GUIDE TO THE 

NATURAL COMMUNITIES

OF FLORIDA

Prepared by the

Florida Natural Areas Inventory

and

Florida Department of Natural Resources

February 1990
 i

Table of Contents

Page

Introduction.................................................................................................................. 1

Table 1: Florida Natural Areas Inventory Natural Community Rank........................ 3

Natural Community Descriptions

TERRESTRIAL

XERIC UPLANDS

Sandhill.................................................................................... 5

Scrub......................................................................................... 5

Xeric Hammock........................................................................ 6

COASTAL UPLANDS

Beach Dune............................................................... 8

Coastal Berm........................................................................... 9

Coastal Grassland................................................................... 9

Coastal Rock Barren............................................................... 10

Coastal Strand........................................................................ 11

Maritime Hammock................................................................ 11

Shell Mound........................................................................... 12

MESIC UPLANDS

Slope Forest........................................................................ 14

Upland Glade..................................................................... 15

Upland Hardwood Forest................................................... 16

Upland Mixed Forest......................................................... 16

Upland Pine Forest............................................................ 17

ROCKLANDS

Pine Rockland.................................................................... 19

Rockland Hammock........................................................... 20

Sinkhole............................................................................ 20

MESIC FLATLANDS

Dry Prairie....................................................................... 23

Mesic Flatwoods............................................................. 23

Mesic Hammock........................................................ 24

Prairie Hammock............................................................. 25

Scrubby Flatwoods.......................................................... 26
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PALUSTRINE Page

WET FLATLANDS

Hydric Hammock........................................................ 27

Marl Prairie...................................................................... 27

Wet Flatwoods.................................................................. 28

Wet Prairie......................................................................... 29

SEEPAGE WETLANDS

Baygall................................................................................ 31

Seepage Slope..................................................................... 31

FLOODPLAIN WETLANDS

Bottomland Forest............................................................. 33

Floodplain Forest.............................................................. 33

Floodplain Marsh.............................................................. 35

Floodplain Swamp........................................................... 35

Freshwater Tidal Swamp................................................... 36

Slough............................................................................. 37

Strand Swamp................................................................. 37

Swale............................................................................... 38

BASIN WETLANDS

Basin Marsh......................................................................... 39

Basin Swamp........................................................................ 39

Bog.................................................................................... 40

Coastal Interdunal Swale................................................. 41

Depression Marsh......................................................... 42

Dome Swamp.............................................................. 43

LACUSTRINE

Classic Upland Lake........................................................... 44

Coastal Dune Lake............................................................... 45

Coastal Rockland Lake....................................................... 46

Flatwoods/Prairie/Marsh Lake............................................... 47

Sandhill Upland Lake.......................................................... 49

Sinkhole Lake...................................................................... 50

RIVERINE

Alluvial Stream................................................................... 51

Blackwater Stream.............................................................. 52

Seepage Stream................................................................... 53

Spring-run Stream............................................................... 54

SUBTERRANEAN

Aquatic Cave and Terrestrial Cave...................................... 56
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MARINE AND ESTUARINE Page

MINERAL BASED

Consolidated Substrate.......................................................... 59

Unconsolidated Substrate....................................................... 60

FAUNAL BASED

Coral Reef............................................................................. 61

Mollusk Reef........................................................................ 63

Octocoral Bed............................................................. 64

Sponge Bed........................................................................... 65

Worm Reef............................................................................ 65

FLORAL BASED

Algal Bed............................................................................. 66

Seegrass Bed............................................................... 67

Tidal Marsh.......................................................................... 68

Tidal Swamp........................................................................ 69

COMPOSITE SUBSTRATE

Composite Substrate............................................................ 71

Appendices

Appendix 1: List of plant common and scientific names............................ 74

Appendix 2: List of animal common and scientific names.......................... 86

Appendix 3: The Florida Natural Areas Inventory hierarchical classification

of Natural Communities, including brief descriptions of and

comparison with other Florida vegetation classification systems... 97
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INTRODUCTION

This document presents the hierarchical classification of 81 Natural Communities that 

has been developed by the Florida Natural Areas Inventory (FNAI) and identified as collectively 

constituting the original, natural biological associations of Florida. A Natural Community (NC) 

is defined as a distinct and reoccurring assemblage of populations of plants, animals, fungi and 

microorganisms naturally associated with each other and their physical environment. 

The levels of this classification become increasingly more complex and finely 

subdivided. At all levels, however, there are overlaps between types because of overlapping 

species distributions and intergrading physical conditions. At the broadest level, the Natural 

Communities are grouped into seven Natural Community Categories based on hydrology and 

vegetation. Terrestrial Natural Communities are upland habitats dominated by plants which are 

not adapted to anaerobic soil conditions imposed by saturation or inundation for more than 10% 

of the growing season. Palustrine Natural Communities are freshwater wetlands dominated by 

plants adapted to anaerobic substrate conditions imposed by substrate saturation or inundation 

during 10% or more of the growing season. Lacustrine Natural Communities occur in nonflowing wetlands of natural depressions lacking persistent emergent vegetation except around the 

perimeter. Riverine Natural Communities are natural, flowing waters from their source to the 

downstream limits of tidal influence, and bounded by channel banks. Subterranean Natural 

Communities occur below ground surface. Estuarine Natural Communities are subtidal, 

intertidal, and supratidal zones of coastal water bodies, usually partially enclosed by land but 

with a connection to the open sea, within which seawater is significantly diluted with freshwater 

inflow from the land. Marine Natural Communities occur in subtidal, intertidal, and supratidal 

zones of the sea, landward to the point at which seawater becomes significantly diluted with 

freshwater inflow from the land. A second level of the hierarchy splits the Natural Community 

Categories into Natural Community Groups, such as Xeric Uplands, Coastal Uplands, Floodplain 

Wetlands, and so forth. 

The third level of the classification, Natural Community Types, is the level at which 

Natural Communities are named and described. Natural Communities are characterized and 

defined by a combination of physiognomy, vegetation structure and composition, topography, 

land form, substrate, soil moisture condition, climate, and fire. They are named for their most 

characteristic biological or physical feature. The Natural Communities can be further subdivided 

into Plant Communities that are based on the dominant vegetation. These subdivisions are not 

presented in this document.

The arrangement of Natural Communities by Natural Community Groups and the 

arrangement of the Groups by Natural Community Types is given in the Table of Contents. The 

Natural Community classification hierarchy, the descriptions, and the ranks are all part of a 

dynamic system that will change as new information is acquired. Because of the relative paucity 

of data on many Natural Communities and the continuing development of

 the system, the information presented here should not be considered as final, but as a current, 
 2

nontechnical introduction subject to change. Appendices 1 and 2 refer the common names used 

in this document to scientific names.

Table 1 shows the relative ranks of the NCs. FNAI uses several criteria to determine the 

relative rarity and threat to each community type; these are translated or summarized into a 

global and a state rank, the G and S ranks, respectively. Most G ranks for NCs are temporary 

pending comparison and coordination with other states using this methodology to classify and 

rank vegetation types. (Contact Florida Natural Areas Inventory for most recent natural 

community ranks.) A few NCs and several Plant Communities occur only or mostly in Florida 

and can be considered endemic to Florida. (See J.W. Muller et al. 1989. "Summary Report on 

the Vascular Plants, Animals and Plant Communities Endemic to Florida". Florida Game and 

Fresh Water Fish Commission, Nongame Wildlife Program, Technical Report No. 7.) The only 

opportunity for protection of these communities is in Florida and they should be given special 

consideration in Florida's protection efforts. 

Numerous classification schemes exist for the state of Florida. All of these are more or 

less subjective and incorporate the observer's biases. The construction and usefulness of these 

classifications depends on the purpose for which they were constructed and the purpose for 

which they are used. To facilitate comparisons among these schemes, Appendix 3 relates some 

of those vegetation classification schemes that concern the vegetation of the entire state. The 

various classification schemes recognize different numbers of vegetation types, ranging from 10 

terrestrial and palustrine types in for the Kuchler system to 81 for the FNAI classification, which 

includes marine and estuarine types.

In actual practice, the FNAI classification is perhaps more often useful in undisturbed, or 

relatively undisturbed, vegetation than in disturbed sites, and in "potential natural vegetation" 

rather than existing vegetation. As with most vegetation classifications, the lines between types 

are often obscure in the field because of the overlap of species and the intergradation among 

species and physical features. For these reasons, and others, probably no single example of a 

community type will precisely match all the specifics given in these descriptions.

One of the advantages of the FNAI classification is that it is flexible and dynamic. It will 

change as additional data are accumulated. Ultimately, it will be desirable to locate several 

examples of each type, perhaps in different portions of the state, to serve as reference examples 

so that users of the classification can have real examples to which to refer.
 3

Table 1: Florida Natural Areas Inventory Global (G) and State (S) ranks for

 Natural Communities 

TERRESTRIAL PALUSTRINE (CONT.)

XERIC UPLANDS FLOODPLAIN WETLANDS

G3 S2 Sandhill G4 S3 Bottomland Forest

G2 S2 Scrub G4 S3 Floodplain Forest

G3 S3 Xeric Hammock G3 S2 Floodplain Marsh

 G4 S4 Floodplain Swamp

COASTAL UPLANDS G3 S3 Freshwater Tidal Swamp

G3 S2 Beach Dune G3 S3 Slough

G3 S2 Coastal Berm G4 S4 Strand Swamp

G3 S2 Coastal Grasslands G4 S3 Swale

G1 S1 Coastal Rock Barren

G3 S2 Coastal Strand BASIN WETLANDS

G3 S2 Maritime Hammock G4 S4 Basin Marsh

G2 S2 Shell Mound G4 S3 Basin Swamp

 G2 S1 Bog

MESIC UPLANDS G4 S4 Depression Marsh*

G3 S2 Slope Forest

G1 S1 Upland Glade LACUSTRINE

G5 S3 Upland Hardwood Forest G3 S2 Clastic Upland Lake

G4 S4 Upland Mixed Forest G2 S1 Coastal Dune Lake

G3 S3 Upland Pine Forest G2 S1 Coastal Rockland Lake

 G4 S3 Flatwoods/Prairie Lake

ROCKLANDS G4 S4 Marsh Lake

G1 S1 Pine Rocklands G4 S2 River Floodplain Lake

G2 S2 Rockland Hammock G3 S2 Sandhill Upland Lake

G2 S2 Sinkhole G3 S3 Sinkhole Lake

 G4 S3 Swamp Lake

MESIC FLATLANDS

G2 S2 Dry Prairie RIVERINE

G4 S4 Mesic Flatwoods G4 S2 Alluvial Stream

G3 S3 Prairie Hammock G4 S2 Blackwater Stream

G3 S3 Scrubby Flatwoods G3 S2 Seepage Stream

 G2 S2 Spring-run Stream

PALUSTRINE

WET FLATLANDS SUBTERRANEAN

G4 S4 Hydric Hammock G3 S2 Aquatic Cave

G3 S3 Marl Prairie G3 S2 Terrestrial Cave

G4 S4 Wet Flatwoods 

G3 S2 Wet Prairie 
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SEEPAGE WETLANDS 

G4 S4 Baygall

G3 S2 Seepage Slope

 MARINE AND ESTUARINE MARINE AND ESTUARINE (cont.)

MINERAL BASED FLORAL BASED

G3 S3 Consolidated Substrate G3 S2 Algal Bed

G5 S5 Unconsolidated Substrate G2 S2 Seagrass Bed

G4 S4 Tidal Marsh

FAUNAL BASED G3 S3 Tidal Swamp

G2 S1 Coral Reef

G3 S3 Mollusk Reef COMPOSITE SUBSTRATE

G2 S1 Octocoral Bed G3 S3 Composite Substrate

G2 S2 Sponge Bed *G3 S2 Coastal Interdunal Swale

G1 S1 Worm Reef *G3 S3 Mesic Hammock

Definition of Global (G) element ranks:

G1 = Critically imperiled globally because of extreme rarity (5 or fewer occurrences or very 

little remaining area, e.g., <2,000 acres) or because of some factor(s) making it especially 

vulnerable to extinction;

G2 = Imperiled globally because of rarity (6-20 occurrences or very little remaining area, e.g., 

<10,000 acres) or because of some factor(s) making it very vulnerable to extinction 

throughout its range;

G3 = Either very rare and local throughout its range or found locally (even abundantly at some 

of its locations) in a restricted range or because of other factors making it vulnerable to 

extinction throughout its range, 21 to 100 occurrences;

G4 = Apparently secure globally, though it may be quite rare in parts of its range, especially at 

the periphery;

G5 = Demonstrably secure globally, though it may be quite rare in parts of its range, especially 

at the periphery;

G? = uncertain Global rank.

Definition of State (S) element ranks:

S1 = Critically imperiled in state because of extreme rarity (5 or fewer occurrences or very 

little remaining area) or because of some factor(s) making it especially vulnerable to 

extinction;

S2 = Imperiled in state because of rarity (6-20 occurrences or little remaining area) or because 

of some factor(s) making it very vulnerable to extinction throughout it range;

S3 = Rare or uncommon in state (on the order of 21 to 100 occurrences);

S4 = Apparently secure in state, although it may be rare in some parts of its state range;

S5 = Demonstrably secure in state and essentially ineradicable under present conditions;

S? = uncertain State rank.
 5

TERRESTRIAL

XERIC UPLANDS - very dry, deep, well-drained hills of sand with xeric-adapted

vegetation.

Sandhill - (synonyms: longleaf pine - turkey oak, longleaf pine - xerophytic oak, longleaf 

pine - deciduous oak, high pine). Sandhills are characterized as a forest of widely spaced pine 

trees with a sparse understory of deciduous oaks and a fairly dense ground cover of grasses and 

herbs on rolling hills of sand. The most typical associations are dominated by longleaf pine, 

turkey oak, and wiregrass. Other typical plants include bluejack oak, sand post oak, 

sparkleberry, persimmon, winged sumac, pinewoods dropseed, Indian grass, wild buckwheat, 

queen's delight, yellow foxglove, bracken fern, runner oak, goats rue, partridge pea, milk pea, 

dollarweeds, wild indigo, gopher apple, and golden-aster. Typical animals include tiger 

salamander, barking treefrog, spadefoot toad, gopher frog, gopher tortoise, worm lizard, fence 

lizard, mole skink, indigo snake, coachwhip snake, pine snake, short-tailed snake, crowned

snake, eastern diamondback rattlesnake, bobwhite, ground dove, red-headed woodpecker, 

rufous-sided towhee, fox squirrel and pocket gopher.

Sandhills occur on hilltops and slopes of gently rolling hills. Their soils are composed of 

deep, marine-deposited, yellowish sands that are well-drained and relatively sterile. The easily 

leached soil nutrients are brought back to the surface by the burrowing habits of some sandhill 

animals. Sandhills are important aquifer recharge areas because the porous sands allow water to 

move rapidly through with little runoff and minimal evaporation. The deep sandy soils help 

create a xeric environment that is accentuated by the scattered overstory, which allows more 

sunlight to penetrate and warm the ground. The absence of a closed canopy also allows 

Sandhills to cool more rapidly at night and to retain less air moisture. Thus, temperature and 

humidity fluctuations are generally greater in Sandhills than in nearby closed canopy forests.

Fire is a dominant factor in the ecology of this community. Sandhills are a fire climax 

community, being dependent on frequent ground fires to reduce hardwood competition and to 

perpetuate pines and grasses. The natural fire frequency appears to be every 2 to 5 years. 

Without frequent fires, Sandhills may eventually succeed to Xeric Hammock. Unburned or 

cutover Sandhills may be dominated by turkey oak.

Sandhills are often associated with and grade into Scrub, Scrubby Flatwoods, Mesic 

Flatwoods, Upland Pine Forest, or Xeric Hammock. Sandhills were widespread throughout the 

Coastal Plain, but most have been degraded by timbering, overgrazing, plowing, fire exclusion, 

and other disturbances. Much of Florida's Sandhill communities have been converted to citrus 

groves, pastures, pine plantations, or residential and commercial developments. Thus, the 

importance of properly managing the remaining tracts is accentuated.

Scrub - (synonyms: sand pine scrub, Florida scrub, sand scrub, rosemary scrub, oak 

scrub). Scrub occurs in many forms, but is often characterized as a closed to open canopy forest 
 6

of sand pines with dense clumps or vast thickets of scrub oaks and other shrubs dominating the 

understory. The ground cover is generally very sparse, being dominated by ground lichens or, 

rarely, herbs. Open patches of barren sand are common. Where the overstory of sand pines is 

widely scattered or absent altogether, the understory and barren sands are exposed to more 

intense sunlight. Typical plants include sand pine, sand live oak, myrtle oak, Chapman's oak, 

scrub oak, saw palmetto, rosemary, rusty lyonia, ground lichens, scrub hickory, scrub palmetto, 

hog plum, silk bay, beak rush, milk peas, and stagger bush. Typical animals include red widow 

spider, scrub wolf spider, oak toad, Florida scrub lizard, blue-tailed mole skink, sand skink, sixlined racerunner, coachwhip, ground dove, scrub jay, loggerhead shrike, yellow-rumped warbler, 

rufous-sided towhee, Florida mouse, and spotted skunk. Scrubs of the Lake Wales Ridge are 

notable for the large number of narrowly endemic plants and animals that occur in them.

Scrub occurs on sand ridges along former shorelines. Some of the sand ridges originated 

as wind-deposited dunes, others as wave-washed sand bars. Some Scrub soils are composed of 

well-washed, deep sands that are brilliant white at the surface; some Scrubs occur on yellow 

sands. The loose sands drain rapidly, creating very xeric conditions for which the plants appear 

to have evolved several water conservation strategies.

Scrub is essentially a fire maintained community. Ground vegetation is extremely sparse 

and leaf fall is minimal, thus reducing the chance of frequent ground fires. As the sand pines 

mature, however, they retain most of their branches and build up large fuel supplies in their 

crowns. When a fire does occur, this fuel supply, in combination with the resinous needles and 

high stand density, ensures a hot, fast burning fire. Such fires allow for the regeneration of the 

Scrub community which might otherwise succeed to Xeric Hammock. The minerals in the 

vegetation are deposited on the bare sand as ashes, and the heat of the fire generally facilitates 

the release of pine seeds. As discerned from the life histories of the dominant plants, scrub 

probably burns catastrophically once every 20 to 80 years or longer.

Scrub is associated with and often grades into Sandhill, Scrubby Flatwoods, Coastal 

Strand, and Xeric Hammock. Some Xeric Hammocks are advanced successional stages of 

Scrub, making intermediate stages difficult to classify. Scrub occurs almost exclusively in 

Florida, although coastal scrubs extend into adjacent Alabama and Georgia.

Because Scrub occurs on high dry ground and is not an aesthetically pleasing habitat, at 

least to the uninitiated, this ecosystem and its many endangered and threatened species are 

rapidly being lost to development. Scrub is also readily damaged by off-road vehicle traffic or 

even foot traffic, which destroys the delicate ground cover and allows the loose sand to erode. 

Ground lichens may require 50 years or more to recover.

Xeric Hammock - (synonyms: xeric forest, sand hammock, live oak forest, oak 

woodland, oak hammock). Xeric Hammock is characterized as either a scrubby, dense, low 

canopy forest with little understory other than palmetto, or a multi-storied forest of tall trees with 

an open or closed canopy. Several gradations between these extremes exist. Typical plants 

include live oak, sand live oak, laurel oak, turkey oak, blackjack oak, red oak, sand post oak, 
 7

staggerbush, saw palmetto, sparkleberry, pignut hickory, southern magnolia, redbay, American 

holly, wild olive, black cherry, fox grape, beautyberry, bluejack oak, Chapman's oak, 

persimmon, and yaupon. Typical animals include barking treefrog, spadefoot toad, gopher 

tortoise, worm lizard, fence lizard, black racer, red rat snake, hognose snake, crowned snake, 

screech-owl, turkey, blue jay, eastern mole, gray squirrel, and eastern flying squirrel.

Xeric Hammock is an advanced successional stage of Scrub or Sandhill. The variation in 

vegetation structure is predominantly due to the original community from which it developed. In 

all cases, however, the soils consist primarily of deep, excessively-drained sands that were 

derived from old dune systems. The sparsity of herbs and the relatively incombustible oak litter 

preclude most fires from invading Xeric Hammock. When fire does occur, it is nearly always 

catastrophic and may revert Xeric Hammock into another community type. Xeric Hammock 

only develops on sites that have been protected from fire for 30 or more years.

Xeric Hammocks are often associated with and grade into Scrub, Sandhill, Upland Mixed 

Forest or Slope Forest. The species composition of Xeric Hammock is also often similar to 

Prairie Hammock and Maritime Hammock. Xeric Hammock is often considered the climax 

community on sandy uplands.

Xeric Hammock occurs generally as isolated patches that rarely cover extensive areas. 

Mature examples are rare, and scrub derived types have always been scarce. Because of its 

general location on high ground with big trees, Xeric Hammock is prime residential property, 

especially when near the coast. Remaining tracts of Xeric Hammock require protection from fire 

and development.
 8

 COASTAL UPLANDS - substrate and vegetation influenced primarily by such

 coastal (maritime) processes as erosion, deposition, salt spray, and storms.

 

Beach Dune - (synonyms: sand dunes, pioneer zone, upper beach, sea oats zone, coastal 

strand). Beach Dune is characterized as a wind-deposited, foredune and wave-deposited upper 

beach that are sparsely to densely vegetated with pioneer species, especially sea oats. Other 

typical pioneer species include beach cordgrass, sand spur, dune or bitter panic grass, railroad 

vine, beach morning glory, seashore paspalum, beach elder, dune sunflower, sea purslane, and 

sea rocket. Typical animals include ghost crab, six-lined racerunner, kestrel, red-winged 

blackbird, savannah sparrows, beach mouse, and raccoon. Beach dune, especially along its 

ecotone with the unvegetated beach, is also the primary nesting habitat for numerous shorebirds 

and marine turtles, including many rare and endangered species.

Beach Dune communities are found along shorelines subject to high energy waves which 

deposit sand-sized grains to form the open beach. Onshore winds move the sand grains inland 

until slowed by an obstacle, usually plant stems, causing the grains to drop. As the plants grow 

upward and burial continues, a foredune is built. Dune height is largely determined by the 

strength and the directional constancy of winds and by the growth habits of dune-forming plants. 

As a cape or barrier island grows seaward, new beaches are deposited seaward of the old ones 

and a characteristic ridge and swale topography develops.

Beach Dunes are very dynamic communities and mobile environments. The wind 

continually moves the sand inland from the beach until trapped by vegetation. Beach Dunes are 

subject to drastic topographic alterations during winter storms and hurricanes. Taking the brunt 

of storm surge, intact Beach Dunes are essential for protection of inland biological communities.

The soils of Beach Dunes are composed of sands that are similar to those washed onto the 

adjacent beach, except that the wind selectively lifts out the smaller sand particles, blows them 

inshore, and deposits them around plant stems. These deep siliceous or calcareous sands drain 

rapidly, creating decidedly xeric conditions.

Beach Dunes occur in an extremely harsh environment. The dune vegetation must be 

able to tolerate loose, dry, unstable, nutrient poor soils, as well as exposure to wind, salt spray, 

sand abrasion, intense sunlight, and storms. Thus, dune species have evolved several 

morphological adaptations to survive in this harsh environment. Many of them root easily from 

fragments washed ashore in storm debris, or they produce large floating seeds that can be 

transported by ocean currents. Some have thickened cuticles and succulent foliage to better 

retain water and to reduce the effects of salt spray and sand abrasion. Some spread by 

subterranean or surface runners that creep across the barren sands. Many readily reroot from 

higher up their stems when buried by blowing sand and consequently develop a matted or wiry 

root system. Some have become so dependent on the dune habitat that they lose vigor without 

shifting sands constantly stimulating them to send out new shoots and reroot. These 

characteristics are the primary reasons for their unique ability to stabilize aeolian sand into nearly 

static beach dunes.
 9

In spite of their ability to withstand the harsh maritime environment, plants of the Beach 

Dunes are extremely vulnerable to human impacts. A footpath or off-road vehicle trail over the 

beach dunes can damage the vegetation, giving wind and water the leverage needed to begin 

erosional processes. A gap, or blowout, forms and continually widens until it is slowly 

revegetated and stabilized. The sand from the gap moves inland, and rapidly buries vegetation, 

destabilizing the beach dunes and often disturbing adjacent communities. When a storm ensues, 

the unvegetated gap allows storm surges easy access to these communities for further disruption. 

Because of their vulnerability, Beach Dunes require protection from trampling (i.e., boardwalks 

for beach access) and off-road vehicles. Coastal developments which affect the sand sources that 

are necessary for Beach Dune replenishment should be strongly discouraged.

Coastal Berm - (synonyms: shell ridge, coastal levee, coastal forest, buttonwood 

embankment, mangrove hammock). Coastal Berm applies to a variety of plant associations that 

develop on ridges of storm deposited sand, shells, and debris. These associations include dense 

thickets of large shrubs and small trees, hammocks, or sparse shrubby vegetation with spiny 

xerophytic plants. Typical plants include cabbage palm, cocoplum, sea grape, marsh elder, 

beach orach, greenbrier, prickly pear cactus, evening primrose, dropseed, poison ivy, marshhay, 

Spanish bayonet, bay cedar, wax myrtle, live oak, muhly grass, sea purslane, tall wiregrass, salt 

myrtle, sea oats, beach morning glory, sea oxeye, stinging nettle, love vine, prickly apple, 

snowberry, varnish leaf, stoppers, coral bean, privet, strangler fig, and wild coffee. Many 

animals typical of Beach Dune likewise inhabit Coastal Berm.

Coastal Berm is generally a ridge of storm-deposited marine debris that is parallel to the 

shore, occasionally occurring in a series with alternating swales. Such storm ridges are usually 

found along low-energy coastlines, and are often surrounded by mangrove or salt marsh 

communities. Coastal Berm may be difficult to differentiate from Indian-constructed Shell 

Mound or wind- deposited Coastal Strand or Maritime Hammock. It is often associated with and 

may grade into Tidal Swamp (mangroves) or Overwash Plain. It may also be confused with 

dredge spoil. Its coastal location subjects Coastal Berm to maritime influences similar to that 

experienced by Coastal Strand.

Coastal Grassland - (synonyms: overwash plain, deflation plain, salt flat, coastal 

savannah). Coastal Grassland is characterized as a treeless flat land or gently undulating land 

with barren sand or a sparse to dense ground cover of grasses, prostrate vines, and other 

herbaceous or suffrutescent species that are adapted to harsh maritime conditions. Older, more 

established sites may include scattered or small clumps of trees or shrubs. Typical plants include 

muhly grass, bluestem grasses, sea oats, beach cordgrass, dune panic grass, beach morning glory, 

sea oxeye, beach elder, sea purslane, glasswort, sand spurs, evening primrose, pennywort, 

ground cherry, sedges, crowfoot grass, dropseed, prickly pear cactus, rushes, love grass, wax 

myrtle, and groundsel bush. Typical animals include ghost crab, blackbirds, and savannah 

sparrows. Some shorebirds also nest in this community.

Coastal Grassland is a low flat area behind the foredunes that is found on broader barrier 
 10

islands, capes, spits, and is best developed along the Gulf Coast. It may be periodically flooded 

by saltwater and covered with sand and debris during major storms. The frequency of overwash 

processes is largely related to the height and continuity of the seaward beach dunes; low, 

dissected dunes allowing more frequent overwash than high continuous dunes.

Coastal Grassland species will colonize expanses of newly deposited sands. With time, 

these areas become vegetated with pioneer species, eventually taking on characteristics similar to 

prairie. If no major storms occur to renew the process, Coastal Grasslands will often be 

colonized by shrubs and trees and eventually may succeed to Coastal Strand or Flatwoods.

Coastal Rock Barren - (synonyms: littoral rock pavement, algal barren, cactus barren, 

rocky flat). Coastal Rock Barren is an ecotonal community occurring along rocky coastlines in 

the Florida Keys. They are generally characterized as flat rocklands with much exposed and 

eroded limestone and are sparsely vegetated with stunted, xeric and halophytic shrubs, cacti, 

algae, and herbs. Typical plants include white mangrove, black mangrove, red mangrove, 

buttonwood, caper tree, sea grape, bay cedar, cat's claw, lantana, forestiera, stoppers, nickerbean, 

glasswort, sea purslane, shore grass, seashore dropseed, railroad vine, sea oxeye, prickly apple, 

milkpeas, prickly pear cactus, Spanish bayonet, and saltwort.

Soils, if they can be called that, generally consist of calcareous marls and organic debris 

within solution depressions and crevices in the coralline limestone pavement. The proximity of 

Coastal Rock Barren to coastal waters makes them subject to inundations by saltwater during 

storms and perhaps during extreme high tides. Rainfall generally forms pools and puddles on the 

surface, percolating slowly, if at all, through crevices in the highly consolidated substrate. Most 

freshwater is probably absorbed rapidly by the scattered plants, or is lost to evaporation or 

runoff.

Plants of Coastal Rock Barren are adapted to high insolation levels, salt spray, occasional 

inundations by saltwater, and other tropical marine influences. Because of their insular location, 

their frequent association with wetlands, and their general sparsely distributed vegetation, fire is 

highly unlikely in Coastal Rock Barren.

Coastal Rock Barren often occurs in a continuum between Marine Consolidated Substrate 

and Rockland Hammock or Pine Rockland. It may also be associated with and grade into Marl 

Prairie. Coastal Rock Barren often has species compositions that are similar to those of some 

Coastal Berm and Shell Mound communities. It often exhibits zonation patterns, typically 

grading seaward into rocky shore or buttonwood and mangrove association, and inland into thorn 

scrub, then cactus hammock, then Maritime Hammock. Where the slope rises noticeably, the 

entire sequence of transition zones may be condensed into a few yards. Where the slope is 

imperceptible, these zones may become intermingled over several acres. 

Coastal Rock Barren is a very rare community, occurring as tiny patches scattered along 

some shorelines in the Florida Keys. Because it occurs on sites near water in a region 

undergoing intensive resort development, Coastal Rock Barren is rapidly disappearing. Existing 
 11

sites should be diligently protected from development, cactus poaching, and visitor overuse. 

They may also be affected by offshore dredging and beach nourishment activities which would 

increase sediment loads and possibly convert them to coralline Beach Dune.

Coastal Strand - (synonyms: shrub zone, maritime thicket, coastal scrub). Coastal Strand 

is characterized as stabilized, wind-deposited coastal dunes that are vegetated with a dense 

thicket of salt-tolerant shrubs, especially saw palmetto. Other typical plants include sand live 

oak, cabbage palm, myrtle oak, yaupon, sea grape, cat's claw, nakedwood, lantana, greenbrier, 

buckthorn, cocoplum, nickerbean, coin vine, beach jacquemontia, pinweed, bay cedar, necklace 

pod, sea lavender, Spanish bayonet, woody goldenrod and Florida rosemary. Typical animals 

include gopher tortoise, six-lined racerunner, southern hognose snake, coachwhip snake, 

diamondback rattlesnake, and beach mouse.

Coastal Strand occurs on deep, wind-deposited sands which have been wind- sorted and 

wave-washed. There is usually some shell admixed with quartz grains on the beach, but this is 

rapidly leached out in the course of only a few hundred years. Coastal Strand dunes are 

generally quite stable but are susceptible to severe damage if the vegetation is disturbed. Shrubs 

in the Coastal Strand are frequently dwarfed and pruned as a result of the salt spray-laden winds 

that kill twigs on the seaward side, producing a smooth, dense upward-slanting canopy 

resembling a sheared hedge.

Coastal Strand is actually an ecotonal community that generally lies between Beach Dune 

and Maritime hammock. It may also grade into Scrub, and it often shares many of the same 

species that occur in Coastal Berm. Fire may reduce succession towards Maritime Hammock. 

However, maritime influences alone will often suffice to inhibit succession to forest.

Coastal Strand is probably the most rapidly disappearing community in Florida. It is 

most extensive along the Atlantic Coast where, being elevated and next to the coast, it is prime 

resort or residential property. Coastal Strand originally occurred as a nearly continuous band 

along the Atlantic shorelines. Now it occurs largely as broken and isolated small stretches. In 

south Florida, it has also been disturbed by invasions of exotic species, principally Brazilian 

pepper and Australian pine. Along with other coastal communities, Coastal Strand protects 

inland communities from the severe effects of storms.

Maritime Hammock - (synonyms: coastal hammock, maritime forest, tropical 

hammock). Maritime Hammock is characterized as a narrow band of hardwood forest lying just 

inland of the Coastal Strand community. Live oak, cabbage palm, and redbay generally combine 

to form a dense, wind-pruned canopy whose streamlined profile deflects winds and generally 

prevents hurricanes from uprooting the trees. Other typical plants include American holly, 

southern magnolia, red cedar, sea grape, false mastic, paradise tree, lancewood, gumbo- limbo, 

strangler fig, poisonwood, wild olive, saw palmetto, beautyberry, poison ivy, coral bean, coontie, 

prickly ash, wild coffee, snowberry, myrsine, caper tree, marlberry, rouge-plant, and ferns. 

Typical animals include squirrel treefrogs, ring-necked snake, rat snakes, and gray squirrel. 

Migrating birds rely on these forests for food and shelter following trans-oceanic or trans-gulf 
 12

migrations.

Maritime Hammock occurs on old coastal dunes that have been stabilized long enough 

for the growth of a forest. Tree growth often begins in swales between old dune ridges where a 

higher moisture gradient exists. The isolated strips of tree growth gradually coalesce into a 

continuous forest. Humus buildup contributes to moisture retention, while the dense canopy 

minimizes temperature fluctuations by reducing soil warming during the day and heat loss at 

night. Soils of Maritime Hammock are generally well-drained because of the underlying deep 

sands.

The generally mesic conditions and insular locations of well-developed Maritime 

Hammock communities inhibit natural fires, which occur no more frequently than once every 26 

to 100 years. In mature Maritime Hammock, fire may alter the original appearance, obscuring 

former beach ridge vegetation patterns and creating a diversity of plant sub-associations. 

Nutrient recycling is generally accomplished by detrital organisms instead of by fire.

Maritime Hammock is closely associated with and often grades into Coastal Strand, 

Scrub, Hydric Hammock, or Prairie Hammock. Because of species overlap, Maritime Hammock 

may also be confused with Shell Mound, Coastal Berm, Xeric Hammock, and Rockland 

Hammock. Maritime Hammock is the terminal stage of succession in coastal areas. 

Maritime Hammock is prime resort and residential property because of its relatively 

protected location along the coast. Although it originally occurred in virtually continuous bands 

with Coastal Strand, Maritime Hammock is now dissected into short strips by development and 

is rapidly disappearing. Maritime Hammock is reasonably resilient so long as the canopy 

remains intact and the landform stable. Removal of large exotic species should be conducted in 

phases to minimize canopy disruptions.

Shell Mound - (synonyms: midden, Indian mound, tropical hammock, maritime 

hammock, coastal hammock). Shell Mound is unusual among the biological communities in that 

it is largely a result of the activities of Indians, instead of natural physical factors. Shell Mound 

is generally characterized as an elevated mound of mollusk shells and aboriginal garbage on 

which a hardwood, closed-canopy forest develops. In some cases, a sparse shrubby community, 

sometimes with cactus, may develop in lieu of hammock vegetation. Typical plants include 

gumbo-limbo, cabbage palm, mastic, red cedar, hackberry, live oak, forestiera, coral bean, 

marlberry, saffron plum, sagaretia, coontie, and others. 

Shell Mound soils are composed of shells and shell fragments with an organic component 

derived from forest litter. The soil generally is circumneutral to slightly alkaline (pH = 7-8) and 

contains 1-20% organic materials. The loose collection of shells allows water to drain extremely 

rapidly. The calcareous substrate, in combination with their coastal location, often permits 

tropical or subtropical species of plants to grow much further north on Shell Mounds than their 

normal ranges on other substrates. Their coastal, usually insular, location generally protects 

Shell Mounds from fire, but subjects them to marine influences, including high winds, salt spray, 
 13

high insolation, and storm surge.

Shell Mound is often associated with and grades into Rockland Hammock, Coastal Berm, 

or Maritime Hammock. It is often so similar in species composition to these communities that it 

may be difficult to differentiate. Some Shell Mounds may also be very similar to Coastal Rock 

Barren communities.

Because they are constructed of archaeological remains, Shell Mounds are vulnerable to 

damage by artifact-seekers and archaeological excavations. Sites where visitor use is not 

monitored should not be publicized. Archaeological investigations should be conducted with 

care to protect important botanical features.
 14

 MESIC UPLANDS - dry to moist hills of sand with varying amounts of clay, silt or organic 

material; diverse mixture of broad leaved and needle leaved temperate woody species.

Slope Forest - (synonyms: ravine forest, bluff forest, mesic hammock, hardwood 

hammock, steepheads, mixed hardwood and pine, climax hardwoods, southern mixed 

hardwoods, mixed mesophytic forest). Slope Forests are characterized as well-developed, closed 

canopy forests of upland hardwoods on steep slopes, bluffs, and ravines. The combination of 

densely shaded slopes and cool, moist microclimate produces conditions that are conducive for 

the growth of many species which are more typical of the Piedmont and Southern Appalachian 

Mountains, including black walnut, basswood, wild hydrangea, sweet shrub, strawberry bush, 

wild ginger, bluebell, maidenhair fern, Solomon's seal, liverleaf, doll's eyes, bellwort, bloodroot,

snakeroot, false hellebore, lousewort, wild comfrey, rattlesnake plantain, bladder nut, and 

leatherwood. Other typical plants include southern magnolia, American beech, spruce pine, 

white oak, laurel oak, mockernut hickory, American holly, southern red cedar, pignut hickory, 

sand hickory, sweetgum, sourwood, partridgeberry, saw greenbrier, sarsaparilla vine, trilliums, 

silverbell, Christmas fern, witchhazel, redbud, mountain laurel, Carolina laurelcherry, 

Sebastianbush, fringe tree, bigleaf snowbell, tulip poplar, white ash, live oak, flowering 

dogwood, horse sugar, silky camellia, Florida yew, Ashe magnolia, pyramid magnolia, and 

torreya tree. Typical animals include southern dusky salamander, three-lined salamander, slimy 

salamander, mud salamander, red salamander, spring peeper, box turtle, five-lined skink, 

broadhead skink, ground skink, gray rat snake, eastern king snake, rough green snake, eastern 

garter snake, coral snake, southern copperhead, red-tailed hawk, turkey, woodcock, mourning 

dove, yellow-billed cuckoo, screech-owl, great horned owl, common night hawk, ruby-throated 

hummingbird, red-bellied woodpecker, yellow-bellied sapsucker, downy woodpecker, pileated 

woodpecker, crested flycatcher, eastern phoebe, eastern kingbird, blue jay, tufted titmouse, 

Carolina chickadee, nuthatches, Carolina wren, hermit thrush, robin, brown thrasher, cedar 

waxwing, white-eyed vireo, red-eyed vireo, yellow-throated warbler, palm warbler, ovenbird, 

summer tanager, cardinal, rufous-sided towhee, white-throated sparrow, orchard oriole, 

opossum, gray squirrel, eastern woodrat, golden mouse, raccoon, gray fox, bobcat, and whitetailed deer.

Slope Forests occur on areas with substantial topographic relief. Soils are generally 

composed of sands, sandy-clays, or clayey-sands with substantial organics and occasionally 

calcareous components near the bottom of the slope. Sandy soils are generally well drained, but 

clayey soils may shed much of the rainfall and exhibit significant surface water runoff. Thus, 

soil erosion is often a combination of seepage erosion, which occurs largely from the valley 

floors up, and surface erosion, which occurs largely from the hilltops down.

Slope Forests are mesic communities with relatively moist and cool microclimates that 

vary, however, with topographic location. Although the preponderance of deciduous trees 

creates a thick mulch of leaf litter which helps retain soil moisture, the higher elevations with 

deep sandy soils and thinner leaf mantles may exhibit nearly xeric soil conditions. Lower 

elevations on the slopes near cool streams or where seepage is prevalent tend to be cooler, and 

moister soils may be nearly hydric. In addition slight changes in soil moisture are often reflected 
 15

by different plant species. For example, star anise tends to be associated with the lower seepage 

slopes and other wet sites, while mockernut hickory tends to be associated with well-drained, 

drier upper sites. Furthermore, north-facing slopes receive less sunlight in winter, which tends to 

lower surface temperatures and allows many northern species that require a substantial winter 

chill to survive in southern slope forest refugia.

Slope Forests exhibit one of the highest species diversities in the state, largely because of 

their admixture of northern temperate and subtropical elements. Several endemic species also 

occur in Slope Forests. Tree density is relatively high, inducing much competition for space, 

water, sunlight and nutrients. Succession is generally restricted to areas where trees have fallen 

and created openings in the canopy.

Slope Forests are climax communities that may be very difficult to distinguish from 

Upland Hardwood Forest or Upland Mixed Forest because they share many species. Slope 

Forests generally have steeper slopes than other upland communities, and they frequently have 

plants that appear to be specifically adapted to slopes, such as oak-leaf hydrangea and torreya 

tree. Slope Forests are often associated with and grade into Upland Pine Forests or Sandhills at 

their upper elevations, and Bottomland Forest, Seepage Slope, or floodplain communities at their 

lower elevations. Seepage Streams commonly occur along the valley floors of Slope Forests, 

while bluff communities may occur where the slope is unstable or precipitous.

Slope Forests are very sensitive communities whose delicate microclimate can be easily 

disturbed by timber harvests which open the canopy, or by hydrological manipulations which 

affect seepage and surface water sources. Their steep slopes quickly erode when unvegetated or 

scarred by facilities development or by foot or vehicular traffic. Unsightly dumps are frequently 

located in slope forest ravines or steepheads. Dumped refuse not only disturbs or buries the 

delicate vegetation, but also could impact water quality. Impoundments of slope forest ravines 

are also common. They destroy the unique microhabitats and lotic environments which occur on 

the lower slopes. Additionally, the unique assemblage of plants and animals attracts many 

hobbyists and professional collectors whose uncontrolled activities could significantly impact 

some species. Because of their biological and geological characteristics, slope forests should be 

protected diligently from human-related disturbances.

Upland Glade - (synonyms: chalky limestone glades, north Florida chalk glades, 

calcareous glades, chalky barrens). Upland Glades are characterized as forest openings 

dominated by clumps of grasses and sedges along with sparse herbaceous species occurring on 

thin calcareous soils with areas of exposed limestone. The vegetation is dominated by black 

sedge, diamond flower, innocence, beakrush, panicums, beardgrass, white-top sedge, wiregrass, 

and weak-leaf yucca. "Islands" of woody species are located within the openings and consist of 

often stunted or twisted trees and shrubs, including redbud, red cedar, wax myrtle, ash, black 

cherry, winged sumac, beautyberry, common persimmon, and sweetgum. Other typical species 

include larkspur, poppy mallow, marsh pink, milkweed, milkwort, rattlesnake master, side-oats 

grama, coneflower, ratibida, purple coneflower,and bluestem palm. Typical animals include 

black racer, Eastern hognose snake, green anole, turkey, mourning dove, white-tailed deer.
 16

Upland Glades typically occur on limestone outcrops on the sides or crests of hills and 

are usually less than 5 acres in size. They may occur as a scattered group of openings on 

hillsides and hilltops. The soils are often nonexistent on pavement-like stretches of nearly 

unbroken limestone but when present are thin, less than 20 inches deep, and alkaline or 

calcareous.

The hydroperiod is variable and ranges seasonally from very dry to saturated. Hillside 

sites may be wet much of the time from seepage, whereas hilltop sites are usually dry. During 

wet seasons, water may flow across the relatively impermeable substrate. Fire patterns are 

unknown but burning may be infrequent due to sparse vegetation and seepage.

Florida Upland Glades have not been systematically compared with the glades that occur 

in most other southeastern states, where they are also usually rare. Bovine bones and old barbed 

wire in and around some of the glades suggest that they may have been used for pasture and that 

they may be decades or even centuries old. The surrounding forest may be classified as Upland 

Mixed or Hardwood Forest and, in most cases, is secondary growth. Development pressures in 

the area where the Upland Glades are located is usually low, but the glades are threatened by 

access road construction and by timber removal from the surrounding forest, especially because 

they are used as areas to park heavy machinery. Although the origin of the Upland Glades is 

uncertain,they appear to be persistent and provide habitat for plant species that occur nowhere 

else in Florida. Currently none of the Florida Upland Glades are protected.

Upland Hardwood Forest and Upland Mixed Forest - (synonyms: mesic hammock, 

climax hardwoods, upland hardwoods, beech-magnolia climax, oak-magnolia climax, pine-oakhickory association, southern mixed hardwoods, clay hills hammocks, Piedmont forest). Upland 

Hardwood Forests and Upland Mixed Forests are characterized as well-developed, closedcanopy forests of upland hardwoods on rolling hills. These communities have quite similar 

physical environments and share many species, including southern magnolia, pignut hickory, 

sweetgum, Florida maple, devil's walking stick, American hornbeam, redbud, flowering 

dogwood, Carolina holly, American holly, eastern hophornbeam, spruce pine, loblolly pine, live 

oak, and swamp chestnut oak, among others. The primary difference between these communities 

is that Upland Mixed Forests generally lack shortleaf pine, American beech and other more 

northern species that typically occur in Upland Hardwood Forests. This is predominantly a 

result of minor climatic differences, Upland Hardwood Forests being most common in northern 

panhandle Florida, and Upland Mixed Forests being most common in northern and central 

peninsula Florida. Other typical plants include gum bumelia, hackberry, persimmon, red cedar, 

red mulberry, wild olive, redbay, laurel cherry, black cherry, bluff oak, water oak, cabbage palm, 

basswood, winged elm, Florida elm, sparkleberry, Hercules' club, slippery elm, beautyberry, 

partridgeberry, sarsaparilla vine, greenbrier, trilliums, beech drops, passion flower, bedstraw, 

strawberry bush, silverbell, caric sedges, fringe tree, horse sugar, white oak, and blackgum. 

Typical animals include slimy salamander, Cope's gray treefrog, bronze frog, box turtle, eastern 

glass lizard, green anole, broadhead skink, ground skink, red-bellied snake, gray rat snake, rough 

green snake, coral snake, woodcock, barred owl, pileated woodpecker, shrews, eastern mole, 
 17

gray squirrel, wood rat, cotton mouse, gray fox, and white-tailed deer.

Upland Hardwood and Mixed Forests occur on rolling hills that often have limestone or 

phosphatic rock near the surface and occasionally as outcrops. Soils are generally sandy-clays or 

clayey sands with substantial organic and often calcareous components. The topography and 

clayey soils increase surface water runoff, although this is counterbalanced by the moisture 

retention properties of clays and by the often thick layer of leaf mulch which helps conserve soil 

moisture and create decidedly mesic conditions. Furthermore, the canopy is densely closed, 

except during winter in areas where deciduous trees predominate. Thus, air movement and light 

penetration are generally low, making the humidity high and relatively constant. Because of 

these conditions Upland Hardwood and Mixed Forests rarely burn.

Upland Hardwood Forests and Upland Mixed Forests are climax communities for their 

respective geographic locations. They are often associated with and grade into Upland Pine 

Forest, Slope Forest or Xeric Hammock. Occasionally, Upland Mixed Forests may also grade 

into Maritime Hammock or Prairie Hammock. During early stages of succession, Upland 

Hardwood and Mixed Forest may be difficult to distinguish from Upland Pine Forests that have 

not been burned for several years. Disturbed sites may require hundreds of years to reach full 

development with species compositions representative of climax conditions.

Silvicultural, agricultural, industrial, and residential developments have already 

eliminated the vast bulk of these communities. These activities are continuing at an accelerated 

pace in many areas, such that the few remnant mature examples are in urgent need of protection 

and proper management.

Upland Pine Forest - (synonyms: longleaf pine upland forest, loblolly-shortleaf upland 

forest, clay hills, high pineland). Upland Pine Forest is characterized as a rolling forest of widely 

spaced pines with few understory shrubs and a dense ground cover of grasses and herbs. Pristine 

areas are dominated by longleaf pine and wiregrass, while areas that suffered agricultural 

disturbances are dominated generally by shortleaf and loblolly pines and old field grasses and 

herbs. Other typical plants include southern red oak, runner oak, bluejack oak, blackjack oak, 

post oak, sassafras, black cherry, gallberry, persimmon, mockernut hickory, twinflower, 

huckleberry, dangleberry, goldenrod, Indian grass, partridge pea, goats rue, winged sumac, 

blueberry, dog fennel, snakeroot, golden-aster, yellow jessamine, broomsedge, asters, pencil 

flower, bracken fern, greenbrier, fox grape, flowering dogwood, sweetgum, and blackgum. 

Typical animals include gopher tortoise, eastern fence lizard, eastern diamondback rattlesnake, 

bobwhite, red-bellied woodpecker, fox squirrel, cotton rat, cotton mouse, gray fox, bobcat, and 

white-tailed deer.

Upland Pine Forest occurs on the rolling hills of extreme northern Florida. The soils are 

composed of sand with variable, sometimes substantial, amounts of Miocene clays. The 

resultant prevalence of clays helps retain soil moisture, creating more mesic conditions than 

originally would have occurred. Thus, many plants which previously were restricted to valleys 

and other low areas may now inhabit the Upland Pine Forests.
 18

Fire is a dominant factor in the ecology of this community because it reduces hardwood 

encroachment and facilitates pine and wiregrass reproduction. Without relatively frequent fires, 

Upland Pine Forest succeeds to Upland Mixed Forest and eventually to Upland Hardwood 

Forest. The natural fire frequency appears to be every 3 to 5 years. More frequent fires would 

likely eliminate pine recruitment, especially when loblolly and shortleaf pines are dominant 

species.

Upland Pine Forest is a fire climax community that is associated with and often grades 

into Upland Mixed Forest or Upland Hardwood Forest. Gradations between these communities 

are frequently so subtle that distinctions are usually arbitrary. Upland Pine Forest is often 

confused with Sandhill. The primary differences between them reside in their soil characteristics 

and some species of plants and animals.

Upland Pine Forests have been substantially degraded throughout their range. The sandy 

clay soils were prime agricultural lands for plantations as well as for American Indians. Thus, 

the longleaf pines were logged, the soil was turned, and the wiregrass disappeared. Only isolated 

tracts of the original longleaf pine-wiregrass association remain, the bulk being replaced by 

loblolly-shortleaf pine associations. Much of the latter has further succeeded to Upland Mixed 

or Hardwood Forest because of fire exclusion. The restoration of Upland Pine Forest to its 

original condition is impeded by the current inability to propagate wiregrass where it has been 

extirpated.
 19

 ROCKLANDS - low, generally flat limestone outcrops with tropical vegetation or limestone 

exposed through karst activities with tropical or temperate vegetation.

Pine Rockland - (synonyms: Miami rock ridge pinelands, Everglades flatwoods, Dade 

rockland pine). Pine Rockland is characterized as an open canopy forest of slash pines with a 

patchy understory of tropical and temperate shrubs and palms and a variable ground cover of 

grasses and herbs. Scattered outcrops of weathered oolitic limestone, known locally as pinnacle 

rock, are also common. Typical plants include south Florida slash pine, saw palmetto, cabbage 

palm, silver palm, gallberry, velvet seed, blolly, locustberry, myrsine, tetrazygia, varnish leaf, 

marlberry, indigo berry, poisonwood, bustic, live oak, stoppers, shining sumac, satin leaf, wild 

tamarind, rubber vine, snowberry, broomsedge, wiregrass, muhly grass, rattlebox, partridge pea, 

coontie, and pinefern. Typical animals include southeastern five-lined skink, ringneck snake, 

pygmy rattlesnake, red-shouldered hawk, Carolina wren, eastern bluebird, pine warbler, 

opossum, marsh rabbit, cotton rat, cotton mouse, raccoon, and bobcat.

Pine Rockland occurs on relatively flat, moderately to well drained terrain. Because 

limestone bedrock is at or very near the surface, soils are generally small accumulations of sand, 

marl, and organic material in depressions and crevices in the rock surface. Drainage varies 

according to the porosity of the limestone substrate, but it is generally rapid. Consequently, most 

sites are wet for only short periods following heavy rains. During the rainy season, however, 

some sites may be shallowly inundated by very slow flowing surface water for up to 60 days 

each year.

Fire is an important physical factor and must be periodically introduced into Pine 

Rocklands to keep them from succeeding to Rockland Hammock. Natural fires probably 

occurred every 3 to 10 years during pre-Columbian times. The degree of understory 

development is directly related to the length of time since the last fire. If understory 

development progresses for more than 8 to 10 years, fire will probably not penetrate, or it will be 

catastrophic.

Temperature also plays an important role in Pine Rocklands. Because the large 

constituent of tropical and subtropical plants are more exposed to below-freezing temperatures in 

the relatively open understory, they are more likely to succumb to freeze damage than 

conspecifics in the sheltered Rockland Hammocks. Thus, below-freezing temperatures help 

reduce tropical hardwood encroachment in Pine Rocklands.

Pine Rocklands are extremely limited in distribution, occurring along the southern 

extreme of the Atlantic Coastal Ridge, or the Miami Rock Ridge, and in scattered locations in the 

lower Florida Keys and other disjunct areas of south Florida. The tremendous development 

pressures in these rapidly urbanizing areas have greatly reduced the extent of this community; 

much of the remaining Pine Rockland is in poor condition because of improper management, or 

it is so isolated and confined by surrounding developments that proper management is not 

possible. Additionally, Brazilian pepper and other exotic plants have profusely invaded many 

Pine Rocklands.
 20

Pine Rocklands harbor a diverse array of tropical and subtropical plants and animals that 

are endemic to South Florida. Several of these are considered to be endangered, threatened, or 

rare. Additionally, several species that are widespread in the West Indies are found in the United 

States almost exclusively in Pine Rocklands.

Rockland Hammock - (synonyms: tropical hammock, hardwood hammock). Rockland 

Hammock is characterized as a hardwood forest on upland sites in regions where limestone is 

very near the surface and is often exposed. These forest have high species diversity and are often 

dominated by trees 60 feet or taller. Typical plants include live oak, gumbo-limbo, wild 

tamarind, stoppers, pigeon plum, false mastic, poisonwood, mahogany, inkwood, marlberry, 

lancewood, strangler fig, wild coffee, bustic, black ironwood, paradise tree, satin leaf, redbay, 

cabbage palm, laurel oak, tallowwood, prickly ash, hackberry, guiana-plum, shortleaf fig, cat's 

claw, soapberry, sea grape, coffee colubrina, soldierwood, geiger tree, wild pine, Spanish moss, 

ferns, coonties, poison ivy, greenbrier, and fox grape. Typical animals include tree snail, Schaus 

swallowtail, white-crowned pigeon, woodrat, and cottonmouse.

Rockland Hammocks occur on high ground that does not normally flood, but they are 

often dependent upon high water tables to maintain reservoirs in solution features of the 

limestone and to keep humidity levels high. The dense canopy minimizes temperature 

fluctuations by reducing soil warming during the day and heat loss at night. Mesic conditions 

are further developed by the hammock's rounded profile, which deflects winds, thus limiting 

desiccation during dry periods and reducing interior storm damage.

Rockland Hammocks are frequently located within wetlands that serve as essential 

firebreaks. They are susceptible to fire when the water table drops more than two feet below 

ground surface or the soil moisture content is less than 35%. Although Rockland Hammock can 

reestablish within 25 years after a fire, maximum development of structure and diversity 

probably requires more than 100 fire-free years.

Rockland Hammock is the advanced successional stage of Pine Rockland. It grades into 

Coastal Rock Barren and Marl Prairies. It may also intergrade with Shell Mounds or Sinkholes 

and be difficult to separate from them.

Rockland Hammock is a rare community that requires protection from fire, canopy 

disruption, and ground water reduction. Many plants and animals of Rockland Hammocks must 

also be protected from collectors. Rockland Hammock is prime development property and is 

disappearing rapidly.

Sinkhole - (synonyms: lime sink, sink, solution pit, cenote, grotto, doline, chimney hole, 

banana hole). Sinkholes are generally characterized as cylindrical or conical depressions with 

steep limestone walls. Those which drain readily and only contain standing water during or for 

short periods following heavy rains are considered to be Sinkholes, while those which contain 

water throughout most of the year and dry down only during extreme droughts are considered to 
 21

be Sinkhole Lakes. The differences between these two communities are often subtle. They may 

occur together if the upper portions of the limestone are typically above water level, while the 

lower portions are typically below water level.

The vegetative structure of Sinkholes may be that of a well-developed forest where sands 

cover the rock and/or the sides of the Sinkholes are moderately sloped. These conditions are 

typically confined to the upper portions and around the rim of the Sinkhole. Steeper rock walls 

are generally more or less covered by mosses, liverworts, and ferns with occasional herbs and 

shrubs in crevices. Typical plants include southern magnolia, sweetgum, wax myrtle, wild 

grape, Virginia creeper, poison ivy, partridgeberry, greenbrier, water oak, flowering dogwood, 

horse sugar, sparkleberry, diamond-leaf oak, live oak, hophornbeam, tupelo, white ash, Florida 

maple, pignut hickory, beautyberry, and gum bumelia. Steep rock walls are more or less covered 

by a variety of mosses, liverworts, ferns and sometimes herbs, including such rare and threatened 

species as Venus'-hair fern and halberd fern. Sinkholes provide habitat for relictual populations 

of many species of salamanders and invertebrates that would be unable to survive in otherwise 

drier areas.

Sinkholes are most common in karst areas where the underlying limestone has been 

riddled with solution cavities by the chemical and physical actions of underground waters. As 

these cavities enlarge and become interconnected, large underwater caverns develop. When 

water tables drop, the cavern roof is no longer supported by the hydrostatic pressure and portions 

of it may collapse, leaving a deep cylindrical or conical surface depression known as a Sinkhole. 

The organic and mineral debris that collapsed into the cavity may partially occlude, but generally 

does not completely block, the Sinkhole's connections with the underground water table. Thus, 

Sinkholes frequently function as aquifer recharge areas. Some Sinkholes are the relics of ancient 

springs or swallowholes, flow having ceased because of lower water tables. The relic stream bed 

may still be discernible, but has been obliterated in most cases.

Steep limestone walls generally restrict soils to organic accumulations in cracks and 

crevices. Where the sides of a sinkhole have collapsed, sands may have slumped over the 

limestone, creating conditions similar to a Slope Forest.

Sinkholes generally have a very moist microclimate. The depression itself helps protect 

the Sinkhole from drying winds, while the fringe of trees surrounding the Sinkhole often form a 

nearly complete canopy which shelters the Sinkhole from intensive insolation. Additionally, 

seepage from the surrounding uplands may slowly moisten the walls, while the frequent presence 

of standing water contributes to the high humidity. These conditions may also buffer 

temperature extremes, allowing a unique mixture of tropical and temperate flora to exist in many 

Florida Sinkholes. 

Sinkholes and Sinkhole Lakes are often the antecedents of other Lacustrine and 

Palustrine communities, including Dome Swamp; Depression Marsh; and Sandhill Upland, 

Flatwoods and Prairie Lakes. When several Sinkholes coalesce, Basin Marsh or Swamp and 
 22

Clastic Upland, Marsh or Swamp Lakes may eventually develop. Thus, the distinctions between 

Sinkhole communities and other related communities are frequently subtle, as one very gradually 

succeeds to another. The limestone dissolution processes that initiated their development 

continue, and subsequent droughts which lower ground water tables could renew the Sinkhole 

development process.

Sinkholes are extremely fragile communities. Their popularity as recreational areas 

subjects their flora to trampling and their steep walls to severe erosion from foot traffic and, in 

some cases, from dirt bikes. Sinkhole Lakes attract swimmers and divers whose activities may 

disturb the aquatic community as well. The unique flora of many Sinkholes has made them 

additionally vulnerable to overcollection. 

Sinkholes are frequently used as dump sites. These activities will degrade water quality 

in the Sinkhole and eventually the underground aquifer. Thus, litter and refuse should be 

removed promptly when they occur. Similarly, pollution of the water supplies (aquifer and 

seepage sources) should be avoided. Chemical applications, waste treatments, and spills on the 

surrounding upland should be closely monitored to determine their potential impacts and 

mitigation requirements.

The delicate microclimate of Sinkholes may also be easily disturbed by activities in the 

surrounding areas. Logging of the surrounding canopy will increase both insolation and 

sedimentation levels, while major soil disturbances in the surrounding uplands could disrupt 

seepage water sources. Large withdrawals of groundwater nearby could substantially lower 

water tables and reduce the hydroperiods of Sinkhole Lakes. Any of these activities could 

significantly alter the microclimate and induce deleterious vegetational responses. Likewise, the 

invasion of exotic plant species is also a concern in these important communities.
 23

 MESIC FLATLANDS - flat, moderately well-drained sandy substrates with admixture of 

organic material, often with a hard pan.

Dry Prairie - (synonyms: palm savannah, palmetto prairie, pineland-threeawn range). 

Dry Prairie is characterized as a nearly treeless plain with a dense ground cover of wiregrass, 

saw palmetto, and other grasses, herbs, and low shrubs. Other typical plants include 

broomsedge, carpet grass, runner oak, Indian grass, love grass, blazing star, rabbit tobacco, pine 

lily, marsh pink, milkwort, goldenrod, musky mint, pawpaw, dwarf wax myrtle, gallberry, 

stagger bush, fetterbush, and dwarf blueberry. Typical animals include box turtle, six-lined 

racerunner, black racer, coachwhip, turkey vulture, crested caracara, bobwhite, sandhill crane, 

burrowing owl, loggerhead shrike, meadowlark, grasshopper sparrow, least shrew, cotton rat, 

harvest mouse, spotted skunk, and bobcat.

Dry Prairie occurs on relatively flat, moderately to poorly drained terrain. The soils 

typically consist of 1 to 3 feet of acidic sands generally overlying an organic hardpan or clayey 

subsoil. The hardpan substantially reduces the movement of water below and above its surface, 

such that Dry Prairies may become flooded for short periods during rainy seasons. The normal 

water table, however, is several inches to several feet below the surface. Dry Prairie is very 

similar to Mesic Flatwoods in most respects, except that pines and palms are absent or at a 

density below one tree per acre.

The natural fire frequency in Dry Prairies appears to be every 1 to 4 years, which 

averages slightly more frequent than generally occurs in Mesic Flatwoods. The higher frequency 

of fire is probably the primary factor that limits pine recruitment in this community. Some 

authorities suggest that fire every 1 to 4 years is unnaturally high and an artifact of human 

intervention; i.e., they suggest that Dry Prairie is not a natural biological community. Other 

authorities disagree and suggest that Dry Prairies were at one time more widespread. Further 

research is necessary to solve this controversy.

Dry Prairie is closely associated with and often grades into Wet Prairie or Mesic 

Flatwoods. Some Mesic Flatwoods differ only in having a pine overstory, and when timbered 

are often difficult to distinguish from Dry Prairies. Many of the plants and animals occurring in 

Dry Prairies also occur in Scrubby Flatwoods, Mesic Flatwoods, Sandhill, and Coastal 

Grassland.

Dry Prairies are apparently endemic to Florida and largely confined to a few regions of 

the state. Most representatives of this community have been converted to farm fields or citrus 

groves. The few remnants of Dry Prairie are disappearing rapidly. Because Dry Prairie is an 

important habitat for several animals that occur nowhere else in the eastern United States (e.g., 

caracara and burrowing owl), the preservation of existing tracts through appropriate management 

is paramount.

Mesic Flatwoods - (synonyms: pine flatwoods, pine savannahs, pine barrens). Mesic 

Flatwoods are characterized as an open canopy forest of widely spaced pine trees with little or no 
 24

understory but a dense ground cover of herbs and shrubs. Several variations of Mesic Flatwoods 

are recognized, the most common associations being longleaf pine - wiregrass - runner oak and 

slash pine - gallberry - saw palmetto. Other typical plants include: St. Johns-wort, dwarf 

huckleberry, fetterbush, dwarf wax myrtle, stagger bush, blueberry, gopher apple, tar flower, bog 

buttons, blackroot, false foxglove, white-topped aster, yellow-eyed grass, and cutthroat grass. 

Typical animals of Mesic Flatwoods include: oak toad, little grass frog, narrowmouth toad, 

black racer, red rat snake, southeastern kestrel, brown-headed nuthatch, pine warbler, Bachman's 

sparrow, cotton rat, cotton mouse, black bear, raccoon, gray fox, bobcat, and white-tailed deer.

Mesic Flatwoods occur on relatively flat, moderately to poorly drained terrain. The soils 

typically consist of 1-3 feet of acidic sands generally overlying an organic hardpan or clayey 

subsoil. The hardpan substantially reduces the percolation of water below and above its surface. 

During the rainy seasons, water frequently stands on the hardpan's surface and briefly inundates 

much of the flatwoods; while during the drier seasons, ground water is unobtainable for many 

plants whose roots fail to penetrate the hardpan. Thus, many plants are under the stress of water 

saturation during the wet seasons and under the stress of dehydration during the dry seasons.

Another important physical factor in Mesic Flatwoods is fire, which probably occurred 

every 1 to 8 years during pre-Columbian times. Nearly all plants and animals inhabiting this 

community are adapted to periodic fires; several species depend on fire for their continued 

existence. Without relatively frequent fires, Mesic Flatwoods succeed into hardwood-dominated 

forests whose closed canopy can essentially eliminate the ground cover herbs and shrubs. 

Additionally, the dense layer of litter that accumulates on unburned sites can eliminate the 

reproduction of pines which require a mineral soil substrate for proper germination. Thus, the 

integrity of the Mesic Flatwoods community is dependent on periodic fires. However, fires that 

are too frequent or too hot would eliminate pine recruitment and eventually transform Mesic 

Flatwoods into Dry Prairie.

Mesic Flatwoods are closely associated with and often grade into Wet Flatwoods, Dry 

Prairie, or Scrubby Flatwoods. The differences between these communities are generally related 

to minor topographic changes. Wet Flatwoods occupy the lower wetter areas, while Scrubby 

Flatwoods occupy the higher drier areas.

Mesic Flatwoods are the most widespread biological community in Florida, occupying an 

estimated 30 to 50% of the state's uplands. However, very few undisturbed areas of Mesic 

Flatwoods exist because of habitat mismanagement and silvicultural, agricultural, or residential 

development. Mesic Flatwoods are often fairly resilient, and with proper management they can 

generally be restored.

Mesic Hammock - (new community added 4/4/05 – modified 4/14/05 - Ann F. Johnson) 

is a hardwood forest community of open or closed canopy dominated by live oak (Quercus 

virginiana), with cabbage palm (Sabal palmetto) often present in the canopy and subcanopy. 

Epiphytes (ferns orchids and bromeliads) are often found and may become abundant in 

undisturbed stands. Shrubby understory may be dense or open, tall or short and is composed of 
 25

saw palmetto (Serenoa repens), beautyberry (Callicarpa americana), and wax myrtle (Myrica 

cerifera), with the addition of tropical shrubs, such as nakedwood (Myrcianthes fragrans) and 

wild coffee (Psychotria nervosa), in the south. The herb layer is often sparse or patchy and 

consists of various grasses, including low panic grasses (Dichanthelium spp.) and basket grass 

(Oplismenus hirtellus), and sedges. Mesic hammock usually occurs as fringes or small patches 

on the borders of, or in higher parts of, rivers, swamps, marshes, and large lakes, and ranges 

from central and south Florida (Polk to Dade and Collier counties) northward along the Atlantic 

and Gulf coasts to North Carolina and Texas. Soils are sand mixed with organic matter and are 

normally dry underfoot. It is distinguished from prairie hammock by its situation bordering 

wetlands in an upland landscape, rather than on rises in a marshy, wetland landscape; it differs 

from hydric hammock in the absence of wetland trees such as sweetbay (Magnolia virginiana) 

and black gum (Nyssa biflora), and from xeric hammock in the absence of sand live oak 

(Quercus geminata), myrtle oak (Quercus myrtifolia) and other scrub species. It is distinguished 

from maritime hammock by its inland occurrence on non-dune substrates and from upland 

hardwood and upland mixed forests to the north by its low species diversity and lack of many 

characteristic deciduous broad-leaved trees in the canopy and subcanopy, such as Quercus 

michauxii, Carpinus caroliniana, and Cornus florida, as well as by its occurrence on sandy soils 

in contrast to the loamy or clay-based soils on which upland forests occur. It is found primarily 

in Florida where its area may be between 100,00 and 500,000 acres, although this is difficult to 

estimate since it occurs as scattered small stands or fringing borders in a matrix of dry prairie, 

mesic flatwoods, floodplain marshes, or hydric hammock. Examples may be found around large 

lakes in Osceola and Polk counties, and along the St Johns River marshes.

Prairie Hammock - (synonyms: palm/oak hammock, hydric hammock). Prairie 

Hammock is characterized as a clump of tall cabbage palms and live oaks in the midst of prairie 

or marsh communities. These hammocks generally have a very open understory although saw 

palmetto typically rings the perimeter of these rounded clumps. Other typical plants include wax 

myrtle, water oak, stoppers, marlberry, pigeon plum, poison ivy, poisonwood, orchids, and 

lidflowers. Typical animals include box turtle, southeastern five-lined skink, black racer, and 

several species of shrews and rodents.

Prairie Hammocks occur on slight rises in relatively flat terrain. Soils generally consist 

of sands overlying calcareous marls but may be a more complex association of marl, peat, and 

sand over limestone. Prairie Hammocks may flood during extreme high water, but they are 

seldom inundated for more than 10 to 40 days each year. Oak and palm dominated Prairie 

Hammocks on drier sites tolerate occasional light ground fires, but more diverse hammocks 

rarely burn. Sites with heavy shrub layers are liable to be severely damaged by a canopy fire.

Prairie Hammock may be associated with or grades into Hydric Hammock, Rockland 

Hammock, or Shell Mound. It is an advanced successional stage of Mesic Flatwoods, Dry 

Prairie, or Marl Prairie. Prairie Hammock also shares many species with Xeric Hammock and 

Maritime Hammock.
 26

Prairie Hammock is largely restricted to peninsular Florida. Although Prairie Hammocks 

are widespread and fairly common, their generally small size increases their vulnerability to 

disturbances.

Scrubby Flatwoods - (synonyms: xeric flatwoods, dry flatwoods). Scrubby Flatwoods 

are characterized as an open canopy forest of widely scattered pine trees with a sparse shrubby 

understory and numerous areas of barren white sand. The vegetation is a combination of Scrub 

and Mesic Flatwoods species; Scrubby Flatwoods often occupy broad transitions or ecotones 

between these communities. Typical plants include longleaf pine, slash pine, sand live oak, 

Chapman's oak, myrtle oak, scrub oak, saw palmetto, staggerbush, wiregrass, dwarf blueberry, 

gopher apple, rusty lyonia, tarflower, golden-aster, lichens, silkbay, garberia, huckleberry, 

goldenrod, runner oak, pinweeds, and frostweed. 

Scrubby Flatwoods generally occur intermingled with Mesic Flatwoods along slightly 

elevated relictual sandbars and dunes. The white sandy soil is several feet deep and drains 

rapidly. However, the water table is unlikely to be very deep. Scrubby Flatwoods normally do 

not flood even under extremely wet conditions. Temperatures and humidities of air and soil in 

Scrubby Flatwoods fluctuate substantially more than in most other communities because the 

scattered overstory, sparse understory, and barren sands of Scrubby Flatwoods do not ameliorate 

daily and seasonal changes very well.

Although the elevated, deeper sandy soils of scrubby flatwoods engender a drier 

environment than the surrounding mesic flatwoods, the general sparsity of ground vegetation and 

the greater proportion of relatively incombustible scrub-oak leaf litter reduces the frequency of 

naturally occurring fires. Only after a long absence of fire and during periods of drought does 

the leaf litter become sufficiently combustible and concentrated enough to support an ecological 

burn. Several species of plants in Scrubby Flatwoods are typical scrub plants which endure only 

when long intervals between fires occur. Thus, a periodicity of approximately 8 to 25 years 

between fires appears to be natural for this community.

Scrubby Flatwoods are associated with and often grade into Mesic Flatwoods, Scrub, Dry 

Prairie or Sandhills. This community is essentially a Mesic Flatwoods with a Scrub understory.
 27

WET FLATLANDS - flat, poorly drained sand, marl or limestone substrates.

Hydric Hammock - (synonyms: wetland hardwood hammock, wet hammock). Hydric 

Hammock is characterized as a well developed hardwood and cabbage palm forest with a 

variable understory often dominated by palms and ferns. Typical plants include cabbage palm, 

diamond-leaf oak, red cedar, red maple, swamp bay, sweetbay, water oak, southern magnolia, 

wax myrtle, saw palmetto, bluestem palmetto, needle palm, poison ivy, dahoon holly, myrsine, 

hackberry, sweetgum, loblolly pine, Florida elm, swamp chestnut oak, American hornbeam, 

Walter viburnum, royal fern, peppervine, rattanvine, yellow jessamine, and Virginia creeper. 

Typical animals include green anole, flycatchers, warblers, and gray squirrel.

Hydric Hammock occurs on low, flat, wet sites where limestone may be near the surface 

and frequently outcrops. Soils are sands with considerable organic material that, although 

generally saturated, are inundated only for short periods following heavy rains. The normal 

hydroperiod is seldom over 60 days per year. Because of their generally saturated soils and the 

sparsity of herbaceous ground cover, Hydric Hammocks rarely burn. 

Hydric Hammock occurs as patches in a variety of lowland situations, often in 

association with springs or karst seepage, and in extensive forests covering lowlands just inland 

of coastal communities. Hydric Hammock generally grades into Floodplain Swamp, Strand 

Swamp, Basin Swamp, Baygall, Wet Flatwoods, Coastal Berm, Maritime Hammock, Slope 

Forest, Upland Mixed Forest, or Upland Hardwood Forest. Hydric Hammock is often difficult to 

differentiate from Bottomland Forest, Prairie Hammock, and Floodplain Forest.

The normal hydrological regime must be maintained in Hydric Hammock. If the water 

table is lowered, Hydric Hammock will gradually change to mesic conditions. If the hammock is 

flooded, many trees will die and eventually be replaced by more hydrophytic species.

Marl Prairie - (synonyms: scrub cypress, marl flat, dwarf cypress savanna, sedge flat, 

spikerush marsh). Marl Prairies are sparsely vegetated seasonal marshes on flatlands along the 

interface between deeper wetlands and coastal or upland communities where limestone is near

the surface. The freshwater marl substrate is derived from periphyton, masses of algae and other 

minute organisms, that grow floating or loosely attached to the vegetation and exposed 

limestone. These organisms precipitate calcium carbonate when surface water is present. 

Dominant plants include muhly grass, sawgrass, spikerush, bluestem, beakrush, shoregrass, and 

pond cypress. Although generally a system of sedges, grasses, and grass-like plants of varying 

heights and densities, widely scattered, stunted cypress or mangrove trees are often present. 

These cypress trees, sometimes called dwarf, toy or hat rack cypress, have huge buttresses, 

gnarled bonsai-like crowns, and may be hundreds of years old. Other typical plants include 

fragrant waterlily, pickerelweed, wiregrass, asters, love grass, wild pine, cutgrass, panicums, 

black sedge, sand cordgrass, swamp lily, stargrass, musky mint, milkwort, white-top sedge, 

cowhorn orchid, fire flag, dogfennel, and many others.
 28

The highly alkaline marl soils are from 2 inches to 3.5 feet thick and are fine gray or 

white muds. The most extensive types are freshwater Perrine marl, which is largely calcite and 

marine aragonite deposits, which are found mostly on coastal sites. The substrate may be 

concrete-like in the winter and spring dry seasons but soft and, slippery when wet. The soils are 

seasonally flooded but the hydroperiod is highly variable.

Marl Prairies may grade into Wet Prairies or Wet Flatwoods and often occur in a 

continuum with Pine Rockland, Strand Swamp, and Basin Wetlands. In the absence of fire, 

succession is generally toward Prairie Hammock. Marl Prairies generally occur where fire has 

burned off surface peat and sawgrass rhizomes. The vegetation is frequently so sparse that it will 

not carry a fire.

Within the U.S., Marl Prairies are limited to south Florida and have several species 

endemic to the state. Several very large examples of this NC occur in the Everglades National 

Park and in Big Cypress National Preserve.

This NC is extremely vulnerable to hydrological modifications and disruption of the 

natural fire regime. The soft substrate surface is easily disturbed and damaged by offroad 

vehicles.

Wet Flatwoods - (synonyms: low flatwoods, moist pine barren, hydric flatwoods, pondpine flatwoods, pocosin, cabbage palm/pine savannah or flatwoods). Wet Flatwoods are 

characterized as relatively open-canopy forests of scattered pine trees or cabbage palms with 

either thick shrubby understory and very sparse ground cover, or a sparse understory and a dense 

ground cover of hydrophytic herbs and shrubs. Several variations exist between these extremes. 

Typical plants include pond pine, slash pine, sweetbay, spikerush, beakrush, sedges, dwarf wax 

myrtle, gallberry, titi, saw palmetto, creeping beggarweed, deer tongue, gay feather, greenbrier, 

bluestem, and pitcher plants. Typical animals include oak toad, cricket frog, chorus frog, black 

racer, yellow rat snake, diamondback rattlesnake, pygmy rattlesnake, red-shouldered hawk, 

bobwhite, opossum, cottontail rabbit, cotton rat, cotton mouse, raccoon, striped skunk, bobcat, 

and white-tailed deer.

Wet Flatwoods occur on relatively flat, poorly drained terrain. The soils typically consist 

of 1 to 3 feet of acidic sands generally overlying an organic hardpan or clay layer. Cabbage 

palm flatwoods tend to occur on more circumneutral sands (pH 6.0 - 7.5) underlain by marl or 

shell beds. The hardpan substantially reduces the percolation of water below and above its 

surface. During the rainy season, water frequently stands on the surface, inundating the 

flatwoods for 1 or more months per year. During the drier seasons, ground water is less 

accessible for many plants whose roots fail to penetrate the hardpan. Thus, many plants are 

under the stress of water saturation during the wet seasons, and under the stress of dehydration 

during the dry seasons. 

Another important physical factor in Wet Flatwoods is fire. Natural fires probably 
 29

occurred every 3 to 10 years during pre-Columbian times. Nearly all plants and animals 

inhabiting this community are adapted to periodic fires, and several species depend on fires for 

their continued existence. Without relatively frequent fires, Wet Flatwoods succeed into 

hardwood dominated forests whose closed canopy would essentially eliminate the ground cover 

herbs and shrubs. In fact, much of the variation in community structure is probably associated 

with fire frequency. Thus, the longer the period of time since the last fire, the more developed 

will be the understory shrubs. If the understory is allowed to grow for too long, the 

accumulation of needle drape and the height of flammable understory shrubs will increase the 

probability of a catastrophic canopy fire.

Wet Flatwoods are closely associated with and often grade into Hydric Hammock, Mesic 

Flatwoods, Wet Prairie, or Basin Swamp. Wet Flatwoods may also grade into Dome Swamp or 

Strand Swamp, but the absence of a Wet Prairie ecotone suggests that the hydrology has been 

disturbed.

Although Wet Flatwoods may have been an abundant biological community of the 

Coastal Plain at one time, examples with an intact overstory and understory, without exotics, and 

with the potential for future maintenance by fire are rare. They are relatively resilient to 

overstory damage but recover poorly when the ground cover or hydrology has been disturbed. 

Wet Flatwoods are vulnerable to disruptions of fire and hydrological regimes. Exotic plants 

readily invade Wet Flatwoods in south Florida and must be controlled promptly.

Wet Prairie - (synonyms: sand marsh, savannah, coastal savannah, coastal prairie, pitcher 

plant prairie). Wet Prairie is characterized as a treeless plain with a sparse to dense ground cover 

of grasses and herbs, including wiregrass, toothache grass, maidencane, spikerush, and beakrush. 

Other typical plants include hatpins, marsh pinks, crownbeard, sundews, black-eyed susan, 

stargrass, white-top sedge, meadowbeauty, yellow-eyed grass, sneezeweed, sunflower, wax 

myrtle, pitcher plants, tickseed, St. John's wort, and panicums. Typical animals include cricket 

frog, chorus frog, little grass frog, black racer, yellow rat snake, cottonmouth, pygmy rattlesnake, 

northern harrier, caracara, southeastern kestrel, killdeer, long-billed marsh wren, red-winged 

blackbird, marsh rabbit, cotton rat, and cotton mouse. 

Wet Prairie occurs on low, relatively flat, poorly drained terrain of the coastal plain. 

Soils typically consist of sands often with a substantial clay or organic component. The most 

important physical factors are hydrology and fire. Wet Prairie is seasonally inundated or 

saturated for 50 to 100 days each year and burns every 2 to 4 years. Wax myrtle quickly invades 

and will dominate Wet Prairies with longer fire intervals. In south Florida, melaleuca invasions 

can seriously impact Wet Prairies. Generally, Wet Prairies have a much shorter hydroperiod 

than other herbaceous wetlands and are subject to regular and prolonged desiccation during the 

dry season due to their flat topography.

Wet Prairie is closely associated with and often grades into Wet Flatwoods, Depression 

Marsh, Seepage Slope, Mesic Flatwoods, or Dry Prairie. Several other biological communities 

have somewhat similar species compositions or overlap in characteristics, including Swale,
 30

Seepage Slope, Basin Marsh, Floodplain Marsh, and Marl Prairie.

Wet Prairies were probably common throughout the Coastal Plain at one time. Few good 

quality, intact examples remain and some types, e.g. pitcher plant prairies, are becoming 

increasingly rarer. Wet Prairie is vulnerable to hydrological and fire regime alterations, 

overgrazing, and soil disturbances by off-road vehicles. Recovery from disturbances is often 

poor and slow.
 31

 SEEPAGE WETLANDS - sloped or flat sands or peat with high moisture levels 

maintained by downslope seepage.

Baygall - (synonyms: seepage swamp, bayhead, bay swamp). Baygalls are generally 

characterized as densely forested, peat-filled seepage depressions often at the base of sandy 

slopes. The canopy is composed of tall, densely packed, generally straight-boled evergreen 

hardwoods dominated by sweetbay, swamp red bay, and loblolly bay. A more or less open 

understory of shrubs and ferns commonly occurs, while sphagnum mats are often interlaced with 

the convoluted tree roots. Other typical plants include dahoon holly, Atlantic white cedar, 

fetterbush, male-berry, myrtle-leaved holly, large gallberry, wax myrtle, odorless wax myrtle, 

hurrah-bush, dog-hobble, white alder, possumhaw, red chokeberry, Virginia willow, laurel 

greenbrier, poison ivy, cinnamon fern, chain fern, wild grape, netted chain fern, sweetgum, 

cypress, lizard's tail, and needle palm. Typical animals include mole salamander, southern dusky 

salamander, southern mud salamander, opossum, southeastern shrew, short-tailed shrew, marsh 

rabbit, black bear, raccoon, southern mink, and bobcat.

Baygalls typically develop at the base of a slope where seepage usually maintains a 

saturated peat substrate. They may also be located at the edges of floodplains or in other flat 

areas where high lowland water tables help maintain soil moisture. Baygall soils are generally 

composed of peat with an acidic pH (3.5 - 4.5).

Since Baygalls rarely dry out enough to burn, the normal fire interval in these 

communities is probably 50-100 years or more. After a fire, bay trees usually resprout from the 

roots and replace themselves, but severe fires may change a Baygall into a different community. 

If only a small amount of surface peat is removed, a Baygall may be replaced by a Wet 

Flatwoods community. If the ground surface is lowered considerably, willows may invade, 

followed by a cypress-gum community. With recurrent fire, the site will become a shrub bog. If 

the subsurface peat does not burn and fire and hydrological regimes are undisturbed, a burned 

out bay forest may be replaced by a stand of white cedar.

Baygall is often associated with and may grade into Seepage Slope, Floodplain Forest or 

Floodplain Swamp. The species composition of Baygalls frequently overlaps with Bog, Dome 

Swamp, Basin Swamp, Strand Swamp, Bottomland Forest, Wet Flatwoods, and Hydric 

Hammock.

Baygalls are dependent upon seepage flow and a high water table. Alterations in the 

local or regional hydrology could impact Baygall communities. They may also need fire 

protection during droughts, especially if water tables are lowered. Baygalls are vulnerable to 

logging, peat mining, and conversion to agricultural land. When drained, the peat soils are 

valued for farming, although they then begin to oxidize and disappear. The renewed interest in 

mining peat as fuel may place greater pressure on these wetlands.

Seepage Slope - (synonyms: herb bog, pitcher plant bog, grass-sedge bog, shrub bog, 
 32

seep). Seepage Slopes are wetlands characterized as shrub thickets or boggy meadows on or at 

the base of a slope where moisture is maintained by downslope seepage such that the ground is 

usually saturated but rarely inundated. They generally occur where water percolating down 

through the sand hits an impermeable layer, such as clay or rock. Typical plants include pond 

pine, slash pine, longleaf pine, titi, fetterbush, myrtle-leaved holly, black titi, male-berry, large 

gallberry, dahoon holly, gallberry, white cedar, tulip poplar, wax myrtle, odorless wax myrtle, 

blueberry, dog-hobble, racemed fetterbush, sweet pepperbush, possumhaw, Virginia willow, 

laurel greenbrier, wiregrass, pitcher plants, beakrush, cutthroatgrass, orchids, cinnamon fern, 

chain fern, bluestem, yellow-eyed grass, and an array of insectivorous plants. A large number of 

orchids, insectivorous plants, showy wildflowers and other plant species associated with this NC 

are rare or endemic and considered endangered or threatened. Typical animals include the pine 

barrens treefrog, squirrel treefrog, ribbon snake, and cottonmouth.

Seepage Slope soils are acidic, loamy sands with low nutrient availability that are 

constantly saturated by seepage except during droughts. They are rarely inundated, although 

small pools and rivulets are common. Fire with a frequency of about 5 years or less limits shrub 

and tree invasion and recycles nutrients in herb bogs. Shrub bogs typically burn no more often 

than once every 20 to 50 years. In the absence of fire, larger woody plants establish, the 

increased transpiration of which lowers soil moisture levels. Over a period of years without fire, 

the Bog becomes drier and a Baygall may develop.

The pitcher plant and shrub types of this NC occur mostly in two regions of Florida, the 

western panhandle and northeast Florida, while cutthroat seeps occur along the lower central 

ridge. Seepage Slopes may be limited in the U.S. to the southern Gulf coastal plain. Recent 

estimates indicate that only about 1% of the original extent of this type of system remains.

Conversion to pine plantations may have destroyed more Seepage Slopes than all other 

factors combined. Their topographic position is convenient for farm pond construction and they 

are subjected to hydrologic effects from a variety of nearby development activities. Many 

Seepage Slopes are very small and can easily be destroyed by fire lanes, rights-of-way, or ditches 

that disturb the delicate hydrologic balance.
 33

 FLOODPLAIN WETLANDS - flat, alluvial sand or peat substrates associated with riverine 

Natural Communities and subjected to flooding but not permanent inundation.

Bottomland Forest - (synonyms: bottomland hardwoods, river bottom, stream bottom, 

lowland hardwood forest, mesic hammock). Bottomland Forest is characterized as a low-lying, 

closed-canopy forest of tall, straight trees with either a dense shrubby understory and little 

ground cover, or an open understory and ground cover of ferns, herbs, and grasses. Typical 

plants include water oak, live oak, red maple, sweetgum, loblolly pine, white cedar, cabbage 

palm, diamond-leaf oak, southern magnolia, loblolly bay, swamp tupelo, spruce pine, American 

beech, dahoon holly, wax myrtle, swamp dogwood, Florida elm, stiffcornel dogwood, and 

American hornbeam. Typical animals include marbled salamander, mole salamander, threelined salamander, slimy salamander, five-lined skink, ringneck snake, gray rat snake, eastern 

king snake, cottonmouth, wood duck, red-tailed hawk, turkey, yellow-billed cuckoo, screechowl, great-horned owl, ruby-throated hummingbird, acadian flycatcher, pileated woodpecker, 

hermit thrush, cedar waxwing, yellow-throated warbler, opossum, gray squirrel, flying squirrel, 

raccoon, mink, gray fox, bobcat, and white-tailed deer.

Bottomland Forest occurs on low-lying flatlands that usually border streams with distinct 

banks, such that water rarely overflows the stream channel to inundate the forest. They also 

occur in scattered low spots in basins and depressions that are rarely inundated, which allows 

typical upland species to survive. Soils are generally a mixture of clay and organic materials. 

The water table is high, but Bottomland Forests are inundated only during extreme floods or 

exceptionally heavy rains (i.e., not annually). Tree density and species diversity is relatively 

high. The canopy is dense and closed, except during winter in areas where deciduous trees 

predominate. Thus, air movement and light penetration are generally low, making the humidity 

high and relatively constant. Because of these characteristics, Bottomland Forests rarely burn.

Bottomland Forest is a very stable community that requires a hundred years or more to 

mature. In some cases, it is an advanced successional stage of a Bog community. Bottomland 

Forest may be extremely difficult to distinguish from Floodplain Forest or Hydric Hammock. 

They can generally be separated during periods of typical high water, when the latter two 

communities would be inundated, while Bottomland Forest would not. Bottomland Forest is 

often associated with and grades into Floodplain Forest, Hydric Hammock, Mesic Flatwoods, 

Upland Mixed Forest, Upland Hardwood Forest, Slope Forest, Maritime Hammock, Baygall, or 

Wet Flatwoods. There may be much species overlap among these communities.

Bottomland Forests are widespread throughout the Coastal Plain but are less extensive in 

Florida than elsewhere. Nearly all Bottomland Forests have suffered from timbering operations, 

which frequently leave long-lasting scars from soil disturbance. Their location on substrates that 

occasionally are inundated or saturated make Bottomland Forests generally unsuitable for 

development.

Floodplain Forest - (synonyms: bottomland hardwoods, seasonally flooded basins or 
 34

flats, oak-gum-cypress, elm-ash-cottonwood, second bottom, levee forest, river terrace, river 

ridge). Floodplain Forests are hardwood forests that occur on drier soils at slight elevations 

within floodplains, such as on levees, ridges and terraces, and are usually flooded for a portion of 

the growing season. Floodplain Forests are largely restricted to the alluvial rivers of the 

panhandle. The dominant trees are generally mixed mesophytic hardwoods, such as overcup 

oak, water hickory, diamond-leaf oak and swamp chestnut oak. The understory may be open and 

parklike or dense and nearly impenetrable. Other typical plants include bluestem palmetto, 

willow oak, green ash, Florida elm, sweetgum, hackberry, water oak, American hornbeam, tulip 

poplar, coastal plain willow, black willow, eastern cottonwood, swamp cottonwood, river birch, 

red maple, silver maple, box elder, American sycamore, catalpa, sweetbay magnolia, hawthorn, 

swamp azalea, pink azalea, gulf sebastiana, lanceleaf greenbrier, poison ivy, peppervine, 

rattanvine, indigo bush, white grass, plume grass, redtop panicum, caric sedges, silverbells, 

crossvine, American wisteria and wood grass.

Floodplain Forests harbor a diverse array of animals including both temporary residents 

and permanent residents. Typical animals include marbled salamander, mole salamander, twotoed amphiuma, Alabama waterdog, Southern dusky salamander, two-lined salamander, threelined salamander, dwarf salamander, slimy salamander, rusty mud salamander, sirens, southern 

toad, cricket frog, bird-voiced treefrog, gray treefrog, bullfrog, river frog, Southern leopard frog, 

alligator, river cooter, stinkpot, Southeastern five-lined skink, broadhead skink, mud snake, 

rainbow snake, redbelly watersnake, brown water snake, glossy crayfish snake, black swamp 

snake, cottonmouth, yellow-crowned night-heron, wood duck, Mississippi kite, swallowtail kite, 

red-shouldered hawk, woodcock, barred owl, chimney swift, hairy woodpecker, pileated 

woodpecker, Acadian flycatcher, Carolina wren, veery, white-eyed vireo, red-eyed vireo, parula 

warbler, prothonotary warbler, 

Swainson's warbler, hooded warbler, cardinal, towhee, opossum, southeastern shrew, short-tailed 

shrew, beaver, wood rats, rice rats, cotton mouse, golden mouse, bear, and raccoon.

Soils of Floodplain Forests are variable mixtures of sand, organics, and alluvials, which 

are often distinctly layered. Hydroperiod is the primary physical feature of Floodplain Forests, 

which are inundated by flood waters nearly every year for 2 to 50% of the growing season. The 

organic material accumulating on the floodplain forest floor is picked up during floods and 

redistributed in the floodplain or is washed downriver to provide a critical source of minerals and 

nutrients for downstream ecosystems, in particular estuarine systems. These floods also 

replenish soil minerals through deposition on the floodplain. Floodplain Forests usually do not 

have standing water in the dry season.

Floodplain Forests are often associated with and grade into Floodplain Swamp, 

Bottomland Forest, Baygall, or Slope Forest. The species composition is frequently similar to 

that of Hydric Hammock and Bottomland Forest communities.

The maintenance of natural hydrologic regimes is critical to the health of Floodplain 

Forests and to the downstream systems with which they are connected. Species composition and 

the functional relationships throughout a river system are negatively impacted by hydrological 
 35

alterations such as artificial impoundments, river diversion projects, pesticide use, forest 

clearcutting, or intensive agriculture.

Floodplain Marsh - (synonyms: river marsh). Floodplain Marshes are wetlands of 

herbaceous vegetation and low shrubs that occur in river floodplains, mainly in Central Florida 

and along the St. Johns, Kissimmee and Myakka rivers, on sandy alluvial soils with considerable 

peat accumulation. Emergent grasses, herbs, and shrubs that dominate Floodplain Marshes 

include sawgrass, maidencane, and buttonbush. Other typical plants include sand cordgrass, 

dotted smartweed, arrowheads, pickerelweed, reimargrass, spikerush, bulrushes, bladderpod, 

common reed, coreopsis, glasswort, seashore dropseed, sea purslane, and water primrose. 

Typical animals include cricket frog, pig frog, leopard frog, American alligator, eastern mud 

snake, banded water snake, striped swamp snake, great blue heron, great egret, snowy egret, little 

blue heron, tricolored heron, black-crowned night-heron, yellow-crowned night-heron, northern 

harrier, sandhill crane, raccoon, and river otter.

Floodplain Marshes are maintained by regimes of fire and water. Fires apparently burn 

on a one- to five-year basis under natural conditions and maintain the open herbaceous 

community by restricting shrub invasion; however, severe fires during drought periods will often 

burn the mucky peat.

Floodplain Marshes are flooded with flowing water for about 250 days annually. 

Shortened hydroperiods will permit invasion by shrubs and subsequent loss of the marsh. Many 

of these marshes have been degraded by pollution or destroyed by drainage for agricultural uses.

Floodplain Marshes are associated with, and often grade into, Wet Prairie or Riverine 

communities. They eventually succeed to Bog, if succession is not reversed by a muck fire.

Floodplain Swamp - (synonyms: river swamp, bottomland hardwoods, seasonally 

flooded basins or flats, oak-gum-cypress, cypress-tupelo, slough, oxbow, back swamp). 

Floodplain Swamps occur on flooded soils along stream channels and in low spots and oxbows 

within river floodplains. Dominant trees are usually buttressed hydrophytic trees such as cypress 

and tupelo; the understory and ground cover are generally very sparse. Other typical plants 

include ogeechee tupelo, water tupelo, swamp titi, wax myrtle, dahoon holly, myrtle-leaved 

holly, large gallberry, possumhaw, hurrah-bush, white alder, lizard's tail, leather fern, royal fern, 

marsh fern, soft rush, laurel greenbrier, hazel alder, hawthorn, and swamp privet.

Floodplain Swamps harbor a diverse array of animals including both temporary and 

permanent residents. Typical animals include marbled salamander, mole salamander, amphiuma, 

Alabama waterdog, Southern dusky salamander, two-lined salamander, three-lined salamander, 

dwarf salamander, slimy salamander, rusty mud salamander, southern toad, cricket frog, birdvoiced treefrog, gray treefrog, bullfrog, river frog, Southern leopard frog, alligator, river cooter, 

stinkpot, Southeastern five-lined skink, broadhead skink, mud snake, rainbow snake, redbelly 

water snake, brown water snake, glossy crayfish snake, black swamp snake, cottonmouth, 

yellow-crowned night-heron, wood duck, swallowtail kite, Mississippi kite, red-shouldered 
 36

hawk, woodcock, barred owl, chimney swift, hairy woodpecker, pileated woodpecker, Acadian 

flycatcher, Carolina wren, veery, white-eyed vireo, red-eyed vireo, parula warbler, prothonotary 

warbler, hooded warbler, Swainson's warbler, cardinal, towhee, opossum, southeastern shrew, 

short-tailed shrew, beaver, wood rat, rice rat, cotton mouse, golden mouse, bear, raccoon, and 

bobcat.

Soils of Floodplain Swamps are highly variable mixtures of sand, organic, and alluvial 

materials, although some sites, especially within sloughs or on smaller streams, may have 

considerable peat accumulation. Floodplain Swamps are flooded for most of the year, with sites 

along channels inundated by aerobic flowing water while those of sloughs and backswamps are 

flooded with anerobic water for extensive periods of time. Soils and hydroperiods determine 

species composition and community structure. Seasonal and often prolonged inundations restrict 

the growth of most shrubs and herbs, leaving most of the ground surface open or thinly mantled 

with leaf litter. Floods redistribute detrital accumulations to other portions of the floodplain or 

into the main river channel. This rich organic debris is essential to the functional integrity of 

downriver ecosystems such as estuaries. These swamps are usually too wet to support fire.

Floodplain Swamps are often associated with and grade into Floodplain Forest or Hydric 

hammock, and occasionally Baygall. The species composition of Floodplain Swamps is 

frequently similar to the Slough, Strand Swamp, Dome Swamp, and Basin Swamp communities.

Alteration of the hydroperiod by impoundments or river diversions and the disruption of 

floodplain communities by forestry or agriculture have devastating consequences to entire river 

and bay systems. Many plant and animal species, both onsite and down river, depend upon the 

presence and natural fluctuations of these swamps for survival and reproduction.

Freshwater Tidal Swamp - (synonyms: tidewater swamp, rivermouth swamp, sweetbayswamp, tupelo-redbay). Freshwater Tidal Swamps occur on floodplains near the mouths of 

rivers just inland from mangroves or saltmarshes. They are swamp forests with well-developed 

trees inland and increasingly dwarfed trees towards the coast, often with an extensive mat of 

convoluted surface roots. The dominant trees are usually cabbage palm, black gum, bald 

cypress, southern magnolia, and red cedar. Other typical plants include water tupelo, pumpkin 

ash, swamp bay, white cedar, titi, wax myrtle, cocoplum, dahoon holly, myrtle-leaved holly, 

saltbush, asters, and leather fern. Typical animals include those with marine affinities such as 

olive nerites and fiddler crabs.

Freshwater Tidal Swamps occur near the mouths of rivers, often between anastomosing 

channels, on soils that are highly organic. These swamps are flooded by freshwater at least twice 

daily in response to tidal cycles. They are extremely vulnerable to hydrological modifications, 

saltwater intrusion, and clearcut logging.

Although this NC is widespread around the southeastern U.S., cabbage palm is a 

conspicuous element only in Florida. Because they are found only near river mouths, their 

distribution is inherently limited in Florida.
 37

Slough - Sloughs are characterized as broad shallow channels, inundated with flowing 

water except during extreme droughts, that are the deepest drainageways within Strand Swamps 

and Swale systems. The vegetation structure of Sloughs is variable but characterized, in general, 

by pond apple, Carolina (pop) ash, fragrant waterlily, large emergent herbs, and floating aquatic 

plants. Typical plants include water elm, ogeechee tupelo, fire flag, water lettuce, golden canna, 

giant cutgrass, frog's bit, duckweed, buttonbush, coastal plain willow, pickerelweed, arrowheads, 

and lizard's tail. These canopied Sloughs, especially in south Florida, are ideal moist, warm 

habitats for rare and endangered tropical epiphytes. Many Caribbean species that occur in this 

NC are virtually never encountered in other Florida habitats. Pond apple branches are often 

heavily loaded with epiphytic orchids, bromeliads, ferns and peperomias. Typical animals are 

those of adjacent Strand Swamps and Swales.

Sloughs are often aligned with the lowest part of linear depressions in the underlying 

limestone bedrock. The soils are peat, unless they have been destroyed by catastrophic fires that 

often occur during droughts. The normal hydroperiod is at least 250 days per year.

Sloughs often grade into Strand Swamps and Swales and may also occur in Floodplain 

Swamps and Basin Swamps. Sloughs are generally abundant throughout Florida.

Sloughs are extremely vulnerable to hydrologic disturbance and must have a reliable, 

quality water source to persist. Peat mining and clearcutting are additional threats to this NC.

Strand Swamp - (synonyms: cypress strand, stringer). Strand Swamps are shallow, 

forested, usually elongated depressions or channels dominated by bald cypress. They are 

generally situated in troughs in a flat limestone plain. Typical plants include red maple, laurel 

oak, cabbage palm, strangler fig, red bay, sweet bay, coastal plain willow, wax myrtle, myrsine, 

buttonbush, royal palm, poison ivy, swamp lily, leather fern, royal fern, sawgrass, swamp 

primrose, water hyssop, floating heart, dotted smartweed, and arum. Canopy plants are mainly 

temperate, while understory and epiphytic plants are mainly tropical. Small young trees at the 

outer edge of Strand Swamps grade into large old ones in the interior, giving a strand a distinctly 

rounded cross-sectional profile. Typical animals include ribbon snake, cottonmouth, opossum, 

gray squirrel, black bear, raccoon, mink, otter, Florida panther, and white-tailed deer.

Strand Swamp soils are peat and sand over limestone. The best developed forests are on 

deep peat that acts as a wick to draw moisture from groundwater up into the root zone during 

droughts. The normal hydroperiod is 200-300 days with a maximum water depth of 18 to 30 

inches. Water is deepest and remains longest near the center where the trees are biggest.

Fire occurs in Strand Swamps on a cycle of perhaps 30 to 200 years, with the largest trees 

on the deepest peat towards the center of the strand burning least frequently. Fire is essential for 

maintenance of this NC; without fire, hardwood invasion and peat accumulation would convert 

the strand to Bottomland Forest in a few hundred years. Cypress is very tolerant of light surface 

fires, but muck fires burning into the peat can kill the trees, lower the ground surface, and 
 38

transform a Strand into a Slough.

The classic examples of Strand Swamp, those with tropical species, occur mainly in 

Collier County, Florida, where the Fakahatchee Strand is perhaps the finest example. Strand 

Swamps also occur in other areas of the southeastern coastal plain. Strand Swamps are 

extremely vulnerable to local as well as regional hydrological modifications. Most Strands were 

heavily disturbed by logging but many have recovered well and there are a few small strands that 

are thought to be virgin.

Swale - (synonyms: slough, river of grass, glades). Swales are marshes situated in broad 

shallow channels with flowing water and characterized by emergent grasses, sedges, and herbs 

up to ten feet tall. The dominant species is sawgrass. Other typical plants include buttonbush, 

coastal plain willow, arrowheads, pickerelweed, fragrant water lily, cutthroatgrass, water hyssop, 

water primrose, bladderwort, and muhly grass. Typical animals include cricket frog, pig frog, 

alligator, Florida redbelly turtle, Florida banded water snake, great blue heron, great egret, greenbacked heron, wing rail, purple gallinule, raccoon, and mink.

Swale soils are peat, unless removed by severe fire, or sands, and are generally located 

over linear depressions in the underlying limestone. The natural hydrology consists of sheet 

flow that may be maintained on the order of 250 days per year.

Natural, light ground fires every 1 to 5 years are typical and result from lightning in late 

spring when the ground surface is dry, although sawgrass will carry a fire over water. When the 

peat dries out in extreme droughts, devastating muck fires may consume the soil and lower the 

ground surface so that the Swale is replaced by a Slough. Where fire is relatively infrequent, 

thickets of buttonbush and coastal plain willow develop.

The major occurrences of this NC in the U.S. are in south Florida in the Everglades - Big 

Cypress region. These Swales may grade into Wet Prairie and Marl Prairie so that the distinction 

between Swale with definite flowing water and a prairie without perceptible flow may be 

arbitrary. The threats to this NC are disruption of natural hydrologic and fire cycles, conversion 

to agriculture, and invasion of exotics in disturbed areas.
 39

 BASIN WETLANDS - shallow, closed basin with outlet usually only in time of high water; 

peat or sand substrate, usually inundated; wetland woody and/or herbaceous vegetation.

Basin Marsh - (synonyms: prairie, freshwater marsh). Basin Marsh is characterized as 

an herbaceous or shrubby wetland situated in a relatively large and irregular shaped basin. 

Typical plants include common reed, panicum, cutgrass, southern watergrass, pennywort, 

Spanish needle, redroot, soft rush, American lotus, water primrose, arrowhead, coastal plain 

willow, saltbush, elderberry, spikerush, knotweed, buttonbush, and dog fennel. Typical animals 

include two-toed amphiuma, lesser siren, greater siren, cricket frog, green treefrog, bull frog, pig 

frog, leopard frog, alligator, eastern mud snake, green water snake, banded water snake, striped 

swamp snake, black swamp snake, great blue heron, great egret, snowy egret, little blue heron, 

tricolored heron, bald eagle, and northern harrier.

Basin Marshes usually develop in large solution depressions that were formerly shallow 

lakes. The lake bottom has slowly filled with sediments from the surrounding uplands and with 

peat derived from plants. Thus, the soils are usually acidic peats. The hydroperiod is generally 

around 200 days per year. Open areas of relatively permanent water within the marsh, with or 

without floating aquatic vegetation, are considered to be Marsh Lakes (See Lacustrine Natural 

Communities).

Fire maintains the open herbaceous community by restricting shrub invasion. The 

normal interval between fires is 1 to 10 years, with strictly herbaceous marshes burning about 

every 1 to 3 years, and those with substantial willow and buttonbush having gone 3 to 10 years 

without fire. Fires during drought periods will often burn the mucky peat and will convert the 

marsh into a Marsh Lake.

Basin Marshes are associated with and often grade into Wet Prairie or Lake communities. 

They may eventually succeed to Bog, if succession is not reversed by a muck fire. Many of the 

plants and animals occurring in Basin Marshes also occur in Floodplain Marsh, Slough, Swale 

and Depression Marsh. Large examples of the Depression Marsh, in fact, may be very difficult 

to distinguish from small examples of Basin Marsh.

Normal hydroperiods must be maintained, or Basin Marsh vegetation will change. 

Shortened hydroperiods will permit the invasion of mesophytic species, while longer 

hydroperiods will convert marsh into lake. Fire is also necessary to control hardwood 

encroachment. However, fires during droughts should be avoided to reduce the possibility of a 

muck fire. Many sites have been degraded by pollution or drained for agricultural uses.

Basin Swamp - (synonyms: gum swamp, bay, bayhead, swamp). Basin Swamp is 

generally characterized as a relatively large and irregularly shaped basin that is not associated 

with rivers, but is vegetated with hydrophytic trees and shrubs that can withstand an extended

hydroperiod. Dominant plants include blackgum, cypress, and slash pine. Other typical plants 

include red maple, swamp redbay, sweetbay magnolia, loblolly bay, Virginia willow, fetterbush, 
 40

laurel greenbrier, Spanish moss, wax myrtle, titi, sphagnum moss, and buttonbush. Typical 

animals include southern dusky salamander, cricket frog, little grass frog, chicken turtle, striped 

mud turtle, ringneck snake, scarlet kingsnake, crayfish snake, cottonmouth, wood duck, hawks, 

turkey, great horned owl, barred owl, pileated woodpecker, songbirds, gray squirrel, black bear, 

raccoon, mink, river otter, bobcat, and white-tailed deer.

Soils in Basin Swamps are generally acidic, nutrient poor peats, often overlying a clay 

lens or other impervious layer. The resulting perched water table may act as a reservoir releasing 

groundwater as adjacent upland water tables drop during drought periods. The typical 

hydroperiod is approximately 200-300 days. Basin Swamps are thought to have developed in 

oxbows of former rivers or in ancient coastal swales and lagoons that existed during higher sea 

levels.

Infrequent fire is essential for the maintenance of cypress dominated Basin Swamps. 

Blackgum and hardwood dominated Basin Swamps burn less often, while pine dominated Basin 

Swamps burn more frequently. Without fire, hardwood invasion and peat accumulation will 

eventually create a Bottomland Forest or Bog. Typical fire intervals in Basin Swamps may be 

anywhere from 5 to 150 years. Cypress and pines are very tolerant of light surface fires, but 

muck fires burning into the peat can kill the trees, lower the ground surface, and transform a 

swamp into a pond or lake.

Small Basin Swamps may be difficult to distinguish from large Dome Swamps. Basin 

Swamps are often associated with and may grade into Wet Flatwoods, Hydric Hammock, or 

Bottomland Forest. The species composition of Basin Swamps frequently overlaps with 

Floodplain Swamp, Strand Swamp, and Baygall.

Like other wetland communities, normal hydroperiods must be maintained in Basin 

Swamps. If water levels must be artificially manipulated, somewhat deeper than normal water is 

not likely to do much harm, but extended hydroperiods will limit tree growth and prevent 

reproduction. Shortened hydroperiods will permit invasion of mesophytic species and change 

the character of the understory or will allow a devastating fire to enter which would drastically 

alter the community. Occasional fires are necessary to maintain the cypress and pine 

components.

Basin Swamps are unsuitable for construction because of their extended hydroperiods 

and peaty soils. Most have been degraded by timber harvests, and many have been drained or 

polluted. Thus, very few pristine examples of Basin Swamp communities exist. Those that 

remain should be adequately protected and properly managed.

Bog - (synonyms: Bog swamp, pocosins, evergreen shrub bogs, wet scrub/shrub, peat 

islands, teardrop islands). Bogs are characterized as wetlands on deep peat substrate with 

moisture maintained by capillary action and soils usually saturated or inundated. The vegetation 

is characterized by sphagnum moss and dense evergreen forests or shrub thickets of hydrophytic 

species or by marshy prairie with or without woody species. Typical plant species include titi, 
 41

sphagnum moss, fetterbush, large gallberry, loblolly bay, redbay, and sweetbay. There may be 

small sites fitting the description of this Natural Community in many Florida counties, but very 

few have been documented. Bogs are scattered around lakeshores and in Dome Swamps, ponds 

and Sinkholes. Other typical plants include black titi, pond pine, slash pine, white cedar, wax 

myrtle, odorless wax myrtle, dahoon holly, gallberry, Virginia willow, buttonbush, cocoplum, 

maleberry, blueberry, dog-hobble, racemed fetterbush, sweet pepperbush, possumhaw, red 

chokeberry, swamp tupelo, red maple, cypress, pitcher plants, sundews, arrowheads, golden club, 

arum, bog buttons, hatpins, yellow-eyed grass, bloodroot, orchids, coral greenbrier, cinnamon 

fern, and grass-of-parnassus. Typical animals include dwarf salamander, squirrel treefrog, little 

grass frog, banded water snake, and cottonmouth.

Bogs occur on acidic peat soils that have accumulated in a depression. The peat may fill 

the depression or be an island or isolated mass floated into position by high water. The 

hydrologic regime of the peat soils is dominated by capillary action that draws water up from 

below.

Fire frequency in Bogs is highly variable. In shrubby types they occur normally every 3-

8 years while in woody types every 50-150 years.

Bogs may grade into Baygall, Wet Flatwoods, Seepage Slopes, Basin Swamp, and 

Bottomland Forest. Bogs may be distinguished from ecologically similar Seepage Slopes in that 

they are maintained by opposite hydrological processes. A Seepage Slope is dependent upon 

water seeping down from an upslope source, whereas a Bog is kept moist by moisture drawn up 

from below by capillary action.

In managing Bogs, the hydrologic regime and water quality must be maintained. 

Boardwalks may be necessary for access and interpretive purposes. Some Bogs may require fire 

management, but catastrophic peat fires should be avoided. Threats other than drainage, 

pollution, trampling and catastrophic fires include mining of peat for fuel, agricultural and 

horticultural uses.

Coastal Interdunal Swale – [ This description was written July 7, 1999 by Jon Blanchard and 

Ann Johnson in response to a request from the Division of Recreation and Parks. They will be 

using it to describe interdunal swales on Topsail Hill. This description was based mostly upon a 

Community Characterization Abstract written by Orzell in 1992, but modified to incorporate 

recent thinking, especially as it relates to the age and dynamics of the dune and swale system.] 

Coastal Interdunal Swales are associated with the large barrier islands on the Florida coasts, most 

commonly in the panhandle. They appear as a mix of grasslands, small ponds, and depression 

marshes. A good example can be found on Santa Rosa Island, especially on the portion within 

Eglin Air Force Base, in Santa Rosa and Okaloosa Counties. Typically these occur where 1) 

dune and swale topography has developed within the past 5000 years, 2) a lens of groundwater 

intersects the bottom of the swales, and 3) extensive flooding by saltwater is

infrequent. It appears that Coastal Interdunal Swales owe their existence to a subsurface 
 42

hydraulic connection with the barrier island's water table. The water levels in the interdunal 

wetlands are strongly tied to local rainfall events. Consequently, the community varies from 

flooded to completely dry depending on rainfall, as well as area and elevation of the surrounding 

dunes. 

Dominant species are quite variable depending on local hydrology, substrate, and the age of the 

swales. Individual swales can be dominated by a number of species including umbrellagrass 

(Fuirena scirpoidea), St. John's Wort (Hypericum reductum), redroot (Lacnanthes caroliniana), 

centella (Centella asiatica) yellow-eyed grass (Xyris elliottii), and broomsedge (Andropogon 

virginicus). They are particularly rich with species from the sedge family (Cyperaceae). 

Coastal Interdunal Swales are distinguished from The Inventory's Coastal Grassland natural 

community by long periods of standing water following rains. They are distinguished from 

depression marshes by their location on barrier islands. They are distinguished from tidal fresh 

water marshes by the lack of tidal fluctuations in water levels. 

Little in the way of active management is required other than to prevent disruption by vehicles or 

excessive foot traffic. Fires occasionally burn through the swales but the dominant factor in this 

community's development and maintenance is hydrology. Chinese tallow (Sapium sebiferum) is 

known to invade Coastal Interdunal Swales, its presence should be monitored closely. 

Depression Marsh - (synonyms: isolated wetland, flatwoods pond, St. John's wort pond, 

pineland depression, ephemeral pond, seasonal marsh). Depression Marsh is characterized as a 

shallow, usually rounded depression in sand substrate with herbaceous vegetation often in 

concentric bands. Depression Marshes are similar in vegetation and physical features to, but are 

generally smaller than, Basin Marshes. Typical plants include St. John's wort, spikerush, yelloweyed grass, chain fern, willows, maidencane, wax myrtle, swamp primrose, bloodroot, 

buttonbush, fire flag, pickerelweed, arrowheads, and bladderwort.

Larger and more permanent Depression Marshes may have many of the same plants and 

animals listed as typical of Basin Marshes. However, because of their isolation and small size, 

many Depression Marshes support a very different assemblage of species than that found in 

larger, more permanent wetlands. Depression Marshes are considered extremely important in 

providing breeding or foraging habitat for such species as the flatwoods salamander, mole 

salamander, tiger salamander, dwarf salamander, striped newt, oak toad, cricket frog, pinewoods 

treefrog, barking treefrog, squirrel treefrog, little grass frog, southern chorus frog, ornate chorus 

frog, narrowmouth toad, eastern spadefoot toad, gopher frog, white ibis, wood stork and sandhill 

crane. Depression Marshes occurring as isolated wetlands within larger upland ecosystems are 

of critical importance to many additional wetland and upland animals.

Depression Marshes are typical of karst regions where sand has slumped around or over a 

sinkhole and thereby created a conical depression subsequently filled by direct rain fall, runoff, 

or seepage from surrounding uplands. The substrate is usually acid sand with deepening peat 

toward the center. Some depressions may have developed or be maintained by a subsurface 

hardpan. Hydrological conditions vary, with most Depression Marshes drying in most years. 
 43

Hydroperiods range widely from as few as 50 days or less to more than 200 days per year.

Fire is important to maintaining this community type by restricting invasion of shrubs 

and trees and the formation of peat. Fire frequency is often greatest around the periphery of the 

marsh and least toward the center. A severe peat fire can lower the ground surface and create a 

pond at the center of the marsh.

Depression Marshes are often associated with and grade into Wet Prairie, Seepage Slope, 

Wet Flatwoods, Mesic Flatwoods, Dome Swamp or Bog. They also may occur in association 

with various types of lakes, such as Sandhill Lake or Flatwoods Lake.

Depression Marshes are threatened by drainage, agriculture, pollution, fire suppression, 

and invasion of exotic species. Depression Marshes may be filled and converted to other uses. 

A regional lowering of the water table as a result of overuse may eliminate many Depression 

Marshes. Depression Marshes on some public lands have been deepened by explosives to allow 

for stocking with game fish. By preying upon the eggs and larvae of frogs and salamanders, 

these fish may eliminate the amphibians that depend on such seasonal wetlands for successful 

reproduction. Likewise, many species of invertebrates not adapted to predation by fishes may be 

eliminated.

Dome Swamp - (synonyms: isolated wetland cypress dome, cypress pond, gum pond, 

bayhead, cypress gall, pine barrens pond). Dome Swamps are characterized as shallow, forested, 

usually circular depressions that generally present a domed profile because smaller trees grow in 

the shallower waters at the outer edge, while bigger trees grow in the deeper water in the interior. 

Pond cypress, swamp tupelo, and slash pine are common plants. Other typical plants include red 

maple, dahoon holly, swamp bay, sweetbay, loblolly bay, pond apple, Virginia willow, 

fetterbush, chain fern, netted chain fern, poison ivy, laurel greenbrier, Spanish moss, wild pine, 

royal fern, cinnamon fern, coastal plain willow, maidencane, orchids, wax myrtle, swamp titi, St. 

John's wort, sawgrass, lizard's tail, swamp primrose, water hyssop, redroot, sphagnum moss, 

floating heart, buttonbush, arum, and fire flag. Typical animals include flatwoods salamander, 

mole salamander, dwarf salamander, oak toad, southern cricket frog, pinewoods treefrog, little 

grass frog, narrowmouth toad, alligator, snapping turtle, striped mud turtle, mud turtle, eastern 

mud snake, cottonmouth, woodstork, wood duck, swallow-tailed kite, barred owl, pileated 

woodpecker, great-crested flycatcher, prothonotory warbler, and rusty blackbird.

Dome Swamps typically develop in sandy flatwoods and in karst areas where sand has 

slumped around or over a sinkhole, creating a conical depression. Soils are composed of peat, 

which becomes thickest toward the center of the dome, and are generally underlain with acidic 

sands and then limestone, although other subsoils may also occur. Some domes have a clay lens 

that helps retain water levels.

Dome Swamps often derive much of their water through runoff from surrounding 

uplands, but they may also be connected with underground channels, in which case subterranean 

flows would dominate the hydrological regime. Dome Swamps generally function as reservoirs 
 44

that recharge the aquifer when adjacent water tables drop during drought periods. The normal 

hydroperiod for Dome Swamps is 200 to 300 days per year with water being deepest and 

remaining longest near the center of the dome.

Fire is essential for the maintenance of a cypress dome community. Without periodic 

fires, hardwood invasion and peat accumulation would convert the dome to Bottomland Forest or 

Bog. Dome Swamps dominated by bays are close to this transition. Fire frequency is greatest at 

the periphery of the dome and least in the interior where long hydroperiods and deep peat 

maintain high moisture levels for most of the year. The normal fire cycle might be as short as 3 

to 5 years along the outer edge and as long as 100 to 150 years towards the center. The profile of 

a Dome Swamp (i.e., smaller trees at the periphery and largest trees near the center) is largely 

attributable to this fire regime. The shorter hydroperiods along the periphery permit fires to burn 

into the edge more often, occasionally killing the outer trees. Cypress is very tolerant of light 

surface fires, but muck fires burning into the peat can kill them, lower the ground surface, and 

transform a dome into a pond.

Dome Swamps may have a Depression Marsh or pond in their center, creating a 

doughnut appearance when viewed from above. Dome Swamps typically grade into Wet Prairie 

or Marl Prairie around the periphery, but they may also be bordered by Bottomland Forest or 

Swale. The species composition of Dome Swamps frequently overlaps with Strand Swamp, Wet 

Flatwoods, Basin Swamp, Baygall, Floodplain Swamp, and Freshwater Tidal Swamp.

Normal hydroperiods must be maintained. Somewhat deeper than normal water levels 

are not likely to do much harm, but extended hydroperiods will limit tree growth and prevent 

reproduction. Shortened hydroperiods will permit the invasion of mesophytic species, which 

will change the character of the understory and eventually allow hardwoods to replace cypress. 

Dome Swamps may also be degraded by pollution and the invasion of exotic plants. 

LACUSTRINE

Clastic Upland Lake - (synonyms: clay-bottomed lake, silt-bottomed lake, fluctuating or 

disappearing lake, deep water lake, limesink). Clastic Upland Lakes are generally characterized 

as shallow to relatively deep, irregular- shaped depressions or basins occurring in uplands on 

clay substrates. They are lentic water bodies with surface inflows but often without significant 

outflows. Water is generally dissipated through evaporation and transpiration, but it may also 

disappear, especially during prolonged droughts, through sinks that connect with the aquifer.

Vegetation varies substantially in Clastic Upland Lakes. Some portions of the water's 

edge may be dominated by hydrophytic shrubs, such as buttonbush, Virginia willow, wax myrtle, 

St. John's wort, primrose willow, elderberry, white alder, black titi, swamp privet, Carolina ash, 

witchhazel, large gallberry, hurrah-bush, and possumhaw. Other shorelines may be vegetated 

with sedges, grasses, and rushes; or they may be dominated by hydrophytic trees, such as bald 

cypress, water hickory, water oak, laurel oak, water elm, sweetbay magnolia, redbay, sweetgum, 

waterlocust, red maple, loblolly bay, and black gum. Shallow water zones of Clastic Upland 
 45

Lakes are generally densely vegetated by concentric bands of emergents, floating, and submersed 

aquatics, including pickerelweed, arrowhead, banana-lily, American lotus, spatterdock, fragrant 

water lily, coontail, watermilfoil, bladderwort, fanwort, and pondweed.

Typical animals include Florida gar, bowfin, threadfin shad, chain pickerel, golden 

shiner, ironcolor shiner, redeye club, yellow bullhead, brown bullhead, pirate perch, golden 

topminnow, lined topminnow, pygmy killifish, mosquitofish, least killifish, brook silverside, 

flier, Okefenokee pygmy sunfish, bluespotted sunfish, warmouth, bluegill, redear sunfish, 

largemouth bass, black crappie, swamp darter, two-toed amphiuma, newts, sirens, cricket frog, 

bullfrog, pig frog, leopard frog, alligator, snapping turtle, Florida cooter, yellow-belly turtle, mud 

turtle, stinkpot, Florida softshell turtle, mud snake, green water snake, banded water snake, 

eastern garter snake, cottonmouth, great blue heron, great egret, snowy egret, little blue heron, 

green-backed heron, white ibis, wood stork, kingfisher, beaver, and river otter.

Clastic Upland Lakes generally have clay and organic substrates. Their water is 

characteristically clear to colored, circumneutral to slightly acidic, and soft with a low mineral 

content (particularly sodium, chloride, and sulfate). Clastic Upland lakes may be oligomesotrophic, with relatively low nutrient levels, to eutrophic, with very high nutrient levels, 

depending upon their geologic age and nutrient supplements from the surrounding uplands.

Clastic Upland Lakes are important breeding areas for many terrestrial and semi-aquatic 

amphibians. They are frequently very important feeding and nesting areas for many wading 

birds, ducks, reptiles, and fish. Clastic Upland Lakes are vulnerable to hydrological 

manipulations which permanently lower the water levels and hasten successional processes, and 

those which prevent periodic dry-downs and hasten eutrophication. They are also vulnerable to 

various activities in the surrounding uplands. Land clearing and timber harvests on the adjacent 

uplands generally increase sedimentation rates and, therefore, successional processes. 

Residential, agricultural, and industrial development within a lake's drainage basin generally 

increases pollution levels and accelerates eutrophication, which could be extremely detrimental 

to fish and other aquatic organisms. Human-related manipulations and activities within the 

drainage basin must be adequately controlled to avoid detrimental repercussions to these 

important communities.

Coastal Dune Lake - (synonyms: lagoon, sand-bottomed lake, silt-bottomed lake, 

oligotrophic lake, coastal lake). Coastal Dune Lakes are generally characterized as shallow 

irregularly shaped or elliptic depressions occurring in coastal communities. They are generally 

permanent water bodies, although water levels may fluctuate substantially. They are typically 

lentic water bodies without significant surface inflows or outflows. Instead, water is largely 

derived from lateral ground water seepage through the surrounding well-drained coastal sands. 

Storms occasionally provide large inputs of salt water and salinities vary dramatically over the 

long term.

Vegetation may be largely restricted to a narrow band along the shore, composed of 

hydrophytic grasses and herbs or a dense shrub thicket, depending on fire frequency and/or water 
 46

fluctuations. Shallow, gradually sloping shorelines may have much broader bands of emergent 

vegetation with submersed aquatic plants occasionally dominating much of the surface. Typical 

plants include rushes, sedges, marsh pennywort, cattail, sawgrass, water lilies, water shield, royal 

fern, marsh fleabane, marsh elder, salt myrtle, and black willow. Typical animals include 

mosquitofish, sailfin molly, alligator, mud turtle, saltmarsh snake, little blue heron, coot, and 

otter.

The substrate of Coastal Dune Lakes is primarily composed of sands with organic 

deposits increasing with water depth. Coastal Dune Lakes characteristically have slightly acidic, 

hard water with high mineral content, predominately sodium and chloride. Salinity levels often 

vary greatly, depending on local rainfall and storms. They are generally oligotrophic with low 

nutrient levels.

Coastal Dune Lakes develop from various coastal processes. They most commonly begin 

as a tidally influenced basin or lagoon that becomes closed by sand filling its inlet. Once isolated 

from the direct effects of tides, the water may become hypersaline, as salt water intrusion occurs 

readily through the sandy substrates, and the surface water evaporates rapidly. With further 

isolation from subsurface and overwash saltwater intrusion, the water gradually becomes less 

saline, but still varies considerably with local weather conditions.

Coastal Dune Lakes are very unusual coastal features, being relatively short-lived and 

likely to disappear rapidly. They are important breeding areas for many insects that form the 

base of numerous food chains. They may also be important watering holes for many mammals

and birds inhabiting the surrounding xeric and coastal communities. Wading birds and ducks 

may also use these lakes as feeding and resting areas.

Coastal Dune Lakes are extremely vulnerable to hydrological manipulations. Excessive 

withdrawals of ground water could lower local water tables or increase salt water intrusion and, 

thus, induce successional responses in the lake basin. Groundwater pollution, especially from 

misapplications of chemicals on the surrounding coastal communities, could significantly alter 

the nutrient balance and produce devastating effects on the fauna and flora.

Coastal Rockland Lake - Coastal Rockland Lakes are characterized as "bare bottom" 

lacustrine systems of diminutive size with severely limited numbers and range (primarily 

confined to Monroe County). Lithophytic algae may occur sparsely on the limestone substrate 

that may be one of two types. In the Upper Keys from the northeast to approximately Big Pine 

Key, Miami limestone is prevalent, while west of this point a geologic shift to oolite occurs. The 

significance of this shift is not well known. Also characteristic of this community type are 

highly variable salinity ranges caused by saltwater intrusion and storm surges introducing 

saltwater into the system. The water is generally alkaline due to the limestone substrate and has 

a high mineral content.

Although this Natural Community is generally sparsely vegetated, it is critical in 

supporting an assortment of animals in the Keys. Typical animals associated with these 
 47

communities include Florida Keys sheepshead minnow and Florida Keys sailfin molly. The rare 

Key deer and other terrestrial fauna are thought to be dependent on Coastal Rockland Lakes for 

drinking water. Coastal Rockland Lakes are generally surrounded by Marine Tidal Swamp, Pine 

Rockland, or Rockland Hammock, depending on the proximity to the shoreline and the elevation 

of the surrounding ground.

Management of these systems requires protection of the essential fresh groundwater lens 

that floats above the denser saline groundwater. Protection of the surrounding vegetated 

communities is also desirable to maintain the association between the terrestrial and avian fauna 

dependent on Coastal Rockland Lakes. 

The primary threat to Coastal Rockland Lakes is development. Even limited use of the 

groundwater in the vicinity of this Natural Community may lead to elimination of the freshwater 

lens. Although less common than residential and commercial development in the Keys, rock 

mining activities occur in close proximity to Coastal Rockland Lakes and can destroy an entire 

cluster in a very limited time. The estimated number of Coastal Rockland Lakes thought to 

occur in Florida is very deceptive in that they are often clustered and the range is extremely 

limited. Therefore, detrimental activities at one location could eliminate as much as 10 to 20 

percent of the total number of Coastal Rockland Lakes.

Flatwoods/Prairie/Marsh Lake - (synonyms: Flatwoods pond, ephemeral pond, grass 

pond, St. John's wort pond, freshwater lake, pineland depression, swale, prairie pond). The 

distinctions between these communities, and from Depression Marsh, are often quite subtle, 

because of their successional interrelationships. Depression Marsh is characterized as a shallow, 

generally round or elliptical depression vegetated with concentric bands of hydrophytic 

herbaceous plants. Depending upon the depth and slope of the depression, an open water zone 

with or without floating plants may occur at the center. The open water zone is considered to be 

a Marsh Lake if it is small in comparison to the surrounding marsh. Otherwise, the system is 

considered to be a Flatwoods Lake or a Prairie Lake, depending upon the surrounding 

community.

Both Flatwoods Lake and Prairie Lake are surrounded by either a sparse, Wet Prairie-like 

zone or a dense ring of saw palmetto and other shrubs. Typical plants include spikerush, yelloweyed grasses, St. John's wort, chain fern, coastal plain willow, maidencane, wax myrtle, water 

primrose, floating heart, buttonbush, fire flag, pickerelweed, arrowhead, bladderworts, 

bottlebrush threeawn, toothache grass, star rush, bulrushes, sawgrass, and nut sedge. Many 

animals utilize marshes primarily for feeding and breeding areas but spend most of their time in 

other habitats. Other animals are more dependent on marshes, spending most of their time 

within them. Typical animals include amphiuma, lesser siren, greater siren, cricket frog, green 

treefrog, bullfrog, pig frog, leopard frog, alligator, eastern mud snake, banded water snake, green 

water snake, striped crayfish snake, black swamp snake, American bittern, least bittern, great 

blue heron, great egret, snowy egret, little blue heron, tricolored heron, green-backed heron, 

black-crowned night-heron, white ibis, glossy ibis, bald eagle, northern harrier, king rail, 

Virginia rail, sora, limpkin, long-billed marsh wren, yellowthroat, red-winged blackbird, boat-
 48

tailed grackle, and Florida water rat.

The depressions in which these communities develop are typically formed by one of two 

geological processes: (1) solution holes form in the underlying limestone, causing surface sands 

to slump into a circular depression; or 

(2) during higher sea levels, offshore currents, waves, and winds scoured depressions that 

became seasonally or permanently inundated after the seas regressed. Soils in these depressions 

generally consist of acidic sands with some peat and occasionally a clay lens.

Water is derived mostly from runoff from the immediately surrounding uplands. These 

NC's function as aquifer recharge areas by acting as reservoirs which release groundwater when 

adjacent water tables drop during drought periods. Water generally remains throughout the year 

in a Flatwoods/Prairie Lake or a Marsh Lake, although water levels may fluctuate substantially.

River Floodplain Lake and Swamp Lake - (synonyms: cypress pond, gum pond, oxbow 

lake, backwater, blackwater lake or pond). Swamp Lakes and River Floodplain Lakes are 

generally characterized as shallow open water zones, with or without floating and submerged 

aquatic plants, that are surrounded by Basin Swamp or Floodplain Swamp. They are generally 

permanent water bodies, although water levels often fluctuate substantially and they may become 

completely dry during extreme droughts. They are typically lentic water bodies occurring in 

confined basins or depressions. However, during floods or following heavy rains, they may 

exhibit decidedly lotic characteristics, flowing with the flood water or overflowing their banks 

into lower topographic areas. Some may even exhibit a slow perennial sheet flow, but water 

movement is generally so slow that lentic conditions prevail.

Except for the fringe of hydrophytic trees, shrubs and scattered emergents, plants may be 

absent altogether, or they may almost completely cover the water surface. When present, typical 

plants include fragrant water lily, banana lily, American lotus, spatterdock, duckweed, water 

meal, bog mat, water fern, dollar bonnet, frog's bit, water hyssop, water pennywort, coontail, 

milfoil, bladderwort, bog moss, and fanworts. Several exotic plants may also occur, including 

water lettuce, water hyacinth, salvinia, alligator weed, water spinach, parrot's feather, water 

chestnut, water sprite, hydrilla, and elodea. Scattered emergent plants such as lizard's tail, 

pickerelweed, slender spikerush and golden club may also occur, but the community will more 

appropriately be called Depression Marsh or Floodplain Marsh if emergents dominate the water 

body.

Typical animals include Florida gar, bowfin, redfin pickerel, golden shiner, taillight 

shiner, lake chubsucker, brown bullhead, tadpole madtom, pirate perch, golden topminnow, 

pygmy killifish, mosquito fish, flier, blue spotted sunfish, bluegill, largemouth bass, swamp 

darter, mole salamander, two-toed amphiuma, Alabama waterdog, sirens, cricket frog, bullfrog, 

pig frog, river frog, leopard frog, alligator, snapping turtle, Florida cooter, yellow-belly turtle, 

eastern mud turtle, stinkpot, Florida softshell turtle, mud snake, redbelly water snake, banded 

water snake, brown water snake, cottonmouth, great blue heron, great egret, snowy egret, little 

blue heron, green-backed heron, white ibis, wood stork, kingfisher, beaver, and river otter.
 49

The substrates of Swamp Lakes and River Floodplain Lakes are variable and may be 

composed primarily of peats, sands, alluvial clays, or any combination of these. Swamp Lakes 

characteristically have highly colored, acidic, soft water with moderate mineral content, while 

River Floodplain Lakes characteristically have colored, alkaline or slightly acidic, hard or 

moderately hard water with high mineral content (sulfate, chloride, calcium, magnesium). Both 

types are generally mesotrophic to eutrophic (i.e., have moderate to high nutrient levels and 

primary productivity), although they sometimes exhibit partial oligotrophic characteristics, with 

low nutrient levels and primary productivity, because their darkly stained, acidic waters and 

surrounding tree canopy limit their productivity.

Swamp Lakes may have originated from one or more of the following geological 

processes: (1) solution of the underlying limestone and subsequent collapse of the surface to 

form a depression; (2) lowering of sea levels to isolate ancient coastal features, such as lagoons 

or dune swales; or (3) isolation of ancient river systems within relatively confined basins. River 

Floodplain Lakes generally originate along former stream channels as oxbows that have been 

isolated when new channels cut across a meander loop in the river, or along erosion scours 

formed by the tremendous forces of floodstage waters. They may also have been influenced by 

some of the processes that developed Swamp Lakes, or be the result of "nature's engineer", the 

beaver.

Swamp Lakes and River Floodplain Lakes are important breeding areas for many 

terrestrial and semi-aquatic amphibians. They are frequently very important feeding areas for 

many wading birds, ducks, and reptiles. They are also important nursery grounds and habitats 

for several species of fish. Swamp Lakes and Floodplain Lakes are extremely vulnerable to 

hydrological manipulations which lower the water levels and hasten successional processes. 

They are also vulnerable to land clearing and timber harvest operations within the surrounding 

swamps or adjacent uplands. Upland activities generally increase sedimentation, while activities 

within the swamp may increase insolation levels, alter nutrient levels and, in the case of 

Floodplain Lakes, increase the effects of flood scouring.

Sandhill Upland Lake - (synonyms: sand-bottomed lake, silt-bottomed lake, oligotrophic 

lake, sandhill lake). Sandhill Upland Lakes are generally characterized as shallow rounded 

solution depressions occurring in sandy upland communities. They are generally permanent 

water bodies, although water levels may fluctuate substantially, sometimes becoming completely 

dry during extreme droughts. They are typically lentic water bodies without significant surface 

inflows or outflows. Instead, water may be largely derived from lateral ground water seepage 

through the surrounding well-drained uplands and/or from artesian sources via connections with 

the underlying limestone aquifer.

Vegetation may be largely restricted to a narrow band along the shore, composed of 

hydrophytic grasses and herbs or a dense shrub thicket, depending on fire frequency and water 

fluctuations. Shallow, gradually sloping shorelines may have much broader bands of emergent 

vegetation with submerged aquatic plants occasionally dominating much of the water column; 
 50

floating plants sometimes cover much of the surface. Typical plants include panicums, rushes, 

bladderwort, water lilies, sawgrass, pickerelweed, fragrant waterlily, water shield, St. John's 

wort, arrowheads, beak rush, yellow-eyed grass, hatpins, meadow-beauty, sundews, and 

spikerush.

The substrate of Sandhill Upland Lakes is primarily composed of sands with organic 

deposits increasing with water depth. Sandhill Upland Lakes characteristically have clear, 

circumneutral to slightly acidic, moderately soft water with varying mineral content. They may 

be ultra-oligotrophic, with extremely low nutrient levels, seldom becoming eutrophic unless 

artificially fertilized by human-related activities.

Sandhill Upland Lakes are frequently extremely important breeding areas for terrestrial 

amphibians, including the threatened gopher frog, as well as many unusual or endemic insects. 

They are also important watering holes for many mammals and birds inhabiting the surrounding 

xeric communities. Wading birds and ducks may also use these lakes as feeding areas.

Sandhill Upland Lakes are extremely vulnerable to hydrological manipulations. 

Excessive municipal, industrial, or agricultural withdrawals of ground water could lower 

regional water tables and, thus, induce successional responses in the lake basin. Groundwater 

pollution, especially from misapplications of chemicals on the surrounding well-drained uplands, 

could significantly alter the nutrient balance and produce devastating effects on the fauna and 

flora. Furthermore, because they frequently have direct or indirect connections with the aquifer, 

Sandhill Upland Lakes often function as aquifer recharge areas and, thus, should be diligently 

protected from chemical pollution. Invasion by exotic species is also an important concern in 

Sandhill Upland Lake communities.

Sinkhole Lakes occur typically in deep, funnel-shaped depressions in a limestone base. 

Although the depression is relatively permanent, water levels may fluctuate dramatically. These 

lakes are characterized by clear, alkaline, hard water with high mineral content, including 

calcium, bicarbonate, and magnesium. Although they occur in most physiographic regions, the 

major occurrences of this NC in the U.S. are in Florida, where they are moderately widespread in 

the karst regions. They provide habitat for many species also found in accompanying 

subterranean NCs. The vegetation in some Sinkhole Lakes may be conspicuously absent or 

limited to a narrow fringe of emergents at the edge of the water. Other Sinkhole Lakes are 

completely covered by floating plants. When they occur, typical plants include American 

cupscale, bog moss, smartweed, rushes, cattails, bladderwort, duckweed, watermeal, azolla, and 

salvinia. Typical animals include crayfish, isopods, amphipods, pirate perch, redeye chub, 

yellow bullhead, and mud turtles.

Sinkhole Lakes are considered endangered in Florida. They are threatened by erosion 

which causes destruction of surrounding vegetation and to pollution and other threats to the 

aquifers with which they are connected.
 51

RIVERINE

Alluvial Stream- (synonyms: alluvial river, slow flowing river, deep river, muddy 

stream). Alluvial Streams are characterized as perennial or intermittent seasonal watercourses 

originating in high uplands that are primarily composed of sandy clays and clayey-silty sands. 

Because clay is a substantial component of these soils, surface runoff generally predominates 

over subsurface drainage. Thus, Alluvial Stream waters are typically turbid due to a high content 

of suspended particulates, including clays, silts, and sands, as well as detritus and other organic 

debris. Water temperatures may fluctuate substantially and are generally correlated with 

seasonal fluctuations in air temperature. Similarly, other water quality parameters vary 

substantially and generally fluctuate with seasonal rainfall patterns.

The most important characteristics of Alluvial Streams are the large range of flow rates 

and sediment loads encountered. Thus, water depth fluctuates substantially and is generally 

separated into two distinct stages, a normal or low flow stage and a flood or high flow stage. 

During the normal low flow stage the water is confined within the stream banks, while during 

flood stage the water overflows the banks and inundates the adjacent floodplain communities. 

Flood stages generally occur once or twice each year during winter or early spring and 

occasionally in summer.

Several important phenomena occur during floodstage. The flood waters transport 

detritus, minerals and nutrients from the surrounding uplands to the floodplain communities and 

beyond. This flushing action removes biological waste materials and simultaneously renourishes 

the floodplain communities. Most important, however, it provides a pulse of nutrient-rich water 

to the estuarine communities which occur where the stream empties into the sea. As the water 

spreads and moves more slowly over the broad floodplain communities, the heavy load of 

sediments, which was suspended by water currents, begins to settle. The heaviest sediments 

settle rapidly where the stream overflows its banks, causing a natural levee to develop. The 

flood waters are a controlling factor in the reproductive cycles of many Aquatic and semi-aquatic 

organisms. The onset of flooding, or its subsequent regressions, stimulates some animals to 

breed and lay eggs, or it may induce the hatching of eggs and the development of larvae. The 

flood stage waters expand the feeding grounds and habitat of fish and other aquatic organisms 

that normally inhabit the main stream. The flood waters function as a primary dispersal 

mechanism for many organisms, transporting seeds and small animals to distant locations where 

they otherwise would probably not reach.

Very few rooted plants occur within the main channel of Alluvial Streams, largely 

because the high natural turbidity reduces available light for photosynthesis. Water lilies, 

spatterdocks and other floating-leaved plants occasionally occur along quiet stretches, while 

pickerelweed, cattails, and other emergents may fringe the banks. Willows, cottonwood, river 

birch, silver maple, and other trees typically occur along the banks and natural levees. Typical 

animals include eel, gizzard shad, speckled chub, madtom, pirate perch, striped bass, redbreast 

sunfish, warmouth, bluegill, crappie, darter, Alabama waterdog, river frog, alligator, snapping 
 52

turtle, alligator snapping turtle, Florida cooter, river cooter, mud turtle, stinkpot, brown water 

snake, kingfisher, Louisiana waterthrush, beaver, and river otter.

Alluvial Streams are sparsely distributed in Florida, being primarily restricted to the 

northern panhandle. Nearly all have been degraded to some degree by disturbances within their 

watersheds. More serious damage can occur through physical alterations of their main channels, 

such as dredging, filling or damming. Damming poses the most serious threat, because it 

disrupts the natural flood cycle, traps upstream nutrients, and can lead to permanent loss of the 

floodplains due to longterm flooding of areas upstream of the dam. The adjacent floodplain 

communities are an essential and interrelated component of a viable Alluvial Stream community.

Blackwater Stream - (synonyms: blackwater river, blackwater creek). Blackwater 

Streams are characterized as perennial or intermittent seasonal watercourses originating deep in 

sandy lowlands where extensive wetlands with organic soils function as reservoirs, collecting 

rainfall and discharging it slowly to the stream. The tea-colored waters of Blackwater Streams 

are laden with tannins, particulates, and dissolved organic matter and iron derived from drainage 

through swamps and marshes. They generally are acidic (pH = 4.0 - 6.0), but may become 

circumneutral or slightly alkaline during low-flow stages when influenced by alkaline 

groundwater. Water temperatures may fluctuate substantially and are generally correlated with 

seasonal fluctuations in air temperature. The dark-colored water reduces light penetration and, 

thus, inhibits photosynthesis and the growth of submerged aquatic plants. Emergent and floating 

aquatic vegetation may occur along shallower and slower moving sections, but their presence is 

often reduced because of typically steep banks and considerable seasonal fluctuations in water 

level. Typical plants include golden club, smartweed, sedges, and grasses. Typical animals 

include river longnose gar, gizzard shad, threadfin shad, redfin pickerel, chain pickerel, ironcolor 

shiner, Ohooppee shiner, weed shiner, blacktail shiner, chubsucker, channel catfish, banded 

topminnow, pygmy killifish mosquitofish, mud sunfish, flier, everglades pygmy sunfish, banded 

sunfish, redbreast sunfish, dollar sunfish, stumpknocker, spotted bass, black crappie, darters, 

Alabama waterdog, river frog, alligator, snapping turtle, alligator snapping turtle,river cooter, 

Florida cooter, peninsula cooter, stinkpot, spiny softshell, red-belly watersnake, brown 

watersnake, beaver, and river otter.

Blackwater Streams have sandy bottoms overlain by organics and frequently underlain by 

limestone. Limestone outcrops may also occur. Blackwater Streams generally lack the 

continuous extensive floodplains and natural levees of Alluvial Streams. Instead, they typically 

have high, steep banks alternating with Floodplain Swamps. High banks confine water 

movement except during major floods. The absence of significant quantities of suspended 

sediments reduces their ability to construct natural levees.

Blackwater Streams are the most widely distributed and numerous Riverine systems in 

the southeast Coastal Plain. Very few, however, have escaped major disturbances and alteration. 

Clearcutting adjacent forested lands is one of the more devastating alterations for this 

community. Additionally, the limited buffering capacity of Blackwater Streams intensifies the 

detrimental impacts of agricultural and industrial effluents.
 53

Seepage Stream - (Synonyms: steephead stream, clear brook, swift brook, hammock 

stream). Seepage Streams are characterized as perennial or intermittent seasonal water courses 

originating from shallow ground waters that have percolated through deep, sandy, upland soils. 

Seepage Streams typically have clear to lightly colored water maintained at fairly constant 

temperatures of around 70oF, and are relatively short, shallow, and narrow. Although a stream 

may be classified as a Seepage Stream along its entire length, they also form the headwaters of 

many Alluvial and Blackwater Streams. After large sediment loads are picked up or after 

drainage through extensive swamps, water clarity is diminished and the stream is then classified 

as Alluvial or Blackwater.

Because they are generally sheltered by a dense overstory of broad-leaved hardwoods 

which block out most sunlight, Seepage Streams most often have depauperate aquatic floras. 

Filamentous green algae occur sporadically within the stream, while mosses, ferns and liverworts 

may grow in clumps at the water's edge. In the lower, broader reaches where insolation levels 

are sometimes greater, narrow bands of spatterdocks, golden club, spikerush and pondweeds may 

occur along the shorelines, and tape grass and pondweed may grow in the streambed. Typical 

animals include sailfin shiner, creek chub, speckled madtom, brown darter, blackbanded darter, 

amphiuma, Alabama waterdog, southern dusky salamander, two-lined salamander, mud 

salamander, southern red salamander, bronze frog, snapping turtle, loggerhead musk turtle, 

rainbow snake, redbelly watersnake, and brown watersnake.

Percolation through deep soils slows the release of rainwater, filters the water, and 

buffers temperature extremes. Thus, Seepage Streams often exhibit perennial, slow flow rates of 

clear, cool, unpolluted water. Seepage Streams generally have sandy bottoms, although clays, 

gravel and limestone may be prevalent along stretches where formations composed of these 

sediments are exposed. Additionally, deep organic deposits may accumulate near stream bends 

and in other low areas where the leaf litter is not washed away by currents.

Seepage Streams are generally confined to portions of the state where topographic relief 

is pronounced, especially in northern Florida. They are often associated with Seepage Slope and 

Slope Forest near their head waters, and Bottomland Forest, Floodplain Forest and Swamp 

Forest near their mouths. Seepage Streams are readily distinguished from other Florida stream 

communities by their small magnitude, lack of a deep aquifer water source, and the absence of 

extensive swamp lowlands surrounding their head waters.

 

A unique type of Seepage Stream, the steephead stream, develops by a rather unusual 

geologic process. Rainfall percolates through the deep sandy soils capping the surrounding 

uplands until it encounters impermeable clays or other non-porous sediments. Water then travels 

laterally until reaching the surface and producing a seepage area along a slope or a spring. The 

seepage waters begin to erode the hill's base and cause the overburden to slump. Thus, the 

steephead stream valley is largely a product of seepage erosion which begins primarily at the 

bottoms of valleys instead of at their tops. Consequently, the gradient of steephead streams is 
 54

generally much lower than that of other upland streams in similar topography, because the head 

of a steephead stream is already near the bottom of a valley.

Seepage Streams may be threatened by various activities. Applications of fertilizers or 

biocides on the surrounding uplands, or dumping of hazardous wastes and other refuse within the 

drainage basin could pollute the shallow ground waters that feed the Seepage Streams. 

Deforestation of the surrounding slopes could increase surface erosion and cause excessive 

sedimentation of the stream valley, as well as increase insolation levels and cause the stream to 

become overgrown with shrubs or emergent herbaceous species. Impounding the stream would 

destroy much of the lotic habitat and restrict the upstream movements of aquatic animals. 

Because they are unique natural features of limited distribution within the state, Seepage Streams 

should be diligently protected from significant disturbances.

Spring-run Stream - (synonyms: calcareous stream, spring, or creek). Spring-run 

Streams are characterized as perennial water courses which derive most, if not all, of their water 

from artesian openings in the underground aquifer. Waters issuing from the aquifer are generally 

clear, circumneutral to slightly alkaline (pH = 7.0 - 8.2), and perennially cool (66 - 75oF). These 

conditions saturate the water with important minerals, allow light to penetrate deeply, and reduce 

the limiting effects of environmental fluctuations, all of which are conducive for plant growth. 

Thus, Spring-run Streams are among the most productive aquatic habitats. Typical plants 

include tape grass, wild rice, giant cutgrass, arrowheads, southern naiads, pondweeds, and chara. 

Typical animals include mollusks, stoneflies, mayflies, caddisflies, simuliids, chironomids, 

American alligator, alligator snapping turtle, Suwannee cooter, loggerhead musk turtle, rainbow 

snake, red-belly watersnake, brown watersnake, and many fishes.

Spring-run Streams generally have sand bottoms or exposed limestone along their central 

channel. Calcareous silts may form thick deposits in quiet shallow zones, while leaf drift and 

other debris collect around fallen trees and quiet basins. The latter, along with limestone 

outcrops and rock debris, form important aquatic habitats for many small aquatic organisms. 

When undisturbed, submerged aquatic vegetation clothes most of the spring-run stream bottom 

and provides shelter and an abundant food source for the extensive web of life.

The water emanating from the aquifer is generally clear because of the filtering and 

absorbing actions of the soils and aquifer limestones through which the water percolates and 

flows. When the water is deep, it may appear bluish because of light-refraction characteristics 

that are similar to those which cause the sky to be blue on clear days. If the water sources for the 

aquifer are substantially influenced by nearby swamps or flatwoods, the spring-run may 

temporarily become stained with tannins and other dissolved organics during or following 

periods of heavy rains. When extensive underground cavities connect the spring caverns with 

nearby sinks and swallow holes, the spring-run may become turbid with suspended particulates 

during and following heavy rains and floods. Conversely during periods of low rainfall, the 

aquifer can become supersaturated with calcium, carbonates, and other ions. These chemicals 
 55

readily precipitate when the water reaches the surface, causing the spring head or boil to appear 

milky.

Human activities affect flow rates by withdrawing water from the aquifer through deep 

wells. When withdrawal is substantial within the recharge area, spring flow is reduced or, in 

some cases, ceases entirely. Normal flow rates may return when excessive withdrawals are 

eliminated.

People can also substantially affect the quality of spring waters. Agricultural, residential, 

and industrial pollutants may readily leach through soils, especially when they are improperly 

applied or disposed. If polluted groundwater infiltrates the deep aquifer feeding a Spring-run 

Stream, recovery may not be possible. Applications of herbicides to control aquatic plant growth 

are also detrimental, because their use often induces eutrophication of the stream.

Other human-related impacts to Spring-run Streams include the destruction of aquatic 

vegetation by overuse or misuse, and the introduction and proliferation of exotic plants and 

animals. Both of these impacts may be very difficult to control. Overuse is likely to increase 

because of the limited number of publicly-owned springs and the desires of an increasing 

population to enjoy their clean, cool, aesthetic qualities and unique recreational opportunities. 

Exotic species are often severely detrimental to native species, and they may also disrupt 

recreational activities. A delicate balance between recreation and preservation must be sought.
 56

SUBTERRANEAN

Aquatic and Terrestrial Cave - (synonyms: cave, cavern grotto, chamber, chimney, sink, 

swallow hole, spring rise,). Aquatic and Terrestrial Caves are characterized as cavities below the 

surface of the ground in karst areas of the state. A cave system may contain portions classified 

as Terrestrial Caves and portions classified as Aquatic Caves. The latter vary from shallow pools 

highly susceptible to disturbance, to more stable, totally submerged systems. Because all caves 

initially develop under aquatic conditions, Terrestrial Caves can be considered essentially dry 

Aquatic Caves. The limestone aquifers that underlie the entire state of Florida could be 

considered vast Aquatic Cave communities. Troglobites (also called phreatobites) are 

organisms specially evolved to survive in deep cave habitats. The occasional observation of 

various species of troglobites in deep water wells from several regions in the state suggests that 

this community could be widespread. However, the dependence of troglobites on detrital inputs 

and other nutrients imported from the surface generally limits the distribution of well developed 

Aquatic Cave communities to karst areas with surface connections.

The area around cave entrances may be densely vegetated with species from the 

surrounding Natural Community. Within the cave, however, illumination levels and, thereby, 

vegetation densities drop rapidly with increased distance from the entrance. Within the limits of 

light penetration, called the twilight zone, species of algae, mosses, liverworts, and an occasional 

fern or herbaceous plant may grow. Beyond the twilight zone, plants are generally absent or 

limited to a few inconspicuous species of fungi that grow on guano or other organic debris. 

Thus, Subterranean Natural Communities differ from most other Natural Communities in that 

living plants are not dominant elements.

Animals inhabiting Subterranean Natural Communities are generally divided into three 

groups according to their cave adaptations: trogloxenes, troglophiles, and troglobites. 

Trogloxenes spend much of their time in caves, but they must periodically return to the surface 

to feed or breed. Woodrats, harvestmen, cave crickets, some salamanders, and many species of 

bats are typical examples of trogloxenes. Troglophiles may regularly live in caves, but their 

conspecifies also inhabit surface communities with moist microhabitats. Cave orb spiders, and 

some crickets, fish and salamanders are typical examples of troglophiles. Troglobites are 

obligatory cave dwellers with special adaptations for living in complete darkness. Blind cave 

crayfish, blind cave salamander, cave amphipods, cave shrimp, cave snail, and cave isopods are 

typical troglobites in Florida's Aquatic Caves; cave mites, some cave spiders and springtails, and 

a cave earwig are typical troglobites in some Terrestrial Caves of north Florida. Even though 

they never leave their cave environments, troglobites and troglophiles depend on outside energy 

sources, such as detritus that washes in through sinkholes and other cave entrances. Fecal 

materials derived from trogloxenes which feed outside the cave are also important nutrients for 

troglobites. Without these energy subsidies, the troglobitic elements could not exist.

Two geologic processes are predominantly responsible for the development of caves: 

phreatic and vadose. Phreatic processes occur below the aquifer's surface where ground water is 
 57

confined and subjected to hydrostatic pressure. Vadose processes occur at the top of or above 

the aquifer, where air enters the passageways and water flows freely under the influence of 

gravity. In both processes, the dissolution and corrosion of limestone play active roles in 

enlarging cave passageways. These forces differ primarily in the slopes of the passageways 

which result. Phreatic passageways are generally circular or elliptic, while vadose passageways 

are more triangular with the broad base of the triangle at the bottom. All limestone caves begin 

development under phreatic conditions in the aquifer. As water tables drop, vadose conditions 

eventually replace phreatic conditions. If the water table then rises, another reversal of processes 

occurs. Because water tables have fluctuated substantially with fluctuating sea levels during the 

Pleistocene and other geologic epochs, most caves in Florida exhibit both phreatic and vadose 

characteristics.

Since limestone caves initially develop in the aquifer, they are frequently associated with 

aquifer-related surface features. Thus, a Spring Run Stream issues from an Aquatic Cave, while 

Sinkhole Lakes and occasionally Blackwater Streams lead into Aquatic Caves. Similarly, 

Terrestrial Caves may occur at the bottoms of dry sinkholes or be associated with ancient 

springs, swallow holes or Aquatic Caves that have since been exposed by lower water tables. 

Typically, Terrestrial Caves may also exhibit aquatic conditions during periods of heavy rainfall, 

or vice versa during droughts. Additionally, Terrestrial Caves may harbor relatively permanent 

pools or lakes that are formed in natural depressions in the floor of the cave from the buildup of 

rimstone, or where the aquifer inundates the lower cavities. Thus, Terrestrial and Aquatic Caves 

often occur together.

Cave waters are generally clear, with deep water appearing bluish. The water may 

become stained brown from tannins leached from decaying plant matter nearby and carried in 

with rainwater. The water may also become milky white if fine limestone mud from the bottom 

of the Aquatic Cave is suspended in the water column following disturbance. A bottom substrate 

of organic silts can also muddy the water with suspended particles. Waters are generally 

circumneutral to alkaline with a high mineral content (particularly calcium bicarbonate and 

magnesium) and with constant temperature. Flowing water within Aquatic Caves generally has a 

lower pH, is often undersaturated with respect to carbonates, and has a relatively richer fauna. 

Contrastingly, pools that are fed by seepage or dripping water are generally characterized by a 

high pH, high concentration of dissolved carbonates, low content of organic matter suitable for 

food, and a sparse fauna. Cave water characteristics may also vary seasonally because of fluvial 

inputs from interconnected surface streams, or because of detrital pulses and other surface inputs 

during periods of substantial aquifer recharge. In general, however, Aquatic Caves are very 

stable environments with relatively constant physical and chemical characteristics.

Terrestrial Caves also are very stable environments, having relatively constant 

temperatures and humidities. Within the cave, however, these factors may vary with location. 

For example, the twilight zone (nearest to the light source) is generally warmer and experiences 

more temperature and humidity fluctuations than does the middle zone, a dark zone that is 

subject to air circulation due to "cave breathing" phenomena. The deep zone, when it occurs, is 

the most stable zone of a Terrestrial Cave, because the air in it is essentially static. Terrestrial 
 58

Cave faunas often partition their distributions according to these zones, with trogloxenes being 

more common in the twilight and middle zones, and troglobites being more common in the deep 

zone.

Subterranean Natural Communities are extremely fragile. Their faunas are adapted to 

very stable environments and have a limited ability to survive even minor environmental 

perturbations. Terrestrial Caves are threatened by disturbances of spelunkers. The mere entry 

into a bat roosting, maternity, or hibernation cave is often sufficient to cause abandonment by 

bats, thereby causing a major reduction in an important energy source for the remainder of the 

cave ecosystem.

Alterations in or around cave entrances will often upset detrital input levels and may also 

induce significant changes in air circulation patterns and the cave microclimate. Aquatic Caves 

are threatened by pollution of ground and surface waters from agricultural, industrial, and 

residential sources, as well as by disturbances from divers. The unique troglobitic species 

generally have very low population levels and can be severely impacted by overcollection or by 

changes in nutrient input levels that result from surface manipulations or hydrological 

alterations. Thus, special precautions and management procedures must be invoked to protect 

these unique, fragile communities from deleterious activities.
 59

MARINE AND ESTUARINE

General Information

Marine Natural Communities and Estuarine Natural Communities occur along coastlines 

and include subtidal, intertidal, and supratidal zones. The distinction between Marine and 

Estuarine Natural Communities is often subtle. Estuarine Communities may temporarily exhibit 

freshwater conditions during periods of heavy rainfall or upland runoff or marine conditions 

when rainfall and upland runoff are low. Generally, however, estuarine areas are those areas 

within which seawater is significantly diluted with freshwater inflow from the land, while marine 

areas are those areas without significant freshwater inflow. The primary criterion for separation 

is the salinity level of the water, which often varies with local and temporal climatic conditions. 

In general, freshwater communities have salinity levels below 0.5 parts per thousand (ppt), 

Estuarine Natural Communities have salinity levels between 0.5 and 30 ppt, and Marine Natural 

Communities have salinity levels between 30 and 37 ppt. Differences in species compositions 

may exist between otherwise similar Marine and Estuarine Natural Communities, because of 

differences in salinity tolerance or other physical or biological factors. 

Both Marine Natural Communities and Estuarine Natural Communities of Florida may be 

separated into Mineral Based, Faunal Based and Floral Based Communities. Mineral Based 

Communities include Consolidated Substrate and Unconsolidated Substrate communities which 

occur in subtidal, intertidal and supratidal zones. Faunal-based Communities include Octocoral 

Bed, Sponge Bed, Coral Reef, Mollusk Reef and Worm Reef Communities which occur in 

subtidal zones (Worm Reefs also occur in intertidal zones). Floral-based Communities include 

Algal Bed, Seagrass Bed, Tidal Marsh and Tidal Swamp Communities which occur in intertidal 

and supratidal zones (Seagrass Beds are subtidal only). Composite Substrate Communities 

include components of various other Marine and Estuarine Natural Communities in quantities 

too sparse to be classified as those communities. Composite Substrate Natural Communities 

occur in subtidal, intertidal and supratidal zones.

Consolidated Substrate - (synonyms: hard bottom, rock bottom, limerock bottom, 

coquina bottom, relic reef). Marine and Estuarine Consolidated Substrates are Mineral Based 

Natural Communities generally characterized as expansive, relatively open areas of subtidal, 

intertidal, and supratidal zones which lack dense populations of sessile plant and animal species. 

Consolidated Substrates are solidified rock or shell conglomerates and include coquina, limerock 

or relic reef materials. These communities may be sparsely inhabited by sessile, planktonic, 

epifaunal, and pelagic plants and animals but house few infaunal organisms (i.e., animals living 

within the substrate).

The three kinds of Consolidated Substrate Communities occurring in Florida are of 

limited distribution. Coquina, which is a limestone composed of broken shells, corals and other 

organic debris, occurs primarily along the east coast, in marine areas in the vicinity of St. Johns 

and Flagler Counties. 
 60

Limerock substrates occur as outcrops of bedded sedimentary deposits consisting primarily of 

calcium carbonate. This Consolidated Substrate is more widespread than coquina substrate and 

can be found in a patchy distribution under both marine and estuarine conditions from north 

Florida to the lower-most keys in Monroe County. Relic reefs, the skeletal remains of formerly 

living reefs, are more limited in distribution than limerock outcrops but more common than 

coquina substrate.

Consolidated Substrates are important in that they form the foundation for the 

development of other Marine and Estuarine Natural communities when conditions become 

appropriate. Consolidated Substrate Communities are easily destroyed through siltation or 

placement of fill, and deliberate removal by actions such as blasting or nondeliberate destruction 

by forces such as vehicular traffic.

Another type of disturbance involves the accumulation of toxic levels of heavy metals, 

oils, and pesticides in Consolidated Substrates. Significant amounts of these components in the 

sediments will kill the infauna, thereby eliminating a food source for certain fishes, birds and 

other organisms. A film of pollutants engulfing Consolidated Substrates can render these areas 

unsuitable for colonization by marine and estuarine flora and fauna. Such problems occur in 

some of the major port cities, in areas where there is heavy industrial development, and along 

major shipping channels where oil spills are likely to occur.

Unconsolidated Substrate - (synonyms: beach, shore, sand bottom, shell bottom, sand 

bar, mud flat, tidal flat, soft bottom, coralgal substrate, marl, gravel, pebble, calcareous clay). 

Marine and Estuarine Unconsolidated Substrates are Mineral Based Natural Communities 

generally characterized as expansive, relatively open areas of subtidal, intertidal, and supratidal 

zones which lack dense populations of sessile plant and animal species. Unconsolidated 

Substrates are unsolidified material and include coralgal, marl, mud, mud/sand, sand or shell. 

This community may support a large population of infaunal organisms as well as a variety of 

transient planktonic and pelagic organisms (e.g., tube worms, sand dollars, mollusks, isopods, 

amphipods, burrowing shrimp, and an assortment of crabs).

In general, Marine and Estuarine Unconsolidated Substrate Communities are the most 

widespread communities in the world. However, Unconsolidated Substrates vary greatly 

throughout Florida, based on surrounding parent material. Unconsolidated sediments can 

originate from organic sources, such as decaying plant tissues (e.g., mud) or from calcium 

carbonate depositions of plants or animals (e.g., coralgal, marl and shell substrates). Marl and 

coralgal substrates are primarily restricted to the southern portion of the state. The remaining 

four kinds of Unconsolidated Substrate, mud, mud/sand, sand, and shell, are found throughout 

the coastal areas of Florida. While these areas may seem relatively barren, the densities of 

infaunal organisms in subtidal zones can reach the tens of thousands per meter square, making 

these areas important feeding grounds for many bottom feeding fish, such as redfish, flounder, 

spot, and sheepshead. The intertidal and supratidal zones are extremely important feeding 

grounds for many shorebirds and invertebrates.
 61

Unconsolidated Substrates are important in that they form the foundation for the 

development of other Marine and Estuarine Natural Communities when conditions become 

appropriate. Unconsolidated Substrate Communities are associated with and often grade into 

Beach Dunes, Tidal Marshes, Tidal Swamps, Grass Beds, Coral Reefs, Mollusk Reefs, Worm 

Reefs, Octocoral Beds, Sponge Beds, and Algal Beds.

Unconsolidated Substrate Communities which are composed chiefly of sand (e.g., sand 

beaches) are the most important recreational areas in Florida, attracting millions of residents and 

tourists annually. This community is resilient and may recover from recreational disturbances. 

However, this community is vulnerable to compaction associated with vehicular traffic on 

beaches and disturbances from dredging activities and low dissolved oxygen levels, all of which 

can cause infaunal organisms to be destroyed or to migrate out of the area. Generally these areas 

are easily recolonized either by the same organisms or a series of organisms which eventually 

results in the community returning to its original state once the disturbance has ceased. In 

extreme examples, such as significant alterations of elevation, there is potential for serious longterm impacts from this type of disturbance.

Another type of disturbance involves the accumulation of toxic levels of heavy metals, 

oils, and pesticides within Unconsolidated Substrates. Significant amounts of these compounds 

in the sediments will kill the infaunal organisms, thereby eliminating a food source for certain 

fishes, birds, and other organisms. Such problems occur in some of the major port cities, in areas 

where there is heavy industrial development, and along major shipping channels where oil spills 

are likely to occur.

Coral Reef - (synonyms: deep-water barrier reef, deep-water patch reef, shallow-water 

barrier reef, shallow-water patch reef, live bottom community, hard bottom community, 

transitional reef, Hawk Channel reef, bank reef). Marine and Estuarine Coral Reefs are Faunal 

Based Natural Communities generally characterized as expansive conglomerates of hard, sessile, 

limestone-building coral occurring in warm subtidal waters. Coral Reefs are formed from a 

diverse assemblage of carbonate precipitating organisms of the phylum Cnidaria (Coelenterata). 

Two classes of Cnidaria are the principal reef builders. Hydrozoa, the class which includes 

coral, are important fast growing, colonial reef builders that are capable of withstanding 

temperate water temperatures. Fire coral are distributed as far north in Florida as Tarpon Springs 

in the Gulf of Mexico and at least to Cape Kennedy in the Atlantic Ocean. The second class of 

reef building Cnidarians are the Anthozoa. This class is divided into two subclasses, the 

Octocorallia (e.g., soft coral, sea fans and sea feathers) and the Zoantharia (e.g., true stony coral, 

and colonial anemones). The Octocorallia represent the group of organisms comprising 

Octocoral Bed communities. The Scleractinians, or true stony coral, are the primary hermatypic 

or reef building coral that belong in this subclass. Examples of the reef building, true stony 

coral, are: elkhorn, staghorn, mountainous star coral, rough and smooth starlet coral, cavernous 

star coral, lobed star coral, sheet coral, ivory tree coral, giant brain coral, grooved brain coral, 

smooth coral, pillar coral, and fungus coral. As many as thirty four species of coral have been 

reported on individual Coral Reefs in the Florida Keys.
 62

Coral Reefs can be classified into at least four kinds including: shallow and deep water 

barrier reefs and shallow and deep water patch reefs. Patch reef communities are roughly dome 

shaped with a topographic relief of 5 to 10 feet. Patch reefs vary considerably in dimension, 

depending on the size and number of coral colonies comprising the reef. A patch reef may be as 

small as a single giant brain coral head with its associated biota, or as large as several acres. 

Common builders of patch reefs include mountainous star coral, giant brain coral, smooth starlet 

coral, cavernous star coral, smooth brain coral, grooved brain coral and fire coral. Associated 

flora and fauna vary greatly between shallow water and deep water patch reefs.

A common feature associated with patch reefs is the "halo" effect. A zone of barren solid 

substrate, sand, or rubble is formed as a result of grazing by various species of fishes and 

invertebrates. The organisms exit at night from the refuge of the coral heads to forage on the 

attached algae and sea grasses, thus leaving a "halo" of barren, exposed substrate surrounding the 

patch reef. The halo is easy to spot from the surface, which aides in locating patch reef habitat. 

An important function of halos on solidified substrates is that reef-expansion is made possible 

because coral recruitment can take place only on hard (consolidated) substrates.

Major barrier reef communities form the expansive, living structures oriented parallel to 

the shoreline and serving as natural, protective breakwaters. Barrier reefs may form as shallowwater reefs or deep-water reefs at the edge of the shelf, providing light penetration is adequate. 

Barrier reefs are important in absorbing wave energy as a primary line of protection for the 

shoreline allowing formation of low energy communities such as Tidal Swamps in areas that 

would be inhospitable otherwise. Distinctive features of the barrier reef are the presence of 

staghorn and elkhorn corals, coral zonation by depth, and spur and groove formations oriented 

seaward. A generalized bank reef can be subdivided into various biological zones including fore 

reef, back reef/rubble zone and spur and groove zone. This zonation is determined by water 

depth, degree of light penetration, and wave energy.

A major barrier reef builder is elkhorn coral. This fast growing species forms the 

structural framework for the reef while supplying the necessary habitat for reef oriented 

organisms. Other major reef builders in this type of reef habitat are: knobby brain coral, 

mountainous star coral, smooth brain coral, giant brain coral, leaf coral, cactus coral, fungus 

coral and pillar coral. However, reef coral species and associated flora and fauna vary greatly 

between shallow-water and deep-water barrier reefs.

Factors affecting the distribution of Coral Reefs include temperature, light penetration 

(turbidity), salinity, water currents and availability of suitable substrates. Most corals are very 

sensitive to cold temperatures, being largely restricted to seas that average above 21oC (70oF). 

Additionally, the water must be quite clear, since the symbiotic algae living within the corals are 

generally restricted to water depths of less than 50 meters (164 feet). Most Coral Reefs occur in 

marine waters with salinities between 30 and 37 ppt. Exposure to freshwater kills most species 

of corals within 30 minutes. Water currents transport essential nutrients and remove biological 

waste materials, silts and sands which could smother the reef. A hard substrate is necessary for 
 63

completion of development of the planktonic larvae of coral.

Coral Reefs are among the most diverse and productive environments in the world. Coral 

Reefs provide shelter and food for a myriad of reef fishes and marine invertebrates. Gross 

production of calcium carbonate is between 100 and 500 tons per acre per year on actively 

growing reefs. Fragmented coral are often the primary source for creating and nourishing the 

beaches of nearby islands. These qualities, combined with their structural complexity, biological 

richness, and aesthetic appeal make Coral Reefs an extremely valuable resource wherever they 

occur.

Coral Reefs are biologically and structurally sensitive systems. They are slow growing, 

requiring decades to fully develop. Thus, structural damage caused by boat groundings, anchors, 

and other physical impacts may require decades to fully recover. Coral Reefs in Florida are at 

the northern extent of their range. As such, they are vulnerable to decreases in water 

temperature. High water temperatures also affect corals adversely. Sedimentation and turbid 

water restrict coral growth and, when significant, smother and kill Coral Reefs. Thus, dredge 

and fill operations or upland developments which increase the amount of suspended sediments in 

runoff water impact coral reefs. Pollutants may trigger planktonic algal blooms, reduce oxygen 

levels, or otherwise upset the delicate balance of the reef ecosystem, thereby damaging the Coral 

Reef community. Over-fishing, coral collecting, and other recreational activities may also create 

chronic problems in this community and should be periodically assessed.

Mollusk Reef- (synonyms: oyster bar, oyster reef, oyster bed, oyster rock, oyster 

grounds, mussel reef, worm shell reef, Vermetid reef). Marine and Estuarine Mollusk Reefs are 

Faunal Based Natural Communities typically characterized as expansive concentrations of sessile 

mollusks occurring in intertidal and subtidal zones to a depth of 40 feet. In Florida, the most 

developed Mollusk Reefs are generally restricted to estuarine areas and are dominated by the 

American oyster. Less common are Mollusk Reefs dominated by mussels and others dominated 

by Vermetid worm shells. Numerous other sessile and benthic invertebrates live among, 

attached to, or within the collage of mollusk shells. Most common are burrowing sponge, 

anemones, mussels, clams, boring clam, oyster drill, lightning whelk, polychaetes, mud worms, 

oyster leech, barnacles, bluecrab, mud crab, stone crab, pea crab, amphipods, and starfish. 

Several fish also frequently occur near or feed among Mollusk Reefs, including cow-nosed ray, 

menhaden, lizardfish, gafftopsail catfish, pinfish, sea trout, spot, black drum, and mullet. 

Mollusk Reefs that are exposed during low tides (e.g., coon oysters) are frequented by a 

multitude of shorebirds, wading birds, raccoons, and other vertebrates.

Reef-building mollusks require a hard (consolidated) substrate on which the planktonic 

larvae (i.e., spat) settle and complete development. The spat dies if it settles on soft 

(unconsolidated) substrates, such as mud, sand or grass. Hard substrates include rocks, 

limestone, wood and other mollusk shells. Hard substrates are often limited in Estuarine Natural 

Communities because of the large amounts of silt, sands and muds that are deposited around 

river mouths. Once established, however, Mollusk Reefs can generally persist and often expand 

by building upon themselves.
 64

The most common kind of Mollusk Reef, oyster mollusk reefs, occur in water salinities 

from just above fresh water to just below full strength sea

 water, but develop most frequently in estuarine water with salinities between 15 and 30 ppt. 

Their absence in marine water is largely attributed to the many predators, parasites, and diseases 

of oysters that occur in higher salinities. Prolonged exposure to low salinities (less then 2 ppt.) is 

also known to be responsible for massive mortality of oyster reefs. Thus, significant increases or 

decreases in salinity levels through natural or unnatural alterations of freshwater inflow can be 

detrimental to oyster Mollusk Reef communities.

Mollusk Reefs occupy a unique position among estuarine invertebrates and have been an 

important human food source since prehistoric times. They present a dynamic community of 

estuarine ecology, forming refugia, nursery grounds, and feeding areas for a myriad of other 

estuarine organisms.

The major threats to mollusk reefs continue to be pollution and substrate degradation due, 

in large part, to upland development. Mollusks are filter feeders, filtering up to 100 gallons of 

water a day. In addition to filtering food, they also filter and accumulate toxins from polluted 

waters. Sources of these pollutants can be from considerably distant areas, but are often more 

damaging when nearby. Substrate degradation occurs when silts, sludge and dredge spoils cover 

and bury the Mollusk Reefs. Declining oyster and other Mollusk Reef populations can be 

expected in coastal waters that are being dredged or are receiving chemicals mixed with 

rainwater flowing off the land, or from drainage of untreated residential or industrial sewage 

systems.

Octocoral Bed - (synonyms: gorgonians, sea fans, sea feathers, sea fingers, sea pansies, 

sea plumes, sea rods, sea whips, soft corals). Marine and Estuarine Octocoral Beds are soft 

Faunal Based Natural Communities characterized as large populations of sessile invertebrates of 

the Class Anthozoa, Subclass Octocorallia, Orders Gorgonacea and Pennatulacea. The dominant 

animal species are soft corals such as gorgonians, sea fans, sea feathers, sea fingers, sea pansies, 

sea plumes, sea rods, and sea whips. This community is confined to the subtidal zone since the 

sessile organisms are highly susceptible to desiccation. Other sessile animals typically occurring 

in association with these soft corals are sea anemones. An assortment of non-sessile benthic and 

pelagic invertebrates and vertebrates (e.g., sponges, mollusks, tube worms, burrowing shrimp, 

crabs, isopods, amphipods, sand dollars, and fishes) are associated with Octocoral Beds. 

Specific species of interest living on or among the soft corals include the flamingo tongue shell, 

the purple shrimp, and the basket starfish. Sessile and drift algae can also be found scattered 

throughout Octocoral Beds.

Octocoral Beds require hard bottom (consolidated) substrate (i.e., coquina, limerock, relic 

reefs) on which to anchor. Hard bottom substrate occurs sparsely throughout Florida in marine 

and estuarine areas; however, soft corals prefer the warmer waters of the southern portion of the 

state, severely limiting the distribution.
 65

Octocoral Beds may grade into other marine and estuarine hard bottom subtidal, 

intertidal, and supratidal communities (i.e., Consolidated Substrate, Sponge Bed, Coral Reef, 

Mollusk Reef, Worm Reef, lithophytic Algal Bed) as well as soft bottom communities (i.e., 

Unconsolidated Substrate, sammophytic Algal Bed, Seagrass Bed, Tidal Marsh, Tidal Swamp).

Management considerations should include locating all true Octocoral Beds within the 

state, thought to be more prevalent off the Southeast coast, and providing protection for them 

from external degradation. Primary threats to Octocoral Beds include siltation from beach 

"renourishment" or "restoration" projects, anchor damage by nautical craft, trawling by 

commercial fishermen, collecting for tourist-oriented trade, and water pollution, particularly oil 

spills.

Sponge Bed - (synonyms: branching candle sponge, Florida loggerhead sponge, 

sheepswool sponge). Marine and Estuarine Sponge Beds are soft Faunal Based Natural 

Communities characterized as dense populations of sessile invertebrates of the phylum Porifera, 

Class Demospongiae. The dominant animal species are sponges such as branching candle 

sponge, Florida loggerhead sponge and sheepswool sponge. Although concentrations of living 

sponges can occur in marine and estuarine intertidal zones, Sponge Beds are confined primarily 

to subtidal zones. Other sessile animals typically occurring in association with these sponges are 

stony corals, sea anemones, mollusks, tube worms, isopods, amphipods, burrowing shrimp, 

crabs, sand dollars, and fishes. Sessile and drift algae can also be found scattered throughout 

Sponge Beds.

Sponge Beds require hard bottom (consolidated) substrate (i.e., coquina, limerock, relic 

reefs) on which to anchor. Hard bottom substrate occurs sparsely throughout Florida in marine 

and estuarine areas; however, sponges prefer the warmer waters of the southern portion of the 

state, significantly limiting the distribution severely.

Sponge Beds may grade into other marine and estuarine hard bottom subtidal, intertidal 

and supratidal communities (i.e., Consolidated Substrate, Sponge Bed, Coral Reef, Mollusk 

Reef, Worm Reef, lithophytic Algal Bed) as well as soft bottom communities (i.e., 

Unconsolidated Substrate, ammophytic Algal Bed, Seagrass Bed, Tidal Marsh, Tidal Swamp).

Management considerations should include locating all true Sponge Beds within the state, 

thought to be more prevalent off the SW coast, and providing protection for them from external 

degradation. Primary threats to Sponge Beds include siltation from beach "renourishment" or 

"restoration" projects, anchor damage by nautical craft, trawling by commercial fishermen, 

collecting for tourist-oriented trade, and water pollution, particularly oil spills.

Worm Reef- (synonym: Sabellariid Reef). Worm Reefs are Faunal Based Natural 

Communities characterized by large colonial conglomerates of rigid Sabellariid worm tubes of 

the species Phragmatopoma lapidosa. These shallow water "reefs" are generally found in the 

lower reaches of the intertidal zone or upper reaches of the subtidal zone. Sabellariid reefs 

provide shelter for a diverse assortment of small benthic vertebrate and invertebrate organisms, 
 66

particularly since the surrounding habitat is generally bare substrate (e.g., Consolidated Substrate 

or Unconsolidated Substrate). Therefore, the mere presence of Worm Reefs greatly increases the 

faunal diversity of a given area.

Of all the Marine and Estuarine Natural Communities, Worm Reefs are probably the least 

well known. Worm Reefs are known from several locations along the southern coast of the state.

A Worm Reef can be surrounded by and grade into virtually any of the remaining Marine 

and Estuarine Natural Communities but is more likely to grade into an expanse of 

Unconsolidated Substrate. Information regarding effective management of Worm Reefs is 

lacking. However, excessive turbidity and siltation are probably significant factors in the decline 

of Worm Reefs. A beach renourishment project in West Palm Beach threatens one of the few 

remaining productive Worm Reef sites, located in one to three meters of water near the shore.

Algal Bed - (synonyms: algal mats, periphyton mats). Marine and Estuarine Algal Beds 

are Floral Based Natural Communities characterized as large populations of nondrift macro or 

micro algae. The dominant plant species include star alga, Argardhiella, Avrainvellea, 

Batophora, Bryopsis, Calothrix, Caulerpa, Chondria, Cladophora, Dictyota, Digenia, Gracilaria, 

Halimeda, Laurencia, Oscillatoria, shaving brush, Rhipocephalus, and Sargassum. This 

community may occur in subtidal, intertidal, and supratidal zones on soft and hard bottom 

substrates. Vascular plants (e.g., seagrasses) may occur in Algal Beds associated with soft 

bottoms. Sessile animals associated with Algal Beds will vary based on bottom type. For Algal 

Beds associated with hard bottom substrate (lithophytic), faunal populations will be similar to 

populations associated with Octocoral Beds and Sponge Beds. Those associated with soft 

bottom substrate (psammophytic) may have similar benthic and pelagic species in addition to 

infauna species. Recent research has shown that Algal Beds provide critical habitat for juvenile 

spiny lobsters, a species of great commercial importance.

Lithophytic Algal Beds are thought to be less widespread within Florida than 

psammophytic Algal Beds. The precise distribution of both kinds is not known; however, the 

distribution is thought to be less than for Marine and Estuarine Seagrass Beds.

Marine and Estuarine Algal Beds may grade into Seagrass Beds, Tidal Marsh, Tidal 

Swamp, or many of the other Marine or Estuarine Natural Communities. Supratidal Algal Beds 

such as periphyton beds (e.g., blue-green algal mats) may grade into various coastal Palustrine 

and Terrestrial Natural Communities.

Distribution information for Algal Beds is lacking. The location of major beds must be 

determined before this Natural Community can be managed adequately. Existing state dredge 

and fill laws provide specific protection for Marine and Estuarine Seagrass Beds but not for 

Algal Beds. The correction of this deficiency could prove to be the most effective management 

tool available.
 67

The primary threat to Marine and Estuarine Algal Beds are dredging and filling activities 

which physically remove or bury the beds. Other damage occurs from increased turbidity in the 

water column which reduces available light; pollution, particularly from oil spills; and damage 

from boats.

Seagrass Bed - (synonyms: seagrass meadows, grass beds, grass flats). Marine and 

Estuarine Seagrass Beds are Floral Based Natural Communities typically characterized as 

expansive stands of vascular plants. This community occurs in subtidal (rarely intertidal) zones, 

in clear, coastal waters where wave energy is moderate. Seagrasses are not true grasses. The 

three most common species of seagrasses in Florida are turtle grass, manatee grass, and shoal 

grass. Nearly pure stands of any one of these species can occur, but mixed stands are also 

common. Species of Halophila may be intermingled with the other seagrasses, but species of 

this genus are considerably less common than turtle grass, manatee grass and shoal grass. 

Widgeon grass can also be found occurring with the previously listed seagrasses although they 

occur primarily under high salinities while widgeon grass occurs in areas of lower salinity.

Attached to the seagrass leaf blades are numerous species of epiphytic algae and 

invertebrates. Together, seagrasses and their epiphytes serve as important food sources for 

manatees, marine turtles, and many fish, including spotted sea trout, spot, sheepshead, and 

redfish. The dense seagrasses also serve as shelter or nursery grounds for many invertebrates 

and fish, including marine snails, clams, scallops, polychaete worms, pink shrimp, blue crab, 

starfish, sea urchins, tarpon, bonefish, seahorses, pompano, jack, permit, snapper, grunt, mullet, 

barracuda, filefish, and cowfish.

Marine and Estuarine Seagrass Beds occur most frequently on Unconsolidated Substrates 

of marl, muck or sand, although they may also occur on other Unconsolidated Substrates. The 

dense blanket of leaf blades reduces the wave-energy on the bottom and promotes settling of 

suspended particulates. The settled particles become stabilized by the dense roots and rhizomes 

of the seagrasses. Thus, Marine and Estuarine Seagrass Beds are generally areas of soil 

accumulation.

Other factors affecting the establishment and growth of Seagrass Beds include water 

temperature, salinity, wave-energy, tidal activity, and available light. Generally, seagrasses are 

found in waters with temperatures ranging from between 20o and 30oC (68o-86oF). Seagrasses 

occur most frequently in areas with moderate current velocities, as opposed to either low or high 

velocities. Although Marine and Estuarine Seagrass Beds are most commonly submerged in 

shallow subtidal zones, they may be exposed for brief periods of time during extreme low tides.

One of the more important factors influencing seagrass communities is the amount of 

solar radiation reaching the leaf blades. In general, the water must be fairly clear because 

turbidity blocks essential light necessary for photosynthesis. The rapid growth rate of seagrass 

under optimum conditions rivals that of most intensive agricultural practices, without energy 

input from man.
 68

Marine and Estuarine Seagrass Beds are often associated with and grade into 

Unconsolidated Substrate, Coral Reefs, Tidal Swamps, and Tidal Marshes, but may also be 

associated with any other Marine and Estuarine Natural Community.

Marine and Estuarine Seagrass Beds are extremely vulnerable to human impacts. Many 

have been destroyed through dredging and filling activities or have been damaged by sewage 

outfalls and industrial wastes. In these instances, the Seagrass Beds are either physically 

destroyed, or succumb as a result of decreased solar radiation resulting from increased water 

turbidity.

 Seagrass Beds are also highly vulnerable to oil spills. Low concentrations of oil are known to 

greatly reduce the ability of seagrasses to photosynthesize. Extreme high temperatures also have 

adverse impacts on Seagrass Beds. The area surrounding power plant outfalls, where water 

temperatures may exceed 35oC (95oF), has been found to be lethal to seagrasses. Marine and 

Estuarine Seagrass Beds are susceptible to long term scarring cuts from boat propellers, anchors 

and trawls. Such gouges may require many years to become revegetated. When protected from 

disturbances, seagrasses have the ability to regenerate and recolonize areas. Additionally, some 

successful replantings of Seagrass Beds have been conducted. However, the best management is 

to preserve and protect Marine and Estuarine Seagrass Beds in their natural state.

Tidal Marsh - (synonyms: saltmarsh, brackish marsh, coastal wetlands, coastal marshes, 

tidal wetlands). Marine and Estuarine Tidal Marshes are Floral Based Natural Communities 

generally characterized as expanses of grasses, rushes and sedges along coastlines of low waveenergy and river mouths. They are most abundant and most extensive in Florida north of the 

normal freeze line, being largely displaced by and interspersed among Tidal Swamps below this 

line. Black needlerush and smooth cordgrass are indicator species which usually form dense, 

uniform stands. The stands may be arranged in well-defined zones according to tide levels or 

may grade subtly over a broad area, with elevation as the primary determining factor. In the 

upper reaches of river mouths, where Estuarine Tidal Marsh begins to blend with Freshwater 

Tidal Swamp and Marsh, sawgrass may occur in dense stands. Sawgrass is the least salt tolerant 

of these Tidal Marsh species. Other typical plants include saltgrass, saltmeadow cordgrass 

(marsh hay), gulf cordgrass, soft rush and other rushes, salt myrtle, marsh elder, saltwort, sea 

oxeye, cattail, big cordgrass, bulrushes, seashore dropseed, seashore paspalum, shoregrass, 

glassworts, seablight, seaside heliotrope, saltmarsh boltonia, and marsh fleabane. Typical 

animals include marsh snail, periwinkle, mud snail, spiders, fiddler crabs, marsh crab, green 

crab, isopods, amphipods, diamondback terrapin, saltmarsh snake, wading birds, waterfowl, 

osprey, rails, marsh wrens, seaside sparrows, muskrat and raccoon.

Fishes frequently found in this community include blacktip shark, lemon shark, bonnethead shark, hammerhead shark, southern stingray, yellow spotted ray, tarpon, ladyfish, bonefish, 

menhaden, sardines, anchovy, catfish, needlefish, killifish, bluefish, blue runner, lookdown, 

permit, snapper, grunts, sheepshead, porgies, pinfish, seatrout, red drum, mullet, barracuda, 

blenny, goby, trigger fish, filefish, and puffers.
 69

Tidal Marsh soils are generally very poorly drained muck or sandy clay loams with 

substantial organic components and often a high sulfur content. The elevation of Tidal Marshes 

range from just below sea level to slightly above sea level with vegetation occupying the 

intertidal and supratidal zones. The frequently high density of plant stems and roots effectively 

traps sediments derived from upland runoff or from littoral and storm currents. The decaying, 

dead marsh plants and the transported detritus which the living plants trap, accumulate to form 

peat deposits. Together, these accretion processes may build land.

Tidal Marsh plants live under conditions which would stress most plants. High salt 

content in the soil, poor soil aeration, frequent submersion and exposure, intense sunlight, and 

occasional fires make the Tidal Marsh community inhospitable to most plants and require a wide 

tolerance limit for its inhabitants. The landward extent of Tidal Marsh along the shoreline is 

directly related to the degree of bottom slope; the more gradual the slope the broader the 

community band. Typical zonation in this community includes smooth cordgrass in the deeper 

edges, grading to salt tolerant plants such as black needlerush that withstand less inundation.

Tidal fluctuation is the most important ecological factor in Tidal Marsh communities, 

cycling nutrients and allowing marine and estuarine fauna access to the marsh. This exchange 

helps to make Tidal Marsh one of the most biologically productive Natural Communities in the 

world. In fact, primary productivity in Tidal Marshes surpasses that of most intensive 

agricultural practices. The former operates at no cost because of free energy subsidies from 

tides, while the latter requires costly energy subsidies in the form of fuels, chemicals, and labor. 

A myriad of invertebrates and fish, including most of the commercially and recreationally 

important species such as shrimp, blue crab, oysters, sharks, grouper, snapper and mullet, also 

use Tidal Marshes throughout part or all of their life cycles.

Tidal Marshes are also extremely important because of their storm buffering capacity and 

their pollutant filtering actions. The dense roots and stems hold the unstabilized soils together, 

reducing the impact of storm wave surge. The plants, animals, and soils filter, absorb, and 

neutralize many pollutants before they can reach adjacent marine and estuarine communities. 

These factors make Tidal Marshes extremely valuable as a Natural Community.

Adverse impacts of urban development of Tidal Marshes include degradation of water 

quality, filling of marshes, increased erosion, and other alterations such as bulkheading and 

beach renourishment. The most attractive coastal areas for development activities frequently are 

the most ecologically fragile and are extremely vulnerable to development of any kind. Offshore 

pollution in the form of oil spills and various forms of litter jettisoned from shipping traffic also 

impact Tidal Marsh.

Tidal Swamps - (synonyms: mangrove forest, mangrove swamp, mangrove islands). 

Marine and Estuarine Tidal Swamps are Floral Based Natural Communities characterized as 

dense, low forests occurring along relatively flat, intertidal and supratidal shorelines of low wave 

energy along southern Florida. The dominant plants of Tidal Swamp Natural Communities are 
 70

red mangrove, black mangrove, white mangrove and buttonwood. These four species 

occasionally occur in zones which are defined by varying water levels, with red mangrove 

occupying the lowest zone, black mangrove the intermediate zone, and white mangrove and 

buttonbush the highest zone. Other vascular plants associated with Tidal Swamps include salt 

grass, black needlerush, spike rush, glasswort, Gulf cordgrass, sea purslane, saltwort and sea 

oxeye. Typical animals of the Tidal Swamp include mangrove water snake, brown pelican, 

white ibis, osprey, bald eagle, and a variety of shorebirds, herons, egrets, and raccoon. Also 

included are sponges, oysters, marine worms, barnacles, mangrove tree crabs, fiddler crabs, 

mosquitos, and numerous other invertebrates. Fishes are likewise diverse in this community. 

Those most frequently occurring include black-tipped shark, lemon shark, nurse shark, bonnethead shark, rays, tarpon, ladyfish, bonefish, menhaden, sardines, lookdown, permit, snapper, 

sheepshead, porgies, pinfish, and mullet.

Several variations of Tidal Swamps are generally recognized. These include (1) 

overwash swamps found on islands which are frequently inundated by the tides; (2) narrow 

fringe swamps located along waterways; (3) riverine swamps found in floodplains; (4) basin 

swamps growing in depressions slightly inland from the water; (5) hammock swamps, similar to 

basin swamps but growing at a slightly higher elevation; and (6) scrub swamps growing over 

hard substrates such as limestone marl.

Tidal Swamps occur in flat coastal areas. The soils are generally saturated with brackish 

water at all times, and at high tides these same soils are usually inundated with standing water. 

Mangroves grow on a wide variety of soils ranging from sands to muds. In older Tidal Swamps 

the sands and muds are usually covered by a layer of peat which has built up from detritus 

(decaying plant material).

The prop roots of red mangroves, the extensive pneumatophores (aerial roots) of black 

mangroves and the dense root mats of the white mangrove serve to entrap sediments and recycle 

nutrients from upland areas and from tidal import. This process serves in "island formation" and 

is a part of the successional process involved in land formation in south Florida. These root 

structures also provide substrate for the attachment of and shelter for numerous marine and 

estuarine organisms.

Temperature, salinity, tidal fluctuation, substrate and wave energy are five physical 

factors influencing the size and extent of Tidal Swamps. Mangroves require an annual average 

water temperature above 19oC (66oF) to survive. They do not tolerate temperatures below 

freezing or temperatures which fluctuate widely over the course of a year. Salt water is a key 

element in reducing competition from other plants and allowing mangroves to flourish. In 

addition, mangroves have adapted to the salt water environment by either excluding or excreting 

salt from plant tissues. Mangroves can survive in freshwater but are usually not found in large 

stands under such conditions in nature because they succumb to competition. 

Tidal Swamps are closely associated with and often grade into Seagrass Beds, 
 71

Unconsolidated Substrates, Tidal Marshes, Shell Mounds, Coastal Berms, Maritime Hammocks, 

and other coastal communities. Seagrass Beds and Unconsolidated Substrates are usually found 

in the subtidal regions surrounding Tidal Swamps. Tidal Marshes are often found along the 

inland boundary of the Tidal Swamps. Tropical hardwood species occupy Coastal Berm and 

Shell Mound communities which are often surrounded by mangroves. In Florida, Tidal Swamps 

occur along both coasts, buffered by barrier island formations. Tidal Swamps are most extensive 

from Cedar Key southward along the Gulf coast and from Ponce de Leon Inlet southward along 

the east coast. The most luxuriant growth occurs in the Ten-Thousand Island areas of southwest 

Florida.

The Marine and Estuarine Tidal Swamp communities are significant because they 

function as nursery grounds for most of the state's commercially and recreationally important 

fish and shellfish. These Natural Communities are also the breeding grounds for substantial 

populations of wading birds, shorebirds, and other animals. The continuous shedding of 

mangrove leaves and other plant components produce as much as 80% of the total organic 

material available in the aquatic food web. Additionally, Tidal Swamps help protect other inland 

communities by absorbing the brunt of tropical storms and hurricanes.

Tidal Swamps have been and continue to be areas of environmental concern because 

many acres were destroyed through diking and flooding, ditching for mosquito control, and 

dredging and filling activities. Fortunately, specific legal protection for mangrove swamps was 

adopted by the state in 1985. Today, mangroves continue to face such problems as destruction 

from oil spills and changes in the quantity, quality and timing of the fresh water input as the 

adjacent uplands are developed or otherwise altered. Reducing estuarine salinity and flushing 

chemical pollutants from adjacent uplands have resulted in the destruction of some Tidal Swamp 

areas and the invasion of non-mangrove species.

The combination of these factors has resulted in a decrease in the number of acres of 

Tidal Swamps and a reduction in available nursery grounds and valuable habitat for native 

wildlife. Mangrove swamps can be replanted by man; however, long term monitoring has not 

been conducted to determine if restored sites function as the original community did. The best 

management practice is to prevent further destruction of existing Tidal Swamps and maintain a 

natural flow of fresh water into these areas.

Composite Substrate - Marine and Estuarine Composite Substrates consist of a 

combination of Natural Communities such as "beds" of algae and seagrasses or areas with small 

patches of consolidated and unconsolidated bottom with or without sessile floral and faunal 

populations.

Composite Substrates may be dominated by any combination of marine and estuarine 

sessile flora or fauna, or mineral substrate type. Typical combinations of plants, animals and 

substrates representing Composite Substrates include soft and stony corals with sponges on a 

hard bottom such as a limerock outcrop; psammophytic algae and seagrasses scattered over a 

sand bottom; and patch reefs throughout a coralgal bottom. Any of the remaining Marine and 
 72

Estuarine Natural Communities can grade into Composite Substrate communities.

Although Composite Substrates can occur in any marine or estuarine area in Florida, 

some combinations are common while others are extremely rare. Combinations of Consolidated 

and Unconsolidated Substrate components offer the greatest opportunity for diversity, and should 

be high priority areas for protection. Management requirements are negligible providing the 

composite community is adequately protected.

Protection efforts will vary slightly based on components of the Composite Substrate 

community. Generally, degradation of physical and chemical water quality parameters should be 

prevented, as well as mechanical disturbance from anchoring, dredging, trawling and similar 

activities.
 73

APPENDICES
 74

APPENDIX 1. Index of Plant Common Names and their Scientific Names

alligator weed Alternanthera philoxeroides

American beech Fagus grandifolia

American cupscale Sacciolepis striata

American holly Ilex opaca

American hornbeam Carpinus caroliniana

American lotus Nelumbo lutea

American sycamore Plantanus occidentalis

American wisteria Wisteria frutescens

arum Peltandra spp.

arrowheads Sagittaria spp.

ash Fraxinus spp.

ashe magnolia Magnolia ashei

asters Aster spp.

Atlantic white cedar Chamaecyparis thyoides

bald cypress Taxodium distichum

banana lily Nymphaea mexicana

basswood Tilia spp.

bay cedar Suriana maritima 

beach bean Canavalia rosea

beach cordgrass Spartina spp.

beach elder Iva imbricata

beach jacquemontia Jacquemontia reclinata

beach morning glory Ipomoea stolonifera

beach orach Atriplex arenaria

beakrush Rhynchospora spp.

beakrush sedges Rhynchospora spp.

beardgrass Andropogon spp.

beautyberry Callicarpa americana

bedstraw Galium spp.

beech drops Epifagus virginiana

bellwort Uvularia spp.

big cordgrass Spartina cynosuroides

bigleaf snowbell Styrax grandifolia

black cherry Prunus serotina

black-eyed susan Rudbeckia hirta

blackgum Nyssa biflora

black ironwood Krugiodendron ferreum

black mangrove Avicennia germinans

black needlerush Juncus roemerianus

black sedge Schoenus nigricans
 75

black titi Cliftonia monophylla

black walnut Juglans nigra

black willow Salix nigra

blackjack oak Quercus marilandica

blackroot Pterocaulon pycnostachyum

bladder nut Staphylea trifolia

bladderpod Sesbania vesicaria

bladderwort Utricularia spp.

blazing star Liatris spp.

blolly Pisonia discolor

bloodroot Lachnanthes caroliniana, Sanguinaria

 canadensis

blue phlox Phlox divaricata

bluebell Campanula spp.

blueberry Vaccinium spp.

bluejack oak Quercus incana

bluestem Andropogon spp.

bluestem palmetto Sabal minor

bluff oak Quercus austrina

bog buttons Lachnocaulon spp.

bog mat Wolffiella spp.

bog moss Mayaca fluviatilis

bottlebrush threeawn Aristida spiciformis

box elder Acer negundo

bracken fern Pteridium aquilinum

Brazilian pepper Schinus terebinthifolius

broomsedge Andropogon virginicus

buckthorn Rhamnus caroliniana

bulrushes Scirpus spp.

bunch flower Melanthium virginicum

bustic Dipholis salicifolia

butterwort Pinguicula spp.

buttonbush Cephalanthus occidentalis

buttonwood Conocarpus erecta

cabbage palm Sabalpalmetto

caper tree Capparis spp.

caric sedges Carex spp.

Carolina ash Fraxinus caroliniana

Carolina holly Ilex ambigua

carpet grass Axonopus spp.

cat's claw Pithecellobium unquis-cati

catalpa Catalpa spp.

cattail Typha spp.

chain fern Woodwardia spp.
 76

Chapman's oak Quercus chapmanii

chara Chara spp.

Christmas fern Polystichum acrostichoides

cinnamon fern Osmunda cinnamomea

clubmoss Lycopodium spp.

coastal plain willow Salix caroliniana

cocoplum Chrysobalanus icaco

coffee colubrina Colubrina arborescens

coin vine Dalbergia ecastophyllum

common persimmon Diospyros virginiana

common reed Phragmites communis

coneflower Rudbeckia fulgida

coontail Ceratophyllum demersum

coontie Zamia integrifolia

coral bean Erythrina herbacea

coral greenbrier Smilaxwalteri

cordgrass Spartina spp.

coreopsis Coreopsis spp.

cottonwood Populus spp.

 cowhorn orchid Cyrtopodium punctatum

creeping beggarweed Desmodium incanum

crossvine Anisostichus capreolata

crowfoot grass Dactyloctenium aegyptium

crownbeard Verbesina chapmanii

cucumber sunflower Helianthus debilis ssp. cucumerifolius

cutgrass Leersia spp.

cutthroatgrass Panicum abscissum

cypressTaxodium spp.

dahoon holly Ilex cassine

dangleberry Gaylussacia frondosa

deer tongue Carphephorus odoratissimus

devil's walking stick Araliaspinosa

dewberry Rubus spp.

diamond-flower Hedyotis nigricans

diamond-leaf oak Quercus laurifolia

dogfennel Eupatorium capillifolium

dog-hobble Leucothoe axillaris

doll's eyes Actea pachypoda

dollar bonnet Brasenia schreberi

dollar wort Hydrocotyle spp.

dollarweeds Rhynchosia spp.

dotted smartweed Polygonum punctatum

dropseed Sporobolus spp.

duckweed Lemna spp.
 77

dune panic grass Panicum amarulum

dune sunflower Helianthus debilis

dwarf blueberry Vaccinium sp.

dwarf huckleberry Gaylussacia dumosa

eastern cottonwood Populus deltoides

eastern hophornbeam Ostrya virginiana

eel grass Vallisneria americana

elderberry Sambucus canadensis

elodea Elodea canadensis

evening primrose Oenothera spp.

false foxglove Agalinis spp.

false hellebore Veratrum woodii

false mastic Mastichodendron foetidissimum

fanwort Cabomba caroliniana

fetterbush Lyonia lucida

fire flag Thalia geniculata

floating heart Nymphoides aquatica

Florida elm Ulmus americana var. floridana

Florida maple Acer barbatum

Florida yew Taxus floridana

flowering dogwood Cornus florida

forestiera Forestiera spp.

fox grape Vitis labrusca

fragrant waterlily Nymphaea odorata

fringe tree Chionanthus virginica

frog's bit Limnobium spongia

frostweed Verbesina virginica

gallberry Ilex glabra

 garberia Garberia heterophylla

gay feather Liatris spp.

geiger tree Cordia sebestena

giant cutgrass Zizaniopsis miliacea

glasswort Salicornia spp.

goats rue Tephrosia virginiana

golden aster Chrysopsis spp.

golden canna Canna flaccida

golden club Orontium aquaticum

goldenrod Solidago spp.

gopher apple Licania michauxii

grass-of-parnassus Parnassia grandifolia

grasses Poaceae

green ash Faxinus pensylvanica

greenbrier Smilax spp.

ground cherry Physalis spp.
 78

ground lichens Cladonia spp.

guiana-plum Drypetes lateriflora

gulf cordgrass Spartina spartinae

gulf sebastiana Sebastiana fruticosa

gum bumelia Bumelia lanuqinosa

gumbo limbo Bursera simaruba

hackberry Celtis spp.

halberd fern Tectaria amesiana

hatpins Eriocaulon spp.

hawthorn Crataegus spp.

hazel alder Alnus serrulata

Hercules' club Zanthoxylum clava-herculis

hog plum Ximenia americana

hophornbeam Ostrya virginiana

hornbeam Carpinus caroliniana

horse sugar Symplocos tinctoria

huckleberry Gaylussacia spp.

hurrah-bush Leucothoe racemosa

hydrilla Hydrilla verticillata

Indian grass Sorghastrum spp.

indigo berry Randia aculeata

indigo bush Indigofera suffruticosa

inkberry Scaevola plumieri

inkwood Exothea paniculata

innocence Hedyotis procumbens

knotweed Polygonum spp.

lanceleaf greenbrier Smilax smallii

lancewood Nectandra coriacea

lantana Lantana spp.

larkspur Delphinium carolinianum

large gallberry Ilex coriacea

laurel greenbrier Smilax laurifolia

laurel oak Quercus hemisphaerica

laurel cherry Prunus caroliniana

leather fern Acrostichum danaeifolium

leatherwood Dirca palustris

licania Licania michauxii

lidflowers Calyptranthes spp.

little blue maidencane Amphicarpum muhlenbergianum

live oak Quercus virginiana

liverleaf Hepatica nobilis

lizard's tail Saururus cernuus

loblolly bay Gordonia lasianthus

loblolly pine Pinus taeda
 79

locustberry Bursonima lucida

longleaf pine Pinus palustris

lousewort Pedicularis spp.

love grass Eragrostis spp.

love vine Cuscuta spp.

mahogany Swietenia mahagoni

maiden cane Panicum hemitomon

maiden hair fern Adiantum spp.

male-berry Lyonia liqustrina

manatee grass Cymodocea filiformis

marlberry Ardisia escallonioides

marsh elder Iva frutescens

marsh fern Thelypteris palustris

marsh fleabane Pluchea spp.

marsh pennywort Hydrocotyle umbellata

marsh pink Sabatia spp.

marsh samphire Philoxerus vermicularis

marshhay Spartina patens

mastic Mastichodendron foetidissimum

meadow-beauty Rhexia spp.

melaleuca Melaleuca quinquenervia

milfoil Achillea millefolium

milk peas Galactia spp.

milkweed Asclepias spp.

milkwort Polygala spp.

mockernut hickory Carya tomentosa

mosquito fern Azolla caroliniana

mountain laurel Kalmia latifolia

muhly grass Muhlenbergia spp.

musky mint Hyptis alata

myrsine Myrsine guianensis

myrtle oak Quercus myrtifolia

myrtle-leaved holly Ilex myrtifolia

necklace pod Sophora tomentosa

needle palm Rhapidophyllum hystrix

netted chain fern Woodwardia areolata

nickerbean Caesalpinia spp.

nut sedge Cyperus esculentus

oak-leaf hydrangea Hydrangea quercifolia

odorless wax myrtle Myrica inodora

Ogeechee tupelo Nyssa ogeche

orchid Orchidaceae

overcup oak Quercus lyrata

panicums Panicum spp.
 80

paradise tree Simarouba glauca

parrot's feather Myriophyllum brasiliense

 partridgeberry Mitchella repens

partridge pea Cassia fasciculata

passion flower Passiflora spp.

paw paw Asimina spp.

pencil flower Stylosanthes biflora

pennywort Hydrocotyle spp.

pepper vine Ampelopsis arborea

persimmon Diospyros virginiana

pickerelweed Pontederia cordata

pigeon plum Coccoloba diversifolia

pignut hickory Carya glabra

pine lily Lilium catesbaei

pinefern Anemia adiantifolia

pinewoods dropseed Sporobolus junceus

pink azalea Rhododendron vaseyi

pinweed Lechea spp.

pitcher plants Sarracenia spp.

plume grass Erianthus spp.

poison ivy Toxicodendron radicans

poisonwood Metopium toxiferum

pond apple Annona glabra

pond cypress Taxodium ascendens

pond pine Pinus serotina

pondweed Potamogeton spp.

poppy mallow Callirhoe papaver

possumhaw Ilex decidua, Viburnum nudum

post oak Quercus stellata

prickly apple Cereus spp.

prickly ash Zanthoxylum clava-herculis

prickly pear cactus Opuntia spp.

primrose willow Ludwigia peruviana

privet Ligustrum spp.

pumpkin ash Fraxinus profunda

purple coneflower Echinacea purpurea

pyramid magnolia Magnolia pyramidata

queens delight Stillingia sylvatica

rabbit tobacco Pterocaulon pycnostachyum

racemed fetterbush Leucothoe racemosa

ragweed Ambrosia spp.

railroad vine Ipomoea pes-caprae

ratibida Ratibida pinnata

rattanvine Berchemia scandens
 81

rattlebox Crotalaria spp.

rattlesnake master Polianthes virginica

rattlesnake plantain Goodyera pubescens

red bayPersea borbonia

red buckeye Aesculus pavia

red cedar Juniperus virginiana

red chokeberry Aronia arbutifolia

red mangrove Rhizophora mangle

red maple Acer rubrum

red mulberry Morus rubra

red oakQuercus falcata

 redbud Cercis canadensis

redroot Lachnanthes caroliniana

redtop panicum Panicum rigidulum

reimargrass Reimarochloa oligostachya

river birch Betula nigra

rosemary Ceratiola ericoides

rouge-plant Rivina humilis

royal fern Osmunda regalis

royal palm Roystonea elata

rubber vine Echites umbellata

runner oak Quercus pumila

rushes Juncaceae

rusty lyonia Lyonia ferruginea

sagaretia Sageretia minutiflora

salt grass Distichlis spicata

salt myrtle Baccharis halimifolia

saltbush Baccharis spp.

saltmarsh boltonia Boltonia diffusa

saltmeadow grass Leptochloa fascicularis

saltwort Batis maritima

salvinia Salvinia rotundifolia

sand cordgrass Spartina bakeri

sand hickory Carya pallida

sand live oak Quercus geminata

sand pine Pinus clausa

sand post oak Quercus margaretta

sand spur Cenchrus spp.

sarsaparilla vine Smilax pumila

sassafras Sassafras albidum

satin leaf Chrysophyllum oliviforme

saw greenbrier Smilax bona-nox

saw palmetto Serenoa repens

sawgrass Cladium jamaicense
 82

scrub hickory Carya floridana

scrub oak Quercus inopina

scrub palmetto Sabal etonia

sea blites Suaeda spp.

sea daisy Borrichia arborescens

sea grape Coccoloba uvifera

sea lavender Limonium spp.

sea oats Uniola paniculata

sea oxeye Borrichia frutescens

sea purslane Sesuvium spp.

sea rocket Cakile spp.

seashore dropseed Sporobolus virginicus

seashore paspalum Paspalum distichum

seaside heliotrope Heliotropium curassavicum

Sebastianbush Sebastiana fruiticosa

sedges Cyperaceae

shaving brush Penicillus capitatus

shining sumac Rhus copallina

shoal grass Halodule wrightii

shoregrass Monanthochloe littoralis

 shortleaf fig Ficus citrifolia

shortleaf pine Pinus echinata

side-oats grama Bouteloua curtipendula

silk bay Persea humilis

silky camellia Stewartia malacodendron

silver maple Acer saccharinum

silverbells Halesia spp.

slash pine Pinus elliottii

slippery elm Ulmus rubra

smartweed Polygonum spp.

smooth cordgrass Spartina alterniflora

snakeroot Sanicula spp.

sneezeweed Helenium spp.

snowberry Symphoricarpos albus

soapberry Sapindus spp.

soft rush Juncus effusus

soldierwood Colubrina elliptica

Solomon's seal Polygonatum biflorum

sourwood Oxydendrum arboreum

south Florida slash pine Pinus elliottii var. densa

southern blue flag Iris virginica

southern magnolia Magnolia grandiflora

southern naiads Najas quadalupensis

southern red cedar Juniperus virginiana
 83

southern red oak Quercus falcata

southern watergrass Hydrochloa caroliniensis

Spanish bayonet Yucca aloifolia

Spanish moss Tillandsia usneoides

Spanish needle Bidens bipinnata

sparkleberry Vaccinium arboreum

spatterdock Nyphar spp.

sphagnum moss Sphagnum spp.

spikerush Eleocharis spp.

spleenworts Asplenium spp.

spruce pine Pinus glabra

St. John's wort Hypericum spp.

stagger bush Lyonia spp.

star alga Anadyomene stellata

stargrass Aletris spp.

star rush Dichromena latifolia

stiffcornel dogwood Cornus foemina

stinging nettle Cnidoscolus stimulosus

stoppers Eugenia spp.

strangler fig Ficus aurea

strawberry bush Euonymus americanus

sugarberry Celtis laevigata

sundews Drosera spp.

sunflower Helianthus spp.

swamp azalea Rhododendron viscosum

swamp bay Persea palustris

swamp chestnut oak Quercus michauxii

swamp cottonwood Populus heterophylla

swamp dogwood Cornus spp.

 swamp lily Crinum americanum

swamp primrose Ludwigia palustris

swamp privet Forestiera acuminata

swamp red bay Persea palustris

swamp titi Cyrilla racemiflora

swamp tupelo Nyssa sylvatica

sweet pepperbush Clethra alnifolia

sweet-shrub Calycanthus floridus

sweetbay Magnolia virginiana

sweetgum Liquidambar styraciflua

sycamore Platanus occidentalis

tall wiregrass Aristida patula

tallowtree Sapium sebiferum

tape grass Vallisneria americana

tar flower Befaria racemosa
 84

tetrazygia Tetrazygia bicolor

tickseed Coreopsis spp.

titi Cyrilla racemiflora

toothache grass Ctenium aromaticum

torreya tree Torreya taxifolia

tough bumelia Bumelia tenax

tread softly Cnidoscolus stimulosus

trilliums Trillium spp.

tulip poplar Liriodendron tulipifera

tupelo Nyssa spp.

turkey oak Quercus laevis

turtle grass Thalassia testudinum

twinflower Dyschoriste oblongifolia

varnish leaf Dodonaea viscosa

velvet seed Guettarda scabra

Venus'-hair fern Adiantum capillus-veneris

Virginia creeper Parthenocissus quinquefolia

Virginia willow Itea virginica

Walter viburnum Viburnum obovatum

water chestnut Nelumbo lutea

water elm Planera aquatica

water fern Salvinia rotundifolia

water hickory Carya aquatica

water hyacinth Eichhorniacrassipes

water hyssop Bacopa spp.

water lettuce Pistia stratiotes

water lilies Nymphaea spp.

water meal Wolffia spp.

water oak Quercus nigra

water pennywort Hydrocotyle spp.

water primrose Ludwigia repens

water shield Brasenia schreberi

water spinach Ipomoea aquatica

water sprite Ceratopteris thalictroides

water tupelo Nyssa aquatica

waterlocust Gleditsia aquatica

water milfoil Myriophyllum spp.

wax myrtle Myrica cerifera

 weak-leaf yucca Yucca flaccida

white alder Clethra spp.

white ash Fraxinus americana

white cedar Chamaecyparis thyoides

white grass Leersia virginica

white mangrove Laguncularia racemosa
 85

white oak Quercus alba

white-top sedge Dichromena spp.

white-topped aster Aster paternus

widgeon grass Ruppia maritima

wild buckwheat Eriogonum tomentosum

wild coffee Psychotria spp.

wild comfrey Cynoglossum virginianum

wild ginger Hexastylis arifolia

wild grape Vitis spp.

wild hydrangea Hydrangea spp.

wild indigos Indigofera spp.

wild olive Osmanthus americana

wild pine Tillandsia spp.

wild rice Zizania aquatica

wild tamarind Lysiloma bahamense

willow oak Quercus phellos

willows Salix spp.

winged elm Ulmus alata

winged sumac Rhus copallina

wiregrass Aristida spp.

witchhazel Hamamelis virginiana

wood grass Oplismenus setarius

wood-sorrel Oxalis spp.

yaupon Ilex vomitoria

yellow-eyed grass Xyris spp.

yellow jessamine Gelsemium spp.

yellow foxglove Aureolaria flava
 86

APPENDIX 2. Index of Animal Common Names and Their Scientific Names

Acadian flycatcher Empidonax virescens

Alabama waterdog Necturus alabamensis

alligator Alligator mississippiensis

alligator snapping turtle Macroclemys temminckii

American bittern Botaurus lentiginosus

American coot Fulica americana

American robin Turdus migratorius

American woodcock Scolopax minor

amphiuma see two-toed amphiuma

anchovy Anchoa sp.

anemone see sea anemone

Bachman's sparrow Aimophila aestivalis

bald eagle Haliaeetus leucocephalus

banded sunfish Enneacanthus obesus

banded topminnow Fundulus cinqulatus

banded water snake Nerodia fasciata

bank swallow Riparia riparia

barking treefrog Hyla gratiosa

barracuda Sphyraena sp.

barred owl Strix varia

basket starfish Astrophyton muricatum

bass Micropterus sp.

beach mouse Peromyscus polionotus

bear see black bear

beaver Castor canadensis

belted kingfisher Ceryle alcyon

bird-voiced treefrog Hyla avivoca

blackbanded darter Percina nigrofasciata

black crappie Pomoxis nigromaculatus

black-crowned night heron Nycticorax nyticorax

black drum Pogonias cromis

black-necked stilt Himantopus mexicanus

black swamp snake Seminatrix pygaea

blacktail shiner Notropis venustus

blacktip shark Carcharhinus limbatus

blenny Bleniidae, Clinidae

blind cave crayfish Cambarus sp., Procambarus sp.,

 Troglocambarus sp.

blind cave salamander Haideotriton sp.

blue crab Callinectes sapidus

blue jay Cyanocitta cristata
 87

blue runner Caranx crysos

bluebird see eastern bluebird

bluefish Pomatomus saltatrix

bluegill Lepomis macrochirus

bluespotted sunfish Enneacanthus gloriosus

blue-tailed mole skink Eumeces eqregius lividus

boat-tailed grackle Quiscalus major

bobcat Lynx rufus

bobwhite see northern bobwhite

 bonefish Albula vulpes

bonnet-head shark Rhinobatos productus

boring clam Bivalvia

bowfin Amia calva

box turtle Terrapene carolina

branching candle sponge Verongia longissima

broadhead skink Eumeces laticeps

bronze frog Rana clamitans

brook silverside Labidesthes sicculus

brown bullhead Ictalurus nebulosus

brown darter Etheostoma edwini

brown pelican Pelecanus occidentalis

brown thrasher Toxostoma rufum

brown water snake Nerodia taxispilota

brown-headed nuthatch Sitta pusilla

bullfrog Rana catesbeiana

burrowing owl Athene cunicularia

burrowing shrimp Thalassinoidea

burrowing sponge Demospongiae

cactus coral Madacis decactis

caracara Polyborus plancus

cardinal see northern cardinal

Carolina chickadee Parus carolinensis

Carolina wren Thryothorus ludovicianus

cave amphipod Crangonyx sp.

cave cricket Gryllidae

cave earwig Dermaptera

cave isopod Caecidotea sp.

cave mite Acarina

cave orb spider Araneidae

cave shrimp Palaemonetes sp.

cave snail Gastropoda

cave spiderAraneae 

cave springtail Collembola 

cavernous star coral Montastraea cavernosa
 88

cedar waxwing Bombycilla cedrorum

chain pickerel Esox niger

channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus

chickadee see Carolina chickadee

chicken turtle Deirochelys reticularia

chimney swift Chaetura pelagica

chorus frog Pseudacris sp.

chub Cyprinidae

chubsucker Erimyzon sp.

club finger coral Porites porites

coachwhip Masticophis flagellum

common ground dove Columbina passerina

common nighthawk Chordeiles minor

common yellowthroat Geothlypis trichas

coon oyster Ostrea frons

coot see American coot

Cope's gray treefrog Hyla chrysoscelis

coral snake Micrurus fulvius

 cotton mouse Peromyscus gossypinus

cotton rat Sigmondon hispidus

cottontail rabbit Sylvilagus floridanus

cowfish Lactophrys sp.

cow-nosed ray Rhinoptera bonasus

crappie Pomoxis sp.

crayfish snake Regina sp.

creek chub Semotilus atromaculatus

crested flycatcher see great crested flycatcher

cricket frog see southern cricket frog

crowned snake Tantilla sp.

deer see white-tailed deer

diamondback rattlesnake see eastern diamondback rattlesnake

diamondback terrapin Malaclemys terrapin

dollar sunfish Lepomis marginatus

downy woodpecker Picoides pubescens

dwarf salamander Eurycea quadridigitata

earth snake Virginia sp.

eastern bluebird Sialia sialis

eastern diamondback rattlesnake Crotalus adamanteus

eastern fence lizard Sceloporus undulatus

eastern garter snake Thamnophis sirtalis

eastern glass lizard Ophisaurus ventralis

eastern harvestmouse Reithrodontomys humulis

eastern king snakeLampropeltis getulus

eastern kingbird Tyrannus tyrannus
 89

eastern meadowlark Sturnella magna

eastern mole Scalopus aquaticus

eastern mud snake see mud snake

eastern phoebe Sayornis phoebe

eastern screech-owl Otus asio

eastern spadefoot Scaphiopus holbrookiiholbrookii

eastern spotted skunk Spilogale putorius

eastern woodrat Neotoma floridana

eel Anguilliformes 

elkhorn coral Acropora palmata

elliptical star coral Dichocoenia sp.

encrusting fire coral Milleporidae

Everglades pygmy sunfish Elassoma evergladei fiddler crab Uca sp.

filefish Balistidae 

fire coral Millepora alcicornis

five-lined skink Eumeces fasciatus

flamingo tongue shell Cyphoma sp.

flat bullhead Ictalurus platycephalus

flatwoods salamander Ambystoma cingulatum

flier Centrarchus macropterus

Florida cooter Pseudemys floridana

Florida Keys sailfin molly Poecilia cf. latipinna

Florida Keys sheepshead minnow Cyprinodon cf. variegatus

Florida gar Lepisosteus platyrhinchus

Florida loggerhead sponge Spheciospongia vesparia

Florida mouse Podomys floridanus

Florida scrub jay Aphelocoma coerulescens coerules

Florida softshell turtle Apalone sp.

Florida water rat Neofiber alleni

Florida worm lizard Rhineura floridana

flounder Pleuronectiformes

fox squirrel Sciurus niger

fungus coral Mycetophyllia sp.

gafftopsail catfish Bagre marinus

ghost crab Ocypode quadrata

giant brain coral Colpophyllia natans

gizzard shad Dorosoma cepedianum

glossy crayfish snake Regina rigida

glossy ibis Plegadis falcinellus

goby Gobiidae

golden mouse Peromyscus nuttali

golden shiner Notemigonus crysoleucas

golden topminnow Fundulus chrysotus
 90

gopher frog Rana areolata

gopher tortoise Gopherus polyphemus

grasshopper sparrow Ammodramus savannarum

gray fox Urocyon cinereoargenteus

gray rat snake Elaphe obsoleta spiloides

gray squirrel Sciurus carolinensis

gray treefrog Hyla chrysoscelis

great blue heron Ardea herodias

great-crested flycatcher Myiarchus crinitus

great egret Casmerodius albus

great horned owl Bubo virginianus

greater siren Siren lacertina

green anole Anolis carolinensis

green-backed heron Butorides striatus

green crab Decapoda sp.

green tree frog Hyla cinerea

green water snake Nerodia cyclopion

grooved brain coral Diploria labyrinthiformes

ground dove see common ground dove

ground skink Scincella lateralis

grouper Serranidae

grunt Hermulidae

gulf hammock rat snake Elaphe obsoleta williamsi

hairy woodpecker Picoides villosus

hammerhead shark Sphyrna sp.

harvest mouse see eastern harvest mouse

harvestman Phalangida

hermit crab Paguroidea

hermit thrush Catharus guttatus

hognose snake Heterodon sp.

hooded warbler Wilsonia citrina

indigo snake Drymarchon corais

ironcolor shiner Notropis chalybaeus

ivory tree coral Oculina valenciennesi

jack Carangidae

kestrel Falco sparverius

 key deer Odocoileus virginianus clavium

killdeer Charadrius vociferus

killifish Cyprinodontidae

king rail Rallus elegans

kingfisher see belted kingfisher

knobby brain coral Diploria clivosa

ladyfish Elops saurus

lake chubsucker Erimyzon sucetta
 91

largemouth bass Micropterus salmoides

leaf coral Agaricia agaricites

least bittern Ixobrychus exilis

least killifish Heterandria formosa

least shrew Cryptotis parva

lemon shark Negaprion brevirostris

leopard frog see southern leopard frog

lesser siren Siren intermedia

lightning whelk Busycon contrarium

limpkin Aramus guarauna

lined topminnow Fundulus lineolatus

little blue heron Egretta caerulea

little grass frog Limnaoedus ocularis

lizardfish Synodontidae

lobed star coral Solenastrea hyades

loggerhead musk turtle Sternotherus minor

loggerhead shrike Lanius ludovicianus

long-billed marsh wren Cistothorus palustris

longnose gar Lepisosteus osseus

lookdown Selene vomer

Louisiana heron see tricolored heron

Louisiana waterthrush Seirus motacilla

manatee Trichechus manatus

mangrove crab Goniopsis cruentata, Aratus pisonii,

 Sesarma curacaoense

mangrove fox squirrel Sciurus niger avicennia

mangrove water snake Nerodia clarkii compressicauda

map turtle Graptemys sp.

marbled salamander Ambystoma opacum

marsh crab Decapoda

marsh hawk see northern harrier

marsh rabbitSylvilagus palustris

marsh snail Littorinidae, Ellobiidae

meadowlark see eastern meadowlark

menhaden Brevoortia sp.

mink Mustela vison

Mississippi kite Ictinia mississippiensis

mole salamander Ambystoma talpoideum

mole skink Eumeces egregius

mosquito fish Gambusia affinis

mountainous star coral Monastraea annularis

mourning dove Zenaida macroura

mud crab Zanthidae

mud salamander Pseudotriton montanus
 92

mud shrimp Thalassinoidea

 mud snail Nassariidae

mud snake Farancia abacura

mud sunfish Acantharchus pomotis

mud turtle Kinosternon sp.

mud worms Polychaeta

mullet see striped mullet

muskrat Ondatra zibethicus

needlefish Belonidae

newt Notophthalmus sp.

night hawk see common nighthawk

northern bobwhite Colinus virginianus

northern cardinal Cardinalis cardinalis

northern dusky salamander Desmognathus fuscus

northern harrier Circus cyaneus

northern parula Parula americana

northern rough-winged swallow Stelgidopteryx serripennis

nurse shark Ginglymostoma cirratum

nuthatch Sitta sp.

oak toad Bufo guercicus

Ohooppee shiner Notropis leedsi

Okaloosa darter Etheostoma okaloosae

Okefenokee pygmy sunfish Elassoma okefenokee

opossum Didelphis virginiana

orchard oriole Icterus spurius

osprey Pandion haliaetus

otter see river otter

ovenbird Seiurus aurocapillus

oyster drill Urosalpinx sp.

oyster leech Hirudinea

palm warbler Dendroica palmarum

parula warbler see northern parula

pea crab Pinnotheridae sp.

peninsular cooter Pseudemys floridana peninsularis

periwinkle Littorinidae

permit Trachinotus falcatus

pig frog Rana gylio

pileated woodpecker Dryocopus pileatus

pillar coral Dendrogyra cylindrus

pine snake Pituophis melanoleucas

pine warbler Dendroica pinus

pinewoods treefrog Hyla femoraus

pinfish Lagodon rhomboides

pink shrimp Penaeus duorarum
 93

pirate perch Aphredoderus sayanus

pocket gopher Geomys pinetis

polychaete Polychaeta

polychaete worm see polychaete

pompano Trachinotus sp.

porgy Sparidae 

porous coral Porites astreoides

prothonotary warbler Protonotaria citrea

puffers Tetraodontidae

purple shrimp Tozeuma sp.

 pygmy killifish Leptolucania ommata

pygmy rattlesnake Sistrurus miliarius

quillback Carpiodes cyprinus

raccoon Procyon lotor

rainbow snake Farancia erytrogramma

rat snake Elaphe sp.

ray Rajiformes

red drum Sciaenops ocellata

red ratsnake Elaphe guttata

red salamander Pseudotriton ruber

red widow spider Latrodectus bishopi

red-bellied snake Storeria occipitomaculata

red-bellied watersnake Nerodia erythrogaster

red-bellied woodpecker Melanerpes carolinus

redbreast sunfish Lepomis auritus

redear sunfish Lepomis microlophus

redeye chub Notropis harperi

red-eyed vireo Vireo olivaceus

redfin pickerel Esox americanus americanus

redfish Sebastes sp.

red-shouldered hawk Buteo lineatus

red-tailed hawk Buteo jamaicensis

red-winged blackbird Agelaius phoeniceus

rice rat Oryzomys palustris

ringneck see ring-necked duck

ring-necked duck Aythya collaris

ring-necked snake Diadophis punctatus

river frog Rana heckscheri

river otter Lutra canadensis

river cooter Pseudemys concinna

robin see American robin

rose coral Mancina areolata

rough green snake Opheodrys aestivus

rough starlet Siderastrea radians
 94

rough-winged swallow see northern rough-winged swallow

ruby-throated hummingbird Archilochus colubris

rufous-sided towhee Pipilo erythrophthalmus

rusty blackbird Euphagus carolinus rusty mud salamander Pseudotriton montanus floridanus

sailfin molly Poecilia latipinna

sailfin shiner Notropis hypselopterus

saltmarsh snake Nerodia clarkii ssp.

sand dollar Scutellidae

sand skink Neoseps reynoldsi

sandhill crane Grus canadensis

sardine Clupeidae

scallop Pectinidae

scarlet kingsnake Lampropeltis triangulum elapsoides

screech owl see eastern screech-owl

scrub jay see Florida scrub jay

scrub lizard see Florida scrub lizard

scrub wolf spider Lycosidae

sea anemone Actiniaria

 sea fan Gorgonia sp.

sea feather Pseudopterogorgia sp.

sea fingers Briareum asbetinum

sea pansy Renilla sp.

sea plume Pseudopterogorgia sp.

sea rod Plexaura sp.

sea urchin Echinoidea

sea whip Leptogorgia sp.

seahorses Hippocampus sp.

seaside sparrow Ammodramus maritimus

seatrout Cynoscion sp.

sheepshead Archosargus probatocephalus

sheepswood sponge Hippiospongia lachne

sheet coral Agaricia lamarcki, A. grahamae

shore crab Decapoda sp.

short-tailed shrew Blarina carolinensis

short-tailed snake Stilosoma extenuatum

six-lined racerunner Cnemidophorus sexlineatus

slimy salamander Plethodon glutinosus

smooth brain coral Diploria strigosa

smooth star coral Solenastrea bournoni

smooth starlet coral Siderastrea siderea

snapper Lutjanidae 

snapping turtle Shelydra serpentina

snowy egret Egretta thula
 95

sora Porzana carolina

southeastern five-lined skink Eumeces inexpectatus

southeastern shrew Sorex longirostris

southern chorus frog Pseudacris ornata

southern copperhead Agkistrodon contortrix contortrix

southern cricket frog Acris gryllus

southern dusky salamander Desmognathus auriculatus

southern flying squirrel Glaucomys volans

southern hognose snake Heterodon simus

southern leopard frog Rana utricularia

southern mink Mustela visonmink

southern red salamander Pseudotriton ruber vioscai

southern stingray Dasyatis americana

southern toad Bufo terrestris

spadefoot toad see eastern spadefoot

speckled madtom Noturus leptacanthus

spiny lobster Panulirus argus

spiny softshell Apalone spiniferus

spot Leiostomus xanthurus

spotted bass Micropterus punctulatus

spotted seatrout Cynoscion nebulosus

spotted skunk see eastern spotted skunk

spring peeper Pseudacris crucifer

squirrel tree frog Hyla squirella

staghorn coral Acropora prolifera, Acropora

 cervicornis

starfish Asteroidea

starhead topminnow Fundulus notti

 starlet coral Siderastrea siderea, S. radians

stinkpot Sternotherus odoratus

stone crab Menippe mercenaria

stony coral Scleractinia 

striped mud turtle Kinosternon baurii

striped mullet Mugil cephalus

striped newt Notophthaimus perstriatus

striped skunk Mephitis mephitis

striped swamp snake Regina alleni

stumpknocker Lepomis punctatus

summer tanager Piranga rubra

Suwannee cooter Pseudemys concinna suwanniensis

Swainson's warbler Limnothlypis swainsonii

swallowtail kite Elanoides forficatus

swamp darter Etheostoma fusiforme

tadpole madtom Noturus gyrinus
 96

taillight shiner Notropis maculatus

tarpon Megalops atlanticus

tiger salamander Ambystoma tigrinum

threadfin shad Dorosoma petenense

three-lined salamander Eurycea longicauda guttolineata

towhee see rufous-sided towhee

tree snail Gastropoda

tricolor heron Egretta tricolor

trigger fish Balistidae

tube worm Polychaeta

tufted titmouse Parus bicolor

turkey see wild turkey

turkey vulture Cathartes aura

two-lined salamander Eurycea cirrigera

two-toed amphiuma Amphiuma means

veery Catharus fuscescens

Virginia rail Rallus limicola

warmouth Lepomis gulosus

weed shiner Notropis texanus

white ibis Eudocimus albus

white-crowned pigeon Columba leucocephala

white-eyed vireo Vireo griseus

white-tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus

white-throated sparrow Zonotrichia albicollis

wild turkey Meleagris gallopavo

woodcock see American woodcock

wood duck Aix sponsa

wood rat Neotoma floridana

wood stork Mycteria americana

worm lizard see Florida worm lizard

yellow bullhead Ictalurus natalis

yellow rat snake Elaphe obsoleta quadrivittata

yellow-spotted ray Rajiformes 

yellow-bellied turtle Trachemys scripta scripta

yellow-bellied sapsucker Sphyrapicus varius

yellow-belly slider see yellow-bellied turtle

yellow-billed cuckoo Coccyzus americanus

 yellow-crowned night heron Nyctanassa violacea

yellow-rumped warbler Dedroica coronata

yellowthroat see common yellowthroat

yellow-throated warbler Dendroica dominica
 97

APPENDIX 3

The Florida Natural Areas Inventory hierarchical classification of Terrestrial and Palustrine 

Natural Communities, including brief descriptions of and comparison with other Florida 

vegetation classification systems. Listed under each Florida Natural Areas Inventory natural 

community type are types in other vegetation classification systems into which the Florida 

Natural Areas Inventory type would fit.

The levels of the hierarchy are:

NATURAL COMMUNITY CATEGORIES - defined by hydrology and vegetation

NATURAL COMMUNITY GROUPS - defined by landform, substrate, and vegetation

Natural Community Type - defined by landform and substrate; soil moisture condition; climate; 

fire; and characteristic vegetation.

The vegetation classifications used in the comparison are:

Kuchler =A.W. Kuchler. 1964. Potential Natural Vegetation of theConterminous United States. 

American Geographical Society Special Publication No. 36. (Map and accompanying manual)

Davis =J.H. Davis. 1967. General Map of Natural Vegetation of Florida. Institute of Food and 

Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida.

SCS =Soil Conservation Service. No date. 26 Ecological Communities of Florida. (Map and 

accompanying manual)

Myers =R.L. Myers. 1988. Florida's Physical Setting and Florida's Vegetation. Unpublished 

manuscript.

SAF =F.H. Eyre, Editor. 1980. Forest Cover Types of the United Statesand Canada. Society of 

American Foresters, Washington, D.C.

FLCFC =Florida Department of Transportation. 1985. Florida Land Use,Cover and Forms 

Classification System. (Used only the most specific level and class described in the document.)

TERRESTRIAL - Upland habitats dominated by plants which are not adapted to anaerobic soil 

conditions imposed by saturation or inundation for more than 10% of the growing season.

XERIC UPLANDS - very dry, deep, well-drained hills of sand with xeric-adapted vegetation.
 98

Sandhill - upland with deep sand substrate; xeric; temperate; frequent fire (2-5 years); longleaf 

pine and/or turkey oak with wiregrass understory.

Kuchler 112/Southern Mixed Forest

Davis 6/Forests of Longleaf Pine and Xerophytic Oaks

SCS 4/Longleaf Pine-Turkey Oak Hills

Myers High pinelands - sandhill and southern ridge sandhill

SAF 70/Longleaf Pine

71/Longleaf Pine - Scrub Oak

72/Southern Scrub Oaks 

FLCFC 412/Longleaf Pine - Xeric Oak

421/Xeric Oak

other synonyms - High Pine

Scrub - old dune with deep fine sand substrate; xeric; temperate or subtropical; occasional or rare 

fire (20 - 80 years); sand pine and/or scrub oaks and/or rosemary and cladonia.

Kuchler 115/Sand Pine Scrub

Davis 5/Sand Pine Scrub

SCS 3/Sand Pine Scrub

Myers Scrub - sand pine, oak, and rosemary scrub; slash pine

scrub

SAF 69/Sand Pine

FLCFC 413/Sand Pine

other synonyms - Florida scrub, sand scrub

Xeric Hammock - upland with deep sand substrate; xeric-mesic; temperate or subtropical; rare or 

no fire; live oak and/or sand live oak and/or laurel oak and/or other oaks, sparkleberry, saw 

palmetto.

Kuchler 112/Southern Mixed Forest

Davis 12/Hardwood Forests

SCS 3/Sand Pine Scrub

15/Oak Hammocks

Myers Temperate Hammocks - xeric hammock

SAF 72/Southern Scrub Oak

89/Live Oak

FLCFC 421/Xeric Oak

423/Oak - Pine - Hickory
 99

425/Temperate Hardwood

427/Live Oak

432/Sand Live Oak

other synonyms - dry woods, pine-oak-hickory woods

 COASTAL UPLANDS - substrate and vegetation influenced primarily by such coastal 

(maritime) processes as erosion, deposition, salt spray, and storms.

Beach Dune - active coastal dune with sand substrate; xeric; temperate or subtropical; occasional 

or rare fire; marine influence; sea oats and/or mixed salt-spray tolerant grasses and herbs.

Kuchler 90/Live oak - Sea oats

Davis 1/Coastal Strand

SCS 1/North Florida Coastal Strand

2/South Florida Coastal Strand

Myers Coastal Strand

SAF N/A

FLCFC 322/Coastal Scrub

710/Beaches 

other synonyms - upper beach, sea oats zone, pioneer zone

Coastal Berm - old bar or storm debris with sand/shell substrate; xeric-mesic; subtropical or 

temperate; rare or no fire; marine influence; buttonwood, mangroves, and/or mixed halophytic 

herbs and/or shrubs and trees.

Kuchler 105/Mangrove

Davis 1/Coastal Strand

9/Mangrove Swamp Forests and Coastal Marshes

SCS 2/South Florida Coastal Strand

19/Mangrove Swamp

Myers Coastal Strand

SAF 105/Tropical Hardwoods

106/Mangrove

FLCFC 322/Coastal Scrub

426/Tropical Hardwoods

612/Mangrove Swamps

other synonyms - shell ridge, coastal levee, coastal forest,

 buttonwood embankment, mangrove hammock, coastal
 100

 hammock

Coastal Grassland - coastal flatland with sand substrate; mesic-hydric; subtropical or temperate; 

occasional fire; marine influence; salt-tolerant grasses, herbs, and shrubs with or without slash 

pine and/or cabbage palm or buttonwood.

Kuchler 90/Live oak - Sea oats

Davis 1/Coastal Strand

SCS 1/North Florida Coastal Strand

2/South Florida Coastal Strand

Myers Coastal Strand

SAF 74/Cabbage Palmetto

84/Slash Pine

FLCFC 310/Herbaceous

322/Coastal Scrub

419/Other Pines

428/Cabbage Palm

other synonyms - overwash plain, deflation plain, salt flat, swale

Coastal Rock Barren - flatland with exposed limestone; xeric; subtropical; no fire; marine 

influence; algae, mixed halophytic herbs and grasses, and/or cacti and stunted shrubs and trees.

Kuchler 105/Mangrove

Davis 1/Coastal Strand

SCS 2/South Florida Coastal Strand

Myers Coastal Strand

SAF 105/Tropical Hardwoods

106/Mangrove

FLCFC 322/Coastal Scrub

other synonyms - littoral rock pavement, algal barren, cactus

 barren, rocky flat

Coastal Strand - stabilized coastal dune with sand substrate; xeric; subtropical or temperate; 

occasional or rare fire; marine influence; dense saw palmetto and/or seagrape and/or mixed 

stunted shrubs, yucca, and cacti.

Kuchler 90/Live oak - Sea oats

Davis 1/Coastal Strand

SCS 1/North Florida Coastal Strand

2/South Florida Coastal Strand
 101

Myers Coastal Strand

SAF N/A

FLCFC 322/Coastal Scrub

426/Tropical Hardwoods

other synonyms - shrub zone, maritime thicket, coastal scrub

Maritime Hammock - stabilized coastal dune with sand substrate; xeric-mesic; subtropical or 

temperate; rare or no fire; marine influence; mixed hardwoods and/or live oak.

Kuchler 90/Live oak - Sea Oats

Davis 1/Coastal Strand

SCS 1/North Florida Coastal Strand

2/South Florida Coastal Strand

Myers Coastal Strand

SAF 73/Southern Redcedar

74/Cabbage Palmetto

89/Live Oak

105/Tropical Hardwoods

FLCFC 322/Coastal Scrub

425/Temperate Hardwood

426/Tropical Hardwoods

427/Live Oak

432/Sand Live Oak

other synonyms - coastal hammock, maritime forest, tropical hammock

Shell Mound - Indian midden with shell substrate; xeric-mesic; subtropical or temperate; rare or 

no fire; marine influence; mixed hardwoods.

Kuchler 90/Live oak - Sea oats

105/Mangrove

112/Southern Mixed Forest

Davis 1/Coastal Strand

9/Mangrove Swamp Forests and Coastal Marshes

SCS 1/North Florida Coastal Strand

2/South Florida Coastal Strand

14/Tropical Hammocks

19/Mangrove Swamp

11/Upland Hardwood Hammocks

Myers Coastal Strand
 102

SAF 73/Southern Redcedar

89/Live Oak

105/Tropical Hardwoods

FLCFC 425/Temperate Hardwood

426/Tropical Hardwoods

427/Live Oak

other synonyms - Indian mound or midden, shell midden

MESIC UPLANDS - dry to moist hills of sand with varying amounts of clay, silt or organic 

material; diverse mixture of broad leaved and needle leaved temperate woody species.

Slope Forest - steep slope on bluff or in sheltered ravine; sand/clay substrate; mesic-hydric; 

temperate; rare or no fire; magnolia, beech, spruce pine, Shumard oak, Florida maple, mixed 

hardwoods.

Kuchler 112/Southern Mixed Forest

included in 113/Southern Floodplain Forest

Davis 4/Mixed Hardwoods and Pines

12/Hardwood Forests 

SCS 5/Mixed Hardwood and Pine

11/Upland Hardwood Hammocks

Myers Temperate Hammocks - mesic hammocks

SAF 82/Loblolly Pine - Hardwood

FLCFC 431/Beech - Magnolia

434/Hardwood - Conifer Mixed

438/Mixed Hardwoods

439/Other Hardwoods

other synonyms - ravine forest, steephead, beech-magnolia

Upland Glade - upland with calcareous rock and/or clay substrate; hydric-xeric; temperate; 

sparse mixed grasses and herbs with occasional stunted trees and shrubs, e.g. eastern red cedar.

Kuchler 112/Southern Mixed Forest

Davis 4/Mixed Hardwoods and Pines

SCS 5/Mixed Hardwood and Pine

Myers Temperate Hammocks - mesic hammocks

SAF 73/Southern Redcedar

82/Loblolly Pine - Hardwood 

FLCFC 310/Herbaceous

other synonyms - chalky limestone glade, chalk glade, chalk
 103

 barren

Upland Hardwood Forest - upland with sand/clay and/or calcareous substrate; mesic; temperate; 

rare or no fire; spruce pine, magnolia, beech, pignut hickory, white oak, and mixed hardwoods.

Kuchler 112/Southern Mixed Forest

Davis 4/Mixed Hardwoods and Pines

12/Hardwood Forests

SCS 11/Upland Hardwood Hammocks

15/Oak Hammocks

Myers Temperate hammocks - mesic hammocks, xeric hammocks

SAF 76/Shortleaf Pine - Oak

FLCFC 431/Beech - Magnolia

434/Hardwood - Conifer Mixed

438/Mixed Hardwoods

other synonyms - climax hardwoods, southern mixed forest

Upland Mixed Forest - upland with sand/clay substrate; mesic; temperate; rare or no fire; loblolly 

pine and/or shortleaf pine and/or laurel oak and/or magnolia and spruce pine and/or mixed 

hardwoods.

Kuchler 112/Southern Mixed Forest

Davis 4/Mixed Hardwoods and Pines

12/Hardwood Forests

SCS 5/Mixed Hardwood and Pine

11/Upland Hardwood Hammocks

Myers Temperate Hammocks - mesic hammocks

SAF 73/Southern Redcedar

75/Shortleaf Pine

76/Shortleaf Pine - Oak

82/Loblolly Pine - Hardwood

FLCFC 414/Pine - Mesic Oak

423/Oak - Pine - Hickory

425/Temperate Hardwood

434/Hardwood - Conifer Mixed

438/Mixed Hardwoods

other synonyms - southern deciduous forest, southern mixed forest
 104

Upland Pine Forest - upland with sand/clay substrate; mesic-xeric; temperate; frequent or 

occasional fire; longleaf pine and/or loblolly pine and/or shortleaf pine, southern red oak, 

wiregrass.

Kuchler 112/Southern Mixed Forest

Davis 4/Mixed Hardwoods and Pines

SCS 5/Mixed Hardwood and Pine

Myers High Pinelands - longleaf pine ridgelands (clayhill)

SAF 70/Longleaf Pine

75/Shortleaf Pine

76/Shortleaf Pine - Oak

80/Loblolly Pine - Shortleaf Pine

81/Loblolly Pine

82/Loblolly Pine - Hardwood

FLCFC 414/Pine - Mesic Oak

423/Oak - Pine - Hickory

other synonyms - longleaf pine - wiregrass, longleaf pine upland

 forest, loblolly - shortleaf pine upland forest 

 ROCKLANDS - low, generally flat limestone outcrops with tropical vegetation; or limestone 

exposed through karst activities with tropical or temperate vegetation.

Pine Rockland - flatland with exposed limestone substrate; mesic-xeric; subtropical; frequent 

fire; south Florida slash pine, palms and/or hardwoods, and mixed grasses and herbs.

Kuchler 105/Mangrove

116/Subtropical Pine Forest

Davis 3/Southern Slash Pine Forests

1/Coastal Strand

SCS 2/South Florida Coastal Strand

9/Everglades Flatwoods

Myers Subtropical Forests - subtropical pinelands

SAF 111/South Florida Slash Pine

74/Cabbage palmetto

FLCFC 411/Pine Flatwoods

419/Other Pines

other synonyms - Miami rockridge pinelands, Dade County pinelands
 105

Rockland Hammock - flatland with limestone substrate; mesic; subtropical; rare or no fire; 

mixed tropical hardwoods, often with live oak.

Kuchler 105/Mangrove

116/Subtropical Pine Forest

Davis 1/Coastal Strand

3/Southern Slash Pine Forests

14/Region of open Scrub Cypress

16b/Everglades Region Marshes, Sloughs, Wet Prairies, and

 Tree Islands

SCS 1/South Florida Coastal Strand

14/Tropical Hammocks

Myers Subtropical Forests - high or rockland hammocks

SAF 105/Tropical Hardwoods

89/Live Oak

FLCFC 426/Tropical Hardwoods

427/Live Oak

Sinkhole - karst feature with steep limestone walls; mesic-hydric; subtropical or temperate; no 

fire; ferns, herbs, shrubs, and hardwoods.

Kuchler 112/Southern Mixed Forest

116/Subtropical Pine Forest

Davis (4/Forests of Mixed Hardwoods and Pines)

(12/Hardwood Forests)

SCS (11/Upland Hardwood Hammocks)

(15/Oak Hammock)

Myers Temperate Hammocks - mesic hammocks and xeric hammocks

Subtropical forests - Subtropical hammocks

SAF 89/Live Oak

FLCFC 427/Live Oak

423/Oak - Pine - Hickory

other synonyms - sink, limesink, banana hole

MESIC FLATLANDS - flat, moderately well-drained sandy substrates with admixture of 

organic material, often with a hard pan.

Dry Prairie - flatland with sand substrate; mesic-xeric; subtropical or temperate; annual or 

frequent fire; wiregrass, saw palmetto, and mixed grasses and herbs.
 106

Kuchler 79/Palmetto Prairie

Davis 13/Grasslands of Prairie Type

SCS 6/South Florida Flatwoods

7/North Florida Flatwoods ?

Myers Flatwoods - mesic flatwoods, dry prairies

SAF N/A

FLCFC 321/Palmetto Prairies

310/Herbaceous

other synonyms - pineland threeawn range

Mesic Flatwoods - flatland with sand substrate; mesic; subtropical or temperate; frequent fire; 

slash pine and/or longleaf pine with saw palmetto, gallberry and/or wiregrass or cutthroat grass 

understory.

Kuchler 112/Southern Mixed Forest

Davis 2/Pine Flatwoods

SCS 6/South Florida Flatwoods

7/North Florida Flatwoods

8/Cabbage Palm Flatwoods

Myers Flatwoods - msic flatwoods

SAF 70/Longleaf Pine

74/Cabbage Palmetto

83/Longleaf Pine - Slash Pine

84/Slash Pine

111/South Florida Slash Pine

FLCFC 411/Pine Flatwoods

414/Pine - Mesic Oak

428/Cabbage Palm

other synonyms - pine/palmetto, intermediate pine barren,

 meso-hydrophytic forest, pine savanna

 Prairie Hammock - flatland with sand/organic soil over marl or limestone substrate; mesic; 

subtropical; occasional or rare fire; live oak and/or cabbage palm.

Kuchler 112/Southern Mixed Forest

Davis 15/Forests of abundant Cabbage Palms

SCS 13/Cabbage Palm Hammocks

Myers Temperate Hammocks - live oak/cabbage palm hammocks

SAF 74/Cabbage Palmetto

89/Live oak

FLCFC 428/Cabbage Palm

425/Temperate Hardwood
 107

427/Live Oak

other synonyms - palm/oak hammock, hydric hammock, pod of 

 cabbage palms

Scrubby Flatwoods - flatland with sand substrate; xeric-mesic; subtropical or temperate; 

occasional fire; longleaf pine or slash pine with scrub oaks and wiregrass understory.

Kuchler 112/Southern Mixed Forest

Davis 2/Pine Flatwoods

SCS 6/South Florida Flatwoods

7/North Florida Flatwoods

Myers Flatwoods - scrubby, xeric, or dry flatwoods

SAF 71/Longleaf Pine - Scrub Oak

72/Southern Scrub Oak

84/Slash Pine

111/South Florida Slash Pine

FLCFC 411/Pine Flatwoods

419/Other Pines

other synonyms - xeric flatwoods

PALUSTRINE - Wetlands dominated by plants adapted to anaerobic substrate conditions 

imposed by substrate saturation or inundation during 10% or more of the growing season. 

Includes nontidal wetlands; tidal wetlands with ocean derived salinities less than 0.5 ppt and 

dominance by salt-intolerant species; small (less than 8 ha), shallow (less than 2 m deep at low 

water) water bodies without wave-formed or bedrock shoreline; and inland brackish or saline 

wetlands.

WET FLATLANDS - flat, poorly drained sand, marl or limestone substrates.

Hydric Hammock - lowland with sand/clay/organic soil, often over limestone; mesic-hydric; 

subtropical or temperate; rare or no fire; water oak, cabbage palm, red cedar, red maple, bays, 

hackberry, hornbeam, blackgum, needle palm, and mixed hardwoods.

Kuchler 113/Southern Floodplain Forest

Davis 8/Swamp Forests

12/Hardwood Forests

SCS 12/Wetland Hardwood Hammocks

Myers Temperate Hammocks - hydric hammocks

SAF 73/Southern Red Cedar

74/Cabbage Palmetto
 108

FLCFC 617/Mixed Wetland Hardwoods

other synonyms - Gulf Hammock

Marl Prairie - flatland with marl over limestone substrate; seasonally inundated; tropical; 

frequent to no fire; sawgrass, spikerush, and/or mixed grasses, sometimes with dwarf cypress.

Kuchler 91/Cypress Savanna

Davis 14/Region of open Scrub Cypress

17/Wet to Dry Prairie-Marshes on Marl and Rockland

SCS 16/Scrub Cypress

24/Sawgrass Marsh

Myers Freshwater Marshes - marl prairie

SAF 100/Pondcypress

FLCFC 621/Cypress

641/Freshwater Marshes

other synonyms - marl flat, sedge flat, spikerush marsh, cypress

 savanna, coastal prairie, coastal marsh, dwarf

 cypress

Wet Flatwoods - flatland with sand substrate; seasonally inundated; subtropical or temperate; 

frequent fire; vegetation characterized by slash or pond pine and/or cabbage palm with mixed 

grasses and herbs.

Kuchler 112/Southern Mixed Forest

Davis 2/Pine Flatwoods

SCS 6/South Florida Flatwoods

7/North Florida Flatwoods

8/Cabbage Palm Flatwoods

Myers Flatwoods - wet flatwoods and seepage savannas

SAF 74/Cabbage Palmetto

84/Slash Pine

85/Slash Pine - Hardwood

98/Pond Pine

FLCFC 411/Pine Flatwoods

419/Other Pines

428/Cabbage Palm

622/Pond Pine

624/Cypress - Pine - Cabbage Palm

630/Wetland Forested Mixed
 109

other synonyms - hydric flatwoods, pine savanna, cabbage palm

 savanna, moist pine barrens

Wet Prairie - flatland with sand substrate; seasonally inundated; subtropical or temperate; annual 

or frequent fire; maidencane, beakrush, spikerush, wiregrass, pitcher plants, St. John's wort, 

mixed herbs.

Kuchler 112/Southern Mixed Forest

Davis 13/Grasslands of Prairie Type

2/Pine Flatwoods

SCS 6/South Florida Flatwoods

7/North Florida Flatwoods

23/Pitcher plant bog

26/Slough

Myers Freshwater Marshes - wet prairies

SAF N/A

FLCFC 310/Herbaceous

641/Wet Prairies

other synonyms - sand marsh, savanna, pitcher plant prairie

SEEPAGE WETLANDS - sloped or flat sands or peat with high moisture levels maintained by 

downslope seepage.

Baygall - wetland with peat substrate at base of slope; maintained by downslope seepage, usually 

saturated and occasionally inundated; subtropical or temperate; rare or no fire; bays and/or 

dahoon holly and/or red maple and/or mixed hardwoods.

Kuchler 112/Southern Mixed Forest

Davis 2/Pine Flatwoods

8/Swamp Forests, mostly of Hardwoods

SCS 12/Wetland Hardwood Hammocks

22/Shrub Bog

Myers Freshwater Swamp Forests - titi swamps, bayheads

SAF 85/Slash Pine - Hardwood

104/Sweetbay-Swamp Tupelo-Redbay

FLCFC 611/Bay Swamps

614/Titi Swamps

other synonyms - seepage swamp, bayhead, bay swamp, sandhill bog
 110

Seepage Slope - wetland on or at base of slope with organic/sand substrate; maintained by 

downslope seepage, usually saturated but rarely inundated; subtropical or temperate; frequent or 

occasional fire; sphagnum moss, mixed grasses and herbs or mixed hydrophytic shrubs.

Kuchler 112/Southern Mixed Forest

Davis 2/Pine Flatwoods

SCS 10/Cutthroat Seeps

23/Pitcher Plant Bog

Myers Flatwoods - wet flatwoods and seepage savannas

Freshwater swamp forests - Shrub bogs

SAF 70/Longleaf Pine

84/Slash Pine

85/Slash Pine - Hardwood

97/Atlantic White Cedar

98/Pond Pine

FLCFC 310/Herbaceous

other synonyms - herb bog, pitcher plant bog, grass-sedge bog, shrub

 bog, seep, cutthroat seep

FLOODPLAIN WETLANDS - flat, alluvial sand or peat substrates associated with riverine 

Natural Communities and subjected to flooding but not permanent inundation.

Bottomland Forest - flatland with sand/clay/organic substrate; occasionally inundated; temperate; 

rare or no fire; water oak, red maple, beech, magnolia, tulip tree, sweetgum, bays, cabbage palm, 

and mixed hardwoods.

Kuchler 113/Southern Floodplain Forest

Davis 8/Swamp Forests, mostly of Hardwoods

SCS 21/Swamp Hardwoods

20/Bottomland Hardwoods

Myers Freshwater Swamp Forests - floodplain forests

SAF 61/River Birch - Sycamore

74/Cabbage Palmetto

82/Loblolly Pine - Hardwood

88/Willow Oak - Water Oak - Diamondleaf Oak

92/Sweetgum - Willow Oak

97/Atlantic White Cedar

FLCFC 615/Stream and Lake Swamps (Bottomland)

617/Mixed Wetland Hardwoods

623/Atlantic White Cedar

630/Wetland Forested Mixed
 111

other synonyms - bottomland, river bottom, stream bottom, white

 cedar swamp

Floodplain Forest - floodplain with alluvial substrate of sand, silt, clay or organic soil; seasonally 

inundated; temperate; rare or no fire; diamondleaf oak, overcup oak, water oak, swamp chestnut 

oak, blue palmetto, cane, and mixed hardwoods.

Kuchler 113/Southern Floodplain Forest

Davis 8/Swamp Forests, mostly of Hardwoods

SCS 20/Bottomland Hardwoods

21/Swamp Hardwoods

Myers Freshwater Swamp Forests - floodplain forests

SAF 61/River Birch - Sycamore

88/Willow Oak - Water Oak - Diamondleaf Oak

91/Swamp Chestnut Oak - Cherrybark Oak 

92/Sweetgum - Willow Oak

FLCFC 615/Stream and Lake Swamps (Bottomland)

617/Mixed Wetland Hardwoods

630/Wetland Forested Mixed

other synonyms - bottomland hardwoods, seasonally flooded basins or

 flats, oak-gum-cypress, elm-ash-cottonwoods, NWTC

 Zones III - V, second bottom, levees, point bars,

 terraces

Floodplain Marsh - floodplain with organic/sand/alluvial substrate; seasonally inundated; 

subtropical; frequent or occasional fire; maidencane, pickerel- weed, sagittaria, buttonbush, and 

mixed emergents.

Kuchler 113/Southern Floodplain Forest

Davis 13/Grasslands of Prairie Type

16/Fresh Water Marshes

SCS 25/Freshwater Marsh and Ponds

Myers Freshwater Marshes - riverine or floodplain marshes

SAF N/A

FLCFC 641/Freshwater Marshes

other synonyms - river marsh, freshwater marsh

Floodplain Swamp - floodplain with organic/alluvial substrate; usually inundated; subtropical or 
 112

temperate; rare or no fire; vegetation characterized by cypress, tupelo, black gum, and/or pop 

ash.

Kuchler 113/Southern Floodplain Forest

Davis 7/Cypress Swamp Forests

8/Swamp Forests, mostly of Hardwoods

SCS 17/Cypress Swamp

21/Swamp Hardwoods

Myers Freshwater Swamp Forests - floodplain forests

SAF 101/Baldcypress

102/Baldcypress - Tupelo

103/Water Tupelo - Swamp Tupelo

FLCFC 613/Gum Swamp

621/Cypress

other synonyms - river swamp, bottomland hardwoods, seasonally

 flooded basins or flats, oak-gum-cypress,

 elm-ash-cottonwood, NWTC Zones II - III, slough,

 backswamp, oxbow

Freshwater Tidal Swamp - rivermouth wetland; organic soil with extensive root mat; inundated 

with freshwater in response to tidal cycles; rare or no fire; cypress, bays, cabbage palm, gums 

and/or cedars.

Kuchler 113/Southern Floodplain Forest

Davis 7/Cypress Swamp Forests

8/Swamp Forests, mostly of Hardwoods

SCS 17/Cypress Swamp

21/Swamp Hardwoods

Myers Freshwater Swamp Forests - floodplain forests

SAF 73/Southern Red Cedar

74/Cabbage Palmetto

101/Baldcypress

102/Baldcypress - Tupelo

104/Sweetbay - Swamp Tupelo - Redbay

FLCFC 613/Gum Swamp

615/Stream and Lake Swamps

621/Cypress

624/Cypress - Pine - Cabbage Palm
 113

other synonyms - tidewater swamp, rivermouth swamp

Slough - broad, shallow channel with peat over mineral substrate; seasonally inundated; flowing 

water; subtropical; occasional or rare fire; pop ash and/or pond apple or water lily.

Kuchler 113/Southern Floodplain Forest

Davis 7/Cypress Swamp Forests

SCS 17/Cypress Swamp

21/Swamp Hardwoods

Myers Freshwater Swamp Forests - sloughs and strands

SAF 101/Baldcypress

FLCFC 621/Cypress

other synonyms - flag pond, gator hole

Strand Swamp - broad, shallow channel with peat over mineral substrate; seasonally inundated; 

flowing water; subtropical; occasional or rare fire; cypress and/or willow.

Kuchler 113/Southern Floodplain Forest

Davis 7/Cypress Swamp Forests

SCS 17/Cypress Swamp

Myers Freshwater Swamp forests - sloughs and strands

SAF 101/Baldcypress

FLCFC 621/Cypress

other synonyms - cypress strand, stringer

Swale - broad, shallow channel with sand/peat substrate; seasonally inundated; flowing water; 

subtropical or temperate; frequent or occasional fire; sawgrass, maidencane, pickerelweed, 

and/or mixed emergents.

Kuchler 92/Everglades

Davis 16a/Everglades Saw Grass Marshes

16b/Everglades Region Marshes, Sloughs, Wet Prairies, and

 Tree Islands

SCS 24/Sawgrass Marsh

Myers Freshwater Marshes - swale

SAF N/A

FLCFC 641/Freshwater Marshes
 114

643/Wet Prairies ?

other synonyms - slough, river of grass, glades

BASIN WETLANDS - shallow, closed basin with outlet usually only in time of high water; peat 

or sand substrate, usually inundated; wetland woody and/or herbaceous vegetation.

Basin Marsh - large basin with peat substrate; seasonally inundated; temperate or subtropical; 

frequent fire; sawgrass and/or cattail and/or buttonbush and/or mixed emergents.

Kuchler 80/Marl Everglades

112/Southern Mixed Forest

Davis 13/Grasslands of Prairie Type

16/Fresh Water Marshes

SCS 25/Freshwater Marsh and Ponds

Myers Freshwater Marshes - basin or depression marshes

SAF N/A

FLCFC 641/Freshwater Marshes

643/Wet Prairies

644/Emergent Aquatic Vegetation

other synonyms - prairie

Basin Swamp - large basin with peat substrate; seasonally inundated; still water; subtropical or 

temperate; occasional or rare fire; vegetation characterized by cypress, blackgum, bays and/or 

mixed hardwoods.

Kuchler 113/Southern Floodplain Forest

Davis 7/Cypress Swamp Forests

8/Swamp Forests, mostly of Hardwoods

SCS 17/Cypress Swamp

Myers Freshwater Swamp Forests - depression or basin wetlands

SAF 85/Slash Pine - Hardwood

100/Pondcypress

103/Water Tupelo - Swamp Tupelo

FLCFC 614/Gum Swamps

616/Inland Ponds and Sloughs

621/Cypress

other synonyms - gum swamp, bayheads
 115

Bog - wetland on deep peat substrate; moisture maintained by capillary action, soil usually 

saturated, occasionally inundated; subtropical or temperate; rare fire; sphagnum moss and titi 

and/or bays and/or dahoon holly, and/or mixed hydrophytic shrubs.

Kuchler 112/Southern Mixed Forest

Davis 8/Swamp Forests, mostly of Hardwoods ?

SCS 22/Shrub Bog

Myers Freshwater Swamp forests - shrub bogs

SAF N/A?

FLCFC 310/Herbaceous

other synonyms - bog swamp, shrub bogs, evergreen shrub bogs, wet

 scrub/shrub systems

Depression Marsh - small rounded depression in sand substrate with peat accumulating toward 

center; seasonally inundated; still water; subtropical or temperate; frequent or occasional fire; 

maidencane, fire flag, pickerelweed, and mixed emergents, may be in concentric bands.

Kuchler 112/Southern Mixed Forest

Davis 13/Grasslands of Prairie Type

SCS 25/Freshwater Marsh and Ponds

Myers Freshwater Marshes - basin or depression marshes

SAF N/A

FLCFC 641/Freshwater Marshes

644/Emergent Aquatic Vegetation

other synonyms - flatwoods pond, St. John's wort pond, pineland

 depression, ephemeral pond or marsh, flag pond,

 gator hole

 Dome Swamp - small rounded depression in sand/limestone substrate with peat accumulating 

toward center; seasonally inundated; still water; subtropical or temperate; occasional or rare fire;

cypress, blackgum, or bays, often tallest in center.

Kuchler 113/Southern Floodplain Forest

112/Southern Mixed Forest

Davis 7/Cypress Swamp Forests

SCS 17/Cypress Swamp

Myers Freshwater Swamp Forests - depression or basin wetlands

SAF 85/Slash Pine - Hardwood

100/Pondcypress
 116

103/Water Tupelo - Swamp Tupelo

FLCFC 613/Gum Swamps

616/Inland Ponds and Sloughs

621/Cypress

other synonyms - cypress dome or pond, cypress head, gum pond,

 cypress gall, pine barrens pond