United States Department of Agriculture

Forest 

Service

Research Paper 

NRS-26

Northern 

Research Station August 2014

Effects of Clearcutting, Patch Cutting, 

and Low-density Shelterwoods on 

Breeding Birds and Tree Regeneration 

in New Hampshire Northern Hardwoods

Mariko Yamasaki

Christine A. Costello

William B. Leak
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Manuscript received for publication 2 April 2014

Abstract

Clearcutting is an effective regeneration practice for northern hardwoods in New England. 

However, in esthetically sensitive areas forest managers sometimes use methods 

that soften the visual impact, such as smaller clearcuts (patch cuts) or low-density 

shelterwoods. It is unclear if these methods produce the same effects as clearcuts on tree 

regeneration and breeding bird habitat. A comparison of a 15-acre clearcut, four patch 

cuts varying in size from 2.9 to 5.5 acres, and a 34-acre low-density shelterwood showed 

that the patches regenerated some early successional tree species, similar to the clearcut, 

however, the smaller 3-acre patches also produced a higher component of beech and 

less pin cherry. The shelterwood produced high proportions of beech and striped maple. 

Early successional, generalists, and mid-/later successional birds were present in all 

three treatment areas although the clearcut and patches had higher proportions and more 

observations of early successional bird species.

Cover Photo

Bartlett Experimental Forest, White Mountain National Forest, NH. Photo by Ken Dudzik, 

U.S. Forest Service.

Quality Assurance

This publication conforms to the Northern Research Station’s Quality Assurance 

Implementation Plan which requires technical and policy review for all scientific 

publications produced or funded by the Station. The process included a blind technical 

review by at least two reviewers, who were selected by the Assistant Director for 

Research and unknown to the author. This review policy promotes the Forest Service 

guiding principles of using the best scientific knowledge, striving for quality and 

excellence, maintaining high ethical and professional standards, and being responsible 

and accountable for what we do.
1

MARIKO YAMASAKI is a research 

wildlife biologist with the Northern 

Research Station of the U.S. Forest 

Service in Durham, N.H.

CHRISTINE A. COSTELLO is a 

wildlife biologist with the Northern 

Research Station of the U.S. Forest 

Service in Bartlett, NH.

WILLIAM B. LEAK is a research 

forester with the Northern Research 

Station of the U.S. Forest Service in 

Durham, N.H. 

Clearcutting is an effective harvest method in northern hardwood 

stands in New England, especially in stands that are uniformly mature 

or of poor quality. The subsequent regeneration usually contains 

a wide mix of desirable tree species including early successional 

species such as paper birch, aspen, and pin cherry1

 (Marquis 1967). 

In addition, research has shown that clearcutting provides the early 

successional habitat utilized by a variety of breeding birds and other 

vertebrates (Annand and Thompson 1997, DeGraaf et al. 2006, King 

et al. 2001, Titterington et al. 1979). This type of habitat is decreasing 

in the eastern United States due to several factors such as forest 

maturation, habitat loss from development, the disruption of natural 

disturbance regimes, and the reduction of even-age management 

(Askins 2001, DeGraaf and Yamasaki 2003). As one would expect, 

the decline in early successional habitat has led to a strong decline in 

populations of the birds associated with it (Askins 2001, DeGraaf et 

al. 2006, Hunter et al. 2001, Schlossberg and King 2007, Thompson 

and DeGraaf 2001, Witham and Hunter 1992). Schlossberg and King 

(2007) report that 78 percent of scrub-shrub habitat in New England 

is regenerating forest created by logging, but despite the benefits of 

clearcutting as a management tool, its use still draws criticism from 

the public due to its appearance and perceived detrimental effects on 

wildlife and forest health. There are two likely alternatives. First is 

the use of low-density shelterwoods (Miller et al. 2006), which allows 

abundant sunlight to reach the forest floor but softens the visual 

impact. The second is the use of patch harvests, which are simply small 

clearcuts that are perhaps less objectionable to the public. Neither 

approach has been thoroughly examined in New England with regard 

to forest regeneration and bird use.

1 Scientific names of tree species are reported in Table 1.
2

Methods

Vegetation

Between 1998 and 2000, these three harvesting 

methods—clearcutting, patch cut, and low-density 

shelterwood—were applied on the Bartlett Experimental 

Forest, a 5,500-acre tract within the White Mountain 

National Forest, New Hampshire.

The clearcut was approximately 15 acres in size with 

a small central reserve of 1⁄2 acre. The area, which had 

been previously partially harvested in the mid 1950s, 

supported mature northern hardwoods with up to 

50 percent beech. About two-thirds of the area was 

completely harvested; a residual of about 40 ft2

 of 

basal area (ranging from 20 to 80 ft2

, 20-factor prism) 

remained on the other one-third to provide a feathering 

transition into the uncut stand. Harvesting took place in 

late fall of 1999/early winter of 2000 using a whole-tree 

system with a feller-buncher and grapple-skidder; slash 

was returned to the site along skid trails—a so-called 

conventional harvest (Fig. 1).

The four patch harvests were small clearcuts (Fig. 2): 

the two smaller patches were 2.9 and 3.4 acres in size. 

The larger patches were 5.1 and 5.5 acres. Whole-tree 

removals were done on one small (2.9 acres) and one 

large patch (5.5 acres); conventional harvests similar 

to the clearcut occurred on the other two patches. 

Harvesting occurred in the late fall of 1998. The stands 

where patch cuts were located contained sawtimbersized trees up to about 100 years old as well as a few old 

aspen trees which produced a component of aspen root 

suckers in the regeneration.

The nearby shelterwood harvest totaled 34 acres (Fig. 

3). About 20 acres was pure northern hardwoods with 

little hemlock influence; this section was used for 

the regeneration surveys. Harvesting occurred in the 

winter of 2000, and stand conditions were similar to 

the clearcut. The residual basal area was about 40 ft2

, 

ranging from about 20 to 80 ft2

. Following the harvest, 

beech saplings up to 4 inches in diameter were removed 

by chain saw to minimize effects on the subsequent 

regeneration. No additional after-harvest timber stand 

improvement was applied.

The size of both clearcut and shelterwood harvest 

areas are representative of current practices on the 

surrounding White Mountain National Forest, where 

maximum size of temporary openings created by evenage management is limited to 30 acres, but on average 

is less than 20 acres. Clearcut harvests on nonindustrial 

private forest land in New Hampshire are often smaller.

In the late summers of 2007 (clearcut and shelterwood) 

and 2008 (patches), regeneration surveys (Leak 2007) 

were conducted. On milacre plots spaced about 1 

by 1.5 chains apart, the dominant (tallest) stem was 

recorded by species and height. If the tallest stem was 

noncommercial, the tallest commercial species also was 

recorded. Basal area per acre of the residual shelterwood 

overstory and portions of the clearcut with remaining 

overstory also were measured with a 20-factor prism.

Breeding Bird Surveys

Breeding bird surveys were conducted yearly in the three 

treatment areas during the month of June from 1998 

through 2009 using 50-m radius point counts (Ralph et 

al. 1995). We used the point count method since it has 

proven to be effective and efficient as well as comparable 

to other northeastern studies (Chandler 2007, DeGraaf 

et al. 1998, Hagan et al. 1997). One year of preharvest 

data was collected in all three treatment areas in 1998. 

Only three of the four patch cuts were used for the 

breeding bird portion of the study. The 3.4-acre patch 

cut was excluded because of its long, narrow shape that 

resulted in a 50-m radius survey area that extended well 

into the surrounding forest. The survey areas in the 

remaining three patch cuts only included the cut areas.

Three point-count stations were established along a 

line placed centrally through the 34-acre low density 

shelterwood and were located approximately 200 m 

apart. To avoid stand edge and to limit the survey area 

to the openings themselves, only one point-count station 

was established in the approximate center of the 15-acre 

clearcut and in all three of the patch cuts. All birds seen 

or heard within 50 m of survey points were recorded 

during a 10-minute period. The 50-m survey area did 

not extend into the residual area or the feathered edge 

of the clearcut. Although the number of points differed 
3

Figure 1.—Clearcut seven growing 

seasons post-harvest, Bartlett 

Experimental Forest. Photo by Christine 

Costello, U.S. Forest Service.

Figure 2.—Two bull moose foraging in a 

conventionally harvested patch cut five 

growing seasons post-harvest, Bartlett 

Experimental Forest. Photo by Mariko 

Yamasaki, U.S. Forest Service.

Figure 3.—Deferred shelterwood one 

growing season post-harvest, Bartlett 

Experimental Forest. Photo by Mariko 

Yamasaki, U.S. Forest Service.
4

between the three treatments because of differences in 

size and the desire to avoid edge bias, we are confident 

that the data analysis and chi-square tests provide valid 

comparisons without resorting to discarding valuable 

data.

Six experienced observers participated in the study, 

however one observer was responsible for 79 percent of 

surveys conducted. Additionally, when a new observer 

was added to the study, surveys were conducted by pairs 

of observers—the lead observer and the new observer—

until observer variability was determined to be minimal. 

Each stand was surveyed three or four times a season 

between 0500 and 0930 hrs and the order in which 

stations were resurveyed was reversed to compensate 

for time-of-day bias associated with singing behavior. 

Surveys were not conducted in rainy or windy weather.

Due to circumstances outside of our control, harvests 

took place over the course of 3 consecutive years (1998-

2000), therefore, the number of years of post-harvest 

data differed between treatments. We collected 11 

years of post-harvest data from the patch cuts, 10 years 

from the clearcut and 9 years from the shelterwood. To 

account for this difference we included only 9 years of 

post-harvest data for each treatment.

We grouped bird species into three categories based 

on habitat: early successional, generalist, and mid-/

later successional. These designations were based on 

a combination of our New England experience and 

the literature (DeGraaf and Yamasaki 2001, Dettmers 

2003, Schlossberg and King 2007). The magnolia 

warbler2

 was eliminated from analysis due to its strong 

tie to advance softwood regeneration, which was only 

present brook-side within the shelterwood cut. We 

used chi-square procedures to test for independence 

in species richness and numbers of observations for 

each of the habitat categories. Bird species occurring 

infrequently (<2 observations per plot over the 9 

years) were dropped from post-harvest analysis. Since 

only 1 year of preharvest data was reported, all bird 

observations were included in this part of the analysis. 

Counts of both species and numbers of observations 

were analyzed using chi-square procedures, appropriately 

adjusted to account for differences in numbers of survey 

points.

Results

Tree Regeneration

Clearcutting (without a residual overstory) resulted 

in typical early successional regeneration with a 

predominance of paper birch and pin cherry coupled 

with a mix of other species (Tables 1 and 2). Aspen 

regeneration was absent because of the lack of aspen in 

the harvested late-successional stand. The patches also 

regenerated to early successional species, especially the 

larger (~5-acre) patches, although species proportions 

are quite variable. However, the larger patches produced 

noticeably higher proportions of yellow birch than the 

clearcut; the smaller two patches produced more beech 

and less pin cherry. The shelterwood harvest resulted in 

a later-successional species mix with high proportions 

of beech and striped maple and smaller proportions 

of other species; quite possibly, a snow-free harvest 

would have resulted in higher proportions of yellow 

birch. The clearcut with a residual overstory resulted in 

regeneration very similar to the shelterwood. This result 

supports the theory that even a light overstory, averaging 

about 40 ft2

 of basal area, will encourage more shadetolerant regeneration. Possibly significant, the wholetree harvests in the patches produced far more aspen 

regeneration, perhaps due to the removal of the slash 

and the higher intensity of ground-level sunlight.

Breeding Bird Surveys

During 1998 preharvest surveys, we recorded 19 species 

and 77 observations within the three pretreatment areas 

(Table 3). All observations fell within the generalist or 

mid-/later successional habitat category with generalists 

accounting for the bulk of the observations in all three 

areas. No early successional bird species were observed. 

The brown creeperwas the only bird recorded in 

preharvest surveys and not recorded in post-harvest 

surveys although its presence was extremely rare with 

only one observation in the preharvest shelterwood 

stand.

2 Scientific names of bird species are reported in the appendix.
5

Table 1.—Percentage of milacres with a dominant stem of any species on clearcut, shelterwood, and patch cuts, 

Bartlett Experimental Forest, NH. (NR = no residual basal area; WR = with residual basal area; WTH = whole-tree 

harvest; CH = conventional harvest)

Clearcut Shelterwood Patch cuts

Species NR WR WR

5.5 acres

WTH

5.1 acres

CH

2.9 acres

WTH

3.4 acres

CH

Beech

Fagus grandifolia

 4 48 42 -- 3 15 41

Yellow birch

Betula alleghaniensis

 9 7 17 13 45 5 24

Sugar maple

Acer saccharum

 3 2 4 -- -- -- --

Red maple

A. rubrum

 1 -- 4 3 -- 5 --

Paper birch

B. papyrifera

23 5 2 3 24 25 23

White ash

Fraxinus americana

 7 2 2 -- -- -- --

Red spruce

Picea rubens

-- -- 1 -- -- -- --

Eastern hemlock

Tsuga canadensis

 -- -- -- -- -- -- 6

Striped maple

A. pensylvanicum

 4 31 20 -- -- -- 6

Pin cherry

Prunus pensylvanica

46 2 5 51 24 10 --

Aspen

Populus spp.

 -- -- -- 30 -- 40 --

Other 3 3 3 -- 4 -- --

Number of plots 63 42 130 27 29 20 17

Table 2.—Percentage of milacres with a tallest commercial species on clearcut, shelterwood, and patch cuts, 

Bartlett Experimental Forest, NH. (NR = no residual basal area; WR = with residual basal area; WTH = whole-tree 

harvest; CH = conventional harvest)

Clearcut Clearcut Shelterwood Patch cuts

Species NR WR WR

5.5 acres

WTH

5.1 acres

CH

2.9 acres

WTH

3.4 acres

CH

Beech 14 68 54 -- 3 20 41

Yellow birch 17 12 22 47 52 10 24

Sugar maple 7 2 5 -- 3 -- --

Red maple 7 5 10 3 3 5 --

Paper birch 37 8 2 20 35 25 23

White ash 12 5 5 -- -- -- --

Red spruce -- -- 1 -- -- -- --

Eastern hemlock -- -- -- -- -- -- 6

Aspen -- -- -- 30 4 40 6

Other 6 -- 1 -- -- -- --

Number of plots 63 42 130 27 29 20 17
6

Thirty-five bird species and 1195 observations were 

included in the post-harvest analysis (Table 4). We 

recorded 19 species (210 observations) in the clearcut 

stand, an average of 14.7 species (144.7 observations) 

per patch cut, and an average of 24.7 species (183.7 

observations) per survey point in the shelterwood stand 

during the 9-year study period. Numbers of observations 

were highly significantly greater in the clearcut and 

shelterwood than in the patch cuts, as were the numbers 

of species appreciably greater but not significantly so. 

It appears that the shelterwood and clearcut have some 

advantage in total species richness over the patch cuts 

(Table 5).

Gray catbird was observed exclusively in the clearcut; 

least flycatcher was observed exclusively in the patch 

cuts; and 11 species were observed exclusively within 

the low-density shelterwood cut (i.e., winter wren, 

blackburnian warbler, Canada warbler, black-throated 

green warbler, yellow-bellied sapsucker, blue-headed 

vireo, yellow-rumped warbler, hairy woodpecker, whitebreasted nuthatch, northern flicker, and scarlet tanager). 

Table 3.—Breeding bird species detected during preharvest surveys in a clearcut (15 acres), three patch cuts (3-5 acres) and a 

low-density shelterwood cut (34 acres) by habitat group on the Bartlett Experimental Forest, NH. (Total = number of observations; 

Ave. = average number; and RA = relative abundance)

Clearcut Patch Cuts Shelterwood All stands

Habitat Group Total RA Total Ave. RA Total Ave. RA Total RA

Generalist (GEN)

American redstart 1 0.1 2 0.7 0.1 2 0.7 0.1 5 0.1

Black-capped chickadee -- -- 2 0.7 0.1 -- -- -- 2 <0.1

Blue jay -- -- -- -- -- 1 0.3 <0.1 1 <0.1

Least flycatcher 1 0.1 11 3.7 0.3 -- -- -- 12 0.2

Red-eyed vireo 4 0.3 7 2.3 0.2 9 3 0.3 20 0.3

Swainson’s thrush -- -- -- -- -- 3 1 0.1 3 <0.1

White-breasted nuthatch 1 0.1 1 0.3 <0.1 -- -- -- 2 <0.1

Winter wren -- -- 1 0.3 <0.1 3 1 0.1 4 0.1

Yellow-bellied sapsucker -- -- -- -- -- 1 0.3 <0.1 1 <0.1

Yellow-rumped warbler -- -- -- -- -- 1 0.3 <0.1 1 <0.1

Total No. GEN Observations 7 0.5 24 8 0.8 20 6.7 0.6 51 0.7

Total No. GEN Species 4 6 3 7 3.7 10

Mid-/Later Successional (M/LS)

Blue-headed vireo -- -- 1 0.3 <0.1 -- -- -- 1 <0.1

Blackburnian warbler -- -- -- -- -- 1 0.3 <0.1 1 <0.1

Brown creeper -- -- -- -- -- 1 0.3 <0.1 1 <0.1

Black-throated blue warbler 2 0.2 1 0.3 <0.1 4 1.3 0.1 7 0.1

Black-throated green warbler 1 0.1 -- -- -- 1 0.3 <0.1 2 <0.1

Hermit thrush -- -- 1 0.3 <0.1 1 0.3 <0.1 2 <0.1

Ovenbird 3 0.2 2 0.7 0.1 3 1 0.1 8 0.1

Scarlet tanager -- -- 2 0.7 0.1 1 0.3 <0.1 3 <0.1

Veery -- -- 1 0.3 <0.1 -- -- -- 1 <0.1

Total No. M/LS Observations 6 0.5 8 2.7 0.3 12 4 0.4 26 0.3

Total No. M/LS Species 3 6 2.3 7 2.7 9

Grand Total Observations 13 32 10.7 32 10.7 77

Grand Total Species 7 12 5.3 14 6.3 19
7

Table 4.—Breeding bird species with more than two observations in a clearcut (15 acres), three patch cuts (3-5 acres), and a low-density 

shelterwood cut (34 acres) by habitat group and first appearance 1-9 years post-harvest, Bartlett Experimental Forest, New Hampshire. 

(CC = clearcut, Ave. = average number in patch cuts and shelterwood, and SW = shelterwood; ES = early successional, GEN = generalist, 

and M/LS = mid-/later successional)

First appearance by 

growing season Clearcut Patch cuts Shelterwood

Habitat Group CC

Patch 

cuts SW Total RA Total Ave. RA Total Ave. RA

Early Successional (ES)

Alder flycatcher 5 4 n/a 8 3.8 17 5.7 3.9 -- -- --

American goldfinch n/a 3 2 -- -- 5 1.7 1.2 3 1 0.5

Black-and-white warbler 3 4 2 9 4.3 -- -- -- 24 8 4.4

Cedar waxwing 5 3 2 5 2.4 26 8.7 6.0 15 5 2.7

Common yellowthroat 3 3 3 14 6.7 53 17.7 12.2 19 6.3 3.4

Chestnut-sided warbler 2 3 3 58 28 139 46.3 32 101 33.7 18.3

Dark-eyed junco 1 n/a 1 14 6.7 -- -- -- 14 4.7 2.5

Grey catbird 5 n/a n/a 8 3.8 -- -- -- -- -- --

Indigo bunting 3 2 n/a 14 6.7 35 11.7 8.1 -- -- --

Mourning warbler 1 3 4 15 7.1 9 3 2.1 17 5.7 3.1

Ruby-throated hummingbird 3 4 n/a 5 2.4 15 5 3.5 -- -- --

White-throated sparrow 5 4 1 3 1.4 3 1 0.7 11 3.7 2.0

Total no. ES observations 153 72.8 302 100.7 69.6 204 68 37.0

Total no. of ES species 11 9 7.7 8 7.3

Generalists (GEN)

American redstart 3 2 4 24 11 39 13 8.9 32 10.7 5.8

Black-capped chickadee 7 4 1 2 1 11 3.7 2.5 9 3 1.6

Blue jay n/a n/a 2 -- -- -- -- -- 6 2 1.1

Canada warbler n/a n/a 6 -- -- -- -- -- 20 6.7 3.6

Least flycatcher n/a 3 n/a -- -- 4 1.3 0.9 -- -- --

Northern flicker n/a n/a 1 -- -- -- --- -- 5 1.7 0.9

Rose-breasted grosbeak 4 n/a 3 4 1.9 -- -- -- 2 0.7 0.4

Red-eyed vireo 7 3 1 3 1.4 17 5.7 3.9 37 12.3 6.7

Swainson’s thrush 7 5 1 4 1.9 25 8.3 5.8 19 6.3 3.4

White breasted nuthatch n/a n/a 1 -- -- -- -- -- 7 2.3 1.3

Winter wren n/a n/a 1 -- -- -- -- -- 22 7.3 4.0

Yellow-bellied sapsucker n/a n/a 2 -- -- -- -- -- 12 4 2.2

Yellow-rumped warbler n/a n/a 1 -- -- -- -- -- 6 2 1.1

Total no. GEN observations 37 17.6 96 32 22.1 177 59 32.1

Total no. GEN species 5 5 4.3 12 9.7

Mid-/Later Successional (M/LS)

Blue-headed vireo n/a n/a 1 -- -- -- -- -- 8 2.7 1.5

Blackburnian warbler -- n/a 1 -- -- -- -- -- 20 6.7 3.6

Black-throated blue warbler 5 3 1 4 1.9 11 3.7 2.5 78 26 14.2

Black-throated green warbler n/a n/a 1 -- -- -- -- -- 15 5 2.7

Eastern wood-pewee n/a 3 1 -- -- 2 0.7 0.5 2 0.7 0.4

Hairy woodpecker n/a 3 3 -- -- -- -- -- 7 2.3 1.3

Hermit thrush n/a 2 1 -- -- 5 1.7 1.2 2 0.7 0.4

Ovenbird 2 n/a 1 2 1 -- -- -- 16 5.3 2.9

Scarlet tanager n/a n/a 6 -- -- -- -- -- 2 0.7 0.4

Veery 4 5 6 14 6.7 18 6 4.2 20 6.7 3.6

Total no. M/LS observations 20 9.5 36 12 8.3 170 56.7 30.9

Total no. M/LS species 3 4 2.7 10 7.7

Total no. observations 210 434 144.7 551 183.7

Total no. species 19 18 14.7 30 24.7
8

The clearcut, patch cuts, and shelterwood averaged 

11, 7.7, and 7.3 early successional species, respectively 

(nonsignificant), and 153, 100.7, and 68 observations 

(highly significant). In terms of abundance, the 

clearcut and patch cuts are clearly most effective in 

attracting early successional breeding birds, although 

differences in species richness are not distinct. Early 

successional species accounted for about 70 percent of 

the observations in the clearcut and patches, but only 37 

percent of the observations in the shelterwood.

For the generalist habitat group, the clearcut, patch 

cuts and shelterwood averaged 5, 4.3 and 9.7 species, 

respectively (nonsignificant) and 37, 32 and 59 

observations, respectively (highly significant). Although 

differences in species richness were nonsignificant, 

the trends in species richness and abundance strongly 

indicate that the shelterwood is more favorable to the 

generalist group of species than the clearcut or patch 

cuts.

For the mid-/later successional habitat group, the 

clearcut, patch cuts, and shelterwood averaged 3, 2.7 

and 7.7 species respectively (nearly significant, see 

Table 5) and 20, 12, and 56.7 observations (highly 

significant). As expected the shelterwood is clearly more 

favorable to mid-/later successional species than the 

other harvest methods.

Although observations were low, early successional 

birds began to occupy the clearcut in the first growing 

season and were the majority component of species 

and observations for all 9 years post-harvest (Fig. 4A 

and 4B). Peak abundance for early successional birds 

occurred 3 years post-harvest; peak richness occurred 

5 years post-harvest. Patch cuts were also dominated 

by early successional birds for all 9 years post-harvest, 

although birds did not begin to occupy the patches until

2 years post-harvest. Peak richness of early successional 

birds in patches occurred at 5 and 6 years post-harvest; 

peak abundance occurred at 4 years post-harvest (Fig. 

4C and 4D).

The shelterwood cut was occupied by birds from all 

three habitat categories beginning 1 year post-harvest, 

including low numbers of early successional birds 

(Fig. 4E and 4F). Richness and abundance of early 

successional birds and all habitat categories combined, 

occurred 6 years post-harvest in the shelterwood 

treatment.

Table. 5.—Number of breeding bird species and observations in the clearcut, shelterwood, and patch cuts during pre- and 

post- harvest surveys, Bartlett Experimental Forest, NH. Shelterwood numbers are the average of three plots. Species with 

less than two observations per plot over the 9 years of post-harvest surveys were eliminated from analysis. Preharvest 

numbers are from data collected in 1998 only and all observations were included. (CC = clearcut; Ave. patch = average 

patch; and SW = shelterwood; ES = early successional; GEN = generalist; and M/LS = mid-/later successional)

Timing

Species

group CC

Ave. 

patch SW

Chi square results

D.F. =2; χ2 

(0.05) =5.99 CC

Ave. 

patch SW

Chi square results

D.F. =2; χ2 

(0.001) =13.86

Number of species χ2 Signif. Number of observations χ2 Signif.

Pre-cut ES -- -- -- n/a n/a -- -- --

GEN 4 3 3.7 n/a n/a 7 8 6.7

M/LS 3 2.3 2.7 n/a n/a 6 2.7 4

Total 7 5.3 6.7 n/a n/a 13 10.7 10.7

Post-cut ES 11 7.7 7.3 0.5 no 153 100.7 68 59.65 yes

GEN 5 4.3 9.7 4.45 no 37 32 59 26.15 yes

M/LS 3 2.7 7.7 5.05 no 20 12 56.7 68.32 yes

Total 19 14.7 24.7 3.97 no 210 144.7 183.7 23.7 yes
9

Figure 4.—Species richness and number of observations per survey period by habitat group (ES = early successional; GEN = 

generalist; and M/LS = mid-/later successional); and stand age for a 15-acre clearcut (A and B); three patch cuts (C and D); 

and 34-acre low-density shelterwood (E and F) on the Bartlett Experimental Forest, NH

A B

C D

E F
10

Discussion and Management

Implications

Clearcutting, patch harvests, and low-density 

shelterwoods are viable harvest systems in northern 

hardwoods of New England; however they produce 

different results in terms of tree regeneration and bird 

habitat. Winter-harvested shelterwoods with as little 

as 40 ft2

 residual basal area will favor tolerant and 

intermediately tolerant species such as beech, striped 

maple, and yellow birch. Clearcutting, on the other 

hand, results in true early-successional vegetation such as 

pin cherry, paper birch, and Rubus spp. together with a 

component of yellow birch, white ash, and other species. 

Aspen would also regenerate well if present on the site 

prior to harvest. Larger patch cuts, 5 acres or more, also 

produce true early-successional regeneration.

Our research also shows that regenerating clearcuts, 

patch cuts, and shelterwoods create ephemeral, early 

successional or brushy bird habitat not present in 

preharvest stands. However, treatment areas that 

have been cleanly cut of all stems (clearcut and patch 

cuts) create conditions where the greater proportion 

of the breeding bird community is composed of early 

successional birds than do stands that maintain some 

residual basal area as was seen in our low-density 

shelterwood. Additionally, three early successional 

birds (i.e., indigo bunting, alder flycatcher, and rubythroated hummingbird) were absent from our lowdensity shelterwood, but present in both the clearcut 

and patch cuts. Ruby-throated hummingbird appeared 

to be attracted to the abundant Rubus spp. flowers 

within these areas (C. Costello, personal observation). 

Indigo buntings and alder flycatchers were found to 

prefer clearcuts over shelterwood cuts in another study 

conducted in the White Mountain region (King and 

DeGraaf 2000). This same study also determined that 

56 percent canopy closure was enough to exclude some 

species of shrubland birds from shelterwoods.

Although the residual basal area in shelterwood cuts 

can limit the amount of early successional habitat in 

these areas, it does increase the vegetative structure 

(e.g., raptor and flycatcher hunting sites, cavity 

trees, mast trees, and softwood inclusions) of the 

regenerating stand (DeGraaf et al. 2006) thereby 

allowing for the maintenance of some generalist and 

mid-/later successional bird species in the immediate 

years following harvesting, a time period when species 

richness is very low in clearcuts and patch cuts. With 

the exception of the Canada warbler and winter wren, 

all birds exclusive to the low-density shelterwood cut 

were mid- to upper-canopy foragers or bark foragers 

and their presence can be explained by the residual basal 

area in this stand. The Canada warbler appears on some 

early successional bird lists (Schlossberg and King 2007), 

however, we did not include it in our early successional 

habitat category because our experience has shown that 

although it is associated with very dense understories, 

there is also a strong tie to moist woodlands with some 

degree of canopy closure (DeGraaf and Yamasaki 2001). 

Another study in New Hampshire concluded that the 

Canada warbler does well in two-age or deferment 

harvests that leave mature trees throughout intensive 

cuts (Hallworth et al. 2008). Shelterwood stands may 

provide highly productive habitat for this bird. Winter 

wrens are often found near water and their presence in 

the shelterwood is most likely explained by the brook 

that ran through the cut.

This study also illustrates the ephemeral nature of early 

successional habitat whether created by clearcuts, patch 

cuts, or shelterwood cuts. Richness and abundance of 

birds in this habitat category peaked between 3 and 6 

years post-harvest and, although still present 9 years 

post-harvest, data from this study and others show 

decreasing observations of early successional birds with 

age of cut (DeGraaf 1987, McDermott and Wood 

2009). These observations demonstrate the need to keep 

the time period between regeneration cuts short enough 

to maintain the presence of early successional bird 

species regardless of the system used.

Our experience has shown that resource managers 

sometimes resort to shelterwood harvests simply because 

the residual basal area makes it more aesthetically 

pleasing and not for timber or wildlife reasons. 

However, care is needed to avoid compromising 

intolerant regeneration objectives (e.g., tree species, 

fruit/berry production, and stem density) when choosing 
11

this system. Patch cuts may be chosen for similar 

reasons, however size of opening could play a role in 

occupancy of forest openings by early successional 

birds. This topic has received a considerable amount 

of attention in the last two decades although research 

results are somewhat conflicting. For example, Rudnicky 

and Hunter (1993) examined clearcuts in Maine that 

ranged from 2 to 112 ha (5 to 277 acres) and found 

that frequency of occurrence for many species increased 

with clearcut size up to 20 ha (49 acres). In contrast, 

Askins et al. (2007) did not find a relationship between 

abundance of shrubland specialists and size of harvest 

openings ranging from 0.5 to 21 ha (1.2 to 52 acres) in 

Connecticut. Similarly, Lehnen and Rodewald (2009) 

found weak support for area sensitivity in shrubland 

birds in 4 to 16 ha (9.8 to 39.5 acres) clearcuts in Ohio.

Studies conducted in much smaller forest openings 

created by single tree and group selection up to 2 acres 

generally agree that these areas are not sufficient to satisfy 

the requirements of the diverse array of early successional 

shrubland birds (Annand and Thompson 1997, Costello 

et al. 2000, Moorman and Guynn 2001, Robinson and 

Robinson 1999). In the northeast, some shrubland birds 

have territory sizes of up to 3 acres, so openings need 

to be at least this large if the objective is to provide for 

the range of species within this habitat group (Chandler 

et. al. 2009). With the exception of the gray catbird 

and dark eyed junco, species composition and species 

richness of early successional birds was similar in our 

15-acre clearcut and 3- to 5-acre patch cuts, however, 

abundance was significantly higher in the clearcut.

Recent research has concluded that the value of young 

regenerating forests goes well beyond providing nesting 

habitat for early successional birds and that these 

areas are also used disproportionately during the postbreeding and migration period by birds that nest in 

mature forests (Chandler 2007, Chandler et al. 2012, 

King et al. 2011, Rodewald and Brittingham 2004, 

Stoleson 2013) including boreal species (Stoleson 

2010). Common explanations given for high bird use 

in young regenerating stands during these two critical 

time periods are increased areas of cover and/or high 

insect and fruit abundance associated with these areas 

(Anders et al. 1998, King et al. 2006, McDermott and 

Wood 2010, Rodewald and Brittingham 2004, Vitz 

and Rodewald 2007). Additionally, Stoleson (2010) 

found that capture rates increased almost linearly with 

increasing clearcut size, suggesting that larger cuts may 

provide a greater benefit.

Although research on post-breeding use of shelterwood 

stands is limited, one study determined that high 

amounts of residual canopy depressed use of harvested 

stands by early successional species during this time 

period (McDermott and Wood 2011). Additionally, 

if fruit abundance is one of the driving factors 

contributing to high post-breeding bird use in patch 

cuts and clearcuts, shelterwoods may not provide the 

same benefit. Our regeneration studies found much less 

pin cherry in our low-density shelterwood than in our 

larger patches and clearcut. Personal observations also 

noted much less Rubus spp. regenerating in the lowdensity shelterwood.

These recent studies that indicate a shift in habitat use 

among some late successional bird species from mature 

forests to regenerating stands during the post-breeding 

and migration periods illustrate the need to expand our 

understanding of the significance of early successional 

habitat to this group of birds during these critical time 

periods. Further studies are necessary to the determine 

the relationship between such factors as size of opening 

and degree of residual basal area, and their influence 

on the quality of early successional habitat for both 

early successional species and mature forest species so 

effective management practices can be implemented. 

Given the diverse range of habitats used by forest birds, 

we continue to recommend a variety of silvicultural 

techniques to maintain avian species diversity across 

forested landscapes in New England (DeGraaf et al. 

2006).

It is important to recognize certain limitations of this 

research. First, this is a case study and caution is advised 

when interpreting the data due the lack of replication. 

However, the inclusion of preharvest data and relatively 

long-term post-harvest data is rare and valuable 

because of high annual variation in bird populations. 
12

Second, this study measured bird species richness 

and abundance, not productivity. Measurements of 

productivity are preferable to presence of singing males 

because reproduction and habitat quality can only be 

inferred from the former (Van Horne 1983, Vickery 

et al. 1992). Finally, this study was conducted during 

one phase of the breeding season and current research 

is demonstrating the need to consider all phases due to 

shifts in habitat use post-breeding.

Acknowledgments

We thank Mike Medeiros, Ben Brightrall, Kara 

Lathrup, Julia Rowe, and Carly Chandler for their 

help conducting breeding bird surveys, as well as Saco 

District Ranger Terry Miller and timber management 

staff led by Rick Alimi for marking and administering 

the timber sale that created the habitats to study. We 

also thank the wildlife biologists of the White Mountain 

National Forest, Kathy Starke, Lesley Rowse, Clara 

Weloth, and Leighlan Prout for their continued input 

on important habitat management aspects that need 

further research.

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15

Appendix

Breeding bird species by habitat group (early successional, generalist, and mid-/later successional) 

observed on the study areas on the Bartlett Experimental Forest, NH, including all species tallied 

during the study (DeGraaf and Yamasaki 2001, Dettmers 2003, Schlossberg and King 2007)

Species Scientific name

Early 

successional Generalist

Mid-/later 

successional

Ruby-throated hummingbird Archilochus colubris X

Yellow-bellied sapsucker Sphyrapicus varius X

Hairy woodpecker Picoides villosus X

Northern flicker Colaptes auratus X

Eastern wood-pewee Contopus virens X

Alder flycatcher Empidonax alnorum X

Least flycatcher Empidonax minimus X

Blue-headed vireo Vireo solitarius X

Red-eyed vireo Vireo olivaceus X

Blue jay Cyanocitta cristata X

Black-capped chickadee Poecile atricapillus X

White-breasted nuthatch Sitta carolinensis X

Brown creeper Certhia americana X

Winter wren Troglodytes hiemalis X

Veery Catharus fuscescens X

Swainson’s thrush Catharus ustulatus X

Hermit thrush Catharus guttatus X

Gray catbird Dumetella carolinensis X

Cedar waxwing Bombycilla cedrorum X

Ovenbird Seiurus aurocapilla X

Black-and-white warbler Mniotilta varia X

Mourning warbler Geothlypis philadelphia X

Common yellowthroat Geothlypis trichas X

American redstart Setophaga ruticilla X

Magnolia warbler Setophaga magnolia X

Blackburnian warbler Setophaga fusca X

Chestnut-sided warbler Setophaga pensylvanica X

Black-throated blue warbler Setophaga caerulescens X

Yellow-rumped warbler Setophaga coronata X

Black-throated green warbler Setophaga virens X

Canada warbler Cardellina canadensis X

White-throated sparrow Zonotrichia albicollis X

Dark-eyed junco Junco hyemalis X

Scarlet tanager Piranga olivacea X

Rose-breasted grosbeak Pheucticus ludovicianus X

Indigo bunting Passerina cyanea X

American goldfinch Spinus tristis X

Total species 12 14 11

Printed on Recycled Paper

Yamasaki, Mariko; Costello, Christine A.; Leak, William B. 2014. Effects of 

clearcutting, patch cutting, and low-density shelterwoods on breeding birds 

and tree regeneration in New Hampshire northern hardwoods. Res. Pap. NRS26. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern 

Research Station. 15 p.

Clearcutting is an effective regeneration practice for northern hardwoods in New 

England. However, in esthetically sensitive areas forest managers sometimes use 

methods that soften the visual impact, such as smaller clearcuts (patch cuts) or lowdensity shelterwoods. It is unclear if these methods produce the same effects as 

clearcuts on tree regeneration and breeding bird habitat. A comparison of a 15-acre 

clearcut, four patch cuts varying in size from 2.9 to 5.5 acres, and a 34-acre low-density 

shelterwood showed that the patches regenerated some early successional tree species, 

similar to the clearcut, however, the smaller 3-acre patches also produced a higher 

component of beech and less pin cherry. The shelterwood produced high proportions of 

beech and striped maple. Early successional, generalists, and mid-/later successional 

birds were present in all three treatment areas although the clearcut and patches had 

higher proportions and more observations of early successional bird species.

KEY WORDS: northern hardwoods, songbirds, early successional, clearcut, 

shelterwood, patch cuts

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