008 data were not 

available.

23Most of the data for the early years (1960-1989) are from State level files that were developed to provide information 

for the ERS productivity accounts. These files contain active ingredient information by year, State, and crop, and are a 

synthesis of USDA and proprietary data. They also include estimates for selected pesticides.
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Appendix Table 2.1

Main pesticide use surveys used to construct the 1960 - 2008 database—continued

Survey/Report Source Crop

Years 

covered States or regions covered

Proprietary data Market 

research 

firm

All 21 crops 1987-89, All 48 states

1994

1996-2008

Agricultural Chemical Usage: 2007 

Field 

USDA/

NASS apples 2007 CA, MI, NY, NC, OR, PA, WA

Crops Summary cotton 2007 AL, AR, CA, GA, LA, MS, MO, NC, 

SC, TN, TX\

Agricultural Chemical Usage: 2006 

Field 

USDA/

NASS lettuce 2006 AZ, CA

Crops Summary; Agricultural Chemical sweetcorn 2006 CA, CO, FL, GA, IL, MI, MN, NJ, 

NY, NC

Usage: 2006 Vegetable Summaries OH, OR, PA, TX, WA, WI 

tomatoes 2006 CA, FL, GA, NJ, NC, OH, TN

rice 2006 AR, CA, LA, MS, MO, TX

soybeans 2006 AR, IL, IN, IA, KS, KY, LA, MI, MN, 

MS

MO, NE, NC, ND, OH, SD, TN, 

VA, WI

wheat 2006 CO, ID, IL, KS, MI, MN, MO, MT, 

NE 

ND, OH, OK, OR, SD, TX, WA

Agricultural Chemical Usage: 2005 

Field 

USDA/

NASS apples 2005 CA, MI, NY, NC, OR, PA, WA, WI

Crops Summary; Agricultural 

Chemical grapefruit 2005 CA, FL, TX

Usage: 2005 Fruit Summaries grapes 2005 CA,NY,WA

lemons 2005 CA

oranges 2005 CA, FL

peaches 2005 CA, GA, MI, NJ, PA, SC, TX

pears 2005 CA, OR, WA

corn 2005 CO, GA, IL, IN, IA, KS, KY, MI, 

MN, MO 

NE, NY, NC, ND, OH, PA, SD, TX, 

WI

cotton 2005 AL, AR, CA, GA, LA, MS, NC, TN, 

TX

potatoes 2005 CO, ID, ME, MI, MN, ND, WA, WI

soybeans 2005 AR, IL, IN, IA, KS, KY, LA, MI, MN, 

MS

MO, NE, NC, OH, SD, TN, WI

Agricultural Chemical Usage: 2004 

Field 

USDA/

NASS lettuce 2004 AZ, FL

Crops Summary; Agricultural 

Chemical sweetcorn 2004 CA, FL, GA, IL, MI, MN, NJ, NY, NC 
44

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Appendix Table 2.1

Main pesticide use surveys used to construct the 1960 - 2008 database—continued

Survey/Report Source Crop

Years 

covered States or regions covered

Usage: 2004 Vegetable Summaries OH, OR, PA, TX, WA, WI 

tomatoes 2004 CA, FL, GA, NJ, OR, TX, WA, WI

peanuts 2004 AL, FL, GA, NC, TX

soybeans 2004 AR, IL, IN, IA, KS, MN, MO, NE, 

ND, OH, SD

wheat 2004 CO, ID, IL, KS, MI, MN, MO, MT, 

NE

ND, OH, OK, OR, SD, TX, WA

Agricultural Chemical Usage: 2003 

Field 

NASS apples 2003 CA, MI, NY, NC, OR, PA, WA

Crops Summary; Agricultural Chemical grapefruit 2003 CA, FL, TX

Usage: 2003 Fruit Summaries grapes 2003 CA, MI, NY, WA

lemons 2003 CA

oranges 2003 CA, FL

peaches 2003 CA, GA, MI, NJ, PA, SC, TX

pears 2003 CA, OR, WA

barley 2003 CA, ID, MN, MT, ND, PA, SD, UT, 

WA 

WI, WY

corn 2003 CO, IL, IN, IA, KS, KY, MI, MN, 

MO, 

NE, NY, NC, ND, OH, PA, SD, TX, 

WI

cotton 2003 AL, AZ, AR, GA, LA, MS, MO, NC, 

SC 

TN, TX

potatoes 2003 CO, ID, ME, MI, MN, ND, OR, PA 

WA, WI

sorghum 2003 CO, KS, MO, NE, OK, SD, TX

Agricultural Chemical Usage: 2002 

Field 

NASS lettuce 2002 AZ, CA

Crops Summary; Agricultural Chemical sweetcorn 2002 CA, FL, GA, MI, MN, NJ, NY, NC, 

OH

Usage: 2002 Vegetable Summaries OR, WA, WI

tomatoes 2002 CA, FL, GA, OH, TN

corn 2002 IL, IN, IA, MN, NE, OH, WI

soybeans 2002 AR, IL, IN, IA, KS, KY, LA, MD, 

MI, MN 

MS, MO, NE, NC, ND, OH, SD, 

TN, VA, WI

wheat 2002 CO, IL, KS, MN, MO, MT, NE, ND, 

OH, OK

TX, WA
45

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Appendix Table 2.1

Main pesticide use surveys used to construct the 1960 - 2008 database—continued

Survey/Report Source Crop

Years 

covered States or regions covered

Agricultural Chemical Usage: 2001 

Field 

NASS apples 2001 CA, KS, MI, NY, NC, OR, PA, WA

Crops Summary; Agricultural Chemical grapefruit 2001 CA,FL

Usage: 2001 Fruit Summaries grapes 2001 CA, KS, MI, NY, WA

lemons 2001 CA

oranges 2001 CA, FL

peaches 2001 CA, GA, MI, NJ, SC

pears 2001 CA, OR, WA

corn 2001 CO, GA, IL, IN, IA, KS, KY, MI, 

MN, MO

NE, NY, NC, ND, OH, PA, SD, TX, 

WI

cotton 2001 AR, CA, GA, LA, MS, NC, TX

potatoes 2001 ID, ME, MN, ND, OR, WA, WI

soybeans 2001 AR, IL, IN, IA, MN, MO, NE, OH

Agricultural Chemical Usage: 2000 

Field 

USDA/

NASS

lettuce 2000 AZ, CA, FL, NJ

Crops Summary; Agricultural 

Chemical 

sweetcorn 2000 CA, FL, GA, IL, KS, MI, MN, NJ, 

NY,

Usage: 2000 Vegetable Summaries OR, PA, WA, WI

tomatoes 2000 CA, GA, KS, MI, NJ, PA 

corn 2000 CO, IL, IN, IA, KS, KY, MI, MN, 

MO, NE 

NY, NC, ND, OH, PA, SD, TX, WI

cotton 2000 AL, AZ, AR, GA, LA, MS, MO, NC, 

TN, TX

rice 2000 AR, CA, LA, MS, TX

soybeans 2000 AR, IL, IN, IA, KS, KY, LA, MI, MN, 

MS, MO 

NE, NC, ND, OH, SD, TN, WI

wheat 2000 AR, CO, ID, IL, KS, KY, MN, MO, 

MT, NE 

NC, ND, OH, OK, OR, SD, TX, WA

Agricultural Chemical Usage: 1999 

Field 

USDA/

NASS

apples 1999 AZ, CA, GA, MI, NJ, NY, NC, OR, 

PA, SC, WA

Crops Summary; Agricultural Chemical grapefruit 1999 AZ, CA, FL, TX

Usage: 1999 Fruit Summaries grapes 1999 CA, IN, MI, NY, OR, PA, WA

lemons 1999 AZ, CA

oranges 1999 AZ, CA, FL, TX

peaches 1999 CA, GA, MI, NJ, NY, NC, PA, SC, 

TX, WA

pears 1999 CA, MI, NY, OR, PA, WA
46

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Appendix Table 2.1

Main pesticide use surveys used to construct the 1960 - 2008 database—continued

Survey/Report Source Crop

Years 

covered States or regions covered

corn 1999 CO, IL, IN, IA, KS, KY, MI, MN, 

MO, NE 

NC, OH, SD, TX, WI

cotton 1999 AL, AZ, AR, CA, GA, LA, MS, NC, 

TN, TX

peanuts 1999 AL, GA, NC, TX

potatoes 1999 CO, ID, IN, ME, MI, MN, ND, OR, 

PA 

WA, WI

soybeans 1999 AR, IL, IN, IA, KS, KY, LA, MI, MN, 

MS, MO 

NE, NC, OH, PA, SD, TN

wheat 1999 IN

Agricultural Chemical Usage: 

1998 Field 

USDA/

NASS

lettuce 1998 AZ, CA, FL, NJ, NY

Crops Summary; Agricultural 

Chemical 

sweetcorn 1998 CA, FL, GA, IL, MI, MN, NJ, NY, 

NC, OR, TX 

Usage: 1998 Vegetable Summaries WA, WI

tomatoes 1998 CA, FL, GA, MI, NJ, NY, NC, TX

barley 1998 Northeast, Northcentral, South, 

West

corn 1998 CO, IL, IN, IA, KS, KY, MI, MN, 

MO, NE, NC

OH, PA, SD, TX, WI

cotton 1998 AL, AZ, AR, CA, GA, LA, MS, NC, 

TN, TX

potatoes 1998 PA, WI

sorghum 1998 KS

soybeans 1998 AR, IL, IN, IA, KS, KY, LA, MI, MN, 

MS, MO

NE, NC, OH, SD, TN

wheat 1998 CA, CO, GA, ID, IL, KS, LA, MN, 

MS, MO, MT, 

NE, NC, ND, OH, OK, OR, SD, 

TX, WA

Agricultural Chemical Usage: 

1997 Field 

USDA/

NASS

apples 1997 CA, GA, MI, NJ, NY, NC, OR, PA, 

SC, WA

Crops Summary; Agricultural 

Chemical 

grapefruit 1997 CA, FL

Usage: 1997 Fruit Summaries grapes 1997 CA, MI, NY, OR, PA, WA

lemons 1997 CA

oranges 1997 CA, FL

peaches 1997 CA, GA, MI, NJ, NY, NC, PA, SC, 

WA

pears 1997 CA, NY, OR, PA, WA
47

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Appendix Table 2.1

Main pesticide use surveys used to construct the 1960 - 2008 database—continued

Survey/Report Source Crop

Years 

covered States or regions covered

Corn 1997 IL, IN, IA, MI, MN, MO, NE, OH, 

SD, WI

Cotton 1997 AL, AZ, AR, CA, GA, LA, MS, MO, 

NC, SC 

TN, TX

Potatoes 1997 ID, ME, MN, ND, OR, WA, WI

Soybeans 1997 AR, DE, IL, IN, IA, KS, KY, LA, MI, 

MN, MS

MO, NE, NC, OH, PA, SD, TN, WI

Wheat 1997 CO, ID, IL, KS, MN, MO, MT, NE, 

ND, OH, OK, OR

PA, SD, TX, WA 

Agricultural Chemical Usage: 

1996 Field 

USDA/

NASS

lettuce 1996 AZ, CA

Crops Summary; Agricultural 

Chemical 

sweetcorn 1996 CA, FL, GA, IL, KS, MI, MN, NJ, 

NY,

Usage: 1996 Vegetable Summaries OR, WA, WI

tomatoes 1996 CA, FL, GA, NJ, NC, TX 

Corn 1996 IL, IN, IA, KS, KY, MI, MN, MO, 

NE, NC 

OH, PA, SC, SD, TX, WI

Cotton 1996 AZ, AR, CA, GA, LA, MS, TN, TX

Potatoes 1996 ID, ME, MN, ND, WA

Soybeans 1996 AR, IL, IN, IA, LA, MN, MS, MO, 

NE, OH 

TN, WI

Wheat 1996 CO, ID, KS, MN, MT, NE, ND, OK, 

OR, SD 

TX, WA 

Agricultural Chemical Usage: 

1995 Field 

USDA/

NASS

apples 1995 CA, GA, MI, NJ, NY, OR, PA, SC, 

WA

Crops Summary; Agricultural 

Chemical 

grapefruit 1995 CA, FL

Usage: 1995 Fruit Summaries grapes 1995 CA, MI, NY, OR, PA, WA

lemons 1995 CA

oranges 1995 CA, FL

peaches 1995 CA, GA, MI, NJ, NY, NC, PA, SC, 

WA

pears 1995 CA, NY, OR, WA

Corn 1995 DE, GA, IL, IN, IA, KS, KY, MI, 

MN, MO

NE, NC, OH, PA, SD, TX, WI

Cotton 1995 AZ, AR, CA, LA, MS, TX
48

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Appendix Table 2.1

Main pesticide use surveys used to construct the 1960 - 2008 database—continued

Survey/Report Source Crop

Years 

covered States or regions covered

Potatoes 1995 CO, ID, ME, MI, MN, NY, ND, OR, 

PA,WA, WI 

Soybeans 1995 AR, GA, IL, IN, IA, KY, LA, MN, 

MS, MO

NE, NC, OH, TN

Wheat 1995 CO, ID, IL, KS, MN, MO, MT, NE, 

ND, OK, OR, SD 

Agricultural Chemical Usage: 

1994 Field 

USDA/

NASS

lettuce 1994 AZ, CA, FL, NJ, NY

Crops Summary; Agricultural 

Chemical 

sweetcorn 1994 CA, FL, GA, IL, MI, MN, NJ, NY, 

NC, 

Usage: 1994 Vegetable Summaries OR, TX, WA, WI

tomatoes 1994 CA, FL, GA, MI, NJ, NY, NC, TX 

Corn 1994 IL, IN, IA, MI, MN, MO, NE, OH, 

SD, WI

Cotton 1994 AZ, AR, CA, LA, MS, TX

Potatoes 1994 CO, ID, ME, MI, MN, NY, ND, OR, 

PA, WA, WI

Soybeans 1994 AR, DE, IL, IN, IA, MN, MO, NE, 

OH

Wheat 1994 CO, ID, IL, KS, MN, MO, MT, NE, 

ND, OH, OK

OR, SD, TX, WA

Agricultural Chemical Usage: 

1993 Field 

USDA/

NASS

apples 1993 CA, MI, NJ, NC, OR, PA, SC, WA

Crops Summary; Agricultural 

Chemical 

grapefruit 1993 CA, FL

Usage: 1993 Fruit Summaries grapes 1993 CA, MI, NY, OR, PA, WA

lemons 1993 CA

oranges 1993 CA, FL

peaches 1993 CA, MI, NY, NC, PA, SC, WA

pears 1993 CA, NY, OR, WA

Corn 1993 GA, IL, IN, IA, KS, KY, MI, MN, 

MO, NE, NC 

OH, PA, SD, TX, WI

Cotton 1993 AZ, AR, CA, LA, MS, TX

Potatoes 1993 CO, ID, ME, MI, MN, NY, ND, OR, 

PA, WA, WI

Soybeans 1993 AR, GA, IL, IN, IA, KS, KY, LA, 

MN, MS, MO 

NE, NC, OH, SD, TN

Wheat 1993 CO, ID, IL, KS, MN, MT, NE, ND, 

OH, OK 

OR, SD, TX, WA 
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Appendix Table 2.1

Main pesticide use surveys used to construct the 1960 - 2008 database—continued

Survey/Report Source Crop

Years 

covered States or regions covered

Agricultural Chemical Usage: 

1992 Field 

USDA/

NASS

lettuce 1992 AZ, CA, NJ, MI, NJ, NY, TX

Crops Summary; Agricultural 

Chemical 

sweetcorn 1992 CA, FL, GA, IL, MI, MN, NC, NJ, 

NY,

Usage: 1992 Vegetable Summaries OR, TX, WA, WI

tomatoes 1992 CA, FL, GA, MI, NJ, NY, NC, TX 

Corn 1992 GA, IL, IN, IA, KS, KY, MI, MN, 

MO, NE, NC 

OH, PA, SC, SD, TX, WI

Cotton 1992 AZ, AR, CA, LA, MS, TX

Potatoes 1992 CO, ID, ME, MI, MN, NY, ND, OR, 

PA, WA, WI

Rice 1992 AR, LA

Soybeans 1992 AR, GA, IL, IN, IA, KS, KY, LA, 

MN, MS 

MO, NE, NC, OH, SD, TN

Wheat 1992 AR, CO, ID, IL, IN, KS, MO, MN, 

MT, ND, NE, OH 

OK, OR, SD, TX, WA 

Agricultural Chemical Usage: 

1991 Field 

USDA/

NASS

apples 1991 AZ, GA, MI, NY, NC, OR, PA, SC, 

VA, WA

Crops Summary; Agricultural 

Chemical 

grapefruit 1991 AZ, FL

Usage: 1991 Fruit Summaries grapes 1991 AZ, MI, NY, OR, PA, TX, WA

lemons 1991 AZ

oranges 1991 AZ, FL

peaches 1991 GA, MI, NY, NC, PA, SC, TX, VA, 

WA

pears 1991 OR, WA

Corn 1991 GA, IL, IN, IA, KS, KY, MI, MN, 

MO, NE, NC 

OH, PA, SC, SD, TX, WI

Cotton 1991 AZ, AR, CA, LA, MS, TX

Peanuts 1991 GA, TX, NC, VA

Potatoes 1991 CO, ID, ME, MI, MN, NY, ND, OR, 

PA, WA, WI

Rice 1991 AR, LA

Sorghum 1991 KS, NE, TX

Soybeans 1991 AR, GA, IL, IN, IA, KS, KY, LA, 

MN, MS 

MO, NE, NC, OH, SD, TN

Wheat 1991 AR, CO, ID, IL, IN, KS, MN. MO, 

MT, ND, NE, OH, 

OH, OR, SD, TX, WA
50

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Appendix Table 2.1

Main pesticide use surveys used to construct the 1960 - 2008 database—continued

Survey/Report Source Crop

Years 

covered States or regions covered

Agricultural Chemical Usage: 

1990 Field 

USDA/

NASS

Lettuce 1990 CA

Crops Summary; Agricultural 

Chemical 

Sweetcorn 1990 CA

Usage: 1990 Vegetable Summaries Tomatoes 1990 CA

Corn 1990 CO, IL, IN, IA, KS, KY, MI, MN, 

MO, NE, NY 

NC, ND, OH, PA, SC, SD, TN, VA, 

WV, WI

Reg 1, Reg 2, Reg 3, Reg 4

Cotton 1990 AZ, AR, CA, LA, MS, TX

Potatoes 1990 CO, ID, ME, MI, MN, NY, ND, OR, 

PA, WA, WI

Rice 1990 AR, LA

Soybeans 1990 AL, AR, DE, FL, GA, IL, IN, IA, KS, 

KY, LA 

MD, MI, MN, MS, MO, NE, NJ, NC, 

ND, OH 

OK, PA, SC, SD, TN, TX, VA, WI

Wheat 1990 AR, CO, ID, IL, KS, MO, MN, MT, 

NE, ND, OH, OK 

SD, TX, WA 

Proprietary data Market 

research 

firm

Corn 1970-86 Various regions; IL, IN, IA, MN, 

MO 

NE, OH, WI, SD, MI 

Soybeans 1970-85 Various regions; IL, IN, IA, MN, 

MO 

NE, OH, WI

Cotton 1970-85 Various (four) regions

Wheat 1973-86 Various (three) regions

Sorghum 1973-86 Various (three) regions

Pesticides, Outlook and Situation 

(IOS-2)

USDA/

ERS

Corn 1982 MD, NY, PA, KY, NC, TN, VA, AL, 

FL, GA ID, AZ

(Delvo et al., 1983) SC, AR, LA, MS, IL, IA, IN, MO, 

OH, MI, MN

WI, KS, NE, SD, ND, OK, TX, MT, 

WA

Soybeans 1982 MN, IA, MO, IL, IN, OH, KY, AR, 

LA, MS, MD 

GA, SC, NC, VA, FL, MI, WI, OK, 

TX

Cotton 1982 AL, GA, SC, AR, LA, MS, TN, OK, 

TX, MO, NC, AZ
51

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Appendix Table 2.1

Main pesticide use surveys used to construct the 1960 - 2008 database—continued

Survey/Report Source Crop

Years 

covered States or regions covered

Sorghum 1982 KY, NC, TN, VA, AL, GA, SC, AR, 

LA, MS, IL

MO, KS, NE, SD, OK, TX, AZ

Wheat 1982 MD, KY, NC, TN, VA, AL, GA, SC, 

AR, LA 

MS, IL, IA, MO, OH, MI, MN, WI, 

KS, NE, ND 

SD, OK, TX, ID, MT, WA, AZ

Rice 1982 AR, LA, MS, MO, TX

Peanuts 1982 NC, VA, AL, GA, SC, TX

Barley 1982 NC, VA, SC, MI, MN, WI, ND, SD, 

ID, MT, WA, AZ

Oats 1982 NY, PA, NC, SC, AR, OH, MI, MN, 

WI, ND

SD, OK, TX, ID, MT, WA

Farmers’ Use of Pesticides in 1976 ERS Corn 1976 National; USDA regions NE, LK, 

CB, NP, AP

(Eichers et al, 1978) SE, DT, SP, MT, PA

Soybeans 1976 National; USDA regions NE, LK, 

CB, NP, AP

SE, DT, SP, PA

Cotton 1976 National; USDA regions AP, SE, 

DT, SP, MT, PA

Sorghum 1976 National; USDA regions NE, LK, 

CB, NP, AP

SE, DT, SP, MT, PA

Wheat 1976 National; USDA regions NE, LK, 

CB, NP, AP

SE, DT, SP, MT, PA

Rice 1976 National; USDA regions DT, SP, 

PA

Peanuts 1976 National; USDA regions AP, SE, 

DT, SP, MT

Barley 1976 National; USDA regions NE, LK, 

CB, NP, AP

SE, SP, MT, PA

Proprietary data Market

research

firm

Oranges

1974, 

1975, 1984 Fl, CA & AZ, TX & national

Lemons

1974,1975, 

1984 Fl, CA & AZ, TX & national

Grapefruit

1974, 

1975, 1984 Fl, CA&AZ, TX & national

Grapes

1974,1975, 

1984 Northeast, CA & AZ & national
52

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Appendix Table 2.1

Main pesticide use surveys used to construct the 1960 - 2008 database—continued

Survey/Report Source Crop

Years 

covered States or regions covered

Apples

1975, 

1975, 1984

East, North Central, West & 

national

Peaches

1974, 

1975, 1984 East, West & national

Pecans

1974,1975, 

1984 Southeast, Southwest & national

Pears

1974, 

1975, 1984

Michigan, Northeast, West & 

National

Proprietary data (speciatlty crops 

pesticide study)

Market

research

firm

Peanuts 19771985 Regional and national

Tomatoes 1977, 1985 Regional and national

Sweet corn 1977, 1985 Regional and national

Potatoes 1977. 1985 Regional and national

Rice 1977, 1985 Regional and national

Proprietary data on herbicide use Market

research

firm

Corn 1961-72 National

Soybeans 1961-72 National

Cotton 1961-72 National

Sorghum 1961-72 National

Wheat 1961-72 National

Barley 1961-72 National

Proprietary data on insecticide use Market

research 

firm

Corn 1961-72 National

Soybeans 1961-72 National

Cotton 1961-72 National

Sorghum 1961-72 National

Wheat 1961-72 National

Barley 1961-72 National

Farmer’s Use of Pesticides in 1971: 

Quantities

USDA/

ERS

Corn 1971 National; USDA regions NE, LK, 

CB, NP, AP

(Andrilenas, 1974) SE, DT, SP, MT, PA

Soybeans 1971 National; USDA regions NE, LK, 

CB, NP, AP

SE, DT, SP

Cotton 1971 National; USDA regions CB, AP, 

SE, DT, SP

MT, PA

Sorghum 1971 National; USDA regions NE, CB, 

NP, AP, SE

DT, SP, MT, PA

Wheat 1971 National; USDA regions NE, LK, 

NP, AP, SE

SP, MT, PA

Rice 1971 National; USDA regions DT, SP, 

PA
53

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Appendix Table 2.1

Main pesticide use surveys used to construct the 1960 - 2008 database—continued

Survey/Report Source Crop

Years 

covered States or regions covered

Peanuts 1971 National; USDA regions AP, SE, 

DT, SP, MT

Potatoes 1971 National; USDA regions NE, LK, 

NP, SE, SP, 

MT, PA

Barley 1971 National; USDA regions NE, LK, 

CB, NP, SE

SP, MT, PA

Apples 1971 National

Other 

deciduous 

fruits

1971 National

Citrus 1971 National

Otrher fruits 

and nuts

1971 National

Quantities of Pesticides Used by USDA/

ERS

Corn 1966 National; USDA regions NE, LK, 

CB, NP, AP

Farmers in 1966 (Eichers et al., 1970) SE, DT, SP, MT, PA

Soybeans 1966 National; USDA regions NE, LK, 

CB, NP, AP

SE, DT, SP

Cotton 1966 National; USDA regions CB, AP, 

SE, DT, SP

MT, PA

Sorghum 1966 National; USDA regions NE, CB, 

NP, AP, SE

DT, SP, MT, PA

Wheat 1966 National; USDA regions LK, CB, 

NP, AP, SE

SP, MT, PA

Rice 1966 National; USDA regions DT, SP

Peanuts 1966 National; USDA regions AP, SE, 

SP, MT

Potatoes 1966 National; USDA regions NE, LK, 

CB, SE, MT, PA

Barley 1966 National; USDA regions NE, LK, 

CB, NP, AP

SE, SP, MT, PA

Apples 1966 National

Other 

deciduous 

fruits

1966 National

Citrus 1966 National
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Appendix Table 2.1

Main pesticide use surveys used to construct the 1960 - 2008 database—continued

Survey/Report Source Crop

Years 

covered States or regions covered

Other fruits 

and nuts

1966 National

Quantities of Pesticides Used by USDA/

ERS

Corn 1964 National; USDA regions NE, LK, 

CB, NP, AP

Farmers in 1964 (Eicher et al., 1968) SE, DT, SP, MT, PA

Soybeans 1964 National; USDA regions NE, LK, 

CB, NP

AP, SE, DT

Cotton 1964 National; USDA regions CB, AP, 

SE, DT, SP, PA

Sorghum 1964 National; USDA regions CB, NP, 

AP, SE, SP, MT

Wheat 1964 National; USDA regions LK, CB, 

NP, AP, SP

MT, PA

Rice 1964 National; USDA regions CB, DT, 

SP

Peanuts 1964 National; USDA regions AP, SE, 

SP, MT

Potatoes 1964 National; USDA regions NE, LK, 

CB, SE, MT, PA

Barley 1964 National; USDA regions NE, LK, 

CB, NP, AP

SE, DT, SP, MT, PA

Apples 1964 National

Other decisuous fruts1964 National

Citrus 1964 National

Other fuits 

and nuts

1964 National

Extent of Spraying and Dusting on 

Farms, 

USDA/

ERS

Corn 1958 National; USDA regions NE, LK, 

CB, NP, AP

1958 with Comparisons (Strickler and 

Hinson, 1962)

SE, DT, SP, MT, PA

Cotton 1958 National; USDA regions CB, AP, 

SE, DT, SP, PA

Potatoes 1958 National; USDA regions NE, LK, 

CB, SE, MT, PA

Note: USDA Regions are as follows: NE=Northeast, LK=Lake States, CB=Corn Belt, NP=Northern Plains, AP=Appalachian, 

SE=Southeast, DT=Delta States, SP=Southern Plains, MT=Mountain, and PA=Pacific.
55

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Appendix table 2.2

Active ingredient classifications—continued

Herbicides Insecticides Fungicides Other

2,4,5-T Abamectin Acibenzolar S Methyl 6 Benzyladenine

2,4-D Ac303630 Ampelomyces quisqualis Arsenic Acid

2,4-Db Acephate Anilazine Aviglycine

Acetic Acid Acequinocyl Azoxystrobin Benzyladenine

Acetochlor Acetamiprid Bacillus cereus Butanone

Acifluorfen Aldicarb Bacillus pumilis Butifos

Alachlor Aldrin Bacillus subtilis Calcium Chloride

Allidochlor Amitraz Barium Polysulfide Chlorophacinone

Ametryn Azadirachtin Benomyl Chloropicrin

Aminopyralid Azinphos Methyl Bordeaux Mixture Cppu

Amitrole Bacillus thuringiensis Boscalid Cyanamide

Asulam Bifenazate Burkholderia cepacia Cyclanilide

Atrazine Bifenthrin Calcium Polysulfide Cytokinin

Barban Buprofezin Captan Daminozide

Benefin Carbaryl Carboxin Dazomet

Benfluralin Carbofuran Chinomethionat Decan 1 Ol

Bensulfuron Methyl Chlorantraniliprole Chloroneb Dichloropropene

Bensulide Chlordane Chlorothalonil Dimethipin

Bentazone Chlordimeform Coniothyrium minitans Dimethylarsinic Acid

Bispyribac Sodium Chlorethoxyfos Copper compounds DNOC

Bromacil Chlorfenapyr Cyazofamid Dodecadien 1 Ol

Bromoxynil Chlorobenzilate Cymoxanil Dodecanol

Bromoxynil Heptanoate Chlorpyrifos Cyprodinil Endothall

Bromoxynil Octanoate Cinnamaldehyde Dicloran Ethephon

Butralin Clofentezine Difenoconazole E E 8 10 Dodecadien

Butylate Clothianidin Dimethomorph Gamma Aminobutyric Acid (GABA)

Carfentrazone Ethyl Cryolite Dinocap Gibberellic Acid

Chloramben Cydia pomonella granulosis virus Dodine Hydrogen Cyanamide

Chloridazon Cyfluthrin Etridiazole Hydroxypropanoic Acid

Chlorimuron Ethyl Cypermethrin Famoxadone Indolyl Butyric Acid

Chlorpropham Cyromazine Fenamidone L Glutamic Acid

Chlorsulfuron DDT Fenarimol Maleic Hydrazide

Clethodim Deltamethrin Fenbuconazole Mepiquat Chloride

Clodinafop Propargyl Demeton Fenhexamid Metaldehyde

Clomazone Diazinon Ferbam Metam Potassium

Clopyralid Dicofol Fluazinam Metam Sodium

Cloransulam Methyl Dicrotophos Fludioxonil Methyl Bromide

Cyanazine Dienochlor Fluoxastrobin Methyl Iodide

Cycloate Diflubenzuron Flusilazole Methyl Isothiocyanate

Cyhalofop Butyl Dimethoate Flutolanil Naphthalene

Dalapon Dinotefuran Flutriafol Naphthylacetamide

DCPA Disulfoton Folpet Naphthylacetic Acid

Desmedipham Emamectin Benzoate Fosetyl Aluminium Octadecadien (E Z)

Dicamba Endosulfan Xilenol-+meta-cresol (Gallex) Octadecadien (Z Z)
56

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Appendix table 2.2

Active ingredient classifications—continued

Herbicides Insecticides Fungicides Other

Dichlobenil EPN Gentamicin Sulfate Paclobutrazol

Dichlorprop Esfenvalerate Harpin Protein Pelargonic Acid

Diclofop Methyl Ethion Hydrogen Peroxide Phosphoric Acid

Diclosulam Ethoprophos Iprodione Pinolene

Difenzoquat Etoxazole Kresoxim Methyl Piperonyl Butoxide

Diflufenzopyr Fenamiphos Mancozeb Prohexadione Calcium

Dimethenamid Fenbutatin Oxide Mandipropamid Sodium Chlorate

Dimethenamid P Fenoxycarb Maneb Sodium Metaborate

Dinitro Fenpropathrin Mefenoxam Strychnine

Dinoseb Fenpyroximate Metalaxyl Sulfcarbamide

Diphenamid Fenvalerate Metconazole Tetradecanol

Diquat Dibromide Fipronil Metiram Tetrathiocarbonate

Diuron Flonicamid Myclobutanil Thidiazuron

DSMA Flubendiamide Oxytetracycline Tetrathiocarbonate

EPTC Flucythrinate Potassium Bicarbonate Thidiazuron

Ethalfluralin Fluvalinate Propamocarb Hydrochloride Tribufos

Ethofumesate Fluvalinate Tau Propiconazole Zinc

Fenoxaprop Ethyl Fonofos Prothioconazole Zinc Phosphide

Fenoxaprop P Ethyl Formetanate Hydrochloride Pyraclostrobin Z 8 Dodecen Acetate

Florasulam Gamma Cyhalothrin Pyrimethanil

Fluazifop Butyl Garlic Oil Quinoxyfen

Flucarbazone Sodium Heptachlor Quintozene

Fluchloralin Hexythiazox Streptomycin

Flufenacet Hydramethylnon TCMTB

Flumetsulam Imidacloprid Tebuconazole

Flumiclorac Penthyl Indoxacarb Tetraconazole

Flumioxazin Isofenphos Thiabendazole

Fluometuron Kinoprene Thiophanate Methyl

Fluroxypyr Meptyl Lambda Cyhalothrin Thiram

Fluthiacet Methyl Lindane Triadimefon

Fomesafen Malathion Triadimenol

Foramsulfuron Methamidophos Trifloxystrobin

Fosamine Methidathion Triflumizole

Glufosinate Ammonium Methiocarb Triforine

Glyphosate Methomyl Triphenyltin Hydroxide

Glyphosate Trimesium Methoxychlor Vinclozolin

Halosulfuron Methyl Methoxyfenozide Zineb

Hexazinone Methyl Parathion Ziram

Imazamethabenz Methyl Mevinphos Zoxamide

Imazamox Monocrotophos

Imazapic Naled

Imazapyr Nosema Locustae Canning

Imazaquin Novaluron
57

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Appendix table 2.2

Active ingredient classifications—continued

Herbicides Insecticides Fungicides Other

Imazethapyr Oxamyl

Iodosulfuron Oxydemeton Methyl

Isoxaben Oxythioquinox

Isoxaflutole Parathion

Lactofen Permethrin

Linuron Phorate

MCPA Phosalone

MCPB Phosmet

Mecoprop Phosphamidon

Mesosulfuron Methyl Phostebupirim

Mesotrione Pirimicarb

Methazole Polyhedrosis Virus

Metolachlor Potassium Salts

Metribuzin Profenofos

Metsulfuron Methyl Propargite

Molinate Propoxur

Mono Potassium Salt Pymetrozine

MSMA Pyrethrins

Napropamide Pyridaben

Naptalam Pyriproxyfen

Nicosulfuron Rotenone

Norflurazon Ryanodine

Orthosulfamuron Sabadilla

Oryzalin Spinetoram

Oxyfluorfen Spinosyn A

Paraquat Spirodiclofen

Pebulate Spiromesifen

Pendimethalin Spirotetramat

Penoxsulam Steinernema carpocapsae

Phenmedipham Steinernema riobravis

Phytophthora Spores Sulprofos

Picloram S Methoprene

Pinoxaden Tebufenozide

Primisulfuron Methyl Tebupirimfos

Profluralin Tefluthrin

Prometon Temephos

Prometryn Terbufos

Pronamide Thiacloprid

Propachlor Thiamethoxam

Propanil Thiodicarb

Propazine Toxaphene

Propoxycarbazone Sodium Tralomethrin

Propyzamide Trimethacarb

Prosulfuron Trichlorfon
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Appendix table 2.2

Active ingredient classifications—continued

Herbicides Insecticides Fungicides Other

Pyraflufen Ethyl Zeta Cypermethrin

Pyrasulfotole

Pyridate

Pyrithiobac Sodium

Quinclorac

Quizalofop Ethyl

Rimsulfuron

Sethoxydim

Simazine

Sodium Arsenite

Sulfentrazone

Sulfosate

Sulfosulfuron

Tebuthiuron

Tembotrione

Terbacil

Terbutryn

Thiazopyr

Thifensulfuron Methyl

Thiobencarb

Topramezone

Tralkoxydim

Triasulfuron

Tribenuron Methyl

Triclopyr

Tridiphane

Trifloxysulfuron Sodium

Trifluralin

Triflusulfuron Methyl

Triallate

Urea Sulfate

Vernolate

Source: Economic Research Service with USDA and proprietary data.
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Appendix 3—The Economics of Pesticide Use

Economics provides a framework for understanding farmers’ pesticide use decisions. To maximize 

profits, farmers should increase the use of pest control inputs until the marginal value of damage reduction (or value of the marginal product-VMP) equals the marginal factor cost (MFC) of the pest control 

inputs. The VMP is the value of the incremental output (crop) resulting from an additional unit of 

input (e.g., pesticide), and is equal to the marginal physical product of an input (incremental quantity 

of output per additional unit of input) multiplied by the price of the output (e.g., crop). If the VMP 

exceeds the MFC, it will pay farmers to use additional amounts of pest control inputs (Headley, 1968; 

Campbell, 1976; Lichtenberg and Zilberman, 1986; Teague and Brorsen, 1995).24 Estimates of the 

VMP of pesticides per dollar spent on pesticides vary by pesticide type, crop, region, time of the study 

and methodology used. Studies conducted for the United States and Europe indicate that VMPs per 

dollar spent on pesticides usually ranged between $1 and $8 but appear to be falling and are usually 

lower for herbicides (Fernandez-Cornejo et al., 1998; Lansink and Carpentier, 2001). 25

The VMP depends on potential yield losses and crop prices. The potential yield losses (damages 

from pest infestations) depend on the extent, intensity, and variability of the pest infestations and 

the effectiveness of the pest control inputs. The marginal cost of the pest control inputs includes the 

cost of pesticides and their application. In addition to the private costs, pesticide use may involve 

external costs such as pest resistance; destruction of beneficial species; heightened threats to worker 

safety, food safety, and groundwater contamination; damage to nontarget species; air pollution; 

and property damage (Sexton et al., 2007). Since these costs are usually not borne by the farmers, 

government policies attempt to control these external costs by imposing restrictions on pesticide use, 

transferring some external costs to users, or encouraging alternative practices such as Integrated Pest 

Management (Fernandez-Cornejo et al., 1998). 

Under diminishing returns,26 the VMP declines as more input is used. The downward sloping 

portion of the VMP is the farmer’s demand curve for pesticides, i.e., a relation between price and 

quantity demanded. The demand depends on many factors, including the price of the crops, the 

productivity of the pesticides, and other inputs used. Fernandez-Cornejo et al. (1998) observed 

that, in general, farmers’ response to pesticide price changes, as measured by demand elasticity, 

is small in the short run and moderate in the long run, meaning that pesticide price changes 

would have little impact on aggregate pesticide use in the short run. Since multiple pesticides may 

control the same pests, the change in quantity of individual pesticide ingredients used as their own 

prices change would depend on the availability and cost of alternative pesticides or practices, and 

demand for individual pesticides could be more responsive to own-price changes than aggregate 

pesticide use would be.

24Since by law pesticides must be applied at label rates, the rule really applies as an inequality: Apply if VMP>=MFC, 

otherwise do not apply. It is a violation of EPA regulations to apply at rates above the label, and pesticide manufacturers 

do not guarantee efficacy below label rates. However, label rates apply for each application and for each active ingredient. 

Farmers may apply several active ingredients and several applications in a year. So in the aggregate, e.g., nationally, the 

equality may apply.

25Methodological and modeling issues include the determination of the correct functional form of the underlying 

production function, and the interaction with other pesticides (Lichtenberg and Zilberman, 1986; Carrasco-Tauber and 

Moffitt, 1992; Chambers and Lichtenberg, 1994). As Sexton et al. (2007) observe, since there is little consensus on the 

proper functional form, “economists must work with agronomists and biologists to arrive at the appropriate functional 

forms that recognize the underlying biological processes.”

26As pesticide use increases while other inputs are fixed, after some point, the resulting increases in output become smaller. 
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A demand curve for pesticide x used on crop y for pest z is the summation of individual per-acre 

grower demands across all acres of crop y and is a relationship between pesticide price, Px, and 

quantity demanded, Qx (see app. fig. 3.1).27 The relationship assumes that: (1) the individual grower 

applies a pesticide at a rate based on VMP or one that is scientifically or legally pre-determined, 

only if net returns are positive; and (2) if two or more pesticides or practices are available, the 

grower chooses the one with the highest net return. An optimal quantity per acre for pesticide x (qx) 

would be determined by VMPx = Px, where VMPx = f(Py, Vz, dz, kx), Py = crop price, Vz = infestation of pest z, dz

 = damage per pest, and kx = pest reduction from pesticide x. (Vz, dz, and kx are 

based on biological and technical relationships, which could be nonlinear, and reflect such factors as 

weather, soils, and current and previous crop production practices.) The pesticide would be applied 

only if net returns (NRx) are greater than zero, that is, value of damage reduction exceeds cost of the 

pesticide and application: NRx = [Py(Vz*dz) kx] –[Px(qx) + Bx] > 0, where Bx is application cost for 

pesticide x. 

Factors that would shift the demand curve rightward (from D1 to D2 to D3) include increases in crop 

price (Py) or infestation (Vz), and decreases in application costs (Bx) or the net return of alternative practices (NRa

) (opposite changes would shift the curve leftward). (The net return of alternative practice “a” is a function of its own price, crop price, pest reduction, and application cost, that 

27Pest management decisions, including pesticide application and timing, are best examined in the context of dynamic, 

bio-economic models. This simple, static framework does not consider many of the dynamic relationships between crops, 

pests, and beneficial organisms; the interactions between various practices and natural conditions, or external effects 

such as the benefits of controlling mobile pests or the costs of adverse environmental or health effects. However, a discussion of dynamic, bio-economic models is beyond the scope of this report.

Appendix figure 3.1

Supply and demand curves for pesticide(x) when applied to crop(y) for pest(z)

Note: Increases in crop prices and infestation levels, as well as decreases in application costs and the returns from 

alternative pest management practices, shift pesticide demand curves rightwards. 

S1

S2

D1

D2

D3

Px

Qx Quantity Applied

Price
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is NRa= f(Pa,Py, ka, Ba)). The shifts are not necessarily proportional to changes in the factor, since 

the relationships between pest infestations, application rates, and yield can be nonlinear. Changes in 

labor or fuel prices could affect returns of both pesticide x and the alternatives, by influencing application costs, as could new application technology. Depending on those impacts, increases in labor or 

fuel prices could shift the demand curve for pesticide x rightward or leftward. Similarly, change in 

weather could affect yields, infestations, damages, and pesticide effectiveness simultaneously. 

The supply curve (a relationship between price and quantity supplied) reflects pesticide marginal 

costs. It could have a positive slope if competing demands for the material restrict availability as use 

increases. Changes in pesticide manufacturing cost, regulations that reduce availability, or patent 

expiration would shift the supply curve. Increased manufacturing cost or regulatory restriction 

would shift the supply curve upward, increasing Px and reducing Qx (shift from S1 to S2). Reduced 

manufacturing costs or patent expiration would shift it downward, with the opposite effects on Px

and Qx (shift from S2 to S1).
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Appendix 4—Trends in Pesticide Use on Five Major Crops

This appendix discusses trends and issues for the top five crops—corn, soybeans, cotton, wheat, and 

potatoes—as measured by total pesticide quantity applied. To facilitate the analysis, we divide the 

period of study (1960-2008) into two time periods. The first period (1960-1981) is marked by a rapid 

adoption of pesticides (particularly herbicides) and the second period (1982-2008) is characterized 

by a slight downward trend with some fluctuations of pesticide use and changes in active ingredients 

used. For corn, cotton, and soybeans, time period 2 is further divided into 1982-1995 and 1996-2008 

to highlight the effect of the adoption of genetically engineered seed on pesticide use (1996 is the 

year when GE seeds were first commercially introduced). 

Average application rates per planted acre (total quantity applied divided by planted acreage) differ 

by crop, vary over time, and reflect crop-specific rates per treated acre and shares of acreage treated. 

Among the five crops, potatoes generally had the highest application rates, followed by cotton, corn, 

soybeans, and wheat (app. figs. 4.1-4.5; app. tables 4.1-4.5). Application rates on potatoes increased 

from 6.6 pounds per planted acre in 1960 to 44 pounds in 1999 and reached nearly 50 pounds in 

2008 (app. fig. 4.4, app. table 4.4). Cotton rates declined sharply from 8-12 pounds per planted acre 

in the late 1960s through mid-1970s to a low of about 3 pounds by 1980 and fluctuated at 3-5 pounds 

over the following three decades (app. fig. 4.3, app. table 4.3). 

Application rates for all corn pesticides peaked in 1987 at 3.6 pounds per planted acre, declined 

to 2.1-2.3 pounds per acre in 2000-06, and increased to 2.4 pounds per acre by 2008 (app. fig. 4.1, 

app. table 4.1). Rates on soybeans peaked at around 2 pounds per planted acre in the early 1980s, 

declined to 1.1 pounds per acre in the late 1990s and early 2000s, and rose to 1.5 pounds per acre by 

2008 (app. fig. 4.2, app. table 4.2). Wheat rates increased from 0.1 pound per planted acre in 1960 to 

0.4 pound in 1980, then fluctuated between 0.2 and 0.4 pound from 1980 to 2008 (app. fig. 4.5, app. 

table 4.5).

Corn Pesticide Trends

Corn pesticide use steadily increased from 29 million pounds in 1960 to 279 million pounds in 1982. 

It fell below 200 million pounds in 1999-2006, before rising to 204 million pounds in 2008 (app. 

table 4.1), about 40 percent of the total pesticide pounds applied that year. Corn drives overall pesticide use because it occupies the largest acreage of all U.S. crops. Corn producers apply more pounds 

of pesticide than any other crop farmers, but use pesticides much less intensively than cotton, fruit, 

and vegetable producers. For example, potato producers use about 50 pounds per planted acre (app. 

table 4.4), versus 2.4 pounds per corn acre (app. table 4.1).

1960-1981: Rapid adoption of pesticides and emergence of environmental concerns 

One of the first synthetic organic herbicides, 2,4-D, was one of the most widely used on corn in the 

early 1960s (Eichers et al., 1968). But in 1968, the herbicide atrazine (introduced in 1958) accounted 

for nearly 60 percent of pesticide use on corn, while 2,4-D accounted for 13 percent (app. fig 4.6). 

Often combined with alachlor or metolachlor, atrazine was used to control a wide spectrum of 

broadleaf weeds and grasses (Ackerman, 2007). 
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Regarding insecticides, corn farmers replaced chlorinated hydrocarbons, such as aldrin and 

heptachlor (app. figs. 4.6-4.7; see p. 78), which were the subject of environmental and regulatory 

concerns, with other materials such as carbofuran, phorate, fonofos, and terbufos to control corn root 

worm and other soil insects (Crop Protection Handbook, 2006). Notably, aldrin, introduced in the 

late 1940s, accounted for 15 percent of total corn pesticide use in 1968, but was no longer used by 

the late 1970s (app. fig. 4.6). 

1982-1995: Fluctuation in pesticide use and changes in active 

ingredients used

Atrazine was a dominant herbicide during this period. Fueled by large doses of atrazine and the 

introduction of alachlor and metolachlor, herbicide use reached 3.2 pounds per planted acre during 

the late 1980s before declining to 2.7 pounds per acre in 1996. Atrazine accounted for more than 

25 percent of all corn herbicide use throughout the period (USDA/NASS, Agricultural Chemical 

Usage: Field Crop Summaries, various years). Scrutiny of the potential negative environmental 

impacts of atrazine and other triazines led EPA, in 1991, to direct States to develop pesticide 

management plans promoting voluntary reductions in atrazine use, including restrictions on per-acre 

application rates (Hartzler, 1997; Skopec, 1998). 

Though insecticide use rose until the early 1980s, it fell throughout the late 1980s and 1990s. By 

1995, terbufos and chlorpyrifos represented more than 60 percent of corn insecticide use (USDA/

NASS, Agricultural Chemical Usage: Field Crop Summaries, 1996), the bulk of the 0.26 pound of 

insecticides applied per planted acre (app. table 4.1). Farmers also improved pest control by using 

crop rotation strategies and by planting traditional hybrid seeds that exhibit better standability. 

1996-2008: Adoption of GE corn reduces insecticide use and boosts 

glyphosate use 

The adoption of GE (genetically engineered) corn in the mid-1990s influenced both herbicide and 

insecticide use. Herbicide use dropped from 2.67 pounds per planted corn acre in 1996 to 1.92 

pounds in 2002, hovered below 2.1 pounds between 2003 and 2006, and increased to 2.3 pounds 

Appendix figure 4.1

Pounds of pesticide active ingredient (a.i.) per planted acre, corn, 1960-2008

Pounds a.i. per acre

Sources: Economic Research Service with USDA and proprietary data. See Appendix 2.

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

1960 64 68 72 76 80 84 88 92 96 2000 04 08

Herbicide

Insecticide

Fungicide

Total
64

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Economic Research Service/USDA

Appendix table 4.1

Pesticide use in corn, 1960-2008—continued

Pounds active ingredient (a.i.) per planted acre and total pounds a.i. of pesticide applied, by type

Millions of 

planted acres Herbicide Insecticide Fungicide Total Herbicide Insecticide Fungicide Total

Millions of pounds a.i. applied Pounds a.i. per planted acre

1960 81.4 16.67 11.05 * 29.14 0.20 0.14 ŧ 0.36

1961 65.9 20.87 10.77 * 32.89 0.32 0.16 ŧ 0.50

1962 65.0 22.37 12.92 * 36.38 0.34 0.20 ŧ 0.56

1963 68.8 24.85 14.96 * 40.73 0.36 0.22 ŧ 0.59

1964 65.8 27.79 16.01 * 44.55 0.42 0.24 ŧ 0.68

1965 65.2 41.53 17.13 * 59.26 0.64 0.26 ŧ 0.91

1966 66.3 47.91 15.51 * 63.85 0.72 0.23 ŧ 0.96

1967 71.2 56.47 16.25 * 73.14 0.79 0.23 ŧ 1.03

1968 65.1 60.78 14.49 * 75.68 0.93 0.22 ŧ 1.16

1969 64.3 67.86 15.22 * 83.50 1.06 0.24 ŧ 1.30

1970 66.9 81.77 19.37 * 101.53 1.22 0.29 ŧ 1.52

1971 74.2 106.53 18.79 * 125.70 1.44 0.25 ŧ 1.69

1972 67.1 102.15 17.90 * 120.37 1.52 0.27 ŧ 1.79

1973 72.3 121.18 19.05 * 140.46 1.68 0.26 ŧ 1.94

1974 77.9 141.09 22.86 * 164.12 1.81 0.29 ŧ 2.11

1975 78.7 144.51 29.24 * 173.85 1.84 0.37 ŧ 2.21

1976 84.6 199.21 31.85 * 231.07 2.36 0.38 ŧ 2.73

1977 84.3 208.72 36.30 * 245.05 2.48 0.43 ŧ 2.91

1978 81.7 209.09 36.99 * 246.13 2.56 0.45 ŧ 3.01

1979 81.4 223.94 36.17 * 260.18 2.75 0.44 ŧ 3.20

1980 84.0 234.45 35.22 * 269.74 2.79 0.42 ŧ 3.21

1981 84.1 237.84 35.18 * 273.11 2.83 0.42 ŧ 3.25

1982 81.9 249.40 29.95 * 279.45 3.05 0.37 ŧ 3.41

1983 60.2 169.79 25.38 * 195.26 2.82 0.42 ŧ 3.24

1984 80.5 242.30 31.34 * 273.73 3.01 0.39 ŧ 3.40

1985 83.4 234.57 35.21 * 269.87 2.81 0.42 ŧ 3.24

1986 76.6 210.64 33.09 * 243.82 2.75 0.43 ŧ 3.18

1987 66.2 211.10 25.56 * 236.74 3.19 0.39 ŧ 3.58

1988 67.7 213.75 27.70 * 241.52 3.16 0.41 ŧ 3.57

1989 72.3 229.30 26.67 * 256.04 3.17 0.37 ŧ 3.54

1990 74.2 231.56 27.41 * 259.04 3.12 0.37 ŧ 3.49

1991 76.0 215.10 27.48 NA 242.58 2.83 0.36 NA 3.19

1992 79.3 225.66 22.95 * 248.66 2.85 0.29 ŧ 3.14

1993 73.2 204.80 21.88 * 226.83 2.80 0.30 ŧ 3.10

1994 78.9 218.22 19.39 * 237.64 2.77 0.25 ŧ 3.01

1995 71.5 192.13 18.60 * 210.73 2.69 0.26 ŧ 2.95

1996 79.2 211.44 19.30 * 230.91 2.67 0.24 ŧ 2.91

1997 79.5 210.06 20.24 * 230.43 2.64 0.25 ŧ 2.90
65

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by 2008 (app. fig. 4.1). The decline until 2002 was driven mainly by the introduction of low-dosage 

herbicides, such as nicosulfuron.28

Though virtually all soybean acres were herbicide-tolerant (HT) by 2000, less than 10 percent of 

corn acres were. However, use of HT corn seed increased to one-third of corn acres in 2006 and 

two-thirds in 2008. Consequently, glyphosate accounted for 33 percent of corn pesticide use in 

2008, exceeding atrazine use at 29 percent (app. fig. 4.7; see p. 78). In part, the increase in per-acre 

herbicide use from 2006 to 2008 occurred because the per-acre rates of glyphosate exceeded those 

of some of the herbicides that it replaced. Also, weed resistance to glyphosate emerged as its use 

increased, which may have boosted total herbicide use in some States as atrazine was applied along 

with glyphosate (Hartzler and Owen, 2009).

As a result of increased adoption of Bt corn by U.S. farmers for insect control, insecticide use 

declined steadily from 0.24 pound per planted acre in 1996 to 0.15 pound by 2000 and 0.05 pound 

in 2008. Insecticides accounted for only 2 percent of total pesticide pounds applied to corn in 2008 

(app. fig. 4.1 and app. table 4.1). However, these estimates do not account for the increased use 

of insecticide seed treatments with such materials as neo-nicotinoids (for example, imidicloprid, 

clothianidin, or thiamethoxam), applied at very low rates, because seed treatments are not included 

in the USDA or proprietary data.

Use of foliar fungicides (applied to the corn plant rather than to soil, seed, or root to control pathogens) was rare prior to 2006 and amounted to less than 1 percent of total corn pesticide use in 2008 

28Despite restrictions, atrazine continued to dominate herbicide use for much of this period (Ackerman, 2007). Acetochlor and s-metolachlor (a metolachlor isomer applied at lower rates) were introduced in the 1990s, reducing the market 

shares of alachlor and the older form of metolachlor. Acetochlor mainly replaced alachlor as a result of a regulatory decision by the registrant, since alachlor was being detected in ground water.

Appendix table 4.1

Pesticide use in corn, 1960-2008—continued

Pounds active ingredient (a.i.) per planted acre and total pounds a.i. of pesticide applied, by type

Millions of 

planted acres Herbicide Insecticide Fungicide Total Herbicide Insecticide Fungicide Total

Millions of pounds a.i. applied Pounds a.i. per planted acre

1998 80.2 202.06 13.77 NA 215.84 2.52 0.17 NA 2.69

1999 77.4 177.85 12.16 NA 190.03 2.30 0.16 NA 2.46

2000 79.6 167.53 11.99 NA 179.52 2.11 0.15 NA 2.26

2001 75.7 169.22 9.51 NA 178.74 2.24 0.13 NA 2.36

2002 78.9 151.76 8.61 NA 160.37 1.92 0.11 NA 2.03

2003 78.6 163.21 8.65 NA 171.97 2.08 0.11 NA 2.19

2004 80.9 166.84 8.40 NA 175.48 2.06 0.10 NA 2.17

2005 81.8 166.89 6.14 NA 173.03 2.04 0.08 NA 2.12

2006 78.3 160.60 3.97 NA 164.57 2.05 0.05 NA 2.10

2007 93.5 202.74 4.52 1.21 208.47 2.17 0.05 0.01 2.23

2008 86.0 198.02 4.01 1.69 203.73 2.30 0.05 0.02 2.37

*Indicates that less than 1 million pounds were applied. ŧ indicates less than 0.01. NA indicates not available.

The total columns include other pesticide types, such as defoliants and desiccants.

Source: Economic Research Service with USDA and proprietary data. See Appendix 2.
66

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(app. table 4.1) (Owen, 2009). Major diseases controlled by foliar fungicides include gray leaf spot, 

rusts, and northern leaf blight (Munkvold and Gorman, 2006). 

Soybean Pesticide Trends

Pesticide use on soybeans increased from less than 3 million pounds a.i. in 1960 to 146 million 

pounds in 1982. Usage declined to less than 100 million pounds from 1985 to 2005 and increased 

to 112 million pounds in 2008 (app. table 4.2). Soybean producers accounted for 22 percent of total 

pesticide pounds applied in 2008, slightly more than half of the pounds applied in corn production 

(app. table 4.1). In most years, insecticides and foliar fungicides are applied to 10 percent or less of 

soybean acreage, limiting per-acre use to less than 0.1 pound. 

1960-1981: Rapid increase in pesticide use 

Herbicide use on soybeans increased from less than 0.1 pound per acre in 1960 to 2.1 pounds by 1981 

(app. fig. 4.2 and app. table 4.2), replacing tillage and cultivation practices as primary weed controls. 

Chloramben, which is used to control grasses and broadleaf weeds, was the first product to dominate 

the soybean herbicide market, accounting for over 30 percent of all pesticide use on soybeans in 1968 

(app. fig. 4.8). Over time, chloramben use declined, while use of other materials—such as alachlor, 

metribuzin, and trifluralin—increased (Andrilenas, 1974; Eichers et al., 1970 and 1978). 

1982-1995: Fluctuation in pesticide use and changes in active 

ingredients used 

Herbicide per planted soybean acre ranged from 1 to 2 pounds during 1982-95 (app. fig. 4.2 and app. 

table 4.2). In 1995, pendimethalin, trifluralin, and glyphosate were the most used herbicides in terms 

of pounds applied (USDA/NASS, Agricultural Chemical Usage: Field Crop Summaries, 1996). 

Appendix figure 4.2

Pounds of pesticide active ingredient (a.i.) per planted acre, soybeans, 1960-2008

Pounds a.i. per acre

Sources: Economic Research Service with USDA and proprietary data. See Appendix 2.

0.00

0.50

1.00

1.50

2.00

2.50

1960 64 68 72 76 80 84 88 92 96 2000 04 08

Herbicide

Insecticide

Fungicide

Total
67

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Appendix table 4.2

Pesticide use in soybeans, 1960-2008 

Pounds active ingredient (a.i.) per planted acre and total pounds a.i. of pesticide applied, by type

Millions 

of planted 

acres Herbicide Insecticide Fungicide Total Herbicide Insecticide Fungicide Total

Millions of pounds a.i. applied Pounds a.i. per planted acre

1960 24.4 1.41 1.22 * 2.74 0.06 0.05 ŧ 0.11

1961 27.8 2.27 1.25 * 3.61 0.08 0.04 ŧ 0.13

1962 28.4 3.60 1.29 * 4.97 0.13 0.05 ŧ 0.17

1963 29.5 4.77 1.34 * 6.16 0.16 0.05 ŧ 0.21

1964 31.7 6.13 1.39 * 7.57 0.19 0.04 ŧ 0.24

1965 35.2 10.32 1.52 * 11.88 0.29 0.04 ŧ 0.34

1966 37.3 12.71 2.03 * 14.79 0.34 0.05 ŧ 0.40

1967 40.8 17.70 2.90 * 20.65 0.43 0.07 ŧ 0.51

1968 42.3 17.56 2.41 * 20.03 0.42 0.06 ŧ 0.47

1969 42.5 25.36 2.82 * 28.25 0.60 0.07 ŧ 0.66

1970 43.1 33.20 2.41 * 35.69 0.77 0.06 ŧ 0.83

1971 43.5 42.95 2.63 * 45.66 0.99 0.06 ŧ 1.05

1972 46.9 48.78 2.26 * 51.54 1.04 0.05 ŧ 1.10

1973 56.5 66.06 3.49 * 70.48 1.17 0.06 ŧ 1.25

1974 52.5 62.30 2.70 * 66.36 1.19 0.05 ŧ 1.26

1975 54.6 70.40 3.73 * 75.91 1.29 0.07 ŧ 1.39

1976 50.3 91.50 3.01 * 96.72 1.82 0.06 ŧ 1.92

1977 59.0 111.11 4.27 * 117.24 1.88 0.07 ŧ 1.99

1978 64.7 112.15 4.70 * 118.36 1.73 0.07 ŧ 1.83

1979 71.4 130.53 3.80 * 135.48 1.83 0.05 ŧ 1.90

1980 69.9 134.20 3.39 * 138.39 1.92 0.05 ŧ 1.98

1981 67.5 140.96 2.61 * 144.02 2.09 0.04 ŧ 2.13

1982 70.9 140.51 4.92 * 145.53 1.98 0.07 ŧ 2.05

1983 63.8 120.35 3.83 * 124.27 1.89 0.06 ŧ 1.95

1984 67.8 135.11 1.49 * 136.69 1.99 0.02 ŧ 2.02

1985 63.1 82.77 1.12 * 83.99 1.31 0.02 ŧ 1.33

1986 60.4 95.21 0.86 * 96.16 1.58 0.01 ŧ 1.59

1987 58.2 64.66 0.23 * 64.97 1.11 0.00 ŧ 1.12

1988 58.8 66.37 0.56 * 67.02 1.13 0.01 ŧ 1.14

1989 60.8 67.76 0.50 * 68.34 1.11 0.01 ŧ 1.12

1990 57.8 80.09 0.31 * 80.49 1.39 0.01 ŧ 1.39

1991 59.2 72.19 1.04 * 73.27 1.22 0.02 ŧ 1.24

1992 59.2 67.51 0.18 * 67.82 1.14 0.00 ŧ 1.15

1993 60.1 66.82 1.15 * 70.79 1.11 0.02 ŧ 1.18

1994 61.6 75.24 0.13 * 76.14 1.22 0.00 ŧ 1.24

1995 62.5 68.99 0.46 * 70.23 1.10 0.01 ŧ 1.12

1996 64.2 76.16 0.48 * 77.62 1.19 0.01 ŧ 1.21
68

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1996-2008: Adoption of HT soybeans increases glyphosate use and 

reduces tillage 

HT seeds were commercially introduced in 1996. Initially, only 7 percent of soybean acres were 

planted with HT seeds, but adoption rates increased rapidly. Herbicide use on soybeans initially 

declined. Only 1.07 pounds of herbicide were applied per acre in 1999, the lowest in over 25 years 

(app. fig. 4.2 and app. table 4.2). By 2008, however, usage had risen to 1.4 pounds per planted acre. 

By 2008, HT seeds were planted on over 90 percent of soybean acres, and glyphosate accounted for 

over 85 percent of total pounds applied (app. fig. 4.9). This heavy reliance on glyphosate for weed 

control prompted concern about resistance and encouraged soybean growers to look for strategies to 

mitigate that resistance (Owen, 2010).

With the advent of the soybean aphid in 2000 in the Midwest, some analysts argued that more 

soybean acres should be treated with insecticides (Gianessi, 2009; Ragsdale et al., 2011). Insecticide 

use on soybeans grew from just over 1 million pounds in 2005 to nearly 5 million pounds in 2008 

(app. table 4.2), whereas insecticide use on corn and cotton declined over the same period. By 2008, 

the quantity of insecticides used on soybeans exceeded that on corn. 

Reports of Asian soybean rust in the United States in 2004 and subsequent years encouraged preventative use of fungicides. Foliar fungicides were applied to 1 million acres of soybeans in 2008, 

amounting to 1 million pounds (app. table 4.2).

Appendix table 4.2

Pesticide use in soybeans, 1960-2008 

Pounds active ingredient (a.i.) per planted acre and total pounds a.i. of pesticide applied, by type

Millions 

of planted 

acres Herbicide Insecticide Fungicide Total Herbicide Insecticide Fungicide Total

Millions of pounds a.i. applied Pounds a.i. per planted acre

1997 70.0 87.15 1.22 * 89.26 1.24 0.02 ŧ 1.28

1998 72.0 81.28 0.21 NA 81.49 1.13 0.00 NA 1.13

1999 73.7 78.62 0.29 NA 78.91 1.07 0.00 NA 1.07

2000 74.3 80.81 0.03 NA 80.84 1.09 0.00 NA 1.09

2001 74.1 78.78 NA 78.78 1.06 NA NA 1.06

2002 74.0 86.23 0.54 * 86.79 1.17 0.01 ŧ 1.17

2003 73.4 88.00 NA 88.00 1.20 NA NA 1.20

2004 75.2 88.41 0.60 * 89.03 1.18 0.01 ŧ 1.18

2005 72.0 88.98 1.48 * 90.96 1.24 0.02 ŧ 1.26

2006 75.5 106.06 2.58 * 109.12 1.40 0.03 ŧ 1.44

2007 64.7 82.25 2.56 * 85.48 1.27 0.04 ŧ 1.32

2008 75.7 106.22 4.70 1.04 111.96 1.40 0.06 ŧ 1.48

*Indicates that less than 1 million pounds were applied. ŧ indicates less than 0.01. NA indicates not available.

The total columns include other pesticide types, such as defoliants and desiccants.

Source: Economic Research Service with USDA and proprietary data. See Appendix 2.
69

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Cotton Pesticide Trends 

Pesticide use on cotton increased from 77 million pounds active ingredient in 1960 to 143 million 

pounds in 1972. Usage declined to 34 million pounds in 1985, increased to 87 million pounds in 

2000, and declined again to 38 million pounds in 2008 (app. table 4.3). In 2008, pesticide use in 

cotton production accounted for 7 percent of total pounds applied to the major crops, and about onesixth of the quantity used in corn production. 

1960-1981: Herbicide use increases rapidly, but changes in 

insecticide active ingredients reduce total insecticide use 

Insecticides were widely used on cotton acres during the 1960s. However, due to environmental 

concerns, regulatory actions, and the introduction of new insecticides, usage began to decline in 

the 1970s. Insecticide use increased from 67 million pounds a.i. in 1960 to 105 million pounds in 

1972, before declining to 19 million pounds in 1980. Cotton farmers replaced organochlorines, such 

as DDT and toxaphene, with other insecticides. Farmers also adopted new cropping practices (for 

instance, rotation with sorghum and other crops) to control insect infestations. Notably, DDT and 

toxaphene together accounted for about 50 percent of cotton pesticide use in 1968 (app. fig. 4.10). 

However, by the mid-1970s, DDT was no longer used, and the top insecticides applied to cotton were 

methyl-parathion and toxaphene (Eichers et al., 1978). Also, synthetic pyrethroids (e.g., permethrin, 

cypermethrin) were introduced and became widely used (Osteen and Fernandez-Cornejo, 2013). 

Synthetic pyrethroids are applied at much lower rates than older insecticides—fractions of an ounce 

compared with several pounds per acre. 

As a result, the quantity of insecticides used declined from 62 million pounds in 1977 to 19 million 

pounds in 1980, or from 4.5 pounds per planted cotton acre to 1.3 pounds (app. fig. 4.3). Herbicides 

were used far less intensively than insecticides during this period. Nonetheless, driven by increases 

in trifluralin and fluometuron use (Andrilenas, 1974; Eichers et al., 1970 and 1978), herbicide use per 

planted acre rose from less than 0.1 pound in the early 1960s to 1.9 pounds in 1976 (app. table 4.3). 

Appendix figure 4.3

Pounds of pesticide active ingredient (a.i.) per planted acre, cotton, 1960-2008

Pounds a.i. per acre

Sources: Economic Research Service with USDA and proprietary data. See Appendix 2.

64 68 72 76 80 84 88 92 96 04 08

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

1960 2000

Herbicide

Insecticide

Fungicide

Other pesticides

Total
70

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Appendix table 4.3

Pesticide use in cotton, 1960-2008—continued

Pounds active ingredient (a.i.) per planted acre and total pounds a.i. of pesticide applied, by type

Millions 

of planted 

acres Herbicide Insecticide Fungicide Other Total Herbicide Insecticide Fungicide Other Total

Millions of pounds a.i. applied Pounds a.i. per planted acre

1960 16.1 1.39 67.11 * 8.04 76.54 0.09 4.17 ŧ 0.50 4.76

1961 16.6 1.17 76.12 * 9.00 86.29 0.07 4.59 ŧ 0.54 5.20

1962 16.3 1.48 77.47 * 9.96 88.91 0.09 4.75 ŧ 0.61 5.46

1963 14.8 1.65 78.73 * 10.92 91.37 0.11 5.30 ŧ 0.74 6.16

1964 14.8 2.01 67.90 * 11.88 81.96 0.14 4.58 ŧ 0.80 5.52

1965 14.2 5.39 58.77 * 12.84 77.27 0.38 4.15 ŧ 0.91 5.46

1966 10.3 5.48 62.94 * 13.80 82.60 0.53 6.08 ŧ 1.33 7.98

1967 9.4 5.96 89.55 * 14.92 110.78 0.63 9.48 ŧ 1.58 11.72

1968 10.9 13.61 76.73 * 16.04 106.71 1.25 7.03 ŧ 1.47 9.78

1969 11.9 12.80 52.73 * 17.17 82.97 1.08 4.44 ŧ 1.44 6.98

1970 11.9 15.23 63.28 * 18.29 97.05 1.28 5.30 ŧ 1.53 8.12

1971 12.4 20.97 78.64 * 19.41 119.24 1.70 6.37 ŧ 1.57 9.65

1972 14.0 19.53 105.10 * 17.99 142.80 1.40 7.51 ŧ 1.28 10.20

1973 12.5 24.28 67.40 * 16.57 108.39 1.95 5.40 ŧ 1.33 8.69

1974 13.7 21.13 72.15 * 15.14 108.54 1.54 5.27 ŧ 1.11 7.93

1975 9.5 16.01 46.80 * 13.72 76.62 1.69 4.94 ŧ 1.45 8.08

1976 11.6 21.91 69.17 * 12.30 103.43 1.88 5.94 ŧ 1.06 8.89

1977 13.7 19.77 62.10 * 11.38 93.33 1.45 4.54 ŧ 0.83 6.82

1978 13.4 20.01 21.16 * 10.47 51.74 1.50 1.58 ŧ 0.78 3.87

1979 14.0 20.31 19.01 * 9.55 49.00 1.45 1.36 ŧ 0.68 3.51

1980 14.5 21.69 18.72 * 8.63 49.19 1.49 1.29 ŧ 0.59 3.38

1981 14.3 24.17 24.41 * 7.72 56.47 1.69 1.70 ŧ 0.54 3.94

1982 11.3 19.29 19.10 * 6.80 45.39 1.70 1.68 ŧ 0.60 4.00

1983 7.9 15.75 15.92 * 6.26 38.12 1.99 2.01 ŧ 0.79 4.81

1984 11.1 20.10 12.10 * 5.72 38.09 1.80 1.09 ŧ 0.51 3.42

1985 10.7 16.32 12.45 * 5.18 34.10 1.53 1.17 ŧ 0.49 3.19

1986 10.0 20.83 15.74 * 4.64 41.34 2.07 1.57 ŧ 0.46 4.12

1987 10.4 19.46 15.27 * 4.11 38.94 1.87 1.47 ŧ 0.39 3.75

1988 12.5 21.64 17.48 * 3.57 42.77 1.73 1.40 ŧ 0.29 3.42

1989 10.6 18.73 12.37 * 3.03 34.20 1.77 1.17 ŧ 0.29 3.23

1990 12.3 25.27 10.10 * 2.49 37.90 2.05 0.82 ŧ 0.20 3.07

1991 14.1 29.20 9.73 * 11.44 50.82 2.08 0.69 ŧ 0.81 3.62

1992 13.2 27.99 15.20 * 12.04 55.78 2.11 1.15 ŧ 0.91 4.21

1993 13.4 29.24 23.48 * 12.58 66.44 2.18 1.75 ŧ 0.94 4.94

1994 13.7 33.88 23.94 * 11.60 70.29 2.47 1.75 ŧ 0.85 5.12

1995 16.9 40.05 28.21 * 16.80 85.88 2.37 1.67 ŧ 0.99 5.07

1996 14.7 31.06 23.56 * 26.11 81.71 2.12 1.61 ŧ 1.78 5.58
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1982-1995: Fluctuation in pesticide use and changes in active 

ingredients used 

In the 1970s, cotton farmers controlled late-season pests with synthetic pyrethroids (e.g., permethrin). However, by the 1980s, tobacco budworm resistance to pyrethroids induced growers to 

increase the use of organophosphates such as methyl parathion and azinphos-methyl (Morgan, 2002; 

Texas AgriLife Extension Services, 2009), adopt new IPM strategies, and plant new early maturing 

cotton varieties (app. fig. 4.2). 

Starting in the 1970s, cotton growers and State governments cooperated to eradicate the boll weevil. 

Different cotton growing regions joined the program in different years. Typically, the first year of a 

program entailed heavy application of pesticides, generally malathion. In subsequent years, the boll 

weevil population was monitored and treated as needed. A new wave of cotton producing regions 

began participation in 1993. By 1995, insecticide use increased to 28 million pounds, the highest 

since 1977 (app. table 4.3). Herbicide use ranged from 1.5 to 2.5 pounds per planted acre in most 

years from 1982 to 1995. 

1996-2008: Adoption of GE cotton reduces insecticide use and 

increases glyphosate use 

The adoption of Bt cotton since 1996 and the reduction of insecticide use for boll weevil eradication after 2000 contributed to reductions in overall insecticide use. Bt cotton grew from 15 percent 

of total acres in 1996 to more than 60 percent by 2008. Insecticide use was more than 1 pound per 

Appendix table 4.3

Pesticide use in cotton, 1960-2008—continued

Pounds active ingredient (a.i.) per planted acre and total pounds a.i. of pesticide applied, by type

Millions 

of planted 

acres Herbicide Insecticide Fungicide Other Total Herbicide Insecticide Fungicide Other Total

Millions of pounds a.i. applied Pounds a.i. per planted acre

1997 13.9 30.84 23.30 1.29 21.53 76.97 2.22 1.68 0.09 1.55 5.54

1998 13.4 26.43 15.94 * 10.96 53.81 1.97 1.19 ŧ 0.82 4.02

1999 14.9 30.48 40.13 * 13.14 84.55 2.05 2.70 ŧ 0.88 5.68

2000 15.5 32.62 41.25 * 12.70 87.16 2.10 2.66 ŧ 0.82 5.62

2001 15.8 33.09 24.92 * 14.03 72.62 2.10 1.58 ŧ 0.89 4.61

2002 14.0 34.35 6.31 * 14.28 55.35 2.46 0.45 ŧ 1.02 3.97

2003 13.5 29.95 13.92 * 13.33 57.54 2.22 1.03 ŧ 0.99 4.27

2004 13.7 34.11 9.10 * 15.79 59.25 2.50 0.67 ŧ 1.16 4.34

2005 14.2 31.91 15.23 * 15.71 63.06 2.24 1.07 ŧ 1.10 4.43

2006 15.3 34.67 8.41 * 17.88 61.16 2.27 0.55 ŧ 1.17 4.00

2007 10.8 26.09 6.62 * 13.67 46.44 2.41 0.61 ŧ 1.26 4.29

2008 9.5 22.43 5.32 * 9.75 37.56 2.37 0.56 ŧ 1.03 3.97

*Indicates that less than 1 million pounds were applied. ŧ indicates less than 0.01.

Source: Economic Research Service with USDA and proprietary data. See Appendix 2.
72

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planted acre in most years before the introduction of Bt cotton but declined to 0.6 pound by 2008 

(app. table 4.3). 

Driven primarily by malathion use for boll weevil eradication programs, insecticide use increased to 

over 2 pounds per planted acre in both 1999 and 2000 (USDA/NASS, Agricultural Chemical Usage:

Field Crop Summary, 2000 and 2001). Total insecticide use on cotton exceeded 40 million pounds 

in these years, the highest since 1977, before declining to 5 million pounds by 2008. Acephate 

accounted for the largest quantity of insecticide used in 2008, almost 6 percent of cotton pesticide 

use (app. fig. 4.11).

Herbicide-tolerant cotton was commercially introduced in 1996. HT seeds were quickly accepted 

by cotton farms and accounted for approximately 10 percent of cotton planted acres after 1 year. As 

with other crops, HT adoption had a profound impact on herbicide use. In 1996, trifluralin, MSMA 

(monosodium methanearsonate), pendimethalin, and fluometuron were dominant herbicides in 

cotton production (USDA/NASS, Agricultural Chemical Usage: 1996 Field Crop Summary, 1997). 

By 2008, as HT cotton seeds were planted on 70 percent of cotton acres, glyphosate use accounted 

for 37 percent of cotton pesticide use (app. fig. 4.11). As HT cotton was adopted, total herbicide use 

per cotton acre fell (app. table 3.3), though it increased to 2.4 pounds per acre in 2007 and 2008, 

possibly due to the development of weed resistance to glyphosate (Owen, 2010). “Other pesticides” 

(desiccants, defoliants, and growth regulators) became the second largest pesticide type applied to 

cotton after 2002 (app. table 3.3). Tribufos and ethephon were among the top 10 cotton pesticides in 

2008 (appendix figure 4.11). 

Potato Pesticide Trends

Pesticide use on fall potatoes increased from 9 million pounds a.i. in 1960 to 60 million pounds 

in 1999 before declining to 53 million pounds in 2008 (app. table 4.4). Other pesticides, including 

fumigants and desiccants, constituted 44 million of the 53 million pounds applied to potatoes in 

2008. Of the 9 million pounds remaining, 2.3 million pounds were herbicides, 1.4 million pounds 

were insecticides, and 5 million pounds were fungicides. Fall potatoes—a leading vegetable crop 

Appendix figure 4.4

Pounds of pesticide active ingredient (a.i.) per planted acre, potatoes, 1960-2008

Pounds a.i. per acre

Sources: Economic Research Service with USDA and proprietary data. See Appendix 2.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Herbicide

Insecticide

Fungicide

Other pesticides

Total

1960 64 68 72 76 80 84 88 92 96 2000 04 08
73

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Appendix table 4.4

Pesticide use in potatoes, 1960-2008—continued

Pounds active ingredient (a.i.) per planted acre and total pounds a.i. of pesticide applied, by type 

Millions 

of planted 

acres Herbicide Insecticide Fungicide Other Total Herbicide Insecticide Fungicide Other Total

Millions of pounds a.i. applied Pounds a.i. per planted acre

1960 14.0 * 1.89 4.10 2.71 9.20 0.35 1.35 2.93 1.94 6.57

1961 15.0 * 1.95 4.01 2.26 8.75 0.35 1.29 2.65 1.50 5.79

1962 14.0 * 1.83 3.91 1.81 8.00 0.33 1.33 2.84 1.31 5.81

1963 13.0 * 1.28 3.82 1.36 6.91 0.34 0.96 2.85 1.02 5.17

1964 13.0 * 1.09 3.72 0.91 6.19 0.35 0.83 2.84 0.69 4.72

1965 14.0 * 1.67 3.63 0.46 6.30 0.39 1.18 2.56 0.32 4.44

1966 15.0 * 2.63 3.53 0.01 6.73 0.37 1.76 2.36 0.01 4.49

1967 15.0 * 2.40 3.65 1.29 7.83 0.33 1.60 2.43 0.86 5.23

1968 14.0 * 2.22 3.77 2.57 8.98 0.31 1.57 2.66 1.81 6.35

1969 15.0 * 2.29 3.88 3.84 10.67 0.45 1.57 2.66 2.64 7.32

1970 14.0 * 2.32 4.00 5.12 12.10 0.45 1.60 2.76 3.53 8.34

1971 14.0 1.25 1.64 4.12 6.40 13.41 0.87 1.14 2.88 4.47 9.36

1972 13.0 * 1.05 4.13 6.84 12.95 0.72 0.81 3.17 5.25 9.95

1973 13.0 1.24 1.22 4.14 7.27 13.87 0.94 0.91 3.11 5.47 10.43

1974 14.0 1.52 1.41 4.15 7.71 14.79 1.07 0.99 2.92 5.42 10.40

1975 13.0 1.22 1.13 4.16 8.14 14.65 0.94 0.87 3.20 6.27 11.28

1976 14.0 1.35 1.26 4.17 8.58 15.37 0.96 0.90 2.97 6.11 10.94

1977 14.0 1.28 1.20 4.15 9.68 16.30 0.91 0.86 2.96 6.92 11.65

1978 14.0 1.30 1.35 4.12 10.78 17.55 0.93 0.96 2.94 7.70 12.53

1979 13.0 * 1.39 4.10 11.89 18.10 0.56 1.07 3.17 9.17 13.97

1980 12.0 * 1.63 4.08 12.99 19.35 0.56 1.39 3.47 11.05 16.47

1981 13.0 * 1.73 4.05 14.09 20.59 0.57 1.38 3.23 11.22 16.40

1982 13.0 1.36 1.77 4.03 15.19 22.34 1.04 1.36 3.09 11.66 17.15

1983 13.0 1.40 1.54 3.97 15.01 21.92 1.10 1.21 3.12 11.81 17.24

1984 13.0 1.44 1.59 3.91 14.83 21.78 1.08 1.20 2.93 11.12 16.33

1985 14.0 1.49 1.68 3.84 14.65 21.66 1.06 1.19 2.73 10.42 15.40

1986 13.0 1.90 1.60 3.78 14.47 21.76 1.51 1.27 3.01 11.52 17.31

1987 13.0 2.45 1.63 3.72 14.30 22.10 1.86 1.24 2.83 10.86 16.78

1988 13.0 2.66 1.43 3.66 14.12 21.87 2.07 1.12 2.85 10.99 17.02

1989 13.0 2.45 1.40 3.60 13.94 21.39 1.88 1.07 2.76 10.68 16.39

1990 14.0 2.14 2.89 3.54 13.76 22.32 1.53 2.06 2.53 9.83 15.95

1991 14.0 2.35 3.12 3.47 20.93 29.87 1.67 2.22 2.46 14.87 21.22

1992 13.0 2.06 3.21 3.57 24.44 33.28 1.54 2.40 2.66 18.25 24.85

1993 14.0 3.26 4.07 4.77 33.84 46.00 2.39 2.93 3.43 24.35 33.10

1994 14.0 2.64 3.48 5.77 39.23 51.13 1.86 2.45 4.06 27.59 35.96

1995 14.0 2.70 2.69 6.92 31.76 44.07 1.93 1.92 4.94 22.68 31.46

1996 15.0 3.18 2.84 7.65 33.12 46.79 2.18 1.96 5.26 22.77 32.17
74

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in the United States, contributing to 18 percent of vegetable sales in 2008 (USDA/ERS, 2010a)—

accounted for 10 percent of pesticide use in 2008. 

While herbicide use in potatoes as measured in pounds is small, most potato acres are treated with 

herbicides. Metribuzin, pendimethalin, and rimsulfuron are the most commonly used herbicides 

in fall potato production. In 2005, metribuzin was applied to 74 percent of acres; pendimethalin 

and rimsulfuron were each applied to about 30 percent of this acreage (USDA/NASS, Agricultural 

Chemical Usage, various years). Commonly used pre-emergence herbicides include EPTC (since the 

1960s) and metolachlor (since the 1990s) (Lin et al., 1995). EPTC, applied at high rates, has dominated in pounds applied. 

The insecticides DDT and malathion were among the top pesticides used on potatoes in the 1960s 

and disulfoton after (Lin et al., 1995). In recent years, the top pesticides applied to potatoes were the 

fumigants metam sodium, dichloropropene, and metam potassium followed by the multi-site fungicides mancozeb and chlorothalonil (USDA/NASS, Agricultural Chemical Usage, various years). 

Wheat Pesticide Trends

Pesticide use on wheat increased from 6 million pounds a.i. in 1960 to a peak of 31 million pounds 

in 1980 (app. table 4.5). Since then, use has ranged from 14 million pounds in 1992 to 23 million 

pounds in 2008 (app. table 4.5). Even though wheat occupies the third largest acreage of U.S. field 

crops (after corn and soybeans), pesticide use in wheat production accounted for less than 5 percent 

of pesticides applied to the 21 crops in 2008. Generally, per-acre pesticide use is greater on spring 

and durum wheat than on winter wheat, due in large part to herbicide use; herbicides are applied to 

30-60 percent of winter wheat acres, versus 88-100 percent of durum wheat acres (USDA/NASS, 

Appendix table 4.4

Pesticide use in potatoes, 1960-2008—continued

Pounds active ingredient (a.i.) per planted acre and total pounds a.i. of pesticide applied, by type 

Millions 

of planted 

acres Herbicide Insecticide Fungicide Other Total Herbicide Insecticide Fungicide Other Total

Millions of pounds a.i. applied Pounds a.i. per planted acre

1997 14.0 3.05 3.03 9.79 33.47 49.33 2.21 2.19 7.08 24.19 35.66

1998 14.0 2.81 2.44 7.39 42.37 55.01 1.98 1.72 5.22 29.93 38.85

1999 14.0 2.80 3.23 8.08 46.13 60.24 2.03 2.35 5.87 33.52 43.77

2000 14.0 2.69 2.14 6.62 44.60 56.06 1.95 1.55 4.79 32.25 40.53

2001 12.0 2.25 2.12 6.62 38.42 49.40 1.80 1.70 5.31 30.81 39.62

2002 13.0 2.40 1.65 5.54 42.85 52.44 1.85 1.27 4.26 32.97 40.35

2003 13.0 2.14 1.95 6.99 39.45 50.53 1.68 1.53 5.49 30.97 39.67

2004 12.0 2.54 1.65 6.42 42.66 53.26 2.13 1.38 5.38 35.77 44.67

2005 11.0 1.97 1.26 5.76 30.90 39.89 1.77 1.14 5.19 27.88 35.99

2006 11.0 2.03 1.74 5.77 31.91 41.44 1.78 1.53 5.06 28.00 36.37

2007 11.0 2.28 1.45 5.43 41.49 50.66 2.00 1.27 4.76 36.33 44.36

2008 11.0 2.32 1.38 5.31 43.52 52.53 2.19 1.30 5.01 41.07 49.58

*Indicates that less than 1 million pounds were applied. ŧ indicates less than 0.01.

Source: Economic Research Service with USDA and proprietary data. See Appendix 2.
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Agricultural Chemical Usage, various years). Usually, less than 10 percent of wheat acres are 

treated with insecticides or foliar fungicides, so less than 0.1 pound of insecticides or fungicides 

were applied per planted acre from 1960 to 2008. 

1960-1981: Rapid increase in pesticide use 

During the 1960s and 1970s, herbicides replaced tillage and cultivation practices as primary weed 

controls on wheat. Herbicide use increased from 0.1 pound per planted acre in 1960 to 0.32 pound 

acre in 1980 (app. figure 4.5, app. table 4.5). 2,4-D accounted for most wheat pesticide use from 

1960 through 1971 (Lin et al., 1995). By 1971, nearly 9 million pounds of 2,4-D were applied 

(Andrilenas, 1974). Other commonly used broadleaf herbicides included MCPA and dicamba. 

Triallate was introduced in 1972. 

1982-2008: Fluctuation in pesticide use and changes in active 

ingredients used 

Herbicide use ranged between 0.2 and 0.3 pound per planted acre in most years (app. fig. 4.5 and 

app. table 4.5). 2,4-D, MCPA, and dicamba were used extensively during this period (USDA/

NASS, Agricultural Chemical Usage, various years). No-till practices in the winter wheat areas 

boosted glyphosate use (Thompson, 2011). In recent years, glyphosate—followed by 2,4-D, MPCA, 

dicamba, and bromoxynil—was the top pesticide used on wheat (USDA/NASS, Agricultural 

Chemical Usage, various years).

Appendix figure 4.5

Pounds of pesticide active ingredient (a.i.) per planted acre, wheat, 1960-2008

Pounds a.i. per acre

Sources: Economic Research Service with USDA and proprietary data. See Appendix 2.

0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

0.25

0.30

0.35

0.40

0.45

1960 64 68 72 76 80 84 88 92 96 2000 04 08

Herbicide

Insecticide

Fungicide

Total pounds 

per acre
76

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Appendix table 4.5

Pesticide use in wheat, 1960-2008—continued

Pounds active ingredient (a.i.) per planted acre and total pounds a.i. of pesticide applied, by type

Millions of 

planted acres Herbicide Insecticide Fungicide Total Herbicide Insecticide Fungicide Total

Millions of pounds a.i. applied Pounds a.i. per acre

1960 54.9 5.56 * * 6.48 0.10 ŧ ŧ 0.12

1961 55.7 5.81 * * 6.72 0.10 ŧ ŧ 0.12

1962 49.3 5.41 * * 6.31 0.11 0.02 ŧ 0.13

1963 53.4 5.78 * * 6.68 0.11 0.02 ŧ 0.13

1964 55.7 10.20 * * 11.09 0.18 0.02 ŧ 0.20

1965 57.4 8.28 * * 9.19 0.14 0.02 ŧ 0.16

1966 54.1 8.68 * * 9.61 0.16 0.02 ŧ 0.18

1967 67.3 10.10 1.04 * 11.23 0.15 0.02 0.02 0.17

1968 61.9 9.29 1.21 * 10.63 0.15 0.02 0.02 0.17

1969 53.5 7.19 1.38 * 8.74 0.13 0.03 0.03 0.16

1970 48.7 7.85 1.54 * 9.60 0.16 0.03 0.03 0.20

1971 53.8 10.11 1.71 * 12.07 0.19 0.03 0.03 0.22

1972 54.9 10.25 2.82 * 13.44 0.19 0.05 0.05 0.24

1973 59.3 11.95 3.92 * 16.36 0.20 0.07 0.07 0.28

1974 71.0 15.22 5.03 * 20.86 0.21 0.07 0.07 0.29

1975 74.9 14.55 6.13 * 21.42 0.19 0.08 0.08 0.29

1976 80.4 16.48 7.24 * 24.57 0.20 0.09 0.09 0.31

1977 75.4 15.41 6.51 * 22.80 0.20 0.09 0.09 0.30

1978 66.0 18.83 5.78 * 25.51 0.29 0.09 0.09 0.39

1979 71.4 21.01 5.04 * 26.98 0.29 0.07 0.07 0.38

1980 80.8 26.15 4.31 * 31.41 0.32 0.05 0.05 0.39

1981 88.3 23.34 3.58 * 27.90 0.26 0.04 0.04 0.32

1982 86.2 23.92 2.85 1.00 27.78 0.28 0.03 0.03 0.32

1983 76.4 17.97 2.22 * 21.09 0.24 0.03 0.03 0.28

1984 79.2 19.36 1.58 * 21.74 0.24 0.02 0.02 0.27

1985 75.5 17.50 * * 19.13 0.23 0.01 ŧ 0.25

1986 72.0 17.75 * * 18.64 0.25 0.00 ŧ 0.26

1987 65.8 16.13 * * 17.45 0.24 0.01 ŧ 0.27

1988 65.5 17.54 * * 18.47 0.27 0.01 ŧ 0.28

1989 76.6 25.80 * * 26.51 0.34 0.01 ŧ 0.35

1990 77.0 19.81 * * 20.31 0.26 0.00 ŧ 0.26

1991 69.9 15.39 * * 15.86 0.22 0.01 ŧ 0.23

1992 72.2 12.01 * 1.16 13.66 0.17 0.01 ŧ 0.19

1993 72.2 18.38 * * 19.77 0.25 0.01 ŧ 0.27

1994 70.3 21.01 1.77 * 22.80 0.30 0.03 0.03 0.32

1995 69.0 20.66 1.43 * 22.11 0.30 0.02 0.02 0.32

1996 75.1 23.67 2.89 * 27.37 0.32 0.04 0.04 0.36

1997 70.4 21.99 1.58 * 24.28 0.31 0.02 0.02 0.34
77

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Appendix table 4.5

Pesticide use in wheat, 1960-2008—continued

Pounds active ingredient (a.i.) per planted acre and total pounds a.i. of pesticide applied, by type

Millions of 

planted acres Herbicide Insecticide Fungicide Total Herbicide Insecticide Fungicide Total

Millions of pounds a.i. applied Pounds a.i. per acre

1998 65.8 20.09 * * 20.99 0.31 0.01 ŧ 0.32

1999 62.7 17.80 * * 19.19 0.28 0.01 ŧ 0.31

2000 62.5 17.24 1.14 * 18.74 0.28 0.02 0.02 0.30

2001 59.4 16.10 * * 17.03 0.27 0.01 ŧ 0.29

2002 60.3 13.66 * * 14.78 0.23 0.01 ŧ 0.25

2003 62.1 17.35 * * 18.21 0.28 0.01 ŧ 0.29

2004 59.6 18.65 * * 20.22 0.31 0.01 ŧ 0.34

2005 57.2 16.95 * * 18.06 0.30 0.01 ŧ 0.32

2006 57.3 23.76 * * 24.88 0.41 0.01 ŧ 0.43

2007 60.5 19.12 * 1.02 20.74 0.32 0.01 ŧ 0.34

2008 63.2 20.37 1.26 1.68 23.31 0.32 0.02 0.02 0.37

*Indicates that less than 1 million pounds were applied. ŧ indicates less than 0.01.

The total columns include other pesticide types, such as defoliants and desiccants.

Source: Economic Research Service with USDA and proprietary data. See Appendix 2.
78

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Appendix figure 4.6

Pesticide use by active ingredient (a.i.) on corn in 1968, percent of total pounds a.i. applied1

1

This graph shows the top pesticide a.i. used in corn in 1968. 

Sources: Economic Research Service with USDA and proprietary data. See Appendix 2.

57%

15%

13%

10%

2%

1% 2%

Atrazine (H)

Aldrin (I)

2,4-D (H)

Propachlor (H)

Heptachlor (I)

Phorate (I)

Other a.i.

Appendix figure 4.7

Pesticide use by active ingredient (a.i.) on corn in 2008, percent of total pounds a.i. applied1

1

This graph shows the top pesticide a.i. used in corn in 2008. 

Sources: Economic Research Service with USDA and proprietary data. See Appendix 2.

33%

29%

15%

12%

2%

1%

1%

1% 1%

0%

5%

Glyphosate (H)

Atrazine (H)

Acetochlor (H)

Metolachlor (H)

2,4-D (H)

Simazine (H)

Dimethenamid (H)

Mesotrione (H)

Glufosinate-Ammonium (H)

Paraquat (H)

Other a.i.
79

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Appendix figure 4.8

Pesticide use by active ingredient (a.i.) on soybeans in 1968, percent of total pounds a.i. applied1

1

This graph shows the top pesticide a.i. used in soybeans in 1968. 

Sources: Economic Research Service with USDA and proprietary data. See Appendix 2.

34%

22%

8%

3%

3%

3%

3%

2%

2%

20%

Chloramben (H)

Trifluralin (H)

Linuron (H)

Carbaryl (I)

Parathion (I)

Toxaphene (I)

Naptalam (H)

Vernolate (H)

DDT (I)

Other a.i.

Appendix figure 4.9

Pesticide use by active ingredient (a.i.) on soybeans in 2008, percent of total pounds a.i. applied1

1

This graph shows the top pesticide a.i. used in soybeans in 2008. 

Sources: Economic Research Service with USDA and proprietary data. See Appendix 2.

85%

3%

3%

2%

1% 1%

5% Glyphosate (H)

2,4-D (H)

Chlorpyrifos (I)

Pendimethalin (H)

Trifluralin (H)

Metolachlor (H)

Other a.i.
80

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Appendix figure 4.10

Pesticide use by active ingredient (a.i.) on cotton in 1968, percent of total pounds a.i. applied1

1

This graph shows the top pesticide a.i. used in soybeans in 1968. 

Sources: Economic Research Service with USDA and proprietary data. See Appendix 2.

31%

11% 20%

4%

3%

3%

2%

2%

1%

1%

22%

Toxaphene (I)

DDT (I)

Methyl Parathion (I)

MSMA (H)

Trifluralin (H)

Fluometuron (H)

Dicrotophos (I)

Monocrotophos (I)

Diuron (O)

Carbaryl (I)

Other a.i.

37%

14% 6% 6%

6%

4%

4%

3%

2%

2% 16%

Glyphosate (H)

Ethephon (O)

Trifluralin (H)

Acephate (I)

Dichloropropene (O)

Tribufos (O)

Pendimethalin (H)

Aldicarb (I)

Metolachlor (H)

Dicrotophos (I)

Other a.i.

Appendix figure 4.11

Pesticide use by active ingredient (a.i.) on cotton in 2008, percent of total pounds a.i. applied1

1

This graph shows the top pesticide a.i. used in cotton in 2008. 

Sources: Economic Research Service with USDA and proprietary data. See Appendix 2.