Biological Report 85(1.5) Contaminant Hazard Reviews

October 1985 Report No. 5 

SELENIUM HAZARDS TO FISH, WILDLIFE, AND INVERTEBRATES: 

A SYNOPTIC REVIEW 

By 

Ronald Eisler 

Patuxent Wildlife Research Center 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

Laurel, MD 20708 
SUMMARY 

Ecological and toxicological aspects of selenium (Se) in the environment are reviewed, including its 

chemistry, background residues in biological and other materials, and toxic, sublethal, and latent effects 

(including the effects of Se deficiency). Recommendations are presented, including proposed Se criteria for 

protection of sensitive species of fish and wildlife. 

Most authorities agree on five points. First, Se deficiency is not as well documented as Se poisoning, but 

may be equally significant. Second, Se released as a result of anthropogenic activities (including fossil fuel 

combustion and metal smelting), as well as that in naturally seleniferous areas, poses the greatest threat of 

poisoning to fish and wildlife. Third, additional research is required on chemical and biological transformations 

among valence states, allotropic forms, and isomers of Se. Fourth, Se metabolism and degradation are both 

significantly modified by interaction with various heavy metals, agricultural chemicals, microorganisms, and

numerous physicochemical factors, and until these interactions are resolved it will be difficult to meaningfully

interpret Se residues in various tissues. And fifth, documented biological responses to Se deficiency or to 

selenosis vary widely, even among closely related taxonomic groups. 

It is generally agreed that Se deficiency may be prevented in fish, small laboratory mammals, and livestock 

by feeding diets containing 50 to 100 ppb of Se. The concentration range of total inorganic selenite currently 

recommended for aquatic life protection--35 ppb in freshwater to 54 ppb in marine waters--is below the range of 

60 to 600 ppb that is fatal to sensitive aquatic species. In freshwater, it is also below the range of 47 to 53 ppb 

associated with growth inhibition of freshwater algae, anemia and reduced hatching in trout, and shifts in 

species composition of freshwater algae communities. Accordingly, current recommendations for Se with 

respect to aquatic life appear to afford an adequate measure of protection. However, some studies have shown 

that Se water concentrations of 9 to 12 ppb are associated with inhibited reproduction of certain freshwater

teleosts, suggesting that the current Se criterion for protection of freshwater life should be revised downward. 

Also, high bioconcentration and accumulation of Se from water by numerous species of algae, fish, and 

invertebrates is well documented at levels of 0.015 to 3.3 ppb, which are substantially below the recommended 

range of 35 to 54 ppb. The significance of Se residues in aquatic biota is still unclear, and more research 

appears to be needed on Se pharmacokinetics in aquatic environments. 

Aerosol concentrations exceeding 4.0 ug Se/m3 are considered potentially harmful to human health; 

however, no comparable data base for birds and other wildlife species is available at this time. 

Selenium in natural foods is less toxic than are purified forms of Se. The consensus is that Se toxicity is

prevented in livestock if dietary Se concentrations do not exceed 5,000 ppb in natural forage, or 2,000 ppb in

feeds supplemented with purified Se. Minimum toxic concentrations of Se in the rat (a sensitive species), fed 

diets containing natural Se were 1,400 ppb of Se as judged by evidence of liver changes, and 3,000 ppb as

estimated from longevity and histopathology; these values were only 350 and 750 ppb, respectively, when diets 

low in natural Se were fortified with purified Se. The evidence is incomplete for migratory waterfowl and other

birds, but diets containing more than 5,000 ppb of Se are demonstrably harmful. 

This report should be cited as: 

Eisler R. 1985. Selenium hazards to fish, wildlife and invertebrates: a synoptic review. U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service Biological Report 85 (1.5). 

2
SUMMARY 

INTRODUCTION 

ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY 

BACKGROUND CONCENTRATIONS 

DEFICIENCY AND PROTECTIVE EFFECTS 

TOXICITY 

MAMMALS AND BIRDS 

 AQUATIC ORGANISMS

SUBLETHAL AND LATENT EFFECTS

 AQUATIC ORGANISMS

 TERRESTRIAL INVERTEBRATES 

 BIRDS 

 MAMMALS 

CURRENT RECOMMENDATIONS 

LITERATURE CITED 

TABLES 

Number 

1 Selenium concentrations in nonbiological materials. 

2 Selenium concentrations in field populations of selected species of flora and fauna. Values shown 

are in total Se (mg/kg, or ppm) fresh weight (FW), dry weight (DW), or ash weight (AW). 

Hyphenated numbers show range and single numbers the mean; where both appear, the range is in 

parentheses. 

3 Toxicity of selenium salts to aquatic biota. Values shown are in ug/l (ppb) in medium fatal to 50% of 

the organisms during exposure for various intervals. 

4 Proposed selenium criteria for prevention of Se deficiency and for protection against selenosis. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

I thank L. Garrett, M. Shawe and B. Graff for library services; I. Moore for secretarial help; J. Jacknow, D.J. 

Hoffman, H.M. Ohlendorf, and T.P. Lowe for reviewing the manuscript; and P.H. Eschmeyer and J.R. Zuboy 

for editorial services. 

3
INTRODUCTION 

Selenium (Se) was first identified as an element in 1817 by the Swedish chemist Berzelius. It is now firmly 

established that Se is beneficial or essential in amounts from trace to part-per-billion concentrations for humans 

and some plants and animals, but toxic at some concentrations present in the environment. Selenium deficiency 

was recently reported among cattle grazing in the Florida Everglades, which showed evidence of anemia, slow 

growth, and reduced fertility (Morris et al. 1984). Conversely, calves of Indian buffaloes died of Se poisoning 

after eating rice husks grown in naturally seleniferous soils (Prasad et al. 1982); severe reproductive and 

developmental abnormalities were observed in aquatic birds nesting at Se-contaminated irrigation drainwater 

ponds in the San Joaquin Valley, California (Ohlendorf et al. 1986); and fish contained high body burdens of Se 

and failed to reproduce in a lake receiving dissolved Se by way of a power plant fly ash sluice water return 

(Cumbie and Van Horn 1978). Selenium poisoning is an ancient and well-documented disease (Rosenfeld and 

Beath 1964). Signs of it were reported among domestic livestock by Marco Polo in western China near the 

borders of Turkestan and Tibet in about the year 1295; among livestock, chickens, and children in Columbia, 

South America, by Father Pedro Simon in 1560; among human adults in Irapuato, Mexico, in about 1764; and 

among horses of the U.S. Cavalry in South Dakota in 1857 and again in 1893 (Rosenfeld and Beath 1964). In 

1907-08, more than 15,000 sheep died in a region north of Medicine Bow, Wyoming, after grazing on 

seleniferous plants. The incidents have continued, and the recent technical literature abounds with isolated 

examples of selenosis among domestic animals. 

Selenium has been the subject of many reviews (Rosenfeld and Beath 1964; Frost 1972; Sandholm 1973; 

Zingaro and Cooper 1974; Frost and Ingvoldstad 1975; Anon. 1975; NAS 1976; Harr 1978; EPA 1980; Lo and 

Sandi 1980; Shamberger 1981; Wilber 1980, 1983; Fishbein 1977, 1983; NRC 1983; Reddy and Massaro

1983). These authorities agree that Se is widely distributed in nature, being especially abundant with sulfide

minerals of various metals, such as iron, lead, and copper. The major source of environmental Se is the 

weathering of natural rock. The amount of Se entering the atmosphere as a result of anthropogenic activities is 

estimated to be 3,500 metric tons annually, of which most is attributed to combustion of coal; however, aside 

from highly localized contamination, the contribution of Se by man's activities is small in comparison with that 

attributable to natural sources. Collectively, all authorities agree that Se may favorably or adversely affect 

growth, survival, and reproduction of algae and higher plants, bacteria and yeasts, crustaceans, molluscs, 

insects, fish, birds, and mammals (including humans). Most acknowledge that sensitivity to Se and its 

compounds is extremely variable in all classes of organisms and, except for some instances of Se deficiency or 

of selenosis, metabolic pathways and modes of action are imperfectly understood. For example, selenium

“indicator” plants can accumulate Se to concentrations of thousands of parts per million without ill effects; in 

these plants Se promotes growth, whereas in crop plants accumulations as low as 25 to 50 ppm may be toxic. 

Thus, plants and waters high in Se are considered potentially hazardous to livestock and to aquatic life and 

other natural resources in seleniferous zones. 

In this account I briefly review the technical literature on ecological and toxicological aspects of selenium 

(with emphasis on fish and wildlife and their predators and prey), and provide current recommendations for the 

protection of sensitive species of concern to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. This is part of a continuing 

series of synoptic reviews prepared in response to informational requests from environmental specialists of the 

Service. 

ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY 

Selenium is characterized by an atomic weight of 78.96, an atomic number of 34, a melting point of 271°C, a 

boiling point of 685°C, and a density of 4.26-4.79. Chemical properties, uses, and environmental persistence of 

selenium were documented by a number of researchers whose works constitute the major source material for 

this section: Rosenfeld and Beath (1964); Bowen (1966); Lakin (1973); Stadtman (1974, 1977); Frost and 

Ingvoldstad (1975); Chau et al. (1976); Harr (1978); Wilber (1980, 1983); Zieve and Peterson (1981); 

Robberecht and Von Grieken (1982); Cappon and Smith (1982); and Nriagu and Wong (1983). 

There was general agreement on four points. First, that selenium chemistry is complex, and that additional 

research is warranted on chemical and biochemical transformations among valence states, allotropic forms, and 

isomers of selenium. Second, that selenium metabolism and degradation is significantly modified by interaction 

with heavy metals, agricultural chemicals, microorganisms, and a variety of physicochemical factors. Third, that 

anthropogenic activities (including fossil fuel combustion and metal smelting) and naturally seleniferous areas 

pose the greatest hazards to fish and wildlife. And fourth, that selenium deficiency is not as well documented as 

4
Se poisoning, but may be equally significant. These points are developed here in greater detail.

Selenium chemistry is complex (Rosenfeld and Beath 1964; Harr 1978; Wilber 1983). In nature, selenium

exists: as six stable isotopes (Se-74,-76,-77,-78,-80, and -82), of which Se-80 and -78 are the most common, 

accounting for 50 and 23.5%, respectively; in three allotropic forms; and in five valence states. Changes in the 

valence state of Se from -2 (hydrogen selenide) through 0 (elemental Se), +2 (selenium dioxide), +4 (selenite), 

and +6 (selenate) are associated with its geologic distribution, redistribution, and use. Soluble selenates occur in 

alkaline soils, are slowly reduced to selenites, and are then readily taken up by plants. In drinking water, 

selenates represent the dominant chemical species. Selenites are less soluble than the corresponding

selenates and are easily reduced to elemental Se. In seawater, selenites are the dominant chemical species 

under some conditions (Cappon and Smith 1981). Selenium dioxide is formed by combustion of elemental Se 

present in fossil fuels or rubbish. Selenium is the most strongly enriched element in coal, being present as an 

organoselenium compound, a chelated species, or as an adsorbed element. On combustion of fossil fuels, the 

sulfur dioxide formed reduces the selenium to elemental Se. 

Elemental Se is insoluble and largely unavailable to the biosphere, although it is still capable of satisfying 

metabolic nutritional requirements. Hydrogen selenide is highly toxic (at 1-4 ppb in air), unstable, acidic, and

irritative. Selenides of mercury, silver, copper, and cadmium are very insoluble, although their insolubility may 

be the basis for the reported detoxification of methylmercury by dietary selenite, and for the decreased heavy 

metal toxicity associated with selenite. Metallic selenides are thus biologically important in sequestering both Se 

and heavy metals in a largely unavailable form. 

In areas of acid or neutral soils, the amount of biologically available Se should steadily decline. The decline 

may be accelerated by active agricultural or industrial practices. In dry areas, with alkaline soils and oxidizing 

conditions, elemental Se and selenides in rocks and volcanic soils may oxidize sufficiently to maintain the 

availability of biologically active selenium. Concentrations of selenium in water are a function of selenium levels 

in the drainage system and of water pH. In Colorado, for example, streams with pH 6.1-6.9 usually contain <1 

ppb of Se, but those with pH 7.8-8.2 may contain 270 to 400 ppb (Lakin 1973). 

Selenium volatilizes from soils at rates that are modified by temperature, moisture, time, season of year, 

concentration of water-soluble selenium, and microbiological activity. Conversion of inorganic and organic 

selenium compounds to volatile selenium compounds (such as dimethyl selenide, dimethyl diselenide, and an 

unknown compound) by microorganisms has been observed in lake sediments of the Sudbury area of Ontario. 

This conversion may have been effected by pure cultures of Aeromonas, Flavobacterium, Pseudomonas, or an 

unidentified fungus, all of which are found in methylated lake sediments. Production of volatile selenium is 

temperature dependent. Compared with the amount of (CH3)2 Se produced at an incubation temperature of 

20°C, 25% less was produced at 10°C and 90% less at 4°C. Details of Se reduction and oxidation by 

microorganisms are not clear. One suggested mechanism for selenite reduction in certain microorganisms 

involves attachment to a carrier protein and transformation from selenite to elemental Se, which in turn may be 

oxidized to selenite by the action of Bacillus spp., as one example. It is apparent that much additional research 

on this problem is warranted. 

Selenium is an essential nutrient for some plants and animals; it constitutes an integral part of the enzyme 

glutathione peroxidase and may have a role in other biologically active compounds, especially vitamin E and the 

enzyme formic dehydrogenase. Some animals require Se-containing amino acids (viz. selenocysteine, 

selenocystine, selenomethionine, selenocystathionine, Se-methylselenocysteine, and Semethylselenomethionine), but reportedly are incapable of producing them. Selenium also forms part of certain 

proteins, including cytochrome C, hemoglobin, myoglobin, myosin, and various ribonucleoproteins. It now 

appears that selenates and selenites are absorbed by plants, reduced, and then incorporated in amino acids 

synthesis. The biological availability of Se is higher in plant foods than in foods of animal origin (Lo and Sandi 

1980). The net effect of soil, plant, and animal metabolism is to convert Se to inert and insoluble forms such as 

elemental Se, metallic selenides, and complexes of selenite with ferric oxides. 

Selenium was used in the early 1900's as a pesticide to control plant pests, and is still used sparingly to 

control pests of greenhouse chrysanthemums and carnations (Rosenfeld and Beath 1964). It has been used to 

control cotton pests (in Trinidad), mites and spiders that attack citrus, and mites that damage apples. Although 

no insect-resistant strains have developed, the use of selenium pesticides has been discontinued, owing to their 

stability in soils and resultant contamination of food crops, their high price, and their proven toxicity to mammals 

5
and birds. Selenium shampoos, which contain about 1% selenium sulfide, are still used to control dandruff in 

humans and dermatitis and mange in dogs. Selenium is used extensively in the manufacture and production of 

glass, pigments, rubber, metal alloys, textiles, petroleum, medical therapeutic agents, and photographic 

emulsions. 

Air and surface waters generally contain nonhazardous concentrations of Se. Significant increases of Se in 

specific areas are attributed exclusively to industrial sources, and to leaching of groundwater from seleniferous 

soils. In the United States, about 4.6 million kg of selenium are released annually into the environment: 33% 

from combustion of fossil fuels, 59% from industrial losses, and 8% from municipal wastes. Of the total, about 

25% is in the form of atmospheric emissions, and the rest in ash. Mining and smelting of copper-nickel ores at 

Sudbury, Ontario, Canada, alone releases about 2 metric tons of Se to the environment daily, and probably

represents the greatest point source of Se release in the world. In 1977, 680,000 kg of Se was produced at

Sudbury, but only about 10% was recovered, suggesting that about 90% was lost to the environment. Of the 

amount lost, perhaps 50 metric tons was dispensed into the atmosphere, probably as selenium dioxide (airborne 

Se levels 1-3 km from Sudbury were as high as 6.0 μg/m3). The rest was probably associated with mine tailings, 

wastewater, and scoria, and is a local source of Se contamination, most notably in lakes. The present annual 

rates of Se accumulation in lake sediments in the Sudbury area range from 0.3 to 12.0 mg/m2; these deposition 

rates exceed those of pre-colonial times by factors of 3 to 18, and are among the highest recorded in North 

America (Nriagu and Wong 1983). 

Selenium is a serious hazard to livestock and probably to people in a wide semiarid belt that extends from 

inside Canada southward across the United States into Mexico (NRC 1983). Selenium tends to be present in 

large amounts in areas where the soils have been derived from Cretaceous rocks. Total Se in such soils

averages about 5 ppm, but is sometimes as high as 80 ppm. Lack of rainfall has prevented the solution of the 

Se minerals and the removal of their salts in drainage waters. In some areas, modern fertilization practices and 

the buildup of sulfates in the soil due to acid precipitation partly lessen the availability of Se to plants and forage 

crops. In the United States, highly seleniferous natural areas (200-300 ppb in forage) are most abundant in the 

Rocky Mountain and High Central Plains areas; areas with lower concentrations (20-30 ppb) in forage are 

typical in the Pacific Northwest and the Southeast. However, huge variations are not uncommon from one 

specific location to another. Among plants, primary and secondary selenium accumulators are almost always 

implicated in cases of acute or chronic selenium poisoning of livestock. Primary Se accumulator plants, such as 

various species of Astragalus, Oonopsis, Stanelya, Zylorhiza, and Machaeranthera, may require 1 to 50 ppm Se 

in either soil or water for growth, and may contain 100 to 10,000 ppm Se as a glutamyl dipeptide or 

selanocystanthionine. Secondary accumulator plants (representative genera: Astor, Gutierrezia, Atriplex, 

Grindelia, Castilleja, and Comandra) grow in either seleniferous or nonseleniferous soils and may contain 25-

100 ppm Se. Nonaccumulator plants growing on seleniferous soils contain 1-25 ppm fresh weight of Se. Meat 

and eggs of domestic animals may contain 8-9 ppm of Se in seleniferous areas, compared with 0.01-1.0 ppm in 

nonseleniferous areas. Tissues from animals maintained on high-Se feeds generally contain 3-5 ppm Se fresh 

weight vs. up to 20 ppm in animals dying of Se poisoning (Harr 1978). 

Selenium is nutritionally important as an essential trace element, but is harmful at slightly higher 

concentrations. Although normal Se dietary levels required to ensure human health range from 0.04 to 0.1 ppm, 

toxicity may occur if food contains as little as 4.0 ppm. Minimum Se concentrations required are usually higher in 

livestock than in humans. In areas with highly seleniferous soils, excess Se is adsorbed onto a variety of plants 

and grains and can be fatal to grazing livestock. There is general agreement, however, that selenium 

inadequacy can be of greater concern to health than is selenium toxicity. Studies in humans and small animals 

indicated that Se deficiency (in part) underlies various chronic diseases, increasing susceptibility to cancer, 

arthritis, hypertension, heart disease, and possibly periodontal disease and cataracts. Selenium reportedly 

protects mammals and some birds against the toxic effects of mercury, cadmium, arsenic, thallium, and the 

herbicide paraquat (Hill 1975; Wilber 1983). There is no doubt that high dietary levels of these compounds, as 

well as of salts of copper, zinc, and silver, contribute to selenium deficiency effects. However, too little is known 

of the chemical mechanisms to enable scientists to account for these phenomena. Selenium has a 

comparatively short effectual biological life in various species of organisms for which data are available. Studies 

with radioselenium-75 indicated that its biological half-life is 10 to 64 days: 10 in pheasants, 13 in guppies and

voles, 15 in ants, 27 in eels, 28 in leeches, and 64 in earthworms (Wilber 1983). Many investigators concluded 

that the greatest current and direct use of selenium is in the transportation of grains grown in seleniferous areas 

to Se-deficient areas as animal and human food. 

6
Table 1. Selenium concentrations in nonbiological materials. 

Sample, and unit of concentration Concentration Referencea 

TERRESTRIAL (ppm) 

Earth's crust 0.05 Frost and Ingvoldstad 1975

Soils 0.2 Ebens and Shacklette 1982

 Limestones 0.08 

Sandstones up to 0.05 

 Shales 0.6 

 Chondrites 8.0 

Ocean sediments 0.34-4.8 de Goeij et al. 1974 

Coal 3.36(0.46-10.65) NAS 1976; Kuhn et. al. 1980 

Fossil fuels 1-10 Harr 1978 

 Lake sediments 

NY, Lake George 0.22 Heit et al. 1980 

Great Lakes 0.35-0.75 Adams and Johnson 1977

Freshwater lakes, Canada 0.2-14.5 Speyer 1980

AQUATIC (ppb) 

 Drinking water 

 Worldwide 0.12-0.44 Robberecht and 

Groundwater Von Grieken 1982 

 Nebraska, USA <1-480 

 Argentina 48-67

Australia 0.008-0.33 

 France <5-75 

 Israel 0.9-27 

Italy <0.002-1.9 

 Sewage waters 

 USA 

 Raw sewage 280 NAS 1976 

 Primary effluent 45 

 Secondary effluent 50 

 Worldwide 

 Japan 480-700 Ebens and Shacklette 1982

 USA 10-280 

 USSR 1.8-2.7 

 Germany 1.5 

 River waters

Japan 0.03-0.09 Nriagu and Wong 1983 

Germany 0.015 Ebens and Shacklette 1982

Amazon River, South America 0.021 

 USA 

7
 Ohio River <0.01 Robberecht and 

 Mississippi River 0.14 Von Grieken 1982 

 Michigan 0.8-10 

 Nebraska <1-20

 Colorado River 30 

 Lake waters 

Sweden 0.04-0.21 Nriagu and Wong 1983 

 USA 0.04-1.4 NAS 1976 

Great Lakes 0.001-0.036 Adams and Johnson 1977

 Sea water 

Worldwide 0.009-0.045 Frost and Ingvoldstad 1975; 

 Ebens and Shacklette 1982

Worldwide 0.09-0.45 Whittle et al. 1977 

 Worldwide 0.09-<6.0 NAS 1976 

 Israel, Dead Sea 0.8 Robberecht and 

 Von Grieken 1982 

 Japan 0.04-0.08

AIR (μg/m3) 

Near Se industrial plant 0.7 NAS 1976 

 Control area 0.001 

Near Sudbury (Canada) smelter up to 6.0 Nriagu and Wong 1983 

INTEGRATED STUDIES (ppb) 

 California 

 Rainwater 0.05 Robberecht and 

Lake water 0.018 Von Grieken 1982 

 Sea water 0.058-0.08 

 Irrigation drain water 

 Subsurface 300-1,400 Ohlendorf et al. 1986 

 Surface 300 

Vicinity of nickel-copper 

 smelter, Sudbury, Ontario

Lake waters 0.1-0.4 Nriagu and Wong 1983 

 Lake sediments 2,000-6,000 

 Lake sediments 240 km 

 south of Sudbury 1,000-3,000 

 Cu-Ni ores 20,000-80,000

Fly ash ponds

Sediment 14,000 Furr et al. 1979 

 Water 350 

aEach reference applies to the values in the same row, and in the rows that follow for which no other reference 

is indicated. 

8
BACKGROUND CONCENTRATIONS 

Selenium concentrations in nonbiological materials extend over several orders of magnitude (Table 1). In 

terrestrial materials, concentrations in excess of 5 ppm Se are routinely recorded in meteorites, copper-nickel 

ores, coal and other fossil fuels, lake sediments in the vicinity of a nickel-copper smeltery, and in sediments of 

fly ash settling ponds. Water concentrations exceeding 50 ppb Se have been documented in groundwater, 

especially in areas with seleniferous soils, in sewage wastes, in irrigation drain water, and in water of fly ash 

settling ponds. Selenium concentrations in air samples were >0.5 μg/m3 in the vicinity of Se production plants, 

and these were at least 500 times higher than in a control area. As a result of natural and anthropogenic 

processes, comparatively high concentrations of selenium in nonbiological materials may pose significant risks 

to fish and wildlife (this point is discussed later). 

Selenium concentrations in representative species of freshwater, marine, and terrestrial flora and fauna are 

listed in Table 2. Additional information on body and tissue burdens of selenium was given by Birkner (1978), 

Jenkins (1980), Lo and Sandi (1980), Eisler (1981), and Wilber (1983). It is emphasized that, for all organisms, 

Se concentrations tended to be significantly higher when collected from locales having certain characteristics: 

highly seleniferous soils or sediments (in Comparative studies of food and environmental contamination. Int. 

Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna.de Goeij et al. 1974; Birkner 1978; Speyer 1980; Wilber 1983); high human

population densities (Beal 1974); heavy accumulations of Se-laden wastes, such as effluents from systems 

used to collect fly ash scrubber sludge or bottom ash (Cumbie and Van Horn 1978; Sorensen et al. 1982, 1984); 

and Se-contaminated subsurface irrigation drainwater (Ohlendorf et al. 1986). There is evidence that Se 

concentrations are positively correlated with mercury residues in piscivorous mammals (Reijnders 1980; Wren 

1984) and teleosts (Ganther et al. 1972; Leonzio et al. 1982), although the evidence for teleosts is conflicting

(Tamura et al. 1975; Speyer 1980; Maher 1983), and that Se varies seasonally in crustaceans (Zafiropoulos and 

Grimanis 1977). In general, concentrations of Se in various tissues are usually higher in older than in younger 

organisms; among marine vertebrates, Se increases were especially pronounced among the older specimens of 

predatory, long-lived species (Eisler 1984). 

All reported Se levels in tissues of marine invertebrates and plants have been less than 2 ppm Se on a wet 

weight basis, or 12 ppm dry weight. Higher levels are routinely recorded in liver and kidney tissues of marine

and coastal vertebrates, including teleosts, birds, and mammals. Livers from adult seals were comparatively rich 

in selenium (Table 2); however, high concentrations in liver of maternal California sea lions were not reflected in 

liver of newborn pups (Martin et al. 1976). Mean concentrations of Se in kidneys of seven species of coastal 

birds collected from the highly industrialized Corpus Christi, Texas, area usually varied between 1.7 and 5.6 

ppm Se fresh weight, but were 10.2 ppm in one bird. According to White et al. (1980), Se concentrations of this 

magnitude may be sufficient to impair reproduction in shorebirds. 

Selenium levels in freshwater biota are relatively low, compared with those in their marine counterparts. In 

freshwater organisms, about 36% of the total Se was present as selenate, and the rest as selenite and selenide. 

In marine samples, only 24% of the total Se was present as selenate (Cappon and Smith 1982). The 

implications of this difference are not now understood, but have great relevance in the ability of Se to complex 

and detoxify various potentially toxic heavy metals, such as mercury and cadmium. In the most recent 

Nationwide monitoring of selenium and other contaminants in freshwater fishes, Se ranged from 0.05 to 2.9 ppm 

(fresh weight, whole fish) and averaged about 0.6 ppm; stations where concentrations in fish exceeded 0.82

ppm (>85th percentile) were in three areas: Atlantic coastal streams; Mississippi River system; and California 

(May and McKinney 1981). Among fish from Atlantic coastal streams, those from the Delaware River near 

Camden, New Jersey, had elevated whole body concentrations (i.e., >1.0 and <3.0 ppm Se), which were 

attributed to the industrialized character of the river. In the Big Horn and Yellowstone Rivers, high Se 

concentrations in fish may result from geologic sources of the element, including coal, phosphate, and 

sedimentary rock. Fish from the South Platte River near Denver, Colorado, may receive Se from industrial

effluents, or from natural and anthropogenic activities associated with the removal of deposits of coal, barite,

and sulfur. In California, where Se was elevated in fish from the San Jouquin River, it was speculated that 

Selocide, an Se-containing pesticide registered for use on citrus fruits in the 1960's, may have been a source, 

although contaminated irrigation drain water was considered a more likely possibility (Ohlendorf et al. 1986). 

Among terrestrial plants, selenium accumulations in species of Aster, Astragalus, and several other genera 

are sometimes spectacularly high (Table 2). Astragalus is the most widely distributed. About 24 of its more than 

200 species are Se accumulators that require Se to grow well . The highest reported Se concentration in plants 

9
was 15,000 ppm dry weight, in loco weed, Astragalus racemosus (Wilber 1983). Consumption of these and 

other Se-accumulating forage plants by livestock has induced illness and death from selenium poisoning. Even 

at much lower concentrations, Se may harm animals that eat considerable amounts of the forage. Plants that

accumulate Se tend to be deeper rooted than the grasses and survive more severe aridity, thus remaining 

(unfortunately) as the principal forage for grazing in time of drought (Wilber 1983). 

Table 2. Selenium concentrations in field populations of selected species of flora and fauna. Values shown are

in total Se (mg/kg, or ppm) fresh weight (FW), dry weight (DW), or ash weight (AW). Hyphenated numbers show

range and single numbers the mean; where both appear, the range is in parentheses. 

Ecosystem, taxonomic group, Concentration Referencea 

organism, tissue, location, and (ppm) 

other variables

MARINE 

Algae and macrophytes 

Whole 0.04-0.24 DW Chau and Riley 1970; 

 Lunde 1970; 

 Tijoe et al. 1979 

Edible seaweeds, whole 0.16-0.39 DW; Noda et al. 1979 

 0.047 FW

Molluscs 

 American oyster, 

Crassostrea virginica 

Redwood Creek, San Francisco, CA 

Mantle 4.8 DW Okazaki and Panietz 1981

 Digestive gland 8.8 DW 

 Kidney 4.7 DW 

 Tomales Bay, CA

 Mantle 2.2 DW 

 Digestive gland 6.4 DW 

 Kidney 2.5 DW 

Transferred from Redwood Creek 

to Tomales Bay for 56 days 

 Mantle 3.5 DW 

 Digestive gland 6.5 DW 

 Kidney 3.8 DW 

 Bivalve molluscs 

Shell 0.03-0.06 DW Bertine and Goldberg 1972

Soft parts 0.1-0.9 FW; Lunde 1970; 

 1.3-9.9 DW Bertine and Goldberg 1972; 

 Karbe et al. 1977; 

 Hall et al. 1978; 

10
 Fukai et al. 1978; 

 Luten et al. 1980 

 Muscle 1.1-2.3 DW Maher 1983 

 Viscera 1.6-2.5 DW 

Edible fresh, 3 spp. 

Total Se 0.22(0.16-0.31) FW Cappon and Smith 1982 

 As selenate 0.05 FW 

 As selenite and selenide 0.17 FW 

 Mussel, Mytilus edulis 

 Gills 2.0-16.0 DW Stump et al. 1979 

Viscera up to 5.0 DW 

 Mussel, Mytilus galloprovincialis

 Gills 7.0 DW Fowler and 

Soft parts 6.0 DW Benayoun 1976c 

 Mantle 5.2 DW 

 Viscera 3.2 DW 

 Muscle 1.9 DW 

 Shell <0.05 DW 

 Echinoderms 

Whole, 7 spp. 0.8-4.4 DW Papadopoulu et al.1976 

 Crustaceans 

Digestive system, 3 spp. 3.0-3.5 DW Maher 1983 

Edible tissues sold for human consumption 

17 spp. 0.2-2.0 FW Hall et al. 1978; 

 Noda et al. 1979; 

 Luten et al. 1980 

Edible tissues, 2 spp. 

Total Se 0.21 FW Cappon and Smith 1982 

 As selenate 0.05 FW 

As selenite and selenide 0.16 FW 

Muscle, 5 spp. 2.4-4.4 DW Maher 1983 

Soft tissues, 2 spp. 2.0-2.8 DW 

 Copepods, whole 1.8-3.4 DW Zafiropoulos and 

 Grimanis 1977; 

 Tijoe et al. 1977 

 Euphausid, Meganyctiphanes norvegica

Viscera 11.7 DW Fowler and Benayoun 

 Eyes 7.8 DW 1976a 

 Muscle 1.8 DW 

 Exoskeleton 0.8 DW 

 Shrimp, Lysmata seticaudata 

Viscera 7.0 DW Fowler and Benayoun 1976c 

 Eyes 4.8 DW 

 Whole 2.6 DW 

11
 Muscle 1.9 DW 

 Exoskeleton 1.5 DW 

 Molts 0.3 DW 

 Sharks 

 Muscle 0.2-0.8 FW Glover 1979 

 Fish 

Digestive system, 4 spp. 1.0-2.4 DW Maher 1983 

 Liver

2 spp. 2.6-6.6 DW Grimanis et al. 1978 

74 spp. 0.6-5.0 FW de Goeij et al. 1974; 

 Hall et al. 1978; 

 Luten et al. 1980 

13 spp. 5.0-30.0 FW Hall et al. 1978 

Meals, 3 spp. 1.0-4.0 DW Kifer and Payne 1968 

 Muscle

 4 spp. 0.5-1.5 DW Maher 1983 

182 spp. 0.1-2.0 FW Bebbington et al. 1977; 

 Grimanis et al. 1978; 

 Kari and Kauranen 1978; 

 Hall et al. 1978; 

 Noda et al. 1979; 

 Luten et al.1980 

5 spp. Total Se 0.4(0.2-0.6) FW Cappon and Smith 1982 

 As selenate 0.1 FW 

 As selenite and selenide 0.3 FW 

Whole, 21 spp. 0.3-2.0 FW Kari and Kauranen 1978; 

 Hall et al. 1978; 

 United Nations 1979 

 Japanese tunas, 4 spp.

 Liver 10.0-15.0 FW Tamura et al. 1975 

 White muscle 0.5-1.3 FW

 Red muscle 3.5-9.1 FW

 Black marlin, Makaira indica 

 Muscle 0.4-4.3 FW MacKay et al. 1975 

 Liver 1.4-13.5 FW

 Blue marlin, Makaira nigricans 

 Kidney 23.0 FW Schultz and Ito 1979 

 Blood 1.0 FW 

 Gill 1.0 FW 

 Muscle

 Total Se 3.3(2.5-4.1) FW Cappon and Smith 1982 

 As selenate 0.2(0.09-0.3) FW 

 As selenite 

 and selenide 3.1(2.4-3.8) FW

12
 Striped bass, Morone saxatilis 

 Muscle 0.3 FW Heit 1979 

 Liver 0.6 FW 

Tuna, canned 1.9-2.9 FW Ganther et al. 1982 

 Swordfish, Xiphias gladius

 Muscle 0.3-1.3 FW Freeman et al. 1978 

Birds

Kidney, 12 spp. 1.2-5.6 FW Turner et al. 1978; 

 

White et al. 1980 

 White-faced ibis, Plegadis chihi 

 Egg 0.3-1.1 FW King et al. 1980 

 Royal tern, Sterna maxima

 Egg 0.4-2.1 FW King et al. 1983 

 Sooty tern, Sterna fuscata 

 Egg 1.1-1.4 FW Ohlendorf and Harrison 1986 

 Brown pelican, 

Pelecanus occidentalis 

 Egg 0.19-0.38 FW Blus et al. 1977 

 Liver 1.0-4.2 FW

 Wedge-tailed shearwater, 

Puffinus pacificus

 Egg 1.1-1.3 FW Ohlendorf and Harrison 

 

 1986 

 Red-footed booby, Sula sula 

 Egg0.8-0.9 FW

 Oystercatcher,

Haematopus ostralegus 

 Kidney 12.7(2.3-17.5) DW Hutton 1981 

 Liver 12.8(5.0-20.5) DW 

 Herring gull, 

Larus argentatus 

 Kidney 14.1(8.6-19.4) DW 

 Liver 7.9(6.9-9.3) DW 

 Great Skua, Catharacta skua 

 Kidney 32.8(13.3-89.1) DW 

 Liver 19.7(6.7-34.6) DW 

Mammals

 Pilot whale, 

Globicephala macrorhynchus 

 Blubber 0.8-1.4 FW Stoneburner 1978 

 Liver 22.8-61.6 FW 

 Kidney 3.0-10.0 FW

13
 Ringed seal, 

Phoca hispida saimensis

 Muscle 0.2-2.8 FW Kari and Kauranen 1978 

 Liver 29.0-170.0 FW

 Kidney 0.3-3.0 FW

 Blubber 0.06-0.11 FW 

 Harbor seal, Phoca vitulina 

 Juveniles 

 Kidney 0.6(0.0-1.3) FW Reijnders 1980 

 Liver 2.8(2.6-6.5) FW

 Brain 1.1(0.0-7.4 FW

 Adults 

 Kidney 3.5(1.9-7.3) FW

 Liver 109.0(409.0 Max.) FW 

 Brain 3.7(1.5-8.2) FW

 Seals 

Liver, 4 spp. 6.1-170.0 FW Kari and Kauranen 1978; 

 

Smith and Armstrong 

 

1978; van de Ven 

 

et al. 1979 

California sea lion, 

Zalophus californianus 

 Mothers with normal pups 

Liver 260.0 DW Martin et al. 1976 

 Kidney 22.0 DW 

 Normal pups 

 Liver 4.1 DW 

 Kidney 6.1 DW 

 Mothers with premature pups 

 Liver 79.0 DW 

 Kidney 12.0 DW 

 Pups born prematurely 

 Liver 2.9 DW 

 Kidney 3.7 DW 

FRESHWATER 

Algae and higher plants 

Algae, whole <2.0 DW Jenkins 1980

Higher plants 0.1 DW Rossi et al. 1976 

 Aquatic mosses 0.8 DW 

 Filamentous algae 

 Se-contaminated area 35.2(12-68) DW Ohlendorf et al. 1986 

14
 Control area <0.5 DW 

 Rooted plants 

 Se-contaminated area 52.1(18-79) DW 

 Control area 0.4 DW 

 Molluscs 

Mussels, 3 spp., NY State 

Soft parts 2.0-4.0 DW Heit et al. 1980 

 Asiatic clam, Corbicula fluminea 

Whole, Florida 0.7 FW Winger et al. 1984 

 Arthropoda 

Zooplankton 0.8-3.9 DW Adams and Johnson 1977

 Plankton 

Se-contaminated area 85(58-124) DW Ohlendorf et al. 1986 

 Control Site 2(1.4-2.9) DW 

 Insects 

 Se-contaminated area 20-218 DW 

 Control site 1.1-3.0 DW 

 Mayfly, Hexagenia sp. 0.3-0.5 FW Winger et al. 1984 

 Amphibians 

 Liver 0.7-4.7 FW Jenkins 1980

 Reptiles 

 Water snake, Natrix sp.

Whole, Florida 0.3-0.5 FW Winger et al. 1984 

 Fish 

 Common carp, Cyprinus carpio

 Whole 1.0(0.7-1.4) DW Wiener et al. 1984 

 Liver 3.6(2.2-5.2) DW 

 Bluegill, Lepomis macrochirus 

 From water containing <5 ppb Se 

 White muscle 0.04 FW Lemly 1982b

 Liver 0.7 FW 

 Spleen 1.6 FW 

 Erythrocytes 0.04 FW 

 Heart 1.0 FW

 From water containing 22.6 ppb Se 

 White muscle 3.1 FW 

 Liver 11.2 FW 

 Spleen 17.7 FW 

 Erythrocytes 7.2 FW 

 Heart 12.8 FW

 Upper Mississippi River

 Whole 1.2(0.7-1.4) DW Wiener et al. 1984 

 Largemouth bass, 

 Micropterus salmoides 

15
 From water containing <5 ppb Se 

 White muscle 0.05 FW Lemly 1982b

 Liver 0.8 FW 

 Spleen 1.8 FW 

 Erythrocytes 0.07 FW 

 Heart 1.2 FW

 From water containing 22.6 ppb Se 

 White muscle 1.7 FW 

 Liver 10.2 FW 

 Spleen 16.6 FW 

 Erythrocytes 8.0 FW 

 Heart 12.0 FW

 Apalachicola River, Florida

 Whole 

 Females 0.3-0.4 FW Winger et al. 1984 

 Males 0.3-0.5 FW

 Juveniles 0.3-0.5 FW

 Eggs 0.7-1.0 FW

 Channel catfish, 

Ictalurus punctatus

 Apalachicola River, Florida

 Whole 

 Females 1.1-0.3 FW

 Males 0.2-0.3 FW

 Juveniles 0.4-0.6 FW

 Eggs 0.8-2.1 FW

 Threadfin shad, Dorosoma petenense 

 Whole 0.3-0.5 FW

 Green sunfish, Lepomis cyanellus 

 From water

containing 13 ppb Se 

Liver 7.0-21.4 FW Sorensen et al. 1984 

 Muscle 2.3-12.9 FW

 From control site 

 Liver 1.3 FW 

 Muscle 1.3 FW 

Trout, 2 spp., Wyoming 

 From water

containing 12.3-13.3 ppb Se 

Liver 50.0-70.0 FW Kaiser et al. 1979 

 Muscle <2.0 FW

 Skin Max. 4.8 FW 

 Mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis, whole 

 From Se-contaminated irrigation 

16
drainwater pond 170(115-283) DW Ohlendorf et al. 1986 

 Control site 1.3(1.2-1.4) DW 

 Coho salmon, Oncorhynchus kisutch 

 Muscle 0.7-1.0 DW Rancitelli et al. 1968 

 Liver 3.8 DW 

 Chinook salmon, 

Oncorhynchus tshawytscha 

 Muscle 1.6 DW 

 Fish 

 Muscle

25 spp. 0.0-0.5 Uthe and Bligh 1971; 

 Willford 1971;

 Tonget al. 1971; 

 Pakkala et al. 1972; 

 Rossi et al. 1976; 

 Luten et al. 1980 

 18 spp. 0.5-1.0 FW Willford 1971; 

 Tong etal.1972; 

 Pakkala et al. 1972 

 3 spp. 1.0-2.0 FW Schroeder et al. 1970; 

 

Pakkala et al. 1972 

 3 spp. 

 Total Se 0.25 FW(0.15-0.34) Cappon and Smith 1982 

 As selenate 0.09 FW 

 As selenate and 

 selenide 0.16 FW 

 10 spp. 

 Western Lake Erie 0.4-1.5 FW; 

 1.8-8.1 DW Adams and Johnson 1977

 Liver

17 spp. 0.0-0.5 FW Lucas et al. 1970 

 7 spp. 0.5-1.0 FW

 4 spp. 0.6-5.0 FW Luten et al. 1980 

 Whole 

 Nationwide, USA 

 1972 0.60(0.57-0.64) FW May and McKinney 1981 

 1973 0.46(0.42-0.49) FW 

 1976-77 0.58(0.53-0.62) FW 

5 spp. 0.5-1.9 FW Pratt et al. 1972 

4 spp. 0.2-0.3 DW Rossi et al. 1976 

6 spp. 0.0-0.5 FW Walsh et al. 1977 

 12 spp. 0.5-1.0 FW

 6 spp. 1.0-2.0 FW

17
 6 spp. 2.1-6.0 FW

 Birds

 Common loon, Gavia immer 

 Egg 0.4(0.3-0.7) FW Haseltine et al. 1983 

 Red-breasted merganser,

 Mergus serrator 

 Egg 0.47-1.0 FW Haseltine et al. 1981 

 Mallard, Anas platyrhynchos

 Egg 0.28-0.81 FW 

From Kesterson National Wildlife Refuge, 

California, nesting on Se-contaminated

irrigation drainwater ponds - 1983 

 American coot, 

 Fulica americana 

 Liver 37.2(21-63) DW Ohlendorf et al. 1986 

 Egg 54.0(34-110) DW 

 Ducks, Anas spp. 

 Liver 28.6(19-43) DW 

 Egg 9.9(2.2-46) DW 

 Black-necked stilt, 

 Himantopus mexicanus 

 Egg 32.7(12-74) DW 

 American avocet, 

 Recurvirostra americana 

 Egg 9.1 DW 

 Eared grebe, 

 Podiceps nigricollis 

 Liver 130.0 DW 

 Egg 81.4(72-110) DW 

From Volta Wildlife Area, 

California, Control Site -1983 

 American coot

 Liver 5.0(4.4-5.6) DW 

 Ducks, 2 spp.

 Liver 4.1(3.9-4.4) DW 

 Black-necked stilt 

 Liver 6.1 DW 

From Apalachicola River, Florida 

 Little green heron, Butorides virescens 

Whole 0.1-0.5 FW Winger et al. 1984 

TERRESTRIAL 

 Fungi <2.0 DW Jenkins 1980

 Macrophytes 

Western wheat grass, Agropyron smithii 

18
South Dakota, plant top 11.5(0.0-8.4) DW 

 Little bluestem, Andropogon scoparius 

 Plant top 0.0-6.0 DW 

 Asparagus, Asparagus officinale 

 Western U.S. 2.7-11.0 DW 

 Aster, whole 

 Aster caerulescens 560.0 DW 

 A. commutatus Max. 590.0 DW 

 A. multiflora Max. 320.0 DW 

 A. occidentalis 284.0 DW 

 Milk vetch, 

 Astragalus argillosus 

 Top 385.0 DW 

 Root 27.0 DW 

 A. beathii 

 Top 1,963.0 DW 

 Root 66.0 DW 

 A. bisulcatus

 Top Max. 10,239.0 DW 

 Seed 305.1 DW 

 A. confertiflorus 

 Top 1,372.0 DW 

 A. crotulariae

 Top 2,000.0 DW 

 Root 45.0 DW 

 Locoweed, 

 Astragalus spp. Max. 46,000.0 AW; 

 Max. 6,000.0 DW 

 Saltbush, 

 Atriplex spp. 300.0-1,734.0 DW 

 Oats, Avena sativa 2.0-15. DW 

 Buffalo grass,

 Bouteloua dactyloides 2.7(0.0-12.0) DW 

 Indian paint brush, 

 Castilleja spp. 0.0-1,812.0 DW 

 Gumweed, Grindelia

 squarrosa 38.0(0.0-2,160.0) DW 

 Broomweeds,

 Gutierrezia spp. up to 723.0 DW 

 Haplopappus spp. up to 4,800.0 DW 

 Tobacco, Nicotiana tabacum

 Leaf 5.8 DW 

 Stem 44.2 DW 

 Rice, Oryza sativa 

19
 Grain 0.09-0.11 FW 

 Pear, Pyrus communis 

 Fruit 0.02 FW 

 Rye, Secale cereale 0.9-25.0 DW 

 Potato, Solanum tuberosum

 Tuber 0.2-0.9 DW 

 Wheat, Triticum aestivum

 Grain 1.1-35.0 DW 

 Stem and leaf 17.0 DW 

 Root 36.0 DW 

 Corn, Zea mays 

 Grain 1.0-20.0 DW 

 Grape, Vitis sp. 

 Raisin <0.001 FW

Annelids 

 Earthworms, whole 

 From normal soil 2.2 FW Birkner 1978

 From selenite- 

 enriched soil 7.5 FW 

 From soil amended 

 with sewage sludge 

 Whole 15.0-22.4 DW Helmke et al. 1979 

 Casts 0.6-0.7 DW 

 From control field 

 Whole 22.1 DW 

 Casts 0.6 DW

Arthropods

 Sow bug, Porcellio sp. 0.9 FW Jenkins 1980

 Crane fly, larva, 

 Tipula sp. 0.9 FW 

 “Fly larvae,” whole, from Astragalus

plant with 1800 ppm Se 20.0 FW 

Birds

 Blackbird, Turdus merula 

 Whole 2.1 DW Nielsen and 

 Gissel-Nielsen1975

 House sparrow, Passer domesticus 

Whole 0.6 DW 

 Pheasant, Phasianus colchicus 

 Whole 0.6 DW 

Mammals

 Beaver, Castor canadensis 

 Liver 0.2 FW Wren 1984 

 Kidney 0.9 FW 

20
 Intestine 0.04 FW 

 Muscle 0.09 FW 

 Otter, Lutra canadensis 

 Liver 2.1 FW 

 Kidney 1.9 FW 

 Intestine 1.1 FW 

 Muscle 0.2 FW 

 Woodchuck, Marmota monax 

From fly ash landfill vicinity 

 Adults

 Liver 2.2-10.7 DW Fleming et al. 1979 

 Lung 1.4-4.4 DW 

 Juveniles

 Liver 3.9-6.4 DW 

 Lung 2.1-2.8 DW 

 From control area 

 Adults

 Liver 0.4 DW 

 Lung 0.4 DW 

 Juveniles 

 Liver 0.2-0.4 DW 

 Lung 0.2 DW 

 Field mole, Microtus agrestis 

 Whole 0.5 DW Nielsen and 

 Gissel-Nielsen1975

 White-tailed deer, 

Odocoileus virginianus 

Muscle 0.16(0.05-0.49) DW Ullrey et al. 1981 

 Raccoon, Procyon lotor 

 Liver 1.8 FW Wren 1984 

 Kidney 1.9 FW 

 Muscle 0.2 FW 

 Rat, Rattus norvegicus 

Whole 0.4 DW Nielsen and 

 Gissel-Nielsen1975 

 Rock squirrel, 

 Spermophilus variegatus

 Kidney 8.9-53.0 Sharma and Shupe 1977 

 (Max. 90.0) DW 

 Mole, Talpa europaea 

 Whole 2.6 DW Nielsen and 

 Gissel-Nielsen1975 

a Each reference applies to the values in the same row, and in the rows that follow for which no other reference

is indicated. 

21
DEFICIENCY AND PROTECTIVE EFFECTS 

Selenium is a critical nutrient and a key component of several enzymes. There is a general consensus that 

Se deficiency in livestock is increasing in many countries, resulting in a need for added Se in the food. Selenium 

deficiency is considered by some researchers to constitute a greater threat to health than selenium poisoning. 

Studies with animals and humans have suggested that Se deficiency, in part, underlies susceptibility to cancer, 

arthritis, hypertension, heart disease, and possibly periodontal disease and cataracts (Frost and Ingvoldstad

1975; Shamberger 1981; Robberecht and Von Grieken 1982). These linkages have not yet been demonstrated 

conclusively; for example, eye lens cataract was induced in 10-day-old male rats by selenate, selenite, 

selenomethionine, and selenocystine, presumably through interference with glutathione metabolism (Ostadalova 

and Babicky 1980). On the other hand, adverse effects of Se inadequacy have been clearly documented for a 

wide variety of organisms, including bacteria, protozoans, Atlantic salmon, rainbow trout, Japanese quail, ducks, 

poultry, rats, dogs, horses, sheep, swine, cattle, antelopes, gazelles, deer, monkeys, and humans (Jensen 

1968; Frost and Ingvoldstad 1975; Methanococcus vanniellii: culture and effects of selenium and tungsten on

growth. J. Bacteriol. 130:1404-1406. 

Jones and Stadtman 1975; Fishbein 1977; Harr 1978; Kaiser et al. 1979; Hilton et al. 1980; Shamberger

1981; Bovee and O'Brien 1982; Robberecht and Von Grieken 1982; NRC 1983; Levander 1983, 1984; Morris et 

al. 1984). Selenium deficiency, whether induced experimentally by use of low Se feeds supplemented with alpha 

tocopherol or by chronic ingestion of low Se diets, has caused a number of maladies: high embryonic mortality 

in cattle and sheep; anemia in cattle; poor growth and reproduction in sheep and rats; reduced viability of newly 

hatched quail; nutritional myopathy (white muscle disease) in sheep, swine, and cattle; hepatic necrosis and 

lameness in dogs, horses, and breeding bulls; hair loss and sterility in rat offspring; and spermatozoan 

abnormalities in rats. Deficiencies were usually prevented or reversed by supplements with sodium selenate or 

selenite at 100 ppb Se in the diet, or 20 μg Se/kg body weight administered parenterally. 

The availability of Se to plants may be lessened by modern agricultural practices, eventually contributing to 

Se deficiency in animal consumers. For example, fertilizers containing nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus all 

influence Se uptake by plants through different modes of action, the net effect being a reduction in Se uptake 

(Frost and Ingvoldstad 1975). The buildup of sulfur (as sulfates) in the soil, due to acid rain, fertilizers, and other 

sources, interferes with Se accumulation by crops (Frost and Ingvoldstad 1975). In addition, high dietary levels 

of various heavy metals (including copper, zinc, silver, and mercury) contribute to Se deficiency in animals 

(Frost and Ingvoldstad 1975; Harr 1978), presumably as a result of Se binding with the metal into biologically 

unavailable forms (Harr 1978; Kaiser et al. 1979). 

The protective action of selenium against the adverse or lethal effects induced by various metals and 

metalloids is well documented for a wide variety of plant and animal species. Among marine organisms, for 

example, selenium protects against toxic levels of mercury in algae (Gotsis 1982), shrimp (Lucu and Skreblin

1982), crabs and oysters (Glickstein 1978), fish (Sheline and Schmidt-Nielsen 1977), and mammals (Koeman et 

al. 1975). Similar observations have been recorded for copper and marine algae (Gotsis 1982); cadmium and 

freshwater snails (Wilber 1983), marine crabs (Bjerragaard 1982), earthworms (Helmke et al. 1979; Beyer et al. 

1982), and rats (Harr 1978); mercury or methylmercury and rats (Cappon and Smith 1982), eggs of lake trout 

(Klaverkamp et al. 1983b), freshwater teleosts (Kim et al. 1975, 1977) and (temporarily) Japanese quail (ElBergearmi et al. 1977, 1982; Beijer and Jernelov 1978); and arsenic and freshwater and marine teleosts (Luten 

et al. 1980; Orvini et al. 1980). Not all tests were conclusive. Studies with some species of freshwater teleosts 

demonstrated negligible antagonism of Se against mercury (Klaverkamp et al. 1983a) or cadmium (Duncan and 

Klaverkamp 1983). Selenium reportedly protects mammals and poikilotherms against poisoning by thallium, the 

herbicide paraquat, cadmium, mercury, lead, arsenic, and copper (Wilber 1983).

Reasons, to account for the antagonism of Se and heavy metals (here mercury is used as an example) include 

dietary source and chemical form of Se, influence of sulfur, biological translocation of Se or mercury to less 

critical body parts, and chemical linkage of Se to mercury on a linear basis. The exact mode of interaction is 

probably complex and has not yet been resolved. In regard to diet, Se of animal origin and in the form of 

selenate is less effective than Se from plant and inorganic sources in preventing methylmercury neurotoxicity in 

experimental animals (Cappon and Smith 1982). Disruption of sulfur metabolism by Se, the sulfur being 

replaced by seleno-amino acids and other cell constituents containing Se in living organisms, is one probable 

cause of Se poisoning. It is conceivable that Se-Hg compounds formed within the organism would be sufficiently 

22
nonreactive biologically to interfere with sulfur kinetics, presumably -SH groups (Koeman et al. 1975; Beijer and 

Jernelov 1978; Cappon and Smith 1982; Gotsis 1982). Differential redistribution of Se or Hg to less critical body 

parts may partly account for observed antagonisms. Pretreatment of marine minnows with Se protects against 

Hg poisoning and causes a marked redistribution of Hg among organs, presumably to non-critical body parts, 

and this transfer may partly account for the observed Se-Hg antagonisms in that species (Sheline and SchmidtNielsen 1977). Some investigators have reported that Se results in increased Hg accumulations. Increased 

retention of Hg and other metals may lead to a higher level of biomagnification in the food chain and higher body 

burden in the individual, which might counteract the positive effect of decreased intoxication (Beijer and Jernelov 

1978). Extensive research is under way on the chemical linkage of Se and Hg. In marine mammals and 

humans, Se and Hg concentrations are closely related, almost linearly in a 1:1 molar ratio, but this relation blurs 

in teleosts in which Se is in abundance, and fails in birds (Koeman et al. 1975; Beijer and Jernelov 1978; Orvini 

et al. 1980; Cappon and Smith 1982). 

TOXICITY 

MAMMALS AND BIRDS 

“The element selenium can be traced in an orderly sequence from its origin in the earth's crust to specific 

geological formation, to distribution of specific genera and groups of plants which require the element for their 

growth, to the accumulation in vegetation, and to its subsequent toxicity to birds or mammals that consume the 

seleniferous foods” (Rosenfeld and Beath 1964). Selenium poisoning in livestock, discussed here, was largely 

extracted from reviews by Rosenfeld and Beath (1964), Frost (1972), Fishbein (1977), Harr (1978), Shamberger 

(1981), NRC (1983), and Wilber (1983). 

In livestock, there are three basic types of selenium poisoning: acute, resulting from consumption (usually in

a single feeding) of a sufficient quantity of highly seleniferous weeds; “blind staggers,” from consumption of 

moderately toxic amounts of seleniferous weeds over an extended period of time; and "alkali disease," caused 

by the consumption of moderately seleniferous grains and forage grasses over a period of several weeks to 

months. 

Acute poisoning is associated with plant materials containing 400 to 800 ppm Se: sheep died when fed 

amounts of plant material ranging from 8 to 16 g/kg body weight, or about 3.2 to 12.8 mg Se/kg body weight. 

The minimum lethal dose of Se administered orally as selenite (mg Se per kg body weight) ranged from 3.3 for 

horses and mules to 11 for cattle and 15 for swine. Other modes of administration were more toxic, e.g., 2 and 

1.2 mg Se/ kg body weight given subcutaneously killed swine in 4 hours and 5 days, respectively; and 1.5-6.0 

mg Se/kg body weight given intravenously or intraperitoneally to rats and rabbits were fatal. Accidental toxicosis 

of sheep and cattle from overtreatment with commercial mixtures of Se salts and vitamin E are also documented 

for Australia and New Zealand. Acute Se poisoning in domestic livestock is characterized by abnormal 

movements, lowered head, drooped ears, diarrhea, elevated temperature, rapid pulse, labored breathing, 

bloating with abdominal pain, increased urination, and dilated pupils. Before death, which is due to respiratory 

failure, there is complete prostration and lethargy. Duration of illness extends from a few hours to several days, 

depending on the toxicity of plant material ingested. In these cases, Se is distributed by the circulatory system to 

all body organs, the concentrations being highest in liver, blood, kidney, spleen and brain, and lowest in muscle, 

skin, hair and bone. Elimination is primarily in the urine; smaller quantities are excreted with the feces, breath, 

perspiration, and bile. Postmortem examinations indicate many pathological changes in the heart, lungs, rumen, 

liver, kidney, and other organs. No effective treatment is known for counteracting toxic effects of large amounts 

of ingested selenium. 

Chronic selenosis may be induced by dietary exposure to natural selenite, selenate, or seleniferous

feedstuffs at dietary concentrations between 1 ppm (rat) and 44 ppm (horse), or from water containing 0.5 to 2.0 

ppm of Se. Cattle fed 0.5 mg Se/kg body weight 3 times weekly lost their appetite; sheep fed up to 75 mg

selenite daily developed myocardial degeneration and fibrosis, pulmonary congestion, and edema. The 

minimum toxic concentration of Se in lifetime exposure of rats (a comparatively sensitive species) fed Sedeficient diets fortified with Se was 0.35 mg Se/kg diet, as judged by changes in liver chemistry; and 0.75 mg 

Se/kg diet, as judged by longevity, and histological changes in heart, kidney, and spleen. These concentrations 

are 10 times the nutritional threshold for Se, and about 25% of the minimum lifetime exposure to Se in natural 

feedstuffs that produces similar effects under the same experimental conditions. Signs of chronic selenosis 

include skin lesions, lymph channel inflammation, loss of hair and nails, anemia, enlarged organs (spleen, 

pancreas, liver), fatigue, lassitude, and dizziness. “Blind staggers” is characterized by anorexia, emaciation, and 

sudden collapse, followed by death. Typically, the upper intestinal tract is ulcerated. In “alkali disease,” in cattle, 

23
hogs, and horses that had eaten seleniferous grains, the signs were deformation and sloughing of the hooves, 

hair loss, lassitude, erosion of the articular cartilages, reduced conception, increased reabsorption of fetuses, 

and degeneration of heart, kidney, and liver. It is likely that Se displaces sulfur in keratin, resulting in structural 

changes in hair, nails, and hooves (Fishbein 1977). 

Among birds, it appears that domestic chickens are extremely sensitive to Se; reduced hatching of eggs 

was recorded at 7 to 9 ppm Se in feed (Ort and Latshaw 1978). Similar results were observed by El-Bergearmi 

et al. (1977) in Japanese quail at 6 and 12 ppm dietary selenite. Studies in progress at the Patuxent Wildlife

Research Center with adult mallards indicated that 100 ppm dietary selenium (as sodium selenite) was fatal 

within one month, but that survival was high at 25 ppm after 3 months. Poor egg hatchability was recorded in the 

25 ppm selenite group, but not in the 10 ppm selenite group; however, hatching percent was reduced in eggs of 

adults fed 10 ppm of Se as selenomethionine (Dr. G. Heinz, pers. comm.). It appears obvious that additional 

research is needed on the toxicology of organoselenium compounds. 

Selenosis in warm blooded organisms is modified by numerous factors, including method of administration,

chemical form of Se, dietary composition, and age and needs of the organism. For example, Se administered in 

natural feedstuffs is only about one-fourth as toxic as are similar exposures in water or purified feeds (Harr 

1978). Concurrent ingestion of minerals and rough or high protein feeds reduces Se toxicity, and exposure by 

diet is less toxic than exposure parenterally or by inhalation. 

Many compounds are known to prevent or reduce toxic effects of subacute and chronic selenosis in pigs,

beef cattle, and other warmblooded organisms. A partial list includes arsenic, strychnine sulfate, tungsten,

germanium, antimony, beet pectin, high-fat diets, ACTH injections, sulfate, increased dietary proteins, 

lactalbumin, ovalbumin, wheat protein, dried brewer's yeast, desiccated liver, linseed oil meal, glucosamine, 

hemocysteine, creatine, methionine, and choline. Not all of these compounds afforded equal protection against 

various Se formulations; the reasons for the difference are not clear, but it appears that the subject of 

selenoprotective agents warrants additional research effort. 

AQUATIC ORGANISMS 

Among sensitive species of aquatic organisms, death was observed at water concentrations between 60 

and 600 ppb Se; early life history stages that were subjected to comparatively lengthy exposures accounted for 

most of these data (Table 3). Latent mortality after exposure to comparatively high Se concentrations has been 

documented, but not extensively. For example, all embryos of the zebrafish (Brachydanio rerio) survived 

exposure to 3,000 ppb of Se during development, but more than 90% of the resultant larvae died soon after 

hatching; at 1,000 ppb, survival was similar to that in controls (Niimi and LaHam 1975). It has been suggested 

(EPA 1980) that selenite is more toxic than selenate and is preferentially concentrated over selenate by 

mussels, Mytilus galloprovincialis (Measures and Burton 1980). Selenite is generally more toxic to early life 

history stages and effects are most pronounced at elevated temperatures (Klaverkamp et al. 1983a). Also, Se 

salts may be converted to methylated forms by microorganisms, and these are readily accumulated by aquatic 

vertebrates (Klaverkamp et al. 1983a). Among freshwater algae species, it has been demonstrated that selenite, 

selenate, selenomethionine, and selenopurine are all toxic, but that sulphur, as sulphate, has a significant 

protective role against Se toxicity (Kumar and Prakash 1971). Numerous additional chemical compounds and 

mixtures probably protect against Se toxicity, much as Se protects against toxic effects of mercury salts and 

other chemicals, but data are sparse on Se protective agents. 

Almost 50 years ago, Ellis et al. (1937) recorded a long list of signs of selenium poisoning in teleosts: loss of 

equilibrium, lethargy, contraction of dermal chromatophores, loss of coordination, muscle spasms, protruding 

eyes, swollen abdomen, liver degeneration, reduction in blood hemoglobin and erythrocyte number, and 

increase in white blood cells. Sorensen et al. (1984), observed most of these signs in Se-poisoned green 

sunfish together with elevated liver Se concentrations, reduced blood hematocrit, enlarged liver, histopathology 

of kidney and heart, swollen gill lamellae with extensive cellular vacuolization, and necrotic and degenerating 

ovarian follicles. 

24
Table 3. Toxicity of selenium salts to aquatic biota. Values shown are in μg/l (ppb) in medium fatal to 50% of the 

organisms during exposure for various intervals. 

Medium, taxonomic Exposure LC-50 Referencea 

group, and species interval (ppb) 

in hours (h),

days (d), or 

life cycle (LC)

FRESHWATER 

 Algae 

 Anabaena variabilis 96 h 15,000-17,000 Kumar and Prakash 1971 

 Anacystis nidulans 96 h 30,000-40,000

 Oedogonium cardiacum 48 h <100 Nassos et al. 1980 

 Molluscs 

 Snail, Physa sp. 96 h 24,000 Reading 1979

 Snail, Physa sp. 48 h >10,000 Nassos et al. 1980 

 Insects 

 Mosquito larvae, Culex fatigans 48 h <3,100

 Midge, Tanytarsus dissimilis 96 h 42,400 EPA 1980 

 Crustaceans 

 Cladoceran, Daphnia magna 48 h <250 Nassos et al. 1980 

" 96 h 710 Halter et al. 1980 

 " 14 d 430 

 " 28 d 240 EPA 1980 

 " LC 70-120 

 Scud, 96 h 760 Adams 1976

 Hyallela azteca 96 h 340 Murphy 1981

" 14 d 70 Halter et al. 1980 

 Cladoceran, Daphnia pulex 96 h 3,870 Reading 1979

 LC 600-800 EPA 1980 

 Amphibians 

 Frog, Xenopus laevis 

Embryo 27 h 20,000 Browne and Dumont 1979

 " 61 h 10,000 

 " 96 h 4,000 

 " 113 h 2,000 

 Tadpole 3 d 8,000 

 " 5 d 2,600 

 " 7 d 1,500 

 Fish 

 Goldfish, Carassius auratus 96 h 26,100 Cardwell et al. 1976 

 " 14 d 6,300 

 White sucker, Catostomus 48 h 48,600 Duncan and Klaverkamp 

 commersoni 96 h 31,400 1983 

25
Common carp, 24 h 72,000 Sato et al. 1980 

 Cyprinus carpio 96 h 35,000 Spehar et al. 1982 

 Northern pike, Esox lucius 75 h 11,100 Klaverkamp et al. 1983a 

Mosquitofish, 48 h >>6,000 Nassos et al. 1980 

 Gambusia affinis 96 h 12,600 Reading 1979

 Channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus 96 h 13,600 Cardwell et al. 1976 

 Flagfish, Jordanella floridae 96 h 6,500 

 Bluegill, Lepomis macrochirus 96 h 28,500 

 " 14 d 12,500 

 " 48 d 400-2,000 Adams 1976

 Coho salmon, Oncorhynchus kisutch 

 Fry 43 d 160 

 Yellow perch,

 Perca flavescens 10 d 4,800 Klaverkamp et al. 1983a 

 Fathead minnow, Pimephales promelas 

Fry 96 h 2,100 Cardwell et al. 1976 

 Juvenile 96 h 5,200 

 Adult 96 h 2,200-12,500 Adams 1976

 " 96 h 620-970 EPA 1980 

" 96 h 1,000 Halter et al. 1980 

" 9 d 2,100 Cardwell et al. 1976 

 " 48 d 1,100 Adams 1976

 LC 83-153 EPA 1980 

 Rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri 96 h 8,100 Spehar et al. 1982 

 " 96 h 4,200-4,500 Adams 1976

 " 96 h 12,500 EPA 1980 

" 96 h 7,200-8,800 Hodson et al. 1980 

 " 9 d 5,400-7,000 

 " 21 d 460 Adams 1976

 " 96 d 290 

 " LC 60-130 EPA 1980 

 Brook trout, Salvelinus fontinalis 96 h 10,200 Cardwell et al. 1976 

MARINE 

 Molluscs 

 Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas 

 Larvae 48 h >10,000 Glickstein 1978 

 Crustaceans 

 Copepod, Acartia clausi 96 h 1,740 EPA 1980 

 Copepod, A. tonsa 96 h 800 

 Blue crab, Callinectes sapidus 96 h 4,600 Ward et al. 1981 

 (2,700-7,800) 

 Dungeness crab, Cancer magister 

 Larvae 96 h 1,040 Glickstein 1978 

 Mysid shrimp, Mysidopsis bahia 

26
Adult 96 h 1,500 Ward et al. 1981 

 (1,100-2,100) 

 Juvenile 96 h 600 EPA 1980 

 Egg LC 127-143 

 Brown shrimp, Penaeus aztecus 96 h 1,200 Ward et al. 1981 

 (800-1,800) 

 Fish 

 Fourspine stickleback, Apeltes quadracus 96 h 17,350 EPA 1980 

 Sheepshead minnow, Cyprinodon variegatus 

 Adult 96 h 7,400-67,100

Egg through juvenile LC 470-970 Ward et al. 1981 

 Pinfish, Lagodon rhomboides 96 h 4,400 

 (2,900-6,700) 

 Haddock, Melanogrammus aeglifinus

 Larvae 96 h 600 EPA 1980 

 Atlantic silverside, Menidia menidia 96 h 9,725 

 Summer flounder, Paralichthys dentatus

 Larvae 96 h 3,500 

 Winter flounder, Pseudopleuronectes americanus 

 Larvae 96 h 14,250-15,100

aEach reference applies to the values in the same row, and in the rows that follow for which no other reference 

is indicated. 

SUBLETHAL AND LATENT EFFECTS 

Results of laboratory studies and field investigations with fish, mammals, and birds have led to general 

agreement that elevated concentrations of selenium in diet or water were associated with reproductive 

abnormalities including congenital malformations, selective bioaccumulation by the organism, and growth 

retardation. Not as extensively documented, but nevertheless important, are reports of selenium-induced 

chromosomal aberrations, intestinal lesions, shifts in species composition of freshwater algal communities, 

swimming impairment of protozoans, and behavioral modifications.

AQUATIC ORGANISMS 

In green sunfish from a lake in North Carolina receiving selenium (as fly ash wastes from a coal-fired power 

station), reproduction failed and the population declined markedly. In these fish, Se levels were elevated in liver 

(up to 21.4 ppm fresh weight) and other tissues; kidney, heart, liver, and gill showed histopathology; and blood 

chemistry was altered. Ovaries of fish had numerous necrotic and ruptured egg follicles that may have 

contributed to the population extinction (Sorensen et al. 1984). It is probable that Se uptake by plankton 

(containing 41-97 ppm dry weight) from lake water (9-12 ppb) introduced Se to the food chain where it ultimately 

reached elevated levels in fish through biomagnification (Cumbie and Van Horn 1978). In laboratory tests, 

however, eggs of common carp hatched normally when incubated in media containing 5,000 ppb of Se 

(Huckabee and Griffith 1974), as did eggs of lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush) at 10,000 ppb of Se 

(Klaverkamp et al. 1983b). In frogs (Xenopus laevis), cranial and vertebral deformities and lowered survival 

were documented during development in water with Se concentrations of 2,000 ppb or higher (Browne and 

Dumont 1979). 

At water concentrations of 47 to 53 ppb, Se was associated with anemia and reduced hatch of rainbow trout 

(Hodson et al. 1980), growth retardation of freshwater green algae (Hutchinson and Stokes 1975; Klaverkamp et 

al. 1983a), and shifts in species composition of freshwater algal communities (Patrick 1978). At 250 ppb Se, 

growth was reduced in rainbow trout fry after exposure for 21 d (Adams 1976), and goldfish demonstrated an 

avoidance response after 48 h (Weir and Hine 1970). At Se water concentrations of 7,930-11,000 ppb, growth 

27
was inhibited in freshwater and marine algae (Patrick 1978; EPA 1980), and swimming rate was reduced in the 

protozoan Tetrahymena pyriformis (Bovee and O'Brien 1982). Eggs of channel catfish exposed to certain metals 

(including cadmium, mercury, and copper) produced an increased percentage of albino fry; however, eggs 

exposed to 250 ppb Se produced fry with normal pigmentation (Westernman and Birge 1978). 

A significant number of chromosomal aberrations was induced in the edible goby, Boleophthalmus

dussumieri, by Se after intramuscular and water exposures (Krishnaja and Rege 1982). Intramuscular injections

of Se as low as 0.1 mg/kg body weight, or 3,200 ppb in the water column, were associated with a marked 

enhancement of polyploid cells 76-96 h postadministration; some deaths were recorded at higher test 

concentrations. Selenite was more effective than selenate in inducing chromosomal aberrations. The authors 

concluded that a relatively narrow range of Se concentrations lead to a mutagenic rather than a lethal effect. 

Accumulation of Se by aquatic organisms is highly variable. In short-term (48 h) laboratory tests at Se water 

concentrations of 0.015 to 3.3 ppb, Nassos et al. (1980) reported biological concentration factors (BCF) of 460 

for mosquitofish to 32,000 for a freshwater gastropod; values were intermediate for daphnids (2,100), plankton 

(2,600), and Fundulus kansae (3,300), the freshwater killifish. High BCF's (>680) were recorded for freshwater 

diatoms subjected to maximum concentrations of 40 ppb Se (Patrick 1978). Livers from rainbow trout and brown 

trout may contain from 50 to 70 ppm Se fresh weight during lifetime exposure in seleniferous (12.3-13.3 ppb) 

water, and have BCF values of 3,759 to 5,691 (Kaiser et al. 1979); BCF values were 361 to 390 for skin, and 

about 180 for muscle (Kaiser et al. 1979). In short-term exposures, most of the Se was probably adsorbed to the 

body surface (Fowler and Benayoun 1976c), and was then rapidly lost on transfer to Se-free media (Browne and 

Dumont 1979). In longer exposures, the BCF values in aquatic organisms were lower after immersion in high 

ambient Se concentrations over extended periods. Thus, marine crabs exposed to a water concentration of 250 

ppb of Se for 29 days accumulated Se over water concentration level by a factor of 25 for carapace, and 3.8 for 

gill; accumulations in muscle and hepatopancreas were negligible. Cadmium in solution enhanced Se uptake 

(Bjerragaard 1982). Exposure of common carp to 1,000 ppb Se for 85 days resulted in a whole body BCF of 6; 

additional studies of 7 weeks exposure plus 7 weeks postexposure at Se concentrations between 500 and 5,000 

ppb (Sato et al. 1980) yielded a BCF range of 0.6 (5,000 ppb) to 1.8 (500 ppb). Highest BCF's in carp were 50 

for kidney and 80 for liver after exposure of the fish to 100 ppb Se for 7 weeks plus 7 weeks in Se-free media. 

For carp, Se tended to accumulate in kidney, liver, gill, gall bladder, heart, bone, and muscle, in that general

order (Sato et al. 1980). Studies with freshwater organisms collected from a farm pond contaminated by fly ash 

with high Se levels (Furr et al. 1979), and with marine bivalves and nereid worms held for 4 months in seawater 

flowing through coal fly ash containing 6,200 ppb Se (Ryther et al. 1979), showed that accumulation was slight. 

Contrasted to this are the observations of Cherry et al. (1976) and Ohlendorf et al. (1986). Cherry and his 

coworkers collected mosquitofish from a drainage system that received high coal fly ash concentrations at one 

end and thermal discharges at the other; mosquitofish contained up to 9.0 ppm Se whole body fresh weight. Of 

40 elements examined, only Se, zinc, and calcium were accumulated in excess of the levels measured in the 

water. Ohlendorf et al. found mean residues of 172 ppm dry weight (range 110-280 ppm) in whole mosquitofish 

from irrigation drainwater ponds contaminated by about 300 ppb of Se; based on a wet/dry factor of 4, the BCF 

for whole mosquitofish was >91. 

Selenium accumulation is modified by water temperature, age of the organism, organ or tissue specificity, 

mode of administration, and other factors. In the marine mussel, Mytilus galloprovincialis, an increase in water 

temperature from 13 to 29°C doubled the BCF in 13 days (Fowler and Benayoun 1976b). Mussels preferentially 

accumulated selenite over selenate (Fowler and Benayoun 1976b); however, mussels did not reach a steady 

state in 63 days (Fowler and Benayoun 1976c), indicating that Se kinetics in some species are difficult to 

elucidate in short-term studies. Accumulation rates were higher in small than in large mussels (Fowler and 

Benayoun 1976b), as they were in freshwater teleosts (Furr et al. 1979). However, the reverse was documented 

for marine mammals and teleosts (Eisler 1984). When Se was available from both the diet and the medium, 

concentrations were highest in liver, kidney, and gills of teleosts (Sorensen et al. 1982; Furr et al. 1979; Kaiser 

et al. 1979), exoskeleton of crustaceans (Fowler and Benayoun 1976c; Bjerragaard 1982), and visceral mass 

and gills of molluscs (Fowler and Benayoun 1976c). When Se was administered in food to marine shrimps, 

concentrations were highest in viscera and exoskeleton, suggesting that ingested Se is readily translocated from 

internal to external tissues (Fowler and Benayoun 1976c). Concentrations of Se in crustaceans usually were 

higher in fecal pellets than in the diet; fecal pellets may represent a possible biological mechanism for downward 

vertical transport of Se in the sea (Fowler and Benayoun 1976a), as well as in freshwater environments. 

28
The time for 50% excretion of accumulated Se has ranged from 13 to 181 days in various species of marine 

and freshwater fauna. Biological half-life of Se accumulated from the medium has been estimated at 28 days for 

carp (Sato et al. 1980), 37 days for the marine euphausid crustacean Meganyctiphanes norvegica (Fowler and 

Benayoun 1976a), 63 to 81 days for the marine mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis (Fowler and Benayoun 1976b), 

58 to 60 days for the marine shrimp Lysmata caudata (Fowler and Benayoun 1976b), and, as reviewed by 

Stadtman (1974, 1977), 13 days for guppies, 27 days for eels, and 28 days for leeches. Studies by Lemly 

(1982a) with bluegills and largemouth bass showed elevated tissue levels after exposure to 10 ppb of Se for 120 

days. Time for 50% excretion in 30-day elimination trials was about 15 days from gill and erythrocytes; however, 

there was essentially no elimination from spleen, liver, kidney, or muscle. It appears that research is needed on 

preferential tissue retention of Se and its implications for biochemical and metabolic transport mechanisms. 

TERRESTRIAL INVERTEBRATES 

Concentrations of Se decreased in whole earthworms from 22.4 to 15.0 ppm (dry weight) as the rate of 

sludge application increased from 15 to 60 metric tons/ha. Concentrations of Se in soil and sludge were 0.3 and 

0.5 ppm dry weight, respectively (Helmke et al. 1979). Other studies indicated that some metals, notably 

cadmium, decreased in worms living in soils amended with sewage sludge but that Se concentrations were not 

affected (Beyer et al. 1982). The biological half life of Se in earthworms is estimated to be 64 days, a period 

consistent with values of 10 to 81 days documented for ants, birds, mammals, and aquatic biota (Stadtman 

1974, 1977).

BIRDS 

Embryos of the domestic chicken (Gallus domesticus) are extremely sensitive to Se. The hatchability of 

eggs is reduced by concentrations of Se in feeds(6 to 9 ppm) that were too low to produce poisoning in other 

avian species. Dietary Se excess was associated with decreased egg weight, decreased egg production and

hatchability, anemia, elevated kidney Se residues in chicks, and a high incidence of grossly deformed embryos 

with missing or distorted eyes, beaks, wings and feet (Ort and Latshaw 1978; Harr 1979). Selenomethionine

was more effective than sodium selenite in raising the Se content of tissues and eggs (Moksnes 1983). Until 

recently, there was little credible evidence that selenium adversely affected wild birds. However, Ohlendorf et al. 

(1986) reported severe reproductive effects in ducks (Anas spp.), American coot (Fulica americana), and other 

species of aquatic birds nesting at irrigation drainwater ponds in the San Joaquin Valley, California. Water in

these ponds contained abnormally high concentrations of about 300 ppb of Se, but low or non-detectable levels 

of silver, chromium, arsenic, cadmium, mercury, lead, and zinc. Of 347 nests examined from this site, about 

40% had at least one dead embryo and about 20% had at least one embryo or chick with obvious external 

anomalies, including missing or abnormal beaks, eyes, wings, legs, or feet. In addition, brain, heart, liver, and 

skeletal anomalies were recorded. Concentrations of selenium (ppm, dry weight) were 2-110 in eggs and 19-

130 in livers of birds, 12-79 in plants, 23-200 in invertebrates, and 110-280 in fish from the ponds, or 7 to 130 

times those found at a nearby control area. It was concluded that Se was the probable cause of poor 

reproduction and developmental abnormalities in the aquatic nesting birds, due to interference with their 

reproductive processes. The concentrations of Se in breast muscle of coots were sufficiently high (up to 11.0 

ppm fresh weight) to induce State agencies to post the area, advising against the consumption of more than one 

meal per week of this species, or of any coots by children or pregnant women (Ohlendorf et al. 1986). 

In studies at the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, Dr. G. Heinz (pers. comm.) is evaluating effects of 

dietary Se on mallard reproduction. Ducks given diets containing 100 ppm of inorganic selenite usually died

within a month; for some time before death they exhibited reduced food intakes (bordering on repellence) and 

significant weight loss. In birds receiving 25 ppm, survival was high after 3 months, but growth and reproduction 

were dramatically reduced. Teratogenic effects were evident at 3 months in ducklings of mallards receiving 10 

ppm, and preliminary evidence suggested that selenomethionine at 10 ppm dietary Se was more effective than 

inorganic selenite in producing developmental abnormalities. Ducks and their progeny appeared normal after 3 

months of exposure to 5 ppm and less of dietary selenite. 

MAMMALS 

Harr (1978) and NRC (1983) summarized nonlethal effects of selenium on mammals, including reproductive 

anomalies. Selenosis caused congenital malformations in rats, mice, swine, and cattle. In general, young born 

to females with selenosis were emaciated and unable to nurse. Mice given Se in drinking water reproduced 

normally for three generations, but litters were fewer and smaller when compared to controls, pups were runts 

with high mortality before weaning, and most survivors were infertile.

29
In rats, selenium did not induce cirrhosis or neoplasia; however, intestinal lesions were observed among 

those fed diets containing 0.8 to 1.0 ppm Se during lifetime exposure. The threshold requirement for optimal rat 

nutrition under similar conditions is about 0.08 ppm, again demonstrating the relatively narrow range separating 

selenium deficiency from selenium poisoning. Absorption of oral radioselenite by rats was as high as 95 to

100%. A single dose of radioselenite concentrated in the pancreas, intestine, erythrocytes, liver, kidney and 

testes, in that general order; tissue distributions from chronic exposure were similar. As expected, levels of Se in 

poisoned rats were highest in liver and kidney. Rats, and probably other mammals, can regulate dietary Se 

accumulations. Dietary concentrations in excess of 54-84 ppb were usually excreted in urine; however, when Se 

intake exceeded 1,000 ppb, pulmonary excretion was active. Excretion of Se in feces, bile, saliva, and hair 

appears to be relatively constant regardless of the amount of exposure. Yonemoto et al. (1983) demonstrated

that some selenotoxic effects in mice, including abortion and maternal death, were prevented by prior treatment 

with vitamin E, but exacerbated by reduced glutathione; the mechanisms for these interactions are unknown, 

and merit additional research. 

Table 4. Proposed selenium criteria for prevention of Se deficiency and for protection against selenosis. 

 Selenium 

Criterion concentration Reference

PREVENTION OF 

SE DEFICIENCY 

 Rainbow troup, Salmo gairdneri 

(water levels of 0.4 ppb Se) 70 ppb in diet Hilton et al. 1980 

Poultry 30-50 ppb in diet Fishbein 1977

Rats 54-84 ppb in diet Harr 1978 

Cattle 20 ppb in diet Fishbein 1977

Grazing sheep and cattle 100 ppb in diet Shamberger 1981 

Humans 40-100 ppb in diet Wilber 1983 

" 50-200 ppb in diet Harr 1978 

" 60 μg daily (range 22-220) Robberecht and 

 Von Greichen 1982 

 " 100-200 μg daily Shamberger 1981 

" 20 ppb in drinking water Robberecht and 

(if water sole Se source, 2 liters/day) Von Greichen 1982 

 

PROTECTION AGAINST 

SELENOSIS 

Aquatic life protection 

 Freshwater

As inorganic selenite Up to 35 ppb in water EPA 1980 

(24 hr average), not to exceed 260 ppb at any time 

 As inorganic selenate <760 ppb EPA 1980 

Great Lakes 10 ppb in water Wong et al. 1978 

Saltwater, as inorganic selenite Up to 54 ppb in water EPA 1980 

(24 hr average), not to exceed 410 ppb at any time 

 Livestock protection 

Drinking water <50 ppb NAS 1974; Wilber 1983 

Diet (total) <2,000 ppb (dry wt.) NRC 1983 

30
Diet (natural) <4,000 ppb Wilber 1983 

Feeds (natural <2,000 ppb Frost 1972 

Forage (natural) <5,000 ppb Frost 1972 

 Crop protection 

Irrigation water <50 ppb Birkner 1978;

 Wilber 1983 

Human health protection 

Seafood Not to exceed 2,000 ppb Bebbington et al. 

 fresh wt. 1977 

Drinking water <500 ppb Robberecht and 

 (as sole Se source) Von Greichen 1982 

Food (natural) <5,000 ppb Wilber 1983 

Milk or water <500 ppb Wilber 1983 

Daily intake (all sources) 

 Adults

 Safe 200 μg Shamberger 1981 

 Normal 60-250 μg Lo and Sandi 1980 

 Maximum tolerable level <500 μg Levander 1984

Infants 4-35 μg Lo and Sandi 1980 

 Children

 Age 1-3 20-80 μg Levander 1984

 Age 4-6 30-120 μg Levander 1984

 Age 7-11 + 50-200 μg Levander 1984

 Air 

 Japan <100 μg/m3 NAS 1976 

 USSR <100 μg/m3 NAS 1976 

 USA <200 μg/m3 NAS 1976 

 - 1 to 4 μg/m3 Harr 1978 

CURRENT RECOMMENDATIONS 

All investigators appear to agree on four points. First, that insufficient selenium in the diet may have harmful 

and sometimes fatal consequences. Second, that exposure to grossly elevated levels of Se in the diet or water, 

is inevitably fatal over time to terrestrial and aquatic organisms. Third, that there is a comparatively narrow 

concentration range separating effects of selenium deficiency from those of selenosis. And fourth, that additional 

fundamental and basic research is required on selenium metabolism, physiology, recycling, interactions with

other compounds or formulations, and chemical speciation in order to elucidate its nutritive role as well as its 

toxic effects. Accordingly, the proposed selenium criteria shown in Table 4 for prevention of Se deficiency and 

for protection of aquatic life, livestock, crops, and human health, should be viewed as guidelines, pending 

acquisition of additional, more definitive, data. 

Regarding Se deficiency, it appears that diets containing 50 to 100 ppb Se provide adequate protection to 

humans and to various species of fish, small laboratory mammals, and livestock (Table 4). Factors contributing 

to Se deficiency in crops include increasing use of agricultural fertilizers and increasing atmospheric fallout of 

sulfur; furthermore, foliar applications of selenate, although efficient in raising Se levels in plants, have only 

31
short-term value (Frost and Ingvoldstad 1975). There is a general consensus that Se deficiency in livestock in 

many countries is increasing, resulting in a need for added Se in the food chain.

Current recommendations for protection of freshwater aquatic life are that inorganic selenite concentrations 

in the water should not exceed 35 ppb on a daily average, or 260 ppb at any time (Table 4). These values are 

higher for saltwater life: 54 ppb daily average, 410 ppb at any time. The concentration range of 35 to 54 ppb 

recommended for protection of aquatic life is below the range of 60 to 600 ppb that is fatal to various sensitive 

species of marine and freshwater fauna, and in this respect affords an adequate measure of protection. It is very 

near the range (47 to 53 ppb) that has been associated with growth inhibition of freshwater algae, anemia and 

reduced hatch in rainbow trout, and shifts in species composition of freshwater algal communities. But studies 

by Cumbie and Van Horn (1978) and Sorensen et al. (1984) showed that water concentrations of 9 to 12 ppb of 

Se were associated with reduced reproduction of freshwater fishes, and their results strongly indicated that 

some downward modification of the Se freshwater aquatic life protection criterion may be appropriate. 

Furthermore, high bioconcentration and accumulation of Se from the water column by numerous species of

algae, fish, and invertebrates is well documented at levels between 0.015 and 3.3 ppb, which is substantially 

below the recommended range of 35 to 54 ppb. The significance of Se residues in aquatic biota in terms of 

bioavailability and Se receptor sites is imperfectly understood, and it appears that much additional research is 

warranted on Se pharmacokinetics in aquatic environments. 

Livestock appear to be protected against selenosis provided that their diets contain less than 4,000 ppb of 

natural (i.e., nonsupplemented) selenium (Table 4). This concentration is somewhat higher than levels reported 

for rats (Wilber 1983). Minimum toxic concentrations of Se in lifetime exposure of rats given diets containing 

natural Se were 1,400 ppb dietary Se, as judged by evidence of liver changes, and 3,000 ppb as estimated from 

longevity and histological changes in heart, kidney, and spleen. These values were only 350 and 750 ppb, 

respectively, when rat diets contained purified, rather than natural, Se. This relationship emphasizes that 

accidental poisoning of livestock, and presumably fish and wildlife, may occur when soils are deliberately 

supplemented with purified Se, or when soils or aquifers are contaminated as a result of faulty waste disposal 

practices. Although the concentration of <50 ppb for livestock drinking water and irrigation water for crop

protection is inconsistent with that of < 35 ppb for aquatic life protection, neither livestock nor crops appear 

threatened at the higher level. Since many waterways that abut agricultural lands or areas of high anthropogenic 

loadings of Se contain valuable and desirable aquatic species, it would appear that some downward 

modification of the current livestock drinking water concentration of Se is necessary. 

Recent field studies demonstrated that migratory waterfowl were heavily and adversely affected while 

nesting at Se-contaminated irrigation drainwater ponds in California, where food chain organisms contained 

between 12,000 and 280,000 ppb of Se. The source and fate of Se in irrigation drainwater ponds are largely

unknown; they must be determined so that alternate technologies for Se control can be implemented to protect 

waterfowl in that geographical region. 

Aerosol concentrations in excess of 4.0 μg Se/m3 are potentially harmful to human health (Harr 1978); 

concentrations in excess of this value (6.0 μg Se/m3) were regularly encountered in the vicinity of the smeltery 

at Sudbury, Canada (Nriagu and Wong 1983). It is not now known whether respiration rates of wildlife, 

particularly birds, are comparable to those of humans, or whether Se absorption energetics are similar, or 

whether wildlife species that frequent point sources of air contaminated by high Se levels for protracted periods 

are at greater risk than humans. Until additional and more conclusive data become available, aerosol 

concentrations of less than 4.0 μg Se/m3 are recommended for the protection of sensitive species of wildlife. 

Acute lethal doses for livestock species ranged from 3,300 μg/kg body weight of Se for horses and mules to 

15,000 μg/kg for swine; appetite loss in cattle was noted at 500 μg/kg. For humans, the maximum tolerance 

level is usually set at 500 μg of Se daily (Lo and Sandi 1980), and the “safe” level at 200 μg/day (Shamberger 

1981). Selenium dietary levels for man should not exceed 5,000 ppb; however, recommended maximum dietary 

levels in other mammals ranged from 1,000 ppb for rats to 4,000 ppb for horses. For all species, including man, 

there is a tendency to list Se dosage levels in terms of “natural” and “supplemented” levels, with the tacit 

understanding that “natural” levels are about one-fourth as toxic as “supplemented” values. Given the 

complexities of Se metabolism and speciation, it appears that greater precision and clarity are necessary in 

formulating Se criteria if these criteria are to become administratively enforced standards through passage of 

appropriate legislation. 

32
LITERATURE CITED 

Adams, W. J. 1976. The toxicity and residue dynamics of selenium in fish and aquatic invertebrates. Ph.D. 

Thesis, Michigan State Univ., East Lansing. 109 pp. 

Adams, W. J., and H. E. Johnson. 1977. Survey of the selenium content in the aquatic biota of western Lake 

Erie. J. Great Lakes Res. 3:10-14. 

Anon. 1975. Preliminary investigation of effects on the environment of boron, indium, nickel, selenium, tin, 

vanadium and their compounds. Vol. IV. Selenium. U.S. Environ. Protection Agency Rep. 560/2-75-005d. 

Available as PB - 245 987 from Nat. Tech. Inform. Serv., U.S. Dep. Commer., Springfield, VA. 92 pp. 

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