7

a
Jf

\
SN

NOE
may
a

cow
ATMA ony
ve

4
f
f
t
!
fs
N.
~
d
7

Betton Hills

Whitetisn

Ansconds Aluminum a

rama NL

Lower Flathead
Valley

Orientation map showing Anaconda Aluminum Plant

Figure 1.
and the Glacier National Park area-


DE

INENTAL Dry)

conrn

Ansconds Aluminum @

Columbo Fats 9H 5°

Figure 8. Location of fluoridation plate exposure sites.

29


impact of the aluminum plant on the Park. Qualitative disper-
sion estimates were performed assuming constant fluoride
emission rate and diffusion parameters for the four seasons.
Calculating on the basis of seasonal wind direction frequency,
average wind speed, and duration of sunlight, the relative
impact in summer was equated to 100, with corresponding values
of 43 for fall, 38 for winter, and 54 for spring. The
calculations, however, did not consider the impact of accumu-
lated pollutants transported into the Park as a result of the
local wind-stability pattern discussed earlier. The most
conducive conditions for development of this local pattern
are generally light wind flow together with essentially cloud-
less skies, conditions that normally are most frequent in
late summer through early fall. These considerations suggest
that the potential for damage by fluorides within the Park is
greatest in summer through early fall.
REPRESENTATIVENESS OF STUDY PERIOD

Climatic records for 1970 from the Kalispell Airport,
which is 8 miles southwest of the aluminum plant, have been
compared with the 30-year mean. April 1970 in the Glacier area
appears to have been rather cool and dry with strong surface
winds, while the following 3 months were slightly warmer and
wetter than normal. The fall months were again somewhat cooler
and drier than their "normal" counterparts. Since these were
not major deviations from the normal weather pattern, the data

for 1970 can be considered representative of normal years.

24


Thus, the primary area of high fluoridation values appears
about 1 to 2 miles northeast of the aluminum plant on Teakettle
Mountain, and the values increase with increasing elevation of
the sampler. A secondary area of high fluoridation values
appears on the upper slopes of Apgar Mountain, 10 miles from
the plant.

Correlation of Data: Plate and Limed Paper Methods

The Montana State Health Department has adopted ambient
air quality standard (0.30 ug F/em?-28 day) for fluoride based
on the measurement by the calcium formate (limed) paper method.
The Montana State air pollution control regulations include
specifications for preparation, exposure, and analysis of the
paper. Although the plate method used by EPA differs from the
method used by the State, the readings provided by the two
methods can be correlated.

Limed (calcium formate) papers were exposed in louvered
shelters of the type normally used by the State at the four
stations (shown in Figure 10) at which the EPA investigators
measured ambient fluoride concentrations both volumetrically
and by the plate method. Duplicate sets of limed papers were
exposed for calendar-month intervals and were returned to the
State laboratory for analysis. Analytical data furnished by
the State laboratory are given in Table 5 with data obtained
in analysis of the EPA plates, which were exposed at the same
sites for the same period of time. Fluoridation rates obtained

by both methods are expressed in units used by the State,

ug P/cm?-28 day.

34


to high ambient fluoride concentrations, the source of which is
the aluminum plant at Columbia Falls.

Gaseous and particulate fluoride concentrations were con-
tinuously measured at four sites at lower elevations along the
Park boundary, where electric power was available. Twenty-four-
hour average gaseous fluoride concentrations exceeded the State
of Montana Air Quality Standard only once during the study
period. At higher, more exposed locations in the Park
concentrations probably exceeded state standards more
frequently.

EFFECTS ON VEGETATION

Study participants collected samples of vegetation in and
near the Park for use in macro- and microscopical examination
and chemical analysis.

An EPA plant pathologist and an independent consultant
observed visible injury to conifers and ovher vegetation
growing in and around the Park. The older needles of ponderosa
pine growing in an exposed location on the western slope of Apgar
Mountain showed considerable tip burn. Other coniferous species
in the area showed severe foliar necrotic lesions on the 1968
and 1969 needles.

The variability of visible damage to vegetation within the
Park suggests that location, topography, and meteorology, in
addition to the quantity of fluoride emitted by the aluminum
reduction plant, are key factors in exposure of vegetation to

fluorides. For example, vegetation in some areas near the west

XV


Station 1

- Glacier Park

(ug/m?)

as 900 0.03 0.28 0.31
DATE . _ TIME GAS PART TOTAL 8/ 5 2100 0-03 0-05 0.08
wo 900 0.00 0.00 0.00 8/ 6 900 90.55 0.64
Wo 2100 04.31 0.00 0.00 8/6 2100 0-04 0-16 0.20
T/10 900 0-10 0.00 0.00 io u Bt oreo 0-36 bees

_7/10____2100__0.06__0.00__0,00_ 2100 0.06 0.31 0.
TAM 900 0.09 0.00 0.00 8/ 8 900 0.05 0+12°°0.17

_T/14_____2100__0407__0..00__ 0.00. re

Ti2 900 0.07 0.00 0.00 as 8 2100 0.04 0.22 0.26
= 100,00 0.00 0.00  _ 6/9 - 900.0206 _0.39..0.45
7/13 900 0.27 0.09 0.36 as 9 2100 0.05 0.20 0.25
\/13___2100._0.22 0,05__0527_ B/L0 900 0,05 0.23 0.24
Ts 900 0.21 0.27 0.48 8/10 2100 0.06 0.07 0.13
_7/14_____ 2100. 0213 0.05 0-18 B11 9000.05 0.22 0.27
TS 900 0.24 0.30 0.54 B/ll 2100 0.03 0.10 0.13
15 2100 -0.11 0.09 0.20 8/12 900. 0.090.416 _0.25_
W/16 900 0.11 0.02 0.13 8/12 2100 0.04 0.09 0.13
-7/16 ____ 2300 0.09. 0,02_Q.11_ ___asi5__— 900 9.00 9.00 9,00
WT 900 0.12 0.04 0.16 8/15 2100 0.03 0.23 0.26
_T/XT____2100.__9.09.0.03_0212. ___8/16____900._0.15 0.15._0.30.
7/18 900 0.09 0.02 O.1L 8/16 2100 0.05 0.12 0.17
-1418 2100 0,97 0 _. -8£17___900_D.04.. 0.05__0.09.
7/19 900 0.23 0.31 0.54 8/17 2100 0.03 0.16 0.19
T/ALD_2100 0612. Os11_.0.23 BLA 900 0.10 9.00 0.00
7/20 960 0.20 0.17 0.37 8/18 2100 0.02 0.02 0.04
3/20____2100._0.13.0.05 0.18 ____a/i9 900.09 0.14 0.23.
T/2r 900 23° 0.07 0.30 8/19 2100 0.03 0.14 0.17
72. 2100 _ 0.14 0.10 0.24 8/20 900__0.11 0.16 0.27
1/22 900. 0.12 O11 0.23 8/20 2100 0.03 0.12 0.15
37/22,____2100 0-00 0.00 0-00 _ AL2) 900 0.12 0.14 0.26
1/23 900 0417 0.12 0.29 8/21 2100 0.04 0.08 0.12
1/23,____ 2100 0.11 0405 0616 p/22__900_0.11__0.12 0.23
1/24 900 0.14 0.13 0.27 8/22 2100 0.05 0.09 0.14
7/24 2100 0.00 0-00 0-00 8/23 -900._0+20' 0.16 _ 0.36
1425 900 0-12 0.25 0.37 8/23 2100 0.05 0.17 0.22
1/25 __ 2100 0610 0-09 0.19 _ 8424 900 0.07 0.05 0.12
1126 900 0.34 0.27 0-61 8/24 2100 0.03 0.02 0.05
1726 2100. 0611 0612 0623. 25. 900__0.08 0.11 0.19
W2T 900 0-10 0-15 0.25 8/25 2100 0.02 0.09 O.11
127 2100 9-00 0-00 8126_ 900 _0.09 0.32. 0.41
1/28 900 7 0.08 0.17 8/26 2100 0.02 0.10 0.12
7/28 2100 -OeLl 0.26. 8/27 900 0413 0-16 0.29
729 900 0.22 0.32 8/27 2100 0.02 0.05 0.07
7429 2100 0.09 0.14 8/28 «900. 0.09 0.08 0.17
7/30 900 0.02 0.05 8/28 2100 0.02 0.12 0.14
1730_ 2100 0.03 0:03 0-06 8/29 ___ 900 0.02 0.01 0.03
Ww oop orbe oreo 8/29 2100 0.02 0.01 0.03
oh 0600 B/3Q 900 De LL 0.31 02 42
B/ 1 900 0.03 0.03 0.06 8/30 2100 0.03 0.18 0.21
g/L 2400 0.03 0,01. 004 = yan 900 0.07 0.07 0.14
as 2 900 0.02 0.01 0.03 8/31 2100 0.05 0.02 0.07
8/ 2 2100 _ 0-00 0.00 0-00 _ or 900 0-12 0.12 0.24
6/3 9000.12 0.59 O71 vant 2100 0.02 0.02 0.04
B/ 3 2100 0.03 0.00 0.00__ of 2 900 _0.10 0.22 0.32.
8/ 4 900 0-02 0.03 0.05 ~ o/ 2 2100 0.02 0.18 0.20
B/ 4 2100 0.02 0.05 0.07 or 3 900 0.09 0.10 0.19

* 0.0 indicates

invalid Sample

62


plants, particularly those closely related to tea, may accumu-
late much larger amounts in the absence of atmospheric con-
taminants. In a plant community such as that found in Glacier
National Park, concentrations exceeding 10 ppm in grasses and
pine needles are probably associated with atmospheric con-
tamination.

In July 1969, prior to the 1970 study period, an EPA
botanist investigated vegetation in the Columbia Falls area
for possible damage from fluoride. Characteristic tip damage
and margin burn were found on pine, apple, and willow trees
and on gladiolus. Chemical analyses, shown in Table 8,
indicated that the vegetation tissue was contaminated by
fluorides.

During the 1970 study period indigenous vegetation was
examined for visible damage, fluoride chemical composition,
and histological damage. In addition studies were performed
with selected vegetation grown under controlled conditions.
INDIGENOUS VEGETATION
Visual Observations

In July 1970 vegetation in Glacier National Park and
surrounding areas was examined for evidence of fluoride-type
markings.

Columbia Falls and Vicinity - Severe needle tip necrosis was

observed on ponderosa pine (P. Ponderosa) at three locations
within Columbia Falls. The injury was confined to needles on

the growth produced in 1968, while the 1969 needles and immature

44


at night. The difference in air-flow patterns during daytime
and nighttime is thought to account for the higher concentra-
tions of gaseous and particulate fluorides during the day.

A tendency toward higher maximum concentrations was
observed at Stations 2 and 4. Stations 2 and 4 are nearer the
aluminum plant and are in line with the predominant air flow
from the plant toward Lake McDonald. Station 3, at which the
lowest values were consistently recorded, is located toward the
North Fork and is evidently largely bypassed by plumes from
the plant.

Midway through the study, sampling was discontinued at
Station 3 and the air sampler was moved to a special sampling
site in the vicinity of Columbia Falls (Dehlbom). Data from
this station, designated 17, are included in Table 7. The
fluoride levels recorded at Station 17 are markedly greater
than the levels recorded at the other volumetric sampling
locations. The tabulation of fluoridation rates in Table 3,
however, lists values obtained at Station 19 on Apgar Mountain
that are in the same range as values measured at Station 17 by
impact sampling. This suggests that long-term and probably
short-term fluoride exposures at various sites in the Park
may occasionally approach or exceed the levels encountered at

Station 17 located near the aluminum plant.


About 3 miles south of the McDonald Creek bridge at the
base of Apgar Mountain, mature ponderosa pine trees showed
considerable tip burn on 1968 needles. The burn was more
severe on needles growing upward than on those hanging downward
from the shoots. The necrotic tip was 2 to 3 centimeters long
with 3 to 5 dark brown bands. The 1969 needles on many shoots
were considerably shorter than 1968 needles.

White pine trees at Glacier National Park Headquarters
showed necrotic tip burn on 1968 needles and some burn on
1967 needles. The burn was about 5 centimeters long, and
symptoms were much more severe on the lower 30 to 40 feet of
the two trees examined than on the upper portions. Branches
in the tops of the trees exhibited very little injury.

White pine trees at the Lake McDonald Ranger Station and
on the Wheeler property west of the station were marked with
tip burn on 1968 needles. Necrotic areas of tips were 1.5 to
2 centimeters long.

Tip burn was observed on white pines about 6 miles north
of the north shore of Lake McDonald. The trees were growing
on a ledge approximately 500 feet above the highway on the
east side of the stream. Necrosis was found only on the tips
of 1968 needles.

In brief summary of the field observations, necrotic tip
burn on ponderosa pine and necrosis of some leaves on broad
leaf plants were observed near the aluminum reduction plant

and in Columbia Falls. These symptoms appeared to be identical

48


Table 10. (continued). FLUORIDE CONTENT OF VEGETATION
SAMPLES COLLECTED AND ANALYZED BY EPA
(Fluoride in ug/g)

Lodgepole Pine Douglas Fir
4.5 mi. W Park HQ, 7/16/70 Middle Fork Ranger Station,
10/22/70
1968 needles 63
1969 needles 15 1968 needles
tip 141
Lodgepole Pine base 32

Monitoring Site 4, 10/22/70
1969 needles

1968 needles 72 tip 74
base 16
1969 needles
tip 61 1970 needles
base 14 tip 20
base 5
1970 needles
tip 15 Birch
base 11 Columbia Falls Ranger Station
7/16/70
Lodgepole Pine .
Teakettle Mountain, 7/16/70 1970 leaves 94
Bear Grass 43

1968 needles Park HQ, 10/22/70

tip 328
base 37 Snowberry 4
Monitoring Site 4
1969 needles
tip 260 10/22/70
base 46

52


gaseous and particulate sample components were measured using
a specific fluoride electrode.*

A timer built into the sampler allowed continuous
collection of 12-hour samples from 9 a.m. to 9 P.M. (daytime)
and from 9 p.m. to 9 a.m. (nighttime). Samples adequate for
analysis were obtained approximately 70 percent of the time
that the samplers were operated.

Average concentrations (ug F/m?) of gaseous and particulate
fluorides measured at each of the four stations are summarized
in Table 7. Tabulations of the raw data are given in the
appendix.

The average daily (calendar day) gaseous fluoride concen-
trations recorded at the four stations in or near the Park
(Stations 1 through 4) ranged from 0.06 to 0.10 ug F/m? during
the 4-month period. A maximum daily average concentration of
0.66 ug F/m? (0.83 ppb) * was measured at Station 2 (Blankenship).
During one 24-hour period spanning two calendar days, however,
the average exceeded the State standard (0.8 ug F/m?) : the
average at Blankenship from 9 a.m. September 5 to 9 a.m.
September 6 was 0.88 ug F/m>.

Gaseous concentrations made up about one-third to one-
half of the total fluoride measured at each station. At all

but one of the stations (Station 3), 12-hour gaseous fluoride

levels were nearly twice as high during the day as they were

* Anal. Chem. 40 (11): 1658-1661. September 1968. 3
+ Based on convérsion factor of 1 part per billion = 0.8 ug F/m”.

40


METEOROLOGICAL STUDY

WIND DATA

A meteorological study of air flow was performed to
obtain information on principal wind trajectories in the area
and their influence on transport and dispersion of air con-
taminants from the aluminum plant. Knowledge of the local air-
flow patterns is essential for understanding the emissions
problem and for evaluating data generated in the air quality
and vegetation studies.

The major air-flow patterns in this mountainous area are
those of the upper- and lower-level winds. The upper winds,
as influenced by the major geographic features, reflect the
general motion of the atmosphere near mountaintop level.

Upper winds are measured periodically by free flight balloons,
normally scheduled at noon and midnight Greenwich time. Since
none of these balloon flights originate within the study area,
the upper wind data were obtained from the National Weather

Service's stations at Spokane, Washington (200 miles west of

the Continental Divide) and at Great Falls, Montana (80 miles
east of the Divide). No additional upper wind data were used.

The low-level wind patterns are influenced by the inter-

section of the upper winds with the localized mountain and


Fluoridation rates obtained in the study area from July
through November 1970 are shown in Table 3. Information on
each site, including elevation, is presented in Table 4.

The significance of the fluoridation measurements in
assessing the potential for fluoride contamination of the Park
is best shown by graphic display of the spacial patterns. The
geographical distribution of the average monthly fluoridation
rates in ng F/cm?-day over the 5-month period is shown in
Figure 9. Such isopleths are obtained by plotting points of
constant fluoride level based on the available data and
joining these points with smooth-curved contours. A significant
degree of judgment is involved in such construction because
sampling data do not represent the entire area. A further
complication is caused by the uneven mountainous terrain. In
spite of these difficulties, the values clearly decreased as
distance from the aluminum plant increased, except in the
northeast quadrant where the influence of prevailing wind
patterns and higher ground elevations in the Park caused the
fluoridation pattern to be displaced and elongated.

Although there was no volumetric monitoring station atop
Teakettle Mountain, results from the several impact sampling
stations on this mountain indicate a trend of higher fluoride
concentrations with increasing elevation. For instance, at
site 35 on Teakettle and at site 19 on Apgar Mountain, where
high values of fluorides were recorded, the plates were at a

higher elevation than those at any of the other exposure sites.

30


APPENDIX: DATA OBTAINED IN

VOLUMETRIC SAMPLING

61


TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGMENT iii
LIST OF FIGURES vii
LIST OF TABLES viii
SUMMARY... 20 e cece eee ences
INTRODUCTION......-2..2-0+20- eee ere reece reser erece 1
Purpose of the Studies......... ccc ce eee eee eee

Description of the Area... .. cc cece eee eens o.

GEOGraPhy.. eee eer ecc cece cccccecnces
Climatology..... tee c cree en ene ncene

METEOROLOGICAL STUDY.... 2. cece cece cece eee e ene
Wind Data....... sees

Upper Winds. ..... cece cece ce eee cece eee eeee 10
Lower WindS........ eee ee eeeeecceee eee eae 13

Nighttime Air Movements...........--02000- wee
Daytime Air MovementsS....... cc. eee cece eee eens 19
Seasonal ChangeS.......ceeccccc cc creecccccece
Representativeness of Study Period........... . 24
AIR QUALITY STUDY... . ce cece cece eee cece nee eee eee 27
Impact MeaSureMentsS... ce cece cece sec ececceeceee 28

Correlation of Data: Plate and Limed Paper
Methods..........

eee eee cece ee eeenee 34

Volumetric MeaSurementsS...... eee sees cece cece 39


Station 2 - Glacier Park

(ug/m?)
6/26 900 0.197 0.23 0.42 War 2100 Q.11 0.18 0.29
6/26 2100 0.11 0.15 0-26. _ 7/22. 900 .0.13_.0.13 0.26
6/27 900 0.14 0.27 0.41 7/22 2100 0.09 0.06 0.15
6/27 2100__0.12 0-31 0-43 7/23 900 0.12 0.24 0.36
6/28 900 0-09 0.09 0.18 7/23 2100 0.20 0.27 0.47
6/28 2100 0405 0-08 0-13. 7/24 900__0.09._0.37.._ 0.46
6/29 900 0.09 0.29 0.38 =" 7/24 2100 0.10 0.17 0.27
6/29 _ 2100 0.09 0.29 0.38 _ _7/25____ _ _ 900_ 0418_..0.30._ 0.48 _
6/30 900 0.20 0.35 0.55 1/25 2100 0.11 0.04 0.15
6/30 2100 0.10 0216 0226 1126 900 0.20 0.48 0.68
17 1 900. 0.00 0.12 0.00 1/26 2100 0.10 0.12 0.22
“T/A __2100_0,07_ 0-11 0418 = 7/27_____ 900. 0.07_ 0.44 _0.51_
var 900 0.02 0.23 0.25 1/27 2100 0.05 0.02 0.07
_1/-2_ 2100 0.05 0.00 0.00. 7/28 900-0405 0417. 0.22.
U3 900° 0.00 0.00 0.00 7/28 2100 0.05 0.12 0.17
7/3 2100 0.05 0.00 0.00 _ 7/29 900 0 re i
4 900 0.00 0.00 0.00 7/29 2100 0.04 0.01 0.05
7/4 2100 0.07 0.00 _ 0.00_. 7/30 = 9000.03. 0.01. 0.04
wes 900 0.00 0.00 i) 7/30 2100 0.03 0.05 0.08
7/5 2100 0.05 0-00 0200 = 7731 900._ 0.04 0411. 0,15_
Wwe 900° 0.00 0-60 0.00 7/31 2100 0.02 0.02 0.04
an BLA 900 0.02 0.02 0.04
7a 2100 0.06 0.00 0.00 8/1 2100 0.02 0.02 0.04
7 900 0.00 0.000.00-. 8/_2 900__0.02. 0.02 0.04
wT 2100 0.05 0.00 0.00 8/2 2100 0.10 0.16 0.26
T/8___900_9,00 0,00 0,00 = 8/._3.__-_900_:0-04 0.32. 0.36,
8 2100 0.05 0.00 0.00 af 3 2100 0.04 0.05 0.09
_1/ 9.900 0.00 .0.00_0.00-_8/ 4 900 0.03 0.03 0.06
19 2100 0.06 0.00 0.00 8/4 2100 0.04 0.02 0.06
_T/10_ 900. 0.08_9.00..0.00.. _8/.5 9000.06 0.12. 0.18_
7/10 2100 0.06 0.00 0.00 8/5 2100 0.05 0.05 0.10
—J411__.__900_0.12 0.16 0.28 8/6  _960__0416 0.30 0.46 _
TL 2100 0.05 0.05 0.10 B/ 6 0 0.06 0.07 0.13
L712... 900. 0.12_0.09..0.21 ee oe
Wie 2100 0.10 0.04 0.14 ay 7 9 0-12 0.17 0.29
1/13. 900 0.09. 0.13..0.22. ~84-7---2100._.0,05 0.05 0.10
13 2100 0.09 0.07 0.16 e 8 900 0.06 0-10 0.16
114._900_..0.13 0.23 0.39 84-8 2100 0209 0204 0.09
7/14 2100 0.07 0.11 0.18 8/9 900 0.13 0.48 0.61
Ts “500 0.21 0219 0140. 8/9 2100. 0.05._0.06_ O-11__
15 2100 0.11 0.07 0.18 8/10 900 0.06 0.20 0.26
1/16 900 0.25 0.02 0.27 8/10 _._.2100 0.04 0.09 0.13 _
We 2100 6.19 0.00 0.00 pat 900 0.09 0.25 0.34
-T/AL___900_9426..0403 0,29 ~B4LL—_2100__0505__00.15 0.20
TUT 2100 0.19 0.02 0.21 2 900 0.00 0.00 0.00
1/18 900 0.16 0.02 0.18 B/12.._ 2100. 0.07 0.05 0.12.
WB 2100 0118 blOs Onte a/15 900 0.00 0.00 0.00
T/19 . 900 0413 0.35. 0.48_ 8/15. | 2100 0.03. 0-13 0.16
719 2100 0112 Olae Ones 8/16 900 0.20 0.20 0.40
1/70. 900 0424 0642. 04.66 8116 | 100 0.14 0.13 0.27
7/20 F100” Ona OL 1s Ones e/l7 900 0.04 0.05 0.09
7721 $00 0.26 0060 Olee e/it 2100 0.03 0.06 0.09
8/18 900 0.08 0.07 0.15
8/18 2100 0.02 0.02 0.04.

64


Station 1 - Glacier Park

(ug/m3)
9 -
a 700 oren reg 25 10/22 900 0.05 0.39 0.44
rt 2188 S95 S83 eT ttre aloe See Sca 23
9 9 5 . 206 0.08
wore ah Oe 0 030 inves 2100 0-01 0.10 0.11
97 6 .. 900.0619. 0.27 0246
a7 6 2100 0.05 0.09 0.14
/94.7 900 0.05. _0.12_0.17
7 2100 0.05 0.06 0-11
— 948. 900 0.02 0.00 0.00 _
9/8 2100 0.03 0.16 0.19
94 9. 900 0.08. 0.15_0.23,
79 2100 0.01 0.01 0.02
_ 9/10 9000410 0612 0.22
9/10 2100 0.02 0.01 0.03
9720 900 0.06 0.29 0.35
9/29. 2100 0.02__0.03__0.05_
9/21 900 0.05 0.16 0.21
9/21 2100 0.02 0.14 0.16
9/22 900 0.02 0.05 0.07
_9/22___. 2100.__0..01 0.04 _0.05__
9723 900 0.04 0.08 0.12
_ 9/23. 2100_0.01 0.12 0.13.
9/24 900 0.06 0.37 0.43
9424 ____ 21.00 0,02 0.23 0.25
9/25 900 0.07 0.16 0.23
9/25 .. 2100 0.01 0.08 _0.09_
9/26 900 0.08 0.25 0.33
9/26 _. 2100_0.01. 0.08 _0.09_
9/27 900 0.02 0.14 0.16
9/21 2100 0.02 0.18 0.20
9/28 900 0.02 0.07 0.09
9/28 .  2100_0.00 0.00 0 00
ios 1 900 0.09 0.34 0.43
10/1. ..2100._.0.01 0.23 0.24 _
10/ 2 900 0.02 0.07 0.09
2100_0.0} 0.98 0.09 __
10/ 4 900 0.03 0.15 0.18
10/.4. _ 2100 _ 0.03 0.23. 0.26
1o/ 6 900. 0.01 0-02
10/ 6 2100 0.01 0.02.
10/16 900 0.00 0.00
10/16 2100__0.02 1.18
10/17 900 0.02 0.21
10/17 2100 0.02 0.09 0.11
10/18 900 0.09 0.84 0.93
10/18 2100 0.08 0.98 1.06
10/19 900 0.08 0.53 0.62
10/19 2100__ 0402 0-03 _0.04__
10/20 900 0.02 0.04
10/20 2100 0.04 0.26 0-30
10/21 900 0.02 0.07 0.09
10/21 2100 0.02 0.07 0.09

63


Station 3 - Glacier Park
(ug/m )

6726. FOO Us0B- 0216 0.22 oe ae
6/26 2100 0.07 0.19 0.26 122 2100 0.05 0.05 0.10
6/27 900 0.68 0.08 0.16 _ 33 900__0.05 0.00 0.00
6/27 2100 0.03 0.05 0.08 (123 2100 0.04 0.20 0.24
_6/28___.._ 900 .0.02__0.03..0.05_ 7/24 ____ 900__0205 0-27 0.32 _
6/28 2100 0.03 0.05 0.08 1/24 2100 4 0413 0.17
6/29 __ 900.0005. 0644 0649 = __ 7/25 900 0607 _ 0.30 0-37 __
6/29 2100 0.03 0.13 0.16 77/25 2100 0.05 0.05 0.10
6130. 900 0.02 0.05 0.07 7/26 900 0-07 0-23 0.30
6/30 2100 0.02 0.02 0.04 7/26 2100 0.04 0.08 0.12
Ws 900 0.00 __0.05._0-00 _ 7/28

1 2100 0.05 0.05 0.10 7/28
~W/_2@_____900___0200_0.07.0.00 __7/29 -700__0+03__0+10 Q+13__
712 2100 0.05 0.04 0.09 7/29 2100 0.02 0.09 0.11
3 900 0.00 0.00 0.00 7/30 900 0.02 0.04 0.06
Wa 2100 0.05 0.00 0.00 7/30 2100 0.02 0.08 0.10
4 900 0200 0.00 20612 O14 _
Wa 2100 0.05 0.00 0.07 0.09
7/5. 900 0.00 0.00 0.00. _ 8/1 900 0.02 0.06 0.08 _
ws 2100 0.04 0.00 0.00 e/ it 2100 0.02 0.10 0.12

__ Bf 2 900 0.04 0.04 0.08
"a7 900 0.00 0.00 0.00 e/ 2 2100 0.03 0.51 0.54
T/ 6. ..-2100...0204 _ 0,00. 0.00_ 8/ 3 900__0+06 0-20.

mw? 900 0.00 0.00 0.00 8/ 3 2100 0.03 0.05

wt 2100 0-04 0.00 0.00 8/4 900 04204 0.05. 0-09 |
78 900 0.00 0.00 0.00 8/4 2100 0-00 0.00 0.00
~TA, 8_...2100 0204. ..0.00 0,00 8/ 5 900 0605 0-16 0-21
79 900 0.00 0.00 -0.00 8/ 5 2100 0.04 0.12 0.16
J/_9___ 21000304 0.00 0.00. __8/ 6 _900__0.07, 0.23 0
7/10 900 0.16 0.00 0.00 8/ 6 2100 0 0.06 0
1/10 2100 0.05 0.00 0.00 8/7 900 0.07 0-20 0.27_
TLL 900 0.16 0.14 0.30 8/7 2100 0.03 0.09 0.12
TALL ..--2100.0612 0.09. 0621. ee _
Wz 900 0.13 0.06 0.19 a/ 8 900 0.07 0.32 0.39
_ 7/12... 2100 | 0610 9.02 0.12. -.-8/_B___2100 0.04 0.25 0.29
WS 900 0.12 0.32 0.44 8/ 9 900 0.07 0.16 0.23
7/13 2100 0-1) 0.05 0.16 BLO. 2100 0,05 0.08 0.23
T/14 900 0.12 0.05 0.17 8/10 900 0.04 0.14 0.18
1/14 2100 0.03. 0.05 0.14 -—-8/10__2100__0.02_.0.09 O.11
TAS 900 0.09 0.06 0.15 B/1L 900 0.02 0.12 0.14
LT/15 . 2100 0.08_ 0.02. 0.10_ B/11__...2100 _0.00 0.00 0.00
T/16 900 0.09 0.04 0.13
—~ 7216 ___ 2100 0.09 0.09 _ O.18

TWiT 900 0.09 0.05 0.14

7/17, 2100-0608 0.05 0-13 _

1/18 900 0.09 0.04 0.13

1/18 2100 0.08 0.02 0.10

TW19 900 0.12 0.14 0.26

1g 2100 0.09 0.09 0.18 _

1/20 900 0.15 0.15 0.30

7/20 2100 0.08 0.08 0.16 _

7/21 2100 0.60 0.00 0.00

1/22 900 0.06 0.19 0.25

66



[arA

Figure 7.

Simplified drawing of typical midmorning wind-flow
patterns in upper Flathead Valley.


classed as Alpine with a strong maritime modification. The
range of climate extends from that of the permanently snow-
covered mountain peaks to that found along the shores of
Flathead Lake, where small fruit orchards flourish in a 3-
month frost-free belt.

The higher mountains receive as much as 150 inches of
precipitation annually, primarily as snow, on their west-facing
slopes. Snow accumulates to depths of more than 10 feet during
the winter, and, although the shores of Lake McDonald (3100
feet above MSL) are snow-free by May, drifts may remain on the
lower north-facing mountain slopes into August. Snow-covered
glaciers are permanent features of the high slopes of some
peaks.

Significant differences in temperature, precipitation, and
wind flow are associated not only with elevation but also with
orientation of the mountainsides, proximity of ridgelines, and
location of the larger lakes. Because of its size and depth,
Flathead Lake normally contains a large open water area through-
out the winter. This heat source exerts a strong modifying
influence on the climate of the lower valley.

Selected climatological summary data are presented in
Table 1. The table includes Marias Pass because it lies at
approximately the same elevation as the saddle in Teakettle
Mountain and the Apgar Lookout overlooking West Glacier.
Although this pass is well-removed from the area of study,

its climatic data are thought to be representative of similarly


Seasonal changes are also apparent. The dominant summer diurnal
wind pattern at low levels is described below; variations that
occur in fall, winter, and spring are mentioned briefly.

Because Station 2 was situated near the mouth of the
Middle Fork River, upslope winds were most frequently registered
as upstream flow. During downslope drainage situations, flow
from the northwest along the Middle Fork often alternated with
that from the North Fork, causing either northwest or northeast
winds during much of the night. At other times, cool air
drained from adjacent mountains. Dominant wind flow patterns
measured during the summer of 1970 at this station are shown
in Figure 3.

The persistent west wind at Station 3, shown in Figure 4,
was attributed to drainage from the Bailey Lake region and to
daytime channeling when southerly and westerly winds in the
lower basin of the Flathead caused outflow around the north
shoulder of Teakettle Mountain.

Nighttime drainage of the large area of higher country
above Badrock Canyon results in very dominant northeast winds
at Station 5, as depicted in Figure 5. The winds persist well
into the daytime before the upslope flow from the valley to
the mountains begins.

Wind patterns for the summer season at Kalispell Airport
are presented in Figure 6. The frequent south and south-
southeast winds are attributed to the daytime up-valley and

lake effects. The frequent winds from the north through

14


exposed locations under study. Much of the Park area under
study is, however, higher than Marias Pass and has a corre-

spondingly shorter growing season and a more severe climate.


and the remaining effluents are diluted.
With the increase in surface heating, the typical up-
valley wind pattern develops in both the upper and the lower

valleys, augmented by a lake-to-land breeze from Flathead
Lake.

SEASONAL CHANGES

The southwest through west-southwest daytime winds above
Teakettle Mountain are of major importance, because they
apparently carry effluents from the aluminum plant at Columbia
Falls to the Park. Frequencies of these transport winds are
estimated as follows from considerations presented in the

earlier section on Upper Winds:

SW-WSW DAYTIME WINDS, TEAKETTLE MOUNTAIN

Summer Fall Winter Spring
Average Average Average Average
Frequency, speed, | Frequency, speed, | Frequency, speed, Frequency, speed,
* mph % mph 5 mph a mph
47 17 40 24 46 28 41 25

The highest frequency of wind direction that would carr 7
effluents into the Park, and also the lowest average wind
speed, occur in summer. Both factors would lead to relatively
high fluoride levels at receptors. Because the winds tend to
blow toward the Park during daylight hours, the longer summer
days, which average 15.2 hours between sunrise and sunset,
increase the amount of time that emissions are carried into

the Park.

An effort was made to estimate the relative seasonal

23


i-
were emitted during 1969 and early 1970 at the rate of approx

mately 7600 pounds per day (lb/day) but that emissions were

reduced to about 5000 lb/day by September 1970. By early May

1971, emissions were reported to be about 2500 lb/day-

National Park Service officials became concerned that

fluoride emissions from the aluminum plant were being carried

by prevailing wind currents into Glacier National Park in

sufficient concentrations to harm Park ecology. In 1970 they

requested the assistance of the National Air Pollution Control

Administration, now a component of the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA), in assessing the effects of airborne
fluorides on vegetation and wildlife in the Park.

The EPA field investigations were designed to determine
the predominant patterns of movement of airborne fluorides
from the aluminum plant to the Park, to measure ambient
concentrations of fluorides in the Park, and to assess effects
of fluorides on indigenous flora within the Park. EPA
investigators were assisted by personnel of the National Park
Service, the Montana State Health Department, and the University
of Montana, and by a consulting horticulturist.

DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA
Geography

Glacier National Park straddles the Continental Divide
from the Canadian Border to Marias Pass, 60 miles south. This
section of northwestern Montana includes some of the most

spectacularly rugged mountain country in North America. From


Station 2 - Glacier Park

(g/m?)
8/19 900 0.14 0.12 0.26 _
: 9/14
8/12. 2100 003. 9.27 9.30 371g “300 oss OLet_oLes
. . 243 ~ . . er
8/20. 2100 0.05 0.04 0.09 avis gon__grgg 3703 9°07
a/21 900 0-23 0.10 0.33 9/18 2100 0.03 0.08 O-l1
8/21 __ 2100. 0.03 _ 0.12 0.15 9120 900 9.05 Q. °
5.
efag 200 Ora Scie Grey g7a0 aloo —8r08 Sraeovoe
PL ee 2. _ 900._Q.07.0.12_0.19_
8/23 900 0.23 0.31 0.54 9/21 2100 0.03 0.06 0.09
8/23. 2100 0.06 0.36 0.42 _ 9/22 9000.05 _0.32._ 0.37
8/24 900 0.12 0.16 0.28 9/22 2100 0.04 0-10 0-14
8/24 2100 0.05 0.04 0.09 _ 9/23 900 9.00 0.146 0-00.
8/25 900 0.14 0.17 0.31
ay2s 2100_ 9/23 2100 0.02 0.20 0.22

0204 0209 O+13 9/24 9000610 0.32. 0.42

8/26 900 2 0.20 0.32 9

8/26  _ 2100 0.03 _ 0.12 0.15. onee 7 too los Ole hres
8/27 900 0.14 0.22 0.36 9/25 2100 0.02” 0.05 OL0F
8/27 2100 0.02 0.03 0.05 _ 9726 900 0.05 0. Hi
8/28 900 0.07 0.15 0.22 9/26 3100 0.02 ee
8128 2100 0-03 0.08 O.i1 9/27. 9000.05 0.15 0.20
8/29 9000.05 0.12 0.17 ~ 9/27 21000202 0.19 70.21
8/29 _.2100 0.02 0.04 0.06 _ 9/28 900 0.07. 0.39 0.46
8/30 900 0-30 0.50 0.80 9/28 2100 0.01 0.06 0.07
8/30 2100 0.05 0.40 _0.45.. _ro0v17 900 0.02 0.25 0.27
8/31 900 0-13 0.1L 0624 10/17 2100 0.01 0.11 O.12
-B/31 _ _2100 0.06 0-02 0208 = 10/18 900__0.03__0.73__0.76
wil 300 0419 0.12 0-31 10/18 2100 0.03 0.35 0.38.
97.1. 2100 0.05 0.04 _ 0,09 10/19 _ 9000215 0260. 0.75
of 2 900 0.24 0.44 0-68 10/19 2100 0.03 0.04 0.07
9/7. 22100 0.05 0.13_ 0-18 —_ 0729 900 0.06 0.40 0.46
or 3 900 0-16 0-30 0.46 10/20 2100 0.20 0.60 0.80
94 3 2100 0-00 0.00 0-00 _10/21__ 900, 0.09 0.19__0.28
a7 4 900 0-09 0.21 0.30 10/21 2100 0.09 0.43 0.52
(94 4 ___ 2100 0.03 0.02 _ - aie
975 ~~~" 900 0.30 0.30

9/5. 2100 1.02 0.98 2-00_

7 68 900 0.65 0.59 1.24

91 6 2100 0.11 0.16 T

7 900 0-00 0.35 0.00

wt 2100 0.05 0.12 0.17

97 8 900 0.04 0.02 0.06

97 8 2100 0.04 0.04 0.08

v9 900 0.08 0.11 0.19

v9 2100 0.02 0.03 0.05

9/10 900 0.16 0.13 0.29 _

9410 2100 0.02 0.02 0.04

IAL 900.0201 0.02. 0,03

o11 2100 0.02 0.01 0.03

9712 900 0.00. 0.00 0.00.

912 2100 0.01 0.02 0.03

9/13 900 0.01 0.01 0.02 _.

9713 2100 0.00 0.00 0.00

914.900. 0605_0.12 0017

65


tip necrosis. All were obtained from within Glacier National

Park.

Table 9. FLUORIDE CONTENT OF VEGETATION SAMPLES
COLLECTED AND ANALYZED BY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA

Sample Fluoride content, ug/g
Needle tip Needle base
Ponderose pine 69 8
White pine park headquarters 29 4
White pine Lake McDonald 12 16
White pine 6 mi. North of 48 4

Lake McDonald

Needles were cut into two approximately equal lengths, and the
tip and base sections were analyzed separately. Before
analysis, samples were dried for 48 hours at 45°C in a forced-
draft oven and were ground to pass a 40-mesh screen. The tip
sections contained both necrotic and green tissue.

Results of the analyses substantiate the conclusions that
needle tip necrosis observed on 1968 growth of ponderosa and
western white pine in the vicinity of Lake McDonald was
produced by fluoride accumulation.

Additionally, vegetation samples exhibiting injury suspected
to be caused by fluoride were collected by an EPA botanist and
analyzed in the EPA North Carolina laboratories. For analysis
the needles were divided into two nearly equal parts -- the
tip (top half) and the base (bottom half). Results of these
analyses appear in Table 10.

The normal expected fluoride content of whole conifer
needles is less than 10 ppm (based on control data of the

Forest Service and University of Montana). The fluoride content

50


SUMMARY

A reduction plant of the Anaconda Aluminum Company began
operations at Columbia Falls, Montana, in 1955. In 1957 flora
in the vicinity of the plant began to show foliage injury that
is symptomatic of excessive accumulation of fluoride, an air
contaminant emitted from the electrolytic reduction cells used
in primary aluminum smelting.

During the years between the initial observations of
suspected fluoride damage and 1968, when damage to pine trees
became noticeably more widely spread in the area, Anaconda
Aluminum Company twice expanded the plant. Following the
second expansion in 1968, other areas around Columbia Falls and
even areas in the southwestern part of Glacier National Park,
which at its nearest point is 6 miles northeast of the aluminum
plant, exhibited visible damage to flora.

In 1970 the National Park Service, U.S. Department of the
Interior, was concerned that fluoride emissions from the
aluminum plant were being carried into Glacier National Park.
The Park Service requested the assistance of the National Air
Pollution Control Administration, a predecessor of the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), in assessing the effects

of airborne fluorides on vegetation and wildlife in the Park.

xi


replacement air from the down-valley flow is entrained and

wind directions consequently shift.

As direct sunshine progresses onto the broad lower valley
floor, the related developing vertical currents progress up-
ward into the blanket of stagnant air that accumulated during
the night and mix the air downward to the surface as well as
upward. Mixing continues to deepen until the mountaintop
levels are reached and the valley air begins to be entrained
by the prevailing upper winds.

The shift of wind direction toward the slopes heated by
the early morning sun is most striking at Station 3. This
northeasterly wind appears to blow from the shaded side of
the Apgar Mountains to the sunny side of Teakettle Mountain
between the hours of 7:00 a.m. and 1:00 p.m., exceeding 60
percent frequency from about 8:00 a.m. to about 10:00 a.m.
during the 1970 period depicted in Figure 4. During the morning,
this flow of clean air into the upper valley shields the east
face of Teakettle from effluents being carried aloft.

Up-valley wind flow develops about mid-day, and the mixing
layer deepens until air from above the top of Teakettle is
mixed with surface air throughout the upper valley during much
of the afternoon. By this time, the nighttime stagnant air
has already been carried away from the lower valley by the
prevailing winds, and only the current emissions are mixed
through the deep layer of air to the surface in the upper

valley so that the higher concentrations do not reach the

20


Table 11. FLUORIDE ACCUMULATION IN 1969 AND 1970 NEEDLES OF
WHITE, PONDEROSA, AND SCOTCH PINES EXPOSED FROM
JUNE 25 TO OCTOBER 21, 1970

(ug F/g)

Exposure/location| White pine Scotch pine Ponderosa pine

1969 1970 1969 1970 1969 1970

Plant shelters

Site 1 16.5 10.6 34.5 12.6 36.1 9.8
Site 2 8.3 16.7 12.4 39.6 10.7
Site 3 18.3 25.3 23.5 8.7 46.1 10.5

Garden plots

!
Site 1 7.3 7.8 10.0 5.5 | 19.1 | Jl
Site 2 ui.a | 9.2 7.1} 14.3 6.9
Site 3 12.7 6.2 6.3 5.0 16.6 6.8
Site 4 18.5 | 14.2 | 14.3 g.2 | 19.0 | 9.4
Control shelters®| 6.1 5.1 9.2 4.2 15.5 5.6

@Piuoride content of the plants in both control shelters.

57


Table 13. FLUORIDE ACCUMULATION IN CHINESE APRICOT LEAVES

EXPOSED IN 1970 STUDY

Exposure/location Fluoride content, wg F/g
July 14 through September 14 through
September 14 October 21
Plant shelters
Site l 6.7 15.9
Site 2 8.4 24.3
Site 3 10.7 19.7
Garden plots
Site 1 10.2 14.6°
Site 2 9.9
Site 3 9.6
Site 4 12.8
Control plant 2.6 2.0
shelters

aDate of exposure was July 14 to September 26.

59


Table 14. FLUORIDE ACCUMULATION IN GLADIOLUS LEAF TISSUE
EXPOSED FROM JUNE 25 THROUGH SEPTEMBER 14, 1970

Fluoride content, ug F/g

Exposure/location 0 to 2 inches [2 to 4 inches 4 to 6 inches
from tip from tip from tip
Plant shelters
Site 1 20.6 6.7 8.1
Site 2 24.0 12.4 9.3
Site 3 23.9 9.9 10.2
Garden plots
Site 1 26.8 10.1 7.5
Site 2 43.6 9.1 8.9
Site 3 28.2 10.9 9.0
Control plant 12.0 8.9 5.2

shelters

6c


DIRECTION FROM WHICH WIND BLOWS

ToT TOT TT TTT TT TT TT
}— =
ems
_ Pea se
~ ~N
gL _ cee yA 4
Sel eae Ss.
SE [— a <5 oa
“ yA
a TT 4
E20 20 —
F—30. 30
2 wey C2
a }
4 a
sw f— / ‘ J
a 5 S |
CON &
. sy \ +
g N }
| § Ss. L Le 5 _|
a a g
z 4
3S ES a
= a z
| Z soy Ss
a Boo {NLL ES
Hl \ ale
Lee <5 ‘\ \ <8 Ae
a-a7 } \ nl
bopot de] see |
2 4 6 8 10 12 2 4 6 8 10 12
a.m. p.m.
TIME OF DAY

Figure 5. Dominant wind-flow patterns measured June

through September, 1970 at DeMerritt Station (No. 5).

Isolines show percent occurrence of wind directions
at indicated times. .

17


Figure

1

10

LIST OF FIGURES

Orientation Map Showing Anaconda Aluminum
Plant and the Glacier National Park Area.....

Location of Meteorological Observation
Stations... cece cece cece cence rece ee nseeeeeeee

Dominant Wind-Flow Patterns Measured June
Through September, 1970 at Blankenship
Station (NO. 2)... eecece eee c eee ccereeeceneece

Dominant Wind-Flow Patterns Measured June
Through September, 1970 at Rose Station

(NO. 3B) ccc c cece cece ence erence ec ee rene eeenees

Dominant Wind-Flow Patterns Measured June
Through September, 1970 at DeMerrit Station

10 \ [o> ) as

Wind Rose for the Months of June, July, and
August at Kalispell, Montana (1950 Through

1959) ccc ccecc cer ecccsccecreresesasecessceene

Simplified Drawing of Typical Midmorning Wind-
Flow Patterns in Upper Flathead Valley.......

Location of Fluoridation Plate Exposure Sites

Distribution of Average Monthly Fluoridation

pC ot 1 ay

Location of Volumetric Fluoride Monitoring
Stations and Plant Exposure Shelters.........

vii

11

15

16

17

18

22

29

33

35


VEGETATION STUDIES........ cee eeeccecccccsrrcrret?
Indigenous Vegetation.......ceeeeeeeeerrrrete
Visual ObservationsS........ee eres eee ere reet
Chemical AnalySeS.......eeeeeeeeeeeersertere
Histological Examination........-eeeeeeeeee
Controlled Exposure of Selected Vegetation...

APPENDIX: DATA OBTAINED IN VOLUMETRIC SAMPLING....

vi


peaks well above 10,000 feet, the mountains pitch down to
rivers and lakes that are nearly 3,100 feet above mean sea
level (MSL).

The Flathead River system, shown in an area map in Figure
1, drains the western side of the Divide and forms the Park's
western boundary. This drainage area is subdivided into an
“upper valley" with narrow tributary canyons and swift streams
and a "lower valley" more than 15 miles wide, through which the
river meanders to Flathead Lake, approximately 8 miles south-
east of Kalispell, Montana. The river leaves the upper valley
through Badrock Canyon, which also constitutes the south wall
of Teakettle Mountain. The Anaconda aluminum plant is situated
a mile down-river from Badrock Canyon between the river and
the west face of Teakettle Mountain.

Although several ranches are located in the upper valley,
the area is primarily Park and National Forest land, with a
limited road system along the rivers. The lower valley is
relatively broad and flat, with a road network that follows
section and quarter-section survey lines. In addition to
ranching and the ranch-related service industries, a lumber
industry processes timber from the surrounding mountains and
from the upper valley. Low-cost electric power has attracted
some additional industry, principally the aluminum plant at
Columbia Falls.

Climatology

The climate of the Flathead River drainage area may be


Table

12

13

14

Page

Fluoride Accumulation in Alfalfa Leaves
and Stems Exposed in 1970 Study...........-. 58

Fluoride Accumulation in Chinese Apricot
Leaves Exposed in 1970 Study............ eens 59

Fluoride Accumulation in Gladiolus Leaf

Tissue Exposed from June 25 through
September 14, 1970... .. cc cece eee eee eneceee 60

ix


es
valley winds, the latter often subject to pronounced chang

i itored
during a day. Low-level winds may be continuously mont

. . his stud
by surface-mounted wind recording instruments. For t Ye

i ther
surface wind data recorded hourly by the National Wea
Service at the Kalispell Airport (located about 8 miles south~

west of Columbia Falls) were supplemented by data from wind

recording instruments operated from mid-June through late

December of 1970 at three sites in the area. The locations of

these sites and their relationship to nearby topographical

features are shown in Figure 2. Wind sensors at these sites

were exposed 32 feet above ground in open pasture except at

Station 3, where a 40-foot mast barely reached above the
surrounding lodgepole pines.

Upper Winds

The National Weather Service obtains upper air wind
measurements twice each day at Spokane, Washington, 200 miles
west-southwest of the study area, and at Great Falls, Montana,
80 miles to the east-southeast. The frequencies of occurrence
of wind directions for the summer months of 1961 through 1965
are shown in Table 2. At Spokane, the winds 1500 meters above
mean sea level (m MSL) are predominatly from the southwest.

At Great Falls, on the eastern side of the Continental Divide,
the winds at 2000 m MSL are slightly stronger and more westerly.

In the absence of winds aloft data for Glacier National
Park, it is difficult to define the behavior of winds at and

above the general ridge level (about 2000 m MSL). Climatological

10


ea EPA-908/] -73-001

FLUORIDE
IN GLACIER NATIONAL PARK:

A FIELD INVESTIGATION

fice Gee fee ta Weta

U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
REGION Vili
Air and Water Programs Division
Denver, Colorado 80203


Table 5.

COMPARISON OF FLUORIDATION RATES MEASURED BY

EPA PLATE AND MONTANA LIMED PAPER METHODS®

Fluoridation rate, wg F/com*-28 day Ratio:
Sample, Station® Limed paper/
period number Plate paper plate
July L Q.31 0.23 0.74
2 0.39 0.22 0.56
3 0.28 0.25 0.89
4 0.42 0.45 1.07
September 1 0.25 0.17 0.67
2 0.56 0.23 0.41
3 0.28 o.1l 0.39
4 0.31 0.24 0.77
October i 0.28 0.13 0.46
2 0.31 0.14 0.45
3 o.1l 0.09 0.81
4 0.34 0.221 0.61
November 1 0.28 0.17 0.60
2 0.36 0.22 0.61
4 0.36 0.23 0.63
25 0.50 0.42 0.84
December 2 ---- 0.26 ----
4 0.47 0.38 0.80
25 0.67 0.62 0.92

@pata on limed Paper measurements supplied by Montana State

Health Department.
Limed papers for August were lost in transit.

All stations are located in Glacier National Park or near the
Park boundary.

36


Park. The nighttime down-valley flow is conducive to movement
of fluorides from the aluminum plant south and southwestward
into Columbia Falls and along the lower valley of the Flathead
River.

The highest concentrations of fluorides are likely to be
carried into the Park during the daytime, principally during
the midmorning hours. The nocturnal flow in the lower Flathead
Valley tends to be sluggish and causes fluorides emitted during
the nighttime hours to accumulate in the valley. After sunrise,
pollutants that have accumulated in the lower valley combine
with continuing emissions and mix in a deepening air layer until
this layer reaches the top of Teakettle Mountain, where the
pollutants are entrained into the upper wind flow. The
pollutants are conveyed by the prevailing southwesterly upper
wind over the upper Flathead Valley and intercept the moun-
tainous terrain within the Park at the height of the upper wind
level. Downward mixing of the air mass in the steep valleys
within the Park is retarded during the morning by deep shadows
that prevent solar heating of the ground. By midday more
vigorous vertical mixing of the air mass in the upper valley
causes a reduction of pollutant concentrations within the
Park.

Summer through early fall appears to be the period of
greatest transport of pollutants toward the Park. Favorable
conditions for this movement are the longer daytime hours and
the prevailing southwesterly winds. During other seasons winds

are usually stronger, so that greater dispersion takes place

xiii


In cooperation with other Federal and state agencies, EPA

conducted field studies in and near Glacier National Park during

1970. This report presents results of the EPA studies, which

include meteorological analyses, measurement of ambient fluoride

concentrations, and assessment of the effects of fluorides on

special test vegetation and indigenous flora within the Park.

EPA also sponsored a more extensive study of vegetation and

wildlife conducted by the University of Montana. Results of

that 6-month study are described in a report, EPA-908/1-73-002.
Investigations performed by the Forest Service are reported in
"Environmental Pollution by Fluorides in Flathead National

Forest and Glacier National Park" (U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Missoula, Montana).

METEOROLOGICAL ANALYSES

Observations of the wind flow at various locations and
elevations indicated two distinct air-flow patterns that affect
the movement of airborne fluorides emitted at the aluminum
plant. Upper-level winds, those at or above the mountaintop,
are most prevalent from the’ southwest during the summer. Lower-
level winds, those from ground level in the valleys to about
mountaintop level, tend to reverse direction from day to night.
These wind patterns interact to cause transport of fluoride
emissions toward Glacier National Park a major portion of the
time.

In daytime, prevailing up-valley air flows coupled with
southwesterly winds aloft are conducive to the movement of

fluorides across Teakettle Mountain and northeasterly into the

xii


with symptoms characterized as fluoride type. Similar symptoms
on 1968 needles were observed for several miles southeast of

the plant. The symptoms suggest that vegetation in the vicinity
of Columbia Falls was exposed to high atmospheric fluoride
concentrations in 1968 and perhaps early in 1969. Since that
time, injury appears to be light and is probably confined to

a radius of a few miles around the plant. Heaviest injury is
apparent on the south slope of Teakettle Mountain.

Needle burn on 1968 needles of sensitive pine species in
Glacier National Park indicates that excessive fumigation with
fluorides probably occurred in 1968; tissus analyses confirmed
this observation. Observations from the top of Teakettle
Mountain confirm that fluoride-type symptoms are prevalent to
the top of the mountain. Wind movement from the south-southwest
would carry any pollutants reaching the top of the mountain up
the middle fork of Flathead River into the Lake McDonald area.
Although no evidence of recent foliage injury was observed
within the Park, it is possible that chronic symptoms of fluoride
accumulation may be manifested at a later date, as the newer
growth is exposed to low ambient levels of fluoride over an
extended period of time.

Chemical Analyses

Samples of indigenous vegetation were collected during the
summer of 1970. Fluoride content of samples collected and
analyzed by the University of California is reported in Table

9. These samples were obtained from 1968 needles which exhibited

49


Table 4. LOCATION AND ELEVATION OF FLUORIDATION NETWORK SITES
IN AND NEAR GLACIER NATIONAL PARK

Elevation above
mean sea level,

Location

number

feet

1 3150
2 3100
3 3200
4 3250
5 3040
6 3000
7 3145
8 3145
9 3800
10 3350
ll 3500
12 2993
13 2900
14 3250
15 3400
16 3320
17 3100
18 3050
19 5200
20 3150
21 3580
22 4200
23 3150
24 3400
25 3280
26 3400
27 3260
28 3145
30 3400
32 3070
33 3050
33 3050
34 3920
35 4200
36 3400
37 3250

Glacier Park; near Fire Weather
Station

Blankenship Ranch

Rose Ranch

Near railroad and Blankenship Road
crossing

DeMerritt Property

Northeast of Whitefish

Upper Lake McDonald; at Ranger
Station

Lower Lake McDonald; near Apgar

Camas Creek Road; on trail to
Huckeberry Mountain

North Fork Road; near Big Creek
Ranger Station

North Fork Road; 5 miles north of
Station 3

Northwest end of Lake Blaine

South of Creston; along Highway 35

Highway 2; 2 miles south of Park
headquarters

East side of Teakettle Mountain

North Ford Road; near Turnbull
Creek turnoff

Dehlbom Property

Badrock Canyon

Apgar Lookout

Park Headquarters

Vicinity of Hungry Horse Dam

Emery Hill

Coram

Boehm's Bear Den

Base of Apgar ridge

Red Eagle; near Nyack

Kootenai Creek; east of West Glacier

Southeast side of Lake McDonald

Hill above Park Headquarters

North of Morning Slough Lake

South of Morning Slough Lake

Southeast of Morning Slough Lake

Teakettle Mountain; 3 miles north
of Relay Tower

Teakettle Mountain, 1.5 miles north
of Relay Tower

Hill near gravel pit, on Highway 2

Hill above Park Headquarters; 150
feet below site 30

32


northeast sector must be ascribed to nighttime down-valley
flow toward the lake.
NIGHTTIME AIR MOVEMENTS

The lower Flathead Valley from Columbia Falls south to
Flathead Lake is protected to a large extent from the winds
aloft by the mountains that surround it on three sides; it is
relatively open only to the south. During nights when radia-
tional cooling at ground level is effective, the air near the
ground cools rapidly, becomes more dense, and begins to flow
along the ground toward lower elevations. Effluents emitted
from industrial operations are warm and rise until they are no
longer buoyant but remain below the crest of the confining
mountains.

The air from the upper valley drains through Badrock Canyon
and passes Station 5 as a northeasterly wind. This down-
valley wind becomes apparent at 10:00 p.m., reaches a maximum
frequency of 67 percent near sunrise, and usually dissipates
shortly after noon. The same air current is apparent at the
airport, where it is more diffuse and northerly because of the
inclusion of additional air currents as it spreads over the
flat valley floor to Flathead Lake.

DAYTIME AIR MOVEMENTS

At sunrise the west sides of both the upper and lower
valleys, with their east-facing slopes are warmed rapidly; the
opposite valley walls, which remain in deep shadow, are cool.

As vertical currents develop over sun-heated slopes, cooler

19


Comparison of values for the 5-month period disclosed that
those obtained by the plate method consistently averaged about
one-third higher than those obtained by the limed paper method.
Although other factors may contribute to the higher fluoridation
values given by the plates, one explanation for the difference
is the method of exposure. The plate configuration exposes
the filter paper more openly to the atmosphere, whereas the
louvered shelter used by the State may restrict air flow around
the limed papers and offer less ventilation. Statistical
analysis of the two sets of data indicates that the fluoridation
rates given by the plates should be multiplied by a factor of
0.68 for comparability with rates given by limed paper. The
fluoridation rates obtained at all of the EPA stations (Table
3) were multiplied by this factor and adjusted to a 28-day
rate to provide the monthly fluoridation rates shown in Table
6.

These results show that the average fluoridation rates
measured at four of the fifteen stations located in or near
Glacier Park approach or exceed the State standard. The
average value for site 19 on Apgar Mountain exceeds the
standards by a factor of nearly 2. All the monthly readings
obtained during the study at this site were above the State
standard.

Applying the correlation factor of 0.68 and the adjustment
for the 28-day exposure to the projected distribution patterns

shown in Figure 9 suggests that much of the area within the

37


1-3 47 8-12 13-18 >18
MILES PER HOUR
0 5
wD ———— — |
PERCENT FREQUENCY

Figure 6. Wind rose for the months of June, July, and
August at Kalispell, Montana (1950 through 1959).

18


Moderate tip burn was observed on Gladiolus and Apricot
leaves. Gladiolus were harvested for analysis on September 14
as buds were opening after about 11 weeks of growth. Alfalfa
and part of the apricot leaves were also harvested at this
time. At the end of the 16-week study, the rest of the apricot
leaves and the new growth of alfalfa was harvested. Pine
needles were also collected from the test trees at this time
and were classified as 1969 and 1970 needle growth for analyses.

Samples from plants grown in the exposure shelters and
the garden plots were analyzed at the EPA laboratory in
Durham, North Carolina. Unwashed plant samples were identified,
sorted, oven-dried, and ground for automated wet-chemical
analysis with an autoanalyzer. Results are reported in ug F/g
dry weight in Tables 11 through 14.

Results of the controlled exposure of selected vegetation
indicate that nearly all samples exposed to this ambient air
accumulated more fluoride than did those grown in the purified
air of the control chambers. This accumulation appears to be
of marginal significance, however, it must be remembered that
the vegetation encountered low concentrations of fluoride as

demonstrated by the air quality measurements made at these same

exposure sites.

56


Table

10

11

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Climatological Characteristics of Glacier
National Park REGion.....eeeseeeceeerreeeees 6

Frequencies of Occurrences of Wind Directions

in Summer Measured at Two National Weather
Service Upper Air Stations Nearest to

Columbia Falls, Montana........e-seeeeeeeees 12

Monthly Fluoridation Rates Measured with
EPA PlateS......sseeecc cece ere cnectececereee 31

Location and Elevation of Fluoridation
Network Sites In and Near Glacier National
Parke ccc ccccc sec ccccccerereeeccesersceessses 32

Comparison of Fluoridation Rates Measured
by EPA Plate and Montana Limed Paper
MeEthoOdS.... cece scsrceccccccccscnsceecvecces 36

Conversion of Fluoridation Rates Measured by
Plate Method to Equivalent State of Montana
VALUES. cece cere eee e eect ewer esse ereeeseese 38

Summary of 12-Hour Gaseous and Particulate
Fluoride Concentrations Measured in Glacier
National Park and Surrounding Area, June

26 to October 23, 1970.....e cece reece eeeeeee§ 41

Fluoride Content of Vegetation Samples
Obtained in 1969... cece cece eee ee eee ese eee 45

Fluoride Content of Vegetation Samples
Collected and Analyzed by University of
California... cc cccec cece cece e eee eee seen eens 50

Fluoride Content of Vegetation Samples
Collected and Analyzed by EPA............... 51

Fluoride Accumulation in 1969 and 1970 Needles

of White, Ponderosa, and Scotch Pines Exposed
from June 25 to October 21, 1970...-+eeeeer?

viii


Table 1.

CLIMATOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF GLACIER NATIONAL PARK REGION.
AND EXTREMES BASED ON APPROXIMATELY 30

YEARS OF RECORDS.)

Temperature, °F Mean No. of Days | Precipitation, inches
Station and Extremes of that temperature | All Snow and Sleet
Elevation, Mean Daily Record remained <32°F | Forms,{ mean monthly
ft MSL Max. Min. Max. Min] Max. Min. | mean max.
Kalispell April
2965 57 31 81 14 0 20 1.04 2.4 8.1
West Glacier
3145 54 30 80 3 a 21 2.00 4.5 24.0
Polebridge
3690 53 25 86 -12 a 26 1.55 4.1 24.8
Marias Pass
5213 45 23 74 -30 3 26 2.93 25.5 87.0
July
Kalispell 84 48 104 32 ty) a 1.04 0.0 0.0
W. Glacier 80 47 98 32 0 a 1.48 bag
Polebridge 81 41 101 27 i) 2 1.18 ) 0
Marias Pass 73 40 93 26 0 4 1.35 7b 7d
October
Kalispell 56 32 81 15 ta) 21 1.24 1a. 9.9
W. Glacier 53 33 79 15 a 16 2.57 2.0 28.0
Polebridge 55 27 85 -21 a 23 1.84 3.1 16.5
Marias Pass 49 29 82 -7 2 21 3.14 11.9 61.0
January
Kalispell 28 12 50 ~26 17 30 1.37 20.0 34.8
W. Glacier 28 14 49 -37 18 30 2.99 36.6 74.5
Polebridge 28 7 51 ~46 19 30 2.63 32.8 91.2
Marias Pass 23 7 48 55 23 31 4.17 44.0 123.0
Annual
Kalispell 55 31 105 -35 52 195 15.42 67.3 49,7
W. Glacier 53 31 98 -37 53 192 29,11 134.2 74.5
Polebridge 54 25 lol ~46 56 238 22.32 119.6 91.2
Marias Pass 47 25 96 “55 94 247 38.29 251.3 123.0

a Less than 12 hours

b Trace

(NORMALS, MEANS,


and partially or entirely dead. The needle tip necrosis ranged

from red-brown to light brown with numerous dark brown bands.
Typical fluoride-type symptoms were also found on trees at the

top of the mountain.

The 1968 needles of Douglas fir trees were heavily marked
with fleck-like chlorotic lesions and a general golden-brown
discoloration. Needles produced more recently were free of
this symptom. Wild strawberry leaves showed Marginal necrosis
and dark purple pigmentation between the major veins extending
toward the mid-rib. Bear grass was severely injured, with
light tan necrosis on the top 10 inches or more of mature
leaves.

North Slope of Teakettle Mountain - Tip necrosis was observed

on 1968: needles of white pine trees scattered along the north
slope of the mountain; the 1969 and 1970 needles appeared to
be free of injury. The symptoms were particularly severe on a
few trees at the base of the mountain on Wright's Ranch.

A young planting of ponderosa pine near Lake Five was
heavily marked with necrotic tips (3 and 4 centimeters long)
on 1968 growth; more recent growth showed no visible symptoms.
Similar symptoms were observed on lodgepole pine (P. Contorta)
along the roadside in the same area.
Glacier Park - Iris growing wild at the site of an old homestead
showed necrotic damage on leaf tips. Necrosis on some of the
oldest leaves extended 6 inches or more. Some tip burn on 1969
needles of a young Douglas fir was also observed at this

location.

47


clarity and resolution to the initial stages of injury. Sections
were taken from the green, uninjured portion of the needles
immediately preceding the demarcation line between injured and
uninjured tissue.

Examination of the specimens revealed that the parenchymatous
tissues of palisade and spongy cells were collapsed and some
chloroplasts had lost their integrity. The epithelial cells of
the resin canal showed swelling and expansion. The vascular
bundles were distorted and adjacent cells had collapsed.

The extensive changes in the injured needle tissue indicated
that the causative agent of the needle necrosis was chemical.
CONTROLLED EXPOSURES OF SELECTED VEGETATION

Cylinder-shaped, fiberglas greehouses were located at
three of the sites where volumetric ambient fluoride measure-
ments were conducted. Stations 1, 2, and 3 (shown in Figure
10) were selected for the exposure tests because of the avail-
ability of electric power and the proximity to the Park.

At sites 1 and 2, shelters of the same type as those used
for ambient expo ures were equipped with filters to remove
particulate and gaseous fluorides. In these control shelters,
ambient air was blown through a series of filters before enter-
ing the shelter and then was pulled from the shelter by an
exhaust blower. In the regular test shelters, unfiltered ambient
air was drawn by the air movement induced by an exhaust blower.
In all shelters, fans circulated air at a rate of about 1 air-

volume-change-per-minute.

54


AIR QUALITY STUDY

Two basic types of measurements are used to detect
atmospheric fluorides. One, obtained by impaction of air on
a chemically treated surface, indicates fluoridation rate or
‘'dosage,' given as ug F/om?-day. The other gives concentration
of fluoride in air by volume, that is, ug F/m?. For convenience
of reference, the first method is designated as an '‘impact'
method and the second as a ‘volumetric' method. The impact
measurements are obtained by exposing chemically treated
filter paper to the air in the test area. The inexpensive
impact samplers are readily located at different sites and
are useful in delineating spatial distribution of fluoride
pollution. Since the amount of gaseous fluoride taken up by
the treated paper surface correlated reasonably well with the
amount of fluoride accumulated in vegetation during the same
time interval, the fluoride 'dosage' rate data provided by
this method are useful indicators of potential long-term or
chronic fluoride damage to vegetation.

The volumetric concentration measurements are made with
a sequential sampler that is capable of separating gaseous
and particulate fluorides. Since this type of measurement

requires electric power, the volumetric measurements were

27


Station 4 - Glacier Park

(ug/r3)
— 7/29 900 0.12 0.20 0.32
6/25 __900_0.08 0.00 0.00 7/29. 2100 3103 at 0.20
6/25 2100 0.0% 0.24 0.28 7/30 900 0.05 0.17 0.22
6726 __ 900. 0.26 0.26 0.52 7/30. _.2100 0.02__0-11._0.13
6/26 2100 0.12 0.20 0.32 7/31 900 0.10 0.36 0.46
6/27 ____ 900 0.12 0.19 0.31 __7/31 2100 0.05 0.190224
6/27 2100 0.09 0414 0.23 art 300770703 70.02 Ons
of28 900 0.12 0.12 0624 8/1. 2100_0.04 0-09 0.13
6/28 2100 0.07 0.14 0.21 ey 2 9007 0.03 0.05 0.08
64/29 __900 _0212_0-25 _0.37__ 8/2 2100 0.04. 0.22. 0.26
6429 2100 0.05 0.10 8/3 900 0:22 0.60 0.82
6/30 «900 0410 | 0.18 a/ 3 2100 9.05 0.31 O16 __
6/30 2100 0.09 0.25 0.34 8/4 900 0.03 0.04 0.07
iat 900 0.18 0.30 0.48 8/4 2100 0.02. 0.04 0.06
TT 2100 0.00 0.00 0.00 8/5 900 0.067 0.19 0.25
—i/_3 900 0.00 0.00 0.00 B/_5 2100 _0.20__0.07 0.27
m3 2100 0.14 0.00 0.00 8/6 900 0.047 0.62 0.66”
—1/_4 ___900_0.00 0.00 0,00 _ 8/6 2100 0,05 0.18 0.23
Ws 2100 0.20 0.00 0.00 8/7 9000.18 0.30 0.48
uw 5 900 0.00 0.00 0.00 a/_2 2100. _0.07_0.33_ 0.40 |
WS 2100 0.16 0.00 0.00 B/ 8 900 0.05 0.09 0.14
14.6. 900 0.00 0.00 0,00 8/8 2100 0.04 0.30 0.34
We 2100 0.12 0.00 0.00 8/9 900 0.18 0.56 0.74
713 900 0.00 0.00 0.00 8/9 204 0419 0.23
7/13 2100 0209 «0.05 0.14 2100 0-04 2}

“TNS 900 0-644 0.36 0.80 8/10 900 0.17 0.46 0.63
TLS. ..-.2100 0612 0.05 0.17... 8410 2100 0.05 0.16 0.21
1/16 900 0.14 0.03 0.17 8/11 900 0.17 0.41 0.58

TL16 2100 0.12 0,05 0.17 _..8/11______ 2100 0.06 0-18 0.24 _
TAT 900 0.24 0.16 0.40 8/12 900 4 0421 0.45
UAT... 21000412 0207 0,19. 8412 2100 0.08 0.14 0.22
TLS 900 0.09 0.07 0.16 8/13 900 O.21 O.13 0.34
7/18. _.2100._0.10 .0.05__0.15..  — 8/13___2100__0.03 0.27 0.30
19 900 0.28 0.37 0.65 eta et bos Q-1e 9.22
J 2200 0,10 0.23 6.33! eed 202.0. .
ne 900 0.10 0.10 o120 esis 900 0.00 0.00 0.00
. 0.07. 0.23 —- n- a _.
at ~ 7500 bos oL18 0.27 8/15 2100 0.13 0.14 0.27
War 2100 0.12 0.69 0.81 - bite. ~- 3200 0.37 0.37 0.74
1/22 900 0.16 0.53 0.69 e/te OO Q-1@ 9-10 0.26
(22-2100 0,07. O45 0422 00. _O.. 2270s
22 300 pot 0.48 ne B/1T 2100 0.05 0.34 0.39
1/23 2100 0.09 0616 0.25 __ at rttt 0-19. ood 9-30
1124 900 O-L1l 0-15 0-26 8719 See o 2 need 0.0
~ 128 2100 orb5 ore . era ~~gs19—-2100 O10 0119 br2e
1/25 900 0.09 0. . : : :
1125 8220. 900 0,18 0.30 0.48
_ 2100. 0.00 0403-4 8/20 2100 0.03 ,0.23 0.26
1/26 900 0.16 0.44 0.60 B/20 YOO 0.03 0.23 0.2¢
— 1426 2100 0.08 0416. 0.28. B/21. 2100 0.06 0.20 0.26
12? 9C0 0.05 0.41 0.46 eral 109 0-06 0.20 0+26
38 2aee les oltz ont 8/22 2100 0.05 ,0.39 0164
28 too Oloe 0609. 0.13, — 8/23 900_.0,41.7 0.66 1.05."

67


limited to a few sites where power was available.
IMPACT MEASUREMENTS

Thirty-six sites for impact sampling were established
throughout the study area within a radius of 20 miles from the
aluminum plant. These sites were arranged so that a represen-
tative geographical distribution of fluoride levels in the
study area might be ascertained. Site locations are shown in
Figure 8.

The sampling devices used by EPA differ from standard
limed paper used by the Montana State Health Department in that
filter paper circles are impregnated with sodium formate
reagent whereas the Montana standard limed paper uses calcium
formate. The methods of exposing these devices to fluorides
also differed. The EPA fluoridation plates were placed in
brackets and attached to posts, utility poles, or trees with
the exposed side facing downward. The State of Montana exposed
the standard limed paper monitors in louvered shelters that
allowed the air to contact both sides of the paper.

At some of the EPA stations, more than one plate was
exposed as a check on reproducibility of results. Since the
EPA plate configuration differed from the standard limed paper
and exposure shelter used by the State of Montana, fluoridation
rates were measured at four sites with both types of devices
to allow correlation of readings given by the two methods.

The plates and limed papers were exposed for monthly intervals

and returned to the laboratory for analysis.

28


VEGETATION STUDIES

Phytotoxicity of airborne gaseous fluoride is well docu-

mented in the literature.

Fluoride is an accumulative toxicant,

and development of plant injury is usually associated with

fluoride buildup in the leaf over a relatively long period in

contrast to short-time exposure that normally causes injury

with most atmospheric phototoxicants.

is relatively stable in contrast
down or change chemically within
plant can differ considerably in
leaves differ in age or exposure

Since deciduous plants lose
is no opportunity for buildup of

one year to the next. Conifers,

Also, the fluoride ion
to many pollutants that break
the leaf. Leaves on the same
fluoride content because
time.

their leaves annually, there
fluorides in the trees from

however, retain their needles

and can accumulate fluorides over a longer period of time.

A wide variation in sensitivity is recognized; some species

may accumulate in excess of 100 parts per million (ppm) on a

dry weight basis without displaying any symptoms of injury,

whereas other species may develop extensive areas of dead

tissue when much less fluoride has been accumulated.

It is

generally accepted that fluoride concentrations in plants up

to 10 ppm may be considered normal occurrence and that some

43


‘<5 ‘a
sew ’
20 Sse |
a) =
ert AMM
f ~~
\ “SN
\ \
EL \ \ —
\ <5 /
z | /
2 | -
fa) / a
Z sep / 7 —
= 4 og :
x a 7
is) rf “7
z See eA-7
=
ste _
2
&
Fo) 20
5 40
oO
2 swil— a>
a
w
g B z
2 2 g
> > >
w f- a a 21
z z z
Pr Pa rr
= 20, = 20 =
Tr C40) a ) 204
NW f==20 } Pan S
fo \ |
NX
/ <s SI
‘ \
ft tet | | ft bh | | ind ft ft
2 2 4 °6 #8 0 12 2 4 6 8 0 12 2 4
kK a.m , p.m. a.m

TIME OF DAY

Figure 3. Dominant wind-flow patterns measured June
through September, 1970 at Blankenship Station (No. 2).
Isolines show percent occurrence of wind directions at

indicated times.

1s


current-season (1970) needles appeared free of injury. The
brown necrotic tip of 1968 needles was about 2 to 3 centimeters
long on trees in the area. Each necrotic tip showed 2 to 4 dark
brown bands and a sharp line of demarcation between healthy and
necrotic tissue. This symptom is characteristic of injury
produced on sensitive pines by fluorides in polluted atmospheres.

Young pine trees in the ornamental plantings at the
entrance to the Columbia Falls Forest Ranger Station showed
considerable injury of the 1968 needles, less injury of the 1969
needles, and no apparent injury of 1970 needles. The oldest
leaves of a young birch tree growing in the same area were
severely injured. Necrosis at the margin of these leaves
extended between the principal veins almost to the mid-rib.
Younger leaves on the same shoots showed intercostal and
marginal symptoms. The injury symptoms were of the type that
may be associated with accumulation of fluorides.

Ponderosa trees at various points along the highway from
Columbia Falls south to Bigfork were examined for symptoms of
injury by air pollutants. Tip necrosis of needles was observed
for at least 10 miles southeast of Columbia Falls. A large
commercial planting of conifers about 20 miles from Columbia
Falls appeared to be free of injury.

Teakettle Mountain - Young lodgepole pine and other shrubs at the
top of Teakettle Mountain and on the south slope above the
aluminum reduction plant were severely marked with necrotic

lesions. Many of the young pine trees were heavily defoliated

46


Plants exposed included ponderosa, Scotch, and white pines,
alfalfa, Chinese apricot, and Snow Princess gladiolus. Trees
were obtained from these sources: white pine--Coeur d'Alene,
Idaho, ponderosa pine--Potamac Valley, Missoula, Montana;
Scotch pine--St. Regis, Montana; and Chinese apricot--Denver,
Colorado.

The pines were 3 to 4 years old and were placed at the
sites 1 to 2 weeks after bud break, The apricot trees were 5
to 6 years old. All trees remained during this exposure period
in the soil in which they were delivered by the nursery.

Gladiolus and alfalfa were grown hydroponically in a
vermiculite support medium. Plastic pots containing the plants
were placed in shallow plastic trays to which a deionized water
netrient solution was added twice a week. On a weekly schedule,
all plants were flushed with distilled water, and the trays
were cleaned to rid them of algae. In the latter stages of
the study heaters were placed inside the shelters to prevent
freezing.

The selected plant varieties were also grown in garden
plots near the shelters at sites 1, 2, and 3. A garden plot
was also established at the air sampling station near Mud Lake
(site 4). Gladiolus and alfalfa were planted in native soil
at each of the garden plots, but the trees were left in their
containers with the original soil. The garden plots were
watered about every other day with deionized water and once a

week with nutrient solution.

55


ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Principal technical contributors from the Environmental
Protection Agency were Mr. Kirk E. Foster, Environmental
Engineer; Mr. George A. Cleeves, Meteorologist; and Dr.
Ibrahim J. Hindawi, Plant Anatomist. Dr. O. C. Taylor,
University of California, assisted as the consulting
Horticulturist.

Norman A. Huey, Air and Water Program Division, Region
VIII, with contractual assistance from PEDCo-Environmental
Specialists, Inc., Cincinnati, Ohio coordinated preparation

this report.

iii

of


\Saeicr

Ansconds

Kalispell Airport ¥

Lower Flathead
Valley

Colembia Fatt, sf )

su

\
N.

OE
way

wa

INENTAL piv

conri
lan
va

f
s

Ven

aU ANY ENSHIP
STATION 2

a ae

Sf Flathead

OSE STATION A

S

© Volley
“" STATION &

zs Bodrack U

Alumni

Colombe

__)

Figure

19. Location of volumetric fluoride monitoring
stations and plant exposure shelters.

35


Lower Flathead
Valley

ENTAL Diving

Corin
rn.

an

WT

wa

Figure 9.

Distribution of average monthly
(Isoline values in ng F/cmé-day)

33

fluoridation rates.


Table 12. FLUORIDE ACCUMULATION IN ALFALFA LEAVES AND
STEMS EXPOSED IN 1970 STUDY

Exposure/location Fluoride content, ug F/g
duly 24 through September 14 through
September 14 October 21
Plant shelters
Site 1 13.9 13.6
Site 2 12.5 11.5
Site 3 11.1 15.1
Garden plots
Site l 21.3
Site 2 19.3
Site 3 24.7
Site 4 32.1
Control plant 4.4 5.0
shelters

58


boundary of the Park, presumably protected by topography from eX~

posure to airborne fluorides, appeared free of foliar injury, but

tip necrosis was clearly visible on older needles of sensitive

white pine growing in areas situated deep within the interior of
the Park along the presumsd frequent path of the effluent plume
from the aluminum plant.

Histological examination of injured needles from conifers
exhibiting tip burn symptoms showed extensive pathological
changes in the needle tissue that indicate chemical etiology of
the needle necrosis. These changes were not caused by insect
infestation, natural disease, or winter damage.

Injury symptoms on conifers observed in 1970 in all cases
were confined to the older needles - those having initial growth
in 1967, 1968, and 1969- Although the current-year needles of
the affected trees showed no injury symptoms, it is probable
that after longer exposure times these needles will show visible
injury. The extent and severity of burn on 1967 through 1969
needles strongly suggest that serious and irreparable damage to
the Park flora would occur in future years with fluoride
emissions at the pre-1971 level.

Assessment of foliar injury and the probable causative
agent was verified by a consultant associated with the University
of California Research Center at Riverside. Chemical analysis
of necrotic conifer needles at the Riverside laboratory indicated
significant fluoride content, which substantiated the consultant's

initial conclusions that the needle tip necrosis observed on

xvi


Table 8. FLUORIDE CONTENT OF VEGETATION
SAMPLES OBTAINED IN 1969

Vegetation F7 ug/gm
Lodgepole pine (needle tip) 70
Lodgepole pine (needle base) 70
Gladiolus (leaf tip 2 in.) 170
Gladiolus (leaf base 2 in.) 90
Apples (leaf margin) 190
Apples (leaf mid-section) 150
Willow (leaf margin) 210
Willow (leaf mid-section) 70

45


Table 10.

White Pine

FLUORIDE CONTENT OF VEGETATION SAMPLES
COLLECTED AND ANALYZED BY EPA
(Fluoride in yg/g)

Glacier Park HQ, 7/16/70

1967 needles
tip
base

1968 needles
tip
base

1969 needles
tip
base

1970 needles
tip
base

White Pine
6 mi. N of
Lake McDonald,

1968 needles
tip
base

1969 needles
tip
base

Ponderosa Pine
4 mi.

1967 needles
tip
base

1968 needles
tip
base

1969 needles
tip
base

SW Park HQ,

30
12

7/16/70

19
8

54
18

7/16/70

51

Ponderosa Pine

4 mi. SW Park HQ, 7/16/70
1970 needles
tip 10
base 4

Ponderosa Pine

Teakettle Mountain, 7/16/70

1968 needles

tip 295

base 101
1969 needles

tip 213

base 56

1970 needles 34

Ponderosa Pine
Monitoring Site 4, 10/22/70

1969 needles

tip 122

base 9
1970 needles

tip 39

base il

Ponderosa Pine

Dr. Kruck Residence, 7/16/70
needle ends 312

Ponderosa Pine

Columbia Falls Park, 7/16/70

needle ends 119


INTRODUCTION

PURPOSE OF THE STUDIES

The Anaconda Aluminum Company dedicated a new aluminum
reduction plant at Columbia Falls, Montana, in August 1955.
Although officials of the company asserted that injury to
indigenous flora and fauna by fluorides emitted in the reduction
process would be negligible, the Forest Service, U.S. Department
of Agriculture, observed in 1957 that some of the more suscep-
tible flora in the vicinity of the aluminum plant were visibly
damaged. Little evaluation or research into the extent of
damage was accomplished until late 1969 and 1970.

During the years between the initial observations of
suspected fluoride damage and the more extensive studies,
Anaconda twice expanded the plant. Following the second
expansion in 1968, dead and dying trees were observed over the
entire west face of Teakettle Mountain, which is directly east
of the aluminum plant. In other areas around Columbia Falls,
east of Teakettle Mountain, and even in areas in the south-
western part of Glacier National Park, which at its nearest
point is 6 miles northeast of the aluminum plant, the flora
also exhibited visible damage.

The Anaconda Aluminum Company reported that fluorides


This report is issued by the Environmental Protection Agency to report
technical data of interest to a limited number of readers. Copies are
available free of charge - as supplies permit - from the Air and Water
Programs Division, Region VIII, Environmental Protection Agency, Denver,
Colorado 80203, or may be obtained, for a nominal cost, from the National

Technical Information Service, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, Virginia
22151.

Publication No. EPA-908/1-73-001

ii


Vegetation growth may have been somewhat better than normal

because of the relatively warm, wet summer.

25


Station 4 - Glacier Park
(yg/m3)
8/23 2100 0405 0.42 0.47 94 2100 0.02 0.23 0.25
8/24_____ 900 0.09 0.08 0.17 _ _. 9/25... 900_ 0.20_.0.59.. 0.79
8/24 2100 0.05 0.04 0.09 9/25 2100 0.03 0.15 0.18
— 8/25_____ 900__0.10._.0-13._0.23...._ 9/2 900 0,00 0,5) 0,00
8/25 2100 0.02 0.12 0.14 9/26 2100 0.02 0.12 0.14
8/26 900 0223 0232 0,55 9/27. 900__ 0613. 0657...0270.
8/26 2100 0.02 0.11 0.13 9/27 2100 0.02 0.21 0.23
8/27 _.__ 900 0.42. 0.27 0.39... 9s28_ 9000.12 0.38 _.0.50
8/27 2100 0.02 0.08 0.10 9/28 2100 0.02 0.39 0.41
8/28 900 _0414_ 0.29 0.43 josie 900 0.00 0.00 9,00
8/28 2100 0.02 0.45 0.47 10/16 2100 0.02 1.33 1.35
8/29 900 0.08 0.16 0.24 — j0/17 900__0.03 0.12 0.15 ___
8429 2100 0.02 0.04 0.06 10/17 2100 0.02 0.08 0.10
_8/30 .900 0025 0.41 0-666  _ 10/18 -900._0..06..1.12_ 1.18__
8/30 2100 0.03 0.17 0.20 10/18 2100 0.05 0.55 0.60
8/31 900 0.13 0.12 0.25 _ 10/19 900 0.04 Oslo 0.20
8/31 2100 0.05 0.02 10/19 2100 0.02 0.02 0.04
941 900 0-12 _ 0.15 0-27  __ 10/20 900_.0403__0.10.0.13 __
v1 2100 0.02 0.06 0.08 10/20 2100 0.09 0.27 0.36
_ 94.2 900__0+23 0.26 0-49 10/21 900__0402 0.02. 0.04 |
2 2100 0.03 0.16 0.19 10/21 2100 0.04 0.30 0.34
9/3900 0.09 0.00 0.00 __
3 2100 0.00 0.00 0.00
a4 900 0.09 0.21 0.30
7 4 2100 0.02 0.02 0.04
9/5 ____ 900 0.18 0-13 0.31 __
5 2100 0.09 0.11 “0.20
9/6 900 _ 0.12 0613 0425
9 6 2100 0.03 0.03 0.06
7 900 0-08 0.32 0.40
v7 2100 0.05 0.12 0.17
9/8 900. 0.08 0.11 0.19
9/8 2100 0.04 0.12 0.16
979 900 0.16 0.33. _
9 2100 0.02 0.03
9/10 900 0.09 0.16 0.25
9710 2100 0.04 0.06 0.10
9420 900 0-12 0.26 0.38
9/20 “2100 0.01 0.02 0.03
9/21 900 Oe
9721 2100 0.0
9422 900 0-02 0.05 0.07
9722 2100 0.02 0.03 0.05
9/23 «900 0.04 0.08 0.12
9/23 2100 0.01 0.25 “0.26
9/24 900 0.20 46 0.66

68


values of the 700 millibar (mb) pressure heights (about 3000
m MSL) indicate that during the summer the prevailing winds
should be west-southwest to southwest in the vicinity of the
study area. Downward extrapolation of these winds for 1000
meters should give a more southerly component to the winds
near the ridgeline because of the influence of friction nearer
the ground. Although the magnitude of the direction change
cannot be accurately stated because of the roughness of the
terrain, a change of 10 to 20 degrees is a reasonable estimate.

The winds aloft appear to follow expected meteorological
patterns on the western side of the Continental Divide. The
behavior of large-scale atmospheric motions when encountering
a mountain chain is discussed in most basic texts on dynamical
meteorology. The usual behavior is for the winds on the down-
slope side to be directed to the right of the wind direction
on the upslope side. This appears to be the reason for the
more frequent westerly winds at Great Falls. The magnitude of
the turning is partially dependent upon wind speed. In winter,
when winds are usually stronger, the winds aloft at Spokane
are still predominantly from the southwest, but at Great Falls
the frequencies of occurrence of west and west-northwest winds
increase to 28.6 and 19.5 percent, respectively.
Lower Winds

Data obtained from the three EPA wind recording stations
(Figure 2) indicate marked differences, apparently caused by

the typical mountain and valley local wind-flow patterns.

13


EPA-908/1-73-001

FLUORIDE
IN GLACIER NATIONAL PARK:

A FIELD INVESTIGATION

Prepared for

U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
REGION VIII
Air and Water Programs Division
Denver, Colorado 80203

November 1973°


Table 6. CONVERSION OF FLUORIDATION RATES MEASURED BY
PLATE METHOD? TO EQUIVALENT
STATE OF MONTANA VALUES

Station Eguivalent fluoridation rate, ug F/com2-day
number Minimum Maximum Average
ap 0.17 0.25 0.21
25 0.21 0.38 0.27
3, 0.08 0.19 0.15
4 0.21 0.44 0.29
5 0.30 0.61 0.51
6, 0.08 0.29 0.17
Ty 0.13 0.27 0.19
8) 0.11 0.29 0.17
9 0.08 0.19 0.11
10 0.04 0.17 0.10
ll 0.04 0.17 0.11
12 0.04 0.13 0.08
13 0.08 0.19 0.11
14 0.10 0.25 0.17
15 0.17 0.36 0.27
16 0.10 0.23 0.17
17 0.44 1.58 0.88
18), 0.40 0.70 0.51
19), 0.38 0.91 0.57
20 0.10 0.30 0.17
21 0.08 0.19 Q.11
22 0.06 0.15 0.10
23, 0.15 0.34 0.27
24) 0.06 0.17 0.11
25 0.21 0.50 0.40
26 0.08 0.19 0.13
27, 0.08 0.15 0.11
28) 0.06 0.19 0.11
30 0.15 0.15 0.15
32 0.17 0.29 0.23
33 0.08 0.11 0.10
33M 0.08 O.11 0.10
34 0.70 0.78 0.74
35, 0.95 1.73 1.35
36), 0.17¢
37 0.17°

'Rates from Table 2.

b . :

Stations located in or near Glacier National Park.
c.

Based on one month's data.

38


floor of the upper valley.

The overall wind pattern when upper winds are from the
southwest and the lower valley convection has broken through
into the upper flow is shown pictorially in Figure 7. The
viewer looks to the northeast across Teakettle Mountain and
the upper Flathead Valley to Lake McDonald. Direct sunshine
has not penetrated the valleys in sufficient strength by mid-
morning to reverse the down-valley winds along the river
although upslope flow exists on the sunny, east-facing slopes
and the down-valley flow has turned somewhat toward these
slopes. In the upper valley beyond Teakettle Mountain, the
clean air flowing down along the rivers shields the surface
from fluoride~laden air entrained in the upper-level winds.
This is the preponderant mid-morning wind pattern during the
summer .

On days when southwest upper winds prevail, the day's
highest concentrations of fluoride are carried into the Park
during the forenoon. At sunrise the previous night's accumu-
lation of plant effluents together with the current emissions
are held within the lower valley and mixed in a deepening
layer until this layer reaches and is entrained by the upper
flow. The lower valley effluents are then carried in the
upper flow over the upper valley and into the Park, where they
intercept terrain elements common to the height of the effluent
plume. As convective activity increases, the air mass under-

goes more complete mixing to higher levels of the atmosphere

21


Table 3. MONTHLY FLUORIDATION RATES MEASURED
WITH EPA PLATES

Fluoridation rate, ng F/cm2-day
Average
August | September | October November } monthly
rate
i? a> 13? g> 10? 10” ll
28 aaP 13? 20? i? 13> 14
3? 10? 10 10 4P 6P 8
42 is 23> uP 12° 13° 15
5 29 30 32 16 27
6, 15 10? ?P 4P 9
7 14 9 8 7 10
38 15 8 7 6 8 9
9 10 5 4 4 6
10 9 5 4 2 5
il 9 8 3 2 6
12 7 3 2 4
13 10 4 4 6
14 13 12 9 5 6 9
15 M7 19 1aP gP 10? 14
16 12 12 6? 5P
17 38 g3> 43> 43> 23? 46
18, 23 30° 21> asP 37> 27
192 20 29 48 22 30
20 13 16 8 5 5 9
21 10 ra 5P a> 6
22 8 5P 5P 3p 5
23 13 is> 13? g> 16 14
24 9 8 5 3 6
252 24 24 26? i> 18? 21
26 10 P 6 a> 7
27, 6 P 6? a> g> 6
28 10 6 5 3 6
307 8 3? 8
32 is 9? 10 12
33 gb 5P 4P 5
33M 6 5P ae 5
34 37 41 39
35 50? 91? cal
36 9 9
372 9 9

Exposure sites located in or near Glacier Park.
byalue is average of two or more duplicate readings.

31


DIRECTION FROM WHICH WIND BLOWS

“TT
a
4
7
H
NEL |
1
1
]
/
& 4
se |E
se
w
2
a
5
i
~
“NE
[20 ~~
wD ’
7
b~ Ur
t
nwh_e |
'
i)
1
1
Ly
2 4 6

TIME OF DAY

Figure 4. Dominant wind-flow patterns measured June
through September. 1970 at Rose Station (No. 3).
Isolines show percent occurrence of wind directions
at indicated times.

16


and ambient concentrations are generally lower.
AMBIENT FLUORIDE CONCENTRATIONS

Ambient fluoride concentrations were detected by two
methods: (1) impact measurements made over monthly periods by
exposing chemically treated filter paper at 37 sites, and (2)
volumetric measurements of gaseous and particulate concentrations
over 12-hour periods made at a few sites with electrically
operated samplers.

The impact measurements, which provide an index of gaseous
fluoride concentrations over a period of time, showed rapid
decrease with increasing distance from the aluminum plant,
except in the northeasterly direction. The prevailing wind
patterns and the higher ground elevations of exposure sites in
Glacier National Park both contribute to elevated fluoridation
rates. that were measured 10 or more miles from the plant in the
northeasterly direction. Fluoride readings at several sites
within the Park consistently exceeded the State of Montana air
quality standard for fluorides; the average value for the
sampling station on Apgar Mountain exceeded the State standard
by a factor of nearly 2.

The sampling results show that parts of Glacier National
Park, especially the upper slopes of the Apgar Mountain, are
exposed to relatively high levels of atmospheric fluoride.
Consideration of the meteorology, topography, and geography of
the area strongly suggests that high elevations elsewhere in

the Park and the Flathead National Forest are similarly exposed

xiv


of many of the samples reported in Table 10 is much higher than
this background level of 10 ppm. Accumulation in the tip
portion of the needles ran as high as 141 ppm, and only two

of the samples showed fluoride levels as low as background when
the tip and base measurements were combined. The data further
confirm that fluoride has accumulated in the tissue of vegetation
growing in and near the Park in sufficient quantities to produce
the observed tip necrosis.

Generally, the fluoride accumulation in 1968 needles was
greater than in 1969 needles, and in 1969 needles than in the
current 1970 needles. The high fluoride content of 1968 and
1969 needle growth may reflect exposure to higher ambient
fluoride levels during these years as well as cumulative effects
of the longer exposure period.

The high fluoride content (43 ug F/g) of bear grass
collected at Park headquarters exceeds the State standard of
35 ppm for forage, considered to be the maximum safe concentra-
tion for animal ingestion.

Histological Examination

Injured needles from Park trees showing burn symptoms
were examined microscopically. By means of a hand-sectioning
technique, tissue sections were obtained without the distortion
induced by killing or dehydration of the tissue. Clear and
workable sections were obtained by softening the hard tissue
in a solution composed of 20 percent glycerin, 10 percent

alcohol, and 70 percent distilled water. Thionine stain gave

53


Station 17

Glacier Park

(ug/m?)
—Tas/i7 900 0. . .
zy rion ores gee 2790 ona 900 0.03 0.02 0.05
8/18 900 0.20 0.45 0.65  —o/tl__.2100_0.02 _0.02__0.04
8/18. 2100_..0.08 _.0.06._0.14_ arl2 900 0.15 0.00 0.00
8/19 900 0.64 0.53 ici? ~~ gf t2—2100_ 0.02 0.02 0,04
8/19. 21009220. 0.42..0.62 __ 2/13 900 0472 2.04 2.76
8/20 900 0.78 0.60 1.38 93 2100 0.09 0.48 0.57
B/20 2100 0.23 0.49 0.92 9/14 _.900_ 0.56 2.07__2.63
e/2l 900 3.65. lell 4.76 9714 2100 0.12 0.85 0.97
--8/21____ 2100_0,56 0.38 0.94 _ 9/15 900_0.50 2.15 2.65
8/22 900 1.47 1.51 2.98 9/15 2100 0.12 0.41 0.53
~-8/22 2100 0.36 0.3 0.72. _ 9/16 909__0.30__0.00__0.00._.
8/23 900 1.53 1.18 2.71 9/16 2100 0.10 0.00 0.00
—AL2a 2100 0,33 0.43 0.76 = 9/17. 9000-40 0.00. 0-00.
8/24 900 1.00 0-73 1-73 9/17 2100 0.16 0.00 0.00
8/24. 21000444 1405 1.59 = __ 9/18 900-009 0,06 0,15
8/25 900 0.63 0.93 1.56 9/18 2100 0.07 0-03 0-10
_-8/25.____2100__0.48. 2.21 2.69. _. 9/20 900 0.06 0.02 0.08
8/26 900 0.59 0.38 0.97 9/20 2100 0.05 0.30 0.35
—8426 2100 0222 0.66 0.88 _ 9/21 900 0.03 0.01 0.04 __
8/27 900 0.44 0.58 1.02 9/2t 2100 0.02 0.02 0.04
_ B/27 _. 2100_ 1,05:. 2-41 3,46 __9/22 900 0.03 0.02 0.05
8/28 900. 0.99 0.59 1.58 9/22 2100 0.02 0.02 0.04
_B/28____ 2100._0.02 _0.01_0.03  __9/23___—-900_0.05__0.08. 0.13
8/29 900 0.97 2.24 3.21 9/23 2100 0-02 0.48 0.50
_8/29 2100 0.25 0.69 0.94 9/24 9000.02 0.17 0419__
8/30 9000.92 0.65 1.57 9/24 2100 0.02 0.48 0.50
8/30. 21000441 1-12 1.53 | 9/25 900 0.03 0.12 0415
8/31 900 0.00 0.00 0.00 9/25 2100 0-05 0.55 0-60
8/31. _ 2100 0655. 0.55110. 9/26 9000.29 1.96__2.25
cyan 900 0.15 0.02 0.17 9/26 2100 0.15 0.58 0.73
of 4 2100 0.23 1.3 9/27 900. 0.93 2.09 3.02
v2 900 0.00 0.00 0.00 9/27 2100 0-16 0.92 1.08
72 2100 0.15 1.16._1.31_ | 9/28 900 0.00 0.00 0.00.
97 3 900 0.34 1.00 1.34 9/28 2100 0.26 1-39 1.65
3 2100 0212 0.15 0.27. _10/17_ _ 900_.0.00_0.00 0.00
oy 4 900 0.16 0.12 0.28 10/17 2100 0-23. 1.38 1.61
9/4 2100 0.99_ 0,060.15 10/18 900. 0.47 1.67 2.14
75 900 0-06 0.00 0.00 10/18 2100 0.26 0.30 0.56
75 2100 0.04 0.02 0.06 _10/19 9000.05 0.04 0.09__
97 6 900 0202 0402 0.04 10/19 2100 0-11 0.44 0.55
a7 6 2100 9.03 0.01 0.04 10/20 900 0:44 2.70 3.14
97 7 900 0.22 0.32 0.54 10/20 2100 0.04 0.02 0.06
6/1 21000209 0:88 0:97 10/21. «= 900-004 0.20 0.24
or 8 900 0-05 0.06 O11 10/21 2100 0-68 —6+20_0.28-—
97 8 2100 0.04 0.02. 0.06
9 900 0.02 0-00 0.00
79 2100 0.08 0.59_0.67._
9/10 9000.32 0.80 1.12
9710, 2100_0.06 0.08 0.14 _

69


> 2 .
20 ug F/com*-day isoconcentration lines is subjected to long-

term fluoride contamination in excess of the State standard.
This includes nearly all of the higher elevations within the
realm of influence of the aluminum plant emissions.

In summary, the impact Monitoring devices proved to be
extremely useful in defining areas of high fluoride concentra-
tion. Fluoridation plates or limed papers can be readily
exposed at sites in the most inaccessible areas of the Park
and surrounding territory and thus can provide surveillance
not obtainable by other measurement methods.

VOLUMETRIC MEASUREMENTS

Volumetric measurements of gaseous and particulate fluoride
concentrations were made at four locations from June 26 to
October 23, 1970. The monitoring stations were located near
the Park boundary from 7 to 11 miles in a northeasterly
direction from the aluminum plant, as shown in Figure 10.
Availability of electric power and nearness to the Park
determined location of the stations.

Atmospheric samples were collected over 12-hour intervals
with a sequential sampler capable of separating gaseous and
particulate fluorides. Gaseous fluorides in the air samples
were selectively absorbed on bicarbonate-coated glass tubes.
After removal of the gaseous fluoride component, the particulate
fluoride component was collected on a chemically treated filter
mounted on the outlet end of the tube. The glass tubes and

filters were returned to an EPA laboratory for analysis. The

39


Table 7. SUMMARY OF 12-HOUR GASEOUS AND PARTICULATE
FLUORIDE CONCENTRATIONS MEASURED
IN GLACIER NATIONAL PARK AND SURROUNDING AREA,
JUNE 26 to OCTOBER 23, 1970

(ug F/m?)
Fluoride Daytime Nighttime 24-nour?
Station|component [Maximum [Average |Maximum]Average | Maximum] Average
1 Gaseous 0.34 0.09 0.25 0.05 0.25 0.07
parti- 0.84 0.18 1.18 0.13 0.91 | 0.15
culate

2 Gaseous 0.65 0.12 1.02 0.07 0.66 | 0.10
parti- 0.73 0.22 0.98 0.12 0.64 | 0.17
culate

3 Gaseous | 0.16 | 0.06 | 0.12 j 0.06 | 0.14 | 0.06
parti- 0.51 0.12 0.32 0.11 0.36 | 0.12
culate

4 Gaseous 0.48 0.14 0.20 0.06 0.28 0.10
parti- 1.12 0.27 1.33 0.17) |; 0.84 | 0.21
culate

17 b Gaseous 3.65 0.48 1.05 0.18 2.11 |! 0.33
parti- 2.70 0.79 2.41 0.55 1.57 | 0.65
culate |

Faverage of daytime and nighttime values.

Y special sampling station operated from August 17 to October 21,
1971 at Dehlbom residence about 1.5 miles north of the
aluminum plant.

41


older growth of sensitive pines in Glacier National Park was
produced by ambient levels of fluorides.

Plants especially sensitive to fluorides were grown for
several months in enclosed exposure chambers at three sites.
Chambers equipped with devices to remove particulate and
gaseous fluorides were operated as controls. In other chambers,
plants were exposed to unfiltered ambient air. The plants
included alfalfa, apricot trees, gladiolus, and several pine
species. Although test procedure difficulties and the short
exposure time hampered the interpretation of results, it is
evident that a greater amount of fluorides accumulated in the

vegetation exposed to ambient air than in plants exposed to

filtered air.

xvii