NCHS Data Brief ■ No. 135 ■ December 2013

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

National Center for Health Statistics

Psychotropic Medication Use Among Adolescents: 

United States, 2005–2010

Bruce S. Jonas, Sc.M., Ph.D.; Qiuping Gu, M.D., Ph.D.; and Juan R. Albertorio-Diaz, M.A.

Key findings 

Data from the National 

Health and Nutrition 

Examination Survey

• Approximately 6.0% of U.S. 

adolescents aged 12–19 reported 

psychotropic drug use in the 

past month. 

• The use of antidepressants 

(3.2%) and attention deficit 

hyperactive disorder (ADHD) 

drugs (3.2%) was highest, 

followed by antipsychotics 

(1.0%); anxiolytics, sedatives, 

and hypnotics (0.5%); and 

antimanics (0.2%). 

• Males (4.2%) were more 

likely than females (2.2%) to 

use ADHD drugs. Females 

(4.5%) were more likely 

than males (2.0%) to use 

antidepressants. 

• Psychotropic drug use was 

higher among non-Hispanic 

white (8.2%) adolescents than 

non-Hispanic black (3.1%) 

and Mexican-American (2.9%) 

adolescents. 

• About one-half of U.S. 

adolescents using psychotropic 

drugs in the past month had seen 

a mental health professional in 

the past year (53.3%).

Prior studies have shown an increase in psychotropic medication use among 

adolescents (1–6). However, most studies were based on clinical samples or 

high-risk populations. This report provides the estimate of any psychotropic 

medication use in the past month among U.S. noninstitutionalized adolescents 

aged 12–19 during 2005–2010, using National Health and Nutrition 

Examination Survey (NHANES) data. Psychotropic medication is a type 

of drug used to treat clinical psychiatric symptoms or mental disorders (7). 

Specific psychotropic drug types addressed are antidepressants; medications 

for attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD); anxiolytics, sedatives, 

and hypnotics (ASH); antimanics; and antipsychotics. Adolescents using 

psychotropic drugs are further examined by sex, race and Hispanic origin, and 

mental health professional consultation.

Keywords: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey • ADHD drugs 

• antidepressants • prescription 

More than 6.0% of adolescents reported the use of 

psychotropic medications. 

01234567

Antimanics

Percent

ASH

Antipsychotics

ADHD drugs

Antidepressants

Two or more

One

Any

Figure 1. Percentage of adolescents aged 12–19 taking psychotropic medications in the past 

month, overall and by drug class: United States, 2005–2010

* Does not meet standards of reliability or precision; relative standard error greater than 30%.

NOTES: ADHD is attention deficit hyperactive disorder. ASH is anxiolytics, sedatives, and hypnotics.

SOURCE: CDC/NCHS, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2005–2010. 

6.3

4.5

1.8

3.2

3.2

1.0

0.5

*0.2

Number of

psychotropic drugs

Type of

psychotropic drugs
NCHS Data Brief ■ No. 135 ■ December 2013

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• A total of 6.3% of the population aged 12–19 reported any psychotropic medication use 

in the past month. This included 4.5% taking only one psychotropic medication, and 1.8% 

taking two or more psychotropic medications (Figure 1).

• Antidepressants and ADHD medications (3.2% each) were the most frequent psychotropic 

drugs used among adolescents. 

• One percent of adolescents reported the use of antipsychotic medications. 

• Less than 1.0% of the U.S. adolescent population reported the use of prescribed ASH or 

antimanics. 

Male and female adolescents differed in their use of psychotropic 

medications.

• Overall, females (6.7%) were more likely than males (5.9%) to report the use of any 

psychotropic medications in the past month (Figure 2).

• Females (4.5%) were more likely than males (2.0%) to report the use of antidepressants in 

the past month. 

• In contrast, males (4.2%) were more likely than females (2.2%) to report using ADHD 

medications in the past month. 

Figure 2. Psychotropic medication use in the past month among adolescents, by sex: United States, 2005–2010 

1

Significantly different from females.

2

Attention deficit hyperactive disorder.

SOURCE: CDC/NCHS, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2005–2010.

0

2

4

6

8

Any psychotropic drug Antidepressants ADHD2 drugs

Percent

1

5.9

6.7

1

2.0

4.5

2.2

1

4.2

Males Females
NCHS Data Brief ■ No. 135 ■ December 2013

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Non-Hispanic white adolescents were more likely to report the use of 

psychotropic medications.

• More than 8.0% of non-Hispanic white adolescents reported using psychotropic 

medications, compared with 3.1% of non-Hispanic black and 2.9% of Mexican-American 

adolescents (Figure 3).

• Non-Hispanic white adolescents (4.9%) were more likely than non-Hispanic black (0.5%) 

and Mexican-American (0.7%) adolescents to report antidepressant medication use. 

• Non-Hispanic white adolescents (4.0%) were more likely than non-Hispanic black (2.2%) 

and Mexican-American (1.8%) adolescents to report the use of medications for ADHD. 

• No significant difference was observed between non-Hispanic black and Mexican-American 

adolescents in the use of any psychotropic medications, antidepressants, or ADHD drugs. 

Figure 3. Psychotropic medication use among adolescents, by race and Hispanic origin: United States, 2005–2010

* Does not meet standards of reliability or precision; relative standard error greater than 30%.

1

Significantly different from non-Hispanic black and Mexican-American groups.

2

Attention deficit hyperactive disorder.

SOURCE: CDC/NCHS, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2005–2010.

0

2

4

6

8

10

Percent

Any psychotropic drug Antidepressants ADHD2 drugs

1

8.2

1

4.9

3.1 2.9

0.5 *0.7

2.2

1.8

1

4.0

Non-Hispanic white Non-Hispanic black Mexican American
NCHS Data Brief ■ No. 135 ■ December 2013

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About one-half of adolescents reporting any psychotropic medication use 

had seen a mental health professional in the past year.

• Approximately 43.0% of adolescents taking one psychotropic medication had seen a mental 

health professional in the past year (42.8%) (Figure 4).

• Almost 80.0% of adolescents taking two or more psychotropic medications had seen a 

mental health professional in the past year (79.5%). 

Figure 4. Percentage of adolescents aged 12–19 taking psychotropic medications in the past month who had seen a 

mental health professional in the past year: United States, 2005–2010

SOURCE: CDC/NCHS, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2005–2010.

0

20

40

60

80

Percent

Any

53.3

One

42.8

More than one

79.5

Number of psychotropic drugs

Summary

During 2005–2010, 6.3% of the U.S. adolescent population aged 12–19 reported any 

psychotropic medication use in the past month. The percentages of psychotropic medication use 

by drug class were 3.2% for antidepressants, 3.2% for ADHD drugs, 1.0% for antipsychotics, 

0.5% for ASH, and 0.2% for antimanics. Males were more likely than females to report ADHD 

medication use, while females were more likely than males to report antidepressant use. NonHispanic white adolescents reported higher antidepressant use than either non-Hispanic black 

or Mexican-American adolescents. A similar pattern was observed for ADHD medication use. 

Approximately one-half of the adolescent population reporting any psychotropic medication use 

in the past month had seen a mental health professional in the past year. 

Depression and ADHD are the most common mental health disorders among adolescents. About 

4.3% of adolescents aged 12–17 experienced depression in any 2-week period during 2005–2006 

(8). Approximately 9.0% of children aged 5–17 had ever been diagnosed with ADHD during 

2007–2009 (9). Treatment options other than prescription medication are available for depression, 

ADHD, and other mental health disorders, including psychosocial treatment and dietary 

management (10,11), both of which were unavailable for analysis in this report. 
NCHS Data Brief ■ No. 135 ■ December 2013

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Definitions

Prescribed medication use: During an in-person home interview, NHANES participants are asked: 

“In the past 30 days, have you used or taken medication for which a prescription is needed?” 

Respondents who reply “Yes” are further asked to present to the interviewer the container of all 

prescribed medications mentioned. For each drug reported, the interviewer records the product’s 

complete name from the container. To standardize the medication nomenclature, all reported 

medication names are converted to standard generic names. 

Psychotropic medication: Prescription drugs are classified according to Cerner Multum’s Lexicon 

(12) three-level nested therapeutic classification scheme. Antidepressants, antipsychotics, and 

ASH are identified using the second level of drug category codes 249, 251, and 67, respectively. 

Antimanics include lithium, carbamazepine, and valproic acid. Prescription drugs for ADHD 

(7,10) include amphetamine, atomoxetine, dexmethylphenidate, dextroamphetamine, guanfacine, 

lisdexamphetamine, methamphetamine, and methylphenidate. Respondents who reported using 

any of these five drug classes were classified as a psychotropic medication user. Adolescents 

who reported using more than one psychotropic drug were defined as multiple psychotropic 

medication users.

Contact with a mental health professional: Contact was based on the following survey question: 

“During the past 12 months, have you seen or talked to a mental health professional such as a 

psychologist, psychiatrist, psychiatric nurse, or clinical social worker about your health?” 

Data source and methods

NHANES is a continuous, multipurpose cross-sectional survey of the civilian noninstitutionalized 

U.S. population designed to assess the overall health and nutrition of the American population in 

the contiguous states. 

The sample design includes oversampling to obtain reliable estimates of health and nutritional 

measures for population subgroups. During 2005–2006, adolescent, elderly, low-income, black, 

and Mexican-American persons were oversampled. During 2007–2010, adolescents were no 

longer oversampled. In addition, Hispanic persons, rather than Mexican-American persons, were 

oversampled. 

This study examines the percentage of prescription psychotropic medication use among 

adolescents aged 12–19. For the sample age group 12–15, a proxy respondent, usually one of 

the child’s parents, answered the questions in the household interview. Percentage estimates of 

psychotropic medication use based on NHANES data come from a nationally representative 

household sample. As such, they are likely conservative estimates, because they exclude higherrisk populations such as the homeless and those in correctional facilities and inpatient treatment 

facilities.

NHANES consists of an interview conducted in the participant’s home and a standardized 

physical examination performed in a mobile examination center. This report is based on interview 

data conducted at the respondent’s home. Therefore, interview sample weights, which account for 

the differential probabilities of selection, nonresponse, and noncoverage, are used for the analysis 

presented here. 
NCHS Data Brief ■ No. 135 ■ December 2013

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Robust standard errors of the percentages are estimated using Taylor series linearization, a 

method that takes into consideration the sample weights and sample design. All statistical tests 

are two-sided using p < 0.05 as the level of significance. All reported comparisons are statistically 

significant unless otherwise indicated. Statistical analyses were conducted using SAS version 9.3 

(SAS Institute, Cary, N.C.) and SUDAAN version 10.0 (RTI International, Research Triangle 

Park, N.C.). 

About the authors

Bruce Jonas is with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s National Center for Health 

Statistics (CDC/NCHS), Office of Analysis and Epidemiology; Qiuping Gu is with CDC/NCHS, 

Division of Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys; and Juan Albertorio-Diaz is with CDC/

NCHS, International Statistics Program. 

References

1. Steffenak AK, Wilde-Larsson B, Nordström G, Skurtveit S, Hartz I. Increase in psychotropic 

drug use between 2006 and 2010 among adolescents in Norway: A nationwide prescription 

database study. Clin Epidemiol 4:225–31. 2012.

2. Zito JM, Safer DJ, DosReis S, Gardner JF, Magder L, Soeken K, et al. Psychotropic practice 

patterns for youth: A 10-year perspective. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 157(1): 17–25. 2003.

3. Zito JM, Tobi H, de Jong-van den Berg LT, Fegert JM, Safer DJ, Janhsen K, et al. 

Antidepressant prevalence for youths: A multi-national comparison. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf 

15(11):793–8. 2006.

4. Fegert JM, Kölch M, Zito JM, Glaeske G, Janhsen K. Antidepressant use in children and 

adolescents in Germany. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 16(1–2):197–206. 2006.

5. Zoëga H, Baldursson G, Hrafnkelsson B, Almarsdóttir AB, Valdimarsdóttir U, Halldórsson 

M. Psychotropic drug use among Icelandic children: A nationwide population-based study. J 

Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 19(6):757–64. 2009.

6. Hsia Y, Maclennan K. Rise in psychotropic drug prescribing in children and adolescents 

during 1992–2001: A population-based study in the UK. Eur J Epidemiol 24(4):211–6. 2009.

7. National Institute of Mental Health. Mental health medications. NIH publication no. 

12–3929. 2010. Available from: http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/mental-healthmedications/index.shtml [Accessed May 2013]. 

8. Pratt LA, Brody DJ. Depression in the United States household population, 2005–2006. 

NCHS data brief, no 7. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics. 2008.

9. Akinbami LJ, Liu X, Pastor PN, Reuben CA. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder among 

children aged 5–17 years in the United States, 1998–2009. NCHS data brief, no 70. Hyattsville, 

MD: National Center for Health Statistics. 2011.
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10. Ravindran AV, da Silva TL. Complementary and alternative therapies as add-on to 

pharmacotherapy for mood and anxiety disorders: A systematic review. J Affect Disord 

150(3):707–19. 2013.

11. Qureshi NA, Al-Bedah AM. Mood disorders and complementary and alternative medicine: A 

literature review. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat 9:639–58. 2013.

12. National Center for Health Statistics. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 

1988–2010 data documentation, codebook, and frequencies: Prescription medications–

drug information (RXQ_DRUG). 2012. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes/

nhanes1999-2000/RXQ_DRUG.htm#Component_Description.
Suggested citation

Jonas BS, Gu Q, Albertorio-Diaz JR. 

Psychotropic medication use among 

adolescents: United States, 2005–2010. 

NCHS data brief, no 135. Hyattsville, MD: 

National Center for Health Statistics. 2013.

Copyright information

All material appearing in this report is in 

the public domain and may be reproduced 

or copied without permission; citation as to 

source, however, is appreciated.

National Center for Health 

Statistics

Charles J. Rothwell, M.S., Acting Director

Jennifer H. Madans, Ph.D., Associate 

Director for Science

Office of Analysis and Epidemiology

Irma E. Arispe, Ph.D., Director

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