This is a great task and challenge for the new and larger information systems (e.g., the World
Data Centers (1973); and the Information Analysis Centers like the Fachinformationssysteme (FIS) pres-
ently planned and partially established in Germany (Hartmann, 1977)). (See also Fia. 12, .p. 28) It
seems absolutely necessary to incorporate some "space for research" within these systems and to arrange
cooperative projects with scientific groups actively working in data acquisition and data processing
in various research institutes. Otherwise the necessary link might be out of phase, in which case the
present gaps and barriers between scientific and documentation activities would be increased instead
of decreased. See also "Consequences for Information Systems" for further details.

The new generation of minicomputers with graphic display allows an intensive, effective, and

fairly inexpensive graphic communication between man and computer and thus is an excellent device for
data preediting at many levels and in many fields. Figure 8 (p. 22) shows an example of an effective
data preediting system. In 1976 it was used in the context of a joint NOAA Space Environment Laboratory
(SEL) and Max-Planck-Institut (MPI) flir Aeronomie program for the evaluation of data from the radio
beacon experiment of the geostationary satellite ATS-6 (Davies and Hartmann, 1975). Figures 9a (p.
24) and 9b (p. 25) show examples of data preediting procedures using large computing systems, The
one shown in Figure 9a is less flexible, more time-consuming, and more costly than that in Figure 8,
Some recent problems that developed in one of the world's largest computing systems (ILLIAC IV) are
mentioned by Falk (1976).

The general term data processing (in a broader sense) comprises three steps: (1) data collec-
tion; (2) data filing, storage, and retrieval (data documentation), and (3) data compression. This
last_step again can be subdivided into: (a) graphic presentation, (b) statistical analysis, and (c)
modelling. (The steps are ordered with increasing degree of abstractness).

Remarks: Very often only step (3) is specified as actual data processing. This much narrower
definition often means that step (2) is almost completely disregarded. However, a thorough data documenta~
tion is a consequence of and a need for any reasonable data processing (in a narrower sense), This
leads, among other things (as mentioned in the Data Documentation section), to the need for so-called
“datographies." Even if data processing is understood in its broader sense, step (2) is not given enough
attention. This is due partly to an often unconsidered and (or) too euphoric use of computers during
the last decade. Now, this sometimes seems to switch to "computer pessimism," rather than to a real-
istic view, which Ties somewhere between the two extremes. Falk (1976) shows this clearly using
the technical failure of ILLIAC IV as an example, It is further shown by a branching effect, a conse-
quence of growth rates, which now introduces in addition to software and hardware the new term and do-
main orgware.

The greatest progress in data processing in its broader sense was achieved for step (1), owing
to recent technological advances. Less progress was achieved for step (2), since filing, indexing,
etc., are not only organizational problems, but also simultaneously require (besides human intelligence
and practical experience) something that seems to be almost forgotten--human imagination (Kahn and
Wiener, 1967). This is of growing importance with the increasing complexity of the documentation problem,

Much less progress was achieved for step (3), mainly owing to human beings finally having
to interpret and use the processed data for various decision-making processes and actions. The biolog-
ical limitations of human information-processing capabilities and the far from optimal communication
between man and computer lead to a continuously decreasing ratio between finally processed (used) data
and raw data, especially in the highly industrialized nations.

To slow down the trend toward information chaos the software-hardware gap, especially for
steps (2) and (3) above, must be decreased by developing more useful data documentation and compression
methods (see also Fig. 7, p. 21) and by establishing better cooperation and communication between per-
sonnel active in science, information documentation, and information planning (see Fig. 11, p. 27).
Initially, all possible combinations of the graphic communication techniques (GMD, 1974) with the recent
video (Goldmark, 1976) communication techniques, including laser and holography (Kahn and Wiener, 1967),
should be investigated extensively. This will lead to a new type of communication system, "Video-Graphic-
Communication and Documentation System" (VIGRODOS) (see also Fig. 10, p. 26).

GRAPHIC PRESENTATION
General Aspects

Mankind exists in a four-dimensional world that consists of three space coordinates and one
time coordinate. Human perception (intuitive knowledge, vision) restricts us in general to three dimen-
sions, i.e., our understanding of graphic presentations refers at maximum to three coordinates. How-
ever, in most cases this is insufficient when, for example, environmental parameters are to be described.
If \ is the geographic longitude, 6 the geographic latitude, h the altitude above or under the sur-
face of the Earth, and t the time, then all observed environmental effects (measured data) are more
or less dependent on all four parameters. Therefore, F = F (A, 6, h, t).

14


Falk, He, 1976: Reaching for a gigaflop. The fate of famed Illiac IV was shaped by both research bril-
Tiance and real world disasters, in IEEE Spectrum: what went wrong? A special issue.

Friedman, Ye, 1977: Machbare Utopien, S. Fischer Verlag GmbH, Frankfurt. Main French original edition,
Utopies realisables, Union generale d'editions, Paris, 1975.

Gabor, D. 1972: The mature society, Pragger Publication, New York, N.Y. UsS.Ae

Gabor, D., Colombo, U., King, A., and Galli, R., 1976: Beyond the age of waste, A report to the Club
of Rome.

Gesellschaft fur Mathematik and Datenverarbeitung mbH (GMD) 1974: Institut fiir Grafische Datenverarbei tung
Beitung und Strukturerkennung Jahresbericht. Hrsgbe (Institute for graphic data handling and structural
recognition), Bonn, Postfach 1240, Schlob Birlinghoven, D-5205 St. Augustin 1, Federal Republic of
Germany.

Goldmark, P. C., 1976: Then came EVR, in IEEE Spectrum: what went wrong? A special issue,

Hammond, A. L., Metz, W. D., and Maugh, T. H,, 1973: Bnergy and the future, American Association for
the Advancement of Science, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.

Hartmann, G. K., 1975: Some thoughts about natural science and its future (manuscript of a seminar
talk presented at the University of Oulu, Finland).

Hartmann, G. K., 1977: Why do we need data, what are data, what principal data evaluation problems have
to be considered? Ed. ZAED; Kernforschungszentrum, D~7514 Eggenstein-Ledpoldshafen 2, Federal Republic
of Germany.

Hartmann, G. K. and Oberlander, H., 1976: Physikalische Wasseruntersuchungsmethoden (Physical methods
for water investigations), Hrsgb. IDW D-6000 Frankfurt/Main 71, Herriotstr. 5 (English translation
in press). Federal Republic of Germany.

Heisenberg, W., 1962: Physics and philosophy, Harper and Row, TB 549, New York, N.Y., U.S.A.

Heisenberg, W., 1973: Naturwissenschaftliche und Religiose Wahrheit (Truth in the natural sciences and
. in religion), Physikal. Blatter 29, No. 8, 329-349,

International Council of Scientific Unions, Panel on World Data Centres, 1973: Third consolidated guide
to international data exchange through the world data centres, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.

Ilich, I., 1973: Toole for conviviality, Harper and Row, New York, N.Y., U.S.A,

Kahn, H., and Wiener, J., 1967: The year 2000, New York, N.Y., U.S.A.

Kestner, W., Saniter, J., Strasser, W., and Trambacz, U., 1974: "Automatisierung, Analyse und Synthese
Dynamischer Systeme," Nr. Binfukrung in Computer Graphics, Technische Universitat Berlin,
Informatik-Forschungsgruppe, Computer Graphics (Automizing analysis and synthesis of dynamic
systems, Nr. 55, Introduction in computer graphics).

McPherron, R.L., 1976: The analysis and processing of large amounts of geophysical data: Time series
data base management, IGPP Publication 1641, ERL/SEL, NOAA, Department of Commerce, Boulder, CO 80303,
U.S.A.

Meadows, D. H., 1972: he Limits to growth, The New American Library, Inc., New York, N.Y., U.S.A,

Mesarovich, M., and Pestel, E., 1972: Construction of a dynamic model of the regionalized world economic
system, Report No. 2, Technical University, Hannover, Federal Republic of Germany.

Mesarovich, M., and E. Pestel, 1976: Mankind at the turning point, Signet Book, The New American Library,
Inc., New York, N.Y. U.S.A.

Pestel, E., 1973: Strategie zum Uberleben (Strategy to survive), Umsehau,73, No, 16, 498-499, Club of
Rome.

Rogge, P. G., 1975: Tendenzwende (Crossroads of tendency), Bonn Aktwell,Nr. 27, Bonn Aktuell GmbH, Ver~
lag, Federal Republic of Germany.

Schober, H., and Rentschler, I., 1972: Optische Tauschungen in Wissenschaft und Kunst (Optical illusions
in science and art), Heinz Moos, Verlag, Munchen, Federal Republic of Germany.

Scholder, K., 1973: Grenzen der Zukunft (Limitations of the future), Urban Taschenbucher, Reihe 80,
KohThanmer, Verlag, Federal Republic of Germany,



LARGE INFORMATION SYSTEMS

The Space Environmental Laboratory Data Acquisition and Display System (SELDADS) (Williams, 1976),
the World Data Center-A for Solar-Terrestrial Physics (ICSU Panel, World Data Centres, 1973; World Data
Center A for for Solar-Terrestrial Physics, 1973, 1976)and the Information Analysis Centers (IACs) like
Fachinformationssystem (FIS) 4 at Karlsruh (Hartmann, 1977) are chosen only as examples for large infor-
mation system units of different ages. WDC-A for STP is fairly old, SELDADS is fairly young, and FIS
4 is in "statu nascendi" (birth process). All three have in common that they must deal with solar ter-
restrial data. All three suffer (SELDADS and WOC-A for STP in their operational phases, FIS 4 in its
planning phase) from the information growth problems and from the ambivalence between research and ser-
vice. They all reveal the major characteristics of large information systems mentioned in Figure 12
(p. 28). They furthermore have in common the serious challenge of the need for better, faster, and
more economical information selection and compression methods. Many institutes handling large amounts
of data, e.g., from space physics, are faced with similar problems; some, however, are different and
more direct. The forthcoming VIGRODOS techniques will alleviate many of these problems and will meet
the needs much better than our present information techniques.

Two examples will demonstrate some major needs that might be met with VIGRODOS techniques.

1. The data compilation of the August 1972 Solar-Terrestrial Events (WDC-A for Solar-Terrestrial
Physics, 1973), which is well done in the old classical sense, is so extensive (three volumes) that
the use of VIGRODOS techniques would allow versatile combinations, comparisons, rearrangments, and pre-
sentations of the data and would facilitate a better overall interpretation of the phenomena. The fore-
word to these collected data reports follows below.

2. The positive reactions to a literature review (prepared by G.K. Hartmann and H. Oberlander)
on the topic "Physical Water Research Methods" included a request for a supplementary volume with a
compilation of the most important data extracted from the referenced literature. However, this can
be done economically and efficiently only by applying the new graphic communication techniques (see
Figs. 7, p. 21, and 8, p. 22). There was neither financial support for purchasing or renting the ne-
cessary techntcal equipment nor for employing and training the relevant documentation personnel (Hart-
mann, 1976).

XK KKH RH RHR HK KH HHH KHER KR HK RR RK KR RHR EKER HH

Foreword to Collected Data Reports on Solar-Terrestrial Events (August 1972)

The assembling of a volume of detailed data reports on the August 1972 solar-terrestrial events
has come about because of recommendations by the ICSU Special Committee on Solar-Terrestrial Physics
(SCOSTP), the International Union of Radio Science and numerous leaders in the international complex of
scientific organizations. A circular letter from World Data Center A to the largest available list of
observers resulted in the about 150 contributions collected in this special WDC-A data report.

The August 1972 events were a self-declared retrospective interval (confirmed by the SCOSTP)
for intensive research and study, and the subject of a number of national and international symposia in
the succeeding year. While a number of prompt data reports (see below) have appeared, the present
volume is a channel for detailed data reports and brief discussion by individual observers. These data
reports should facilitate multi-station or interdisciplinary interpretation of the complex phenomena and
make more efficient the future scientific symposia on their physical explanation, notably the 1973 IAGA
symposium at Kyoto.

The data reports in this volume have been given a minimum of editing, and where there has been
editing there has not been time to check back with the authors and still have the volume distributed in
a timely fashion. It is hoped that not too many substantive errors have thus crept in, but the compilers
had no alternative.

The data reports are grouped under seven major headings, but many reports cover several of the
major disciplines of solar-terrestrial physics. The index may help identify where data in one disci-
pline are reported in a data report primarily concerned with another discipline.

Brief summaries of each major discipline appear at the front of the volume. These were written
on short notice by members of the MONSEE Steering Committee of the ICSU Special Committee on Solar-
Terrestrial Physics, each for his specialty. The time schedule was such that not all reports were
available at the time the summaries were written, although most titles were available. The writers
were asked to provide summaries or "overviews" and specifically not to attempt critical review articles.
The summary articles may, however, serve as a guide to the detailed data reports; they attempt to meet
a justified criticism of earlier detailed data reports on cosmic events compiled by WDC-A.

At the very beginning is a summary of the discipline summaries. While Dr. J. Roederer agreed
to prepare this section, not enough material was available before he had to be absent on pressing
matters and the overall summary was completed by the undersigned who should therefore take all respon-
sibility.

31



Figure 3.--Example of the three basic literature elements

EHF Properties of Air

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Seiffert, H. 1971: Information uber die Information (Information about the information), C, H. Beck,
Munchen, Federal Republic of Germany.

Senghaas, D., 1977: Entwicklung ohne Weltmarktzwange (Development without coercion by world markets),
Forum Vereinte Nationen, Jahrgang,4/Nr. 3, 3-6.

Tribus, M., and McIrvine, E. C,, 1971: Energy and information, in Energy and power, a Scientific American
Book, 121-128, W. H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, Calif., U.S.A.

van Appledorn, W., 1972: Die Optische Revolution (The optical revolution), Rororo Sachbuch,Nr. 6779,
Rowohlt Taschenbuch Verlag, Reinbek.

Wallis, Allen W., and Roberts, H. V., 1960: Statistics, a new approach, The Free Press, Glencoe, I11.,
U.S.A.

Williams, D., 1976; “SELDADS: An operational real-time solar terrestrial environment monitoring
system, NOAA Tech, Report ERL-SEL 37, NOAA, Department of Commerce, Boulder, CO 80303, U.S.A,

World Data Center A for Solar-Terrestrial Physics, 1973: Collected data reports on August 1972
solar-terrestrial events, Report UAG-28, Parts I, II, and III, NOAA/EDS, Department of Commerce,
Boulder, CO 80303, U.S.A.

World Data Center A for Solar-Terrestrial Physics, 1976: Catalog of ionosphere vertical sounding data,
Report UAG-54, NOAA/EDS, Department of Commerce, Boulder, CO 80303, U,S,A.

36

USCONM-NOAA-ASHEVILLE, NC--5-78-~1000



CONTENTS

Foreword . 2 1 6 eee ee ee ee ee
Abstract... 1... ee ee sew ee ee
Introduction. 2... ee ee ee ee
Present information situation ........

General aspects of jnformation, communication, and documentation. . .

Definitions. .... se we wees

Some information characteristics ©. 6... ee ee ee ee

Specific documentation problems .......

General aspects 2 6 6 6 ee

Data documentation ......+.---

Data acquisition, preediting, and processing... .

Graphic presentation... . 1... eee eee

General aspects . 2 6. ee

Consequences . 2... ee ee

Consequences for information systems... 6 6 ee ee ee ee ee ee es

General aspects. . 2... ee eee eee

Time series data management. ......
Large information systems ........-4
Final remarks ......-+-- see
Acknowledgments . 1... 6 eee eee eee

References. . 1... eee ee ee ee ee

iii

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ii

10
14
14
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19
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31
33
34
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15


Figure 7.--From data acquisition to processing

DATA ACQUISITION (Raw Data)

Analog Digital 4
(with calibration) (with record structure and

format specifications)

Data Reading and Data Pre-Editing (Pre-
Scaling, e.g. by Processing, Base Data)
man from chart re- e.g. Encode Strings of
cordings Bits. Error Checking
(Parity, Time, Code,
Range). Data Sorting
(Additional Options for
Information Retrieval). 2
Removal of Distortion
Effects (Display).
Preselection, Precom-
pression (Display).
Calibration of Data.
Data Storage (Master
Tape, Datagraphy).
Quick-Look Plots.

I

Data Processing (Data
Compression)

e.g. Graphic Presen-

tations (Display). 3
Statistical Analysis.

Modelling.

Final Data Storage and
Datography

Because the transition area between research and service is poorly covered in many fields,
especially when they are organizationally separated, the ratio of the used to unused information (raw
data) continuously decreases as long as the information rates continue to grow. It, furthermore, gets
increasingly more difficult to select desired information from the total file. The development of new
compression methods, in conjunction with the VIGRODOS techniques and in close cooperation between the
‘information systems, the information suppliers, and third users, seems promising and may help to alle-
viate the problems. The huge problems of the efficient, future use of formal information channels (see
Fig. 13, p. 29), especially data bases, have reinforced the use of informal channels in most fields.
This ultimately implies that decisions reached at a golf course might dominate those based upon more
objective data from a specific information system

The reported "data explosion phenomenon" is not only a severe one in natural science, but also
in many other fields, e.g., economics (marketing). The explosion of data in marketing is exemplified

21


Figure 6a.--Display of science (Hartmann, 1975, 1977; Heisenberg, 1962, 1973)

basic conceptions Prior conditions|
Science = System of =: terms. (explications) of science
derived terms (Object)
(definitions) _|
basic statements 7)
statements (axioms) Actual Science
derived statements
(theorems ) _|
for definition 7
rules<~ purpnses
for derivation Meta Science
purposes (Method)

such that the system is as far as possible

+ Contradiction free
+ complete
independent

runs

formally simple

3. Graphic display (moving picture) of F as a function of three variables, i.e., three-dimen-
sional presentation plus "time scale" on a two-dimensional screen, Using holography techniques, "moving"
three-dimensional presentation is possible. Applying additional video and (or) regular film techniques
will expand the presentation by adding color, sound, and fast-motion effects, and others.

Remark: It is possible that color will bring another "new dimension."

Applying the future possibilities of laser and semiconductor techniques, the new type of com-
munication and documentation system called VIGRODOS is finally approached. Its optimum use will be
determined principally by human intelligence, organization talents, practical experience, imagination,
and communication talents. During the early stages it requires a genuine, close cooperation between
versatile, interdisciplinary-type scientists and relevant documentation personnel (see also Fig. 11,

Pp. 27) with a feeling for a synergetic (combinatorial) (Kahn and Wiener, 1967) use of the new technol-
ogies and with auto=didactic (self-training) capabilities. Furthermore, it requires the support of
a good electronics laboratory with appropriate engineers, at least during the test phases.

Consequences

Considering the most sophisticated communication and documentation system (VIGRODOS), we can
display at maximum an effect F as a function of three variables, In general, the effects are depend-
ent on more than three parameters, while the above-mentioned environmental effects are dependent on
four. This implies that we cannot display the complete behavior; i.e., we have to neglect one variable
(perhaps its influence is slight or uninteresting), or to produce a second, third, and fourth display,
where the fourth variable is displayed instead of one of the three previously chosen.

Thus, in order to display from all aspects, phenomena that are strongly dependent on more than
three parameters, we need an increasing number of presentations that grows with the number of variables.
Systems like VIGRODOS very likely will accelerate man's ability to create broad and new experiences,
not only in the domain of natural science, but also in the humanities (Gabor, 1972).

However, several limitations and dangers also should be mentioned, There is, first of all,
the problem of optical illusion (Schober and Rentschler, 1972; van Appledorn, 1972). There also are
unconscious or conscious problems of misleading or incorrect presentations, caused either by a poor
understanding or incorrect conception of a subject or by ideological biases.

7


Figure 14,--The most important present STP information flux channels
Purely theoretical Data Producer
work
Special date

a) Without Data |b) With Data Exchange processing and

Exchenge (national and inter- pe duction
Special data national) e.g. Publication
processing Report
and reductiorVerious institutes) oo titite Institute
on institutions I IL [-—® Consul tation |
l user
Institute Institute
Publication Tit Tv
Repart
\ Rau data, (pre-) | Raw data, (pre-)edited
Jser edited date date
oF tap
mon|~ = ope BE.
German Poat Office a ‘TAG (FIS 4)

(FTZ Darmstadt)

URSIGRAM SERVICE

i

' '

xy {ate exchenge, handling i» User
i

Date processing end

1

User <——____| Data-User scogrtn anne
Data-processor ;
Data-handling, exchange vers}
Data-producer !
&.
User emmeenencecel SELDADS WOG-A-STP Literature end date
(NOAA Boulder) (NOAA Boulder, USA) compiletions on
Dale Proaucer and other wOCe special problens
ata + organized by inter-
Data User Data hendling, (4) national organizetions
Data handling, pate ceonesea like: URSI, COSPAR,
exchange ata processing CCIR, SCOSTEP, CODATA,
Data processing ete.
(SELDADS REPORT) user (ICSU GUIDE) user

Remarks: 1, FIS 4: Possible future role of the Fechinformationssystem 4 (information enalysis center 4)
for Solar-Terrestrial Physics in Germany, (I) might be stepwise replaced by (II)
2. Aeronomy Oata are part of the STP Data
3. Data acquisition means: Measuring of the raw data, i.e. deta production and to some extent
also data (pre-)editing (See also Figs. 7 and &).
4. Osta documentation means: Collection, filing, storage, and retrieval of the data and to
some extent also data (pre-)editing.
5. Oata processing includes: Graphic presentation, statistical analysis, and modeling.

Striving for reliable environmental prediction services, based upon our present knowledge,
principally means using only the "bulk data" and supplying these somewhat classical data to the rele-
vant service agencies (e.g., Weather Service) after their routine acquisition by the monitoring systems.
In conjunction with an updating of model calculations with real time data, the alerting and real time
data transmission activities of modern information systems such as SELDADS (Williams, 1976) also
are important.

In the context of striving for better models to describe and predict the environmental phenom-
ena that are generally dependent upon many parameters, any refinement implies a simultaneous increase
in complexity of the model, The number of unexpected and unexplained effects and also the standard
deviations thus decrease; conversely, the computational efforts and costs increase as much as that
for scientific and technical purposes and personnel. This means that three limits finally are approach-
ed where it is scientifically, technically, and economically unreasonable to strive for further model
refinements, The procedure of a model-updating with real time data (see remark B.3. of Fig. 5b, p. 15)
might indicate that such a limit now is close. Ultimately, a certain amount of unpredictability’ is
always present, whatever the circumstances (see Heisenberg, 1962).

30 .

|
|
|
i
}



Table 2 Example of a "Datography" See also Williams (1976) for other examples

Necessary information for optimal comparisons of location-
and time-dependent, non-reproducible date (Dieminger § Hartmann, 1977).

i. Clessification of the observation

II. Measured effects

@) Description of the effects

b) Point observations: data from a point source

c) Line observations: data measured along a line, e.g.
along a satellite orbit

d) Area observations: data measured upon a surface in space

e) Volume measurement: data measured within a volume

f) Integral quantity: data measured by integration over a
volume or surface or along a line ,

g) In situ: measuring equipment is located at the place of
the measured quantity

h) Remote sensing: measurement equipment is located some
distance from the point of the measured quantity

III. Parameters derived from II.
a) Direct
b) Indirect
c) By correlation with other data
d) Precision of evaluation
e) Total error: error of measurement + error of processing

IV. Periods for which measured and/or processed data are
available

V. Type of data recording
a) Analogue with corresponding characteristical resolution
b) Digital with corresponding characteristical resolution
c) Teletransmission of data
4) Number of observatories

VI. Data access
a) At the observatories (yes, no)
b) At national data centers (yes, no)
c) At international data centers (WOCs, etc.) (yes, no)
d) If b) no, question: "Is it planned for the future?"
e) If c) no, question: "Is it planned for the future?"
f) Means of accessibility

VII. Noise characteristics (equipment characteristics)
a) Range of meesurements
b) Resolution of the instrument and sensitivity
c) Precision
d) Spatial resolution

VIII. Economic questions

a) In large quantities, industrially produced equipment
(serial production)

b) In large quantities, industrially produced equipment
(single production)

c) Research model

d) Laboratory prototype

e) Combination of a) through d)

f) Cost of development, time af development

g) Gperstional cost of a single observatory

h) Cperational cost of a network of cbservatories

IX. what kind of documentation exists about the equipment, cata
acquisition, data (pre-)editing (pre-processing), and final
processing?

X. Da scientific publications exist?

12



Figure la.--Scheme of a general information processing system with its three main elements

Tit

Information

I Il
Communication
Information Channel
Source

Receiver

Noise Sources

Figure 1b.--The human being as an information processing system with input and output channels
Extra- | Sensory perceptions (SP); Sensory apperception (SAP)
sensory i | Smell, Taste
ceptions! | Sense af heat and touch

Sense of muscle attitude
Gravity, vision, hearing

HUMAN.

BEING

Seeing (Reading); Hearing

Stored and
retrievable
information

(information
source
or

Language (Speaking); Writing

(Literature

in @ broader
sense;

»| "documentation" )

receiver)

| Gesture, Mimicry, Action

T

Ir

Il

Figure 1c.--Characteristics of the three main elements of an information processing
system exemplified by human being and literature in a broader sense

Qualitative infor-
mation characte-

Noise

| |

mation growth
rate

2. Demand for
action (pragma-
tic level)

3. Action

ristics

4. Redundance R (8) HUMAN Writing, etc. Uiterature
and information |... GEING in 8 oe
mass M (S) or (Sub ject) ‘cade:
information eubjec Toadiah ou gense
stock and infor- eading, etc. bject)

4. Information costs

Objective information system

characteristics

H=2*B*t* 10g (Ve/Vp)*

Voi Signal voltage, Vp:

1. Signal mass H [bit]
2. Bandwidth 8 [Hz ]
3. Signal to

noise ratio {a5 )
4. Transmission time (t]

R (S) + M (S) [pit]

Noise voltage, S: Subject

Quantitative

information
characteristics

1. Signal mass
4 [pit]

2. Signal detection
(Syntactics)

3. Signal meaning

(semantics)

F



swatqoid may (2

suatqosd pantos (1
1

¥

+

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aouatog BO - Gutuuetd asuayag
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sanbtuyoay Ageqtttw 1 [s2rwouoss]
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4Layq pue ‘Buluuejd aouaros

fUOLPEUMOJUL f|DUBLIS JO Sa4nzeas I19SL4aZIBUeYO BY JO YOIEYS--°TT aunBiy

27


Figure 9a.--Example of a preediting procedure for phase data using a large
computing system, Siemens 305, at MPAE Lindau

(W. Degenhardt MPAE - see also Davies & Hartmann, 1975)

4 equidistant digital

{raw data

r
1 Set unwanted data
7 points zero

Program for automatic
removal of large distortion |~-------~--------
effects, e.g. lock out

Program for automatic
addition of phase
increments

i)

{ Judgement of the

--| automatic date pre-
| editing and finding
out further necessary
corrections

Program for generating a Printer Plot
computer printer plot with
simultaneous list

+ Lis

1
1
1
1

Program for correction of Punched cards

those "phase jumps" and for correction
distortions that were not
automatically detected

Program for closing gaps
between subsequent curve
sectors (interpolation)

7 worl {Final check of the
{ data pre-editing
MASTER n=

TAPE

24



THE INFORMATION EXPLOSION AND ITS CONSEQUENCES FOR DATA ACQUISITION,
DOCUMENTATION, AND PROCESSING

An Additional Aspect of the Limite to Growth
by

G.K. Hartmann
Max-Planck~Institut flir Aeronomie, P.0. Box 80
D-3411 Katlenburg-Lindau 3, German Federal Republic

Abstract

Most of the highly industrialized nations are approaching a so-called post~
industrial society, which has two major structural elements: information

and knowledge. In this context the question arises: “Will the tremendous
information growth rates soon lead to information chaos?" Several complex
problems are discussed, relating personal experiences to general informa-
tion problems and characterizing the present information situation. Two
principal information problems are noted: (1) Information can be accumulated;
time (e.g., the human lifetime) cannot be accumulated. (2) Further growth
‘in information increases the tension between structural differentiation
(i.e., branching) and integration (i.e., striving for better overall views,
a consequence of new scientific results and technical tools). Branching
often results in an organizational and institutional separation between

data acquisition, data documentation, and data processing activities as

well as between research and service activities. Documentation activities
will play the key role in avoiding and (or) reducing the negative separa-
tion effects. The following economical, political, and technical possibili-
ties might abate the approach of information chaos: Make use of new techno-
logical tools in the information documentation and information processing
arena. Combinations of the recent graphic communication techniques with

the new video (laser, holography, and semiconductor) techniques may lead

to a new communication system: Video-Graphic-Communication and Documentation
System (VIGRODOS). Any reasonable test and later operation of VIGRODOS
techniques, at various levels, require additional versatile scientists

and documentation personnel thinking in interdisciplinary terms. Support
from an electronics laboratory with qualified engineers is required, at
least during the test phases. Planning and (or) performance of such a
feasibility study, applying the VIGRODOS technique to two different types

of solar data, is suggested as a possible cooperative program.

INTRODUCTION

In The Coming of Post-Industrtal Soctety, Bell (1976a) employed the term "post-industrial" in
the following context: If industrial society is based on machine technology, post-industrial society
is shaped by an intellectual technology; if capital and labor are the major structural features of
industrial society, information and knowledge are those of the post-industrial society (see also Kahn
and Wiener, 1967). Whether industrial nations in Western Europe, Japan, the U.S.S.R., and others
become post-industrial societies like the United States, they ali have increasingly severe information
problems. Some specific problem areas are described here in more detail.

The author has worked for more than 10 years in space research (Davies and Hartmann, 1975),
a domain that probably has had a larger growth rate in information production (acquisition of raw
data) than any other field. After tremendous increases in funding in the early 60s, the late 60s
brought drastic recession effects to space research, even though a recession was not yet prominent
elsewhere. Nevertheless, there was a further increase in information because of advances in technology.
Thus, the author was faced with many of the information problems that are now starting to affect other
disciplines from their inception. Only the continuous, simultaneous consideration of specific informa-
tion problems related to experimental research work and of general problems related to information,
technology, and societies could lead to the following critical analysis of the present information
situation and to some practical suggestions for solutions that are economically and politically feasible.

The results of this study can very likely be used for alleviating information problems in
many other fields of science, including the humanities, and our daily life. They might also provide
a stimulus for new "psycho-logic" training of man against information chaos.

1



DISCLAIMER

The Environmental Data Service does not approve, recommend, or endorse any proprietary product or
proprietary material mentioned in this publication. No reference shall be made to the Environmental
Data Service, or to this publication furnished by the Environmental Data Service, in any advertising
or sales promotion which would indicate or imply that the Environmental Data Service approves, recommends,
or endorses any proprietary product or proprietary material mentioned herein, or which has as its purpose
an intent to cause directly or indirectly the advertised product to be used or purchased because of
this Environmental Data Service publication.



2. Only data that have passed detailed preediting are reasonably efficient for further pro-
cessing for "third users".

3. After completion of step 2 the raw data can be erased in almost all cases, thus reducing
storage problems.

4, Data preediting requires various intensive interactions between man and computer (machines).

These statements are of extreme importance when, because of branching effects, data acquisi-
tion, documentation, and processing are institutionally separated. Then the normally smooth transi-
tions between the three steps often are interrupted drastically, and usually no one feels responsible
for reducing the resultant negative effects. Although data documentation is not mentioned specifically
in Figure 7 (p. 21), some of the data preediting and processing activities belong in the documentation
domain. As a consequence of this structural differentiation that now occurs in many fields, documenta-
tion has to be an actual, active link between data acquisition and data processing, not only a mere
storage and handling tool, which, in the worst case, might increase the time delay between data acquisi-
tion and data processing (e.g., by third users).

Figure 5a. Elements of empirical science

a) fundamental
b) preliminary
c) aware

Knowledge Ignorance: (known)

Conditions con-

Uncontrolled

trolled by man Conditions

Interesting
relation; e.g.
described by a

Interesting
relations derived
by statistical

mathematical method:
formula 4. Measuring error
1 2. Prediction of
' Observed Future phenome-~
t eh na and trend
nomenon Studies
t
1
H '
! t
H 1
! 1
' 1
1
1 Quantitative des- '
t criptian of the phe
' nomenon, e.9. by
H data 1
1 i H H
t t I !
L-~-----~---~--------4 eee ee eet
Remarks:

A. The ignorance about the uncontrolled conditions can be of three different
types a) fundamental type - if for instance the influence of a parameter
cannot be determined in principle (time of nuclear splitting); b) prelimi-
nary type - if we can hope that by the use of new information we can ex-
pand the range of controllable conditions; c) aware (known) type - if we
know of the existence of some uncontrolled conditions and disregard them,
since regulating them is either of no interest or technically not feasible
or too expensive.

§. There are two principal statistical methods to treat large amounts of data
1. Frequency distributions 2. Descriptive statistical parameters.

13

|


15, An improved relationship between natural science and the humanities now is observed
for the first time since the rise of modern natural science in the 18th century and the rise of modern
historical science (based on objective knowledge). The credit for closing the gap between these "op-
posite poles" is due to two scientific disciplines: (1) mathematical logic and (2) analytical science
theory (Heisenberg, 1962; Seiffert, 1971).

In general, numerical data are the most objective information sources; therefore, they
are the most important basis for rational decision-making processes. However, many decisions and ac-
tions are based on emotions; i.e., they depend on subjective information (Heisenberg, 1973). The grove
ing information problem, especially that of the software-hardware gap, leads to the increasing use of
subjective information such as informal information channels (see Fig. 13, p. 29). This ultimately
implies that decisions reached on a golf course, for example, might dominate by far those based upon
more objective data that flow from specific information systems. In the long run this will strongly
affect all kinds of official information channels, especially the large Information Analysis Centers,
(IACs), the World Data Centers (WDCs) (World Data Center ICSU Panel, 1973; World Data Center A for Solar-
Terrestrial Physics, 1976, 1973), and all larger data acquisition systems, e.g., Space Environmental
Laboratory Data Acquisition and Display System (SELDADS) (Williams, 1976).

Remarks.

These specific information problems are essential aspects of the present information situation.
There is a very strong interdependence with many other societal problems that are not mentioned here.
Only some selected references are given (Bell, 1976a, 1976b; de Solla Price, 1961, 1963, 1965; Fried-
man, 1977; Gabor, 1972; Gabor, et al., 1976; Hartmann, 1975; Heisenberg, 1962, 1973; Illich, 1973; Kahn
and Wiener, 1967; Meadows, 1972; Mesarovich and Pestel, 1972, 1976; Pestel, 1973; Rogge, 1975; Scholder,
1973; and Senghaas, 1977).

GENERAL ASPECTS OF INFORMATION, COMMUNICATION, AND DOCUMENTATION
Definitions

The term information, which is used at present in a very broad sense, is increasing in impor-
tance (Seiffert, 1971). There is a strong interdependence between information, communication, and doc-
umentation (see Figs. la-id). Communication includes all methods for information transmission. Docu-
mentation includes the systematic collection of information and methods for storage and retrieval of
‘information, which is here called literature in the broader sense (see Fig. 2, p. 6).

Since most information cannot be evaluated immediately, it has to be documented for later
use. Thus documentation is a consequence of and generates a need for most of the modern communication
processes. In this context, information (data) processing is just part of a larger communication
process (see also Data Acquisition, Preediting, and Processing section, 3d paragraph, p. 10).

The advances of natural science and technology during the past 2 centuries have created many
new and very efficient methods of communication and documentation that have led to the tremendous in-
formation growth rates (often denoted as exponential information growth).

Some Information Characteristics

»

. Information removes uncertainty.

. Information can be received and disseminated.

3. For practical purposes, it is more useful to talk about information stock and information
growth rate.

4. Three parameters determine information quantitatively:

a) Signal mass H [bit]

b) Information mass M = M(S)

c) Redundance R = R(S)
H=Mt+R.

(Text continues on p. 6)



CONSEQUENCES FOR INFORMATION SYSTEMS
General Aspects

A discussion of modern information systems, including information acquisition, documentation,
and processing, simultaneously implies the consideration of the mostly unspoken, but extremely important,
research and service ambivalence. Neglecting it can lead to serious performance problems in any system.
Information growth rates lead to various structural differentiations in the entire field. Figure 12
(p.28) shows some characteristics of large, medium, and small information system-units that are a con-
sequence of branching.

Another major important branching effect is the organizational and institutional separation
of research and service activities, that now can be observed in many areas. One of the negative con-
sequences is that each part usually will begin to exist alone, often disregarding the inherent, essen-
tial interdependence between research and service. This then produces an artificial gap between re-
search and service that increases in proportion to the growth rates,

Falk (1976) discusses some negative effects of the research and service (operational) ambiva~
lence in the ILLIAC IV project. In space physics, many of these negative effects can be demonstrated.
For example, the satellite technique in many cases still shows big gaps in data processing between test
(pure research) and operational (service) systems (e.g., weather and ERTS satellites). The transition
region from research to service, due to the organizational separation, is insufficiently considered
and treated. At the present, this leads to an undesirable decrease in the ratio of used to unused data,
which new information systems will have to correct.

If research and service activities are not separated organizationally, the necessary dynamic
balance usually is achieved automatically owing to the fairly smooth transition between the two ex~
tremes. After a separation, this usually is no longer the case, and it becomes further complicated
because of the following facts: 1) The speed of growth makes it in principle more difficult to achieve
a dynamic balance; 2) The reaction-rate time constant that is inherent in any system increases as the
information system increases (see Fig. 12, p. 28), i.e., as its flexibility and feed-back capability
decrease; and 3) Large information systems are used principally for multilateral, international contracts.
This leads to a second reaction-rate time constant, somewhat independent of the first, that might by
far exceed the one mentioned earlier owing to international politics and negotiations.

Thus, the larger the information system, the more likely that many of its actions will be out
of phase with actual needs, and that it cannot make optimum use of recent scientific and technical tools.
To reduce these dangers there must be an ample amount of "practical research space," with sufficient
funding and manpower, within each new and larger information system. This is obviously in contrast
to our wishes for efficiency, especially to plan information systems effectively, and shows another
ambivalence-~between basic research and economic aspects. However, this voluntarily created "unplanned
space" seems to be the only guarantee that the systems really can serve, and progress, with actual
needs, and that they will not be dominated by problems like overcentralization and other Parkinson's
effects--growing with the increasing size of the information systems (Bell, 1976a, 1976b; Friedman,
1977; Kahn and Wiener, 1967; Mesarovich and Pestel, 1976; and Senghaas, 1977), Furthermore, it seems
necessary that the IACs arrange cooperative projects with scientific groups actively working in data
acquisition and data processing in various research institutions.

Each of the three information system-units mentioned in Figure 12 is necessary. Their useful-
ness depends on the question and problem to be addressed. Thus not only one, but all three, must be
supported, Though there are smooth transitions between them, it seems both useful and reasonable to
have these system-units, especially since they also are specific organizational units. The terms large,
medium, and small information system-units might have been named more appropriately large, medium, and
minicomputers, In this context Falk (1976) shows what it means for an information system to approach
critical size using the ILLIAC IV project as an example. See also Friedman (1977).

Table 3a (p. 23) lists some major tasks of larger national and international information (data)
services, excluding data acquisition and data preediting and reading activities (see Figs. 7, p. 21,
and 8, p. 22). Table 3b (p. 23) shows that the main tasks of information systems change with time.
Seven different tasks, in order of increasing complexity, are presented in Table 3a. The second step,
which includes data collection, normally should start with the preedited data. THé newly defined step,
data preediting (see Fig. 7), is the "interdisciplinary," but now fairly crucial, link or transition
between the acquisition systems and any subsequent information service. It is crucial because primary
data users or data suppliers (e.g., the data producers) to information systems normally conceive and
design their data acquisition and processing systems according to their tasks, their financial and tech-
nical means, their manpower, and their know-how. This often does not meet the needs of others who may
try to get the data via an official information channel (see Fig. 13, p. 29). To make the data useful
for such third users, a major task of the data-handling information systems is "reformatting." This
is especially important when looking at the research aspect of data handling by large information systems.
Because modern and larger information systems normally deal with research aspects and with service
aspects, they have a real chance, and are challenged, to close the gap between research and service.
A first step could be achieved by treating data preediting problems in more detail.

19



WORLD DATA CENTER A

Solid Earth Geophysics Solar-Terrestrial Physics
& re)
4
REPORT SE-11 REPORT UAG-65

THE INFORMATION EXPLOSION AND ITS CONSEQUENCES
FOR DATA ACQUISITION, DOCUMENTATION, AND PROCESSING

An Additional Aspect of the Limits to Growth

May 1978



5. The description of information is possible on several different levels (see Fig. 1c, p. 4).
Three basic ones will be mentioned here (Seiffert, 1971).

a) Syntactic level: The relation of the signals among each other, problems of signa
detection, and aspects of accuracy of signal transmission.

b) Semantic level: The meaning of signals (message) and aspects of the accuracy with
which the meaning can be transmitted.

c) Pragmatic level: The effect of the message, i.e., the demand for action and the result-
ing action,

Figure 2.--Three basic elements of literature in a broader sense and their
relevant documentation methods

High redundance, Low redundance,
Sub jective Objective

Condensation of text content
WORD bp NUMBER
(text docu- (data docu-
mentation) Ig mentation)

Description and interpretation
of data

PICTURE

(picture docu-
mentation)

Redundance plus subjective and
objective reality

WORD: Printed texts; tape-recorded sound

Text means literature in the classic docuinentation sense.
NUMSER: Numerical data (tables); mathematical functions.
PICTURE: Graphical presentation, e.g. curves, planes, etc; chart

recordings, drawings, photos, slides, films, cartoons,

movies, video (tape-recorded moving picture + sound)

6



Redundance, as defined by information theory, determines to what extent a message can be edited
without losing information, The lower the redundance of coded signals the shorter the message; the
higher the redundance, the longer the message and the better the disturbance and noise problems can
be overcome. Redundance is necessary for data protection. M = M(S) and R = R(S) (where M = information
mass, R = redundance, and $ = subject) mean that both quantities are dependent on the relevant human
being (subject). bit: binary digit, i.e., smallest information unit==10 2? joule per degree-kelvin
(Tribus and McIrvine, 1971).

Figure id.--Communication schemes

Iqu s K E Iv

=

Scheme of a communication chain:

Iqu: Information source
: Information Transmitter

K : Communication Channel

—& : Information Receiver

Iv: Information processing
(Storage, coding, action)

St : Distortions, noise

IvM t
IvM
Communication scheme between conscious systems: a! - 6? - am

8°, 8¢, 8M: Consciousness; 8M: Information moderator;
G: Human brain acting as transmitter and/or receiver
M: Communication medium.

Sources of distortions are: a) 6M - conscious manipulation of news
b) In all cases: IVM: inner "soul" imagi-
nations (conceptions, structures)
©) Distortions by collective influences:
Td: Idols of the mass, - No: Standards of
the behaviour of the collective-consciousness,
-Sy: Symbols of the collective unconsciousness

5

|



Time Series Data Management

It is a prevalent belief that larger amounts of time series data can be dealt with only in large
computing centers. Because of the serious data growth rates in space physics, some new software and
orgware concepts were proposed and successfully tested by McPherron (1976).

However, the new generation of minicomputers, especially those with graphic display, now show
clearly that many of these problems also can be solved in medium or small computing centers. This will
get a further boost if additional and recent videotechniques also are applied (the trend toward VIGRODOS
techniques). These new techniques will be used at all three levels; some common aspects will now be
mentioned. Figure 5a (p. 13) shows the elements of empirical sciences. Most of the observed phenomena
of our environment are time series data and, furthermore, are caused mainly by so-called uncontrolled
conditions (time~ and space-dependent, nonreproducible data (Hartmann, 1977)). Thus, we have to treat
these data with statistical methods. There are two principal methods: 1) frequency distribution; 2)
descriptive statistical parameters. The first one often requires a graphic presentation of the results,
However, the large data growth rates and the advent of the new graphic communication systems lead to
an increased interest in graphic presentation in the second case as well.

Figure 5b (p. 15) shows some important descriptive statistical parameters and some of their
applications. The terms large, medium, and small at level V are used only in a relative sense. The
subdivision of level V also can be considered as a subdivision in time, since at the onset of measure-
ments, the standard deviations are large and then decrease as time and technical progress proceed.
Figure 5c (p. 16) demonstrates this other possible point of view, namely, the possible time subdivision
into three generations.

A stepwise improvement of the models (in our specific case the reference atmosphere) can be
achieved by application of remark B in Figure 5b. It is quite clear that we can improve (refine) our
models most by studying in detail the unexpected and unexplained effects. This implies that the main
emphasis lies in the research aspects; it further implies human interaction in the data preediting,
documentation, and processing. The computer may help to search (retrieve) these effects from the "bulk
data," but the computer cannot reasonably process these data before its programing is updated. In
this context, the computer’ often cannot distinguish between unexpected technical disturbances and
new physical phenomena.

(Text continues on p. 30)

Figure 10.--Steps toward Video-Graphic-Communication and Documentation System (VIGRODOS)

Small Information
Systems (e.g. small
files, computers, etc.)

Large Information
Systems

----4

Medium Information-
systems
wv L S
Graphic Communication Video Communication
System System

T
Laser-, Holography-,
and Semiconductor
techniques

Video-Graphic-Communication and
Documentation Systems (VIGRODOS)

26



Figure 9b.--From digital data acquisition to data processing by automatic
and manual data preediting

Example: Radio Beacon Phase Data from ATS-6 (Davies & Hartmann, 1975)

Remark:

The given percentage numbers will very likely
also apply to many other fields

Acquisition of large amounts

of digital data

Vv

"Automatic" coarse
computer pre-editing

100% raw data

(fan handle about 55%
55% of the raw data

ive. all expected
effects)

MASTER

Improved automatic pre- c ee
editing, i.e. improved | further use? |—Sno
computer algorithms (Can Loi ----- i
handle at maximum about
70% of the original raw |
data, i.e. all expected
and a few new effects) yes delete
30% raw data
r 7 "Manual pre-editing! e.g. by
jfurther use? -—— yes —— minicomputer with graphic
L--_____!} display - see Fig 8 - and/or
by punched cards - see Fig, 9.|
J About 10% of the original
raw data cannot be handled,
no since no distinction between
technical and physical
effects is possible.

High F8dtndance;
Monitoring, Service

45% raw data
(unexpected effects)

“a

10% "uncer-

MASTER tainty", i.e.

TAPE 2

If

TAPE 3

Medium re-
dundance;

Service and

Data Processing
Research —

very low redundance;
Research

25


PRESENT INFORMATION SITUATION

In this section, 16 statements (thoughts) are presented that describe the current information
situation. Some numbers, 2, 10, 11, 14, and 16, will be considered in detail in this report.

1. Owing to recent technical developments, there is a need for the planning and building
of a completely new information environment, Its "quality," however, will be influenced more by the
limitation of human capabilities and the willingness for self-limitation than by the concept: "It can
be done; therefore, it must be done."

Data and picture documentation will become more important owing to the latest advances
in computer and video technology and to new needs of society resulting from scientific advances. At
first, the new generation of the minicomputer with graphic display will play a more important role (see
Gesellschaft fur Mathematik and Datenverarbeitung mbH (GMD), 1974). This will lead to new "Video~
Graphic-Communication and Documentation Systems" (VIGRODOS: a term introduced by the author).

3, Increases in the software-hardware gap (because of economic growth and recession) and
in the acquisition of raw data result in a tremendous information growth.

4. An increase in information leads to the first principal information explosion problem:
knowledge can be accumulated and time cannot be accumulated.

5. Beyond a certain point, an increase in information production and storage capacity implies
a rise, rather than a reduction, in the price for the final information product because of the increasing
costs for transmission, translation, and selection of the relevant information.

6. Economic and scientific growth impact not only on information growth rates, but also lead
simultaneously to structural differentiation ("branching" and "subdividing"). At some point there is
an anti-growth trend, a trend for synthesis instead of analysis. Further growth only increases the
tension between differentiation and integration. This is the second principal information explosion
problem.

7. There is an interdependence between information and control as well as between information
and energy (Hammond, et al., 1973; Tribus and McIrvine, 1971).

; 8. If no greater efforts are made to meet these expanding information problems in the future,
we will know increasingly less in a relative sense despite the information growth,

9, Eventually, our attitudes may have to change significantly. Presently, most of the plau-
sible suggestions that might alleviate the information burden cannot be accomplished because of psycho-
logical and economic barriers. For example, one suggestion is the voluntary slowing down of the growth
rate. Assuming the simultaneous, efficient use of recent information technologies, this would imply
that new information is no longer needed so quickly. Hence, there would be more time for information
filtering and evaluation. In addition, our environment slowly reduces the growth rate, even if it is
due only to continuously increasing social burdens that decrease capital accumulation. (See Final Re-
marks on p. 33.)

A fairly efficient, realistic, and reasonable method to slow down the trend toward informa-
tion chaos seems to be based upon an intensive, integrated use of recent technologies for literature,
data, and picture documentation and processing (VIGRODOS techniques). This requires, among others, ad-
ditional "documentation personnel" with a diversified educational background.

Information technology, in contrast to energy and resource technologies, has few intrinsic
limitations. However, there exist other intangible limitations, namely those that arise from the human
biological nature.

12. The phenomenon of “time shortening" owing to exponential growth makes the extrapolation
of human experience for the determination and judgment of future probabilities increasingly questionable.

13. When the rate of change of our environment exceeds society's maximum "speed of learning"
and "speed of reaction," a limit is reached beyond which no reasonable and useful data evaluation is
possible.

1 The rapid progress in digital techniques for data acquisition and processing makes it
necessary to differentiate between raw and (pre)edited data (basic data, preprocessed data), which are
the actual basis for all that is called data processing or analysis. Furthermore, it leads to the need
for detailed "datographies" (term introduced by the author; see Table 2, p. 12) and to data format prob-
Tems.

2



In the previous section three steps for data compression were mentioned:

b) statistical analysis, and c) modelling.
become increasingly important because of the new grai
graphic display), which might develop into VIGRODOS.
dimensional presentation (four independent variables
a cathode ray tube (CRT), which itself is two-dimensi

Here only graphic presentation is considered.

a) graphic presentation,
Tt has

phic communication system (e.g., minicomputer with

To display the above-mentioned F, a five-
and the value of the function F) is needed. If
onal, is utilized for displaying F, the following

three possibilities are obtained:

1, Graphic display (still picture) of F as a function of one variable, i.e., an actual two-
dimensional presentation, This is the well-known, widely used classical display method.

2. Graphic display (still picture) of F
sional presentation on a two-dimensional screen.
1974; see also: Kestner, et al., 1974). Usini
tion is possible (Kahn and Wiener, 1967).

as a function of two variables, i.e., a three-dimen-
This is the main subject of computer graphics (GMD,
g holography techniques an actual three-dimensional presenta-

Figure 5c.--A subdivision of time series data into three generations (time

As an example we use atmosphere data
4. First generation of atmospheric data

Mean behaviour with large standard deviations

Very coarse scale reference atmosphere

+

2. Second generation of atmospheric data

(further additional data + processing)

Mean behaviour with moderate standard deviations

Coarse scale reference atmosphere

+

3. Third generation of atmospheric data

(further, additional data + processing)

Mean behaviour with small standard deviations

Fine scale reference atmosphere
Remarks:
Oue to the growth rates we observe "branching"effects also in the data
acquisition and processing areas. In this context it seems reasonable
and useful for time series data to introduce also a subdivision in time.
See also level V of Fig. 5b. These subdivisions are here denoted as
first, second and third generation and lead to very coarse, coarse and
fine scale reference atmospheres (madels). It should be noted that these
terms are meant in a relative sense. The first generation is mainly con-
trolled by step 1 - see remark 8 to Fig. 5b - the second by step 2 and
the third by step 3.

16



(Contents of the SELDADS Report--Cont'd)
3. DATA CURRENTLY AVATLABLE

Solar X-Rays

Solar Wind

Charged Particles Measured at Satellite Altitudes
Magnetic Field at Geostationary Satellite Altitudes
Total Electron Content

H-Alpha Solar Events, Features, and Patrol
Discrete Frequency Solar Radio Flux and Bursts
Spectrographic Solar Radio Events

Solar Calcium Plage Observations

Coronal Intensities

White-Light Sunspot Observations

Optical Auroral Observations

Auroral Radar Backscatter

Tonosonde Observations

High Frequency Radio Path Signal Strengths
Sudden Ionospheric Disturbances

High-Latitude Riometer Data

Ground-Based Magnetometer Observations

Stations Contributing Data to SELDADS

SEPP bbb bb oeUan RONG

WD WW WW WW WOW WO WWW WWW
SBUARERGRES

4. DATA TO BE AVAILABLE

SOLRAD HI Data

US-IMS Ground Magnetometer Network Data
TIROS N Data

Solar Optical Observation Network (SOON)
Radio Solar Telescope Network (RSTN)

BRAAR
GhwRb

5. SUMMARY OF DATA AVAILABLE AND TO BE AVAILABLE
6. ACCESS TO SELDADS

7. KEY PERSONNEL

8. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

9, REFERENCES

FINAL REMARKS

General Growth Problems

. (Mesarovich and Pestel, 1976): "The intensity of the crisis in global world development and the
elusiveness of effective measures to bring about a solution challenge premises that have long been
most fundamental in guiding the evolution of human society. Although these premises have paved the way
for human progress in the past, they have also, finally, led to the present conditions. Mankind, there-
fore, appears to be at a turning point: to continue on the old road--that is, to follow the traditional
route, unchallenged, into the future--or to start on a new path. In the search for such a new direction
the old premises must be reevaluated.

"One such premise concerns the phenomenon of growth, Many of the global crises have been at-
tributed to continuous and rapid growth. Tt has been argued, therefore, that growth must be stopped,
or at the very least, deliberately retarded. Conversely, it has also been maintained that solutions
of the world crises could be found only through continued growth. The fact is that both of these points
of view require a great deal of qualification and more explicit definition before either one can be
accepted as correct on a rational, rather than an ideological or emotional, basis. In other words,
we need to know what is meant by ‘growth,’ and in what sense growth is considered as desirable or un-
desirable. Growth, after all, is a process, not an object; it cannot be pointed at physically, like
a chair or table, for the sake of explication; rather it must be conceptually defined.

"But defining growth (especially in support of positions "for" or "against" growth) is not nec=
essarily straightforward--as the confusion characteristic of current debate on growth or no~growth indi-
cates. On certain growth issues there would seem to exist universal agreement. Consider, for example,
the issue of population growth. Few would quarrel with the position that the global population cannot
and should not be permitted to grow unchecked forever. That the population must level off some time,

33



j.e., that population growth should stop, is the view gaining universal acceptance. On the other hand,
none would argue against the growth in medical services leading to increased life expectancy and dec-
lining mortality rates; but this leads to increase, rather than decline, in population. The area of
material consumption provides yet another example of the complexity of the growth issue and highlights
the peril in taking a stand for or against growth as an abstract concept. It is a well-established
fact that in the world's developed, industrialized regions materials consumption has reached proportions
of preposterous waste. In those regions there must now be a relative decline in the use of various
materials. On the other hand, in some less fully developed world regions, there must be substantial
growth in the use of some essential commodities, either for food production or for industrial production.
The very existence of the population in those regions depends on such growth. Hence, unqualified argu-
ments for or against growth are naive; to grow or not to grow is neither a well-defined nor a relevant
question until the location, sense, and subject of growing and the growth process itself are defined:

In this context, the information growth process might be defined as the accumulation of scien-
tific knowledge. (See Figs. la-Id, p. 4-5, and Information, Communication, and Documentation, p. 3.)

W. Heisenberg (1962, 1973) (a statement made in context with nuclear and quantum physics): "The
further we proceed in analyzing the surrounding nature, the more refined models we use and the more
sophisticated models we use, the less we experience about the real objective nature of the world and
the more we learn about ourselves." (Free translation into English by the author.)

C.F. v. Weizscker: "Finally I have to repeat that we have to make ugly prognostications. _In-
deed this seems to be the most important thing I have to say, and I'l] finish with a well known fable
which I changed slightly.

"Three frogs fell ina milk can. The first was a pessimist and said, "I'll never get out,"
and was drowned, The milk glued up his lungs and thus he died. The second was an optimist and said,
"It does not matter; I'l] get out," and showed no activity and thus he was drowned, too. The third
was what one calls a realist - his own opinion is fairly often denoted as realistic - and he paddled.
He said, “One never knows." After having paddled for several hours he felt something hard underneath
his feet. He had churned the milk into butter and then he jumped out of the can." (Free translation
into English by the author.)

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to thank the Directors of the Max-Planck-Institut ftir Aeronomie--Prof. Dr. W.I. Axford
and Prof. Dr. G, Pfotzer--for their support, and Dr. R. Abbel (IDW, Frankfurt) and Dr. H. Behrens (ZAED,
Karlsruhe) for their valuable discussions, and my colleaque, Dr. W. Degenhardt, for valuable discussions
and contributions of Figures 8 and 9a. Prof. Dr. H.A. Whale provided valuable comments and proofread
the first English draft; Prof. Dr. V.M. Vasyliunas assisted in proofreading.

REFERENCES

abe D., 1976a: The coming of post-industrial society, Basic Books, Inc., New York, N.Y., U.S.A. (2nd
ed.).

Bell, D., 1976b: The cultural contradictions of capitalism, Basic Books, Inc., New York, N.Y., U.S.A.

Davies, K., and Hartmann, G. K., 1975: The NOAA/MPI observation program for the ATS-6 radio beacon
experiment. Proceedings of the Symposium of the COSPAR Beacon Satellite Group, November 1974, Moscow,
vol. II, 179-190.

de Solla Price, D., 1961: Scetence since Babylon, New Haven, Conn., U.S.A.
de Solla Price, D., 1963: Big sctence, little setence, New York, N.Y., U.S.A.

de Solla Price, D., 1965: The science of science. Wew views of the nature of man, JR. Platt, ed.,
Chicago, I11., U.S.A.

Dieminger, W., and Hartmann, G.K., 1977: Problems in the investigation of space and time dependent
media exemplified by the ionosphere. Max-Planck-Institute flir Aeronomie-IFL Report (Probleme bei
der Untersuchung von Raumlich and Zeitlich Veranderlichen Medien, Dargestel1t am Beispiel der Iono-
sphare), J. Geophys., 42, 447-453,

Doucet, F. W., 1973: Mensch und Psychologie (Man and psychology). Heyne Kompaktwissen, No. 22, Wilhelm
Heyne, Verlag, Munchen, Federal Republic of Germany.
34



Figure 8.--Example of effective data preediting with intensive feed-back
using the Tektronix 4051 Graphic Computing System

(W. Degenhardt, &.K. Hartmann, H. Oberlunder (MPAE);
T. Gray (NOAA/SEL)-- also see Davies and Hartmann, 1975

Analog data

Digital
TAPE

Digitizer, e.g.
Graphic Tablet

Corrections of
single points

Call for various
Correction-Sub-
routines

. Variation of
program parameter

- Application of
Correction routines
with simultaneous
use of cursors

for curve sectors

Minicomputer with

Graphic Display
e.g. TEKTRONIX 4054

(= Manual Control
and input

Preselection,
Precompressian

Final graphic
presentation

Plot

Hardcopy Digital
TAPE

Film

by an extract from a news release (from R.J. Bregenzer, A.C. Nielsen Co. Northbrook, I11., dated May 19,
1977):

"A.C. NIELSEN COMPANY ACQUIRES COORDINATED MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS, INC.

Commenting on the development, McCurry said: "The explosion in data processing capabilities in
recent years has led to a corresponding explosion in the amount of data available to marketing
executives. As a result, one of the most pressing problems today is translating that data into a
readily accessible, meaningful form which can be used as a basis for executive marketing decisions,

By combining CMS's expertise in user-oriented time sharing systems with Nielsen's marketing research
resources, clients will now have a wealth of data instantly retrievable with the press of a button."

(Text continues on p. 26)
22



FOREWORD.

"The Information Explosion and Its Consequences for Data Acquisition, Documentation, and Processing"
is the first data report bearing document numbers of both World Data Centers A for Solid Earth Geophysics
and for Solar-Terrestrial Physics, SE-11 and vAG-65, respectively. This cross-listing is our way of
acknowledging the broad applicability of the report to any data center, regardless of discipline.

The issuance of this report by WDC-A should not be interpreted as an indication that these ideas
and systems have been or will be adopted. The report is more of a working document to stimulate dis-
cussion both here and elsewhere in the WOC community. We are impressed or intrigued by Dr. Hartmann's
philosophy and generalized approaches and want to give them wider dissemination in the data center com-

munities.
ee ee 2

With the advent of digital computers, science entered an inevitable--and now exponential--growth
cycle. Other technological improvements, together with the growth of international cooperative scien-
tific endeavors and, particularly, the onset of space observations in situ, have combined to unleash
a flood of data from which we have not recovered. Even Center disciplines that still rely heavily on
the "classical" archival techniques, such as filing sheets of paper, bound volumes, and film records,
have shared in this almost overwhelming growth (due in large measure to easy, inexpensive copying tech-
niques and to computer-produced microfilm).

In the 1976 report "Geophysical Data Centers: Impact of Data-Intensive Programs," the Geophysical
Research Board of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences’ National Research Council evaluated the impact
of large-scale geophysical programs on the U.S. and WOC-A. They found that the National Climatic Center
then had about 77,000 reels of digital magnetic tape. The National Space Science Data Center had about
41,000 reels, and the National Geophysical and Solar-Terrestrial Data Center had about 600 tapes from
only a few years of data acquisition of this type. These Centers, together with the National Oceano-
graphic Data Center, had millions of feet of film records and cubic feet of paper documents. Further,
a sampling of some 14 national and international data-collection programs then in progress indicated
that these data loads would increase by some 10!* "bits" (equivalent to 2% million digital magnetic
tapes). This is in addition to the continuing important Center roles of archiving data in photographic,
graphical, and paper tabular forms--truly a formidable task.

The impact of the data and information explosion is further enhanced by present and probable future
budget constraints. Original data collectors, both research and monitoring, are tending more and more
to work only with a portion of their data. Often their uses are narrowly restricted to achieving spe-
cific goals. The great expense of the data~collection effort makes the Centers' role as data preservers
for the secondary users ("third parties") more important. Thus, there is increasing need for the Data
Centers to receive and store large data masses efficiently for future accession, and to prepare inven-
tories, data summaries, and data syntheses that most efficiently convey the sense of the massive detailed
collection to secondary users. Because of the costs of data storage, retrieval, and reproduction, a
role is emerging for the Centers as places to which scientists may go to preview data, perform prelimi-
nary analyses, and define precisely the minimal needs of their home institution for data,

The challenges of coping with the data explosion through techniques such as "preediting" raw data,
properly documenting data sets (preparing "datographies") for future use, and efficiently blending the
skills of engineers, data specialists, and user-scientists are the subjects Dr. Hartmann addresses in
this report. His ideas are firmly based on personal experience with analyzing large quantities of
satellite-ionosphere digital data. He believes that the systematic application of the latest computer
digital and graphic technology by specially trained, broad-based "documentation personnel" offers the
only practical way to avoid impending "information chaos." A principal tool may be the "VIdeo-GRaphic-
COmmunication and DOcumentation System (VIGRODOS)."

As World Data Centers A for Solid Earth Geophysics, for Solar-Terrestrial Physics, and for Glaciol-
ogy, we hope that this report will play a role in leading us, other international and national data
centers, university data archivers, and industrial data collectors toward the time when the data explo-
sion can be contained and harnessed.

a re ee ee?

This report has been edited at WDC-A/Boulder (which is collocated with the National Geophysical
and Solar-Terrestrial Data Center) to make it more readable for English-speaking readers. Mr. Jerry
Coffman, chief editor of the NGSDC staff, has tried to achieve a compromise between idiomatic construc-
tion and the flavor of the author's style. There was not opportunity for Dr. Hartmann to review the
edited manuscript. Ms. J.V. Lincoln and Mr. J.H. Allen also have helped in the process.

A.H, Shapley
World Data Centers A at Boulder

ii



If the term data is used in the above-mentioned specific sense, Figure 2 (p. 6) shows clearly
that data documentation has generally low redundance and thus is very sensitive toward any kind of dis-
tortion (noise), If data also are to be of maximum usefulness for "third users," a fairly detailed
written description is necessary in addition to the recorded data. For the sake of brevity let us denote
this complex description "Datography" (see Table 2 (p. 12), which gives an example of a datography,
and Dieminger and Hartmann (1977) and Williams (1976)

Requirements for any reasonable sort of life in a society of human beings include production,
transport, exchange of goods (merchandise), the growth of opinions and their interchange, as well as
the coordination of activities. Man has lived in a planned world since he moved from nomadism to an
agrarian state and further to highly industrialized societies. For any of the above-mentioned planning
activities, people need facts and data. The vast majority of the data belong in the "nonreproducible"
category. The data ordering given in Table Ja(p. 11) has proved to be useful and reasonable. But to
discuss the problems of time series data management in more detail additional considerations, which
will be presented now, are needed.

Figure 4a.--Three basic elements of literature in a broader sense and their
major documentation techniques with combinations

4. Computer-Printing

2. Computer based text
storage and retrieval

\

I. wORD II. NUMBER
41. Printing 4. Computer tech-
techniques niques

2. Sound recor-
ding techniques

Video Data Display ! c
("Data movie") }#————1+ Computer with

_.} graphic display

1. Reprography ~
2. Video-movies

III. PICTURE

4. Photo techniques
2. Video techniques
3. Holography

4. Laser techniques

5. Semiconductor tech-
niques

The broken arrows and the relevant rectangle indicate a possible future
step for an effective data presentation and/or compression. Just now the
new generation of minicamputer with graphic display opens a new era of

intensive and effective graphic communication between man and computer,

which is a first step in the direction toward "data movies".

9



Table 1a Main areas of data documentation

I.

Alnha-numerical data documentation

Systematic filing of facts

Examples: Bibliographic files, address files, merchandise lists,

geographical distribution of insects, etc.

Remark: Hartmann, 1977, used the term non-numerical

il.

instead of alpha-numerical

Numerical deta documentation

1)

2)

3)

Physical-chemical data, i.e. properties of matter
and substances;

Physical constants

Data are independent of time and space

Data are reproducible since the conditions of
the first measurement can be reproduced for any
subsequent measurement.

Raw materiel- or Engineering data

Date are dependent on the production technology
of the material, its preliminary treatments and
its "geometry".

Environmental deta

a) Data from natural matter and from nature
i.e. from the three Geospheres (1. Lithosphere,
2. Hydrosphere, 3. Atmosphere), the Siosphere,
and the Interplanetary Space, e.g
Geosciences, Siosciences, Medicine, Astro-
sciences. Date are practically all non
reproducible - conditions af the first
measurement cannot be reproduced for any
subsequent measurement - and are time and/or
space dependent.

b) Data from Economics, Sacial and Politicel
Sciences, and from Arts end Humanities.
Example: The statistical almanac issued by
the Federal Republic of Germany gives data
which are mostly time and space dependent
and which are nan-repreducible.

which produced misunderstandings
in context with text- and picture documentation.

Table 1b Some data filing aspects

I. Properties; characteristics (1. Step)
e.g. time and/or space dependent

II.  Grigin; domain (2. Step)

IIT, Measuring methods (3. Step)

IV. Utilization, applicetion (4, Step)

ll



WORLD DATA CENTER A

Solid Earth Geophysics Solar-Terrestrial Physics
€ Oo
T &
YP ae
REPORT SE-11 REPORT UAG-65

THE INFORMATION EXPLOSION AND ITS CONSEQUENCES
FOR DATA ACQUISITION, DOCUMENTATION, AND PROCESSING

An Additional Aspect of the Limits to Growth

by

G.K. Hartmann
Max-Planck-Institut fiir Aeronomie, P.0. Box 80
D-3411 Katlenburg-Lindau 3, German Federal Republic

May 1978

Published by World Data Center A for Solid Earth Geophysics

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION
ENVIRONMENTAL DATA SERVICE
Boulder, Colorado 80302, USA

ORDERING INFORMATION: Checks and money orders should be made payable to the Department
of Commerce, NOAA. Remittance should be sent to the National Geophysical and Solar-Terrestrial

Data Center/NOAA, Boulder, CO 80302.

“PRICE THIS ISSUE $.75


Attention should be called to other data compilations on the August 1972 events, Many basic
data and indices appear in UAG-21 issued by WDC-A in November 1972. That report includes the systematic
data tables and solar maps which appear in "Solar-Geophysical Data" and other data periodicals; these
data are not repeated in this volume, but in appendix I are reprinted the table of contents and the intro-
duction for UAG~21. Appendix I also includes selected additional data (primary and analyzed) which have
been received at WDC-A, as well as lists of detailed and special data held at WDC-A and elsewhere. Much
data obtained in Japan in all solar-terrestrial disciplines appear in "Report of Ionospheric and Space
Research in Japan", 26, 1972. In addition, much data and discussions have already appeared in standard
journals or have been presented at scientific meetings and symposia. Appendix II lists many of these
and should identify the many additional scientists who are actively interested in understanding the
August 1972 phenomena and events.

The huge job of preparing these data reports for publication has been mainly borne by Helen E.
Coffey, but with editing and checking assistance from most of the staff of the U.S. National Geophysical
and Solar-Terrestrial Data Center, notably J.V. Lincoln, N. Smith, J.H. Allen, J.N. Barfield, K. Kawasaki,
S.M, Ostrow, and D.B. Bucknam. The contribution of many typists and draftsmen can easily be appreciated
and that of the printing operation of the U.S. National Climatic Center. The whole undertaking has been
done in less than three months.

A.H. Shapley
Chairman, MONSEE Steering Committee
ICSU Special Committee on Solar-Terrestrial Physics

Director, National Geophysical and Solar-Terrestrial Data Center
Environmental Data Service
U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

KK KK HR RH HH KK RHR KR RH KH RRR RHR RRR KR HR HH K KR KH

Because VIGRODOS techniques (see Fig. 10, p. 26) will be used for data preediting and data com-
pression purposes in large, medium, and small information systems (see Figs. 7, p. 21, and 8, p. 22),
it is suggested that joint feasibility studies be initiated soon. In this context it does not matter
that these techniques finally will be used with different degrees of complexity. Now, it is important
to obtain integrated viewpoints, not only in natural science but also in various fields of the human-
ities. We might then get "more user-oriented" data sets. Possibly, this then will allow the informa-
tion centers to reach faster and more objective decisions on problems about which, and how, data sets
should be stored, which should be newly collected, and which should be deleted,

The suggested VIGRODOS feasibility study could use some available and important solar-terrestrial
physics data from the first or second generation (see Fig. 5c, p. 16). As an example, the contents of
‘the SELDADS report is reproduced below. The data mentioned in 3.1 (solar X-ray data) and (or) 3.7
(solar microwave data) could be used, considering simultaneously the possible needs of the future Mid-
dle Atmosphere Program (MAP), It is suggested that SELDADS, WDC-A for STP, FIS 4, and the MPI ftir Aer-
onomie cooperatively plan for such a feasibility study. The general and new experiences in the data
preediting and data compression fields, even by the application of only the early stages of VIGRODOS
techniques, can be applied in many other fields of science and will likely yield various synergetic
(Kahn and Wiener, 1967) aspects. The main requirements are: 1) Use of some technical SELDADS and WDC-
A for STP facilities; 2) use of Tektronix 4051 plus peripherals; 3) use of video camera plus video
recording, mixing, and playback units; and 4) manpower.

Contents of the SELDADS Report
FOREWORD
LIST OF ACRONYMS
ABSTRACT
1. INTRODUCTION
2, THE REAL-TIME DATA ACQUISITION AND DISPLAY SYSTEM
Ae General Description

SELDADS Hardware
32



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20


WORLD DATA CENTER A
National Academy of Sciences
2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W.
Washington, D.C., U.S.A., 20418

World Data Center A consists of the Coordination Office
and seven Subcenters:

World Data Center A
Coordination Office
National Academy of Sciences
2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W.
Washington, D.C., U.S.A., 20418
[Telephone: (202) 389-6478]

Glaciology: Rotation of the Earth:
World Data Center A: Glaciology World Data Center A: Rotation
[Snow and Ice] of the Earth
Inst. of Arctic & Alpine Research U.S. Naval Observatory
University of Colorado Washington, D.C., U.S.A. 20390
Boulder, Colorado, U.S.A. 80309 [Telephone: (202) 254-4023]

{Telephone: (303) 492-5171]
Solar-Terrestrial Physics (Solar and

Meteorology (and Nuclear Radiation): Interplanetary Phenomena, Ionospheric
Phenomena, Flare-Associated Events,
World Data Center A: Meteorology Geomagnetic Variations, Magnetospheric
National Climatic Center and Interplanetary Magnetic Phenomena,
Federal Building Aurora, Cosmic Rays, Airglow):
Asheville, North Carolina, U.S.A. 28801
{[Telephone: (704) 258-2850] World Data Center A
for Solar-Terrestrial Physics
Oceanography : Environmental Data Service, NOAA
Boulder, Colorado, U.S.A. 80302
World Data Center A: Oceanography [Telephone: (303) 499-1000, Ext. 6467]
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration Soltd-Earth Geophysics (Seismology,
Washington, D.C., U.S.A. 20235 Tsunamis, Gravimetry, Earth Tides,
[Telephone: (202) 634-7249] Recent Movements of the Earth's
Crust, Magnetic Measurements,
Rockets and Satellites: Paleomagnetism and Archeomagnetism,

Volcanology, Geothermics):
World Data Center A: Rockets and

Satellites World Data Center A
Goddard Space Flight Center for Solid-Earth Geophysics
Code 601 Environmental Data Service, NOAA
Greenbelt, Maryland, U.S.A. 20771 Boulder, Colorado, U.S.A. 80303
[Telephone: (301) 982-6695] [Telephone: (303) 499-1000, Ext. 6521]
NOTES:

1. World Data Centers conduct international exchange of geophysical observations
in accordance with the principles set forth by the International Council of Scientific
Unions, WDC-A is established in the United States under the auspices of the National
Academy of Sciences.

2. Communications regarding data interchange matters in general and World Data
Center A as a whole should be addressed to: World Data Center A, Coordination Office
(see address above).

3. Inquiries and communications concerning data in specific disciplines should
be addressed to the appropriate subcenter listed above.



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28



Ill.

lv.

VI.

VII.

Table 3a Some tasks of national and international information (data) services

Data references

Supply of information about the location of the various data sources and their data use condi-
tions.

Data coordination and data collection with datographies (see Table 2, p.12) including also:
Guarantee of the "grip-width, grip-depth, and grip-speed" to the most important data sources.
Remarks: 1) Grip-width: Fraction of the total available data of one parameter;
Grip-depth: Fraction of the available information about a data set (datography),
e.g. reliability.

2) In genes only preedited data should be considered (see also Fig. 7, p. 21, and
8, p. 22).

Data handling (research and service aspects)
Supply of data upon request. The most important service in this context is a reformatting of the
data, that stem from different sources and have different formats, to a specific uniform format
that can be used easily and quickly by third users. It is unlikely that the data collected
from various sources will have the same formats because of different technical and financial means,
different knowledge, and different objectives for which the acquisition of the raw data was planned.
Remarks: If all data, together with relevant software programs, could be recorded on a tape
(like that used with the graphic minicomputer system shown in Fig. 8) that is then
supplied to the user, much higher efficiency could be achieved.
Data compilations
Supply of uncritically compiled data.
Data advice - including a reduction of data misuse caused by:

a) unauthorized data uses
b) inappropriate data use.

Data refinement (processing, information analysis)

Supply of critical, evaluated data compilations or compressed data sets, e.g., by graphic
presentation, etc. This seems possible only for groups that simultaneously carry out actual
research in this or a related field.

Trend studies

Table 3b The change of main tasks of information systems with time

I. Information (data) collection and handling
(first generation).

II. Information (data) documentation
(second generation).

III. Information (data) compression
(third generation).

23



6. There is a close relation between information, control, and entropy (equivalence relation)
not only in computer sciences but also in cybernetics and biology. Information always seems to be at
the transition level between a static system and a dynamic process.

7. Information is only valuable as long as it is directly linked to a dynamic process (defined
by its entropy), or as long as there is a close interaction between the two. Generally speaking, infor-
mation is valuable only when it is known who uses the information, for what purpose, and when. Owing
to the vast possibilities of science (Hartmann, 1975; Heisenberg, 1962), it is often impossible to de-
cide what information might be required tomorrow.

8. There also is a close relation between information and energy. This is denoted by the
newly defined quantity "essergy" (Tribus and McIrvine, 1971).

9, Information transmission also is determined by some purely technical characteristics of
the communication system, such as channel bandwidth, signal-to-noise ratio, transmission time, and sig-
nal mass (see Fig. Ic, p. 4).

10. People react to subjective and objective realities (information). It is characteristic
that they convey to others their thoughts, ideas, and experiences. This information exchange is based
not only on transitory sounds and gestures, as is common among animals, but also on longer lasting types
of communication, such as handwritten and printed papers, graphics, tables, photographs, sound recordings,
chart and digital recordings of measured data, and movies (cinema). This type of information, denoted
as literature in the broader sense, is the subject of the documentation methods and activities.

SPECIFIC DOCUMENTATION PROBLEMS

General Aspects

Documentation means the systematic collection of literature in the broader sense, analysis
of the facts, and storage of its principal elements with the intention of providing a fast and complete
retrieval of the information upon request.

Despite the fact that the main emphasis here is on data documentation, some general aspects
of the other two basic documentation elements, i.e., text and picture documentation, are mentioned. The
Jatest advances in information technology now allow new and intensive documentation methods to emerge
from the former classic scene, where the three elements were fairly separated and independent of one
another. These new methods are essentially combinations of the three basic ones and are of increasing
importance because of the new societal needs resulting from the large information growth rates. Figure
2 (p. 6) shows the three basic elements of literature in the broader sense and their relevant documenta~
tion methods. The arrows indicate the various interdependences.

Figure 3 (p. 8) shows an example for the three basic literature elements. This presentation,
which can also be regarded as a new form of “combined abstract," contains much more information than
the classic abstract (only text). If copyright problems can be solved satisfactorily, this might be
the abstract of the future.

Figure 4a (p. 9) shows the three basic elements of literature and their major documentation
techniques with combinations.

Figure 4b (p. 10) shows the three basic elements of literature and their main related sciences.
Data Documentation

Talking about data documentation implies that the term data has already been defined (Hartmann,
1977). Generally speaking, any information that can be processed by a computer can be regarded as “data,”
However, this general meaning produces many misunderstandings in connection with the planning of new
and relevant information systems. Thus for practical purposes, the various data types that are included
in this term have to be specified.

According to Figure 2 (p. 6), the term data is used in a much more specific sense (Hartmann,
1977). Data documentation, the basic features of which are numbers, is subdivided into Groups I and
II: Alphanumerical and Numerical data documentation. Table la (p. 11) shows the main areas of data
documentation, and Table 1b shows some data filing aspects. Group II is further subdivided into three
subgroups: (1) properties of matter, (2) engineering data, and (3) environmental data. At this stage
a new concept of so-called reproducible and nonreproducible data is introduced: Most data obtained
in geophysics are dependent upon the time t and the location = where the measurement was carried
out. In contrast to the majority of data obtained in laboratory physics, which may also be dependent
upon space and time, most of the geophysical data are nonveproductble, Thie means that the conditions
at the time t and the location « of the first measurement cannot be reproduced at any subsequent
measurement, This implies that in geophysics, long time series very often have to be measured, which
leads to different and sometimes conple« problems.

7



Figure 4b.--Three basic elements of literature in a broader sense and their
main related sciences

woRD NUMBER
Linguistics (Seiffert, 1971) == Statistics (Wallis & Roberts, 1960)
Acoustics —__ Computer Sciences

\ (GMD, 1974)

PICTURE

Vision and optics

L (Schober and Rentschler, 1972; van Appledorn, 1972)

Figure 5a (p. 13) shows the elements of empirical sciences, Figure 6a (p. 17) a display
of science, Figure 6b (p. 18) fundamental aspects of physics as a science, and Figure 6c (p. 20) some
aspects of learning, cognition, thinking, and consciousness, Figures 5b (p. 15) and 5c (p. 16) will
be referred to in more detail in the section "Time Series Data Management."

Figure 5a (p. 13) presents an alternative to explain the terms "reproducible" and "nonrepro-
ducible." When the effects of the controlled conditions greatly exceed the uncontrolled conditions,
reproducible data result, and the reverse gives nonreproducible data. Figure 5a further shows that there
are three different types of ignorance about uncontrolled conditions: a) fundamental, b) preliminary,
and c) aware (known). Many of the nonreproducible data, e.g., in geophysics, biology, medicine, and
economics, are due to the third type--the known one. For any reasonable interpretation of an observed
phenomenon, it is necessary to define the effect of uncontrolled conditions to the extent possible in
a mathematical form. For this purpose, mathematics has developed various statistical models (see Figs.
5b and 5c). Thus, a discussion of nonreproducible data simultaneously implies a dialogue about statis-
tical methods and quantities. Figure 4b(p.10) shows the relation of statistics to literature in a broad-
er sense.

DATA ACQUISITION, PREEDITING, AND PROCESSING

The tremendous information growth rate of the last two decades has caused structural differen-
tiation ("branching" and "subdivisioning") of the entire information scene. Compared to analog data,
digital data have become more important, principally owing to advances in relevant digital computer
technologies.

Figure 7 (p. 21) shows "data reading" to be a necessary transitional step from analog data
acquisition to data processing. This necessarily implies intensive interactions with man in using
analog data whose acquisition and processing is an "old and classical" domain, but this is not true
for digital data. Figure 7 also shows a new transitional step called "data preediting" between digital
data acquisition and data processing. Until now this has been taken into consideration only partially;
therefore, the following statements should emphasize this important step in more detail.

1. Digital data acquisition can lead to efficient data processing (step 3) only if the data
have been thoroughly preedited (step 2).

(Text continues on p. 13)
10

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