18

severely critical fertile area which had little
likelihood of loading its eroding soil into a
water course or treating a moderately critical
fallow-soil area which was certain to degrade a
nearby body of water, the latter would receive
attention through the Red Clay Project.

The Universal Soil Loss Equation was used
as an indication of soil loss and the effective-
ness of land treatment. The equation could not
address the problem of transport nor could it
be applied to raw streambanks or slide areas
adjacent to streams. In Pine Creek, 90% of the
land area averaged .15 tons per acre per year
soil loss. Little Balsam Creek study area
averaged .55 tons per acre per year and Skunk
Creek was within the allowable soil loss (3-5
tons per acre per year). The average annual
estimated soil loss for the study areas was
slightly less than 1.0 ton per acre. These soil
loss estimates indicate that a relatively small
percentage of the total land area contributes a
disproportionately large share of the sediment
in streams and lakes. The task of matching
conservation practices to such critical areas is a
process which must include an awareness to
conditions specific to each site as well as a
sensitivity to landowner attitudes, project costs
and potential benefits.

Although any erosion control practice may
be appropriate under certain conditions, those
practices which have been found to be the
most applicable to conditions encountered
during the course of the Red Clay Project are
listed below. The selection of these practices as
the most applicable is based on evaluations
using the Universal Soil Loss Equation and
on-site inspections.

1. Maintenance of Vegetative Cover. This
practice includes managing for trees,
grasses, crop residue and other materials
which maintain surface cover and protect
the soil from erosion.

2. Livestock Exclusion. This practice

Above photos: One of the primary recommen-
dations of the Red Clay Project is the use of
exclusion fencing to prohibit use in erosion-prone
areas. The photo at top shows cattle being allowed
to graze on a wooded hillside. Above, the same area
is shown after cattle have been excluded.

removes or restricts livestock entry into
critical areas. Complementary practices
are necessary to maintain this practice.
3. Alternate Watering Facilities. This is a
complementing practice for livestock
exclusion. Watering facilities allow for
proper distribution of livestock and pro-
vide an alternative to instream watering.
4. Stock Trails and Walkways. This is a com-
plementing practice for livestock exclu-
sion. Livestock trails and walkways

Above photos: Along with exclusion fencing,
livestock trails and stream crossings are recom-
mended by the project. These before and after
pictures on the John Lunda farm in Bayfield
County, Wisconsin depict the improvements that
can be made.

provide access to areas without creating
additional erosion.

5. Livestock Stream Crossing. This is a com-
plementing practice for livestock
exclusion. Livestock are kept out of
streams and provided access to pasture
and watering areas. Streambanks and
other critical areas are also protected.

6. Critical Area Seeding. This includes the
establishment of permanent vegetative
cover on critical areas.


12

along the river channels and drainageways.
Erosion conditions in the geographical
areas were representative of those in the
entire basin.

4. The roadside erosion taking place within
the study areas. Roadside erosion in the
study areas was also representative of the
entire basin.

5. The land ownership patterns. Land rights
were generally easier to obtain and it was
assumed that ongoing practice mainten-
ance would be easier on publicly owned

and.

6. Access to the work sites. Most of the
eroding areas in the basin had very limited
access. Although it was necessary to con-
struct some roads, this was minimized by
attempts to select easily accessable sites.

7. The distribution of geographical study areas
to coincide with political boundaries. An
attempt was made to have at least one
study area in each soil and water conserva-
tion district. The work done in each study
area was determined by the needs of the
sponsoring district, the budget limitations of
that district and the project and the unique-
ness of the site and the proposed work.
Using these considerations, six geographical

study areas were selected. In the following

discussion, references made to the sediment-
producing capabilities of these watersheds
were based on the use of the Universal Soil

Loss Equation during the planning stages of

the project. The study areas delineated for the

Red Clay Project were:

1. Skunk Creek Watershed in Carlton
County, Minnesota—A relatively high

sediment-producing basin covering
approximately 10.7 square miles. Land use
intensity within the basin was relatively low.
There were, however, numerous stream-
bank and roadside erosion sites in this
subwatershed.

. Little Balsam Creek Watershed in Douglas

County, Wisconsin—A moderate sediment-
producing watershed covering about 5.4
square miles. Land use intensity within the
basin was judged to be relatively low.

. Pine Creek Watershed in Bayfield County,

Wisconsin—A moderate
sediment-producing basin covering
approximately 15.7 square miles. Land use
intensity here was estimated to be
moderate.

. Spoon Creek Watershed in Iron County,

Wisconsin—A moderate sediment-
producing watershed covering about three
square miles. Land use intensity was low.

. Madigan Beach in Ashland County,

Wisconsin—As a site for shoreline protec-
tion work, Madigan Beach was selected for
its high, actively eroding bluffs and
exposure to severe, Lake Superior storms.

. Indian Cemetery Beach on Madeline Island

in Ashland County, Wisconsin—As another
area for shoreline protection demonstra-
tions, this site was selected for its low bluff,
narrow beach and cultural and historical
significance.

Red Clay Slope
Stability Studies

Red Clay Project researchers undertook
studies of the condition and behavior of the
soils within the Lake Superior red clay area.
The purpose of the studies was to utilize
available sampling and testing techniques and
opportunities to determine the depth of the
zones in which massive slope failure normally
occurs. Also studied were the mechanical
properties and behavioral traits of the soils and
their relationships to slope stability and rates of
erosion.

These studies resulted in findings which
have broadened the field of information on
which our understanding of the soils of this
region is based. Several conclusions were
arrived at from which corrective measures can
be derived. The findings and conclusions are:
1. The clay soils of this region generally

contain approximately two percent extract-

able iron oxide.

2. Man's early removal of the forest cover,
modification of natural drainage patterns
and other activities have promoted drying
in a five to seven foot thick surface zone of
the clay soils.

3. Drying in this surface zone has changed the
mechanical behavior of the clay from a
plastic solid to a brittle solid susceptible to
fissuring and massive slope failure.

4. Moisture accumulation in fissures provides
the necessary lubrication for flowing and
sliding to occur within the surface zone.

5. The topography of the red clay area will
continue to evolve under the influence of
natural processes.

6. There are workable practices which man
can incorporate into land use plans which
will slow natural erosion processes.


REPRESENTATIVE WATER QUALITY DATA

NEMADJI PINE
1976 1977 1978 1976 1977 1978
Mean Daily Flow CFS 307 230 456 26.50 22.90 26.00
Total P mg/L 07 07 10 06 04 04
a Gi d from left) of the U.S.
P Transport mt/yr 19.2 144 40.7 14 80 90 Geokagteal Scrvey ni Paul Cincussed the! Red
TotalN mg/L 5030110 2k 807 Clay Fraiest water aut monttaring propre
N Transport mt/yr 137.10 616 448.00 5.7 6.10 8.60 during a tour of the project’s work sites.
Organic N mg/L 38 22 84 16 22 30 :
Organic N Transport mt/yr 104.20 45.20 342.10 380 450 7.00 Water Quality
Suspended-Sediment mg/L 53 75 104 28 23 35 Monitoring
Suspended-Sediment nee . .
. Monitoring of water quality and sediment
Transport mt/yr 71677 67,240 132,398 1,685 2,389 7,499 was conducted at thirteen project stations. The
Mean Turbidity JTU 35 30 62 20 13 28 samples were analyzed for over fifty physical,

chemical and biological parameters. In
addition, a ground water study was
undertaken in Carlton County, Minnesota and
a bedload transport study was conducted in
*3,119 mt transported in 1 day following 5” rain over 24 hr. period August 23, 1978 the Nemadji River in Douglas County,
2,224 mt transported in 3 days following storm event May 27-29, 1978 Wisconsin.
The findings of these activities are:
1. The streams of the red clay area are
el predominantly event-response in
character.

2. Pesticides and herbicides were not found
at any concentration in either the water
or bottom material samples.

3. Heavy metals were not found except for
trace concentrations at detection levels.

4. Fecal coliform—fecal streptococci ratios
indicate livestock and wild animals as the
primary contributors of fecal waste. Game
management and farm animal estimates
indicate that 50% or more of the fecal


Red Clay Interagency Committee was given
the charge of identifying the extent of the
problem and outlining an erosion and
sediment abatement plan.

At about this same time, the soil and water
conservation districts from Douglas County,
Wisconsin and Carlton County, Minnesota
met jointly to consider ways of reducing
erosion in the Nemadji River Basin. With
assistance from the Northwest Wisconsin
Regional Planning Commission, the
Onanegozie Resource Conservation and
Development Project and the Pri-Ru-Ta
Resource Conservation and Development
Project, the two districts prepared plans for
studying the problems and originated
proposals for funds to implement the plans.

In 1973 the Wisconsin Board of Soil and
Water Conservation Districts was instrumental
in arranging a tour of the red clay area for
representatives from Region V of the United
States Environmental Protection Agency. The
Environmental Protection Agency was
authorized by Congress to demonstrate new

methods for improving water quality in the
Great Lakes with funding provided by Section
108 of the 1972 Amendments to the Federal
Water Pollution Control Act. In May of 1974
with a grant from the U. S. Environmental
Protection Agency and the continuing
assistance of many agencies, the soil and water
conservation districts from Ashland, Bayfield,
Douglas and Iron Counties in Wisconsin and
Carlton County in Minnesota began the Red
Clay Project.

This document is the final report of the Red
Clay Project. It is the summary report which
presents the project’s findings, conclusions and
recommendations and is accompanied by a
technical report which contains detailed
accounts on the various research and
demonstration activities.


Cooperating Agencies and Personnel

Arrowhead Regional
Development Commission
Richard Isle

Minnesota Department
of Natural Resources
Dan Retka

Minnesota Pollution
Control Agency
John Pegors

Minnesota Soil and

Water Conservation Board
Steve Pedersen
Vern Reinert

National Association of
Conservation Districts
William Horvath

Northland College
Robert Brander
Tom Klein
Virginia Prentice

Northwest Regional

Planning Commission
Mark Mueller
John Post

United States Army
Corps of Engineers
Louis Kowalski

United States Bureau
of Indian Affairs - USDI
Charles McCudy

United States Environmental
Protection Agency

Ralph Christensen

Carl Wilson

United States Geological Survey
Eno Giacomini
Steve Hindall
Vito Latkovich
William Rose
Ron Wolf

United States Soil Conservation
Service - USDA

Clarence Austin

Don Benrud

John Ourada

Steve Payne

John Streich

Peg Whiteside

University of Minnesota -
Duluth

Don Olson

Michael Sydor

University of Minnesota -
Extension
Arnie Heikkila

University of Wisconsin -
Extension

William Lontz

Raymond Polzin
University of Wisconsin -
Madison

Tuncer Edil

Peter Monkmeyer

University of Wisconsin -
Milwaukee
Bruce Brown

University of Wisconsin -
Stevens Point
Bob Burull

University of Wisconsin -

Superior
David Bray
Donald Davidson
Philip DeVore
Albert Dickas
Larry Kapustka
Rudy Koch
Joseph Mengel
William Swenson
Paul Webster

Wisconsin Board of Soil and
Water Conservation Districts
Don Houtman
Eugene Savage

Wisconsin Department of
Natural Resources
John Konrad

Wisconsin Department of
Transportation
Emil Meitzner

Wisconsin Red Clay
Interagency Committee
William Briggs
Garit Tenpas


Livestock watering systems, such as this innovative
facility on the Clarence Day farm in Douglas
County, Wisconsin, provide water for livestock
excluded from streams.

7. Grassed Waterways and Diversions. This

practice involves the safe disposal of
runoff in properly installed and main-
tained grass channels. It reduces soil
erosion and provides stable outlets for
runoff.

. Animal Waste Management Systems. This
practice includes the control of running
water through areas of heavy use by
livestock and the development of a
system of storage, disposal and utilization
for animal wastes to reduce water pollu-
tion. Components of an animal waste
system are waste storage facilities, water
disposal and erosion protection devices
(diversions and waterways), animal waste
disposal plants, and cropping systems.

. Sediment Traps. These practices are
basins created by water retention struc-
tures to trap and store sediment.

Above photos: Barnyard improvements such as
diversions, grass waterways, fencing, trails and
stream crossings are shown here in these before
and after pictures on the Walter Johanik farm in
Bayfield County.

10. Streambank Protection and Slide Stabili-
zation. This includes any protection and
stabilization practices which withhold
significant amounts of sediment from
adjacent waters.

11. Foodwater Retarding Structures. These
structures serve the primary purpose of
temporarily storing floodwater and con-
trolling its release.

Top: Animpoundment on the Gerald Hammitt farm
in Carlton County, Minnesota serves to trap
sediment from Elim Creek.

Center: Depicted above is a grade stabilization
structure installed by the project on Skunk Creek
in Carlton County.

Above: Concrete cribs filled with riprap protect a
stretch of streambank along the Little Balsam
Creek in Douglas County, Wisconsin.

19


Mr. John Streich (left, facing camera), of the U.S.
Soil Conservation Service explains the land
treatments put in on the Clarence Day (center)
farm in Douglas County. The occasion was a
project tour by Wisconsin Board of Soil and Water
Conservation District members and advisors.

Mr. John Ourada (second from left), engineer with
the Duluth Area Soil Conservation Service office,
discussed land treatment practices in Carlton
County, Minnesota with Mr. Albert Zimmerman
(left), Chairman of the Ashland SWCD, Mr. Elmon
Ott, Wisconsin BSWCD, and Mr. Jerome Hytry,
Wisconsin State Conservationist with SCS.

contracts with capable agencies. All project

work elements were accomplished by

cooperating agencies and institutions working
under contract for the project.

As was stated earlier, the intent of the Red
Clay Project was for the existing institutions,
soil and water conservation districts, to run the
project. No systematic attempts were made to
analyze or evaluate these relationships. The
following findings and observations are based
on subjective assessments by the project
director, project specialist and other
investigators closely involved with the
management and operations of the project.

1. Five soil and water conservation districts
from two states effectively sponsored and
managed a basin-wide research and
demonstration project.

2. The multiple agency approach followed by
the project proved to be highly successful
even though differences in standards,
funding mechanisms and implementing
procedures between states posed many
communication and operation difficulties.

3. The application of conservation practices
was influenced by landowner attitudes,
long-range costs and site-specific conditions
as well as potential benefits, immediate
costs and the general applicability of con-
sidered “best” management practices.

4. The application of conservation practices
relied upon the voluntary compliance of
landowners and units of government.
Attempts to prepare and implement a
sediment control ordinance met with
considerable resistance from local elected
officials.

5. In certain critical areas, zoning ordinances
or regulations may be the most effective
tool to achieve erosion control.

. Due primarily to a lack of adequate funds,

there was a noticeable inability on the part
of some town-level and city departments of
government to cooperate with soil and
water conservation districts.

. None of the sponsoring soil and water

conservation districts had staff capable of
managing district affairs and projects.

. Soil and water conservation districts had to

rely principally upon federal and state
funds to carry out a program of the
magnitude and intensity of the Red Clay
Project.

. Higher cost share rates did help induce

landowner cooperation, however many
other factors (e.g. landowner attitudes,
practice maintenance, landowner age,
specific farm conditions, encouragement
from neighbors and professionals) were
influential in determining which practices
were applied.

25


Shoreline
Demonstration,
Monitoring and
Evaluation

Protective, preventive and remedial erosion
control measures employable under condi-
tions typical of those encountered along the
western Lake Superior shoreline were
demonstrated by Red Clay Project researchers
at two sites in Ashland County. Interest
evidenced in this aspect of Red Clay Project
work was, to some extent, attributable to the
severity of the problems and the uniqueness of
the areas involved. Interest also centered
around a contrast in techniques, one conven-
tional and the other innovative.

One of the sites, Madigan Beach, was
selected for its high, actively eroding bluffs and
its exposure to severe storms. Here a
technology entirely innovative for Lake
Superior, the installation of Longard tubes,
was employed. Longard tubes are large,
flexible vinyl tubes filled with sand and coated

Project Director Stephen Andrews (left) and
Project Engineer, Dr. Tuncer Edil of the University
of Wisconsin-Madison (right), discussed plans for
installing Longard tubes at Madigan Beach in
Ashland County.

The tubes were placed in seawall positions to
reinforce the toe of the clay cliffs and in groin
configurations to help build up protective sand
beaches.

Longard tubes help build up a sand beach. When
used to protect the toe of cliffs, Longard tubes will
probably be more effective when the banks behind
them are modified as shown here in the foreground.

with a protective epoxy paint. They were
placed in a variety of patterns designed to
protect the base of shoreline bluffs and to build
up a protective sand beach. Design layouts
used by Red Clay Project researchers included
differentially-spaced groins, seawalls and
groin-seawall combinations.

The second site, the Indian Cemetery on
Madeline Island, was chosen because of its low
bluff, narrow beach and historical and cultural
significance. Here a conventional rubble-
mound revetment was installed.

Both shoreline protection projects under-
went construction during the summer of 1977.
Subsequently they were monitored and
evaluated by Project investigators. At the end
of the Red Clay Project, arrangements were
made for the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers to
initiate a continuous monitoring process for
the work at these two locations.

Findings and conclusions which can be
offered on the basis of monitoring and
evaluation activities completed to date are:

1. Longard tubes appear to be competitive in
both cost and performance with more
conventional shore protection and beach
stabilization structures.

2. Bluff modifications may be an important
factor in the successful performance of
Longard tubes.

3. Rubble-mound revetments provide positive
shore protection at sites with conditions
similar to those found at the Indian
Cemetery site.

Arubble-mound revetment was installed on
Madeline Island in Ashland County to help protect
an Indian Cemetery of historical significance. The
revetment was used here at this low-bluff and
narrow-beach site.

21


16

significantly affected by turbidity within

the range of depths at which most produc-

tion occurs in these relatively shallow
streams.

. Bacteria exhibit no definite trends with

turbidity within sites, but do seem to have
higher counts in turbid than in non-turbid
sites. Fungal counts exhibit opposite
trends. Bacterial and fungal populations
are generally beneficial to the aquatic
system as they are the primary food
source for many of the macroinverte-
brates.

. Number of macroinvertebrates per unit

area, total number of taxa, diversity, and
biomass are not significantly affected by
clay turbidity and siltation within the
Nemadji River system.

. The size of particles on the stream bed

had much greater effects on macroin-
vertebrates than turbidity and sedimenta-
tion. Only where sand was the primary
product were significant detrimental
effects of erosion identified.

. All genera of insects which occurred in

clear streams also occurred in turbid
streams. Certain insects generally asso-
ciated with silts, especially certain mayflies
and beetle larvae, were found only in the
turbid streams.

. Laboratory monitoring of activity and

respiration of the stonefly demonstrated
no significant effects at turbidity levels
normally encountered in the Nemadji
River basin.

10.

11.

12.

13.

). Fish populations were not demonstrated

to change as a result of turbid conditions
but rather, because of water temperature
and discharge differences between turbid
and clear water sites. All species bene-
fitted from increased cover which is
harder to maintain in turbid streams due
to increased tendencies for slippage at
toes of the clay banks.

Walleye in the lower Nemadji River, the
Duluth-Superior harbor, and Lake
Superior benefit from red clay turbidity as
it enables them to inhabit the shallow,
more productive waters.

Rainbow smelt and four species of suckers
successfully reproduce in the turbid areas
of the Nemadji River.

Egg survival bioassays with walleye and
rainbow smelt indicated decreased
survival at turbidities over 10 ftu. Survival
was at least half of control at turbidities
prevalent in the Nemadji River. Levels of
sedimentation in the bioassay were much
higher than in the natural system, pro-
bably resulting in higher egg mortality
than would naturally occur.

Channel form and available cover are the
primarly factors affecting fish population
size for all species in the Nemadji River
system.

Land Management
Practices

Although the Red Clay Project offered
innovative opportunities and unique
challenges, most of the “on-land” erosion
control measures were not entirely new to
local officials, farmers and other managers of
the land. All the counties had long been
designated soil and water conservation districts
and had applied conventional soil conserva-
tion programs frequently in cooperation with
the Soil Conservation Service and other
institutions.

What was new was the opportunity to
accelerate these programs in areas of each
district where red clays pose widespread and
persistently critical erosion problems. What
was unique was the challenge of adapting
conventional soil management techniques to
the perplexing red clay conditions. What was
innovative was a mandate to apply these
traditional measures in combinations and in
locations which would yield some demon-
strable impact on water quality.

A typical five-step, problem-solving
approach was followed by investigators in
assisting with land management practices.
Generally, the first step was to identify critical
problems and inventory their locations. The
second step was to develop alternative
solutions. The third step was to assist in the
selection of the most feasible and acceptable
solutions. And the fourth and fifth steps were
to implement and evaluate the selected land
management practices. The presence of an
overriding objective of enhancing water
quality, and not simply of preventing soil loss,
served to influence the work, and decisions
about it, throughout each of the five problem-
solving steps. Thus, to cite a hypothetical
example, given a choice between treating a


suspended for long periods increasing the
water's turbidity. Further, the red clays contain
approximately 2 percent extractable iron oxide
which produces a very visible and
objectionable color. It is this iron oxide which is
responsible for the red color of the streams and
the red plumes where streams discharge into
Lake Superior. This phenomenon occurs even
when the turbidity and sediment rates are low.

Top: Like roadside erosion problems, streambank
problems are often severe. Unlike roadsides,
however, sediment from many streambank erosion
sites directly enters waterways.

Above: When erosion proceeds unchecked, large
gullies are often formed which can continue to
enlarge until corrective measures are applied.

Lakeshores are another source of
sediment directly entering the area’s
waters. In addition, man’s structures
are threatened by the loss of land.

Sediment from the Nemadji River enters into the Superior harbor
on the western tip of Lake Superior.


reasonable cost-share rates, general program
compliance and practice implementation
could be achieved through the voluntary
compliance of landowners. At the very least, a
voluntary compliance system should be used
initially and then, if this fails or if certain
practices, such as restricting use, necessitate, a
regulatory approach could be tried.

Because of the sensitive nature of
regulatory programs, local and state respon-
sibilities must be carefully delineated. For this
process, all past experiences as well as
innovative techniques should be utilized. Many
landowners have expressed the desire that, if
needed, regulations and ordinances should be
developed and administered at the local
(county) level. Locally-elected officials,
however, are generally hesitant to take on this
responsibility, probably because of their close
contact with the affected landowners.

If regulations are used, the state should set
minimum standards and should be responsible
for overall enforcement. Local management
agencies should have the authority for working
with landowners to settle disputes, supervise
compliance and recommend enforcement
action.

Actors:

—local management agencies

—resource conservation agencies

—private landowners and land managers

—public landowners and land managers

—county boards or their committees

—town boards

Activities:

—obtain citizen input on the need for local
ordinances and in developing ordinances
if deemed necessary

—develop ordinances in cooperation with
county and town units of government

—establish standards, supervise compliance
and make recommendations for
enforcement actions

Concluding
Observations

More than four years of erosion, sediment
control and water quality demonstration
activities are represented in the findings,
conclusions and recommendations
summarized above. Some of these results belie
conventional, or popularly held beliefs, views
and attitudes; particularly those refining public
perceptions of the nature of the red clay
problem or proposing new approaches and
methods. But far from all that has been
accomplished was unexpected or innovative.
Indeed, much project emphasis was inten-
tionally focused on ways in which traditional
land use-related institutions, procedures and
techniques could be reoriented to meet the
challenges posed by society’s renewed
dedication to.clean water.

What was learned from this experiment has
significance for the process of non-point
source water pollution control as well as for the
participants. In addition, several tools have
been developed or refined during the course
of the Project. A few concluding observations
in these three areas are offered below as a way
of further distilling the gist of the experience
and relating it to the future.

Process. Red Clay Project activities
suggest that key ingredients to successful water
quality management fall into three
fundamental steps of the management
process. As such, these ingredients become
conditions or prerequisites which, on the basis
of this project’s experience, are felt to be
needed to sustain effective programs. These
conditions are grouped below as they relate to
a generalized management process.

1. Those conditions that aid in the
definition of the problems and the
goals:

—a problem-encompassing management

institution, even if multijurisdictional

~—a common set of goals, objectives and
policies, even where multiple agencies
and levels of government are involved

—a persistent emphasis on critical area
identification and assigning priorities

—the careful involvement of a full range of
inter-and intra-governmental as well as
private-sector representatives

—an ongoing, continuous and broad-based
educational program

2. Those conditions that aid in the
identification of alternatives and the
mechanisms for selecting from
among them:

—the preparation of critical area manage-
ment plans

—the matching of alternative management
practices with site-specific conditions and
landowner attitudes

—the generation of cost-benefit and cost-
effectiveness information

3. Those conditions that aid in the
implementation, guidance and
evaluation of the management
program:

—the designation of a soil and water
conservation body as the local manage-
ment agency

—the reliance on voluntary compliance
prior to regulation

—the use of reasonable cost-sharing to
encourage voluntary compliance

—an emphasis on local innovation and on
non-structural, low-cost practices

—the use of continuous, long-term
monitoring programs

Participants. The Red Clay Project

results have the potential of affecting three

major groups of participants in non-point

source water pollution programs in a variety of

important ways. A few of the impacts which

can be expected are: 31


28

The Douglas County Soil and Water Conservation
District met with the Bayfield County Soil and
Water Conservation District to review shared
roadside erosion problems and methods for
treating them.

—private landowners and land managers

—special interest groups

—interested citizens

Activities:

—gather citizen and local government input

—inventory records to determine current
knowledge of problems

—survey the extent of the problems

—identify other local management agencies
with similar problems

—identify a coordinating group for local
management agencies with similar problems

Step 2, Definition of Purpose
Purpose:

Once the problems have been identified
and the geographical and managerial areas of
concern have been delineated, those agencies
involved must develop a system of goals,
objectives and policies. It is important that a
single set of goals, objectives and policies be
established for everyone working on the
program. This is essential where geographical
areas transcend political boundaries and
agency jurisdictions.

Actors:
—local management agencies

—local, state and federal units of government

—natural resource conservation agencies

—industries

—private landowners and land managers

—special interest groups

—interested citizens

Activities:

—secure cooperative agreements with
involved agencies

—hire local management agency administra-
tive and technical staff

—conduct cooperative work sessions and
planning meetings

—identify work responsibilities for involved
agencies and groups

—prepare goals, objectives and policies

—conduct public advisory meetings to review
and, if necessary, revise goals, objectives and
policies

Step 3, Inventory and Assessment

Purpose:

The third phase of the program is to prepare
a detailed inventory of the resources and the
problems in the affected area. This inventory
process is necessary for assessing the extent
and severity of the problems and will help
identify critical areas and determine treatment

Mr. Raymond Polzin, Douglas County Agricultural
Agent and Red Clay Project Secretary, is shown
here leading a discussion at one of the many public
meetings in the project area.

needs. Not only should the land resource be
assessed, but there should be sufficient water
quality monitoring prior to implementation to
determine the exact nature of the problems
and to serve as a base for measuring
accomplishments.

The culmination of the inventory and
assessment process is the assignment of
priorities to the problem areas. Critical areas
which contribute the most to the pollution load
of the waters must be identified and ranked
according to need and treatment potential.
Non-critical areas can also be assigned priority
for treatment under complementary or
subsidiary programs.

This entire process will require considerable
manpower and time.

Actors:

—local management agencies

—resource conservation agencies

—local units of government

—private landowners and land managers

—special interest groups

—interested citizens

Activities:

—arrange for water quality monitoring by
qualified personnel

—identify and map critical areas with the
assistance of landowners and cooperating
agencies

—set priorities for critical areas

—establish cost share rates

—conduct public advisory meetings to review
and, if necessary, revise critical area
priorities and cost share rates

Step 4, Securing Landowner
Cooperation

Purpose:

An important aspect of this entire procedure
is the acquisition of landowner cooperation.
The most direct method would undoubtedly
be the use of regulatory methods. This


Contents

on rn

12
14
15

16
20

20
21
22
23
24
26
27

31
33

Nonpoint Source Pollution Problems

Red Clay Problems

The Red Clay Project

Areas of Study

Red Clay Slope Stability Studies

The Significance of Vegetation in Moderating Red Clay Erosion

The Effects of Red Clay Turbidity and Sedimentation on Aquatic Life
in Western Lake Superior Basin Rivers

Land Management Practices

The Evaluation of Works Previously Installed by the Wisconsin
Red Clay Interagency Committee

Streambank and Roadside Erosion Survey

Shoreline Demonstration, Monitoring and Evaluation

Water Quality Monitoring

Western Lake Superior Basin Rainfall and Temperature Monitoring
Institutional Cooperation

Recommendations

Framework for Local Management Agency Implementation of
Red Clay Project Recommendations

Concluding Observations
Cooperating Agencies and Personnel


EPA Review Notice

This report has been reviewed by the Environmental Protection Agency and approved for publication.
Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the views and policies of the Environmental

Protection Agency, nor does mention of any trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or
recommendation for use.

Additional copies of this document may be purchased from the National Technical Information Service,
Springfield, VA 22161.


TREATMENT PRACTICES

Average” Average"
Estimated Est. Unit Unit
Needs Cost Cost Cost-Share Rates
Practice Unit (74) Planned Installed (74) (78) Bayfield Carlton Douglas

Conservation Plans NO 46 46 42
Livestock Exclusion AC 520 767 574
Access Roads FT 34,000 13,180 13,180 3.40 1.62 -—- 56 75
Animal Waste Systems NO 4 1 0 15,000.00 0.00 -- 75 --
Brush Management AC 390 64 49 4.00 54.00 60 50 50
Conservation Crop Systems AC 1,540 252 252 2.00 92 0 0 0
Critical Area Treatment AC 9 211 211 666.00 41.00 75 75 75
Crop Residue Management AC 80 0 0 1.50 0.00 0 0 --
Diversions & Field Ditches FT 51,800 23,800 11,500 75 48 60 75 50
Farm Windbreak AC 4 0 0 100.00 0.00 -- 75 =
Fencing FT 100,000 113,315 87,565 70 71 100 100 80
Field Windbreak AC 6,200 0 0 .20 0.00 -- 75 =
Flood & Sediment Retention NO 4 6 5 150,000.00 83,895.91 — 100 100
Grade Stabilization (Channel) NO 4 0 0 15,000.00 0.00 100 100 100
Grade Stabilization (Gully) NO 4 3 0 7,000.00 0.00 65 —- 75
Grass Waterway AC 106 5 5 500.00 1,272.61 70 75 75
Land Smoothing AC 810 73 53 25.00 16.50 50 -- 50
Pasture & Hayland Manage. AC 820 1,667 1,580 20.00 15.80 70 0 70
Pasture & Hayland Planting AC 250 716 634 80.00 109.18 70 75 70
Stocktrail FT 1,800 4,600 4,600 23.00 9.42 75 75 75
Stream Channel Protection FT 2,700 2,700 1,054 213.00 332.00 100 100 100
Tree Planting AC 165 50 18 100.00 162.50 80 75 75
Water Facilities (Ponds & Wells) © NO 0 32 30 2,250.00 2,562.00 100 100 100
Heavy Use Area Protection AC 0 1 1 750.00 750.00 100
Road Erosion Control

(with structure) AC 27 27 1 3.872.00 3,872.00 -- 75 75
Livestock Crossing NO 0 6 6 2,000.00 3,217.00 100 100 100
Average cost per long term agreement 12,447 9,000 6,280
Average cost per acre treatment 70 55 98.50

“Cost does not include technical assistance/administration
Tel

17


Nonpoint Source
Pollution Problems

With the passage of the 1972 Amendments
to the Federal Water Pollution Control Act
(Public Law 92-500), a renewed national
emphasis was placed on solving the problems
of water pollution. This act granted powers
and authorities for studying the problems and
for planning workable ways to solve them.

The act classified the serious water quality
problems which inspired it into two major
types based on their source. “Point” sources of
pollution include readily identifiable sources
such as municipal sewage treatment plants
and industrial waste discharge systems.
“Nonpoint” sources of pollution are less easily
identified because they are varied and diffuse.
They include runoff and seepage from agri-
cultural land, urban areas, forestry activities,
construction and maintenance operations, and
mining sites.

Common pollutants from nonpoint sources
are sediment, nutrients, pesticides, heavy
metals and salts. Of these, sediment is the most
abundant and, in some ways, is the most
severe because it is not only a pollutant itself,
but transports other pollutants.

Red Clay Problems

The red clay area of the western Lake
Superior basin extends in a narrow band from
northeastern Minnesota to the western portion
of Michigan’s upper peninsula. The
predominant soils in this area are red clays
interspersed with sands and silts. They were
originally deposited as lake sediment during
glacial periods but now, due to lake recession

Runoff from barnyards enters streams carrying with

it animal wastes and other pollutants.

and geologic uplift, they form much of the land

mass of present-day Lake Superior’s south
shore.

The soils are young and are undergoing a
high rate of natural erosion as a geologic
equilibrium evolves. When man settled in the
area his lumbering, construction and agricul-
tural activities removed the established
vegetation and altered drainage patterns in
ways that accelerated this already high rate of
erosion. Present-day activities, although not
intensive, do still aggravate the erosion
processes. In turn, erosion is detrimental to
man’s land and water-based activities alike.

The major nonpoint sources of pollution in
this area are the lakeshores, streambanks and
other slopes. The damaging pollutants are
sediment, turbidity and color. The hetero-
geneous mixture of clay and sand produces
soils with very little stability which, when
exposed to varying moisture conditions on
steep slopes, often erodes severely. Once in
the water, the heavy particles settle out as
sediment and the fine particles remain

Above photos: The construction and maintenance
of roads in the red clay area removes native vegeta-
tion and interrupts natural drainage courses. This
accelerates the erosion process which, in turn, can
result in damages to roadways.


10.

11.

12.

waste is generated by non-farm animals
(population density of 18 persons/mi2, 15
deer/mi?, 10 farm animals/mi2). Shifts in
contribution did not occur with fluctuation
in flow.

. Nemadji River suspended sediment

concentrations range from 2 mg/L to
1190 mg/L with a 3 year daily mean of
77 mg/L.

. Nemadji River total phosphorus con-

centrations range from .01 mg/L to
.36 mg/L with a 3 year mean of .08 mg/L.

. Nemadji River total nitrogen concentra-

tions range from .10 mg/L to 2.4 mg/L
with a 3 year mean of .63 mg/L.

. Nemadji River organic nitrogen concen-

trations range from .1 mg/L to 2.2 mg/L
with a 3 year mean of .48 mg/L. Organic
nitrogen is approximately 76% of the total
nitrogen and is consistent with
expectations of forested watersheds.

. Except at stations immediately down-

stream from construction activities it was
impossible to identify construction related
changes in suspended-sediment
concentrations.

In a very small watershed such as Pine
Creek it was possible to identify upward
suspended-sediment concentration shifts
that were not related to changes in flow
and were probably the result of bank
collapse or in-stream activities.

The Minnesota ground water study found
that in the deep valleys of the upper
Nemadji River there is a tendency for
upward movement of ground water. This
upward movement may cause wetting of
fissure zones from beneath thus
triggering slides.

The Nemadji River bed load transport
study found that only 3% of the total
sediment load is transported on the bed
of the river.

Western Lake Superior
Basin Rainfall and
Temperature Monitoring

The Red Clay Project conducted a
monitoring program designed to record ona
continuous basis the intensity of rainfall and
wind and to profile the temperature of the air
and soil. The program used existing
monitoring technology wherever possible, but
also involved the development of new
low-cost instrumentation techniques. It took
place at locations throughout the Skunk, Little
Balsam and Pine Creek watersheds.

This micrometeorological data base was
generated for its usefulness in illuminating
otherwise latent cause and effect relationships
between soil loss due to erosion and natural
phenomena such as the presence and intensity
of rainfall and significant fluctuations of soil
temperature along steep banks. The
information gathered represented a support
service to other research activities and, as such,
provided no independent conclusions.
However, the results are reflected in related
research work.

One of the major developments of this
program was the production and refinement of
a low-cost system for continuously monitoring
precipitation, wind, air and soil parameters at
remote sites.

Right top and center: Dr. Donald Olson of the
University of Minnesota-Duluth, in top photo, has
developed a low-cost system for the continuous,
remote monitoring of precipitation, wind and air
and soil temperatures.

Right: The relatively inconspicuous monitoring
‘equipment continuously collected weather data at
strategic sites throughout the red clay area.

23


Agency wip
Great Lakes National Program Office

SEPA

Impact
of Nonpoint

| Pollution Control

moe oe

Final Report on the
Red Clay Project
—Summary Report


10

RED CLAY PROJECT BUDGET
BY FUNCTIONAL AREA

Land Management 3.3%
Land Treatment 30.4%
Technical Assistance 22.2%
Monitoring and Evaluation 19.9%
Research 14.9%
Information and Education 2.0%
Administration 7.2%

RED CLAY PROJECT BUDGET

BY COUNTY

Ashland $ 249,629 6.6%
Bayfield 135%
Carlton 37.0%
Douglas 17.6%
Iron 8%
Research 14.9%
Information and Education 2.0%
Administration 72%

the authority to manage programs within their
district. This authority held by the individual
districts included the power to write contracts,
make local financial decisions and operate and
maintain their own programs and installations.
This procedure allowed districts to manage the
project in their area consistent with their
ongoing programs and policies.

In a similar manner, each soil and water
conservation district retained the power to
conduct other Red Clay Project operations in a
manner consistent with the established order
in that district. A voluntary compliance
approach was used to solicit participation by
local units of government and private
landowners. Participation, therefore,
depended upon individual priorities, budgets
and the ability to provide local services and to
meet local costs. The solicitation of landowners
for participation in the Red Clay Project was
done by each conservation district following
procedures established by that district. The
cost-share rates for practice installation were
also set individually by district. Generally, the
cost-share rates were consistent with local
conservation aid programs and were not
specifically designed to encourage program
Participation with artificially high rates.

Although many of the project operations
were controlled by the individual soil and
water conservation districts, overall
procedural uniformity was maintained through
the use of an operations manual. This manual,
prepared especially for the project, outlined
procedures for reviewing and approving
program items and for obtaining reimburse-
ments in a timely fashion.


The Red Clay Project

The Red Clay Project was a research and
demonstration project sponsored by five soil
and water conservation districts from two
states. The local district supervisors were com-
mitted to the task of seeking practical solutions
to the many forms of red clay erosion and the
resulting water quality problems. To assist
them in their task, they applied for and
received a grant from the United States
Environmental Protection Agency under the
provisions set forth in Section 108 of the 1972
Amendments to the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act (PL 92-500). The overall
objectives of this partnership were to

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CARLTON
MINNESOTA NN
BAYFIELD
WISCONSIN

Red Clay Project - general tocation map

demonstrate economically feasible methods of
improving water quality, to assess the
capabilities of existing institutions to
cooperatively implement a pollution control
program and to provide data and recommen-
dations that could be used in future programs.

The agreement between the federal
Environmental Protection Agency and the
local soil and water conservation districts
involved considerably more interagenc
cooperation than a strictly two-way, federal-
local alliance. Soil and water conservation
districts have been legally empowered by their
respective states to enter into cooperative
agreements with other units of government
and their agencies to accomplish common
objectives. Since their inception, districts have
built up working relationships with numerous
federal, state and local agencies. Using their
legal authorities and these established
relationships, the soil and water conservation
districts from Ashland, Bayfield, Douglas and
Iron Counties in Wisconsin and Carlton
County in Minnesota joined together and
called upon their cooperating agencies to help
them develop, implement and evaluate the
Red Clay Project.

To govern this complex association of
institutions, the sponsoring districts formed an
executive committee with equal representation
from each district. The Douglas County Soil
and Water Conservation District was
designated the fiscal agent and it assumed
responsibility for the grant with the Environ-
mental Protection Agency. The chairman of
this five-member committee was also from the
Douglas County District. The function of the
executive committee was to set administrative
policy, approve programs and administer
financial affairs.

Although the Douglas County Soil and
Water Conservation District was appointed the
fiscal agent, under the terms of the grant
agreement the individual districts maintained


30

Mr. Don Benrud (left), District Conservationist
with SCS in Barnum, is shown here inspecting a
recently installed watering pond on the Edwin
Carlson (right) farm in Carlton County.

—cooperate with landowners to ensure timely
and successful completion of the contract

Step 7, Maintenance of Practices

Purpose:

Local management agencies should be
responsible for inspecting installations and for
working with landowners to ensure their
continued operation and maintenance.
Policies and guidelines will have to be set to
provide for inspections, to guarantee
continued maintenance and to correct
maintenance violations.

In addition to monitoring treatment
activities on the land, water quality monitoring
will have to be continued to make certain that

benefits are ensuing from the applied practices.

When water quality benefits are no longer
derived from practices, consideration will have
to be given to altering practices to meet the
needs. When water quality improves to the
point where remedial measures are no longer
needed, alternate, less costly management
practices should be used to maintain the
elevated levels of water quality.

Actors:

—local management agencies

—resource conservation agencies

—private landowners and land managers

—public landowners and land managers

Activities:

—inspect practices to determine compliance
and efficiency

—meet individually with landowners to
encourage practice maintenance

—set policies for correcting instances of
noncompliance

Step 8, Evaluation and Adjustment

Purpose:

Conservation practices have to be
continually monitored, evaluated and, if
needed, modified. The entire water quality
management program should also be
evaluated continually and changed if
necessary. There is nothing unalterable about
goals, objectives and policies. When they are
no longer applicable to the problems at hand,
they should be modified to reflect the current
situation. The changing problems, needs, goals
and objectives can only be analyzed through a
continuous evaluation process.

To aid in the evaluation and adjustment of
water quality programs, supplementary natural

Mr. John Lunda (left), Bayfield County farmer, talks
about the work he did with the Red Clay Project to
a science class from a nearby school. Under the
leadership of Mrs. Sizer (left center), the class
developed a physical model of the Pine Creek
Watershed and the works installed by the Red Clay
Project.

resource conservation programs can be easily

and effectively tied in throughout the process.

As an example, the federal Resource Conser-

vation Act program can be used to help

evaluate water quality programs or,
conversely, evaluations of local water quality
programs could be used asa part of the

Resource Conservation Program. Similarly,

local management agencies can work with

ongoing Agricultural Stabilization and

Conservation Service programs to set

cost-share rates and administer cost-share

programs. And as a final example, the
application of conservation practices for
ongoing soil and water conservation district
programs can be readily tied in with the
application of conservation practices for water
quality programs.

Actors:

—local management agencies

—resource conservation agencies

—special interest groups

—industries

—conservation professionals

—private landowners and land managers

—public landowners and land managers

—interested citizens

Activities:

—continue collection of water quality and land
management data to determine practice
efficiency

evaluate data and program operations with
cooperating agencies

—establish standards and guidelines for
altering ineffective practices

—seek citizen input on program effectiveness
and revise, if necessary, goals, objectives and
policies

Step 9, Implementing Regulatory
Systems (Optional)

Purpose:
Given sound educational programs and


At one of many meetings with town boards, Project
Director Steve Andrews and former SCS Team
Leader Steve Payne work with town board
members to plan ways to solve roadside erosion on
town roads.

approach, however, does little to improve
landowner attitudes, encourage cooperation
or solicit effective planning and participation.
One indirect method, high rates of cost
sharing, may encourage cooperation, planning
and participation but, again, does not
necessarily improve landowner attitudes.

The development of a good conservation
ethic among landowners is necessary to
ensure the continued involvement of the
landowner in the application and maintenance
of conservation practices. Ideally, this should
be done throughout the planning and
implementation processes and not merely as
one step in the process. From the beginning,
continuous and concerted educational
programs must be undertaken by local
management agencies. Only through
education can recusant landowner attitudes be
altered and can a conservation ethic be
developed which would facilitate cooperation,
planning and participation and lessen the need
for any regulatory programs.

Actors:

~—local management agencies
—resource conservation agencies

—local units of government

—private landowners and land managers

—public landowners and land managers

—special interest groups

—interested citizens

Activities:

—initiate and maintain continuing informa-
tional programs for the general public

—sponsor educational programs to encourage
cooperation from private landowners and
units of government

—establish close working relationships with
private and public landowners

Step 5, Preparation of
Conservation Plans

Purpose:

When critical areas needing treatment have
been identified and assigned priority,
conservation plans for treating these areas
must be drawn up by landowners and qualified
professionals. Conservation plans must be
directed at specific problems in critical areas
and at the potentially most effective treatments
for these problems. Conservation planners can
not rely solely on pre-established, generalized,
“best” management practices.

Site-specific considerations that must go
into critical area conservation plans include:
assumed efficacy of the proposed practices for
each specific site, the costs of installing the
remedial measures, the costs for maintaining
the practices, the potential benefits to be
derived from treatment, and landowner
attitudes.

Actors:

—local management agencies

—private landowners and land managers

—public landowners and land managers

—resource conservation agencies

—other qualified conservation planners

Activities:

—develop alternative treatment practices

—select the most workable and acceptable
measures in cooperation with landowners

—secure implementation, operation and
maintenance contracts with landowners

Step 6, Installation of
Conservation Practices

Purpose:

The types of practices included in
conservation plans must be determined by the
specific characteristics of each individual site.
Efforts should be made to use innovative
techniques to meet unique site needs.
Managerial or non-structural control practices
generally can be used more pervasively—and,
consequently, more effectively—and at lower
costs than structural treatments. In some
instances, structures may be recommended
where land and water use demands intensive
protection. In other instances, regulatory
systems, such as ordinances, may be
recommended. This may be the case where
livestock and human use must be restricted on
eroding or erosion-prone zones.

The amount spent on the installation of a
conservation practice is a function of the
tradeoffs made between the greatest potential
benefits and the lowest actual costs. Coupled
with a strong educational program,
cost-sharing should be used as an incentive for
program participation. It must be cautioned,
again, that excessive cost-share rates, because
they do nothing to improve landowner
attitudes, should be discouraged except in
extreme problem areas where immediate
treatment is needed.

Actors:

—local management agencies

—resource conservation agencies

—private landowners and land managers

—public landowners and land managers

Activities:

—provide assistance and supervision for the
implementation of conservation practices by
landowner

29


Some nonpoint sources of pollution are streambanks ...

.. roadsides...

.+. urban construction areas...

.--and agricultural lands...



20

The Evaluation of
Works Previously
Installed by the
Wisconsin Red Clay
Interagency Committee

From 1958 through 1967, erosion control
practices were installed in Ashland, Bayfield
and Douglas Counties by the Wisconsin Red
Clay Interagency Committee. These practices
were monitored and evaluated by that
committee and their findings were previously
reported. Members of the committee were
asked by the Red Clay Project to reevaluate
their work to determine the effectiveness of the
erosion control methods and practices after
adequate time had elapsed for them to have
responded to a wide range of weather
conditions. The reevaluation also provided
current data on erosion control practices and
procedures which could be compared with
practices and procedures used by the Red
Clay Project.

The work done by the Red Clay Inter-
agency Committee primarily consisted of
roadside and streambank erosion control

Members of Wisconsin's Red Clay Interagency
Committee inspected a grassed waterway installed
in Ashland County.

measures. Some upland treatments such as

grassed waterways were also installed. The

reevaluation concluded that, after a lapse of
ten to twenty years:

1. Generally, most of these accepted erosion
control practices withstood the weathering
effects of the past one to two decades and
helped stabilize the areas where they were
installed.

2. When treating bank erosion, stabilizing the
toe of the bank is of primary importance.

3. Proper slope modification, seedbed, pre-
paration and seeding mixtures are
necessary to establish protective and
stabilizing vegetation.

Streambank and
Roadside Erosion
Survey

The Red Clay Project undertook a program
to collect all existing data on the extent of
roadside and streambank erosion problems
and to inventory as many of the unsurveyed
areas as possible within time and monetary
limits.

During the first phase of this program, the
literature-search, the most recent survey data
‘on streambank and roadside erosion in the red
clay area was collected from all available
sources. This information was recorded on
maps and in tabular form. The second phase
was to survey erosion sites along those road-
sides for which data was not obtained in the
literature-search and, thereby, making
complete the erosion survey of all roadsides in
the red clay area of the five counties. Portions
of three rivers whose watersheds contrast
agricultural land use, recreational use, and
undeveloped or wild area were also inven-
toried. The purpose of the streambank survey

Roadside erosion surveys were conducted in all five
counties of the Red Clay Project area.

was to compare erosion patterns in an attempt

to determine the impact of land use.

The information collected from this study
was used as support data for other project
activities and will be available for future use by
researchers, soil and water conservation
districts and others applying conservation
practices. The findings of the comparative
streambank survey are:

1. Despite differences in land use, the major
cause of erosion along all three streams was
basically natural. Direct erosion by differen-
tial stream discharge undercutting and the
resulting bank failure constituted nearly all
of the observed erosion sites.

2. At only a few sites was erosion observed
that could be directly related to agricultural
use and here the direct cause was that of
migrating livestock.

3. Man-caused erosion on the banks of the
recreational-use stream was evidenced at
canoe entry and exit sites. The damage
caused by recreational and agricultural use
was categorized as minor.


26

Recommendations

Soil and Water Conservation Districts
should be designated as the local management
agency.

The local management agency should be
given early and continuous involvement in
establishing and managing any future
non-point source pollution control programs,
plans and strategies affecting its area.

The local management agency should be
adequately staffed, and constituted so as to
provide balanced representation of the area
and its water quality interests.

In rural areas where regional problems have
been identified, multijurisdictional cooperation
should be used as an effective approach for
management programs.

Because of significant differences in
standards, funding mechanisms and imple-
menting procedures, non-point source
pollution control programs in rural area should
not involve more than one state.

Multi-agency programs should have a
common focus through a single set of goals,
objectives and policies to insure effective
management and uniform results.

Sufficient evaluation should be conducted
prior to implementation to clearly identify
critical areas and influential parameters, thus
ensuring cost-effective abatement.

Sufficient, but not excessive, levels of
cost-sharing should be provided as an
incentive for cooperation and to help defray
landowner costs.

The local management agency should
provide educational programs for citizens,
cooperating units of government and agencies
to establish and maintain an awareness of
water pollution problems and abatement
strategies.

The local management agency and its staff
should establish close working relationships
with units of government, utilities, private
landowners and industries to ensure the
implementation of erosion and sediment
control practices in conjunction with their
construction and maintenance activities.

Conservation plans should be prepared for
identified critical areas so that specific remedial
measures can be applied to those natural or
man-induced problem areas where water
quality benefits warrant land treatment.

The selection for use of any one, or
combination of, management practices should
take into consideration site-specific conditions,
costs, landowner attitudes and potential
benefits.

The local management agency should place
ahigh priority on management practices that
provide the greatest benefit at the lowest cost.

Where possible, maximum use should be
made of management and vegetative
measures. Structural engineering solutions
should only be considered where benefits
outweigh costs and environmental concerns.
Innovative management techniques, sensitive
to conditions specific to particular sites and
locations, should be encouraged.

In order for long-range water quality
benefits to be realized, management practices
should be maintained and monitored for
extended periods of time.

Water quality programs for the abatement
of non-point source pollution should be
closely coordinated with other natural
resource conservation programs to avoid
duplication of effort and expense and to
ensure maximum efficiency of all resource
conservation and environmental protection
programs.

A voluntary compliance approach should
be established in future nonpoint source
pollution control programs as a first, and
preferable, management procedure.

State regulations or local ordinances should
be adopted only where effective management
techniques necessitate.

If regulatory programs are used, the state
water quality management agency should be
responsible for setting minimum standards and
for overall enforcement.

If regulatory programs are used, the local
management agency should be responsible for
monitoring compliance and recommending
enforcement action.

The toes of slopes at erosion-prone sites
should be protected by vegetation or other
means.

On streambanks, disturbed areas and other
erosion-prone sites, vegetation should be
established as early as possible and maintained
continuously. For long-term protection,
advanced successional woody species should
be established, due to their greater root
strength. In non-critical areas, woody species
should also be phased into a herbaceous
cover, whenever possible.


Foreword

Since the first settlers arrived in the western
Lake Superior basin, the red clay soils
dominating the region have presented
problems. For those involved with lumbering,
construction, agriculture and transportation,
the primary concern was the pervasiveness of
the erosion problem and associated damages
and costs.

With the formation of soil and water
conservation districts in the 1930's and 1940's,
the red clay erosion problem, particularly as it
affected agriculture, began receiving attention.
In the early 1950's the first systematic study of
erosion and land use problems was initiated in
Wisconsin by the governor-appointed Red
Clay Interagency Committee. This early work
was primarily aimed at demonstrating
techniques for reducing upland and roadside
erosion and stabilizing streambanks. The focus
of this committee’s efforts was more on
treating the erosion problem than on abating
water pollution.

The first Lake Superior Water Quality
Conference in the early 1970's focused some
attention on the south shore erosion and
sediment problems. In response, Wisconsin’s

Pave,

ae



Hei
Bonk eight:

Stream Volley Side Slopes

Maximum Common

Stream Voiley Slope Setback Angle

Minimum Recomended

30°
20°
15°
12°
o 100 200 300 feet
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SHORE- SLOPE LOSS CALCULATION PARAMETERS.

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S0year) stabwiity 1s achieved

ferm stability 1s achieved <

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HEIGHT

TAKE SUPERIOR

A schematic cross section of Douglas County,
Wisconsin depicts red clay deposits in relationship
to other geologic features.

At left: A setback formula developed by Dr. Joseph
Mengel of the University of Wisconsin-Superior
would enable landowners to determine the distance
from the edge of the slope at which structures could

be built safely for a given period of time.

13


The Effects of Red Clay
Turbidity and
Sedimentation on
Aquatic Life in
Western Lake Superior
Basin Rivers

Research was undertaken to assess the
effect of relatively low levels of sedimentation
and turbidity on aquatic life in red clay area
streams. Through systematic water quality
monitoring, sampling aquatic life populations
and assessing the aquatic environment,
researchers studied behavioral patterns of
numerous species of aquatic life in both
natural and laboratory settings. Researchers
were looking for relationships between these
aquatic animal species and varying levels of
nutrients, turbidity and sedimentation.

Previous aquatic life studies in other areas
had focused on situations where man’s
activities such as logging, mining and agricul-
ture had had the effect of creating extremely
high levels of stream sedimentation. The
glacial lake deposits of the Nemadji River
system are highly erodible even under strictly
natural conditions. However, due to the nature
of the interrelationship between red clay
erosion and red clay sediment, the small
particle size of the clay and the amount of
extractable iron oxide in the clay, the general
condition of the streams is one of low sediment
loads, low turbidity and a high amount of
color.

Aquatic problems attributed in the past to
red clay turbidity have included the substitu-

tion of undesirable fish species for more
desirable ones, negative effects on spawning
runs, decreased oxygen levels and increased
nutrients as well as general observations on
“adverse effects on biological life processes.”
None of these statements can be supported by
the findings from this research in the Nemadji
River basin.

Analysis of areas of Lake Superior and the
Nemadji River system which are turbid
throughout the year due to erosion of uncon-
solidated glacial lake deposits indicated that
any direct, physical effects of this turbidity and
resultant low level sedimentation are minimal.
Furthermore, although turbidity does induce
important changes in aquatic life behavioral
patterns, changes found through this research
were, for the most part, considered beneficial
rather than detrimental to the survival of native
species.

Although a positive balance seems to have
been struck between present levels of turbidity
and sedimentation, and existing aquatic life in
the red clay portions of the Nemadji River, the
potentially severe effects of erosion on aquatic
life elsewhere, or even here under artificially
accelerated conditions, should not be under-
estimated. It is well known that soil misman-
agement can upset the natural balance to the
extent that severe short and long-term
consequences are inevitable for aquatic flora
and fauna.

The findings of this research are that:

1. Red clay does not contribute significant
quantities of nutrients to Lake Superior
but may serve to transport nutrients con-
tributed from other sources.

2. Oxygen levels are not significantly
affected by red clay or associated
organics.

3. Primary production does not appear to be

Project researchers, Dr. William Swenson, left, and
Philip DeVore, right, of the University of
Wisconsin-Superior, undertook research on the
effects of red clay sediment and turbidity on fish
populations and other aquatic life.

For the aquatic life studies, samples were taken
constantly of the various species in red clay area
streams.

15


IMPACT OF NONPOINT
POLLUTION CONTROL
ON
WESTERN LAKE SUPERIOR

“Western Lake Superior Basin Erosion-Sediment Control Project”

RED CLAY PROJECT
FINAL REPORT:
SUMMARY

A Cooperative Interstate Effort Between the
Ashland, Bayfield, Carlton, Douglas and Iron County Soil and Water Conservation Districts.

Prepared by:
Stephen C. Andrews Donald S. Houtman William J. Lontz
Project Director Project Specialist Project Editor
Prepared for:

U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Great Lakes National Program Office
536 South Clark Street, Room 932
Chicago, Illinois 60605
(312) 353-2117

Ralph G. Christensen Carl D. Wilson
Section 108(a) Program Project Officer

January 1979



24

During the planning stages, many agencies worked
together to get the Red Clay Project started. Shown
here are members of the Minnesota Soil and Water
Conservation Board, the Wisconsin Board of Soil
and Water Conservation Districts, the Douglas
County Soil and Water Conservation District, the
Northwest Wisconsin Regional Planning
Commission, and the U. S. Environmental
Protection Agency.

Institutional
Cooperation

The first organized efforts to systematically
study red clay erosion and sedimentation
problems were distinguished by a unique and
extraordinary amount of interagency
cooperation. In Wisconsin, the Red Clay
Interagency Committee was composed of
several state and federal agencies based in the
state capital. When working in the red clay
area, they received cooperative assistance
from locally-based representatives of many
more local, state and federal agencies. The
Carlton County Soil and Water Conservation
District in Minnesota joined with the Douglas
County District in Wisconsin to form an
interstate alliance of conservation districts to
seek approaches and funding sources for
solving their shared problems.

This multiple agency approach was
continued by the Red Clay Project. Rather
than attempting an elaborate analysis of what
instutional systems might work best, it was

determined to use existing relationships
developed over the years by county soil and
water conservation districts. Throughout the
United States, enabling legislation had been
passed in each state that permitted the
creation of conservation districts as special
purpose units of state government. Although
they developed differently over the past forty
years, districts generally evolved into political
entities having effective working relationships
with nearly every local, state and federal unit
of government and agency concerned with
natural resource conservation.

Soil and water conservation districts in
Minnesota and Wisconsin are functionally
alike in terms of objectives, authorities and
district operations. In both states, districts have
similar legal responsibilities to conserve the
natural resources within their boundaries.
They also have similar legal authorities to enter
into agreements with other units of govern-
ment to accomplish common goals. The major
difference between them is that in Wisconsin,
district supervisors are elected members of the
county board who serve on the agriculture
committee while in Minnesota, supervisors are
elected at large.

Dr. Tuncer Edil (far right, back to camera),
described the project's shoreline monitoring work
at a quarterly progress meeting in Superior.

Because of the wide geographical area
covered by this basin-wide research and
demonstration project and because of its
five-district, two-state sponsorship, a multiple
agency approach to project operations was
selected. The sponsoring soil and water
conservation districts formed a project-
governing executive committee consisting of
equal representation from each of the districts.
The Douglas County Soil and Water
Conservation District was designed the fiscal
agent for the entire project and its
representative to the committee served as
chairman. The committee met monthly to
conduct project business. Through
agreements, the scope of work and procedures
for each district were identified.

Representatives from participating agencies
were called together to form a technical
advisory committee, an information-education
advisory committee and a program advisory
committee. These committees met in special
sessions and, upon request at the monthly
meetings to advise the executive committee
regarding project operations. Because none of
the districts had staff trained in managerial
capabilities, project staff were hired through

Much of the project’s research was carried out by
members of the Center for Lake Superior Environ-
mental Studies of the University of Wisconsin-
Superior. Shown here from left to right are: Larry
Brooke, Lorraine Koch, Philip DeVore, Rudy Koch,
Lawrence Kapustka, William Swenson, Albert
Dickas and Donald Davidson.


Preface

The US. Environmental Protection Agency was created because of increasing public
and governmental concern about the dangers of pollution to the health and welfare
of the American people. Noxious air, foul water, and spoiled land are tragic testimony
to the deterioration of our natural environment.

The Great Lakes National Program Office (GLNPO) of the U.S. EPA was established
in Region V, Chicago, to provide specific focus on the water quality concerns of the
Great Lakes. The Section 108(a) Demonstration Grant Program of the Clean Water Act
(PL 92-500) is specific to the Great Lakes drainage basin and thus is administered by
the Great Lakes National Program Office.

Several sediment erosion-control projects within the Great Lakes drainage basin have
been funded as a result of Section 108(a). This report describes one such project supported
by this office to carry out our responsibility to improve water quality in the Great Lakes.

We hope the information and data contained herein will help planners and managers of
pollution control agencies to make better decisions in carrying forward their pollution
control responsibilities.

Dr. Edith J. Tebo
Director
Great Lakes National Program Office

GREAT LAKES NATIONAL PROGRAM OFFICE


32

Landowners and Private Interests
—increased confidence that abatement
actions undertaken will have
recognizable water quality payoffs
—continued assurance that society will
assist with the problem through technical
assistance and cost-sharing
—improved participation opportunities
—expanded knowledge base through
research, information and education
Local Units of Government and Their
Agencies, including the Local
Management Agency
—increased assurance that water quality
programs are both beneficial and
acceptable through planning and public
participation
—greater focus for cooperative action and
joint programs through critical problem
identification and setting priorities
—more effective reliance on the full
spectrum of management tools—
preventive and remedial, voluntary and
regulatory, structural and non-structural
—through formulation of alternatives
Non-Local Units of Government and
Their Agencies
—enhanced opportunity for society-wide
goals to be achieved in responsive and
innovative ways
—improved focus for meaningful roles in
cooperation with local program partners
—increased assurance that substantial
allocations of time, staff and financial
resources will meet the test of cost-
effectiveness
Tools. The Red Clay Project has served to
spotlight several tools of the trade that promise
important dividends for water quality
management. Some of these are conventional,
such as comprehensive critical area erosion

surveys, an open and continuous planning
function, and a posture of intensive inter-
agency cooperation. Others are refinements of
existing technologies, such as the development
of a solid state monitoring system for constant
recording of precipitation, wind, air and soil
factors at remote, unmanned sites. While still
others pose unique opportunities for pro-
gressive or enterprising management
institutions. The last category would include
the use of zoning setback formulas for
structures adjacent to critical slopes in such a
way as to establish a balance between the
location’s erosion rate and the design life of the
proposed structure. It would also include the
identification and designation of safe-zone
areas, or erosion conservancy zones, where all
land-disturbing activities would be excluded in
the interest of erosion control.

Perhaps above all else, the Red Clay
experience stands as evidence that much of
the foundation upon which highly complex
water quality problems can be addressed may
now be in place. It is possible to overcome
traditionally difficult social, economic, political
and institutional obstacles through a manage-
ment perspective balanced by research,
technical and financial assistance, and by
interagency cooperation and public education.
Existing federal, state and local resources,
public and private, can be combined ina
partnership for enhanced water quality.

U.S, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1979-651-396


Policies restricting human and livestock
activities to those which are compatible with
erosion control should be incorporated with
active management for protective vegetation
on streambanks, disturbed areas and other
erosion-prone sites.

Stream channel deepening should be
minimized through methods of retarding
upland runoff.

In managing for fish habitat, vegetation and
woody root systems that aid in the
maintenance of undercut banks, steep-sided
channels and deep pools should be preserved.

Along streambanks and associated drainage
areas, slope stability equations should be
employed to demarcate a safe zone within
which all human activity that arrests or reverts
the successional process would be prohibited.

On or near slopes where surface moisture is
low, surface drains and diversions should be
used to control water accumulation in fissures.

Longard tubes should be considered a cost-
effective alternative where shore protection is
warranted. When possible, and practical,
installation should be accompanied by
regrading of the bluff and reestablishment of
vegetative cover.

Framework for
Local Management
Agency Implementation

of Red Clay Project
Recommendations

Three primary recommendations
emanating from the Red Clay Project are basic
to the implementation of a water quality
program at the local level and serve as the
foundation upon which this framework was
developed. These recommendations and basic
assumptions are: that soil and water conser-
vation districts should be the local
management agencies for implementing the
nonpoint source pollution control portion of
any future water quality programs, that soil
and water conservation districts must have
adequate administrative and technical staff,
and that districts, as local management
agencies, must have early and continuous
involvement in establishing, managing and
evaluating water quality programs.

The framework assumes that adequate
tunding is available. It is important to note that
when funding is provided from outside sources
{non-local management agency), conditions
are usually attached which determine, in part,
how the funds are expended. Elements of the
208 programs currently being developed in
states across the nation would undoubtedly
have an impact on the refinement and use by
local management agencies of this process.

The following is a step-by-step process
designed for soil and water conservation
districts acting in the role of local management
agencies to carry out the administrative and
procedural recommendations of the Red Clay
Project in an expedient manner. By following
this generalized problem-solving procedure
and filling in where needed with the details

regarding their geographical area of concern,
districts can, in essence, implement a long
range program for nonpoint source water
pollution abatement. The following imple-
mentation process incorporates the
procedural recommendations of the Red Clay
Project which can apply to all soil and water
conservation districts in Minnesota and
Wisconsin as well as to similar districts
throughout the nation. Project recommenda-
tions relating specifically to the Lake Superior
red clay area have been presented in the
“recommendations” section of this report but
are not included in the following framework.

STEP 1, Identification of Problems
and Areas of Concern
Purpose:

The tirst step in this, or any, problem solving
process is the identification of the types of
problems that exist. Once this is done, an initial
estimation of the severity of the problems
should be made along with a determination of
their geographical extent. The determination
of the extent of the problems should include
data from monitoring, research and public
opinion.

When shared problems are evident, such as
might exist between local management
agencies within the same watershed, every
attempt should be made to pool problem-
solving resources. Agreements to cooperate
should be established between the involved
units of government and all concerned
agencies. Unless justification and incentives
are unique, such consortia that cross state lines
should be avoided.

Actors:
—local management agencies
—other local units of government (municipal-
ities, town boards, county boards or their
committees)
—resource conservation agencies
—industries 27


Red Clay Project -
detailed location map

mmm

!
|
| Skunk Creek
l
:
I

CARLTON

PINE :
Nemadji Basin I
Major Study Areas | w
Intensive Study é 3
Areas
Areas of Study

Early in the development of the project,
several directions for field study were identified
by the executive committee and the project
director with the assistance of a multiple-
agency technical and research advisory
committee. Research and field demonstration
projects were chosen which would increase
the understanding of the mechanisms affecting
the pollutant load to area streams and to Lake
Superior. Areas of study were also selected
which would, in turn, identify the effects of this
pollutant load on the streams and the lake. An
attempt was made to incorporate a wide range
of problem areas but at the same time to have

Little Balsam Creek

Lake Superior

Pine Creek

Fish Creek
Basin

them complement one another and provide
an integrated picture of the erosion and water
quality problems of the red clay area. A
premium was placed on the generation of data
essential to the formulation of useful recom-
mendations for the development of long-term
water quality programs.

Geographical study areas which were
selected were representative of conditions in
the entire watershed. Research was conducted
only in the Nemadji River basin. The
monitoring of water quality and climatic
conditions was carried out in all geographic
areas where research and field demonstration

| Oronto-Parker
l Basin \
I
H Micn,
! miss
i. 4 |
L, |
I i
I i
L..W ASHLAND tL IRON

activities were performed. The following

criteria were used to select geographical areas

for project studies:

1. The proportion of loamy glacial till and
sandy beach deposits in the uplands with
respect to the clayey lacustrine basin.

2. The relationship of present land use
patterns within the study area to land use
patterns in the basin. The ratio of open
cropland and pasture to woodland was
used to indicate the relative intensity of
land use within the area.

3. The presence of actively eroding areas

11


14

1. Koch of the University of Wisconsin-
rior and his assistants systematically checked
different tree species for their ability to intercept
rainfall.

Above: Dr. Donald Davidson, also of the University
of Wisconsin-Superior, conducted research on the
role of plant roots in stabilizing clay banks and
absorbing soil moisture.

The Significance
of Vegetation
in Moderating
Red Clay Erosion

The Red Clay Project conducted research
on the relationship between erosion and
vegetation. Two studies were done to
determine how vegetation helps control the
amount of water in the soil. Soil stability was
suspected to be related to a rather narrow
range of moisture content. Dry conditions

Work in the laboratory and in the greenhouse
provided much useful information on the role of
plant species in erosion control. Here Dr. Lawrence
Kapustka of the University of Wisconsin-Superior
inspects different plant species grown under
controlled conditions.

encouraged soil fractures and crumbling, while

wet conditions created liquid-like conditions

and soil slippages. Another study was under-
taken to determine the way plant roots exert
holding power to counteract soil movement.

The findings and conclusions of these
studies are:

1. Vegetation plays a major role in retarding
erosion in the geologically young red clay
soils. However, no type of vegetation alone
can completely offset the natural erosion
forces.

2. Grasses and herbaceous plants yield bene-
ficial anti-erosion effects. However, their
relatively shallow and weak roots do not
serve to prevent massive slope failure in
surface zones where brittle clay conditions
already exist.

3. Woody plant species have stronger root
systems which do help prevent slides.

4. Ofall vegetation types, climax woody
species (such as firs, pines and maples)
provide the best erosion control because of
their stronger root systems and the manner
in which their canopies intercept rainfall.

5. Woody climax vegetation species are not
efficient at lowering soil moisture content.

6. Herbaceous species and some woody
species (aspens) are relatively more
efficient at removing water from soil.

7. The use of vegetative methods specifically
for reducing soil moisture content in the
surface zones of red clay soils has not been
shown to be beneficial for controlling
massive slides. Species which are best
suited for water removal (grasses and
aspens) are most effective in drier years
when they tend to lower moisture content
too far which, in turn, induces fracturing,
fissure formation and a greater potential for
massive slide erosion.