Infrared 

Luminescence 

of Minerals

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BULLETIN 1052-C

Infrared 

Luminescence 

of Minerals

By DAVID F. BARNES

EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL GEOPHYSICS

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BULLETIN 1052-C

A study of the abundance and 

causes of infrared luminescence 

of minerals

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON : 1958
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

FRED A. SEATON, Secretary

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Thomas B. Nolan, Director

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office 

Washington 25, D. C. - Price 30 cents (paper cover)
CONTENTS

Page

Abstract . .. ........................................................................................................... 71

Introduction .............................................................................................................. 71

Purpose and scope of investigation........................................... ............... 72

Acknowledgments ............................................................................................ 72

Equipment and methods of observation.............................................................. 73

The snooperscope ............................................................................................ 73

Infrared luminescence scanner...................................................................... 74

Viewing box ................................................................................................... 75

Infrared luminescence of minerals...................................................................... 79

Characteristics of infrared luminescence.................................................. 79

Occurrence of infrared-luminescent minerals......-........................ .... 85

Abundance of infrared luminescence.......................................................... 88

Factors influencing the detection of weak luminescence.......................... 88

Comparison of infrared and visible luminescence.................................... 89

Important activators for infrared luminescence ................................... 91

Emission .......................................................................................................... 94

Excitation ........................................................................................................ 96

Possibilities for practical use........................................................................ 99

Literature cited ...................................................................................................... 156

ILLUSTRATIONS

Page

PLATE 4. Infrared luminescence scanner.........--. ... -. -----. .-. Facing 74

5. Infrared luminescence scanner opened ..................... Facing 75

FIGURE 25. Schematic diagram of infrared viewing box.................. ........... 76

26. Spectral sensitivity of filters used in the view'ng box................ 78

TABLES

Page

TABLE 1. Characteristics of filters used in excitation measurements.....- 79

2. Sources of minerals showing infrared luminescence... 100

3. Abundance of infrared and visible luminescence in minerals 114

4. Characteristics of infrared luminescence in selected mineral

specimens ............................................................................................ 122

III

EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL GEOPHYSICS

INFRARED LUMINESCENCE OF MINERALS

By DAVID F. BARNES

ABSTRACT

Infrared luminescence is a phenomenon similar to fluorescence under ultraviolet light except that the emission occurs in the infrared rather than the 

visible part of the spectrum. This infrared luminescence is generally most 

efficiently excited by visible light from high-energy incandescent lamps, but 

violet and ultraviolet excitation are effective for a few minerals.

Infrared luminescence can be viewed through an infrared image tube of the 

type used in the "snooperscope." The entire study collection of the U. S. 

National Museum has been examined with an image tube and optical system 

of a snooperscope to detect the infrared luminescence of minerals. Infrared 

luminescence was found in about 1,500 specimens representing some 75 distinct 

mineral species. Filters were used to determine the approximate wavelengths 

of emission and excitation.

Chromium-activated minerals like corundum, beryl, spinel, jadeite, and 

kyanite show very strong infrared luminescence. Cadmium causes the universal luminescence of its sulfide, greenockite. The rare earths are responsible 

for the long-wavelength emissions of many minerals including scheelite, 

fluorite, apatite, feldspar, and amphibole.

INTRODUCTION

When some mineral specimens are illuminated by an ultraviolet 

lamp in an otherwise dark room, they glow with colors that are 

often far more brilliant than those of the same specimens in bright 

sunlight. This well-known mineral fluorescence involves the 

absorption of invisible light at the short-wavelength or ultraviolet 

end of the spectrum and the simultaneous emission of this energy 

as visible light of longer wavelength. Infrared luminescence is a 

similar phenomenon in which a mineral absorbs visible light and 

emits the energy as invisible light at the long-wavelength or infrared end of the spectrum. Stokes formulated the fundamental law 

of luminescence which states that the wavelength of the fluorescent light is longer than the wavelength of the exciting radiation. 

Infrared luminescence might thus result from either visible or 

ultraviolet excitation, but experiments show that in most cases 

the strongest emissions result from visible light.

71
72 EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL GEOPHYSICS

The term "luminescence" includes the emission of light resulting 

from all processes except incandescence. "Fluorescence" is the 

emission of light at the same time as excitation, and "phosphorescence" is the emission of light following excitation. The term 

"fluorescence" is, however, frequently associated with emissions 

excited only by ultraviolet light; therefore the use of the general 

term "luminescence" seems preferable for infrared emission that 

is most effectively excited by visible light.

Infrared luminescence has already been observed photographically by Pauli (1911), Servigne (1938 and 1939), Weyl (1942), 

Lashkarev and Kossonogova (1946), Dhere and Biermacher 

(1936), and others, but the lack of a simple method of observation 

made a survey of many minerals impractical. However, the invention of the infrared image tube (Hoist and others, 1934) and its 

further development during the last war made possible the rapid 

observation of infrared phenomena with wavelength shorter than 

12,000 angstroms. Bailly and Holke (1944) following an idea of 

Malmquist (1945) used infrared radiation in studying the optical 

properties of minerals opaque to visible light, and adapted the 

infrared image tube to serve as an ocular for the petrographic 

microscope in the manner suggested by Zworykin and Morton 

(1936).

PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF INVESTIGATION

This report describes the use of the fnfrared image tube in an 

examination of the long-wavelength luminescence of minerals. 

Nearly 200,000 specimens comprising the study collection of the 

U. S. National Museum have been observed, and infrared luminescence was found in approximately 1,500 specimens representing 

some 75 distinct mineral species. The investigation determined 

which minerals show infrared luminescence, where these, luminescent specimens are found, and the approximate wavelengths of 

emission and excitation. The work was divided into two main 

parts: first, a thorough, piece-by-piece examination of minerals 

for which luminescence had been previously reported the group 

in which almost all infrared luminescence was found; and second, 

a scanning of all other specimens in the collection with subsequent 

piece-by-piece examination of those specimens -that showed infrared luminescence.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author is indebted to many who have helped in the work. 

The project resulted from an idea of H. C. Spicer, of the U. S.
INFRARED LUMINESCENCE OF MINERALS 73

Geological Survey, who supervised the work. Members of the 

staff of the National Museum, W. F. Foshag, George Switzer, E. P. 

Henderson, and J. H. Benn, kindly made the Museum facilities 

available and gave frequent assistance in the identification of 

minerals. D. J. Looft and Jerome Laufler, of the Engineer Laboratory at Fort Belvoir, Va., assisted with the instruments. K. J. 

Murata and Michael Fleischer of the Geological Survey gave frequent and valuable advice and Elizabeth King helped in the 

preparation of the tables.

EQUIPMENT AND METHODS OF OBSERVATION

THE SNOOPERSCOPE

The telescope of a U. S. Army Model M-l snooperscope was used 

for all infrared observations. Similar equipment is now manufactured for scientific research or is available on the surplus market. 

The snooperscope has an objective lens that focuses the primary 

image on the cathode of a 1P25 tube (Morton and Flory, 1946). 

The cathode is a silver-cesium oxide-cesium film, which, under 

infrared excitation, emits electrons which are then focused by a 

series of high-voltage electric fields on a zinc silicate phosphor 

screen showing a green luminescence under electron bombardment. 

The resulting green image is viewed through an eyepiece.

The lenses in the snooperscope telescope are designed to focus 

on an object between 4 feet and infinity, but for mineral observations this range was reduced to approximately 9 inches with a 3 

diopter portrait attachment. The objective lens was also covered 

with a filter to limit the sensitivity to the infrared band, because 

the spectral range of the 1P25 tube extends into the visible part 

of the spectrum.

For nighttime military operations the snooperscope has an 

infrared spotlight that illuminates the object, but for studying 

mineral luminescence a broad range of exciting light from ultraviolet to infrared is required. Accordingly the infrared spotlight 

was discarded, and the specimens were either scanned with a unit 

having one high-intensity, broad-spectral-range exciting lamp, or 

they were examined in a viewing box in which a variety of wideand narrow-band excitation lamps were used.

The viewing box was built first and was used for the examination of all mineral varieties that were mentioned in the literature 

as luminescent. The viewing box enabled the observer to estimate 

the approximate wavelength of infrared emission and to evaluate 

the relative effectiveness of various types of excitation. This 

detailed examination of each specimen was, however, very slow 
74 EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL GEOPHYSICS

several months were required for the examination of the luminescent minerals alone, a mere quarter of the entire collection. To 

complete the project in a reasonable time a scanning instrument 

had to be built for the observation of the remaining three-fourths 

of the collection. As this scanning instrument was both simpler 

and more efficient it will be discussed first.

INFRARED LUMINESCENCE SCANNER

The preliminary examination of luminescent minerals showed 

that visible light would excite all types of infrared luminescence, 

and that a broad range of visible light was by far the most effective exciting source. Thus an instrument could be built capable 

of detecting any type of infrared luminescence in a single observation, provided a sufficiently powerful incandescent lamp was 

used.

The instrument built by the Geological Survey is shown on 

plates 4 and 5. A 500-watt photospot was used as the exciting 

source, but like all incandescent lamps this bulb actually emitted 

more energy in the infrared than in the visible region. The 

reflection of this infrared light by the mineral specimen would be 

strong enough to mask even the strongest infrared luminescence. 

Accordingly it was necessary to cover the photospot with a filter 

that would pass only visible light. This enabled the observer to 

examine infrared luminescence under conditions essentially similar 

to those used for the study of ordinary mineral fluorescence, when 

visible light is eliminated by keeping the room dark and by filtering out all but ultraviolet exciting radiation. The filter found 

most effective for the study of infrared luminescence was a 5-percent CuS04 solution in a glass or lucite chamber three-quarters of 

an inch^thick; such a filter transmits visible light very well and 

has a sharp cutoff between 5,500 and 6,500 angstroms. In the 

infrared scanner this filtering solution was contained in a 6-inch 

diameter chamber built into the front wall of the instrument.

However, no filter is perfect; the copper sulfate solution passed 

a little infrared light, and the infrared-transmitting filter in front 

of the snooperscope telescope did not eliminate all the visible 

light from the exciting source. Accordingly, nonluminescent minerals that were good reflectors appeared brighter than those 

which were poor reflectors, and it was difficult to distinguish 

strong reflection from weak luminescence. Therefore the scanner 

was provided with a much weaker second lamp covered with an 

infrared transmitting filter similar to that in front of the snooperscope telescope. A pushbutton switch turned on this infrared
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BULLETIN 1052 PLATE

-rSling for counter balance r'i

windpw for visible 

ekcitation 

CuS04 filter

Snooperscope covered 

by infrared filter -"

Thumb* 

i switch

Window for infrared excitation

INFRARED LUMINESCENCE SCANNER
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BULLETIN 1052 PLATE 5

Butb for visible 

excitation

Power supply bo*

INFRARED LUMINESCENCE SCANNER OPENED
INFRARED LUMINESCENCE OF MINERALS 75

light source and at the same time, turned off the photospot. It 

was thus possible for the observer to quickly estimate the longwavelength-reflecting properties of the mineral specimen and to 

judge whether the brightness seen under the visible excitation 

resulted from reflection of the small amount of light "leaked" 

by the filters or from actual luminescence.

The two lamps generated considerable heat, so that the inside 

of the instrument had to be cooled by a small blower. Even with 

this blower operating, the case of the instrument became so hot 

that the observer's face and hands had to be protected by a second, 

outside wall of laminated plastic separated from the inner, aluminum walls by a i/^-inch air space. The instrument was designed 

primarily for easy construction, and little emphasis was placed on 

lightness of weight. When completed it weighed about 15 pounds, 

light enough to be held in the hands for a short period but too 

heavy to be carried for a whole day. When used to examine the 

specimens in the high stacks of drawers that hold the study collection of the National Museum, the instrument was supported by a 

rope running through a pulley system to a counterweight. The 

observer could thus aim and focus the instrument with very little 

effort.

VIEWING BOX

With the scanner the observer could detect infrared luminescence and estimate its intensity, but with the viewing box he 

could learn many additional characteristics of this luminescence. 

Filters could be used to eliminate all but a narrow spectral band 

of excitation energy or to restrict the detection range to narrow 

bands. Thus the relative importance of various wavelengths of 

excitation and emission could be estimated.

The arrangement of apparatus in the viewing box is shown in 

figure 25. The box was constructed so that the specimen could be 

held in the observer's left hand, while his right hand was used 

to change filters and to turn on and off the excitation lamps, which 

were operated by pushbutton switches on the outside of the box.

The first excitation lamp was a 25-watt bulb with an infraredtransmitting filter that showed the degree of infrared reflection 

exhibited by the mineral. Like the similar bulb in the scanner this 

was used primarily to distinguish infrared luminescence from 

reflected light "leaked" by the filters.

The second excitation lamp was a 300-watt bulb in a 35-mm 

slide projector ventilated by a small fan. As the condensing-lens 

system alone provided adequate focusing of the light beam, the 

projection lenses were .not used. A %-inch-thick lucite cell con461452 O -58 -2
76 EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL GEOPHYSICS

Lqmps for infra1 

illummatio 

lamp on each

35 mm 

slide-projector

FIGURE 25. Schematic diagram of infrared viewing box.

taining a 5-percent solution of CuS04 was placed in front of the 

projector to eliminate the infrared radiation generated by the 

bulb. This projector and its filter thus provided the same type of 

broad range visible excitation that was furnished by the photospot bulb in the infrared scanner. In the viewing box, however, 

this visible excitation could be separated into five narrower spectral bands by gelatine filters placed in front of the projector. Each 

filter passed a spectral band about 800 angstroms wide, and was 

mounted on a wheel, so that it could be rapidly shifted into 

position in front of the projector. Table 1 shows the color of light 

transmitted by each filter.

The third and fourth excitation lamps were two ultraviolet 

lamps with wavelengths of 3,650 A and 2,537 A. Unfortunately, 

both these lamps produced a moderate amount of infrared radiation, the reflection of which by the specimen tended to mask any 

actual infrared luminescence. Accordingly a lucite cell V^-inch 

thick and containing a 5-percent CuS04 solution was interposed 

during most of the experiments to absorb the infrared radiation
INFRARED LUMINESCENCE OF MINERALS 77

transmitted by the filter of the SL 3650 lamp. However, such 

solutions of copper sulfate, even in a quartz cell, absorb about 25 

percent of the ultraviolet at 3,600 A and nearly 100 percent at 

2,500 A. Consequently a liquid filter could not be used to eliminate 

the large amount of infrared emitted by the 2,537 A source.

The observer estimated the intensity of the infrared luminescence excited through each of the six filters in front of the 

projector and by the two ultraviolet lamps. To use these observations to evaluate the relative effectiveness of various wavelengths 

of excitation it was essential to know at least approximately the 

amount of energy provided by each source. Unfortunately none 

of the available methods of illumination measurement is reliable 

over such a broad spectral range, and the excitation energies had 

to be calculated from the data available from manufacturers of 

the components of the illumination system. The methods used 

for these calculations are given in Moon (1936) and Skogland 

(1929). The results are given in figure 26B, which shows the 

spectral distribution .of energy transmitted by each filter. The 

total energy transmitted, or the integral beneath each of the 

curves in figure 261? is shown in table 1. The energy produced by 

the two ultraviolet lamps is so small that it would not show on 

the graph, but it is given in the table. One can perhaps question 

the accuracy of some of the assumptions made in computing the 

energies recorded in table 1, but the relative values are probably 

at least as accurate as the visually judged measurements the table 

is intended to explain. Furthermore, the questionable assumptions 

affect only the relationship between the incandescent and the ultraviolet lamps; the relationships between the energies passed by 

each filter in front of the projector depend only on the color temperature of that bulb and on the individual filter characteristics, 

both of which are well known. The decrease in energy transmitted 

by the fllters at the violet or short-wavelength end of the spectrum 

and the weakness of the ultraviolet lamps compared to even filtered 

parts of the projector's energy are clearly shown.

To obtain the approximate wavelength of the infrared emission, 

the spectral range of the viewing system could be varied by 

rotating a filter wheel mounted in front of the objective lens. This 

wheel held four filters, whose low wavelength cutoffs ranged from 

7,000 to 9,300 A. The spectral transmission curves of these filters 

were obtained from the manufacturers and were then applied to 

the spectral sensitivity curve for the 1P25 tube. The resulting 

sensitivity curves for the receiving unit are shown in figure 26A. 

These curves show that any luminescence with wavelength longer
78 EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL GEOPHYSICS

than approximately 9,500 A will give a very weak image regardless 

of its actual intensity.

Actually some evidence suggests that curve 1 in figure 26A 

should extend further into the visible part of the spectrum. First, 

many minerals give very different brightness values with niters 

1 and 4, which contradicts the apparent closeness of their curves.

8000 9000

WAVELENGTH, IN ANGSTROM UNITS

10,000

A. SPECTRAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE INFRARED DETECTING UNIT WHEN COVERED 

WITH VARIOUS FILTERS

3000 4000 5000

WAVELENGTH, IN ANGSTROM UNITS

6000 7000

B. SPECTRAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE 300-WATT INCANDESCENT LAMP WHEN COVERED BY COPPER 

SULFATE FILTER PLUS VARIOUS GELATIN FILTERS

FIGURE 26. Spectral sensitivity of filters used in the viewing box. 

Data obtained from manufacturers.
INFRARED LUMINESCENCE OF MINERALS 79

TABLE 1. Characteristics of filters used in excitation measurements 

[Curves showing characteristics of filters 1-6 are shown on figure 26B]

Filter 

no.

None..._

1. ......

3. > .'.".".

4---_.._

5---.__.

6. ..___-

8--_.__.

9--.___-

Excitation 

bulb

300-watt

incandescent 

....do..........

..--do.......... 

....do-.... ..

-...do..........

---do........_-

-.--do..._......

Color

Visible-....-.-

Red-.... ....

Blue-.....--..

Vinlpt

Ultraviolet ....

....do..........

Wavelength 

range 

'cUirntroms)

3,500-6,600

4,800-6,600

5,700-6,600 

5,000-5,800

4,400-5,500

4,200-5,000

3,800-4,500

3,600

2,500

Integrated 

energy 

milliwatts 

(per cm2 )

117

63

20 

20

22

12

7

.2

.3

Energy 

X

wavelength

02

35

12 

11

11

6

3

.1

.1

Second, many minerals known to give a strong emission just 

below 7,000 A show brilliant images through filter 1, figure 26A. 

Third, the detection unit picks up a considerable amount of infrared radiation transmitted from the projection bulb even with the 

CuS04 filter in place, but according to figure 26A these curves do 

not overlap. Part of this infrared transmission is probably explained by the 0.5 percent transmission of the CuSO4 filter at 

approximately 10,000 A, but the fact that filters 2, 3, 4 greatly 

reduce the observed "leakage" suggests that most of it occurs at 

shorter wavelengths. Thus, although the exact position of curve 1 

is unknown, it probably extends into the visible region, the border 

of which is generally placed between 7,000 and 7,500 A. The 

actual limit of perception varies with the individual; many people 

have an extremely slight perception up to 10,000 A or nearly to the 

point where the heat absorption of the skin becomes important 

(Griffin, Hubbard, and Wald, 1947).

INFRARED LUMINESCENCE OF MINERALS 

CHARACTERISTICS OF INFRARED LUMINESCENCE

According to the quantum theory of matter, luminescence results 

from the transfer of electrons between the energy levels of an 

excited atom. The atom is excited when an electron is raised to 

a higher energy level by the absorption of light; one photon, or 

quantum light energy, can excite only one electron. The luminescent emission occurs when the excited electron returns to a lower 

energy level with the release of another photon of light energy. 

The frequency of the light absorbed or emitted is directly proportional to the energy of the photon; therefore the wavelength 

of the light is inversely proportional to the energy of the transfer. 

Thus ultraviolet light, which has a short wavelength and there-
80 EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL GEOPHYSICS

fore a high energy, can, by Stokes law, excite either visible or 

infrared luminescence, which have lower energy because of their 

longer wavelength. Many factors affect the probabilities of the 

absorption and emission of energy and therefore affect the efficiency of the luminescence. The surroundings of the luminescent 

atom within the crystal structure are especially important. In 

many minerals the excitation energy is absorbed by one, perhaps 

nonluminescent, atom, and is then transferred to the luminescent 

atom, or in other minerals the light emitted from one atom is 

reabsorbed by another.

Luminescent minerals can be classified into three groups according to the relationship between the luminescent atom and the host 

mineral.

The first group contains minerals in which the fluorescent atom 

is an essential chemical component and in which the fluorescent 

element is included in the chemical formula. This group includes 

the fluorescent uranium and tungsten minerals, whose visible emission is caused by the uranyl (U02+2 ) and tungstate (WO4~2 ) 

ions. Greenockite is the only infrared luminescent mineral that 

can definitely be assigned to this group. In the second group of 

minerals the luminescent atom is not an essential chemical component but does form a part of the crystal lattice. Such atoms are 

known as activators and are commonly present in extremely small 

quantities (of the order of one part in a million). Nevertheless 

these activators have a considerable affect on the properties of 

many minerals, and they often determine the characteristic colors 

of subvarieties. Thus, alexandrite and ruby are chrysoberyl and 

corundum with distinctive coloring caused by the chromium ion. 

Very strong and nearly universal infrared luminescence is found 

in some minerals of this type.

In minerals belonging to the second group, the activator is 

present in only a few specimens and does not affect the physical 

properties of the mineral. As the inclusion of the activator in 

many minerals is accidental, the luminescence of some of them 

is found only in a very small percentage of specimens. The luminescence of such minerals is subject to wide variations in emission 

wavelength, excitation spectrum, and place of occurrence. This 

type of luminescence is, however, exhibited by many varieties of 

minerals. Typical examples are the brilliant red luminescence of 

calcite from Franklin, N. J., and the important infrared luminescence caused in many minerals by rare-earth activators.

The third group includes minerals in which the fluorescent atom 

is not represented in the chemical formula and does not form a 

part of the crystal lattice. Such luminescence is totally unrelated
INFRARED LUMINESCENCE OF MINERALS 81

to the nature of the mineral, although it is commonly associated 

with specimens found in specific localities. The cause of the luminescence is an impurity which can sometimes be distinguished by 

eye or microscope, or which at other times is difficult to distinguish 

in any way from activators forming a part of the crystal lattice. 

Sulfur from Italy, fluorite from Clay Center, Ohio, and halite from 

Stazunia, Poland, owe both their visible and infrared luminescence 

to included organic matter and are thus examples of this third 

group of luminescent minerals.

It is often difficult to assign a luminescent mineral to any one 

of these three groups; the groups are thus difficult to use as an 

actual basis of classification, but they do show the large variety 

of possible luminescent systems. Almost all luminescence depends 

on the presence of a minute quantity of elements that are not 

essential chemical constituents of the mineral. Even the amount 

of these activators is critical, and overconcentration can by 

reabsorption quench the luminescence, as effectively as underconcentration can make it impossible. Furthermore, additional 

elements can either aid or quench the luminescence. For example, 

Schulman, Evans, Ginther, and Murata (1947) have shown that 

the brilliant red fluorescence of calcite under ultraviolet light 

requires a sensitizing impurity such as lead, but this sensitizing 

impurity may not be necessary for the rarer and less intense infrared luminescence of calcite. One specimen of agate in the National 

Museum collection showed the importance of impurities and previous history on mineral luminescence. The original agate specimen had been cut into six pieces, each of which was treated in a 

different way to show the color produced; only one piece showed 

infrared luminescence that quenched in sulfuric acid and honey.

The transparency of a mineral specimen has a considerable 

influence on its luminescence because the activating atom is seldom 

on the exact surface of the specimen, and both the exciting and 

emitted light have to pass through at least a small thickness of 

the crystal. Many examples of the importance of transparency 

were found in the study of infrared luminescence. Fluorescent 

cuprite has never been recorded, but Lashkarev and Kossonogova 

(1946) reported an infrared luminescence from cuprous oxide 

synthesized in a blast furnace. Almost every cuprite specimen is 

dull and opaque and shows no luminescence. However, a very 

small, deep-red, and very clear crystal from Cornwall, England, 

showed a distinct, long-wavelength infrared emission a discovery 

that confirms Lashkarev's work and demonstrates the importance 

of translucence in mineral luminescence. Likewise, sphalerite and 

wurtzite, which are the mineral forms of the often-studied phos-
82 EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL GEOPHYSICS

phor, zinc sulfide, show infrared luminescence only in specimens 

that are not completely opaque. In many other minerals the 

infrared luminescence was limited to at least slightly transparent 

specimens.

All luminescent mineral specimens were tested for infrared 

phosphorescence, and none was detected. Many minerals, however, 

show prolonged visible phosphorescence after ultraviolet excitation. This failure to detect infrared phosphorescence can probably 

be ascribed to insufficient sensitivity of the snooperscope, but the 

observed absence may be real and not instrumental.

The results of the investigation of the infrared luminescence 

of minerals are presented largely in tabular form because of the 

many infrared luminescent specimens discovered and because of 

the great variation in the properties of this luminescence. All 

the infrared-luminescent mineral varieties are listed below according to their chemical composition and crystal structure. Minerals 

without silica are arranged according to Palache, Herman, and 

Frondel (1944 and 1951) and the silica minerals according to 

Strunz (1941). This system of classifying minerals is similar in 

its main categories to Garlick's system (1949, p. 48) for the classification of phosphors.

In tables 2-4, the minerals are arranged in alphabetical order 

(p. 100-155). Table 2 lists all the localities where infraredluminescent mineral specimens were found. Table 3 indicates the 

prevalence of infrared luminescence for each mineral; it gives the 

percentages of specimens and localities in which infrared luminescence was found. Table 4 shows the characteristics of infrared 

luminescence found in some of the individual specimens examined. 

These have been selected as representative samples of the different 

types of luminescence shown by each mineral.

Infrared-luminescent minerals

MINERALS WITHOUT SILICA

Native elements 

Diamond 

Sulfur

Selensulfur

Sulfides

Sphalerite

Greenockite

Wurtzite

Oxides

Cuprite 

Montroydite

Oxides Continued 

Senarmontite

Corundum (ruby, sapphire) 

Valentinite 

Cervantite 

Stibiconite

Stibianite 

Brucite 

Hydrotalcite 

Bauxite 

Diaspore
INFRARED LUMINESCENCE OF MINERALS

Infrared-luminescent minerals Continued

83

MINERALS WITHOUT SILICA Continued

Oxides Continued 

Spinel 

Chrysoberyl

Alexandrite 

Halides 

Halite 

Marshite 

Fluorite 

Terlinguaite 

Matlockite 

Cryolithionite 

Cryolite 

Gearksutite 

Chiolite 

Creedite 

Carbonates

Calcite (reichite, oolite, pisolite)

Manganocalcite

Cuprocalcite

Plumbocalcite 

Magnesite (baudisserite) 

Rhodochrosite 

Smithsonite 

Aragonite 

Strontianite 

Cerussite 

Dolomite (gurhofite)

Tautoklin 

Pirssonite 

Gaylussite 

Phosgenite 

Hydrocerussite 

Leadhillite 

Borates 

Borax 

Probertite 

Ulexite

Borates Continued 

Colemanite 

Meyerhofferite 

Howlite 

Hambergite 

Sussexite 

Sulfates 

Barite 

Celestite 

Anglesite 

Anhydrite 

Gypsum

Alunogen (solfaterite) 

Lanark! te 

Alunite

Botryogen (idrizite) 

Hanksite 

Crocoite 

Phosphates

Anapaite (messelite) 

Parahopeite 

Amblygonite

Apatite (phosphorite, fluorapatite, 

dahllite)

Rhodophosphite

Manganapatite 

Pyromorphite 

Mimetite 

Vanadinite 

Hedyphane 

Wavellite

Fischerite 

Tungstates 

Scheelite

Stolzite (scheelitine) 

Wulfenite 

Cuprotungstite (cuproscheelite)

MINERALS WITH SILICA

Silica

Quartz

Agate

Chalcedony

Jasper 

Tridymite 

Cristobalite

Melanophlogite

Silica Continued

Opal (cacholong, hydrophane) 

Hyalite 

Silicified wood 

Geyserite 

Tabasheer 

Nesosilicates 

Willemite

46145Z 0-58-3
84 EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL GEOPHYSICS

Infrared-luminescent minerals Continued

MINERALS WITH SILICA Continued

Nesosilicates Continued

Calcium larsenite

Norbergite

Leucophoenicite

Andalusite

Chiastolite

Kyanite (raetizite)

Topaz 

Garnets 

Grossularite

Andradite

Demantoid

Zoisite (thulite, saussurite)

Epidote 

Tawmawite 

Zircon

Cyrtolite 

Alvite

Sphene 

Axinite 

Howlite

Tourmaline

Sorosilicates

Hemimorphite 

Vanuxemite

Clinohedrite 

Wollastonite

Pectolite

Beryl (emerald, aquamarine) 

Pseudosmaragd

Idocrase 

Californite

Inosilicates

Sillimanite

Fibrolite

Spodumene

Kunzite

Hiddenite

Pyroxenes

Diopside

Jadeite

Diallage

Enstatite

Bronzite

Amphiboles

Tremolite (hexagonite, calamite,

chromtremolite)

Byssolite

Inosilicates Continued

Amphiboles Continued

Actinolite

Arfvedsonite

Szechenyiite

Anthophyllite

Serpentine (metaxoite) 

Chrysotile

Saponite

Cerolite 

Deweylite (gymnite)

Jurupaite 

Crestmoreite

Sepiolite 

Quincite

Iddingsite 

Phyllosilicates

Euclase

Leucophane 

Apophyllite

Talc (steatite) 

Lucianite

Muscovite (agalmatolite) 

Fuchsite

Lepidolite 

Taeniolite

Chlorites

Xanthophyllite 

Cookeite

Colerainite

Kaolinite

Confolensite

Montmorillonite

Steargilite

Stevensite

Allophane

R£.zoumovskyn

Collyrite

Malthacite

Halloysite

Gyrolite

Okenite

Tektosilicates

Nepheline

Trimerite
INFRARED LUMINESCENCE OF MINERALS

Infrared-luminescent minerals Continued

MINERALS WITH SILICA Continued

85

Tektosilicates Continued 

Petalite 

Analcime 

Pollucite 

Feldspars

Orthoclase (leelite, lennilite,

delawarite) 

Adularia

Microcline (amazonstone) 

Hyalophane 

Albite 

Oligoclase 

Andesine 

Anorthite

Danburite

Sodalite (molybdosodalite)

Hackmanite 

Hauynite

Teklosilicates Continued 

Feldspars Continued 

Scapolite 

Meionite (ersbyite)

Stroganovite 

Datolite 

Zeolites 

Natrolite

Hydronephelite 

Laubanite 

Mesolite 

Thomsonite

Harringtonite 

Laumontite 

Heulandite 

Castorite

(hydrocastorite) 

Chabazite 

Phacolite

All observations of the intensity of infrared luminescence were 

originally recorded on a numerical scale of 0 to 5 including plus 

and minus signs and were based entirely on the observer's visual 

judgment. These original numerical values have all been converted 

to verbal scales for presentation in this report.

Many specimens in the National Museum are labeled with names 

now regarded as synonyms for, or subvarieties of, an accepted 

specie name. These minerals are placed in the tables according to 

the accepted species name, and cross references are given under 

the names shown on the specimen label. For some minerals infrared luminescence was found in both the subvariety and the main 

variety; for others only the subvariety produced luminescence. 

When the data in the tables apply only to those specimens labeled 

with the name of a subvariety, this name is indented and placed 

on a separate line. When, however, the data apply to both the 

main mineral and its synonyms and subvarieties, these latter 

names are placed in parenthesis and on the same line as that of 

the main mineral.

OCCURRENCE OF INFRARED-LUMINESCENT MINERALS

Because the chemical environment of 'a mineral specimen has a 

considerable influence on its composition and hence on its luminescence, the locality where the specimen was found is very 

important.
86 EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL GEOPHYSICS

In many places the activators which cause the luminescence of 

one species of mineral also cause luminescence in other species 

found nearby. Table 2 lists the main regions where specimens 

showing infrared luminescence were found. For each mineral 

the localities are arranged in three groups weak, medium, or 

strong according to the intensity of infrared luminescence of 

the minerals found there. Table 3 gives the number of regions represented in the collection and the percentage of these that yielded 

infrared luminescent specimens.

To keep the locality list moderately short while maintaining a 

certain amount of precision, areas containing a number of places 

yielding infrared luminescent specimens are represented either 

by a regional name (as a county) that does not cover too wide 

an area, or by the name of a centrally located town supplying 

most of the minerals showing typical infrared luminescence. Thus, 

the report of infrared luminescence from one locality may indicate similar occurrences nearby. Indeed, localities are generally 

regarded as broad areas having a number of mines and sometimes 

including several counties. For example, each of the following 

are regarded as one locality: the saline-lake area of Inyo, Kern, 

and San Bernardino Counties in California; the northern New 

Jersey mineral district in Sussex and Passaic Counties, N. J., and 

Orange County, N. Y.; Cumberland, Durham, Westmorland, 

Northumberland, and parts of York and Lancaster Counties in 

England; and the Ural Mountains of Russia.

In the National Museum collection many places are identified 

by names that could not be found in an atlas, and many others 

have only general labels. These specimens are usually regarded 

as the same as another better labeled one from the same area. 

Thus, if one specimen was labeled merely India, another Chandribahara, India (guaranteed not to be in any atlas), and a third 

Western Ghats, Bombay, India, the first two are deprived of their 

possible individuality, and all three are lumped as a single locality, 

labeled as Bombay, India. A fourth specimen labeled Calcutta 

would, however, be considered another locality. Accordingly the 

number of localities given in table 3 may be somewhat smaller 

than the actual number of localities covered by the survey, but the 

deviation is probably small. Unfortunately, the identity of the 

localities is only as good as the labels on the specimens, and many 

of the specimens were presented to the National Museum a long 

time ago by people who had only a vague idea where they found the 

mineral. This explains why many localities are identified by only 

such vague and inclusive names as Africa, India, and Canada. Also 

many specimens were found when different geographic names
INFRARED LUMINESCENCE OF MINERALS 87

were in use. Japan was once divided into provinces instead of 

prefectures; Germany and the Balkan States were subdivided into 

provinces that are no longer compatible with present political 

boundaries. No attempt has been made to convert the locality 

names to their modern equivalents. Also, although I have tried 

to follow modern systems of spelling geographic names, many of 

the places could not be verified and are presented as they are 

recorded in the museum catalog. People working with only a 

few minerals or localities will probably be familiar enough with 

the areas mentioned to recognize even obsolete spellings.

The lack of a positive report of infrared luminescence in a region 

does not mean that such specimens cannot be found there. Even 

if the area is represented by specimens in the National Museum 

collection, these specimens may have been chosen for some special 

characteristic such as crystallization, whereas almost all other 

specimens found in the area have different characteristics and are 

infrared luminescent. An excellent example is given by the three 

drawers of calcite specimens from northern New Jersey, many of 

them from Franklin, which is famous for the brilliant red fluorescence of the calcite found there. However, none of the specimens 

in those three drawers showed this red fluorescence; these specimens had been chosen for their crystal perfection, and the Franklin calcite crystals were not formed from solutions containing the 

proper amounts of manganese and lead to show strong fluorescence. However, most of the Franklin willemite and zincite 

specimens in the National Museum are in a massive calcite gangue 

that shows extremely brilliant red fluorescence.

Although Franklin, N. J., has long been famous for its large 

number of fluorescent minerals and for the brilliance of their 

emission, the infrared luminescence of these minerals is either 

nonexistent or weak. Indeed no mineral region has been found 

which produces many varieties of minerals showing intense 

infrared luminescence. However, weak or medium infrared luminescence is shown by a number of mineral varieties found in some 

localities. Many of the Franklin, N. J., minerals show such a weak 

infrared luminescence. Many minerals found near Pikes Peak, 

Colo., show a weak, but frequently long-wavelength, infrared 

emission that is believed to result from rare-earth activators. 

The saline-lake areas of southern California produce many borate 

and halide minerals that show a weak infrared luminescence, and 

Melhase (1935) in reporting the accompanying pale-yellow fluorescence of the minerals says that the brine of the lakes also is 

fluorescent.
88 EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL GEOPHYSICS

ABUNDANCE OF INFRARED LUMINESCENCE

Table 3 is intended to indicate the prevalence of infrared luminescence in minerals. Columns 2 and 3 give the size of the 

sampling the number of specimens of the mineral and the number of localities represented. Columns 4, 5, 6, and 7 give the 

percentages of these specimens and localities that show infrared 

and visible luminescence. These percentages are given to the 

nearest 10 percent except that they are given to the nearest unit 

when less than 10 percent. Percentages are given for both specimens and localities, because either one alone may give biased 

results for minerals represented by only one or two localities 

or by a majority of specimens from one locality. Any pieces bearing the same museum number are counted as one specimen, so 

that the number of samples examined often considerably exceeds 

the recorded number of specimens. Also, as mentioned above, one 

locality may cover a broad area and include many mines.

The dependence of most mineral luminescence upon accidental 

impurities makes statements regarding its occurrence and especially the frequency of the occurrence extremely risky. For 

example, some 20,000 specimens of about 300 minerals were 

examined in a preliminary survey; and, although earlier investigators had reported finding fluorescent specimens of every one 

of these minerals, we did not find a single visible or infrared 

luminescent specimen for 25 percent of these minerals. Perhaps 

some of these negative reactions can be explained by a lack of 

thoroughness in observing visible fluorescence; only a 2,500-A 

ultraviolet lamp was used in much of the examination for visible 

fluorescence. A great many minerals, however, did not show 

luminescence because the National Museum collection lacks specimens containing the right kind and amount of activators. Even if 

the right region is represented, suitably activated specimens may 

be absent; all specimens from one locality seldom show the same 

luminescence. Only parts of some mineral specimens show luminescence. A few specimens showed a zoned infrared luminescence 

limited to the base, core, or tips of crystals, and in many sphalerite 

specimens from Colorado the infrared luminescence is limited to 

the extreme edges of the crystal surfaces.

FACTORS INFLUENCING- THE DETECTION OF WEAK LUMINESCENCE

Perusal of tables 2 and 4 shows that a large proportion of the 

infrared luminescence was judged by the observer to be weak in 

intensity. Another large group of minerals showed even weaker
INFRARED LUMINESCENCE OF MINERALS 89

infrared luminescence, but because of the uncertainty of the 

observation these are not reported.

When the infrared is weak and luminescence occurs in small 

spots, it is sometimes difficult to be certain, without careful 

mineralogic examination, whether the mineral being observed is 

the one that has been identified. Thus, it is possible that much of 

the infrared luminescence reported for sphalerite is actually 

caused by greenockite, which always shows infrared luminescence, 

and which is present in many sphalerite specimens either as a 

thin surface coating or in solid solution. Similarly much of the 

weak and spotty infrared luminescence of cryolite and cryolithionite might be caused by small amounts of chiolite which 

frequently accompanies these minerals, and which much more 

commonly shows infrared luminescence. Many other minerals 

show a weak luminescence that seems to result from coating and 

cavity fillings of impure clay and carbonate alteration products 

that are commonly slightly luminescent.

Another factor that makes the detection of weak infrared luminescence uncertain'is the difficulty of distinguishing it from 

reflected light "leaked" by the filters (p. 78). Both the viewing 

box and the scanner contained a weak infrared light source so 

that the observer could estimate the importance of this infrared 

reflection; table 4 includes his evaluation of the specimens' reflectivity. The value recorded is that of diffuse reflection; specular 

reflection for minerals with good cleavage or with metallic luster 

is much higher. The reflection is recorded as either "very faint," 

"faint," "average," or "bright." These observations of infrared 

reflection seldom show any results that cannot be expected from 

visual examination. Good cleavage surfaces generally show a high 

degree of specular reflection, and bright matte surfaces a high 

degree of diffuse reflection. Specimens with a light-brown or 

reddish color as from a thin ferrous coating are also frequently 

bright. A few red minerals such as zincite show strong reflection. 

Dull-black opaque minerals and clear, almost transparent, minerals 

reflect very little infrared because of complete absorption and 

complete transmission, respectively.

COMPARISON OF INFRARED AND VISIBLE LUMINESCENCE

Most infrared luminescent minerals have also been reported as 

visibly fluorescent, but many infrared luminescent specimens do 

not show visible fluorescence; and, vice versa, many visibly 

fluorescent specimens do not show infrared luminescence. The 

preliminary examination of the National Museum mineral collec-
90 EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL GEOPHYSICS

tion was restricted to about 20,000 specimens of 300 minerals for 

which luminescent phenomena had been reported in at least one 

of the lists of Engelhardt (1912), Kunz and Baskerville (1903), 

Krejci-Graf and Krejci-Graf (1934), Walther (1936), Zodac 

(1936), Deribere (1943, p. 31-46), Dake and DeMent 1941), 

Warren (1944), DeMent (1945), and in a list of fluorescent 

minerals in the U. S. National Museum compiled by J. H. Benn 

(written communication). This preliminary examination disclosed 

more than 90 percent of all the infrared luminescent specimens 

found, even though later examinations covered more than 180,000 

additional specimens.

There is, thus, an obvious relationship between the two types 

of luminescence, but the relationship does not imply that the causes 

of both infrared and visible luminescence are the same. There is 

ample evidence that some of the activators which cause the strongest and most prevalent visible fluorescence under ultraviolet do not 

cause any infrared emission. The uranyl-activated silica and uranium minerals, which give a brilliant yellow or green fluorescence 

under ultraviolet light, show no infrared luminescence. The 

manganese-activated calcites and willemites from Franklin, N. J., 

which show spectacular red and yellow-green fluorescence, give 

little or no infrared emission. Many scheelite and powellite specimens, which always show visible luminescence, do not show infrared emission. However, there are also a number of minerals in 

which infrared emission is much more common than visible 

emission. Thus, all specimens of greenockite show a strong infrared emission, but only about half of them give a visible emission 

with ultraviolet light. Infrared luminescence is also far more common than visible fluorescence in such abundant minerals as feldspars, amphiboles, and pyroxenes. In many other minerals, such 

as chromium-activated corundum, beryl, jadeite, and kyanite, the 

infrared luminescence appears much stronger than the visible 

emission.

We can conclude that, although the activators that cause visible 

and infrared luminescence are often, if not usually different, the 

suitability of the host mineral for one activator also often applies 

to other activators. Thus, scheelite, which owes most of its visible 

luminescence to the tungstate ion, also can contain rare-earth 

activators that cause strong infrared luminescence. The suitability 

of a host mineral for luminescence activators probably involves 

both the ability of the crystal lattice to hold foreign ions and the 

transparency of the mineral to both exciting and emitted radiation.
INFRARED LUMINESCENCE OF MINERALS 91

IMPORTANT ACTIVATORS FOR INFRARED LUMINESCENCE

Determination of the cause of luminescence is impossible unless 

a considerable amount of expensive laboratory equipment is available; precise spectrographic analysis of mineral composition and 

luminescent emission is essential for the correct identification of 

activators. Previous investigators have, however, identified the 

activators responsible for the visible fluorescence of many minerals, and some of these activators are known also to cause infrared 

luminescence. With such information the cause of the infrared 

luminescence of some minerals may be assumed, but the assumption is not really justified, because other activators may in some 

specimens cause at least part of the luminescence. Nevertheless 

a summary of the activators reported to cause infrared luminescence and of the minerals in which these activators have been 

found probably provides the best explanation of infrared luminescence that can be made without performing much additional 

laboratory work. Undoubtedly the list of these activators is not 

complete, but it includes enough to explain the more brilliant and 

common infrared emission. The list is primarily based on Kroger's 

(1948) classification of luminescent minerals according to type 

of activators.

Cadmium is responsible for the infrared emission of the cadmium sulfide greenockite, apparently the only mineral observed in 

which luminescence was produced by a major chemical constituent. 

Gisolf (according to Pringsheim, 1949, p. 607) has shown that the 

peak of the luminescent emission band of a solid solution of zinc 

and cadmium sulfides shifts linearly with increasing cadmium 

content from 4,600 A in the blue to 7,600 A in the infrared. Most 

specimens also show a weak yellow fluorescence, which results 

from cadmium ions if they are suitably isolated in the lattice 

(Weyl, 1942, p. 1037, and Inman, Mroz, and Weyl, 1948). Cadmium 

may also cause some or all of the less common infrared luminescence of the zinc sulfides sphalerite and wurtzite.

The rare earths cause much of the infrared luminescence emitted 

by minerals. Generally the rare-earth ions are in a trivalent state, 

so that their outer electron shell is filled, thus forming a shield 

for the inner unfilled orbits. The electronic transitions corresponding to the lines of the fluorescence spectra take place within 

these inner orbits where they are protected from the effects of 

the surrounding atoms. The lines of the luminescence spectra are 

thus sharp and practically independent of the type of host mineral. 

The rare-earth emission spectra cover a broad range and extend 

beyond 8,000 A, or well into the infrared region; they probably

461452 O -58 - 4
92 EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL GEOPHYSICS

cause most of the longest wavelength infrared luminescence. 

Samarium and europium are the most important members of the 

group but Kroger's (1948) table also mentions infrared luminescence resulting from dysprosium, neodymium, praseodymium, 

terbium, thulium, arid ytterbium.

These rare earths probably cause the infrared luminescence of 

many of the minerals whose visible fluorescence is found in a 

great many specimens. For example, Tanaka's spectrographic 

examination (1924a) of the fluorescence of calcite has shown that 

manganese is the main activator, although dysprosium, ytterbium, 

thulium, and samarium may be contributing activators. Most of 

the infrared emission of calcite can probably be attributed to 

members of this group of rare-earth elements. The luminescence 

of fluorite, the mineral in which fluorescence was first recognized, 

is still the subject of much discussion, but most of its luminescence 

is now attributed to rare-earth activators. Although rare-earth 

activators are usually in a trivalent state, the europium, samarium, 

and ytterbium activators in many fluorites have been reduced by 

radioactivity to a divalent state with resultant changes in .the 

emission band frequencies (Przibram, 1937). The important 

luminescence of scheelite and powellite results from the tungstate 

and molybdate ions (Cannon and Murata, 1944), but Servigne 

(1938, 1939, and 1940) has shown that in addition to this tungstate luminescence the emission spectra of most scheelites show 

rare-earth lines which extend into the infrared region. More than 

three-quarters of the scheelite specimens examined showed this 

infrared luminescence caused by rare earths, but powellite specimens, for some still unexplained reason, did not show it.

Rare earths also cause the infrared luminescence of other minerals, for which visibly fluorescent specimens are no more common 

than infrared luminescent specimens. Kohler and Haberlandt 

(1934, p. 90) have found rare-earth lines in the fluorence spectrum 

of apatite, which may show both visible and infrared luminescence, 

although the two types of emission do not always occur in the 

same specimen. Haberlandt and Kohler (1939) also attribute the 

visible fluorescence of feldspars to the divalent europium ion, and 

the more common infrared luminescence is probably caused by 

rare earths in either a divalent or trivalent state. For example, 

amazonstone from Pikes Peak, Colo., commonly shows infrared 

emission. Tanaka (1924b) has spectrographically identified 

samarium and ytterbium in the emission spectra of kunzite; but 

the investigation of infrared luminescence did not find any 

luminescent specimens of kunzite, perhaps because localities noted 

for luminescence are not represented in the National Museum
INFRARED LUMINESCENCE OF MINERALS 93

collection. Some borates, especially those from the saline-lake area 

of California, are infrared luminescent; and the possibility that 

this luminescence is caused by rare earths is demonstrated by 

experiments conducted by Nichols and Howeg (1926), who found 

that rare earths produce luminescence in beads of borax flux<, 

Perhaps rare earths may also be the cause of infrared luminescence 

in minerals commonly associated with other minerals whose luminescence is known to be caused by rare earths. Thus the 

infrared luminescence of minerals in the cryolite-chiolite group 

may be caused by rare earths, as many of the infrared luminescent 

specimens are from Colorado, where they are associated with 

luminescent fluorite.

By far the most brilliant infrared luminescence results from 

the chromium ion which gives a series of strong emission bands 

centered near the border between the visible and infrared. In 

synthetic ruby, chromium causes a bright red fluorescence; but in 

kyanite, the emission is almost entirely in the infrared region. 

This shift in emission wavelength for different minerals can be 

explained by the fact that the electronic transitions responsible 

for the fluorescence of chromium take place in the outermost, 

unfilled shell of the atom and are thus relatively unprotected from 

the effects of surrounding atoms in the host lattice. Deutschbein 

(1932) made a thorough study of chromium-activated luminescence and along with Pringsheim (1949) lists the minerals in 

which such luminescence is found.

The luminescence activator for corundum, the most intensely 

infrared luminescent mineral found in this investigation, is the 

chromium ion, which substitutes isomorphously for aluminum in 

the crystal lattice. Ultraviolet light sometimes excites a red 

emission, especially in synthetic ruby, which has a very high 

chromium content, but the infrared emission excited by visible 

light is far more common. Most of this emission is, however, very 

close to the visible spectrum. Pale sapphires and light-blue corundum show a weaker infrared luminescence, but emery and 

dark-blue specimens are sufficiently opaque to quench all luminescence. Some specimens of two other aluminum oxides, spinel and 

chrysoberyl, show infrared luminescence caused by the chromium 

ion; and alexandrite, the deep-blue or green chrysoberyl, shows 

a strong infrared emission.

A number of silicate minerals also show infrared luminescence 

caused by the chromium ion. Many kyanite specimens show a very 

strong infrared luminescence, but none show much visible fluorescence under ultraviolet light. Although Pringsheim (1949) 

reports that its strong doublet emission line has a slightly lower
94 EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL GEOPHYSICS

wavelength than that of ruby, the greater part of its emission 

seems to have a longer wavelength. Topaz, especially when slightly 

brownish or sherry colored, shows a strong chromium-activated 

infrared luminescence that is sometimes accompanied by a very 

slight and perhaps questionable visible emission under ultraviolet 

light. Beryl in cloudy or opaque specimens generally gives no 

luminescence, but relatively clear pieces of most emerald and 

some aquamarine show a strong infrared luminescence. Except 

possibly for one specimen of synthetic emerald, the emeralds 

examined did not show any visible luminescence, but luminescence 

has been previously detected and definitely attributed to chromium 

by Deutschbein (1932) and Venkateswaran (1935). Jadeite owes 

its green color to chromium and also gives a very intense infrared 

luminescence. However, one difference between jadeite and other 

chromium-activated minerals should be noted in jadeite the 

infrared emission occurs at considerably longer wavelengths. All 

oriental and some Mexican jades show this infrared luminescence; 

but nephrite, which is colored by iron, does not show any luminescence. Deutschbein (1932, p. 740) reports that uvarovite is another mineral showing chromium-activated luminescence, but none 

of the specimens examined produced any infrared luminescence. 

However, some grossularite and demantoid specimens showed an 

infrared luminescence that resembles that of the chromiumactivated minerals. The infrared luminescence of hiddenite also 

resembles that of the chromium ion in emerald, and Claffy (1953) 

has shown that the green color of some hiddenites which do not 

show visible luminescence is caused by the chromium ion. The 

green color of other luminescent hiddenites can, however, be 

caused by the radium irradiation of kunzite specimens (Pringsheim, 1949, p. 659); therefore some of its luminescence has a 

different cause.

EMISSION

The last column of table 4 indicates the wavelength of the 

infrared emission, as determined by changing the cutoff filter in 

front of the snooperscope. "Very short" is used for emission which 

can be seen only through filter 1 and possibly filter 2, the latter 

passing less than one-third as much energy as 1. Most of the 

emission described as very short probably has a wavelength of 

7,000 to 7,500 A. "Short" emission is visible through filters 1 

and 2 and usually through filter 3 which passes less than onequarter of the emission passed by 1. This type of emission probably has a wavelength between 7,500 and 8,000 A. "Medium" is 

applied to all emission that is passed by filters 1, 2, and 3 and in
INFRARED LUMINESCENCE OF MINERALS 95

some cases by 4 which cuts the strength to less than one-fifth of 

that passed by 1. Medium emission probably has a wavelength 

between 8,000 and 9,300 A. "Long" emission is passed by all 

filters, and filter 4 passes more than three-fifths as much energy 

as filter 1. Most of the emission described as long probably has a 

wavelength between 9,300 and 9,700 A. "Very long" is applied 

to the emission of a few minerals which produce nearly as bright 

an image through filter 5 as through filter 1. Very long emission 

has an average wavelength greater than 9,700 A. (See fig. 26A.) 

Any one of these categories can, however, apply to a number of 

different types of emission spectra. Thus an emission classed as 

short might consist of a broad band or series of bands extending 

from 7,000 to 8,300 A; a single sharp peak at approximately 

7,800 A; or a group of bright bands between 7,000 and 7,500 A 

combined with some low intensity bands between 8,500 and 9,000 

A. Furthermore, when the infrared luminescence is weak or very 

weak it is often difficult for the observer to detect any differences 

when varying the excitation and emission filters. Indeed, for a 

few minerals the spectral characteristics of very weak emission 

have to be recorded as "indeterminable." In general, however, 

weak luminescence would tend to be recorded as having too short 

an emission wavelength.

The table shows that infrared luminescence with a short wavelength is more common than luminescence with a longer wavelength. The greater sensitivity of the infrared image tube to 

short wavelengths might be an explanation of this conclusion, but 

this sensitivity difference was considered in describing the emission wavelength. A better explanation is provided by the greater 

efficiency of luminescence processes in which the excitation and 

emission wavelengths are close together. In the limiting case of 

resonance luminescence the absorbed radiation has the same frequency as the emitted light, and the efficiency of the process is 

a maximum. Thus the most efficient infrared luminescence would 

occur at short wavelengths near to those of the visible excitation.

The wavelength of the luminescence of minerals varies considerably and is seldom the same for all specimens of one mineral 

or even for all specimens of one mineral activated by the same 

element. As mentioned on page 91, the wavelength of the luminescent emission caused by the trivalent rare earths is nearly independent of the type of host lattice, but variations in the relative 

concentrations of the activator elements can change the emission 

wavelength. Luminescence resulting from the divalent rare earths 

and most other activators is, however, considerably affected by 

the nature of the host lattice.
96 EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL GEOPHYSICS

The brilliant infrared luminescence of chromium-activated minerals provides an excellent example of the importance of the host 

lattice in influencing emission wavelength. Thus, the luminescence 

wavelength of ruby is classed as "very short" for most specimens, 

but the wavelength for the much denser minerals kyanite and 

jadeite is "medium". Deutschbein (1932) has found that the 

position of one of the brightest lines of the chromium spectrum 

(6,927 A in ruby) varies as much as 250 A among 8 different 

minerals, and other lines may show an even greater variation. 

The electronic transitions responsible for the fluorescence of 

chromium take place in the outermost, unfilled shell of the ion and 

are thus relatively unprotected from the effects of surrounding 

atoms in the host lattice. As the transitions are normally forbidden and can occur only because of the electric fields of the 

surrounding atoms, the probability of any transition and thus 

the relative strength of the resulting spectral lines depends on 

the host crystal. Additional subordinate lines can result in the 

spectra from the vibrational levels of the host lattice and from 

intermolecular Stark effects. Furthermore, even if the emission 

spectrum of an ion is independent of the effect of the host lattice, 

changes in emission spectra may be caused by self-reversal due 

to changes in concentration of the activator (Pringsheim, 1949, 

p. 664).

EXCITATION

Columns 6 and 7 of table 4 give the range and most effective 

color of exciting radiation for various mineral specimens. The 

tabulations are based on the observations of relative brightnesses 

of luminescence produced by excitation through the five filters 

that could be placed in front of the projector in the viewing box. 

For the convenience of the reader, the filters are described by the 

color of the light transmitted. These colors and the approximate 

wavelengths covered by each are listed in table 1 on page 79. In 

table 4 the "Range of excitation" column lists all filters whose 

transmitted light produced a detectable luminescence but the 

"Maximum of excitation" column gives only those filters that Were 

most effective in producing this luminescence. The recording of 

more than one filter in the "Maximum of excitation" column means 

that the same brightness was recorded when the specimen was 

excited through more than one filter.

All the data suggest that the intensity of the infrared luminescence of most minerals decreases rapidly with a decrease in the 

wavelength of excitation. However, most of this decrease results 

from relative weakness of the ultraviolet excitation compared to
INFRARED LUMINESCENCE OF MINERALS 97

the red and green excitation (see discussion on p. 75 and data in 

column 5 of table 1). Even a weaker emission caused by excitation in the violet end of the spectrum can mean that the mineral 

is actually more sensitive to violet excitation than to red. Accordingly, if the emission caused by short wavelength excitation 

was equal to that excited by longer wavelengths, the violet or 

ultraviolet is recorded in the "Maximum of excitation" column. 

Also the violet or ultraviolet is placed in parentheses as an additional "Maximum of excitation" for specimens in which the 

emission excited by these wavelengths was large enough to be 

more than that excited by longer wavelengths if both emission 

strengths were multiplied by the reciprocal of their excitation 

energies. Unfortunately, the luminescence under ultraviolet, 

violet, and blue-violet excitation was recorded as zero intensity for 

most minerals that showed only weak or very weak infrared 

luminescence, and such a value cannot be corrected.

Although the data generally show a preponderance of excitation 

in the red and green end of the spectrum, violet and ultraviolet 

light are always the most effective form of excitation for marshite, 

matlockite, mimetite, and phosgenite, and possibly for some 

specimens of scapolite, hackmanite, sussexite, and xanthophyllite, 

as well as some carbonates and chromium-activated minerals. 

Ultraviolet is probably an effective form of excitation for many 

other minerals, especially for many of those which showed such 

weak infrared luminescence that the low-energy, short-wavelength 

sources employed produced no detectable luminescence. Nevertheless, the availablitity of high-energy red and green light from 

incandescent sources makes this region the most practical for 

excitation of infrared luminescence.

Before any luminescence can be emitted from a crystal an electron has to be raised to an excited state by the absorption of 

energy. Such absorption can take place only if there is an electron 

transition corresponding to the impinging energy, although, fortunately, owing to the effects of thermal vibration the correspondence does not have to be exact. In resonance luminescence, energy 

is absorbed by the same transition that causes the luminescence, 

and the exciting radiation has the same wavelength as the luminescence; the efficiency of the process, therefore, is very high. 

The luminescence described in this report, however, results from 

excitation of considerably shorter wavelengths. Accordingly, 

higher energy levels, either in the same ion or in another part of 

the crystal, lattice are involved, and the energy is transferred 

with consequent loss to the level from which the emission takes 

place. Such a transfer of energy may occur in a number of ways,
98 EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL GEOPHYSICS

and the probabilities of the transitions may depend on many 

factors involving not only the activators, but all other components 

of the luminescent system. In many minerals additional activators 

are required; thus the ultraviolet excitation of calcite fluorescence 

generally requires the presence of a sensitizing impurity such as 

lead (Pringsheim, 1949, p. 647; Schulman, Evans, Ginther, and 

Murata, 1947). In other minerals, however, the absorption can 

take place directly in the activating atom. Thus, greenockite 

specimens from Llallagua and most other localities show a maximum excitation efficiency in the green near 5,000 A, which is, 

according to Gisolf (in Pringsheim, 1949, p. 607), near the fundamental absorption band of cadmium sulfide. The efficiency of 

excitation of any wavelength will depend, first, on the number 

of suitable absorption levels, and second, on the probability of 

energy transfer from these levels to the emission level.

Consideration of the quantum theory of luminescence leads to 

an additional reason for the decrease of infrared luminescence 

efficiency at short excitation wavelengths. The luminescence 

emitted is proportional to the number of excited luminescent centers, and one quantum of light is required to excite each center. 

The energy of a quantum is proportional to the frequency of the 

light or inversely proportional to its wavelength. Thus the number 

of luminescent centers that can be activated by light from each 

lamp is proportional to the energy times the mean wavelength, 

which represents the quanta or energy flux per unit area per unit 

of time. These values are given in column 6 of table 1, and they 

show an even more rapid decrease with decreasing wavelength 

than does the energy emitted by the light sources.

An interesting interpretation of the excitation mechanism may 

partly explain the lack of visible emission from some of the brilliant infrared luminescent chromium-activated minerals. The introduction of chromium adds a broad absorption band in the green at 

about 5,600 A (Pringsheim, 1949, p. 644). Excitation close to this 

band (filters 2, 3, and 4) produces a strong infrared luminescence 

in all chromium-activated minerals, but ultraviolet excitation 

causes infrared luminescence in only ruby and a few other minerals. 

The ultraviolet excitation of ruby also produces a strong red 

luminescence, and Kroger (1948, p. 84) has shown that the absorption of pure aluminum oxide is very small throughout the visible 

spectrum but increases rapidly for wavelengths below 3,000 A. It 

would thus appear that irradiation with green light results in 

direct excitation of the chromium ion and is effective for all 

chromium-activated minerals. Ultraviolet excitation, however, 

involves the absorption of light by the host lattice and subsequent
INFRARED LUMINESCENCE OF MINERALS 99

transfer to the chromium ion; ultraviolet excitation will thus be 

effective in only the few chromium-activated minerals that can absorb and then transfer this energy efficiently. As the luminescence 

of chromium minerals seems to involve the emission of both visible 

and infrared light, the advantage of the snooperscope for detecting 

chromium luminescence may result not from its ability to detect 

infrared radiation, but rather from its use of visible excitation.

POSSIBILITIES FOB PRACTICAL USE

One of the reasons for undertaking this program of investigations was the possibility that the infrared luminescence of minerals might prove a useful prospecting tool. If it is to serve such 

a purpose a mineral has to be found that will meet the following 

requisites: The mineral must be of economic importance either 

an ore or an associate of ore. It must always show luminescence, 

which probably means that one of its chemical constituents will 

be an activator. Thus under ultraviolet light scheelite shows a 

blue luminescence caused by the tungstate ion, and some uranium 

minerals show a green luminescence caused by the uranyl ion. In 

some instances a mineral that always shows infrared luminescence 

in one locality might be worth considering. Thus ultraviolet light 

is very useful for detecting manganese-activated zinc minerals at 

Franklin, N. J. The mineral must be difficult to identify by simpler 

methods; no one would consider prowling around in the dark with 

a snooperscope looking for a copper carbonate. The infrared 

luminescence should be easily distinguished from that produced 

by less valuable materials. Considering the frequency of weak 

reactions from clay minerals and the lack of methods for distinguishing wavelength, this might be a serious limitation.

The only mineral that is always luminescent in the infrared 

region, and thus able to satisfy the second requirement, is greenockite, which is also the only important cadmium mineral. Greenockite occurs as a very thin coating on sphalerite and similar 

minerals, and is usually extracted as a byproduct of zinc mining.

The brighter infrared luminescence of many chromium-activated 

gems might be useful. For example, infrared luminescence provides a simple tool for distinguishing most pyroxene jades from 

their amphibole relatives.

The greatest opportunities for the infrared detection of minerals 

may result from the possibility of detecting small quantities of 

rare earths in relatively common minerals like feldspars. As the 

wavelength of rare-earth luminescence lies in the relatively long 

infrared, filters could perhaps be used to eliminate the effects of

461452 O - 58 - 5
100 EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL GEOPHYSICS

other activators. The usefulness would depend on the intensity of 

of the infrared luminescence from the common gangue minerals 

as a guide to concentrations of the rare-earth ore minerals monazite, xenotime, and bastnaesite, which are too opaque to be luminescent. Tests of this relationship would have to be made in 

individual field localities.

TABLE 2. Sources of minerals showing infrared luminescence

Mineral

Sources of minerals showing infrared luminescence of strength indicated

Weak Medium Strong

Actinolite- _.___.. 

Adularia.. ___.__. 

Agalmatolite. (See

pyrophyllite.) 

Agate. (See

quartz.) 

Albite

(peristerite.) 

Alexandrite. (See

cbrysoberyl.) 

Allophane_

Collyrite_.. 

Malthacite... 

Razoumovskyn.

Franklin, N. J......

Grisons, Switzerland .

Narsarsuk, Greenland _

Schemnitz, Hungary . 

Steindorfel, Bohemia. 

Kossmutz, Siberia. __

Resin Hollow, Ky.

Alunogen:

Solfaterite. _.

Amazonstone. 

(See 

microcline.)

Amblygonite.

Amphibole. (See 

actinolite, anthophyllite, arfvedspnite, 

tremolite.)

Anapaite:

Messelite.--.

Analcime. __.___.

Andalusite. _-__..

Allumiere, France. 

Wurzen, Saxony____

Solfaterra, Italy.

Oruro, Bolivia....

Pala, Calif. Harding, N. Mex__

Chiastolite_

Andesine.

SacchuriteAndradite:

Demantoid. 

Anglesite----.-

Wessel, Germany _____

Golden, Colo________

Fresno City, Calif. 

Swarthmore, Pa__-___ 

Lancaster, Mass__._ 

Cumberland, England _ 

Baregas, France_.__._ 

Esterel Mountains, 

France.

Liseus Alp, Tyrol. .

Glasendorf, Silesia

Siberia.

AnhydriteAnorthite ____. 

Anthophyllite...

Monte Poni, Sardinia .

Celle, Hanover,

Germany. 

Stassfurt, Germany .

Cramford, 

England.

Pylesville, Md_ 

Minneapolis, N. C.

Pala, Calif.
INFRARED LUMINESCENCE OP MINERALS 101

TABLE 2. Sources of minerals showing infrared luminescence Continued

Mineral

Sources of minerals showing infrared luminescence of strength indicated

Weak Medium Strong

Apatite.

Fluorapatite _

Dahllite..... 

Rhodophoshite. 

Manganapa-.

tite. 

Apophyllite......

Aquamarine. (See

beryl) 

Aragonite..___.

Arfvedsonite:

Szechenyiite 

Augite:

Omphacite.

Axinite. 

Barite..

Baudisserite. (See

magnesite.) 

Bauxite____ 

Bentonite. (See

montmorillonite.)

Renfrew County,

Ontario. 

Bovey Tracey,

England. 

Blagodat, India. .

Toghigi Prefecture, 

Japan.

Greenwood, Maine_.

St. Lawrence County, 

N. Y.

Odegaard, Norway. _.

Kola Peninsula, 

Russia.

Gelivara, Sweden .

Grisons, Switzerland..

Twin Peaks, Utah_.

Dundarragon, Western Australia.

Manhattan, Nev____.

Horrsjoberg, Sweden..

Westana, Sweden .

New Aknaden, Calif. 

French Creek, Pa .

Llallagua, Bolivia _ 

Haddam, Conn._

Furuhohnen,

Norway. 

Amelia, Va....

Mesa Grande,

Calif. 

Durango, Mexico.

Bahama Islands......

Collingwopd, 

Australia.

Girgenti, Sicily ..-.

Mount Vesuvius, Italy

Shinano Province, 

Japan.

Eureka district, Nev_.

Badlands, Wyo .

Organ Mountains, N. 

Mex.

Couliege, France. ....

Grape Vine Mountains, Nev.

Leadville, Colo ...

Bisbee, Ariz___. 

Sonoma County,

Calif.

Andover, N. J__. 

Tintic, Utah.___.

Burma.

Franklin, N. J.......

Pribram, Bohemia 

Ashe County, N. C 

Black Hills, S. DakCanyon County, Colo. 

Smoky Hill, Kans.-.. 

Langban, Sweden_____

Fichtelgebirge, 

Germany.

Floyd County, Ga
102 EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL GEOPHYSICS

TABLE 2. Sources of minerals showing infrared luminescence Continued

Mineral

Beryl (emerald, 

aquamarine).

Pseudosmaragd.

Botryogen:

Idrizite__.-_.

Brucite __-_-_.

Bustamite. ______

Byssolite. (See 

tremolite.)

Cacholong. (See 

opal.)

Calamite. (See 

tremolite.)

Calcite (manganocalcite, cuprocalcite, reichite, 

oolite, pisolite, 

plumbocalcite).

Sources of minerals showing infrared luminescence of strength indicated

Weak

Idria, Austria.. 

Texas, Pa._._. 

Franklin, N. J.

Richmond, Australia.. 

Melbourne, Australia 

Nome, Alaska____.

Pribram, Bohemia.... 

Telluride, Colo___. 

Cumberland, England

Cornwall, England..__

Andreasberg, 

Germany.

Freiberg, Germany. _ 

Silesia, Germany. _._ 

Aikawa, Japan.___ 

Tuscany, Italy...__ 

Girgenti, Sicily__ 

Guanajuato, MexicoGrand Rapids, Mich. 

Lake Superior, Mich. 

Bergen Hill, N. J - 

Joplin, Mo.-_-__ 

Hancock. Md____. 

Rockland, Maine.... 

Kongsberg, Norway . 

Picher.Okla.. 

Crum Lynne, Pa. - _ - 

Badlands, S. Dak_. 

Cheyenne, Wyo 

Langban, Sweden_.

Medium

Fahlun, Sweden ...

Badlands, S. Dak.. 

Franklin, N. J___. 

Union County,

Ark.

Warfield, OntarioKey West, Fla.... 

San Luis Potosi,

Mexico. 

Pyramid Lake,

Nev. 

Sedgewickville,

Strong

Poona, Western

Australia. 

Emmaville, New

South Wales. 

Heubachthal,

Austria.

Salzburg, Austria. 

Bahia, Brazil 

Muzo, Colombia. 

Kongsberg,

Norway. 

Peru. 

Mitchell County,

N. C. 

Alexander County,

N. C. 

Ural Mountains,

Siberia.
INFRARED LUMINESCENCE OF MINERALS 103

TABLE 2. Sources of minerals showing infrared luminescence Continued

Mineral

Sources of minerals showing infrared luminescence of strength indicated

Weak Medium Strong

Calcite Con.

Calcium larsenite. 

Californite. (See

idocrase.) 

Cassinite. (See

hyallophane.) 

Castorite. (See

petalite.) 

Celestite.-.....-.

Cerolite. (See

saponite.) 

Cerussite.

CervantiteChalcedony. (See

quartz.) 

Chiastolite. (See

andalusite.) 

Chiolite-.------

Chlorite. (See 

cookeite, colerainite.) 

Chromtremolite.

(See tremolite.) 

Chrysobery 1

Alexandrite.. 

Chrysotile. (See

serpentine.) 

Colemanite (neocolemanite). 

Colerainite--.---. 

Collyrite. (See allophane. 

Confolensite. (See

kaolinite.) 

Cookeite -.-._

Corundum (ruby 

sapphire).

Trinity, Calif. ..._. 

Warren, Ariz___. 

Suisun City, Calif-. 

Bleiberg, Carinthia. 

Franklin, N. J._...

Warrior, Ala.._______

Borate, Calif __ __._- 

Girgenti, Sicily ._____.

Strontian Island, Lake 

Erie.

Tsumeb, South-westAfrica. 

Matlock, Derbyshire,

England.

Joplin, Mo.-_--_._- 

Davidson's mine, N. C 

Silver Hill, Sevier 

County, Ark.

Gulzora, New South 

Wales.

Miask, Ural Mountains, Russia.

Ceylon.

Humbolt County,

Nev.

Zamora, Spain._.. 

Camp Floyd, Utah

Ivigtut, Greenland

Lang, Calif-___. 

Nottingham, Pa.

Buckfield, Maine._. 

Pala, Calif......__.

Ceylon (sapphire) ._._

Bengal, India.____. 

Hyderabad, India.___

Zoutspanberg,

Transvaal. 

Seluang, Malay. _. 

Niagara Falls, N.Y

Charcas, San Luis 

Potosi, Mexico.

Tollman, Queretaro 

Mexico.

Katherinenburg, 

Ural Mountains, 

Russia.

Ceylon (ruby).

Amity, N. Y. 

Macon County, 

N. C.
104 EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL GEOPHYSICS

TABLE 2. Sources of minerals shounng infrared luminescence Continued

Mineral

Corundum (ruby, 

sapphire) Con__

Creedite-.- _._...

Crestmoreite. _ 

Cristobalite------

Cryolite. _. ______

Cryolithionite.

Cuprite

Cuprocalcite. (See 

calcite.) 

Cuproscheelite. 

(See cuprotungstite.) 

Cuprotungstite 

(cuproscheelite).

Danburite. ------

Datolite. _ .- _

Delawarite. (See 

orthoclase.) 

Demantoid. (See 

andradite.) 

Deweylite 

(gymnite).

Diallage . .

Diamond. _____ _

Diaspore __ __,__

Diopside (lavrovite, melacolite). 

Dolomite 

(gurhofite).

Tautoklin....

Emerald. (See 

beryl.) 

Enstatite. _ -__--_

Epidote: 

Tawmawite. _

Sources of minerals showing infrared luminescence of strength indicated

Weak

Bozeman, Mont__-_-_

Laurel Creek, Ga _ ._

Wagon Wheel Gap, 

Colo. 

Crestmore, Calif __ _

Ivigtut, Greenland __ 

. do ___ 

Wheal Phoenix, Cornwall, England.

Huepac, Mexico _ .-.

La Paz, Lower California. 

Danbury, Conn.-____

Orange County, N. Y_ 

South Africa. _ _-__._.

Gumuchdagh, Asia 

Minor. 

Laurel Creek, Ga.

Horrsjoberg, Sweden 

St. Lawrence County, 

N. Y.

Sing Sing, N. Y....._

Cold Spring, N. Y____

Talcville, N. Y... ..._

Medium

White Mountains, 

Calif. 

Ural Mountains, 

Siberia.

Saplores, Durango, 

Mexico. 

Girgenti, Sicily - 

Pikes Peak, Colo.. 

Miask,Ural Mountains.

Tonechi, Mexico .. 

Fuerte, Mexico 

Tadjik, Russia. ___

Newcastle County, 

Del. 

Baltimore, Md____ 

Texas, Pa... _____

Gulsen, Styria. 

Fleims, Tyrol- ____ 

Franklin, N. J-...

Brazil __ .__-_-._

Schemnitz, 

Czechoslovakia.

Franklin, N. J___-

Searcy County, 

Ark.

Freiberg, Saxony __

Mvitkvina, Burma

Strong

Powder Springs, 

Ga. 

Rabun County, Ga.

Mysore, India. 

Piedmont, Italy. 

Lander, Wyo. 

Franklin, N. J.

Baikal Lake, 

Siberia.
INFRARED LUMINESCENCE OF MINERALS 105

TABLE 2. Sources of minerals showing infrared luminescence Continued

Mineral

Sources of minerals showing infrared luminescence of strength indicated

Weak Medium Strong

Ersbyite. (See 

meionite.)

Euclase. _._.

Feldspars. (See 

adularia, albite, 

andesine, 

anorthclase, 

hyallophane, 

microchne, oligoclase, orthoclase.)

Fibrolite. (See 

sillimanite.)

Fischerite. (See 

wavellite.)

Fluorapatite. (See 

apatite.)

Fluorite.--.__.

Yttrofluorite _

Fuchsite. (See

muscovite.) 

Garnet. (See andradite, grossularite.) 

Gaylussite. ______

Gearksutite._____

Monroe, Conn.

Middletown, Conn_.

San Juan County, 

Colo.

Salgadinho Mine, 

Brazil.

Sweetwater Mountains, Calif.

Swakopmund, Southwest Africa.

Cumberland, England

Durham, England

Auvergne, France. _ _.

Freiburg, Germany. _.

Barn thai, Italy___. 

Shawneetown, 111. 

Stoneham, Maine__. 

Marion County, Ky__. 

Oita, Japan... ...

Essex County, N. Y_. 

Amelia Court House,

Va. 

Switzerland____.

Ragtown Lake, Nev.

Geyserite. (See

opal.)

Glagerite. (See 

halloysite.)

Villa Rica, Brazil.

Ouray County,

Colo.

Alma, Colo-_-._ 

Pikes Peak, Colo..

Haliburton,

Ontario. 

The Gulf, New

South Wales. 

Cornwall, England

Devon, England.._ 

Keokuk, Iowa.____ 

Ivigtut, Greenland 

Westmoreland,

N.H.

St. Louis, Mo_____ 

Omodani, Japan 

Chatham, N. H 

Franklin, N. J____ 

Nertschinsk,

Siberia.

Banat, Rumania. . 

Shenandoah, Va 

Renfrewshire,

Scotland. 

Hundholmen,

Norway.

Corocoro, Bolivia. 

Clay Center, Ohio.

St. Peter's Dome,

Colo. 

Wagon Wheel

Gap, Colo.
106 EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL GEOPHYSICS

TABLE 2. Sources of minerals showing infrared luminescence Continued

Mineral

Sources of minerals showing infrared luminescence of strength indicated

Weak Medium Strong

Greenockite.

Grossularite.

Gurhofite. (See

dolomite.) 

Gymnite. (See

deweylite.) 

Gypsum (selenite).

Gyrolite. _._..__. 

Hackmanite. (See 

sodalite.)

Halloysite 

(indianaite, 

glagerite).

Hambergite .__._. 

Hanksite_-___--. 

Harringtonite.

(See

thomsonite.) 

Hauynite.----__. 

Hedyphane__-__. 

Hemimorphite:

Vanuzenite... 

Hexagonite. (See

tremolite.) 

Hiddenite. (See

spodumene.) 

Hornblende- _ _ _ -. 

Pargasite.--- 

Howlite.-.-.___.

Llallagua, Bolivia---- 

Marion County, Ark__

Topaz, Calif. ______

Friedensville, Pa_ _ 

Pribram, BohemiaBig Bar, Butte 

County, Calif.

Granby, Mo_____. 

Modoc County.

Calif. 

Franklin, N. J___.

Hull, Quebec.

Thetford, Vt-__ 

Morelos, Mexico .

North Thompson 

River, British 

Columbia.

Buffelsfontein, 

Transvaal.

Llallagua, Bolivia. 

Bishoptown, 

Scotland.

South Africa.

Montmarte, France-_- 

Borate, Calif_______

Mammoth Cave, Ky__ 

Lockport, N. Y__.___ 

Ihlafeld, Germany.-__ 

New Almaden, Calif. .

Galapagos Islands.

Borax Lake, CalifGarland County, Ark_ 

Baumgarten, 

Germany. 

Bedford, Jnd_________

Leoben, Styria.______

Helgaraen, Norway___ 

Searles Lake, Calif____

Stazunia. Poland. 

Pala, Calif .... 

Bergnersreuth, 

Bavaria.

Laacher See, Germany 

Franklin, N. J._...

Stirling Hill, N. J .

Lang, Calif.

Hyalophane:

Cassinite__. 

Hydrocerussite. _.

Hydronephelite.

(See natrolite.) 

Hydrophane. (See

opal.)

Hydrotalcite. 

Iddingsite. (See

serpentine.) 

Idrizite. (See

botryogen.)

Wanlockhead, 

Scotland.

Somerville, N. Y.

Edenville, N. Y__. 

Wentworth, Nova 

Scotia.

Media, Pa____---_

Rossie, N. Y.
INFRARED LUMINESCENCE OF MINERALS 107

TABLE 2. Sources of minerals showing infrared luminescence Continued

Mineral

Sources of minerals showing infrared luminescence of strength indicated

Weak Medium Strong

Idocrase:

Californite.

Indianaite. (See

halloysite.) 

Jadeite.-----__

North Thompson 

River, British 

Columbia.

Tenochutlan, Mexico

Jasper. (See

quartz.)

Jurupaite---.--- 

Kaolinite:

Lithomarge.

ConfolensiteKyanite. __-.--- Schomberg, Moravia_. 

Hillswick, Scotland. __

Lancaster County. 

S. C.

Banat, Hungary... 

Confolens, France. 

Belgian Congo--.. 

Brazil__________

Langesund, 

Norway

Cumberland, R. I. 

Yakul, U. S. S. R_.

Wermland,

Sweden.

Galax, Va_-_._-_. 

St. Gotthard,

Switzerland. 

Pfitsch, Tyrol.....

Lanarkite. -._.__ 

Laubanite. (See

natrolite.) 

Laumontite:

Leonhardite..

Retzite......

Leadhills, Scotland.

Zillerthal, Tyrol.

Lavrovite. (See

diopside.) 

Lazufite---.-.-

Leadhillite. _---.. 

Leelite. (See

orthpclase.) 

Lennilite. (See

orthoclase.) 

Leonhardite. (See

laumontite.) 

Lepidolite___. 

Leucophanite__. 

Leucophoenicite.. 

Lithomarge. (See

kaolipite.) 

Lucianite. (See

talc.)

Leadhills, Scotland.

Vivero, Lugo, 

Spain.

Horrsjoberg, 

Sweden.

Franklin, N. J.

Grotto Ducci, Elba 

Laven, Norway. _.

Lindsay, Calif.

Magoung, Burma.

Niigata Prefecture, 

Japan.

Yunnan, China.

Buena Vista de 

Cueller, Guerrero, Mexico.

Crestmore, Calif.

Zillerthal, Tyrol. 

Litchfield County,

Conn. 

Thomaston, Ga.

Windham, Maine. 

Yancey and

Mitchel

Counties, N. C.

Roraas, Norway. 

Delaware County,

Pa.

Troitzu, Siberia. 

Guadalajara, Spain. 

Charlotte Court

House, Va.

461452 O - 58 - 6
108 EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL GEOPHYSICS

TABLE 2. Sources of minerals showing infrared luminescence Continued

Mineral

Sources of minerals showing infrared luminescence of strength indicated

Weak Medium Strong

Magnesite (baudisserite).

Malthacite. (See 

allophane.)

Manganapatite. 

(See apatite.)

Manganocalcite. 

(See calcite.)

Marshite.------

Hoboken, N. J.

Baumgarten, 

Germany. 

Baudissero, Italy.

Delight, Md_... 

Rising Sun, Md.

Matlockite.

Chuquicamata, Chile 

Broken Hill, New 

South Wales.

Meionite:

Ersbyite.... 

Stroganovite 

Mekcolite. (See

diopside.) 

Melanophlogite.

(See cristobalite.)

Mellite..____ 

Mesolite________

Cromford, Derby, 

England.

Pargas, Finland..... 

Baikal Lake, Siberia.

Messelite. (See

anapaite.) 

Metaxoite. (See

serpentine.) 

Micas. (See

muscovite, lepidolite, taeniolite.) 

Microcline

(amazonstone).

Mimetite.-------

Antern, Germany 

Golden, Colo_ 

Antrim, Ireland-...

Tula, RussiaPikes Peak, Colo.

Molybdosodalite.

(See sodalite.) 

Montmorillpnite

(steargilite',

bentonite).

Stevensite. . 

Montroydite. 

Moonstone. (See

orthpclase.) 

Mooreite.- _-_. 

Muscovite:

Fuchsite____. 

Natrolite:

Laudanite .

Hydronephelite. 

Neocolemanite.

Urals, Russia._-_-_- 

Tsumeb, South-west 

Africa.

West Side, Oreg. 

Glen Riddle, Pa.

Fianarantsoa, 

Madagascar.

Montmorillon, 

France.

Paris, Maine _..

Yamagata Prefecture, Japan.

Paterson, N. J_--.

Terlingua, Tex_...

Stirling HiU, N. J._

Brevard, N. C.

Brevig, Norway.

Steinbruch, Silesia

colemanite.)
INFRARED LUMINESCENCE OP MINERALS 109

TABLE 2. Sources of minerals showing infrared luminescence Continued

Mineral

Sources of minerals showing infrared luminescence of strength indicated

Weak Medium Strong

Nepheline.

"Nitrate salts".-. 

Okenite .....

Oligoclase.

Omphacite. (See

augite.) 

Oolite. (See

calcite.) 

Opal (cacholong,

hydrophane).

Geyserite.-- 

Silicified

wood.

Tabasheer_ 

Orthoclase 

(moonstone).

Leelite.

Lennilite 

Delawarite.

Parahopeite.-..

Pargasite. (See 

hornblende.) 

Pectolite.._____

Val di Noto, Sicily_. 

Kirovsk, Russia 

Clark's Cove, Va_ -. 

Riverside, Calif ... 

Godhaven, Greenland 

Newcastle County,

Del 

St. Lawrence County,

N. Y.

Delaware County, Pa. 

Mitchell County, N. C. 

Macon County, N. C_.

Erandique, Honduras 

Dubnik,

Czechoslovakia. 

Virgin Valley, Nev_ _. 

Steinham, Belgium. _. 

Bohemia, Germany._. 

Faroe Islands. . . 

Silesia, Germany..... 

Willow Creek, Idaho.. 

Veresvagas. Hungary 

Divide, Colo__.___. 

Madison River, Mont. 

Ruditz, MoraviaCalifornia-.. .

Queretaro, Mexico

Jackson's Hole, Mont.

Yellowstone, Wyo_

Globe, Ariz ._ 

Penticton, British

Columbia. 

Mourne Mountains,

Ireland.

Mino Province, Japan 

Fianarantsoa,

Madagascar. 

Auburn, Maine.____ 

Goodspnngs, Nev. _ _ 

Little Rock Creek,

Mitchell County,

N. C. 

Ceylon_____________

Newcastle County, 

Del

Akazu, Owari,

Japan. 

Meisan, Korea. 

Uto, Sweden....

Granger, Wyo. 

Calcutta, India.

Chester County,

Pa. 

Lenni, Pa.... ...

....do__._..__.

Salmo, British 

Columbia.

Great Notch, N. J. 

Middletown, Calif-
110 EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL GEOPHYSICS

TABLE 2. Sources of minerals showing infrared luminescence Continued

Mineral

Sources of minerals showing infrared luminescence of strength indicated

Weak Medium Strong

Pectolite Con...

Peristerite. (See

albite.) 

Petalite___....

Castorite. _ .. 

Phosgenite. _ _ . _ _

Phosphorite. (See

apatite.)

Pirsspnite.--._. 

Pisolite. (See

calcite.) 

Plumbocalcite.

(See calcite.) 

Pollucite__.___. 

Probertite. ___-.. 

Pseudosmaragd.

(See beryl.) 

Pyromorpnite. _ _

Pyrophyllite:

Agalmatolite. 

Pyroxene. (See 

also diallage, 

diopside, enstatite, jadeite, 

spodumene.) 

Quartz:

Chalcedony..

Thetford, Quebec_.. 

Landalfoot, Scotland..

Londonderry, Western

Australia.

Greenwood, Maine_. 

South-west Africa- - -. 

Uto, Sweden.______..

Elba Island.....__.

Derbyshire, England.. 

Monte Poni, Sardinia

Searles Lake, Calif.

Ryan, Calif..

Custer, S. Dak_...

Mies, Bohemia .

Cornwall, England... 

Phoenixville, Pa_ ._ 

Wolfsberg, GermanyChina__---___---. 

FrankUn, N. J......

Cumberland, 

England.

Agate.

Pascadero Beach,

Calif

Death Valley, Calif-. 

Auvergne, France. _ .. 

Loch Neagh, Ireland.. 

Iceland____.__.. 

Oniski, Japan.______.

Sonora, Mexico.____.

Guanajuato, Mexico.. 

Black Hills, S. Dak... 

Laredo, Tex. .______.

Antiqua, West Indies. 

Opal, Wyo-..--_.. 

Brazil_-.__...__.-.

Cripple Creek,

Colo. 

Tampa Bay, Fla__.

Jasper.

Quincite. (See 

sepiolite.)

Chagres River, Canal

Zone.

Laramie County, Wyo. 

Bohemia. ..___..__.. 

San Francisco, Calif...

Colorado .

San Luis Potosi, 

Mexico.

Bridger Bashi, 

Wyo.
INFRARED LUMINESCENCE OF MINERALS 111

TABLE 2. Sources of minerals showing infrared luminescence Continued

Mineral

Sources of minerals showing infrared luminescence of strength indicated

Weak Medium Strong

Razoumovskyn.

(See allophane.) 

Reichite. (See

calcite.) 

Retzite. (See

laumontite.) 

Rhaetizite. (See

kyanite.) 

Rhodochrosite.

Rhodophosphite.

(See apatite.) 

Ruby. (See

corundum.) 

Sacchurite. (See

andesine.) 

Saponite: 

Cerolite.

Sapphire. (See 

corundum.)

Saussurite. (See 

zoisite.)

Scapolite___-__

Scheelite.

Scheelitine. (See

stolzite.) 

Selenite. (See

gypsum.)

Pachuca, Mexico-_. 

Marquette County, 

Mich.

Texas, Pa. ...

Frankenstein,

Germany.

Long Hill, Conn ___.

Bolton, Mass.--_-_-.

Pierrepont, N. ¥.___.

Ottawa County, 

Quebec.

Texas, Md._.._.....

Tsarasaotra, 

Madagascar.

Arendal, Norway____

Easton, Pa__.___._..

Inyo, Kern, and San 

Bernardino Counties, Calif.

Dixons quarry, Del. 

Bluemont, Md__-. 

Kosewitz, 

Germany.

Greenville, Quebec

Santiago, Chile___. 

Kai, Japan_--_----- 

Carrock Fell, England

Hill City, S. Dak..._ 

White Pine County,

Nev.

Jardine, Mont--__-. 

Perak, Malay States .

Yuenna, New

South Wales. 

Bolivia________

Monroe, Conn___

Ryndo, Korea. - 

Murray, Idaho- - -

Riesengrund, 

Germany.

Pitkoranda,

Finland. 

New Zealand 

Iron Mountain, N.

Mex.

Minerva, Ney__-_ 

Sinaloa, Mexico _-

Hyden, Alaska.

Rouis, Austria. 

Dragoon Mts.,

Ariz. 

Schlaggenwald,

Bohemia. 

Mohave Desert,

Calif. 

Leadville, Colo.

Otomezaka, Japan. 

Traversella, Italy.

Soriora, Mexico.
112 EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL GEOPHYSICS

TABLE 2. Sources of minerals showing infrared luminescence Continued

Mineral

Sources of minerals showing infrared luminescence of strength indicated

Weak Medium Strong

Selensulfur. (See

sulfur.) 

Senarmontite. _ _.

Sepiolite--..-_ 

Quincite____ 

Serpentine 

(metaxite). 

(See also 

deweylite, 

saponite.) 

Chrysotile_

Iddingsite__

Silicified wood

(See opal.) 

Sillimanite:

Fibrolite_____

Smithsonite------

Sodalite (molybdosodalite): 

Hackmanite..

Solfaterite. (See

alunogen.) 

Sphalerite..--..

Sphene.

SpineL---------

Spodumene.

Hiddenite_ 

Steargilite. (See

montmorillonite.) 

Steatite. (See

talc.)

North Clay City,Nev__ 

Cher, France. _______

Montville, N. J ______

Modum, Norway. __--

Globe, Ariz.

El Antimonio,

Sonora, Mexico,. 

Bare Hills, Md___.

New Haven, Conn____ 

Easton, Pa-____._--_ 

Conejos, Colo._______

Crestmore, Calif _ 

Lupipko, Finland

Larchowfu Mountains, Shantung, 

China.

Marion County, Ark_. 

Cumberland, England 

Laurium. Greece. 

Masua, Sardinia_._. 

Franklin, N. J____._. 

Vesuvius, Italy__...

Ryan, Inyo 

County, Calif.

Paris, Maine.-_-_. 

Auvergne, France.

Clear Creek County, 

Colo.

Oruro, Bolivia-______

Kola Peninsula,

Russia.

Bancroft, Ontario . 

Magnet Cove, Ark. 

Kangerdluarsk,

Greenland.

Kremmling, Colo_.

Southampton,

Mass.

Galena, Kans__-_.

Roxbury, Conn_____. 

Perkiomen, Pa.__.__. 

Kapnik, Rumania._.. 

Tsumeb, South-west

Africa.

Rodna, Rumania..... 

Zlatoust, Siberia__. 

St. Gptthard,

Switzerland.

Butler, Term.

Taos County, N. Mex

Ceylon .

Brandywine 

Springs, Del.

Santander, Spain. 

Pulaski, Va. 

Banner district, 

Idaho.

Sparta, N. J. 

Hiddenite, N. C.
INFRARED LUMINESCENCE OF MINERALS 113

TABLE 2. Sources of minerals showing infrared luminescence Continued

Mineral

Sources of minerals showing infrared luminescence of strength indicated

Weak Medium Strong

Stevensite. (See 

montmorillonite.)

Stibianite. (See 

stibiconite.)

Stibiconite. ______

Stibianite-- 

Stolzite:

Scheelitine.-. 

Stroganovite. (fee

meionite.) 

Strontianite. - - 

Sulfur:

Selensulfur... 

Sussexite-___----- 

Szenchenyiite

(See arfvedsonite.) 

Tabasheer. (See

opal.)

Taeniolite_____ 

Talc (steatite)__

Lucianite.

Tautoklin.. (See

dolomite.) 

Tawmawite. (See

epidote.) 

Terlinguaite. 

Thomson! te_ _ . 

Harringtonite 

ThuKte. (See

zoisite.) 

Topaz_.__...

Tourmaline.

Tremolite

(calami te.hexagonite. chromtremoute).

ByssoliteTridymite. 

TrimeriteOruro, Bolivia. - _ _ 

Sarawak, Borneo. 

Empire district, Nev.

Potosi, Bolivia- ...

Altenberg, Saxony .

Strontian, Scotland.

Cianciana, Sicily. 

Franklin, N. J...

Magnet Cove, Ark__ 

Franklin, N. J__.___. 

St. Lawrence County,

N. Y.

Alma, Colo. _-. 

Rockland, Maine. ____ 

Sonora, Mexico.----- 

Luca Almenia, Spain .

Manhattan, Nev_.

Villar de Puerco, 

Spain.

Terlingua, Tex. 

Golden, Colo.-

Grosmont^ Western 

Australia.

King's Bridge, N. Y. .

Canaan, Conn.______

St. Marcel, Italy __ 

Rock Raven, Md. 

Lee, Mass. --- 

Fowler, N.Y___.

Kandern, Bohemia 

Belfast, Ireland. __

New England, 

New South 

Wales.

Minas Geraes, 

Brazil.

Franklin, N. J_._. 

Etchison, Md____. 

Kragero, Norway. 

Outokumpo, 

Finland.

Durango, MexicoLangban, SwedenJohns Mansville 

Mines, Quebec.

Minas Geraes, 

Brazil.

Scheckenstein, 

Germany.

Sanarka River, 

Russia.

StirUng HiU, N. J.
114 EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL GEOPHYSICS

TABLE 2. Sources of minerals showing infrared luminescence Continued

Mineral

Sources of minerals showing infrared luminescence of strength indicated

Weak Medium Strong

Ulexite.

Valentinite _ 

Valleite. (See

anthophyllite.) 

Vanadinite_ -__

Vanuxemite. (See

hemimorphite.)

Wavellite--._..

Fischerite _. 

Willemite. _--__-. 

Wollastonite.---.

Wulfenite.

Wurtzite__

Xanthophyllite. _.

Yttrofluorite. 

(See fluorite.)

Zeolites. (See 

laumontite, 

mesolite, natrolite, thomsonite.)

Zoisite (thulite, 

saussurite).

Mount Blanco, Inyo

County, Calif. 

Cbnstantine, AlgiersYuma County, Ariz _ - 

Tucson, Ariz_______

Silver district, Ariz. _ _

Llallagua, Bolivia. 

Bamstable, England __ 

Hungary. ___________

Sussex County, N. J__ 

Cordova, Argentina_ 

Chelsea, Ontario. 

Natural Bridge, N. Y_ 

Easton, Pa_---____ 

Yuma County, Ariz _ _ 

Tiger, Ariz. _________

Pribram, Bohemia.. _ _ 

Organ Mountains,

N. Mex.

Butte, Mont.-__..._. 

Slatoust, Siberia____

Lugo, Spain.

Mount Rosa, 

Switzerland.

TABLE 3. Abundance of infrared and visible luminescence in minerals

Mineral

Actinolite. . _ . _ . _ ______

Agalmatolite. (See pyrophyllite.) 

Agate. (See quartz.) 

Albite (peristerite) __ ._..

Alexandrite. (See chrysoberyl.) 

Allophane. --------- _ Malthacite. ----._--.

CoUyrite. ---------

Alunogen: 

Solfaterite. __________

Number of 

Specimens

63 

45

70

16 

1 

8 

2 

25

1

Localities

31 

10

25

12 

1 

1 

1 

12

1

Infrared luminescence

Percent of 

Specimens

1 

2

3

6 

100 

60 

100 

8

100

Localities

3 

10

4

8 

100 

100 

100 

20

100

Visible fluorescence

Percent of 

Specimens

0 

0

1

30 

100 

60 

100 

8

100

Localities

0 

0

4

30 

100 

100 

100 

20

100
INFRARED LUMINESCENCE OF MINERALS

TABLE 3. Abundance of infrared and visible luminescence 

in minerals Continued

115

Mineral

Amazonstone. (See microcline.) 

Amblygonite. _-_.--_.__.

Amphibole. (See actinolite, anthophyllite, arfvedsonite, tremolite,) 

Anapaite: 

Messelite__----_--_-

Andalusite __ __-_ _ -._

Sacchurite. .--_--_._

Andradite: 

Demantoid. ________

Anhydrite _______________

Apatite (phosphorite)

Dahllite-------------

Rhod ophosphite _._-.-

Aquamarine. (See beryl.)

Arfvedsonite:

Augite:

Axinite __ __.____--- -_.

Baudisserite. (See magnesite.)

morillonite.) 

Beryl (emerald,

Botryogen:

Byssolite. (See tremolite.) 

Cacholong. (See opal.) 

Calamite. (See tremolite.) 

Calcite (manganocalcite, 

cuprocalcite, reichite, 

oolite, pisolite, plumboAA! A|4-A )

Calif ornite. (Seeidocrase.) 

Cassinite. (See 

hyalophane.) 

Castorite. (See petalite.) 

Celestite..-. _ __ ___-

Number of 

Speclmefl

23

4 

84 

31 

18 

24 

2

15 

60 

44 

19 

24 

174 

1 

11 

1 

3 

112

115 

1

3

61 

185

13

215 

1

1 

28 

12

470 

7

92

Localities

10

1

19 

15 

10 

11

5 

16 

17 

10 

13 

30 

1 

5 

1 

1 

23

36

1

1 

12 

45

7

32 

1

1 

11 

3

73

1

23

Infrared luminescenc

Percent of 

Specimen

10

20 

2 

30 

20 

8 

100

10 

7 

7 

5 

8 

50 

100 

10 

100 

30 

7

20 

100

70 

2

7

7

20 

100

100 

10 

30

20 

90

15

Localities

10

100 

6 

20 

30 

9 

100

20 

20 

10 

10 

15 

60 

100 

20 

100 

100 

10

40 

100

100 

10 

10

10

30 

100

100 

7 

30

40 

100

30

Visible fluorescence

Percent of 

Specimen

10

20 

2 

30 

20 

8 

100

0 

30 

6 

5 

0 

50 

0 

20 

100 

30 

20

40 

100

0 

10 

10

7

3

0

100 

30 

30

30 

30

30

Localities

20

100 

5 

30 

40 

9 

100

0 

60 

6 

10 

0 

50 

0 

40 

100 

100 

30

70 

100

0 

20 

10

10

10 

0

100 

40 

30

60 

100

sn

1 Coating?
116 EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL GEOPHYSICS

TABLE 3. Abundance of infrared and visible luminescence 

in minerals Continued

Mineral

Cerolite. (See saponite.) 

Cerussite. --___-__-_-- ...

Chalcedony. (See quartz.) 

Chiastolite. (See 

andalusite.)

Chlorite. (See cookeite, 

colerainite.) 

Chromtremolite. (See 

tremolite.) 

Chrysoberyl _ -.-_.__.__-

Chrysotile. (See 

serpentine.) 

Colemanite (neocoleCollyrite. (See allophane.) 

Confolensite. (See 

kaolinite.) 

Cookeite..---- .._.-__

Corundum (ruby,

Cryolite.-.--. _._ .

Cryolithionite _ ---._-__-

Cuprocalcite. (See calcite.) 

Cuproscheelite. (See 

cuprotungstite.) 

Cuprotungstite

Delawarite. (See 

orthoclase.) 

Demantoid. (See 

andradite.) 

Deweylite (gymnite)-. _

Diallage __ ____________

Diamond.-..-- ... .

Diopside (lavrovite,

Tautoklin-.-- _ - _

Emerald. (See beryl.)

Epidote:

Ersbyite. (See meionite.) 

Euclase. __-_-----_ _.

Number of 

Specimens

150 

12

7

33 

6

33 

3

13

170 

8 

7 

30 

7 

27 

3 

73

14 

34 

109

21 

14 

20 

33

55 

60 

1

23 

2

7

Localities

31 

9

2

8 

1

2

1

3

26 

2 

1

14 

1 

3 

1 

26

8 

10 

16

8 

11 

6 

11

17 

25 

1

9 

2

4

Infrared luminescence

Percent of 

Specimens

4 

70

60

3 

100

60 

100

40

60 

10 

100 

3 

10 

40 

100 

1

40 

9 

1

80 

10 

10 

20

5 

5

100

4 

50 

30

Localities

10 

80

100

10 

100

100 

100

70

50 

60 

100 

7 

100 

100 

100 

4

50 

10 

6

60 

10 

30 

50

20 

10 

100

10 

50 

20

Visible fluorescence

Percent of 

Specimens

10 

0

0

10 

10

100 

100

0

10 

100 

100 

30 

10 

0 

0 

0

90 

20 

5

80 

0 

0 

15

0 

20 

100

0 

0 

30

Localities

30

0

0

10 

100

100 

100

0

20 

100 

100 

30 

100 

0 

0 

0

80 

30 

20

60 

0 

0 

20

0 

30 

100

0 

0 

20
INFRARED LUMINESCENCE OF MINERALS 117

TABLE 3. Abundance of infrared and visible luminescence 

in minerals Continued

Mineral

Feldspars. (See adularia, 

albite, andesine, anorthite, hyalophane, microdine, oligoclase, orthoclase.) 

Fibrolite. (Seesillimanite.) 

Fischerite. (See wavellite.) 

Fluorapatite. (See 

apatite.) 

Fluorite ___ .... ........

Yttrofluorite _...._.._

Fuchsite. (See muscovite.) 

Garnet. (See andradite, 

grossularite.) 

Gaylussite ______________

Gearksutite.. .._____.._._

Geyserite. (See opal.) 

Glagerite. (See halloysite.) 

Greenockite_._____ 

Grossularite---. 

Gurhofite. (See dolomite.) 

Gymnite. (See deweylite.) 

Gypsum (selenite) ._._.___

Gyrolite __ __ _____.. 

Hackmanite. (See 

sodalite.) 

Halite

Halloysite (indianaite, 

glagerite). _ ______

Hambergite __ _-_.___._-

Hanksite ._.-__

Harringtonite. (See 

thomsonite.) 

Hauynite ___ ___ -.___

Hedyphane 

Hemimorphite: 

Vanuxemite. ________

Hexagonite. (See 

tremolite.) 

Hiddenite. (See 

spodumene.) 

Hornblende:

"Pet iHyojai f_p

Howlite 

Hyalophane: 

Cassinite. ___________

Hydrocerussite __________

Hydronephelite. (See 

natrolite.) 

Hydrophane. (See opal.) 

Hydrotalcite 

Iddingsite. (See 

serpentine.) 

Idocrase:

Calif ornite __ __ .-

Idrizite. (See botryogen.) 

Indianaite. (See 

holloysite.)

Number of 

Specimens

274 

5

10 

9

30 

43

123

4

57

21 

3

16

20 

10

6

4 

16

6 

12

8 

10

Localities

46 

1

6 

3

10 

26

38

4

19

18 

2 

1

4 

3

1

3 

2

1 

5

3 

2

Infrared luminescence

Percent of 

Specimens

40 

100

30 

20

60 

30

15 

20

7

30 

30 

6

5 

30

100

70 

40

20 

20

20 

60

Localities

60 

100

10 

30

80 

20

20 

20

10

30 

50 

100

20 

30

100

70 

100

100 

60

30 

100

Visible fluorescence

Percent of 

Specimens

50 

100

30 

20

10 

0

40 

70

20

20 

30 

40

5 

10

100

0 

30

0 

10

0 

0

Localities

60 

100

20 

30

40 

0

50 

70

50

30 

50 

100

20 

30

100

0 

100

0 

20

0 

0
118 EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL GEOPHYSICS

TABLE 3. Abundance of infrared and visible luminescence 

in minerals Continued

Mineral

Jadeite _ ________ _.

Jasper. (See quartz.)

Kaolinite: 

Lithomarge. ___ _ _..

Conf olensite --.____._

Lanarkite-------.-- _-..

Laubanite. (See natrolite.) 

Laumontite:

Retzite _ -_____. __.

Lavrovite. (See diopsode.) 

Lazulite ______

Leadhillite ___________

Leelite. (See orthoclase.) 

Lennilite. (See orthoclase.) 

Leonhardite. (See 

laumontite.)

Leucophanite. -----------

Leucophoenicite. ---------

Lithomarge. (See 

kaolinite.) 

Lucianite. (See talc.) 

Magnesite (baudisserite) . _ 

Malthacite. (See 

allophane.) 

Manganapatite. (See 

apatite.) 

Manganocalcite. (See 

calcite.)

Meionite:

Stroganovite. ________

Melacolite. (See diopside.) 

Melanophlogite. (See 

cristobalite.) 

Mellite ____ _---.-_. ...

Mesolite. _ _ _ _ - .-- 

Messelite. (See anapaite.) 

Metaxoite. (See 

serpentine.) 

Micas. (See lepidolite, 

muscovite, taeniolite.) 

Microcline (amazonstone).

Molybdosodalite. (See 

sodalite.) 

Montmorillonite 

(steargilite, bentonite).. 

Stevensite. ------- ...

Montroydite 

Moonstone. (See 

orthoclase.)

Number of 

Specimens

18

3

3

1 

59 

5

3

1

28 

21

50 

4 

9

40

5 

4

2 

2

8 

23

95 

50

19 

9 

3

Localities

5

1

3

1 

25 

1

2 

1

9 

9

17 

1 

6

25

2 

2

2 

1

2

9

22 

14

12 

1 

1

[nf rared luminescence

Percent of 

Specimens

50 

100

30 

100 

80 

20

30 

100

3 

5

4 

70 

50

20

80 

70

50 

50

30 

10

20 

2

70 

90 

70

Localities

100 

100

30 

100 

80 

100

50 

100

10 

20

6 

100 

10

20

100 

50

50 

100

100 

20

10

7

60 

100 

100

Visible fluorescence

Percent of 

Specimens

0 

100

30 

100 

3 

40

30 

0

0 

10

0 

70 

0

20

80 

70

50 

50

90 

10

0? 

0

70 

90 

0

Localities

0

100

30 

100 

4 

100

50 

0

0

20

0 

100 

0

20

100 

50

50 

100

100 

30

0? 

0

60 

100 

0
INFRARED LUMINESCENCE OF MINERALS

TABLE 3. Abundance of infrared and visible luminescence 

in minerals Continued

119

Mineral

Muscovite:

Natrolite: 

Laubanite __-_-__-__

Neocolemanite. (See 

colemanite.)

"Nitrate salts" ______ -._.

Omphacite. (See augite.) 

Oolite. (See calcite.) 

Opal (cacholong,

Geyserite . _-__ .._

Silicified wood _

Orthoclase (moonstone) 

Leelite _ _ _-___-_-.

Pargasite. (See 

hornblende.) 

Pectolite __ . _ -._..___

Peristerite. (See albite.) 

Petalite:.. -___ ________

Phosphorite. (See apatite.) 

Pirssonite. __ _ ________

Pisolite. (See calcite.) 

Plumbocalcite. (See 

calcite.)

Pseudosmaragd. (See 

beryl.)

Pyrophyllite:

(See also diallage, 

diopside, enstatite, 

jadeite, spodumene.) 

Quartz: 

Chalcedony __ _ ______

Agate. -__--_-..___

Quincite. (See sepiolite.) 

Razoumovskyn. (See 

allophane.) 

Reichite. (See calcite.) 

Retzite. (See laumontite.) 

Rhaetizite. (See kyanite.) 

Rhodochrosite. __________

Number of 

Specimens

2 

14

2 

5

34 

9 

10 

35

197 

7 

8 

3 

132 

3 

4 

1 

5

55

27 

2 

22

23

18 

5

94

5

48

112 

95

84

73

Localities

1 

10

1

5

12 

4 

4 

12

68 

2 

5 

1 

42 

2 

1 

1 

2

11

11 

2

8

1

5 

1

26

3

10

40 

25 

42

18

"nfrared luminescence

Percent of 

Specimens

50

7

50 

40

6 

20 

30 

20

15 

40 

40 

70 

9 

70 

50 

100 

50

15

3 

50 

15

20

6 

60

10

40 

2

15 

5 

3

3

Localities

100 

10

100 

40

15 

20 

50 

30

10 

50 

60 

100 

20 

100 

100 

100 

60

40

5 

50 

20

100

20 

100

20

30 

10

30 

20 

7

10

Visible fluorescence

Percent of 

pecimens

50 

0

50 

40

3

20 

50 

6

20 

20 

60 

70 

6 

70 

50 

100 

50

30

3 

0 

40

0

6 

0

7

60 

2

30 

15

7

4

Localities

100 

0

100 

40

8 

20 

50 

20

30 

50 

50 

100 

10 

100 

100 

100 

60

50

5

0 

40

0

20 

0

20

40 

10

60 

40

7

20
120 EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL GEOPHYSICS

TABLE 3. Abundance of infrared and visible luminescence 

in minerals Continued

Mineral

Rhodophosphite. (See 

apatite.) 

Ruby. (See corundum.) 

Saccnurite. (See andesine.) 

Saponite:

Sapphire. (See corundum.) 

Saussurite. (See zoisite.)

Scheelitine. (See stolzite.) 

Selenite. (See gypsum.) 

Selensulfur. (See sulfur.)

Sepiolite.. --_-_---_-__-_

Quincite .._._.._____

Serpentine (metaxite) _____ 

(See also deweylite, saponite.) 

Chrysotile ___________

Iddingsite ___________

Silicified wood. (See opal.) 

Sillinianite: 

Fibrolite_-_. _ ._..

Sodalite (molybdoSolfaterite. (See alunogen.) 

Sphalerite- -__---_ ______

Spinel _ _--_.__--_ _____

Hiddenite. ___----_-.

Steargilite. (See montmorillonite.) 

Steatite. (See talc.) 

Stevensite. (See montmorUlonite.) 

Stibianite. (See 

stibiconite.) 

Stibiconite _ ____________

Stibianite ___________

Stolzite:

Stroganovite. (See 

meionite.) 

Strontianite.-___-_--_ _._

Sussexite ------_-__--_--.

Szechenyiite. (See 

arfvedsonite.) 

Tabasheer. (See opal.)

Talc (steatite)-------.---

Tautoklin. (See dolomite.) 

Tawmawite. (See epidote.)

Number of 

Specimens

7

75 

93

6 

18 

8 

65

20

7

5

88

39 

5

210 

105 

70 

30 

12

3 

1

1

25 

86 

9

3

53 

1

Localities

4

13 

30

3 

14 

1 

24

12 

2

4 

27

12 

5

51 

21 

14 

13

1

3 

1

1

10 

35

4

2 

23 

1

Infrared luminescence

Percent of 

Specimens

90

20 

60

20 

10 

60 

5

20 

30

60 

9

5 

60

9

8 

9 

7 

90

100 

100

100

4 

2 

20

30 

20 

100

Localities

100

70 

90

30 

15 

100 

10

30 

100

70 

20

8 

60

20 

10 

15 

8 

100

100 

100

100

10 

3 

20

50 

20 

100

Visible fluorescence

Percent of 

Specimens

90

20 

100

0 

20 

60 

5

20 

50

60 

30

10 

100

3

1 

6 

7 

0

0 

0

0

60 

1 

0

30 

20 

100

Localities

100

80 

100

0 

30 

100 

10

20 

100

70 

40

15 

100

8 

5 

15 

8 

0

0 

0

0

60 

2 

0

50 

20 

100
INFRARED LUMINESCENCE OF MINERALS 121

TABLE 3. Abundance of infrared and visible luminescence 

in minerals Continued

Mineral

Terlinguaite. ............

Thomsonite . ______

Harringtonite ....

Thulite. (See zoisite.) 

Topaz ___________

Tourmaline. ..,,.. ........

Tremolite (calamite, hexagonite, chromtremolite)- 

Byssolite ___ ______

Tridymite. ______ _ __ _

Trimerite___ _____________

Ulexite _________ __

Valentinite. .____._.____

Valleite. (See 

anthophyllite.) 

Vanadin'te, 

Vanuxemite (See 

hemimorphite.) 

Wavellite __ . _____ _

Fischerite. . . _ - _ _

Willemite2 ________ _ Wollastonite. . ...........

Wulfenite _ _____ _ ...

Wurtzite. __-____.._-. ...

Xanthoph yllite _ -... __

Yttrofluonte. (See 

fluorite.) 

Zeolites. (See laumontite, 

mesolite, natrolite, 

thomsonite.) 

Zoisite (thulite): 

Saussurite. .__....___

Number of 

Specimens

6 

58

3

165 

280

68 

12 

18 

7 

29 

17

78

66 

3 

93 

34 

87 

23 

10

31

Localities

2 

19 

2

26 

39

22

9 

9 

1 

8 

9

15

12 

2 

12 

12 

23 

8 

3

18

Infrared luminescence

Percent of 

Specimens

15 

5 

30

15 

3

20 

8 

15 

100 

3 

6

6

6 

30

4 

15 

20 

4 

10

3

Localities

50 

10 

50

15

5

40 

10 

10 

100 

10 

10

15

20 

50 

8 

40 

20 

10 

30

6

Visible fluorescence

Percent of 

Specimens

70 

7 

30

10 

10

20 

8 

15 

0 

20 

6

0

40 

70 

90 

60 

0 

0 

0

0

Localities

50 

15 

50

10 

10

50 

10 

10 

0 

30 

10

0

70 

100 

80 

70 

0 

0 

0

0

2 Infrared Questioned.
TABLE 4. Characteristics of infrared luminescence in sele

Mineral

Actinolite.. _______

Agalmatolite. (See pyrophyllite.) 

Agate. (See quartz.) 

Albite----. _ ___ ______ 

Peristerite _ _____.- __

Alexandrite. (See chrysoberyl.)

Malthacite.____ _ __._

Collyrite- ______ __ 

Alunogen: 

Solfaterite __ _ _ ._. _____

Amazonstone. (See microcline.)

Amphibole. (See tremolite, actinolite, arfvedsonite, and anthophyllite.) 

Anapaite:

Analcime __ __. ____

Chiastolite. _ _ _ _ __ ____ _ _

Andradite:

Locality

Franklin, N. J___ __________ .

St. Gotthard, Switzerland. ____ __

Hybla, Ontario _ _________________

Steindorfel, Czechoslovakia _ __--

Schemnitz, Hungary.. .___-

Kosemutz, Sibena___._-_-_____ ____

Allumiere, France.... ___ _______

Pala, Calif ______ _ _ ___ _ __

Harding, N. Mex _________

Messel, Germany __ _. _____

Golden, Colo_ ______ ___-__-_-_ 

Lisens Alps, Tyrol _ ___ ________

Siberia..-- -_----.__ ---------_.

No

 

__. 

_._

Pa

Pa

G

____ 

Bu

Pa

Pa

Cr

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Pin

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INFRARED LUMINESCENCE OF MINERALS 123

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Cerolite. (See saponite.)

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Chiastolite. (See 

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Chlorite. (See cookeite, 

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Chromtremolite. (See 

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Alexandrite . -__.

Chrystotile. (See 

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.Neocolemanite.

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Confolensite. (See 

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Tsumeb, South-west Africa 

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Gulzora, New South Wales 

Tollman, Queretaro, 

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Miask, Ural Mountains, 

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Lang, Calif______________

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Buckfield, Maine. ________

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Green, blue... _.__ 

Red through blue-viol

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Red, green. _ ________
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TABLE 4. Characteristics of infrared luminescence in selected m

Mineral

Pseudosmaragd. (See beryl.)

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[LITERATURE CITED

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Haberlandt, Herbert, and Kohler, Alexander, 1939, t)ber die blaue Fluoreszenz 

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Kohler, Alexander, and Haberlandt, Herbert, 1934, Lumineszenzanalyse von 

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Krejci-Graf, Hanna, and Krejci-Graf, Karl, 1934, Fluoreszenzfarben von 

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Kroger, F. A., 1948, Some aspects of the luminescence of solids: New York 

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Lashkarev, V. E., and Kossonogova, K. M., 1946, Infra-red luminescence of 

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Malmquist, David, 1935, Mikrophotographische Aufnahmen von Achsenbildein 

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INFRARED LUMINESCENCE OF MINERALS 157

Melhase, John, 1935, Fluorescent minerals from California: Mineralogist, v. 3, 

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Nichols, E. L'., and Howes, H. L., 1926, Note on the rare earths as activators

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Palache, Charles, Berman, H. M., and Frondel, Clifford, 1944, Dana's system

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 1951, Dana's system of mineralogy, New York, John Wiley & Sons,

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Pauli, W. E. 1911, tJber ultraviolette and ultrarote Phosphoreszens: Annalen

der Physik, ser. 4, Band 34, Heft 4, p. 739-779.

Pringsheim, Peter, 1949, Fluorescence and phosphorescence: New York, Interscience Publishers, 794 p. 

Przibram, K., 1937, Fluorescence of the bivalent rare earths: Nature, v. 139,

no. 3512, p. 329. 

Schulman, J. H., Evans, L. W., Ginther, R. J., and Murata, K. J., 1947, The

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Servigne, Marcel, 1938, Sur 1'emission infrarouge de luminescence de quelques

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 1939, Nouvelles remarques sur les Emissions infrarouges de luminescence des elements rares: Acad. Sci. Paris Comptes rendus, tome 209, 

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Skogland, J. F., 1929, Tables of spectral energy distribution and luminosity

for use in computing light transmissions and relative brightnesses from

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Strunz, Hugo, 1941, Mineralogische Tabellen: Leipzig, Becker & Erler, 287 p. 

Tanaka, T., 1924a, On the active agents in luminescent calcites, aragonites

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 1924b, On the active agents in luminescent zinc sulfides, willemites and

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Venkateswaran, C. S., 1935, The fluorescence of ruby, sapphire, and emerald:

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Walther, Paul, 1936, Fluorescent minerals from many localities: Mineralogist,

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Warren, T. S., 1944, List of fluorescent minerals: Mines Mag., v. 34, no. 7,

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Weyl, W. A., 1942, Fluorescence of glass: Indus, and Eng. Chemistry, v. 34,

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Zodac, Peter, 1936, Some observations on fluorescence and phosphorescence:

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Zworykin, V. K., and Morton, G. A., 1936, Applied electron optics: Optical

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