Charles R. Ruggeri, Duane M. Revilock, and J. Michael Pereira

Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio

William Emmerling

FAA William J. Hughes Technical Center, Atlantic City International Airport, New Jersey

Gilbert K. Queitzsch, Jr.

Federal Aviation Administration, Washington, DC

Impact and Penetration of Thin Aluminum 2024

Flat Panels at Oblique Angles of Incidence

NASA/TM—2015-218484

April 2015

DOT/FAA/TC-15/7
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Charles R. Ruggeri, Duane M. Revilock, and J. Michael Pereira

Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio

William Emmerling

FAA William J. Hughes Technical Center, Atlantic City International Airport, New Jersey

Gilbert K. Queitzsch, Jr.

Federal Aviation Administration, Washington, DC

Impact and Penetration of Thin Aluminum 2024

Flat Panels at Oblique Angles of Incidence

NASA/TM—2015-218484

April 2015

DOT/FAA/TC-15/7

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Glenn Research Center

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Impact and Penetration of Thin Aluminum 2024 

Flat Panels at Oblique Angles of Incidence 

Charles R. Ruggeri, Duane M. Revilock, and J. Michael Pereira 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

Glenn Research Center 

Cleveland, Ohio 44135 

William Emmerling 

FAA William J. Hughes Technical Center 

Atlantic City International Airport, New Jersey 08405 

Gilbert K. Queitzsch, Jr. 

Federal Aviation Administration 

950 L’Enfant Plaza North, S.W. 

Washington, DC 20024 

Introduction 

The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and the National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration (NASA) are actively involved in improving the predictive capabilities of transient finite 

element computational methods for application to safety issues involving unintended impacts on aircraft 

and aircraft engine structures. One aspect of this work involves the development of an improved 

deformation and failure model for metallic materials, known as the Tabulated Johnson-Cook model, or 

MAT224, which has been implemented in the LS-DYNA commercial transient finite element analysis 

code (LSTC Corp., Livermore, CA) (Ref. 1). In this model the yield stress is a function of strain, strain 

rate and temperature and the plastic failure strain is a function of the state of stress, temperature and strain 

rate. The failure criterion is based on the accumulation of plastic strain in an element. The model also 

incorporates a regularization scheme to account for the dependency of plastic failure strain on mesh size. 

For a given material the model requires a significant amount of testing to determine the yield stress 

and failure strain as a function of the three-dimensional state of stress, strain rate and temperature. In 

addition, experiments are required to validate the model. Currently the model has been developed for 

Aluminum 2024 and validated against a series of ballistic impact tests on flat plates of various thicknesses 

(Refs. 1 to 3). Full development of the model for Titanium 6Al-4V is being completed, and mechanical 

testing for Inconel 718 has begun. 

The validation testing for the models involves ballistic impact tests using cylindrical projectiles 

impacting flat plates at a normal incidence (Ref. 2). By varying the thickness of the plates, different stress 

states and resulting failure modes are induced, providing a range of conditions over which the model can 

be validated. The objective of the study reported here was to provide experimental data to evaluate the 

model under more extreme conditions, using a projectile with a more complex shape and sharp contacts, 

impacting flat panels at oblique angles of incidence. 

Methods 

Ballistic impact tests were conducted on flat AL2024-T3 sheet using a rectangular parallelepiped 

shaped projectile with sharp corners and edges. The roll angle (relative to the direction of the gun barrel) 

of the projectile and the pitch angle of the sheet were varied to produce different types of contacts 

between the projectile and the plate. For the purpose of defining the orientation of the projectile and the 

 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 1
test panel a laboratory coordinate system was established with the x direction parallel to the centerline of 

the gun barrel used to accelerate the projectiles. The z direction was vertically down and the y direction 

was to the right when facing the test panel from the direction of projectile travel. 

Projectile 

The projectile used for this study was a 55.88 mm (2.2 in.) long, by 31.75 mm (1.25 in.) high by 

20.83 mm (0.82 in.) wide rectangular block of Inconel 718, heat treated to a hardness of 44 Rockwell C 

(Figs. 1 and 2). Three rectangular channels were machined through the center of the projectile in the 

length direction, as shown in Figures 1 and 2, to reduce the overall mass. The mass of the projectile 

ranged from 220.45 to 222.45 gm, with an average mass of 221.52 gm. It was accelerated toward the test 

panel with its long dimension parallel to the axis of flight. To define its orientation, a projectile coordinate 

system was established with the x direction along the length of the projectile, the y direction along the 

width and the z direction along the height, as shown in Figure 1. In the base orientation (zero roll, pitch 

and yaw angles) the projectile coordinate system was parallel to the laboratory coordinate system. 

Gas Gun 

The projectiles were accelerated with a helium filled gas gun connected to a vacuum chamber, shown 

in Figure 3. The gun barrel had a length of 3.7 m (12 ft) and a bore of 50.8 mm (2.0 in.). The pressure 

vessel was made up of sections as shown in Figure 4, with a total volume of 11.2 L (681 in.3

). The 

projectile was carried down the gun barrel in a cylindrical polycarbonate sabot shown in Figure 5. The 

gun barrel protruded into the vacuum chamber which held the fixture for the specimens. The sabot was 

stopped at the end of the gun barrel by a stopper plate with a through-hole large enough to allow the 

projectile to pass through. This stopper system was designed such that the bottom of the sabot, which 

incorporated o-rings, remained in the gun barrel and formed a seal which prevented the gas pressure 

behind the sabot from affecting the pressure in the vacuum chamber. 

Test Panels 

The impact test panels were 30.48 cm (12 in.) wide by 53.34 cm (21 in.) long by 3.20 mm (0.126 in.) 

thick AL-2024-T3. This material is the identical material that was used to develop and validate the 

deformation and failure model for AL-2024 (Refs. 1 to 3). The panels were supported in a fixture that had 

accommodation for rotating about a horizontal axis to produce different angles of obliquity with the 

projectile (Figs. 6 and 7). The panels were sandwiched between 12.7 mm (0.5 in.) thick front and back 

frames with an aperture of 22.86 cm (9 in.) wide by 45.72 cm (18 in.) tall. The front frame had outer 

dimensions the same as the test panel. The panels were attached by twenty-eight through bolts connecting 

the front frame, panel and back frame. A drawing of the front frame is shown in Figure 8. In the base 

configuration the test panel was perpendicular to the direction of projectile flight, with the long dimension 

vertical and the center of the panel coincident with the gun barrel centerline. 

Instrumentation 

The projectile velocity and orientation were measured prior to impact using pair of high speed digital 

video cameras (Phantom V7.3, Vision Research Inc.) and a photogrammetry system (PONTOS, GOM 

mbH) that tracked the three-dimensional coordinates of a number of circular markers painted on the 

projectile. The positions of the markers were used to define the orientation of the projectile local 

coordinate system relative to a laboratory coordinate system. The velocity of the projectile after impact, if 

penetration occurred, was measured using a similar system mounted behind the panel. The framing rate 

for both the front and rear camera pair was 12,500 frames/sec. 

 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 2
Full field deformation measurements were made on the back side of the panel using a pair of high 

speed digital video cameras (Photron SA1-1, Photron USA, Inc.) and a digital image correlation system 

(ARAMIS, GOM mbH). These cameras viewed the full back side of the panel, including a portion of the 

support beams, using a frame rate of 27,000 frames/sec with a horizontal resolution of 384 pixels and a 

vertical resolution of 496 pixels. 

Test Parameters 

In this test program the parameters that were varied were the roll angle of the projectile, the tilt angle 

of the test panel, the projectile impact velocity and the impact location on the panel. The desired roll 

angles of the projectile were 0, 30, 60 or 90 measured about the projectile local coordinate system 

x-axis. The test panel was either in the vertical position (normal impact orientation, 90 angle of 

incidence), tilted 30 toward the gun (60 angle of incidence) or 45 toward the gun. Adjustment for the 

panel tilt is shown in Figure 6. The test velocities were selected so that for each configuration there was at 

least one test in which the projectile completely penetrated the panel and one that did not. A total of 34 

impact tests were conducted. In most cases the impact location was in the center of the top half of the test 

panel (along the centerline of the width, 3/4 of the distance from the bottom of the test panel to the top). 

Four of the tests were conducted with the target point at the center of the panel. 

Results 

For the purposes of this report, the term “penetration” refers to the situation in which the projectile 

travels fully through the panel and exits the other side. The term non-penetration refers to situations in 

which the projectile either ricochets away from the panel with no fracture, fractures the panel without fully 

exiting the back side, or gets lodged in the panel. Table 1 lists the desired test parameters for each of the 

tests, as well as the actual measured values of projectile velocity and orientation. In the table the panel tilt 

angle is the angle from the vertical, with the top of the panel tilting toward the gun barrel about the 

laboratory Y axis. This corresponds to a negative rotation about the laboratory Y axis. The intended pitch 

and yaw angles of the projectile were zero. The penetration results for tests in which the projectile impacted 

the center of the upper half of the panel (tests DB196 to DB225) are shown in Figure 9. The solid lines on 

the graph indicate the lowest velocity at which penetration occurred and the highest velocity at which no 

penetration occurred for each combination of panel tilt angle and projectile roll angle. As would be 

expected, there is a large difference in the penetration velocity between the various combinations. The 

normal impact case has the highest penetration velocity and the 30 panel tilt combinations show the lowest 

penetration velocity, with the 45 panel tilt combinations intermediate between the two. 

Photographs of the front and back side of the impacted panel from each test are shown in 

Appendix A, as well as results from digital image correlation (DIC) analysis for tests in which a solution 

was possible. Of the 34 tests, DIC results are not available for five of the tests, DB196, DB198, DB200, 

DB214, and DB218. In some cases the painted spray pattern dislodged from the backside of the panel 

upon impact. In the case of DB196 there was a camera malfunction. The results show a representative 

deformation map for each test and the displacement profile along a line for several time steps up to the 

time of maximum deformation or when failure occurred. In some cases, a post test deformation map is 

shown that indicates the permanent plastic deformation in the panel and the time history of the 

displacement of an indicated point. 

Summary 

A test program was conducted to provide data on the deformation and failure of Al2024 panels when 

impacted by hardened Inconel 718 (Special Metals Corporation, New Hartford, NY) rectangular 

parallelepiped projectiles at oblique angles. These results provide validation data for the development of 

new transient dynamic models. 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 3
TABLE 1.—IMPACT TEST RESULTS 

1 DB196 0 0 210 221.58 0 209.5 N/A 1.815 0.11 0.941

2 DB197 0 0 210 221.35 0 211.5 N/A 2.891 ‐0.648 ‐0.428

3 DB198 0 0 270 221.35 0 270.9 N/A ‐0.327 2.274 ‐2.08

4 DB199 0 0 340 221.36 0 342 167 ‐0.008 ‐1.531 ‐2.832

5 DB200 0 0 320 221.35 0 319 N/A ‐2.9 1.695 1.046

6 DB201 45 30 318 221.35 44.8 319.5 213.7 30.22 0.613 ‐1.378

7 DB202 45 30 270 220.45 44.8 270.6 132.7 29.128 4.102 0.7718 DB203 45 30 210 220.5 44.8 228 68.9 30.263 4.21 ‐1.225

9 DB204 45 30 150 221.42 44.8 159.9 N/A 33.061 0.987 0.742

10 DB205 45 0 270 220.52 44.8 274.8 86.7 2.048 3.134 ‐1.55

11 DB206 45 90 270 221.36 44.8 277 N/A 90.761 ‐3.223 ‐1.27512 DB207 45 90 320 220.51 44.8 322.5 185 92.109 ‐3.386 ‐2.331

13 DB208 45 60 270 222.27 44.8 270.4 151.6 55.945 2.451 ‐2.792

14 DB209 45 60 210 221.62 44.8 200.6 N/A 64.846 ‐4.446 6.247

15 DB210 45 60 325 221.38 44.8 317.4 216.4 60.854 ‐2.984 2.647

16 DB211 45 60 175 221.39 44.8 161.7 N/A 60.241 3.378 ‐5.19917 DB212 45 60 150 221.6 44.8 155 N/A 58.14 0.599 1.151

18 DB213 45 0 210 222.3 44.8 205.7 N/A ‐0.026 ‐1.224 0.427

19 DB214 45 0 325 222.24 44.8 318.7 Not Measured Not Measured Not Measured Not Measured

20 DB215 45 0 175 221.59 44.8 179.2 N/A ‐4.491 ‐0.578 1.622

21 DB216 45 30 170 221.42 44.8 172.9 N/A 24.917 0.255 3.33222 DB217 30 0 270 222.26 30.6 269.6 169.9 1.781 1.034 3.889

23 DB218 30 0 210 221.42 30.6 203.4 2.45 ‐1.014 ‐1.13 0.651

24 DB219 30 0 150 221.6 30.6 146.4 N/A ‐4.551 ‐1.243 1.995

25 DB220 30 60 270 221.6 30.6 268.3 191.45 61.315 ‐4.269 5.256

26 DB221 30 60 210 221.87 30.6 200.3 77.9 59.494 ‐2.43 5.40727 DB222 30 60 150 222.45 30.6 145.9 N/A 61.502 ‐8.124 5.311

28 DB223 30 90 270 222.27 30.6 263.8 162.5 94.794 2.787 0.22629 DB224 30 90 210 221.6 30.6 208.4 Negligable. 88.614 2.582 1.904

30 DB225 30 90 150 221.68 30.6 143.2 N/A 87.945 0.143 ‐1.40631 DB226 0 0 270 221.53 0.5 262.5 N/A ‐3.009 2.019 1.197

32 DB227 0 0 325 221.53 0.5 310.2 20 Not Measured Not Measured Not Measured

33 DB228 0 60 270 221.89 0.5 266.1 N/A 62.551 ‐1.066 2.585

34 DB229 0 60 325 221.63 0.5 312.1 134.4 67.622 ‐14.362 14.021

Test

Desired

Panel Tilt

Angle (deg)

Desired Proj.

Roll Angle

(deg)

Desired Impact

Velocity

(ft/sec)

Test ID Proj. Mass (gm)

Measured

Panel Tilt Angle

(deg)

Penetration

Measured proj.

Roll Angle

(deg)

Measured proj.

Pitch Angle

(deg)

Measured proj.

Yaw Angle

(deg)

Comments

No PenetrationNo Penetration

Measured

Impact Velocity

(ft/sec)

No Penetration

PenetrationPenetration

Measured Exit

Velocity

(ft/sec)

No Penetration. Corner Petal.

Penetration

No Penetration. Crack.

No Penetration. Crack.

Penetration

Proj. lodged in panel

PenetrationPenetration

No Penetration. Hole.

Penetration

No Penetration

Projectile Exited Vertically

No Penetration. Flap.

Penetration

No Penetration

No Penetration. Corner Flap

PenetrationPenetration

No Penetration

PenetrationPenetration

No Penetration. Perforation.

Penetration

No PenetrationNo Penetration

Penetration. Large Flap

No Penetration

Penetration

NASA/TM—2015-218484 4
Figure 1.—Hardened Inconel 718 Projectile. Rectangular channels are machined through the length to 

limit the overall mass. Projectile coordinate system shown. Orientation angles are defined in the local 

coordinate system by successive rotations of roll, pitch and yaw. 

Figure 2.—Projectile drawing. Dimensions in inches. 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 5
Figure 3.—Gas gun connected to the vacuum chamber. 

Figure 4.—Pressure vessel. 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 6
Figure 5.—Projectile in polycarbonate sabot. 

Figure 6.—Exploded view of test fixture in zero tilt position showing projectile, front plate, test 

panel, back plate and rotatable fixture supports. 

Panel tilt angle 

adjustment 

Projectile 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 7
Figure 7.—Panel in fixture rotated to 45. 

Figure 8.—Drawing of front plate. Dimensions in inches. 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 8
Figure 9.—Penetration Results for tests DB196-DB225, where the projectile impacted the upper half of the panel. 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 9

Appendix A.—Impact Test Results 

Figure A1.—Front (left) and back side views of impacted panel in test DB196. 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 11
Figure A2.—Front (left) and back side views of impacted panel in test DB197.

NASA/TM—2015-218484 12
Figure A3.—Out-of-plane deformation map of panel in test DB197. Map 

of fixture deformation is also shown. No penetration occurred but loss 

of paint made some areas unsolvable. 

Figure A4.—Out-of-plane deformation as a function of time of point indicated in Figure A2 

for test DB197. 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 13
Figure A5.—Out-of-plane deformation as a function of time of point on test frame indicated in 

Figure A2 for test DB197. 

Figure A6.—Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A2 for a series of 

time steps up until the time of maximum deformation (frame rate 20000 frames/sec). 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 14
Figure A7.—Front (left) and back side views of impacted panel in test DB198. 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 15
Figure A8.—Front (left) and back side views of impacted panel in test DB199.

NASA/TM—2015-218484 16
Figure A9.—Out-of-plane deformation map of panel in test DB199 just prior to initial failure. 

Figure A10.—Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A6 for a series of time steps up until the 

time of initial failure (frame rate 30000 frames/sec). Discontinuous line due to paint loss. 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 17
Figure A11.—Front (left) and back side views of impacted panel in test DB200. 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 18
Figure A12.—Front (left) and back side views of impacted panel in test DB201. 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 19
Figure A13.—Out-of-plane deformation map of 

panel in test DB201 just prior to initial failure. 

Figure A14.—Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A10 for a 

series of time steps up until the time of initial failure (frame rate 27000 frames/sec). 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 20
Figure A15.—Front (left) and back side views of impacted panel in test DB202. 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 21
Figure A16.—Out-of-plane deformation 

map of panel in test DB202 just prior to 

initial failure. 

Figure A17.—Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A13 for a series of time steps up 

until the time of initial failure (frame rate 27000 frames/sec). 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 22
Figure A18.—Front (left) and back side views of impacted panel in test DB203. 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 23
Figure A19.—Out-of-plane deformation map of 

panel in test DB203 just prior to initial failure. 

Figure A20.—Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A16 for a series of time 

steps up until the time of initial failure (frame rate 27000 frames/sec). 

  

NASA/TM—2015-218484 24
Figure A21.—Front (left) and back side views of impacted panel in test DB204. 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 25
Figure A22.—Out-of-plane deformation map of 

panel in test DB204 just prior to initial failure. 

Figure A23.—Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A19 for a series of time 

steps up until the time of initial failure (frame rate 27000 frames/sec). 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 26
Figure A24.—Front (left) and back side views of impacted panel in test DB205. 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 27
Figure A25.—Out-of-plane deformation map of 

panel in test DB205 just prior to initial failure. 

Figure A26.—Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A22 for a series of time 

steps up until the time of initial failure (frame rate 27000 frames/sec). 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 28
Figure A27.—Front (left) and back side views of impacted panel in test DB206. 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 29
Figure A28.—Out-of-plane deformation map of panel in test 

DB206 at the point of maximum deformation. 

Figure A29.—Out-of-plane deformation map of panel in test 

DB206 after test is completed and all movement has 

stopped. This indicates the permanent deformation field. 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 30
Figure A30.—Out-of-plane deformation as a function of time of point indicated in Figure A25 for test DB206. 

Figure A31.—Test DB206. Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A25 for a 

series of time steps up until the time of initial failure (frame rate 27000 frames/sec). 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 31
Figure A32.—Test DB206. Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A26. This 

indicates the plastic deformation along the section line after all movement has stopped. 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 32
Figure A33.—Front (left) and back side views of impacted panel in test DB207. 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 33
Figure A34.—Out-of-plane deformation map of 

panel in test DB207 just prior to initial failure. 

Figure A35.—Test DB207. Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A31 for a series of time 

steps up until the time of initial failure (frame rate 27000 frames/sec). 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 34
Figure A36.—Front (left) and back side views of impacted panel in test DB208. 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 35
Figure A37.—Out-of-plane deformation map of 

panel in test DB208 just prior to initial failure. 

Figure A38.—Test DB208. Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A34 for a series 

of time steps up until the time of initial failure (frame rate 27000 frames/sec). 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 36
Figure A39.—Front (left) and back side views of impacted panel in test DB209. 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 37
Figure A40.—Out-of-plane deformation map of panel 

in test DB209 just prior to initial failure. 

Figure A41.—Test DB209. Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A37 for a series of 

time steps up until the time of initial failure (frame rate 27000 frames/sec). 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 38
Figure A42.—Front (left) and back side views of impacted panel in test DB210. 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 39
Figure A43.—Out-of-plane deformation map of 

panel in test DB210 just prior to initial failure. 

Figure A44.—Test DB210. Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A40 for a series 

of time steps up until the time of initial failure (frame rate 27000 frames/sec). 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 40
Figure A45.—Front (left) and back side views of impacted panel in test DB211. 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 41
Figure A46.—Out-of-plane deformation map of panel 

in test DB211 just prior to initial failure. 

Figure A47.—Out-of-plane deformation map of panel in test 

DB211 after test is completed and all movement has 

stopped. This indicates the permanent deformation field. 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 42
Figure A48.—Test DB211. Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A42 for a series 

of time steps up until the time of initial failure (frame rate 27000 frames/sec). 

Figure A49.—Test DB211. Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A43. This 

indicates the plastic deformation along the section line after all movement has stopped. 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 43
Figure A50.—Front (left) and back side views of impacted panel in test DB212. 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 44
Figure A51.—Out-of-plane deformation map of 

panel in test DB212 at the point of maximum 

deflection. 

Figure A52.—Out-of-plane deformation map of 

panel in test DB212 after test is completed and 

all movement has stopped. This indicates the 

permanent deformation field. 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 45
Figure A53.—Out-of-plane deformation as a function of time of point indicated in Figure A47 for test DB212. 

Figure A54.—Test DB212. Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A47 for a series of 

time steps up until the time of maximum deformation (frame rate 27000 frames/sec). 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 46
Figure A55.—Test DB212. Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A48. This indicates 

the plastic deformation along the section line after all movement has stopped. 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 47
Figure A56.—Front (left) and back side views of impacted panel in test DB213. 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 48
Figure A57.—Out-of-plane deformation map of 

panel in test DB213 just prior to initial failure. 

Figure A58.—Out-of-plane deformation map of panel in 

test DB213 after test is completed and all movement has 

stopped. This indicates the permanent deformation field. 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 49
Figure A59.—Test DB213. Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A53 for a series 

of time steps up until the time of initial failure (frame rate 27000 frames/sec). 

Figure A60.—Test DB213. Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A54. This indicates 

the plastic deformation along the section line after all movement has stopped. 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 50
Figure A61.—Front (left) and back side views of impacted panel in test DB214. 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 51
Figure A62.—Front (left) and back side views of impacted panel in test DB215. 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 52
Figure A63.—Out-of-plane deformation map of panel in test 

DB215 at the point of maximum deflection. 

Figure A64.—Out-of-plane deformation map of 

panel in test DB215 after test is completed 

and all movement has stopped. This indicates 

the permanent deformation field. 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 53
Figure A65.—Out-of-plane deformation as a function of time of point indicated in Figure A59 for test DB215. 

Figure A66.—Test DB215. Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A59 for a 

series of time steps up until the time of maximum deformation (frame rate 27000 frames/sec). 

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Figure A67.—Test DB215. Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A60. This indicates 

the plastic deformation along the section line after all movement has stopped. 

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Figure A68.—Front (left) and back side views of impacted panel in test DB216. 

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Figure A69.—Out-of-plane deformation map of panel in test 

DB216 at the point of maximum deflection prior to failure. 

Figure A70.—Out-of-plane deformation 

map of panel in test DB216 after test is 

completed and all movement has 

stopped. This indicates the permanent 

deformation field. 

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Figure A71.—Test DB216. Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A66 for a series of time 

steps up until the time of maximum deformation (frame rate 27000 frames/sec). 

Figure A72.—Test DB216. Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A66. This 

indicates the plastic deformation along the section line after all movement has stopped. 

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Figure A73.—Front (left) and back side views of impacted panel in test DB217. 

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Figure A74.—Out-of-plane deformation map of panel in 

test DB217 at the point of maximum deflection prior 

to failure. 

Figure A75.—Out-of-plane deformation map of panel in test 

DB217 after test is completed and all movement has 

stopped. This indicates the permanent deformation field. 

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Figure A76.—Test DB217. Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A70 for a series 

of time steps up until the time of maximum deformation prior to failure (frame rate 27000 frames/sec). 

Figure A77.—Test DB217. Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A71. This 

indicates the plastic deformation along the section line after all movement has stopped. 

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Figure A78.—Front (left) and back side views of impacted panel in test DB218. 

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Figure A79.—Front (left) and back side views of impacted panel in test DB219. 

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Figure A80.—Out-of-plane deformation map of panel in test 

DB217 at the point of maximum deflection. 

Figure A81.—Out-of-plane deformation map of 

panel in test DB219 after test is completed and 

all movement has stopped. This indicates the 

permanent deformation field. 

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Figure A82.—Out-of-plane deformation as a function of time of point indicated in Figure A76 for test DB219. 

Figure A83.—Test DB219. Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A76 for a series of 

time steps up until the time of maximum deformation (frame rate 27000 frames/sec). 

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Figure A84.—Test DB219. Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A77. This indicates 

the plastic deformation along the section line after all movement has stopped. 

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Figure A85.—Front (left) and back side views of impacted panel in test DB220. 

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Figure A86.—Out-of-plane deformation map of 

panel in test DB220 at the point of maximum 

deflection prior to failure. 

Figure A87.—Test DB220. Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A82 for a series of time 

steps up until the time of maximum deformation prior to failure (frame rate 27000 frames/sec). 

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Figure A88.—Front (left) and back side views of impacted panel in test DB221. 

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Figure A89.—Out-of-plane deformation map of panel in 

test DB221 at the point of maximum deflection prior 

to failure. 

Figure A90.—Out-of-plane deformation map of 

panel in test DB221 after test is completed 

and all movement has stopped. This indicates 

the permanent deformation field. 

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Figure A91.—Test DB221. Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A85 for a series 

of time steps up until the time of maximum deformation prior to failure (frame rate 27000 frames/sec). 

Figure A92.—Test DB221. Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A86. This indicates the 

plastic deformation along the section line after all movement has stopped.

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Figure A93.—Front (left) and back side views of impacted panel in test DB222. 

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Figure A94.—Out-of-plane deformation map of panel 

in test DB222 at the point of maximum deflection 

prior to failure. 

Figure A95.—Out-of-plane deformation map of 

panel in test DB222 after test is completed 

and all movement has stopped. This indicates 

the permanent deformation field. 

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Figure A96.—Test DB222. Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A90 for a series 

of time steps up until the time of maximum deformation prior to failure (frame rate 27000 frames/sec). 

Figure A97.—Test DB222. Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A91. This indicates 

the plastic deformation along the section line after all movement has stopped. 

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Figure A98.—Front (left) and back side views of impacted panel in test DB223.

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Figure A99.—Out-of-plane deformation map 

of panel in test DB223 at the point of 

maximum deflection prior to failure. 

Figure A100.—Out-of-plane deformation map 

of panel in test DB223 after test is completed 

and all movement has stopped. This 

indicates the permanent deformation field. 

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Figure A101.—Test DB223. Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A95 for a series of time 

steps up until the time of maximum deformation prior to failure (frame rate 27000 frames/sec). 

Figure A102.—Test DB223. Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A96. This indicates the 

plastic deformation along the section line after all movement has stopped. 

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Figure A103.—Front (left) and back side views of impacted panel in test DB224. 

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Figure A104.—Out-of-plane deformation map of 

panel in test DB224 at the point of maximum 

deflection prior to failure. 

Figure A105.—Out-of-plane deformation map of 

panel in test DB224 after test is completed and 

all movement has stopped. This indicates the 

permanent deformation field. 

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Figure A106.—Test DB224. Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A100 for a series of 

time steps up until the time of maximum deformation prior to failure (frame rate 27000 frames/sec). 

Figure A107.—Test DB224. Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A101. This indicates the 

plastic deformation along the section line after all movement has stopped.

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Figure A108.—Front (left) and back side views of impacted panel in test DB225. 

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Figure A109.—Out-of-plane deformation map of panel in 

test DB225 at the point of maximum deflection. 

Figure A110.—Out-of-plane deformation map of panel in 

test DB225 after test is completed and all movement has 

stopped. This indicates the permanent deformation field. 

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Figure A111.—Out-of-plane deformation as a function of time of point indicated in Figure A105 for test DB225. 

Figure A112.—Test DB225. Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A105 for a series 

of time steps up until the time of maximum deformation (frame rate 27000 frames/sec). 

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Figure A113.—Test DB225. Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A106. This indicates 

the plastic deformation along the section line after all movement has stopped. 

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Figure A114.—Front (left) and back side views of impacted panel in test DB226.

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Figure A115.—Out-of-plane deformation map of panel in test 

DB226 at the point of maximum deflection. 

Figure A116.—Out-of-plane deformation map of 

panel in test DB226 after test is completed and 

all movement has stopped. This indicates the 

permanent deformation field. 

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Figure A117.—Out-of-plane deformation as a function of time of point indicated in Figure A111 for test DB226. 

Figure A118.—Test DB226. Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A111 for a 

series of time steps up until the time of maximum deformation (frame rate 27000 frames/sec). 

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Figure A119.—Test DB226. Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A112. This indicates 

the plastic deformation along the section line after all movement has stopped. 

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Figure A120.—Front (left) and back side views of impacted panel in test DB227. 

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Figure A121.—Out-of-plane deformation map of panel in test DB227 

at the point of maximum deflection prior to failure. 

Figure A122.—Out-of-plane deformation map of panel in test 

DB227 after test is completed and all movement has stopped. 

This indicates the permanent deformation field. 

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Figure A123.—Test DB227. Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A117 for a series of time 

steps up until the time of maximum deformation prior to failure (frame rate 27000 frames/sec). 

Figure A124.—Test DB227. Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A118. This indicates 

the plastic deformation along the section line after all movement has stopped. 

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Figure A125.—Front (left) and back side views of impacted panel in test DB228. 

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Figure A126.—Out-of-plane deformation map of panel in 

test DB228 at the point of maximum deflection. 

Figure A127.—Out-of-plane deformation map of panel in test 

DB228 after test is completed and all movement has stopped. 

This indicates the permanent deformation field. 

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Figure A128.—Out-of-plane deformation as a function of time of point indicated in Figure A111 for test DB228. 

Figure A129.—Test DB228. Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A122 for a series of time 

steps up until the time of maximum deformation (frame rate 27000 frames/sec). 

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Figure A130.—Test DB228. Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A123. This indicates the 

plastic deformation along the section line after all movement has stopped. 

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Figure A131.—Front (left) and back side views of impacted panel in test DB229. 

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Figure A132.—Out-of-plane deformation map of panel in test 

DB229 at the point of maximum deflection prior to failure. 

Figure A133.—Out-of-plane deformation map of panel in 

test DB229 after test is completed and all movement has 

stopped. This indicates the permanent deformation field. 

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Figure A134.—Test DB229. Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A128 for a series of 

time steps up until the time of maximum deformation prior to failure (frame rate 27000 frames/sec). 

Figure A135.—Test DB229. Out-of-plane deformation along section line indicated in Figure A129. This indicates 

the plastic deformation along the section line after all movement has stopped. 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 98
References 

1. Buyuk, M., “Development of a New Metal Material Model in LS-DYNA. Part 2: Development of 

A Tabulated Thermo-Viscoplastic Material Model with Regularized Failure for Dynamic Ductile 

Failure Prediction of Structures under Impact Loading,” DOT/FAA/TC-13/25, P2, (Date needed). 

2. Seidt, J.D., “Plastic Deformation and Ductile Fracture of 2024-T351 Aluminum under Various 

Loading Condition,” Dissertation, The Ohio State University, 2010. 

3. Pereira, J.M., Revilock, D.M., Lerch, B.A. and Ruggeri, C.R., “Impact Testing of Aluminum 2024 

and Titanium 6Al-4V for Material Model Development,” NASA/TM—2013-217869 (DOT/FAA/TC12/58), May, 2013. 

NASA/TM—2015-218484 99