1 

RECOMMENDED FOR FULL-TEXT PUBLICATION 

Pursuant to Sixth Circuit I.O.P. 32.1(b) 

File Name: 14a0095p.06 

UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS

FOR THE SIXTH CIRCUIT 

_________________ 

BRIAN SEXTON, 

Plaintiff-Appellant, 

v. 

PANEL PROCESSING, INC. and PANEL PROCESSING OF 

COLDWATER, INC., 

Defendants-Appellees. 

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No. 13-1604 

Appeal from the United States District Court 

for the Eastern District of Michigan at Bay City. 

No. 1:12-cv-10946—Thomas L. Ludington, District Judge. 

Argued: January 28, 2014 

Decided and Filed: May 9, 2014 

BEFORE: SUTTON, McKEAGUE and WHITE, Circuit Judges. 

_________________ 

COUNSEL 

ARGUED: William A. Pfeifer, ISACKSON, WALLACE & PFEIFER, P.C., Alpena, Michigan, 

for Appellant. Donald H. Scharg, BODMAN PLC, Troy, Michigan, for Appellees. Stephen A. 

Silverman, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR, Washington, D.C., for Amicus 

Curiae. ON BRIEF: William A. Pfeifer, ISACKSON, WALLACE & PFEIFER, P.C., Alpena, 

Michigan, for Appellant. Donald H. Scharg, Steven J. Fishman, David A. Malinowski, 

BODMAN PLC, Troy, Michigan, for Appellees. Stephen A. Silverman, UNITED STATES 

DEPARTMENT OF LABOR, Washington, D.C., for Amicus Curiae. 

 SUTTON, J., delivered the opinion of the court, in which McKEAGUE, J., concurred. 

WHITE, J. (pp. 16B29), delivered a separate dissenting opinion. 

 

>
No. 13-1604 Sexton v. Panel Processing, Inc. et al. Page 2 

_________________ 

OPINION

_________________ 

SUTTON, Circuit Judge. The Employee Retirement Income Security Act prohibits an 

employer from retaliating against an employee “because he has given information or has testified 

or is about to testify in any inquiry or proceeding relating to [the Act].” 29 U.S.C. § 1140. 

When Brian Sexton made a one-time unsolicited complaint to his employer about alleged 

violations of the Act, did that amount to “giv[ing] information . . . in any inquiry?” We think not 

and hence affirm. 

I. 

Panel Processing makes floor panels. Brian Sexton worked as a general manager in its 

facility in Coldwater, Michigan, and served as a trustee for the company’s employee retirement 

plan. In 2011, Sexton and another trustee, Robert Karsten, campaigned on behalf of two 

employees running for the company’s board of directors. The employees won the election, but 

the board refused to seat them on the ground that it would violate the company’s bylaws, which 

limited the number of inside directors. At the same time, the board removed Sexton and Karsten 

as trustees of the retirement plan. 

Two days later, Sexton emailed the chairman of the board: 

I believe that your actions . . . in refusing to seat [the employees] as directors of 

the company and removing Rob Karsten and me as Trustees of the [retirement 

plan] are violations of ERISA and the Michigan Corporations Business Act and 

other state and federal laws. I plan to bring these violations to the attention of the 

U.S. Department of Labor and Michigan Department of Licensing and Regulatory 

Affairs unless they are immediately remedied. 

R. 9-13 at 2. Neither the chairman nor anyone else responded to the email, and Sexton took no 

further action. About six months later, the company fired Sexton from his job as a general 

manager. 
No. 13-1604 Sexton v. Panel Processing, Inc. et al. Page 3 

Sexton sued the company in Michigan state court for violating the State’s Whistleblower 

Protection Act and for breaching his employment contract. One might think that, when a 

Michigan plaintiff sues a Michigan defendant under Michigan law in a Michigan court, the case 

would stay there. But the company invoked complete preemption, a doctrine that converts state 

law claims “within the scope of [ERISA’s] civil enforcement provisions” into federal claims. 

Metro. Life Ins. Co. v. Taylor, 481 U.S. 58, 66 (1987). Under this banner, the company 

recharacterized Sexton’s state whistleblower claim as an ERISA claim. See 29 U.S.C. § 1140. It 

then removed the transfigured lawsuit to federal court. 

Once in federal court, Sexton did not challenge the company’s removal of the case or its 

use of complete preemption. Sexton and Panel Processing instead litigated the case as though 

Sexton had raised a claim under ERISA. The district court granted summary judgment to the 

company on this ERISA claim, and it declined supplemental jurisdiction over Sexton’s breachof-contract claim. 

II. 

On appeal, Sexton does not contest the district court’s application of complete 

preemption to Sexton’s claim or otherwise attempt to resurrect his claim under Michigan’s 

Whistleblower Protection Act. Under our case law, true enough, the doctrine of complete 

preemption goes to the subject matter jurisdiction of the court. Mikulski v. Centerior Energy 

Corp., 501 F.3d 555, 565 (6th Cir. 2007) (en banc). But we are satisfied, just as the parties and 

the district court were satisfied, that the company properly invoked the doctrine here. 

III. 

Sexton instead takes aim at the district court’s rejection of his claim under ERISA. The 

relevant law says in relevant part: “It shall be unlawful for any person to discharge, fine, 

suspend, expel, or discriminate against any person because he has given information or has 

testified or is about to testify in any inquiry or proceeding relating to [the Act].” 29 U.S.C. 

§ 1140. Both parties take as a given (for now) that the company fired Sexton because of his 

email to the chairman of the board. 
No. 13-1604 Sexton v. Panel Processing, Inc. et al. Page 4 

 All matters of interpretation begin with text; some end there. The text of this provision 

takes us well down the way of ending this dispute. No one claims that Sexton sent the email in 

the context of a “proceeding.” And no one claims that the email amounted to testimony—that he 

“testified” or was “about to testify” in an “inquiry” or “proceeding” by sending the email. That 

leaves the possibility that the email amounted to “giv[ing] information . . . in any inquiry.” We 

have no problem with the idea that, by sending the email, Sexton was “giv[ing] information.” 

But, as Sexton and the Secretary concede, the statute demands not just the limitless “giv[ing]” of 

“information.” It requires that the information be given in an “inquiry”—“any” inquiry, to be 

sure, but an inquiry all the same. “Inquiry” might mean an official investigation, as in “Earl 

Warren led an inquiry into the assassination of President Kennedy.” Or it might mean a question 

or a request for information, as in “The advocate answered the judge’s inquiry.” See Bryan A. 

Garner, A Dictionary of Modern Legal Usage 317 (2d ed. 1995). We need not decide whether 

§ 1140 uses “inquiry” in the former sense, in the latter sense, or in both senses. Under either 

definition, no inquiry occurred. Sexton did not send the email in connection with an official 

investigation. And he did not send the email in response to a question or request for information. 

Even what we might call a nunc pro tunc theory of “giv[ing] information . . . in any inquiry” 

would not aid Sexton. For even after he sent the email, no one asked him any questions about 

the subject of the email, and no investigation involving him ever occurred. As the text of the 

email confirms, this was nothing more than a complaint accompanied by a threat: Sexton 

demanded that the company change course and threatened action if it did not. The email neither 

asks nor answers a question. That is not “giv[ing] information . . . in any inquiry.” 

This interpretation not only respects the meaning—indeed accounts for the broadest 

possible meaning—of these terms, but it also respects the different ways Congress has dealt with 

retaliation in the work place. Congress has enacted roughly forty anti-retaliation laws, see Jon O. 

Shimabukuro et al., Cong. Research Serv., R43045, Survey of Federal Whistleblower and AntiRetaliation Laws (2013), and they tend to include two distinct types of prohibitions. The first 

protects employees who oppose, report or complain about unlawful practices. See, e.g., 

29 U.S.C. § 218c(a) (Consumer Financial Protection Act) (“provided . . . information relating to 

any violation”); id. § 215(a) (Fair Labor Standards Act) (“filed any complaint”); 42 U.S.C. 

§ 2000e-3(a) (Title VII) (“opposed any . . . unlawful employment practice”). The second 
No. 13-1604 Sexton v. Panel Processing, Inc. et al. Page 5 

protects employees who participate, testify or give information in inquiries, investigations, 

proceedings or hearings. See, e.g., 29 U.S.C. § 218c(a) (Patient Protection and Affordable Care 

Act) (“assisted or participated . . . in . . . a proceeding”); id. § 2615(b) (Family and Medical 

Leave Act) (“given . . . any information in connection with any inquiry or proceeding”); 42 

U.S.C. § 12203(a) (Americans with Disabilities Act) (“participated in any manner in an 

investigation, proceeding, or hearing”). 

Most anti-retaliation laws include both types of clauses. See, e.g., 6 U.S.C. § 1142(a) 

(National Transit Systems Security Act); 7 U.S.C. § 26 (Commodity Exchange Act); 15 U.S.C. 

§ 78-u6(h)(1)(A) (Securities Exchange Act); id. § 2087(a) (Consumer Product Safety Act); 

29 U.S.C. § 215(a) (Fair Labor Standards Act); id. § 218c(a) (Patient Protection and Affordable 

Care Act); id. § 623(d) (Age Discrimination in Employment Act); id. § 660(c)(1) (Occupational 

Safety and Health Act); id. § 2615(b) (Family and Medical Leave Act); 30 U.S.C. § 815(c) 

(Federal Mine Safety and Health Act); 42 U.S.C. § 12203(a) (Americans with Disabilities Act); 

42 U.S.C. § 2000e-3(a) (Title VII); 49 U.S.C. § 31105(a) (Commercial Motor Vehicle Safety 

Act); id. § 60129(a) (Pipeline Safety Improvement Act). Many of these laws were in existence 

before 1974, when Congress enacted ERISA. See the Age Discrimination in Employment Act, 

the Fair Labor Standards Act, the Occupational Safety and Health Act, and Title VII. 

By contrast, a few laws include only the first type of clause, the sort that protects 

employees who report unlawful practices. See, e.g., 15 U.S.C. § 2651 (Asbestos Hazard 

Emergency Response Act); 46 U.S.C. § 80507(a) (International Safe Container Act). And a few 

laws include only the second type of clause, the sort that protects employees who participate in 

inquiries, proceedings or hearings. See, e.g., 33 U.S.C. § 948a (Longshore and Harbor Workers’ 

Compensation Act); 42 U.S.C. § 7622(a) (Clean Air Act).

In enacting this provision of ERISA, Congress included only a clause protecting people 

who give information or testify in inquiries or proceedings. Unlike most of the other laws just 

cited, ERISA thus does not contain a clause protecting people who oppose, report or complain 

about unlawful practices. “[W]here words differ as they differ here, Congress acts intentionally 

and purposely in the disparate inclusion or exclusion.” Burlington N. & Santa Fe Ry. Co. v. 

White, 548 U.S. 53, 63 (2006). A contrary interpretation would parody the presumption against 
No. 13-1604 Sexton v. Panel Processing, Inc. et al. Page 6 

redundancy. See Maracich v. Spears, 133 S. Ct. 2191, 2205 (2013). If clauses protecting 

involvement in investigations automatically protect even complaints outside investigations, 

dozens of opposing/reporting/complaining clauses across the United States Code would serve no 

purpose. 

Sexton, the Secretary and the dissent insist that § 1140 covers an employee’s complaints 

to his employer about violations of the Act, no matter whether the employee speaks during an 

investigation or in response to an inquiry. Yet this argument spurns both plausible meanings of 

“inquiry,” whether the narrow one (an investigation) or the broader one (a question). This 

interpretation instead reads “in any inquiry or proceeding relating to [the Act]” out of the statute. 

Only then will the law protect every complaint about a violation of the Act, regardless of when 

and where the employee makes it. Accepting Sexton’s invitation thus means rejecting a 

foundational principle of interpretation: “It cannot be presumed that any clause in [a legal text] 

is intended to be without effect; and therefore such a construction is inadmissible, unless the 

words require it.” Marbury v. Madison, 1 Cranch 137, 174 (1803). 

Subtracting words from the law is bad enough, but Sexton’s theory also requires us to add 

words in their place. As written, § 1140 does not distinguish reports of unlawful practices from 

other statements. The law covers any information or testimony, so long as it is given in an 

inquiry or proceeding relating to the Act. The law protects not only the witness who testifies in a 

criminal prosecution that corporate executives defrauded employees of their pensions, but it also 

protects the witness who testifies at a benefits hearing that an employee has a disability. By 

proposing a special rule for ERISA-related complaints, Sexton and the Secretary draw a 

distinction between information about violations of the Act and other information—a distinction 

found nowhere in the statute. 

Sexton and the Secretary propose a textual detour around these problems: Because 

“complaining” sometimes means “challenging,” “challenging” sometimes means “questioning,” 

and “questioning” sometimes means “inquiring,” it follows that a complaint is an inquiry. But 

this line of reasoning could transform all manner of things into inquiries—everything from the 

Peloponnesian War (the Spartans challenged, hence questioned, Athenian supremacy) to the 

Boston Tea Party (the protesters challenged, hence questioned, British taxes). And it could 
No. 13-1604 Sexton v. Panel Processing, Inc. et al. Page 7 

transform complaints into all manner of things—everything from a whisper (complaining means 

grumbling, grumbling means murmuring, murmuring means whispering) to a shout (complaining 

means bewailing, bewailing means crying, crying means shouting). Not unlike the children’s 

game of telephone, this approach risks converting the ultimate message into something quite 

different from the original message—indeed sometimes into the opposite message. An approach 

to interpretation that exponentially blurs meaning is not apt to help in the fair interpretation of 

statutes. In the end, the overlap between “complain” and one meaning of “question” and the 

overlap between a different meaning of “question” and “inquiry” do not transform “complain” 

into “inquiry.”

 Sexton persists that it would be strange for the law to protect an employee who reports a 

violation when asked a question in the context of an inquiry or proceeding but not an employee 

who reports a violation on his own initiative. Yet this result looks strange only if one assumes 

that Congress passed § 1140 in order to protect people who disclosed violations of the Act. If 

one instead starts with the premise that Congress passed § 1140 to prevent interference with 

inquiries and proceedings, the distinction between statements made in an inquiry and statements 

made outside an inquiry makes sense. As shown, Congress opted to protect employees in many 

ways in the context of investigations and unprompted complaints, some that may appear 

underinclusive and some that may appear overinclusive. When Congress picks one approach or 

the other in a given statute, that does not give a court license to rewrite the law—here by 

crossing “in any inquiry or proceeding” out of § 1140. Denying this point means condemning as 

absurd dozens of federal anti-retaliation clauses that limit their attention to inquiries, proceedings 

or investigations. 

The Secretary offers a variation on this theme. Section 1140, he says, at least protects an 

employee whose complaint prompts an investigation, because giving information that leads to an 

inquiry counts as giving information “in” that inquiry. And it would be odd, he adds, for the law 

to deny an employee protection from retaliation merely because the employer later chooses not 

to conduct an investigation—meaning that § 1140 must cover all complaints, whether prompted 

by an inquiry or not. The first problem with this argument is that a disclosure that prompts an 

inquiry does not occur “in” that later inquiry. Deep Throat’s disclosures led to a congressional 
No. 13-1604 Sexton v. Panel Processing, Inc. et al. Page 8 

investigation of Watergate, but one would not say that Deep Throat gave information in Senator 

Ervin’s inquiry. Otherwise, all disclosures or complaints would occur “in” an inquiry or 

proceeding, so long as the employee subsequently filed a lawsuit—the later “proceeding” or 

“inquiry” in which the disclosure would occur. The second problem with this argument is that, 

even if we could bend the statute this far, we could bend it no farther. Saying that § 1140 covers 

complaints that lead to an inquiry at least leaves some role for the phrase “in any inquiry or 

proceeding.” Saying that it covers all complaints whatsoever—even when no inquiry results, as 

in this case—erases words from the statute. 

 The risk of unusual results, moreover, would not disappear even if we adopted the theory 

offered by Sexton and the Secretary. The law as written contains a sensible limitation on the 

information that enjoys federal protection: The information must be conveyed “in any inquiry or 

proceeding relating to [the Act].” Erasing that limit leaves a law that protects anyone who has 

“given information”—a boundless phrase that covers everything from giving tax advice to giving 

score updates on a World Cup soccer match. We could try to overcome this problem by limiting 

our reconfigured statute’s coverage to information that relates to the Act. But that does not help 

much, because a law protecting anyone who has “given information relating to the Act” would 

still protect the professor denied tenure because all of his law review articles concern ERISA. 

We could try to sidestep this problem too by limiting our doubly reconfigured statute’s coverage 

to disclosures about violations of the Act. But this takes us too far in the opposite direction, 

because now we have taken away federal protection from the witness who testifies at a benefits 

hearing about an employee’s disability. All of these problems disappear if we honor the 

boundaries that the statute already contains. 

 Sexton and the Secretary argue that their interpretation advances § 1140’s purpose of 

protecting whistleblowers from retaliation. One might quibble with Sexton’s self-portrait as a 

whistleblower: He did not disclose violations of the law to the public or to the authorities but 

threatened to sue his employer unless it did as he demanded. But even on its own terms, this 

argument falls short. A court must discern the purpose of a law “chiefly from its words,” Sturges 

v. Crowinshield, 4 Wheat. 122, 202 (1819), and the words of this law—particularly when 

examined in the context of other federal anti-retaliation laws—do not show that Congress meant 
No. 13-1604 Sexton v. Panel Processing, Inc. et al. Page 9 

to protect whistleblowers in the abstract. Section 1140 does not single out information about 

violations of the law; it covers information of any genre. The claim that Congress passed § 1140 

to protect people who complain about violations of the law rests on nothing more than Sexton 

and the Secretary’s say-so. 

 Keep in mind, moreover, that Congress may have enacted this provision not so much to 

protect the jobs of whistleblowers as to protect the integrity of inquiries. Section 1140’s 

reference to “inquir[ies] or proceeding[s]” suggests that Congress had the latter objective in 

mind. We have attributed a similar purpose to a similar clause in another anti-retaliation law. 

See Booker v. Brown & Williamson Tobacco Co., 879 F.2d 1304, 1313 (6th Cir. 1989) 

(discussing Title VII’s participation clause). A sense of how ERISA works shows why Congress 

would pursue that objective here. The Act requires retirement plans to provide for administrative 

review of employees’ claims. See 29 U.S.C. § 1133. Employees must usually exhaust internal 

remedies before heading to federal court, see Miller v. Metro. Life Ins. Co., 925 F.2d 979, 986 

(6th Cir. 1991), and courts often must defer to decisions made during the internal review process, 

see Firestone Tire & Rubber Co. v. Bruch, 489 U.S. 101, 111 (1989). Given the centrality of 

hearings to the administration of retirement plans, one would expect Congress to protect these 

and other inquiries and proceedings. Instead of supporting Sexton’s claim, this understanding of 

congressional purpose defeats it. 

Turning to the Congressional Record, the Secretary unearths a snippet of Senate debate 

that (he claims) analogizes ERISA’s prohibition against retaliation to Title VII’s prohibition. 

The relevant statement explains that § 1140 “would provide a remedy for any person fired such 

as is provided for a person discriminated against because of race or sex.” 119 Cong. Rec. 30044 

(1973). The Secretary infers that, because Title VII protects complaints, so too does § 1140. But 

he overlooks the reality that Title VII includes both an opposition clause and a participation 

clause. Read alongside the text of § 1140, the legislative history at most shows that the drafter 

modeled § 1140’s language about inquiries on the participation clause, not the opposition clause. 

That does nothing to advance Sexton’s claim, because Title VII’s participation clause does not 

protect unsolicited complaints. Abstract appeals to purpose and legislative history at any rate 

have little value in interpreting a “precise and reticulated” statute, Carter v. Welles-Bowen 
No. 13-1604 Sexton v. Panel Processing, Inc. et al. Page 10 

Realty, Inc., 736 F.3d 722, 729 (6th Cir. 2013), a description that fits ERISA to a tee. In ERISA, 

of all statutes, we should hesitate to add a provision the statute does not contain (a clause 

protecting any employee who opposes allegedly unlawful practices) and to eliminate a limitation 

that the statute does contain (“in any inquiry or proceeding”). 

Shifting from purpose to policy, Sexton and the Secretary claim that their interpretation 

encourages employees to report violations to their employers, and that enforcement of the Act 

depends on such reports. This last claim is debatable. The Act already requires an employer to 

keep records and file reports about retirement plans, 29 U.S.C. § 1059, and backs up these 

requirements with criminal penalties, id. § 1131(a). Also debatable is whether the benefits of a 

broader anti-retaliation rule (more reporting) outweigh the costs (more litigation and a greater 

likelihood that employers will refrain from even legitimate discharges for fear of getting sued). 

The prospect of improved enforcement at any rate does not by itself allow us to add new 

liabilities to a statute. Cf. Alexander v. Sandoval, 532 U.S. 275 (2001); Central Bank of Denver, 

N.A. v. First Interstate Bank of Denver, N.A., 511 U.S. 164 (1994). 

Moving on to precedent, Sexton and the Secretary argue that case law requires an 

expansive interpretation of federal anti-retaliation laws and undercuts our focus on the text. Not 

so. When faced with “clear language,” the Supreme Court recently explained—in a retaliation 

case no less—a court may not “conclude that what Congress omitted from the statute is 

nevertheless within its scope.” Univ. of Texas Sw. Med. Ctr. v. Nassar, 133 S. Ct. 2517, 2528 

(2013). That is this case. 

Nor does Kasten v. Saint-Gobain Performance Plastics Corp. change things. 131 S. Ct. 

1325 (2011). The Fair Labor Standards Act prohibits discharging an employee because he has 

“filed any complaint” alleging a violation of the Act, 29 U.S.C. § 215(a)(3), and the Court had to 

decide whether this provision covered oral as well as written complaints. The Court examined 

dictionaries, then legislation, regulations and judicial opinions using the word “file,” then other 

appearances of “file” in the Fair Labor Standards Act, then the texts of other anti-retaliation 

provisions. 131 S. Ct. at 1331–33. Only because these indicators of meaning failed to yield a 

“conclusive answer” did the Court turn to “functional considerations,” such as the importance of 
No. 13-1604 Sexton v. Panel Processing, Inc. et al. Page 11 

oral complaints to the law’s administration. Id. at 1333–34. Far from licensing free-form 

interpretation of anti-retaliation laws, Kasten confirms the primacy of the statutory text. 

Crawford v. Metropolitan Government of Nashville is of a piece. 555 U.S. 271 (2009). It 

held that Title VII’s opposition clause protects employees who oppose unlawful practices, 

regardless of whether they speak on their own initiative or in response to employer questions. 

The result does not help Sexton, because (unlike the law invoked in this case) Title VII’s 

opposition clause does not distinguish inquiries and proceedings from other settings. Nor does 

the reasoning help him, because Crawford turned on the “ordinary meaning” of the opposition 

clause, id. at 276, not on any special interpretive rule for anti-retaliation statutes. The dissent for 

its part takes up Crawford’s observation that “nothing in [Title VII’s opposition clause] requires 

a freakish rule protecting an employee who reports discrimination on her own initiative but not 

one who reports the same discrimination in the words when her boss asks a question.” Id. at 

277–78. The dissent reasons that it makes no sense to distinguish complaints made during 

questioning from complaints made without questioning, prompting the conclusion that § 1140 

protects all complaints whatsoever. But the conclusion does not follow from the premise. The 

dissent overlooks another possibility, one that both avoids odd results and stays within the words 

of the text: Interpret “inquiry” to mean “formal investigation” rather than “question.” That 

indeed is what the Fourth Circuit does. See King v. Marriott Int’l, Inc., 337 F.3d 421, 427 (4th 

Cir. 2003). 

 Sexton, the Secretary and the dissent also cast about for support in our circuit’s 

precedents. The decisions they reel in, see, e.g., EEOC v. Ohio Edison Co., 7 F.3d 541 (6th Cir. 

1993); EEOC v. Romeo Cmty. Sch., 976 F.2d 985 (6th Cir. 1992), do not help them. Each case 

interprets a statute that already contains an opposition clause to protect a form of opposition. 

None authorizes a court to create an opposition clause out of nothing. 

The same is true of out-of-circuit decisions. Every relevant holding hurts Sexton’s 

position. The Third and Fourth Circuits have both held that § 1140 does not cover complaints 

like Sexton’s. See Edwards v. A.H. Cornell & Son, 610 F.3d 217, 225–26 (3d Cir. 2010) 

(concluding that “unsolicited internal complaints are not protected under [§ 1140] based on a 

plain reading of that provision’s terms”); King v. Marriot Int’l, Inc., 337 F.3d 421, 428 (4th Cir. 
No. 13-1604 Sexton v. Panel Processing, Inc. et al. Page 12 

2003) (concluding that “the most compelling interpretation of the statutory language” excludes 

workplace complaints). The Second Circuit has reasoned the same way. Nicolaou v. Horizon 

Media, Inc., 402 F.3d 325, 329 (2d Cir. 2005) (per curiam) (reasoning that § 1140 covers a 

complaint only if the employee made it in response to a “request for information”). 

As for Sexton’s citation of cases from the Fifth, Seventh and Ninth Circuits, they offer 

less than advertised. In the case from the Fifth Circuit, an employee sued his employer under 

state law for wrongful discharge, alleging that it fired him for refusing to carry out orders 

violating ERISA. Anderson v. Elec. Data Sys. Corp., 11 F.3d 1311 (5th Cir. 1994). The Fifth 

Circuit held that federal law preempts this state claim—a holding that has nothing to do with the 

present debate. The court observed along the way, to be sure, that § 1140 

“addresses . . . discharges for providing information or testimony relating to ERISA.” Id. at 

1314. But the court immediately added a footnote that quoted § 1140 in full. Id. at 1314 n.2. 

The Fifth Circuit’s passing remark amounts to a shorthand description of § 1140, not a holding 

(or for that matter even a considered dictum) that § 1140 covers every complaint about a 

violation, even complaints delinked from an inquiry or proceeding.

The Ninth Circuit’s decision follows a similar pattern. Hashimoto v. Bank of Hawaii, 

999 F.2d 408, 411 (9th Cir. 1993). An employee sued her employer under a state whistleblower 

law, alleging that it fired her for complaining about violations of ERISA. The Ninth Circuit held 

that the doctrine of complete preemption converted the state claim into a federal ERISA claim. 

Id. at 409. This holding does not cover the issue at hand, which concerns the validity of a claim 

under federal law, not the propriety of recharacterizing a state claim as a federal one. Sexton and 

the Secretary persist that, according to the Ninth Circuit’s opinion, § 1140 “may be fairly 

construed to protect a person . . . fired because she was protesting a violation of law in 

connection with an ERISA plan.” Id. at 411. But this statement was likely dictum. Even if it 

were a holding, this drive-by construction of the law—hinged on the self-fulfilling prophecy that 

“[t]his statute is clearly meant to protect whistle blowers,” id. at 411, and unhinged from the text 

of the provision—is not convincing. 

That leaves the Seventh Circuit. It held that § 1140 covers any complaint about the Act 

that either asks or answers a question. George v. Junior Achievement of Cent. Ind., Inc., 
No. 13-1604 Sexton v. Panel Processing, Inc. et al. Page 13 

694 F.3d 812, 817 (7th Cir. 2012). But that decision does not help Sexton because his email did 

neither. 

According to the dissent, the Fifth, Seventh and Ninth Circuit decisions prove at least that 

§ 1140 contains an ambiguity sufficient to trigger Chevron deference and sufficient to require a 

liberal interpretation in favor of the employee. But as shown below and as the Secretary 

concedes, this case does not involve Chevron. And as just shown, the Ninth Circuit did not hold

that § 1140 protects people like Sexton, and the Fifth and Seventh Circuits did not even suggest 

it. None of these circuits, moreover, evaluated § 1140 against the backdrop of other federal antiretaliation laws. Not one of them acknowledges the distinction these laws make between 

opposition and participation clauses, and not one of them explains why § 1140 should protect all 

opposition to unlawful practices even though its text mentions only some participation in 

inquiries and proceedings. No less importantly, disagreements between judges at most suggest 

ambiguity. They do not prove it. If they did, the agency would win every circuit split about 

whether a federal law authorizes its regulation, but see, e.g., Ragsdale v. Wolverine World Wide, 

Inc., 535 U.S. 81 (2002) (agency loses); the State would win every circuit split about whether a 

federal law preempts its statute, but see, e.g., Northwest, Inc. v. Ginsberg, 134 S. Ct. 1422 (2014) 

(State loses); and the criminal defendant would win every circuit split about whether a federal 

law punishes his conduct, but see, e.g., United States v. Castleman, 134 S. Ct. 1405 (2014) 

(criminal defendant loses). 

The Secretary urges us to defer to his interpretation of the statute. He (correctly) does not 

claim deference under Chevron v. Natural Resources Defense Council, which requires courts to 

accept an agency’s reasonable interpretation of a statute that the agency administers. 467 U.S. 

837 (1984). The Act does not give the Secretary any authority to administer § 1140, instead 

contemplating enforcement through private causes of action. Chevron has no place where 

Congress entrusts enforcement of a statute to the courts rather than to an agency. Adams Fruit 

Co. v. Barrett, 494 U.S. 638, 649–50 (1990). The Secretary’s interpretation, moreover, appears 

not in a regulation but in a friend-of-the-court brief filed in this case and in similar briefs filed in 

other circuits. Briefs do not receive Chevron deference. United States v. Mead Corp., 533 U.S. 

218, 238 n.19 (2001). All of this explains why the Secretary appeals instead to Skidmore v. Swift 
No. 13-1604 Sexton v. Panel Processing, Inc. et al. Page 14 

& Co., which entitles an agency’s views to respect proportionate to its persuasive power. 

323 U.S. 134, 140 (1944). As shown, we find the Secretary’s arguments unpersuasive. 

 For what it is worth, our decision has few if any consequences beyond this Act. Most 

federal statutes that prohibit retaliation, like Title VII and the Fair Labor Standards Act, do

include separate clauses protecting employees who complain about or oppose unlawful practices. 

29 U.S.C. § 215(a); 42 U.S.C. § 2000e-3(a). Congress chose not to include a similar clause in 

ERISA, and we should respect that choice. 

 For these reasons, we affirm. 
No. 13-1604 Sexton v. Panel Processing, Inc. et al. Page 15 

APPENDIX

29 U.S.C. § 1140. Interference with protected rights

It shall be unlawful for any person to discharge, fine, suspend, expel, discipline, or 

discriminate against a participant or beneficiary for exercising any right to which he is entitled 

under the provisions of an employee benefit plan, this subchapter, section 1201 of this title, or 

the Welfare and Pension Plans Disclosure Act, or for the purpose of interfering with the 

attainment of any right to which such participant may become entitled under the plan, this 

subchapter, or the Welfare and Pension Plans Disclosure Act. It shall be unlawful for any person 

to discharge, fine, suspend, expel, or discriminate against any person because he has given 

information or has testified or is about to testify in any inquiry or proceeding relating to this 

chapter or the Welfare and Pension Plans Disclosure Act. In the case of a multiemployer plan, it 

shall be unlawful for the plan sponsor or any other person to discriminate against any 

contributing employer for exercising rights under this chapter or for giving information or 

testifying in any inquiry or proceeding relating to this chapter before Congress. The provisions 

of section 1132 of this title shall be applicable in the enforcement of this section. 

 
No. 13-1604 Sexton v. Panel Processing, Inc. et al. Page 16 

_________________ 

DISSENT

_________________ 

HELENE N. WHITE, Circuit Judge (dissenting). I respectfully dissent. 

The question whether section 510 protects unsolicited employee complaints has split the 

circuits. The Fifth, Seventh, and Ninth Circuits have interpreted § 510 to protect an employee’s 

“unsolicited internal complaint.” In contrast, the Second, Third, and Fourth Circuits have 

interpreted § 510 as only protecting employees when the employer asks the first 

question/initiates the inquiry. 

I do not agree that § 510’s “plain meaning” is easily ascertained; nor do I agree that the 

Supreme Court’s most recent guidance in interpreting anti-retaliation provisions, Kasten v. SaintGobain Performance Plastics Corp., 131 S. Ct. 1325 (2011), is inapposite here. I would follow 

the most recent circuit court opinion on point, George v. Junior Achievement of Central Indiana, 

Inc., 694 F.3d 812 (7th Cir. 2012). There, the Seventh Circuit observed that § 510 “is a mess of 

unpunctuated conjunctions and prepositions. Although the district court concluded that the 

language is unambiguous, it is anything but.” Id. at 814 (internal citations omitted). George, the 

only post-Kasten circuit court decision, applied Kasten’s interpretive guidance, observing that 

that the term “inquiry” “sometimes means nothing more than a question,” and that § 510 protects 

unsolicited internal employee grievances regardless whether the employer or employee initiated 

the “inquiry.” Id. at 815, 817. 

I. Supreme Court Guidance on the Interpretation of Anti-Retaliation Provisions C

Kasten (2011) and Crawford (2009) 

Two relatively recent Supreme Court decisions construed anti-retaliation provisions, 

Kasten, and Crawford v. Metropolitan Government of Nashville & Davidson County, Tennessee, 

555 U.S. 271 (2009) (reversing the Sixth Circuit). Neither involved § 510 of ERISA, but both 

demonstrate the trend of the Court to interpret anti-retaliation provisions to afford broad 

protection of employees. 
No. 13-1604 Sexton v. Panel Processing, Inc. et al. Page 17 

A. Crawford’s Interpretation of Title VII 

The Crawford Court interpreted Title VIIs opposition clause, 42 U.S.C. § 2000e-3(a), 

which makes it “unlawful . . . for an employer to discriminate against any . . . employe[e] . . . 

because he has opposed any practice made . . . unlawful . . . by this subchapter.”). Crawford, 

555 U.S. at 276. The issue was whether protection should be extended to an employee who 

“speaks out about discrimination not on her own initiative, but in answering questions during” an 

investigation. Id. at 273. The Court held that the protection afforded by Title VII’s opposition 

clause extends to an employee who answers questions during an employer’s internal 

investigation. Id. In holding that the employee’s actions were protected, the court rejected the 

Sixth Circuit’s view that the opposition clause required an employee to actively instigate or 

initiate a complaint to be protected. Id. at 277. Although the Sixth Circuit’s interpretation of the 

word “opposition” “obviously exemplified” the word “as commonly understood,” the Supreme 

Court nevertheless determined that this court’s interpretation did not represent “the limits of [the 

word]” and that “nothing in the statute requires a freakish rule protecting an employee who 

reports discrimination on her own initiative but not one who reports the same discrimination in 

the same words when her boss asks a question.” Id. at 277B78. 

B. Kasten’s Interpretation of the FLSA 

In Kasten, 131 S. Ct. 1325 (2011), the Supreme Court considered the anti-retaliation 

provision of the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA), 29 U.S.C. § 201 et seq., which forbids 

employers from retaliating “against any employee because such employee has filed any 

complaint . . . ” 29 U.S.C. § 215(a)(3). The issue in Kasten was whether the phrase “filed any 

complaint” includes oral as well as written complaints. 131 S. Ct. at 1329. 

Kasten worked for Saint-Gobain Performance Plastics Corporation. Id. Saint-Gobain 

had placed employee timeclocks between the area where employees put on and took off their 

work-related protective clothing and the area where the employees actually worked. The 

location of the clocks prevented workers from getting credit for the time they spent changing 

their clothes. Kasten claimed Saint-Gobain discharged him because he orally complained to 

company officials that the location of the timeclocks violated the FLSA. Id. 
No. 13-1604 Sexton v. Panel Processing, Inc. et al. Page 18 

The district court granted summary judgment in favor of Saint-Gobain, concluding that 

the FLSA’s anti-retaliation provision did not protect oral complaints. Id. The Seventh Circuit 

affirmed. Id. The Supreme Court granted certiorari to resolve a circuit split on the question 

whether oral complaints are protected under the FLSA § 215(a)(3) and reversed, holding that 

“the statutory term ‘filed any complaint’ includes oral as well as written complaints.” Id. at 

1329. Interpreting the phrase “filed any complaint,” the Court noted that the interpretation 

“depends upon reading the whole statutory text, considering the purpose and context of the 

statute, and consulting any precedents or authorities that inform the analysis.” Id. at 1330 

(citing Dolan v. Postal Service, 546 U.S. 481, 486 (2006) (emphasis added)). The Court 

observed that while “the language of the provision, considered in isolation, may be open to 

competing interpretations. . . considering the provision in conjunction with the purpose and 

context leads us to conclude that only one interpretation is permissible.” Id. at 1330B31. 

The Kasten Court first considered the text of the statute, noting that “the word ‘filed’ has 

different relevant meaning in different contexts.” Id. at 1331. In considering other possible 

interpretations of the word “filed,” the Court examined dictionaries, regulations promulgated by 

other federal agencies, caselaw, other appearances of the word “filed” in the FLSA, and other 

statutes’ anti-retaliation provisions. Id. at 1331B33. In looking beyond the FLSA to other 

statutes containing antiretaliation provisions, the court noted: 

Those statutes, however, use somewhat different language. See, e.g., § 158(a)(4) 

(protecting an employee who has “filed charges or given testimony”); § 623(d) 

(protecting those who “opposed any [unlawful] practice” (emphasis added)); 

42 U.S.C. §§ 2000e-3(a), 12203(a) (same); 29 U.S.C. § 2615(a)(2) (similar). See 

also, e.g., 15 U.S.C. § 2087(a)(1) (2006 ed., Supp. III) (“provided . . . to the 

employer . . . information relating to any violation” (emphasis added)); § 2651(a) 

(similar); 30 U.S.C. § 815(c)(1) (“filed or made a complaint” (emphasis added)); 

42 U.S.C. § 5851(a)(1)(A) (“notified his employer” (emphasis added)); 49 U.S.C. 

§ 42121(a)(1) (“provided . . . information” (emphasis added)); § 60129(a)(1) 

(same). 

Kasten, 131 S. Ct. at 1332B33. Given the use of broader language in other anti-retaliation 

statutes and the fact that the use of the word “filed” in § 215(a)(3) “lends itself linguistically to 

[a] broader, ‘oral’ interpretation,” the Court concluded that the use of the broader language in 

other anti-retaliation statutes could mean 1) that Congress wanted to limit the scope of “filed” in 
No. 13-1604 Sexton v. Panel Processing, Inc. et al. Page 19 

§ 215(a)(3) of the FLSA to writings, or 2) that Congress did not believe a different use of “filed” 

in anti-retaliation provisions outside of the FLSA made a significant interpretive difference. Id. 

The Court noted that “[t]he bottom line is that the text, taken alone, cannot provide a conclusive 

answer to our interpretive question.” Id. 

The Kasten Court looked further into “functional considerations” and decided that 

limiting § 215(a)(3) to written complaints would undermine the basic objectives of the FLSA. 

Kasten, 131 S. Ct. at 1333. Limiting the scope of § 215(a)(3) to the filing of written complaints 

would “prevent Government agencies from using hotlines, interviews, and other oral methods of 

receiving complaints.” Id. at 1334. Such a limitation would also “discourage the use of 

desirable informal workplace grievance procedures to secure compliance with the Act.” Id. 

The need for effective enforcement of the FLSA led the Court to compare it to the 

National Labor Relations Act (NLRA), 29 U.S.C. § 158(a)(4). Kasten, 131 S. Ct. at 1334. The 

Court noted that it had “broadly interpreted the language of the NLRA’s antiretaliation 

provision” because of the need for effective enforcement of the NLRA.1 Id. The similar 

enforcement needs of the NLRA and FLSA require an interpretation that provides “broad rather 

than narrow protection to the employee.” Id. (citing NLRB v. Scrivener, 405 U.S. 117, 122 

(1972)).2

 Based on these functional considerations, the Court determined that oral complaints 

are within the scope of FLSA  215(a)(3) so long as the complaint is “sufficiently clear and 

detailed for a reasonable employer to understand it, in light of both content and context, as an 

assertion of rights protected by the statute and a call for their protection.” Id. at 1335. The Court 

further observed that “[g]iven Congress’ delegation of enforcement powers to federal 

administrative agencies, we also give a degree of weight to their views about the meaning of this 

enforcement language.” Id.

 1

The Court “broadly interpreted the language of the NLRA’s antiretaliation provisionC‘filed charges or 

given testimony,’ 29 U.S.C. § 158(a)(4)Cas protecting workers who neither filed charges nor were ‘called formally

to testify’ but simply ‘participate[d] in a National Labor Relations Board investigation.’” Kasten, 131 S. Ct. at 1334 

(emphasis added by the Court).

2

In addition, the Scrivener Court declined to read strictly the NLRA’s reference to an employee who “has 

filed charges or given testimony,” or confine “in its reach to formal charges and formal testimony.” Scrivener, 

405 U.S. at 122.
No. 13-1604 Sexton v. Panel Processing, Inc. et al. Page 20 

II. Sixth-Circuit Interpretation of Anti-Retaliation Provisions 

Sixth Circuit precedent analyzing anti-retaliation provisions has not taken as restrictive a 

view as the majority does here. In EEOC v. Ohio Edison Co., 7 F.3d 541, 545 (6th Cir. 1993), 

this court broadly construed the opposition provision of Title VII. See 42 U.S.C. § 2000e-3(a) 

(prohibiting retaliation against any employee or applicant for employment “because he has 

opposed any practice made an unlawful employment practice by this subchapter, or because he 

has made a charge, testified, assisted, or participated in any manner in an investigation, 

proceeding, or hearing under this subchapter.”) (emphasis added). This court read the phrase “he 

has opposed any practice” to mean “he or his representative has opposed any practice.” Id. A 

broad reading of the provision was necessary, this court stated, because it was consistent with the 

purpose of the Act, which was to prohibit retaliation against protected activity. Id. This court 

also noted that other courts have “routinely adopted interpretations of retaliation provisions in 

employment statutes that might be viewed as outside the literal terms of the statute in order to 

effectuate Congress’s clear purpose in proscribing retaliatory activity.” Id. 

This court has also liberally interpreted anti-retaliation provisions in other statutes similar 

to ERISA. In EEOC v. Romeo Community Schools, 976 F.2d 985, 989B90 (6th Cir. 1992), this 

court held that the FLSA’s anti-retaliation provision, the precise provision at issue in Kasten, can 

be triggered by unsolicited internal complaints. See 29 U.S.C. § 215(a)(3) (prohibiting 

employers from retaliating “against any employee because such employee has filed any 

complaint or instituted or caused to be instituted any proceeding under or related to this Act.”). 

The plaintiff, a female teacher, informally complained to the school district that she believed it 

was “breaking some sort of law” by providing higher wages to her male counterparts. 976 F.2d 

at 990. This court held the employee’s informal complaint was protected under the Act, 

rejecting the defendant’s argument that the FLSA § 215(a)(3) protects employee complaints only 

where the employer’s retaliatory action takes place after the employee files an official complaint. 

Romeo Cmty. Schools, 976 F.2d at 990; see also Dunlop v. Carriage Carpet Co., 548 F.2d 139, 

142, 147 (6th Cir. 1977) (broadly interpreting the FLSA § 203(e) to include former employees, 

despite the FLSA amendment by Congress of the phrase “employee includes” to “employee 

means”); NLRB v. Retail Store Emps. Union, 570 F.2d 586, 590 (6th Cir. 1978) (broadly 

interpreting NLRB § 8(a)(4), which states that it is an unfair labor practice for an employer “to 
No. 13-1604 Sexton v. Panel Processing, Inc. et al. Page 21 

discharge or otherwise discriminate against an employee because he has filed charges or given 

testimony,” to protect employees who refuse to participate in an NLRB investigation). As the 

Secretary of Labor’s amicus brief points out, Sixth Circuit precedent favors interpretations that 

grant broad protections to employees. 

III. The Circuit Split: Circuits That Protect “Unsolicited Internal Complaints” 

A. Post-Kasten Interpretation of § 510 

In George v. Junior Achievement of Central Indiana, Inc., 694 F.3d 812, 815 (7th Cir. 

2012), the Seventh Circuit explicitly held that § 510 protects an employee’s unsolicited internal 

complaint. The plaintiff in George noticed that his employer had failed to deposit money 

withheld from his paycheck into his retirement account. Id. at 813. George protested about this 

ERISA violation to various high-level executives of the company. Id. Eventually, he received 

checks that made up the missed deposits plus interest, but he was discharged within several 

months. Id. Like the Fifth and Ninth Circuits, the Seventh Circuit held that George’s unsolicited 

internal complaints were protected “inquiries.” 

Two other circuits have held that § 510 applies to unsolicited informal 

complaints. Anderson v. Electronic Data Systems Corp., 11 F.3d 1311, 1313, 

1315 (5th Cir. 1994); Hashimoto v. Bank of Hawaii, 999 F.2d 408, 411 (9th Cir. 

1993). The ninth circuit stated that reporting misconduct is a necessary step in the 

commencement of any formal inquiry and that, unless informal beginnings are 

covered, employers would be induced to dismiss employees as soon as they 

complained or asked a barbed question. 

. . . . 

The statute does not specify who asks the question or, more generally, initiates the 

inquiry. There is no linguistic reason why “inquiry” cannot refer to the 

employee’s questions as well as the employer’s. Most questions (or observations) 

will lead to questions in return; after George complained, managers at Junior 

Achievement asked questions of him. Treating § 510 as covering only half of the 

dialogue would not make sense. 

Id. at 814, 815. The George court rejected the Third Circuit’s contention that § 510’s language is 

unambiguous: 

 Both the initial clauses in § 510 and the prepositional phrase that modifies 

them employ the disjunctive, which implies that informal and formal approaches 

are separate tracks, both of which are covered. Section 510 can be parsed this 

way: 

((has given information) or (has testified or is about to testify)) 
No. 13-1604 Sexton v. Panel Processing, Inc. et al. Page 22 

in (any ((inquiry) or (proceeding))). 

 Likewise we can group the actions and settings based on formality: 

((has given information) in (any inquiry)) 

or ((has testified or is about to testify) in (any proceeding)). 

This understanding about which words go with which other words is not 

compelled by rules of grammar—the language is ambiguous—but clues including 

the similar ordering of the informal and formal options lend support to splitting 

the provision into two parallel tracks. 

. . . . 

 Because § 510 refers to inquiries without specifying who is doing the 

inquiring, it logically covers employees' inquiries. Crawford provides some 

support for this understanding. .. Junior Achievement proposes to add modifiers 

such as “formal” or “solicited” to the word “inquiry” in § 510. Just as in 

Crawford, we must enforce the text as enacted, without the additions. See also 

Kasten, 131 S. Ct. at 1330. The grammatical structure and functions of § 510 do 

not support reading the statute as if it read: “for giving information . . . in 

response to any inquiry” (adding the italicized words to the enacted text). 

Crawford admonishes us to resist the urge to read words into statutes. 

George, 694 F.3d at 814B16 (rejecting Edwards v. A.H. Cornell & Son, Inc., 610 F.3d 217, 224 

(3rd Cir. 2010) (emphasis in original). George followed Kasten in deciding that “[w]hen dealing 

with ambiguous anti-retaliation provisions,” a court must “resolve the ambiguity in favor of 

protecting employees.” 694 F.3d at 814 (citing Kasten, 131 S. Ct. at 1333B35). 

B. Pre-Kasten Interpretation of § 510

Before the Supreme Court decided Kasten, the Ninth Circuit considered a case involving 

an employee’s unsolicited internal complaint in Hashimoto v. Bank of Hawaii, 999 F.2d 408 (9th 

Cir. 1993). Hashimoto was instructed by her co-workers to commit various ERISA violations. 

Id. at 409. After Hashimoto complained to other employees about “potential and/or actual 

violations by the Bank of the reporting and disclosure requirements and fiduciary standards of 

ERISA,” she was discharged. Id. Although the controlling issue was whether Hashimoto’s state 

claims were preempted, the Ninth Circuit noted that § 510 was “clearly meant to protect whistle 

blowers” in Hashimoto’s position. Id. at 411. The court stated that the “normal first step in 

giving information or testifying” was “to present the problem first to the responsible managers of 

the ERISA plan.” Id. If an employee “is then discharged for raising the problem, the process of 
No. 13-1604 Sexton v. Panel Processing, Inc. et al. Page 23 

giving information or testifying is interrupted at its start: the anticipatory discharge discourages 

the whistle blower before the whistle is blown.” Id. 

The Fifth Circuit interpreted § 510 as protecting unsolicited internal complaints in 

Anderson v. Electronic Data Systems Corp., 11 F.3d 1311 (5th Cir. 1994). Anderson was asked 

by a specific employee to commit various ERISA violations. Id. at 1312. After Anderson 

refused and reported the alleged ERISA violations to management, he was demoted and 

discharged. Id. Similar to the Ninth Circuit in Hashimoto, the Fifth Circuit in Anderson focused 

on the ERISA preemption issue, but noted that § 510 protects employees, like Anderson, who 

“provid[e] information or testimony relating to ERISA.” Id. at 1315. 

IV. Circuits That Do Not Protect Unsolicited Internal Complaints

Every circuit court case that interprets § 510 protection as not protecting an employee’s 

unsolicited internal complaint was decided pre-Kasten. But After Kasten, the Fourth Circuit in a 

FLSA retaliation case followed the Supreme Court’s guidance on statutory interpretation. 

A. Pre-Kasten Interpretation of § 510

The Fourth Circuit in King v. Marriott Int’l, Inc., 337 F.3d 421 (4th Cir. 2003), held that 

unsolicited internal complaints are not protected under § 510. King had learned of potential 

ERISA violations and reported them to her immediate supervisor. Instead of remedying the 

violations, the supervisor promoted King and gave her increased responsibilities regarding 

benefit plan finances. When the supervisor revived his potentially violative plan, King objected 

again and shared her objections with two in-house attorneys in addition to her supervisor. Id. 

When the supervisor revived his plan a third time, King objected again, orally and in writing, and 

was fired, purportedly for feuding with other employees. Id. The Fourth Circuit concluded that 

King’s complaints were not protected under § 510: 

In interpreting a very similar provision of the Fair Labor Standards Act . . . 3

 we 

concluded that the term “proceeding” referred only to administrative or legal 

proceedings, and not to the making of an intra-company complaint. See Ball v. 

Memphis Bar-B-Q Co., 228 F.3d 360, 364 (4th Cir. 2000). In Ball, we said that 

 3

The provision forbids employers from retaliating “against any employee because such employee has filed 

any complaint or instituted or caused to be instituted any proceeding under or related to this Act.” 29 U.S.C. 

§ 215(a)(3). 
No. 13-1604 Sexton v. Panel Processing, Inc. et al. Page 24 

“the ‘proceeding’ necessary for liability . . . refers to procedures conducted in 

judicial or administrative tribunals,” noting that “proceeding,” in the Act, was 

“modified by attributes of administrative or court proceedings.” In particular, we 

explained, “testify” and “institute” both connote “a formality that does not attend 

an employee's oral complaint to his supervisor.” 

King, 337 F.3d at 427. The King court determined that § 510 of ERISA, like the FLSA provision 

interpreted in Ball, was “much narrower” than other anti-retaliation provisions, such as found in 

Title VII, and required a stricter interpretation. King, 337 F.3d at 427 (citing Ball, 228 F.3d at 

364, and Ball’s reference to Title VII’s anti-retaliations provision, 42 U.S.C. § 2000e-3(a) 

(making it unlawful for an employer to discriminate against an employee because he has opposed 

any practice made unlawful by the Act.)) The court interpreted § 510 protections to be limited to 

the legal or administrative proceedings, “or at least to something more formal than written or oral 

complaints made to a supervisor.” Id. at 427. 

In Edwards v. A.H. Cornell & Son, Inc., the Third Circuit followed King and held that 

§ 510 of ERISA does not protect an employee’s unsolicited internal complaint. 610 F.3d 217 

(3rd Cir. 2010). Edwards discovered ERISA violations, “objected to and/or complained” about 

them to her company’s “management,” and was later fired. Id. at 219. In holding that Edwards’ 

complaints were not protected, the Third Circuit determined that § 510 only protects employerinitiated inquiries. Id. at 223. The Third Circuit held § 510 “plain and unambiguous,” and not 

“reasonably susceptible of different interpretations.” Id. at 222 (internal citations omitted). The 

Edwards court interpreted § 510 as granting protection only where there is an employer-initiated 

request for information. Id. at 223. 

The Second Circuit also denied § 510 protection to unsolicited internal complaints in 

Nicolaou v. Horizon Media, Inc., 402 F.3d 325 (2d Cir. 2005). Nicolaou discovered a “serious 

payroll discrepancy” that she believed put her company in violation of ERISA. Id. at 326. She 

brought the discrepancy to the attention of the Chief Financial Officer and Controller, and 

eventually felt compelled to inform “outside counsel” for the company, who conducted his own 

investigation and agreed with Nicolaou. Id. Nicolaou and the attorney then met with the 

President of the company, who reassigned Nicolaou, after which her employment was 

terminated. Because the district court record did not reflect whether the President of the company 

arranged the meeting, the Second Circuit remanded to the district court to decide whether 
No. 13-1604 Sexton v. Panel Processing, Inc. et al. Page 25 

Nicolaou could “demonstrate that she was contacted to meet with [the President] in order to give 

information about the alleged underfunding of the Plan.” Id. at 330 (emphasis added). The 

Court decided that the “informal gathering of information falls within the plain meaning of 

‘inquiry,’” and was protected by § 510. Id. at 329. Thus, if Nicolaou could demonstrate that she 

was contacted by her employer “to give information about the alleged underfunding of the Plan, 

her actions would fall within the protection of Section 510.” Id. at 330. The Court limited § 510 

protection to employees who give information in employer-initiated inquiries. The Nicolaou

court did not consider Nicolaou’s actions before her meeting with the President as relevant under 

§ 510. 

The Second Circuit based its conclusions on the “plain language” of § 510. Nicolaou, 

402 F.3d at 328. The court refused to recognize any similarities to the FLSA, 29 U.S.C. 

§ 215(a)(3),4 as ERISA § 510 was “unambiguously broader in scope.” Nicolaou, 402 F.3d at 

328. The Nicolaou court noted that its holding did not conflict with the Fourth Circuit’s King

decision. Id. at 421. The court recognized King’s interpretation that “Section 510’s use of the 

phrase ‘inquiry or proceeding’” reached only “the legal or administrative, or at least 

. . . something more formal than written or oral complaints made to a supervisor.” Nicolaou,

402 F.3d at 330 (citing King, 337 F.3d at 427). The Nicolaou court, however, stated “the proper 

focus is not on the formality or informality of the circumstances under which an individual gives 

information, but rather on whether the circumstances can fairly be deemed to constitute an 

‘inquiry,’” and focused on whether the employer initiated the inquiry. Id. 

B. Post-Kasten Statutory Interpretation in the Fourth Circuit

No circuit court interpreting § 510 of ERISA as failing to protect an employee’s 

unsolicited internal complaints has returned to the question post-Kasten. In Minor v. Bostwick 

Laboratories, Inc., 669 F.3d 428 (4th Cir. 2012), however, the Fourth Circuit (post-Kasten) 

broadly interpreted § 215(a)(3) of the FLSA to protect an employee’s unsolicited internal 

complaint. 

The issue in Minor was whether an employee’s internal complaint could trigger the 

protection of § 215(a)(3). Minor, 669 F.3d at 431. Minor argued that Kasten requires a holding 

 4

That is the same provision of the FLSA the Court later interpreted in Kasten.
No. 13-1604 Sexton v. Panel Processing, Inc. et al. Page 26 

that protects “intracompany complaints” under § 215(a)(3). Id. Her employer argued that Ball, 

228 F.3d 360 (4th Cir. 2000), was controlling, rather than Kasten, and that Ball “compell[ed] the 

conclusion that intracompany complaints are unprotected.” Minor, 669 F.3d at 431. In the 

alternative, both parties argued that the plain language of § 215(a)(3) supported their respective 

positions. Id. 

The Fourth Circuit held that “although the language of § 215(a)(3) is ambiguous, the 

remedial purpose of the statute requires that it protect from retaliation employees who file 

intracompany complaints.” Id. at 432. It explained that Kasten’s reasoning was “persuasive” but 

not “directly controlling,” as the Supreme Court had “expressly declined to address the question 

of whether an intracompany complaint could qualify as protected activity under the FLSA.” Id.

(citing Kasten, 131 S. Ct. at 1336). The Fourth Circuit distinguished Kasten from Ball by 

breaking down the FLSA’s anti-retaliation provision into three clauses, interpreting the phrase 

“filing any complaint” in § 215(a)(3) as the “complaint clause.” Minor, 669 F.3d at 433. The 

court stated that § 215(a)(3) protects three distinct types of activities; (1) filing any complaint, 

(2) instituting or causing to be instituted any proceeding, and (3) testifying or being about to 

testify in any such proceeding. Id. at 433. The Minor court stated it had “specifically noted in 

Ball that our opinion did not purport to construe the ‘complaint clause.’” Id. (citing Ball,

228 F.3d at n.*). 

Determining that neither Kasten nor Ball were “directly controlling,” the Fourth Circuit 

turned “to an independent review of the language of § 215(a)(3).” Minor, 669 F.3d at 434. The 

court noted that, unlike the district court, it now had “the benefit of the Supreme Court’s recent 

consideration of the plain meaning of ‘filed any complaint’ from Kasten.” Id. at 435. Using 

Kasten as a guide, the court concluded “that the language ‘filed any complaint’ is ambiguous 

with regard to whether intracompany complaints are protected activity under § 215(a)(3).” Id. 

The court declined to overrule its statement in Ball that the term “proceeding” in § 215(a)(3) 

referred only to administrative or legal proceedings and not to the making of an intra-company 

complaint, on the ground that Ball did not involve the complaint clause of § 215(a)(3) and that it 

was Congress’ intent to consider each category of protected activity separately. Id. at 436. 
No. 13-1604 Sexton v. Panel Processing, Inc. et al. Page 27 

Because the term “filed any complaint” in § 215(a)(3) is ambiguous, the Fourth Circuit 

turned to the “functional considerations” considered in Kasten, 131 S. Ct. at 1333, and found that 

those considerations “dictate that intracompany complaints qualify as protected activity within 

the meaning of the FLSA’s antiretaliation provision.” Id. at 437. The Minor court considered 

the FLSA’s basic goals, including that it was enacted to combat labor conditions detrimental to 

the well-being of workers, that Congress had included the anti-retaliation provision so that 

employees would not have to fear economic retaliation for reporting violations, and that limiting 

the provision’s coverage to complaints made only to an administrative or adjudicative body 

would undermine the purpose of the FLSA. Id. An interpretation of § 215(3)(a) that protected 

intracompany complaints, “on the other hand, comports with the statute’s objectives as described 

by Congress’s findings and the Supreme Court’s interpretation of those findings.” Id. at 437. 

V. Analysis 

The threshold question is whether § 510 is reasonably susceptible of different 

interpretations. Kasten, 131 S. Ct. at 1330B31 (observing that an anti-retaliation provision is 

ambiguous if “the language of the provision, considered in isolation, may be open to competing 

interpretations.”); see also Edwards, 610 F.3d 217 at 222. If § 510 is ambiguous regarding 

whether it protects unsolicited internal complaints, Kasten counsels that its interpretation 

“depends upon reading the whole statutory text, considering the purpose and context of the 

statute, and consulting any precedents or authorities that inform the analysis.” Kasten, 131 S. Ct. 

1325, 1330 (citing Dolan, 546 U.S. at 486). 

The circuit split and divergent opinions regarding whether § 510 protects an employee’s 

unsolicited internal complaints suggest an ambiguity. See Smiley v. Citibank (South Dakota), 

N.A., 517 U.S. 735, 739 (1996) (in light of different interpretations in state supreme courts and 

federal circuit courts, the court found it difficult “to contend that the word ‘interest’ in the 

National Bank Act is unambiguous . . .”); North Fork Coal Corp. v. Fed. Mine Safety & Health 

Review Comm’n, 691 F.3d 735, 740 (6th Cir. 2012) (the fact that the phrase “pending final order 

on the complaint” of 30 U.S.C. § 815(c)(3) “does not have a plain meaning” and “is subject to 

more than one reasonable interpretation” was demonstrated by the competing interpretations 
No. 13-1604 Sexton v. Panel Processing, Inc. et al. Page 28 

offered by the parties, and noting that “the existence of divergent court opinions also suggests 

ambiguity.”).

Kasten has important implications for interpreting § 510. In both King and Edwards, 

which relies on King’s reasoning, § 510 protection was limited to employees who give 

information in “something more formal than written or oral complaints made to a supervisor.” 

King, 337 F.3d at 427; Edwards, 610 F.3d at 223 (“even beyond the plain meaning of ‘inquiry’ 

and ‘proceeding,’ the phrase ‘testified or is about to testify’ implies that the phrase ‘inquiry or 

proceeding’ is limited to more formal actions.”) Relying on another pre-Kasten case, Ball,

5

 the 

King court determined that § 510 of ERISA, like the anti-retaliation provision of the FLSA 

interpreted in Ball, was “much narrower” than other anti-retaliations provisions, requiring a 

stricter interpretation of § 510. Id. King interpreted § 215(a)(3) of the FLSA--the same 

whistleblower provision the Supreme Court interpreted a decade later in Kasten. But Kasten 

interpreted the provision to protect employees who make informal oral or written complaints. 

131 S. Ct. at 1335. 

The Second Circuit in Nicoloau focused less on the formality of the inquiry and more on 

the importance of the inquiry being “employer-initiated.” 402 F.3d at 330. In fact, the Nicoloau 

court observed that ERISA’s § 510 is “unambiguosly broader in scope” than the FLSA’s 

§ 215(a)(3). Id. at 328. However, none of these statements take away from the fact that the 

court did not believe its holding conflicted with King’s reasoning, or that it based its conclusions 

on the “plain language” of § 510. Id. In fact, Nicoloau’s holding calls for a broader 

interpretation of § 510 than King and Edwards, with its statement that the “plain language of 

ERISA Section 510” is “unambiguously broader in scope” than the FLSA’s § 215(a)(3). Id. at 

328. Following the court’s own reasoning, if Nicoloau had been decided post-Kasten the Second 

Circuit would interpret § 510 of ERISA to protect an employee’s unsolicited internal complaint, 

since Kasten interpreted § 215(a)(3) of the FLSA to afford broad protections for employees. 

After the Supreme Court decided Kasten, the Fourth Circuit held that § 215(a)(3) of the 

FLSA protects an employee’s unsolicited internal complaints in Minor, 669 F.3d. at 439. The 

Fourth Circuit noted that it had adopted the majority view, which included the Sixth Circuit, on 

 5

Ball, 228 F.3d 360, 364 (4th Cir. 2000).
No. 13-1604 Sexton v. Panel Processing, Inc. et al. Page 29 

the same issue. Id. at 438 (citing Romeo Cmty. Schools, 976 F.2d at 989). However, after 

Kasten the Fourth Circuit’s Minor and King decisions cannot be reconciled. Compare King, 

337 F.3d at 427 (relying on Ball in its determination that § 510 of ERISA and § 215(a)(3) of the 

FLSA require a strict, narrow interpretation), with Minor, 669 F.3d at 435B37 (distinguishing 

Ball from Kasten and using Kasten as a guide in determining that § 215(a)(3) of the FLSA was 

ambiguous and that functional considerations dictated “that intracompany complaints qualify as 

protected activity.”). Minor is noteworthy because the only two other circuits to interpret 

ERISA’s § 510 as not protecting an employee’s unsolicited internal complaint relied on the 

Fourth Circuit’s reasoning in King. 

VI. 

The district court decided this case primarily on the basis that Sexton’s email was not an 

inquiry. The majority makes this point as well. Initially, Sexton inquired of the Human 

Resources manager as to the results of the election. After confirming that the employees had 

received the most votes, he sent the email to the board chairman. The majority concedes that 

Sexton gave information in the email, but concludes that it was not given in an inquiry. I agree 

with the Secretary that a complaint may, in context, be an inquiry, and that Sexton was clearly 

asserting that Panel Processing had violated ERISA and inquiring whether the board would take 

action or Sexton would be required to do so. Sexton argues that Panel Processing responded to 

that inquiry by firing him. 

VII. 

Section 510 is susceptible of several interpretations, only one of which is that employee 

information must be given 1) at the employer’s initial request and/or 2) in “something more 

formal than written or oral complaints,” in order to be protected. See, e.g., King, 337 F.3d at 

427. I would follow George, the only circuit court decision issued after Kasten. 694 F.3d at 814 

(“When dealing with ambiguous anti-retaliation provisions, we are supposed to resolve the 

ambiguity in favor of protecting employees.” (citing Kasten, 131 S. Ct. at 1333B35)); see also 

Crawford, 555 U.S. at 277B78 (“nothing in the statute requires a freakish rule protecting an 

employee who reports discrimination on her own initiative but not one who reports the same 

discrimination in the same words when her boss asks a question.”)