Alisha Coleman-Jensen

William McFall

Mark Nord

United States Department of Agriculture

Prevalence, Severity, and Household 

Characteristics, 2010-11

Food Insecurity in Households 

With Children

Economic

Research

Service

Economic

Information

Bulletin

Number 113

May 2013
Economic Research Service 

www.ers.usda.gov

Visit our website for more information on this topic:

www.ers.usda.gov/topics/food-nutrition-assistance.aspx

Access this report online:

www.ers.usda.gov/publications/eib-economic-information-bulletin/eib113.aspx 

Download the charts contained in this report:

• Go to the report’s index page www.ers.usda.gov/publications/

 eib-economic-information-bulletin/eib113.aspx 

• Click on the bulleted item “Download EIB113.zip”

• Open the chart you want, then save it to your computer

Recommended citation format for this publication:

Coleman-Jensen, Alisha, William McFall and Mark Nord. Food Insecurity 

in Households With Children: Prevalence, Severity, and Household 

Characteristics, 2010-11, EIB-113, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic 

Research Service, May 2013.

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and 

activities on the basis of race, color, national origin, age, disability, and, where applicable, sex, 

marital status, familial status, parental status, religion, sexual orientation, genetic information, 

political beliefs, reprisal, or because all or a part of an individual’s income is derived from 

any public assistance program. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with 

disabilities who require alternative means for communication of program information (Braille, 

large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA’s TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice 

and TDD). 

To file a complaint of discrimination write to USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights, 1400 

Independence Avenue, S.W., Washington, D.C. 20250-9410 or call (800) 795-3272 (voice) or 

(202) 720-6382 (TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer.

Cover photo credit: Thinkstock.

Follow us on twitter at http://twitter.com/USDA_ERS

United States Department of Agriculture
United States Department of Agriculture

Abstract

An estimated 79 percent of households with children were food secure 

throughout the year in 2011, meaning that all the household members had 

consistent access to adequate food for active, healthy lives. The remainder 

(nearly 21 percent) were food insecure at some time during the year, 

including 10 percent in which children were food insecure and 1 percent in 

which one or more children experienced very low food security—the most 

severe food-insecure condition measured by USDA. In this latter 1 percent 

of households, caregivers reported that children were hungry, skipped a 

meal, or did not eat for a whole day because there was not enough money 

for food. A range of studies suggest that children in food-insecure households face higher risks of problematic health and development outcomes 

than children in otherwise similar food-secure households. The present 

study shows that in 2010-11, 75 percent of households with food-insecure 

children had one or more adults in the labor force, including 60 percent 

with a full-time worker. More than half of households with food-insecure 

children included an adult with education beyond high school, including 15 

percent with an adult who held a 4-year college degree. Federal food and 

nutrition assistance programs provided benefits to 84 percent of low-income 

food-insecure households with children in 2010-11.

Keywords: food security, food insecurity, hunger, children, SNAP, 

Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, Special Supplemental 

Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children, WIC, National School 

Lunch and School Breakfast Programs

Alisha Coleman-Jensen, acjensen@ers.usda.gov

William McFall, and Mark Nord, marknord@ers.usda.gov

Food Insecurity in Households 

With Children

Prevalence, Severity, and Household 

Characteristics, 2010-11

Economic 

Research 

Service

Economic

Information

Bulletin

Number 113

May 2013
About the Authors

Alisha Coleman-Jensen and Mark Nord are sociologists in the Food Assistance Branch, Food 

Economics Division, Economic Research Service (ERS), U.S. Department of Agriculture. 

William McFall assisted with this research as an intern at ERS.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Katherine Alaimo of Michigan State University; Judi Bartfeld of University 

of Wisconsin; and Betsy Frazão, David Smallwood, and Ephraim Leibtag of USDA, Economic 

Research Service for their comments on the report. The authors also thank Angela Anderson 

and Maria Williams for editing and preparing the report for publication and Wynnice PointerNapper for the design and layout of the report.

ii

Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113

Economic Research Service/USDA
Contents

Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Food Security and Insecurity: Concepts and 2011 National Statistics. . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Food-Insecure Households With Children: Severity of 

Food Insecurity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Food Insecurity Among Adults Only. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Low Food Security Among Children. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Very Low Food Security Among Children. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Food Insecurity and Childhood Hunger. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Emerging Research on Children’s Knowledge of and Experiences 

With Food Insecurity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Associations Between Children’s Health/Development and Food Insecurity. . . . . . 11

Trends in Food Insecurity in Households With Children, 1999-2011. . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Food Insecurity Among Children in Selected Subpopulations, Average 2010-11. . . .15

Household Income. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

Employment and Labor Force Status of Adults in the Household. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Disability Status of Working-Age Adults in the Household. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Educational Attainment of Adults in the Household. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Household Composition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Race and Hispanic Ethnicity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Age of Oldest Child. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

Number of Children in the Household. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Residence Relative to Metropolitan Statistical Areas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Residence by Census Region. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Food and Nutrition Assistance Program Participation and Children’s Food 

Insecurity, Average 2010-11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Food Insecurity in Households With Children, by State, 2003-11 Average. . . . . . . . 31

Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Appendix A: Previous Study Findings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Appendix B: Incidence of Food Insecurity in Selected Subpopulations, 

Average 2010-11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

iii

Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113

Economic Research Service/USDA
iv

Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 

Economic Research Service/USDA

Find the full report at 

www.ers.usda.gov/

publications/eib-economic-informationbulletin/eib113.aspx

What Is the Issue?

Most U.S. households with children have consistent, dependable access to adequate food for active, 

healthy living for both adults and children—they are food secure. However, 21 percent of households 

with children were food insecure at times during the year in 2011, and in some of those households, 

children as well as adults were food insecure. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) monitors 

the extent and severity of food insecurity in U.S. households through an annual, nationally representative survey, with special attention to households with children. 

Food security is especially important for children because their nutrition affects not only their 

current health, but also their physical, mental, and social development—and thus their future health 

and well-being. Previous studies suggest that children living in food-insecure households face 

elevated risks of many problematic health and development outcomes, compared with children in 

otherwise similar food-secure households. USDA’s domestic food and nutrition assistance programs 

improve children’s food security by providing low-income households with access to a healthful diet 

and nutrition education. Knowledge about the extent of food insecurity in households with children 

and the household characteristics associated with food insecurity contributes to the effective operation of these and other programs that support the well-being of children. This report describes the 

extent and severity of food insecurity in households with children in 2011, food security trends since 

1999, and characteristics of households affected by food insecurity in 2010 and 2011. A previous 

ERS report described the characteristics of food-insecure households with children as of 2007.

What Did the Study Find?

The ERS report Household Food Security in the United States in 2011 (September 2012) indicated 

that 79 percent of households with children were food secure throughout the year, meaning they 

had consistent access to adequate food for active, healthy lives for all household members. The 

remaining nearly 21 percent of households with children were food insecure at some time during 

the year. In about half of those households, only adults were food insecure, but in 10 percent of all 

households with children, one or more of the children also were food insecure at some time during 

the year. In 1.0 percent of households with children, one or more child experienced the most severe 

food-insecure condition monitored by USDA—very low food security. In households with very low 

food security among children, caregivers had reported that children were hungry, skipped a meal, or 

did not eat for a whole day because there was not enough money for food. 

This study, focusing on households with children age 0-17, averaged 2 years of data (2010-11) and 

found that in households headed by an unemployed adult, the prevalence of food insecurity among 

children was three and a half times as high as in households headed by one or more adult employed 

Food Insecurity in Households 

With Children

Prevalence, Severity, and Household 

Characteristics, 2010-11

Alisha Coleman-Jensen, William McFall, and Mark Nord

Alisha Coleman-Jensen

William McFall

Mark Nord

United States Department of Agriculture

Prevalence, Severity, and Household 

Characteristics, 2010-11

Food Insecurity in Households 

With Children

Economic

Research

Service

Economic

Information

Bulletin

Number 113

May 2013

A report summary from the Economic Research Service

May 2013
v

Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113

Economic Research Service/USDA

full-time. However, three-quarters of households with food-insecure children had one or more adult 

in the labor force, either full time (60 percent) or part time (15 percent). 

• For households headed by an adult with less than a high school diploma, the prevalence of food 

insecurity among children was six and a half times as high as for households headed by an adult 

with at least a 4-year college degree.

• Children were food insecure in about 20 percent of households that included an adult who was 

out of the labor force because of disability, compared with about 9 percent of households in 

which no working-age adult had a disability. 

• Federal food and nutrition assistance programs provided benefits to 84 percent of low-income 

households with food-insecure children (low-income households are those with incomes below 

185 percent of the Federal poverty line). 

• Children in about 70 percent of low-income households with food-insecure children received 

free or reduced-price school meals in 2010-11, about 42 percent of low-income households with 

food-insecure children received Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) benefits, 

and about 25 percent received Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, 

and Children (WIC) benefits. Many households received assistance from multiple programs, 

although about 31 percent reported receiving only free or reduced-price school meals. 

• Low-income households not receiving assistance from any of the programs were less likely to be 

food insecure (12 percent) than those that did receive assistance (approximately 23-30 percent, 

depending on the mix of programs). This difference suggests that low-income households with 

greater food security are less likely to choose to participate in food assistance programs. 

• Food insecurity among children was more likely for households that had left SNAP during the 

previous year than for those currently receiving benefits. This finding suggests that some households left the program even though their economic resources were not yet adequate to meet their 

food needs. 

How Was the Study Conducted?

Data for the study came from annual food security surveys sponsored by USDA’s Economic 

Research Service and conducted by the Department of Commerce’s U.S. Census Bureau as supplements to the monthly Current Population Survey. The survey respondents were representative 

samples of the U.S. civilian noninstitutionalized population and included 13,000-18,000 households 

with children each year. The food security survey asked one adult respondent in each household a 

series of questions about experiences and behaviors that indicate food insecurity. The food security 

status of the household was assessed based on the number of food-insecure conditions reported 

(such as being unable to afford balanced meals, cutting the size of meals because there was too little 

money for food, or being hungry because there was too little money for food). The food security 

status of children in the household was assessed by responses to a subset of questions about the 

conditions and experiences of children in the household. Survey respondents also reported whether, 

and to what extent, they used food and nutrition assistance programs. Peer-reviewed studies on those 

topics by other researchers were reviewed and summarized to provide information on how children’s 

health and development may be affected by food insecurity.

Economic Research Service, USDA Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 1

Introduction

Food security—access at all times to enough food for an active, healthy life—

provides an important foundation for good nutrition and health. Food security is 

especially important for children because the nutritional content of their diets affects 

not only their current health, but also their physical, mental, and social development—and thus, their future health and well-being.

USDA provides annual statistics on the food security of U.S. households, including 

summary statistics on households with children by demographic characteristics and 

income (Coleman-Jensen et al., 2012). This report gives additional detailed information on the food security of households with children in 2010-11 and presents a 

breakdown by household characteristics, such as the employment, education, and 

disability status of adults in the household. Food security statistics are also provided 

for households with children using various Federal food and nutrition assistance 

programs. Our findings update those from a previous report on food insecurity in 

households with children as of 2007 (Nord, 2009). Differences across groups and 

changes from the previous report are mentioned in the text only if they are statistically significant at the 90-percent confidence level. All household statistics in this 

report refer to households with children age 0-17. 

In fiscal year (FY) 2011, USDA spent about $103.8 billion on domestic food 

and nutrition assistance programs to ensure access to nutritious, healthful diets 

for all Americans (Oliveira, 2013). Children make up the largest share of the 

beneficiaries of those programs. Almost half of the beneficiaries of the largest 

program—the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP, formerly 

called the Food Stamp Program)—are children younger than age 18. The second 

and third largest programs—the National School Lunch Program (NSLP) and 

the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children 

(WIC)—focus primarily on children. Understanding the extent of food insecurity in households with children and characteristics associated with food insecurity contributes to the effective operation of these and other programs that 

support the well-being of children. 
2 Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 Economic Research Service, USDA

Food Security and Insecurity: Concepts 

and 2011 National Statistics

Food insecurity—the lack of consistent access to adequate food—is an economic 

and social condition that may result in hunger (a physiological condition) if it is 

severe or prolonged. USDA differentiates food-insecure households by the severity 

of food insecurity they have experienced (see box, “About the Data,” p. 4). Food 

insecurity in households with children is differentiated further by whether it 

affects only adults or also affects children and by the severity of food insecurity 

among the children. 

In 2011, 85.1 percent of all U.S. households were food secure throughout the year. 

The remaining 14.9 percent of all households (17.9 million households) were

food insecure at some time during the year. The prevalence of food insecurity 

was lower for households with no children under age 18 than for households with 

children. In 2011, 12.2 percent of households with no children under age 18 (9.9 

million households) were food insecure at some time during the year (ColemanJensen et al., 2012). 

In 2011, 79.4 percent of households with children (30.8 million households) were 

food secure throughout the year (fig. 1). The remaining 20.6 percent of households with children (8.0 million households) were food insecure at some time 

during the year. 

Parents often are able to maintain normal or near-normal diets and meal patterns for 

their children, even when the parents themselves are food insecure. In about half of 

food-insecure households with children in 2011, only adults were food insecure; in 

the rest, children were also food insecure. Thus, in 10 percent of all households with 

children (3.9 million households), children were sometimes food insecure. USDA 

refers to these households as having food insecurity among children. 

In 1.0 percent of households with children (374,000 households), food insecurity among children was so severe that caregivers reported that children were 

hungry, skipped a meal, or did not eat for a whole day because there was not 

enough money for food. USDA describes these households as having very low 

food security among children.
Economic Research Service, USDA Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 3

Figure 1

Food security status of households with children, 2011

Adults, children, or both were food insecure at some time during the year in 20.6 percent

of households with children. In 10.0 percent of households with children, children were

food insecure (with either low or very low food security) at some time during the year.

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service calculations based on data from the December 2011

Current Population Survey Food Security Supplement.

Food-insecure adults only: 10.6%

Food-secure

households: 79.4 %

Low food security among children: 9.0%

Very low food security among children: 1.0%

Food-insecure adults and children: 10.0%

Food-insecure households: 20.6%
4 Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 Economic Research Service, USDA

Data for this study came from annual food security surveys sponsored by USDA and 

conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau from 1999 to 2011 as supplements to the monthly 

Current Population Survey (CPS). The surveys were of representative samples of the U.S. 

civilian population and included between 13,000 and 18,000 households with children 

each year. The survey was conducted both by telephone and in person so that households 

with no telephone would not be underrepresented. The food security survey asked one 

adult respondent in each household a series of questions about experiences and behaviors 

that indicate food insecurity. The food security status of the household was assessed 

based on the number of food-insecure conditions reported (such as being unable to afford 

balanced meals, cutting the size of meals because there was too little money for food, or 

being hungry because there was too little money for food). The food security questions 

from the survey are presented in the box on page 6. The food security status of children in 

the household was assessed by responses to a subset of questions about the conditions and 

experiences of children. Survey respondents also reported whether they had used various 

Federal food and nutrition assistance programs.

Household characteristics (other than food security and receipt of food and nutrition 

assistance) were calculated from data collected in the labor force section of the CPS. 

The core CPS collects data on household composition, household income, demographic 

information for each household member, disability status, and employment information 

for all persons age 15 and older. 

Weighting factors were calculated by the U.S. Census Bureau so that, when properly 

weighted, responses to the food security questions were representative at State and 

national levels. All statistics in this report were calculated by applying the appropriate 

weights to responses of the surveyed households to obtain nationally representative 

prevalence estimates.

Limitations of the Data

Some limitations to the data exist that may affect estimates of food insecurity. The CPS 

selects households to interview from a list of addresses and does not include homeless 

individuals or families. The omission of homeless persons may bias food insecurity and 

very low food security estimates downward. With regard to food insecurity among children, 

in particular, parents or caregivers may be embarrassed or afraid to report that their children 

are not getting enough to eat, so food insecurity among children may be underreported. 

Additionally, parents may believe that they have protected their children from experiencing 

food insecurity, but older children may have reduced their own food intake in response to 

household food insecurity without their parents’ knowledge. The extent of bias related to 

homelessness and misreports of children’s food insecurity is unknown. 

About the Data
Economic Research Service, USDA Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 5

Food-Insecure Households With Children: 

Severity of Food Insecurity

The severity of food access problems in each category of food insecurity can be 

gauged by the specific conditions reported by households in that category. The food 

security status of households with children is assessed by adult responses to a series of 

18 questions about conditions and behaviors that typically occur in households when 

they have difficulty meeting their food needs (see box, “Questions Used To Assess 

the Food Security of Households in USDA’s Annual Food Security Survey,” p. 6). 

Households reporting three or more indicators of food insecurity in response to any 

of the 18 questions are classified as food insecure. In many of these households, only 

adults are food insecure.

The food security status of children is assessed by responses of an adult in the 

household to the eight questions about food-related conditions among children 

(questions 11-18; see box, “Questions Used To Assess the Food Security of 

Households in USDA’s Annual Food Security Survey,” p. 6). Households that report 

two or more food-insecure conditions among children are classified as having food 

insecurity among children. These households are classified further as having low

or very low food security among children. Households reporting two to four conditions that indicate food insecurity among children are classified as having low food 

security among children.

1

 Those reporting five or more conditions are classified as 

having very low food security among children. Figure 2 depicts the share of households in each food-insecure category that reported each of the eight indicators of 

food insecurity among children in the 2010 and 2011 food security surveys. (Two 

years of data were combined to provide more stable and reliable estimates.)

Food Insecurity Among Adults Only

Households with food insecurity among adults only are classified as food insecure, 

but report no food-insecure conditions among children or only one such condition. (Two or more indicators are required to classify the household as having food 

insecurity among children.) About 42 percent of households with food insecurity 

only among adults reported no indicators of food insecurity among children. The 

remaining households in this category (58 percent) reported one indicator of food 

insecurity among children. The majority of those reporting one indicator reported 

the least severe one (i.e., that they had relied on a few kinds of low-cost foods to 

feed the children because they were running out of money to buy food). 

1

This specification of the threshold for low food security among children (reports of two or more 

food-insecure indicators) was adopted by USDA to be conceptually consistent with the corresponding 

threshold for adult/household food insecurity. For the adult and household scales, the threshold for 

food insecurity corresponds with the severity of not being able to afford balanced meals. For the child 

scale, the threshold corresponds with the severity of not being able to afford to feed children balanced 

meals. Low food security among children is identified in the Current Population Survey Food Security Supplement (CPS-FSS) data, beginning with December 2006 data, and USDA first published 

statistics on the category in 2009, using data from 2006-07 (Nord, 2009).
6 Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 Economic Research Service, USDA

1. “We worried whether our food would run out before we got money to buy more.” Was that often, sometimes, or 

never true for you in the last 12 months? 

2. “The food that we bought just didn’t last and we didn’t have money to get more.” Was that often, sometimes, or never 

true for you in the last 12 months?

3. “We couldn’t afford to eat balanced meals.” Was that often, sometimes, or never true for you in the last 12 months?

4.In the last 12 months, did you or other adults in the household ever cut the size of your meals or skip meals because 

there wasn’t enough money for food? (Yes/No)

5. (If yes to question 4) How often did this happen—almost every month, some months but not every month, or in only 

1 or 2 months?

6.In the last 12 months, did you ever eat less than you felt you should because there wasn’t enough money for food? 

(Yes/No)

7. In the last 12 months, were you ever hungry, but didn’t eat, because there wasn’t enough money for food? (Yes/No)

8.In the last 12 months, did you lose weight because there wasn’t enough money for food? (Yes/No)

9. In the last 12 months, did you or other adults in your household ever not eat for a whole day because there wasn’t 

enough money for food? (Yes/No)

10. (If yes to question 9) How often did this happen—almost every month, some months but not every month, or in only 

1 or 2 months?

(Questions 11-18 were asked only if the household included children ages 0-17) 

11. “We relied on only a few kinds of low-cost food to feed our children because we were running out of money to buy 

food.” Was that often, sometimes, or never true for you in the last 12 months? 

12. “We couldn’t feed our children a balanced meal, because we couldn’t afford that.” Was that often, sometimes, or 

never true for you in the last 12 months?

13. “The children were not eating enough because we just couldn’t afford enough food.” Was that often, sometimes, or 

never true for you in the last 12 months?

14. In the last 12 months, did you ever cut the size of any of the children’s meals because there wasn’t enough money for 

food? (Yes/No)

15. In the last 12 months, were the children ever hungry but you just couldn’t afford more food? (Yes/No)

16. In the last 12 months, did any of the children ever skip a meal because there wasn’t enough money for food? (Yes/

No) 

17. (If yes to question 16) How often did this happen—almost every month, some months but not every month, or in 

only 1 or 2 months?

18. In the last 12 months, did any of the children ever not eat for a whole day because there wasn’t enough money for 

food? (Yes/No)

Coding of Responses

Questions 1-3 and 11-13 are coded as affirmative (i.e., possibly indicating food insecurity) if the response is “often” or 

“sometimes.” Questions 5, 10, and 17 are coded as affirmative if the response is “almost every month” or “some months 

but not every month.” The remaining questions are coded as affirmative if the response is “yes.”

Assessing Food Security Status

Households are classified as food insecure if they report three or more indications of food insecurity in response to the 

entire set of 18 questions.

The food security status of children in the household is assessed by responses to the child-referenced questions (questions 

11-18). Households reporting two or more of these conditions are classified as having food insecurity among children. 

Households reporting five or more are classified as having very low food security among children.

Questions Used To Assess the Food Security of Households in USDA’s Annual Food 

Security Survey
Economic Research Service, USDA Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 7

Low Food Security Among Children

Households with low (but not very low) food security among children mainly 

reported reductions in the quality and variety of children’s meals. About half of 

these households reported some reduction in the amount of food children ate, but 

only 5 percent reported more than a single indicator of reduced food intake.

Very Low Food Security Among Children

Very low food security among children is a severe range of food insecurity identified by caregivers who report five or more food-insecure conditions among children. 

Taken together, these reports indicate that children are not getting enough to eat. 

Households with very low food security among children all reported multiple indicators of reduced food intake. Almost 83 percent reported that at some time during 

the year a child had been hungry, but the household just could not afford more food 

(and also reported four other indicators of food-insecure conditions among children). Those households that did not report that a child had been hungry reported 

that either a child had skipped a meal or had not eaten for a whole day because there 

was not enough money for food.

Figure 2

Reported conditions in food-insecure households with children, by food 

security status, 2010-11 average

Note: See the box on the food security survey questions for complete wording of the questions.

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service calculations based on Current Population Survey 

Food Security Supplement data.

Any indication of children’s food insecurity

Child did not eat whole day

Child skipped meals in 3+ months

Child skipped meals

Child hungry

Cut size of child’s meals

Child not eating enough

Could not feed children balanced meals

Few kinds of low-cost foods for children

0 20 40 60 80 100

Percent of households

Low or very low food security, adults only Low food security among children

Very low food security among children
8 Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 Economic Research Service, USDA

Food Insecurity and Childhood Hunger

Statistics on food insecurity among children provide important information about 

the social and economic context in which childhood hunger may occur, but they do 

not indicate directly the extent of hunger. Although hunger is related to food insecurity, it is a different phenomenon. Food insecurity is a household-level economic 

and social condition of limited access to food, while hunger is an individual-level 

physiological condition that may result from food insecurity (National Research 

Council, 2006). Thus, hunger is a potential, although not inevitable, outcome of 

food insecurity.

Specific information about the incidence of hunger would be of considerable interest 

to advocates, policymakers, and researchers and might be of value for policy and 

program design. USDA’s nutrition assistance programs are intended, in part, to 

prevent or alleviate hunger. But providing precise and useful statistics about hunger 

has been hampered by lack of a consistent definition of the word and a validated 

method for measuring it. “Hunger” is variously understood to refer to conditions 

across a broad range of severity, from relatively mild food insecurity to prolonged 

clinical undernutrition (Nord et al., 2009; National Research Council, 2006).

The National Academies’ Committee on National Statistics (CNSTAT) provided 

authoritative guidance on the definition and concept of hunger in official statistics 

in 2006. An independent panel of experts convened by CNSTAT concluded that in 

official statistics, resource-constrained hunger (i.e., physiological hunger resulting 

from food insecurity) “...should refer to a potential consequence of food insecurity 

that, because of prolonged, involuntary lack of food, results in discomfort, illness, 

weakness, or pain that goes beyond the usual uneasy sensation” (National Research 

Council, 2006, p. 48). 

Validated methods have not yet been developed to measure the prevalence of 

resource-constrained hunger in this sense. Such measurement would require the 

collection of more detailed and extensive information on physiological experiences 

of individual household members than is available currently in nationally representative survey data.
Economic Research Service, USDA Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 9

Emerging Research on Children’s Knowledge of and 

Experiences With Food Insecurity

USDA’s measure of food insecurity among children relies on parental reports of 

food insecurity among children. Parents or caregivers are assumed to be knowledgeable about the food experiences of their children. Recent research has examined this 

assumption. Two studies investigated the food insecurity experiences of children, 

primarily adolescents, and compared children’s reports of food insecurity with 

caregivers’ reports of children’s food insecurity. Both qualitative interview data 

(Fram et al., 2011) and quantitative survey data (Nord and Hanson, 2012) indicate 

that parents’ reports of a child’s food insecurity do not always correspond with the 

child’s own reports. 

Qualitative research on children ages 9-16 indicates that some youth take active 

roles in trying to reduce household food insecurity, sometimes without their parents’ 

knowledge (Fram et al., 2011). Children reported strategies for reducing household 

food insecurity that included not asking for snacks, not eating between mealtimes, 

and trying to earn money for food. In some households, parents tried to hide household food insecurity and believed that they successfully shielded their children 

from food insecurity, but children were aware of the household’s food insecurity 

and worried about a shortage of food; in some cases, children reported reducing 

their own food intake when they knew food was running low. That study did not 

administer the full household food security survey to adults and children, so it is 

unclear whether parents and children would have differed in their survey reports of 

food insecurity among children. The study did conclude that, at times, parents were 

unaware of the degree to which their children knew about household food insecurity and the degree to which children reduced their own food intake or took other 

steps to try to reduce household food insecurity. Earlier research also indicated that 

children were aware of adult attempts to hide food insecurity or to shield them from 

food insecurity (Connell et al., 2005). 

Quantitative survey data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination 

Survey (NHANES) were used to examine agreement between adult caregiver 

reports of adolescent food insecurity and the adolescents’ (ages 15-17) own reports 

of food insecurity (Nord and Hanson, 2012). Adolescent self-reported food insecurity was more common than parental reports of adolescent food insecurity. The 

study also examined dietary quality differences among adolescents and found that 

dietary quality was lowest for adolescents with both self-reported food insecurity 

and parental-reported adolescent food insecurity. Dietary quality was highest for 

adolescents with neither self-reported nor parental-reported food insecurity. Dietary 

quality was intermediate for adolescents whose self-reported and parental-reported 

food insecurity differed. There were no systematic differences in dietary quality 

when adolescents’ and caregivers’ reports of adolescent food insecurity disagreed, 

making it difficult to determine which report corresponded most accurately with the 

child’s dietary intake. 

A second study using NHANES data found that youth ages 12-17 were considerably 

less likely to be food insecure than adults in the same household, based on selfreported personal food insecurity of both youth and adults (Nord, 2013). The extent 
10 Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 Economic Research Service, USDA

of the youth-adult gap in likelihood of self-reported food insecurity was greater 

when food insecurity was more severe. Depending on the method used to compare 

findings between that analysis and USDA’s national food security statistics, the 

extent to which children are protected from food insecurity compared with adults 

in the same household was found to be somewhat greater or less than indicated by 

the national statistics, but any difference did not appear to be very large. However, 

even if national prevalence rates do not substantially misrepresent the extent of food 

insecurity among children, the extent of misreporting could substantially weaken 

associations of adult-reported food insecurity of children with children’s health and 

developmental outcomes.
Economic Research Service, USDA Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 11

Associations Between Children’s Health/Development 

and Food Insecurity 

A substantial and growing body of research has demonstrated associations between 

children’s health, development, and well-being and measures of food security 

and food sufficiency. Food sufficiency—a condition closely related to food security—was assessed in several Federal surveys before the development of the food 

security measures and was used in much of the earlier research on outcomes of 

inadequate food access.2

 Most of the associations studied in earlier research focused 

on household-level food insecurity (or food insufficiency), not specifically on food 

insecurity among children. Most of these studies used cross-sectional data, which 

makes causality difficult to determine. More recent studies have advanced the 

research through expanded use of longitudinal data and measures of food insecurity 

among children. A wide range of methodologies and datasets have been used, and 

most studies controlled for confounding conditions, such as income, employment 

status, race, and ethnicity. These study findings are consistent with the hypothesis 

that food insecurity is a risk factor for the problematic outcomes studied. In most of 

these studies, the higher rates of problematic health and development outcomes for 

children were associated with food insecurity at the household level, regardless of 

whether there was evidence of food insecurity among children in the household. 

Findings of studies on child health and development outcomes associated with food 

insecurity and food insufficiency are summarized in Appendix A. Although most of 

the studies found statistically significant associations between food insecurity and 

various outcomes for children, some of the associations were not statistically significant, and these findings are also shown in Appendix A. Statistically significant findings included associations of food insecurity or food insufficiency with:

• Poorer health of children and adolescents, as reported by parents;

• Lower bone mineral content in adolescent boys;

• Impaired development of non-cognitive abilities (i.e., interpersonal relations, 

self-control) among school-age children;

• Iron deficiency anemia among young children and adolescents;

• Insecure attachment and less advanced mental proficiency in toddlers;

• Higher rates of developmental risk among young children;

• More stomach aches, frequent headaches, and colds among children;

2

Prior to the development of the food security measures, the National Health and Nutrition 

Examination Survey (NHANES) and the Continuing Study of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII) 

assessed the adequacy of households’ food access using a single question. Respondents were asked 

which of three statements best described the food eaten in their household: 

• “We always have enough to eat.”

• “Sometimes we don’t have enough to eat.”

• “Often we don’t have enough to eat.”

Households were classified as food sufficient if they reported that they always had enough to eat and 

food insufficient if they reported that they sometimes or often did not have enough to eat. 
12 Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 Economic Research Service, USDA

• Higher hospitalization rates among young children;

• Behavioral problems among 3-year-old children;

• Lower physical function among children ages 3-8;

• Poorer psychosocial function and psychosocial development among school-age 

children;

• Higher rates of depressive disorder and suicidal symptoms among adolescents;

• More anxiety and depression among school-age children;

• Higher numbers of chronic health conditions among children;

• More “internalizing” behavior problems (such as withdrawal or anxiety) among 

children;

• Lower math achievement and math progress in kindergartners;

• Lower math and reading gains from kindergarten to third grade; and

• Lower arithmetic scores and higher likelihood of repeating a grade among children ages 6-11.

Findings for food insecurity and children’s weight status are less clear. Larson and 

Story (2011) conducted an extensive literature review of studies that analyzed this 

relationship and found that statistically significant findings were not in agreement. 

Additional research is needed to understand the reasons for these inconsistencies.
Economic Research Service, USDA Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 13

Trends in Food Insecurity in Households With Children, 

1999-2011

The prevalence of food insecurity in households with children increased from 1999 

through the recession in 2001 (fig. 3). It continued to increase during 2002-04 

despite renewed economic growth and then declined in 2005, remaining around 

that level through 2007. The prevalence of food insecurity in households with children increased substantially with the 2008 recession. In 2009, food insecurity in 

households with children reached a historic peak since Federal food security monitoring began in 1995, at just over 21 percent. It declined in 2010 and was essentially 

unchanged in 2011. From 1999 to 2011, the trends of food insecurity among children 

were similar to those for food insecurity of all household members.

The prevalence of very low food security among children varied little from 

1999 to 2006, fluctuating between 0.5 and 0.7 percent. This rate increased to 0.8 

percent in 2007, rose to a high of 1.3 percent in 2008, and declined to 1.0 percent 

in 2010 and 2011. 

 USDA gives particular attention to food insecurity in households with children with 

annual household incomes less than 185 percent of the Federal poverty line, because 

these households may be eligible for food and nutrition assistance programs.3

 The 

income cutoff for participation in reduced-price school meals and WIC is 185 percent 

of the Federal poverty line. School-age children in households in this income range 

are likely to be eligible for free or reduced-price school meals. Households in this 

income range may be eligible for WIC benefits if they include children under the age 

3

The Federal poverty line for a family of two adults and two children in 2011 was an annual 

income of $22,811; 185 percent of the poverty line for that family was $42,200.

Figure 3

Trends in food insecurity in households with children, 1999-2011

Percent of households

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service calculations based on Current Population Survey Food 

Security Supplement data.

1999 2001 03 05 07 09 11

0

5

10

15

20

25

Food insecurity (adults or children)

Food insecurity among children (low or very low food security)

Very low food security among children
14 Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 Economic Research Service, USDA

of 5 or pregnant/postpartum women. Households with incomes less than 130 percent 

of the Federal poverty line may be eligible for SNAP benefits. 

The prevalence of food insecurity for households with annual incomes less than 185 

percent of the Federal poverty line was almost twice as high (40 percent in 2011) as 

that for all households with children. Trends over 1999-2011 in low-income households were generally similar to those in all households with children (fig. 4).

Figure 4

Trends in food insecurity in households with children, with annual 

incomes less than 185 percent of the Federal poverty line, 1999-2011

Percent of households

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service calculations based on Current Population Survey Food 

Security Supplement data.

1999 2001 03 05 07 09 11

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

Food insecurity (adults or children)

Very low food security among children

Food insecurity among children (low or very low food security)
Economic Research Service, USDA Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 15

Food Insecurity Among Children in Selected 

Subpopulations, Average 2010-11

The economic and demographic circumstances of households determine their 

food security to a great extent. In this section, the prevalence and distribution of 

food insecurity among children is described across 10 sets of economic, demographic, and geographic characteristics that past research has found to be associated with food insecurity. Data for these analyses are from the December 2010 and 

December 2011 Current Population Survey Food Security Supplements. Data from 

2 years were aggregated to provide more reliable estimates, especially for small 

subpopulations. 

Three charts are presented for each set of household characteristics:

• Bar chart: depicts, for households with each characteristic (e.g., income level, 

disability status, etc.), the percentage of households with food-insecure children 

(households with food-insecure children include those with low and very low 

food security) and the percentage that had children with very low food security;

• Pie chart 1: shows the distribution of households with food insecurity among 

children across the characteristics; and

• Pie chart 2: shows the distribution of households with very low food security 

among children across the characteristics.

See Appendix B for the numbers underlying the graphic presentations in this 

section. The table in appendix B also includes statistics (not presented in the 

graphics) for the broader category of food insecurity that includes food insecurity 

among adults as well as children.

Household Income

Nearly 25 percent of households with annual incomes below the Federal poverty 

line had food insecurity among children in 2010-11 (fig. 5).4

 They made up 44 

percent of all households with food insecurity among children and about 52 percent 

of households with very low food security among children.5

 The prevalence rate 

of food insecurity among children for households with annual incomes below the 

Federal poverty line was seven times that of households with annual incomes above 

185 percent of the Federal poverty line. 

Federal food and nutrition assistance programs may not be accessible to some 

households with food insecurity among children because their income exceeds the 

4

In 2011, the poverty rate for children under age 18 was just under 22 percent (DeNavas-Walt et al., 

2012). In 2011, the Federal poverty line was $22,811 for a family of four with two adults and two children. 

5

These percentages may be higher, depending on the income of those households that did not 

report income. 
16 Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 Economic Research Service, USDA

eligibility threshold.6 Between 31 and 45 percent of households with food insecurity among children may not have been eligible for SNAP or for free school meals 

in 2010-11 because they had annual incomes higher than 130 percent of the poverty 

line—the income eligibility limit for these programs (the exact percentage of households ineligible for these programs cannot be determined because some households 

failed to report income). Some of these households may have been eligible for the 

programs because income eligibility is determined by monthly rather than annual 

income. Nevertheless, a large share of households with food insecurity among children likely was not eligible. Between 17 and 31 percent may not have been eligible for 

WIC or for reduced-price school lunches in 2010-11 because their incomes were above 

185 percent of the poverty line, the income eligibility limit for these programs.

6

Eligibility for Federal food and nutrition assistance programs is based on an income cutoff that 

differs across programs and other criteria that differ across States for some programs. Eligibility for 

programs is determined by current monthly income, whereas income reported here is annual income.

Income not reported

Above 185 percent 

of poverty line

130 to 185 percent 

of poverty line

100 to 130 percent 

of poverty line

Below poverty line

All households 

with children

Very low food security Low food security

Prevalence and severity of food 

insecurity among children

Percent of households

Households with food 

insecurity among children

Households with very low food 

security among children

Below poverty

line–51.7%

100 to 130 percent

of poverty line,

10.9%

130 to 185

percent of

poverty line,

11.9%

Above 185

percent of

poverty line,

13.5%

Income 

not 

reported

12.1%

Below poverty

line–44.0%

100 to 130 percent of

poverty line,

10.9%

130 to 185

percent of

poverty line,

14.5%

Above 185

percent of

poverty line,

16.8%

Income not 

reported

13.8%

0 1 5 0 15 20 25 30

Figure 5

Prevalence and distribution of food insecurity among children, by annual household 

income, 2010-11 average

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service calculations based on Current Population Survey Food Security 

Supplement data.
Economic Research Service, USDA Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 17

Employment and Labor Force Status 

of Adults in the Household

Rates of food insecurity among children were much higher for households with no 

employed adults (such as those with an unemployed adult and those with an adult 

who was unable to work due to disability) than for those with one or more adults 

employed full time (fig. 6). Rates also were higher for households in which an adult 

was employed only part-time than in those with an adult employed full-time. About 

60 percent of households with food insecurity among children had one or more 

full-time workers in 2010-11, and another 15 percent had one or more part-time 

workers. Together, the unemployed and not-in-labor-force-due-to-disability categories comprised about 19 percent of households with food insecurity among children 

and 21 percent of households with very low food security among children. (The next 

section has additional information on households with adults with disabilities.) 

None in labor force

for reasons other

than disability

Disabled, none in

labor force

Unemployed looking

for work, none 

employed

Part-time, no full-time

1 or more employed

full-time

All households 

with children

Very low food security Low food security

Prevalence and severity of food 

insecurity among children

Percent of households

Households with food 

insecurity among children

Households with very low food 

security among children

One or more

employed 

full-time, 

59.6%

Part-time, no

full-time,

15.4%

Unemployed

looking for work, 

none employed,

12.2%

Disabled, none

in labor force,

6.5%

None in labor

force for reasons 

other than disability,

6.4%

0 1 5 0 15 20 25 30

One or more

employed 

full-time, 

57.6% Part-time, no

full-time,

13.4%

Unemployed

looking for work, 

none employed,

13.8%

Disabled, none

in labor force,

6.9%

None in labor

force for reasons 

other than disability,

8.3%

Figure 6

Prevalence and distribution of food insecurity among children, by employment and labor 

force status of adults in the household, 2010-11 average1

1Households classified as none in labor force for reasons other than disability had no adults that were identified as not in 

labor force due to disability. Disability identified in this figure is related to labor force status only. Adults with other reported

disabilities are shown in figure 7.

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service calculations based on Current Population Survey Food Security Supplement data.
18 Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 Economic Research Service, USDA

Disability Status of Working-Age Adults in the Household

Food insecurity among children was more than twice as prevalent in households 

with an adult who was unable to work due to disability and in households with a 

working-age adult with other reported disabilities as in households with no workingage adult with a disability (fig. 7).7

 An estimated 22 percent of households with food 

insecurity among children had a working-age adult member (ages 18-64) with a 

disability. About 27 percent of households with very low food security among children included a working-age adult with a disability. 

7

Working-age adults with “other reported disabilities” were reported as having a vision, hearing, 

mental, physical, self-care, or going-outside-home disability but were not identified as being unable to 

work due to disability. For more detailed information on this classification, see Coleman-Jensen and 

Nord, 2013.

No working-age

adult with disability

Other reported 

disabilities (ages

18-64)

Not in labor force

due to disability

All households 

with children

Very low food security Low food security

Prevalence and severity of food 

insecurity among children

Percent of households

Households with food 

insecurity among children

Households with very low food 

security among children

No working-age

adult with disability,

78.1%

Not in labor force due to

disability, 13.2%

Other reported disabilities

(ages 18-64), 8.7%

No working-age

adult with disability,

73.5%

Not in labor force due to

disability, 14.7%

Other reported disabilities

(ages 18-64), 11.8%

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Figure 7

Prevalence and distribution of food insecurity among children, by disability status 

of working-age adults in the household, 2010-11 average1

1Working-age adults with “other reported disabilities” were reported as having a vision, hearing, mental, physical, self-care, 

or going-outside-home disability but were not identified as being unable to work due to disability.

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service calculation based on Current Population Survey Food Security Supplement data.
Economic Research Service, USDA Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 19

Educational Attainment of Adults in the Household

The prevalence of food insecurity among children is strongly associated with the education 

of adults in the household (fig. 8). Food insecurity was six and a half times as prevalent 

in households in which no adult had completed high school (24 percent) as in households 

where an adult had a 4-year college degree (almost 4 percent). In 49 percent of households 

with food insecurity among children and 46 percent of those with very low food security 

among children, no adult in the household had any education beyond high school.

4-year degree

or higher

Some college 

(including 2-year

degree)

Completed high

school (or GED)

Less than high 

school

All households with

 children

Very low food security Low food security

Prevalence and severity of food 

insecurity among children

Percent of households

Households with food 

insecurity among children

Households with very low food 

security among children

Some college 

(including 

2-year

degree), 

36.4%

4-year degree

or higher, 14.6% Less than high school, 17.0%

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Completed high

school (or GED), 32.1%

Some college 

(including 

2-year

degree), 

39.1%

4-year degree

or higher, 14.8% Less than high school, 20.1%

Completed high

school (or GED), 26.0%

Figure 8

Prevalence and distribution of food insecurity among children, by educational attainment

of most educated adult in the household, 2010-11 average

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service calculations based on Current Population Survey Food Security 

Supplement data.
20 Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 Economic Research Service, USDA

Household Composition

Food insecurity among children was three times as prevalent in households headed by 

single women (19.2 percent) as in households headed by married couples (6.4 percent) (fig. 

9). Children were food insecure in about 12 percent of households headed by unmarried 

cohabiting adults and in households headed by single men.8

 In spite of the lower rate of food 

insecurity among children in married-couple households, primarily due to their larger share 

of the population overall, married-couple households were a sizable minority (42 percent) of 

households with food insecurity among children, about equal to the proportion of households 

with food insecurity among children that were headed by a single woman (42 percent). 

8

This is the first ERS report to provide separate food security statistics for households with a 

cohabiting couple. The category comprises households in which an adult member was identified as 

an unmarried partner of the household reference person. In previous reports, these households were 

classified as single female-headed households, single male-headed households, or other households 

with children.

Other household with 

children

Single-male-headed 

household

Single-female-headed 

household

Cohabiting household

Married couple 

household

All households 

with children

Very low food security Low food security

Prevalence and severity of food 

insecurity among children

Percent of households

Households with food 

insecurity among children

Households with very low food 

security among children

Married couple 

household,

42.2%

Cohabiting 

household,

8.9%

Single-femaleheaded 

household,

42.3%

Single-male-headed 

household,

5.7%

Other household 

with children,

0.9%

0 1 5 0 15 20 25 30

Married couple 

household, 

44.0%

Cohabiting 

household,

7.5%

Single-femaleheaded 

household,

43.5%

Single-male-headed 

household,

4.2%

Other household 

with children,

0.8%

Figure 9

Prevalence and distribution of food insecurity among children, by household composition, 

2010-11 average

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service calculations based on Current Population Survey Food Security 

Supplement data.
Economic Research Service, USDA Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 21

Race and Hispanic Ethnicity

Food insecurity among children was more than two and a half times as prevalent for 

households headed by non-Hispanic Black and Hispanic persons as for those headed 

by non-Hispanic Whites (fig. 10). Nevertheless, the highest percentage of households with food insecurity among children was headed by non-Hispanic Whites 

(about 39 percent) because of their larger share of the entire population. In the 

most severe category—households with very low food security among children—

Hispanic households represented a larger share (about 36 percent) than any of the 

other race-ethnic groups in 2010-11. 

Very low food security Low food security

Prevalence and severity of food 

insecurity among children

Percent of households

Households with food 

insecurity among children

Households with very low food 

security among children

Other non-Hispanic, 6.3%

Non-Hispanic 

White, 38.8%

Other non-Hispanic

Hispanic

Non-Hispanic Black

Non-Hispanic White

All households with 

children

0 1 5 0 15 20 25 30

Non-Hispanic 

Black, 21.7%

Hispanic,

33.2%

Other non-Hispanic, 7.6%

Non-Hispanic 

White, 29.4%

Non-Hispanic 

Black, 27.3%

Hispanic,

35.7%

Figure 10

Prevalence and distribution of food insecurity among children, by race and Hispanic 

ethnicity of household reference person, 2010-11 average

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service calculations based on Current Population Survey Food Security 

Supplement data.
22 Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 Economic Research Service, USDA

Age of Oldest Child

Most parents attempt to shield their children from the more severe effects of food 

insecurity, even though they may have to reduce their own food intake to do so. 

Only about one out of six households with very low food security among adults had 

very low food security among children (analysis not shown). 

Younger children are shielded from food insecurity to a greater extent than older children. The food security survey does not collect information on the food security of 

each individual child in the household, but examining the prevalence of food insecurity among children by the age of the oldest child in the household sheds light on the 

greater protection afforded to younger children (fig. 11). For example, food insecurity 

among children was almost twice as prevalent in households with teenage children 

as in households in which the oldest child was no older than age 4. Very low food 

security among children was more than three times as prevalent in households with 

teenage children as in households in which the oldest child was no older than age 4.9

9

Multivariate analysis (not shown) confirms that this association is largely independent of the 

number of children in the household and the greater food needs of older children.

Very low food security Low food security

Prevalence and severity of food 

insecurity among children

Percent of households

Households with food 

insecurity among children

Households with very low food 

security among children

Age 16-17 years

Age 13-15 years

Age 9-12 years

Age 5-8 years

Age 0-4 years

All households with 

children

0 1 5 0 15 20 25 30

Age 16-17 years,

21.8%

Age 13-15

 years, 24.7%

Age 9-12 years, 

24.3%

Age 5-8 years,

17.6%

Age 0-4 years, 11.7%

Age 16-17 years,

29.5%

Age 13-15

 years, 27.2%

Age 9-12 years, 

20.5%

Age 5-8 years,

14.2%

Age 0-4 years, 8.6%

Figure 11

Prevalence and distribution of food insecurity among children, by age of oldest child

in the household, 2010-11 average

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service calculations based on Current Population Survey Food Security 

Supplement data.
Economic Research Service, USDA Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 23

Number of Children in the Household

Food insecurity among children was more prevalent in larger families, especially 

those with three or more children (fig. 12). The rates of food insecurity and very low 

food security among children were both twice as high in households with three or 

more children as in households with only one child. Households with food-insecure 

children were distributed about equally across households with one, two, and three 

or more children. 

Very low food security Low food security

Prevalence and severity of food 

insecurity among children

Percent of households

Households with food 

insecurity among children

Households with very low food 

security among children

3 or more children, 

32.3%

2 children,

33.7%

1 child, 34.0%

3 or more children

2 children

1 child

All households with 

children

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

3 or more children, 

37.6%

2 children,

32.1%

1 child, 30.3%

Figure 12

Prevalence and distribution of food insecurity among children, by number of children 

in the household, 2010-11 average

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service calculations based on Current Population Survey Food Security 

Supplement data.
24 Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 Economic Research Service, USDA

Residence Relative to Metropolitan Statistical Areas

Food insecurity among children was most prevalent in large cities of Metropolitan 

Statistical Areas (MSAs) followed by nonmetropolitan (largely rural) areas, and was 

least prevalent in the suburban and exurban commuting areas around large cities 

(fig. 13).10 The largest shares of households with both food insecurity and low food 

security among children were in the principal cities of MSAs and the suburban and 

outlying commuting areas around MSAs.

10The food security survey identifies Metropolitan Statistical Areas (MSAs) and principal cities 

within them in accordance with standards delineated in 2003 by the Office of Management and Budget, based on revised standards developed by the U.S. Census Bureau in collaboration with other Federal agencies. Principal cities include the incorporated areas of the largest city in each MSA and other 

cities in the MSAs that meet specified criteria based on population size and commuting patterns.

0 1 5 0 15 20 25 30

Very low food security Low food security

Prevalence and severity of food 

insecurity among children

Percent of households

Households with food 

insecurity among children

Households with very low food 

security among children

In MSAs, specific 

location not identified, 

14.3%

In suburbs or 

outlying areas 

of MSAs,

37.0%

In principal city

of MSAs, 

33.0%

Not in MSAs (i.e.,

nonmetropolitan)

In MSAs, specific 

location not identified

In suburbs or outlying 

areas of MSAs

In principal city of MSAs

All households with 

children

Not in MSAs (i.e.,

nonmetropolitan),

15.7%

In MSAs, specific 

location not identified, 

13.6%

In suburbs or 

outlying areas 

of MSAs,

38.5%

In principal city

of MSAs, 

34.6%

Not in MSAs (i.e.,

nonmetropolitan),13.3%

Figure 13

Prevalence and distribution of food insecurity among children, by residence relative 

to Metropolitan Statistical Areas (MSAs), 2010-11 average

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service calculations based on Current Population Survey Food Security 

Supplement data.
Economic Research Service, USDA Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 25

Residence by Census Region

The prevalence of food insecurity among children was higher in the West and South 

Census Regions than in the Midwest and Northeast (fig. 14). The prevalence of very 

low food security among children was highest in the South. Just over 40 percent of 

households with food insecure children and about 48 percent of households with 

very low food security among children were located in the South. 

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

West

South

Midwest

Northeast

All households with

 children

Very low food security Low food security

Prevalence and severity of food 

insecurity among children

Percent of households

Households with food 

insecurity among children

Households with very low food 

security among children

South, 

40.6%

Midwest,

17.3%

Northeast,

15.0%

West,

27.1%

South, 

47.6%

Midwest,

16.7%

Northeast,

West, 13.3%

22.4%

Figure 14

Prevalence and distribution of food insecurity among children, by Census Region, 

2010-11 average

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service calculations based on Current Population Survey Food Security 

Supplement data.
26 Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 Economic Research Service, USDA

Food and Nutrition Assistance Program Participation 

and Children’s Food Insecurity, Average 2010-11

Most food-insecure households with children received assistance from one or 

more of the three largest Federal food and nutrition assistance programs: the 

Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP, formerly called the Food Stamp 

Program), the National School Lunch Program, and the Special Supplemental 

Nutrition Assistance Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC). Table 1 and 

figure 15 show the prevalence of overall food insecurity and food insecurity among 

children for low-income households (households with children and annual incomes 

less than 185 percent of the Federal poverty line) participating in these programs.11

The share of low-income food-insecure households with children and share of 

households with food insecurity among children participating in these programs are 

also shown.

These statistics come from a 30-day measure of food insecurity (covering midNovember to mid-December), rather than the standard 12-month measure, so that 

the period over which food security is assessed is more likely to match the period 

during which program benefits were received or not received. The prevalence of 

food insecurity is lower when assessed over a 30-day period, since some households 

were food insecure only in earlier months of the year. The prevalence of food insecurity in households with children and with annual incomes less than 185 percent of 

the Federal poverty line was 22.4 percent during the 30 days prior to the food security surveys in 2010 and 2011, compared with 39.6 percent that were food insecure 

at some time during the year (calculated from estimates shown in Appendix B). 

For food insecurity among children, the 30-day prevalence was 11.5 percent of lowincome households compared with 20.4 percent when assessed over 12 months.

Households that did not receive assistance from any of these programs were generally more food secure than those that did. The prevalence of food insecurity was 

lower (about 12 percent) for nonparticipating households than for any recipient 

categories, likely reflecting the self-targeting of participation in these programs by 

the most food-needy households.

An estimated 84 percent of low-income households with food insecurity among 

children received assistance from one or more of the three largest Federal food 

assistance programs in 2010-11. About 70 percent of low-income households with 

food-insecure children received free or reduced-price school meals, including about 

40 percent that received benefits from SNAP or WIC or both, in addition to school 

meals. Many households with food-insecure children in this income range (less than 

185 percent of the Federal poverty line) were not eligible for all of these programs, 

and some were not eligible for any of them. Households with no children in school 

11Statistics on very low food security among children are not presented by program participation categories because of inadequate sample sizes in some categories. Numbers of households are 

not reported because about 18 percent of households with children do not report income. Most such 

households are not asked about participation in food and nutrition assistance programs. The omission 

of those households would result in understating the numbers of households in the various participation categories. Participation in food and nutrition assistance programs is also underreported in the 

CPS-FSS, which would further distort estimated numbers of participants.
Economic Research Service, USDA Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 27

Table 1

Prevalence and distribution of food insecurity during the 30-day period ending in 

mid-December for low-income1 households with children, by participation in selected 

Federal food assistance programs, 2010-11 average

Characteristic

Households with food 

insecurity among adults 

or children

Households with food 

insecurity among children 

(low or very low food security 

among children)

Prevalence2 Share3 Prevalence4 Share5

Percent

All low-income households with children1 22.4 100.0 11.5 100.0

Received SNAP in past 30 days 27.5 45.3 13.3 42.4

Received free or reduced-price school 

lunch in past 30 days 27.8 66.2 15.3 70.3

Received WIC in past 30 days 26.3 25.3 13.4 25.0

Multiple-program patterns:6

Received SNAP, free or reduced-price 

school lunch, and WIC 30.3 8.6 17.1 9.4

Received SNAP and free or reduced-price 

school lunch 29.1 24.6 14.7 24.0

Received SNAP and WIC 23.5 5.7 9.6 4.5

Received SNAP only 23.2 6.3 8.2 4.4

Received free or reduced-price school lunch 

and WIC 25.2 5.0 15.7 6.0

Received free or reduced-price school lunch

 only 26.5 27.8 15.2 30.6

Received WIC only 25.2 6.1 10.9 5.1

Received benefits from one or more of these

 programs 26.9 84.1 13.9 84.0

Did not receive benefits from any of these 

programs 12.3 15.9 6.4 16.0

SNAP = Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program.

WIC = Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children.

1

Analysis was limited to households with children and with annual incomes less than 185 percent of the Federal poverty 

line. Most households with incomes above that range were not asked whether they received benefits from food assistance 

programs. In 2011, the poverty line for a family of two adults and two children was an annual income of $22,811. 

2

Households with food insecurity among adults or children as a percentage of all households with the specified characteristic.

3

Households with the specified characteristic and with food insecurity among adults or children as a percentage of all 

households with food insecurity among adults or children.

4

Households with food insecurity among children as a percentage of all households with the specified characteristic.

5

Households with the specified characteristic and with food insecurity among children as a percentage of all households 

with food insecurity among children.

6

Percentages summed across multiple-program patterns may not exactly match those for SNAP, free or reduced-price 

school lunch, and WIC reported at the top of the table due to rounding. Also, some households only responded to questions 

about one or two programs but not all three, and their multiple-program participation could not be determined.

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service calculations based on Current Population Survey Food Security Supplement 

data.
28 Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 Economic Research Service, USDA

Percentage of low-income households with food insecurity among 

children (low or very low food security among children)

Low-income households with food insecurity among 

children (low or very low food security among children)

All low-income households 

with children

Received SNAP in past 30 days

Received free or reduced-price 

school lunch in past 30 days

Received WIC in past 30 days

Multiple-program patterns:

Received SNAP, free or reducedprice school lunch, and WIC

Received SNAP and free or 

reduced-price school lunch

Received SNAP and WIC

Received SNAP only

Received free or reduced-price 

school lunch and WIC

Received free or reduced-price 

school lunch only

Received WIC only

Received benefits from one 

or more of these programs

Did not receive benefits from 

any of these programs

Received SNAP 

and WIC, 4.5%

Received SNAP

only, 4.3%

Received

free or

reduced-price

school lunch 

and WIC, 6.0%

Received free or

reduced-price

school lunch only,

30.6%

Did not receive 

benefits from 

any of these

 programs,

16.0%

Received SNAP, free or

reduced-price school 

lunch, and WIC, 9.4%

Received SNAP 

and free or

reduced-price

school lunch,

24.0%

Received 

WIC only, 

5.1%

Figure 15

Prevalence and distribution of food insecurity among children in low-income1 households during 

the 30-day period prior to the food security survey, by participation in selected Federal food and 

nutrition assistance programs, 2010-11 average

SNAP = Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program.

WIC = Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children.

1

Households with annual incomes less than 185 percent of the Federal poverty line. In 2011, the poverty line for a family of two adults

and two children was an annual income of $22,811.

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service calculations based on Current Population Survey Food Security Supplement data. 

Percent of households

0 1 5 0 15 20
Economic Research Service, USDA Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 29

were not eligible for free or reduced-price school lunches. Among households with 

school-age children, 78.9 percent with food insecurity among children received free 

or reduced-price school meals (analysis not shown). Households with no children 

under age 5 were not eligible for WIC unless a woman in the household was pregnant. Among households with young children (ages 0-4), 58.2 percent with food 

insecurity among children participated in WIC (analysis not shown). About 28 

percent of these low-income households reported annual incomes higher than 130 

percent of the Federal poverty line (the gross income eligibility limit for SNAP); 

most of those were income-ineligible for SNAP.12 Among households with incomes 

below 130 percent of the poverty line, nearly 50 percent with food insecurity among 

children participated in SNAP (table 2).

Some households leave SNAP because their economic situation has improved 

enough to cover their food needs without assistance. For many SNAP recipients 

who exit the program, however, that does not seem to be the case. Households with 

children that received SNAP earlier in the year, but not in the 30 days prior to the 

food security survey, were more likely to be food insecure during that 30-day period 

(about 35 percent; table 2) than those still receiving benefits (approximately 28 

percent), and much more likely to be food insecure than low-income households that 

12Some households with average annual incomes above the income eligibility limit may have been 

eligible for food assistance if their monthly income was within the income eligibility limits.

Table 2

Prevalence and distribution of food insecurity during the 30-day period ending in 

mid-December in households with children, with annual incomes less than 130 percent 

of the Federal poverty line,1 by receipt of SNAP (food stamp) benefits, average 2010-11

Characteristic

Households with food 

insecurity among adults 

or children

Households with food 

insecurity among children 

(low or very low food security 

among children)

Prevalence2 Share3 Prevalence4 Share5

Percent

Received SNAP in past 30 days 27.7 52.2 13.7 49.9

Received SNAP in past 12 months, but not 

during the past 30 days 35.3 11.4 20.9 13.1

Did not receive SNAP at any time in past 12 

months 19.6 36.3 10.4 37.1

SNAP = Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program.

1

In 2011, the Federal poverty line for a family of two adults and two children was an annual income of $22,811. 

2

Households with food insecurity among adults or children as a percentage of all households with the specified characteristic. 

3

Households with the specified characteristic and with food insecurity among adults or children as a percentage of all 

households with food insecurity among adults or children.

4

Households with food insecurity among children as a percentage of all households with the specified characteristic. 

5

Households with the specified characteristic and with food insecurity among children as a percentage of all households with 

food insecurity among children.

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service calculations based on Current Population Survey Food Security Supplement 

data.
30 Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 Economic Research Service, USDA

did not receive SNAP benefits at any time during the year (nearly 20 percent). ERS 

research found that leaving SNAP was strongly associated with increases in income 

and full-time employment, suggesting that many food-insecure households that 

leave SNAP do so because they are no longer income-eligible (Nord and ColemanJensen, 2010). Even though these former participants appeared to be better off 

economically, they were still more likely to be food insecure after leaving SNAP. 
Economic Research Service, USDA Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 31

Food Insecurity in Households With Children, 

by State, 2003-11 Average

Data from nine national surveys (December of each year in 2003-11) were combined 

to provide sufficient sample sizes (numbers of households interviewed) for reliable 

State-level estimates (table 3 and fig. 16). The long time period for these State-level 

statistics should be kept in mind when interpreting the statistics, as conditions in 

some States may have changed during that time. Even with data from nine surveys, 

the prevalence of very low food security among children could not be estimated reliably for some States and is not reported in table 3.13

The prevalence of food insecurity in households with children ranged from almost 11 

percent in New Hampshire to about 24 percent in Texas. Taking into account margins 

of error due to sampling variation, the prevalence of food insecurity in households 

with children was below the national average (18.3 percent) in 19 States, above the 

national average in 14 States and the District of Columbia, and near the national 

average (i.e., the difference from the national average was not statistically significant) in 17 States. The percentage of households with food insecurity among children 

ranged from about 5 percent in New Hampshire to almost 13 percent in Texas.

13In spite of sizable denominators (all households with children interviewed) in all States, the 

number of interviewed households with very low food security among children was less than 10 in 

several States and as few as 3 in some. Estimates based on such small numerators are unreliable 

because an error in measurement, or the chance selection or omission of a single household in the 

sample, could change the estimate by a large proportion.

Figure 16

Prevalence of food insecurity (adults or children) in households with children, 2003-11 average

Food insecurity below 

U.S. average

Food insecurity near

U.S. average

Food insecurity above 

U.S. average

WA

OR

CA

ID

NV

UT

AZ

AK HI

MT

WY

CO

NM

ND

SD

NE

KS

OK

TX

WI

IL

MN

IA

MO

AR

LA

MI

IN

KY

TN

MS AL GA

FL

SC

NC

VA

WV

OH

PA

NY

DE

MD

DC

NJ

CT RI

MA

VT

NH

ME

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service calculations based on Current Population Survey Food Security 

Supplement data.
32 Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 Economic Research Service, USDA

Table 3

Prevalence of food insecurity in households with children, by State, average 2003-111

State

Number of households

with children

Households with food insecurity 

among adults or children (low or 

very low food security)

Households with food insecurity 

among children (low or very low 

food security among children)

Average 2003-11 Interviewed Prevalence Margin of error2 Prevalence Margin of error2

Number Number Percent

Percentage

points Percent

Percentage

points

U.S. total 39,573,000 133,083 18.3 0.22 9.4 0.17

AK 94,000 1,962 16.0* 1.77 8.0* 1.13

AL 593,000 1,526 20.1 1.90 9.3 1.76

AR 378,000 1,574 21.8* 2.77 11.5* 1.88

AZ 817,000 1,741 21.5* 1.87 10.9* 1.19

CA 4,901,000 11,056 19.2* 0.78 10.8* 0.42

CO 662,000 2,959 17.0 1.58 8.8 0.94

CT 465,000 2,747 14.7* 1.29 8.0* 0.98

DC 60,000 1,197 21.7* 2.24 11.2* 1.64

DE 116,000 1,925 12.7* 1.13 7.0* 0.79

FL 2,173,000 4,692 18.4 0.87 9.4 0.66

GA 1,311,000 2,901 20.5* 1.44 10.5* 0.95

HI 155,000 1,903 15.2* 1.41 8.4* 0.93

IA 377,000 2,464 17.3 1.29 8.3* 0.86

ID 208,000 1,760 18.7 1.06 8.7 1.40

IL 1,698,000 4,285 15.3* 1.01 7.4* 0.73

IN 847,000 2,231 16.1* 1.54 7.8* 1.27

KS 378,000 2,173 19.8* 1.53 9.3 1.21

KY 559,000 1,957 19.9* 1.62 10.0 1.12

LA 609,000 1,351 17.1 1.47 9.0 1.16

MA 848,000 2,093 12.7* 1.40 7.1* 1.05

MD 741,000 2,900 14.4* 1.29 7.9* 0.86

ME 158,000 2,329 19.8* 1.47 10.3 1.12

MI 1,293,000 3,238 17.1 1.79 8.0* 0.99

MN 659,000 3,108 13.6* 1.24 7.1* 1.09

MO 777,000 2,300 18.6 1.66 9.0 1.41

MS 395,000 1,280 22.1* 2.22 12.4* 2.18

MT 115,000 1,266 19.2 2.29 9.0 1.36

NC 1,160,000 2,682 20.7* 1.77 10.2 1.02

ND 83,000 1,825 11.1* 1.37 5.8* 0.80

NE 237,000 2,098 16.1* 1.22 8.1* 0.76

NH 166,000 2,700 10.7* 0.90 5.1* 0.67

NJ 1,172,000 2,896 14.4* 1.67 7.4* 1.06

NM 261,000 1,270 21.9* 1.87 12.4* 1.72

NV 327,000 2,164 17.7 2.11 9.5 1.48

NY 2,452,000 5,291 17.2* 0.83 9.5 0.60

OH 1,522,000 3,854 19.8* 1.45 8.6 0.85

OK 487,000 1,762 21.0* 1.79 11.4* 1.25

OR 462,000 1,852 19.2 1.94 10.4 1.39

PA 1,555,000 3,949 16.9* 1.04 7.9* 0.72

RI 144,000 2,255 18.4 1.76 9.8 1.56

SC 563,000 1,784 20.4* 1.33 9.8 1.14

SD 100,000 2,045 15.5* 1.69 7.9* 1.15

TN 796,000 1,785 19.4 1.83 10.1 1.04

TX 3,371,000 7,217 23.5* 0.78 12.8* 0.58

UT 384,000 1,978 17.4 1.72 9.0 1.35

VA 1,004,000 2,700 12.4* 1.00 6.2* 0.71

VT 79,000 1,771 17.4 2.02 8.0 1.58

WA 841,000 2,409 18.3 1.67 8.7 1.17

WI 724,000 2,569 15.4* 1.10 7.7* 0.82

WV 226,000 1,488 17.0 2.18 7.4* 1.28

WY 70,000 1,821 15.8* 1.57 7.9* 0.88

*Difference from U.S. average was statistically significant with 90-percent confidence (t > 1.645).

1

Totals exclude households whose food security status is unknown because they did not give a valid response to any of the 

questions in the food security scale. Each year, these represented about 0.3 percent of all households.

2

Margin of error with 90-percent confidence (1.645 times the standard error of the estimated prevalence rate).

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service calculations based on Current Population Survey Food Security Supplement data.
Economic Research Service, USDA Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 33

Conclusions

In the wake of the economic downturn that began in late 2007, food insecurity in 

households with children remains near the highest level observed since monitoring 

began in 1995. In 2011, 20.6 percent of households with children were food insecure 

at some time during the year. In about half of those households, only adults were food 

insecure; in the other half, children were also food insecure. In 1.0 percent of households with children, one or more of the children experienced very low food security. 

Results from this study suggest that employment is a key determinant of food insecurity in households with children. Full-time job opportunities, work supports (e.g., 

tax credits and child care assistance), and employee benefits (e.g., health insurance) 

may reduce food insecurity. In 2010-11, food insecurity among children was three 

and a half times as prevalent for households headed by an unemployed adult as for 

households headed by one or more full-time employed adults. However, 75 percent 

of households with food-insecure children had one or more adults in the labor force, 

with about 60 percent having at least one full-time worker and an additional 15 

percent having one or more part-time workers. In 2006-07, before the economic 

downturn, a higher percentage of households with food-insecure children had at 

least one full-time worker (67 percent), and a lower percentage had one or more 

part-time workers (10 percent; Nord, 2009). 

Educational attainment is also strongly associated with food insecurity in households with children. Food insecurity among children was six and a half times as 

prevalent for households headed by an adult with less than a high school diploma 

as for households headed by an adult with at least a 4-year college degree. Adult 

education and job training programs may help adults with low levels of education to 

improve their employment status and household food security. 

Disabilities are an important risk factor for food insecurity. Access to disability 

assistance programs, work supports, healthcare, and other assistance for adults with 

disabilities may reduce the incidence and severity of food insecurity for a substantial share of those that are currently food insecure (Coleman-Jensen and Nord, 

2013). Current benefit levels in disability assistance programs (such as Supplemental 

Security Income or SSI) appear inadequate to ensure food security for those 

affected by disabilities. Food insecurity was twice as prevalent for households with 

children that included adults who were unable to work due to disabilities and for 

those with working-age adults with other reported disabilities, even if they were not 

reported to be unable to work because of disabilities, as for households with children in which no working-age adults reported a disability. 

In 2010-11, Federal food and nutrition assistance programs provided benefits to 

84.1 percent of low-income (less than 185 percent of the poverty line) food-insecure 

households with children. Many households received assistance from multiple 

programs, although about 28 percent reported receiving only free or reduced-price 

school meals. The free or reduced-price school meals program reaches a larger 

share of food-insecure households with children than either the SNAP or WIC 

programs. It is worth noting that participation in food and nutrition assistance 

programs, especially SNAP, increased with the onset of the economic downturn. 
34 Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 Economic Research Service, USDA

In 2006-07, about 39 percent of food-insecure households with children received 

SNAP (Nord, 2009). In 2010-11, about 45 percent of food-insecure households with 

children received SNAP. 

Low-income households that did not receive assistance from any of the food and 

nutrition assistance programs were less likely to be food insecure (just over 12 

percent) than those that did receive assistance (23-30 percent, depending on the 

mix of programs). The lower prevalence of food insecurity among income-eligible 

nonparticipants suggests that many of these households were able to meet their food 

needs without assistance. About one in five food-insecure households with children 

had annual incomes above 185 percent of the poverty line. Many of these households may not have been eligible to receive free or reduced-price school lunches or 

assistance from the WIC program, and most were probably not eligible to receive 

SNAP benefits.14

As food insecurity prevalence rates hover around historic highs since food security monitoring began, and new research finds that children living in food-insecure 

households face elevated risks of negative health and development outcomes 

compared with children in otherwise similar food-secure households, the impetus to 

understand and address the underlying causes of food insecurity in households with 

children has increased. For example, in the 2010 Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act, 

Congress allocated $10 million for research into the causes and consequences of 

childhood hunger and food insecurity, with the research beginning in FY 2013. This 

report lays the foundation for such research by identifying the populations most at 

risk of childhood food insecurity. 

14Some households with average annual incomes above the eligibility thresholds may have had 

monthly incomes that qualified them for food assistance in some months of the year.
Economic Research Service, USDA Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 35

References

Alaimo, Katherine, Christine M. Olson, and Edward A. Frongillo Jr. 2001a. “Food 

insufficiency and American school-aged children’s cognitive, academic, and 

psychosocial development,” Pediatrics 108(1): 44-53. 

Alaimo, Katherine, Christine M. Olson, and Edward A. Frongillo Jr. 2001b. “Low 

family income and food insufficiency in relation to overweight in US children,” 

Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 155(10): 1161-67. 

Alaimo, Katherine, Christine M. Olson, and Edward A. Frongillo Jr. 2002. “Family 

food insufficiency, but not low family income, is positively associated with 

dysthymia and suicide symptoms in adolescents,” The Journal of Nutrition

132(4): 719-25. 

Alaimo, Katherine, Christine M. Olson, Edward A. Frongillo Jr., and Ronette R. 

Briefel. 2001. “Food insufficiency, family income, and health in US preschool 

and school-aged children,” American Journal of Public Health 91(5): 781-86.

Bhargava, Alok, Dean Jolliffe, and Larry L. Howard. 2008. “Socio-economic, 

behavioural and environmental factors predicted body weights and household 

food insecurity scores in the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten,” 

British Journal of Nutrition 100(2): 438-44.

Bronte-Tinkew, Jacinta, Martha Zaslow, Randolph Capps, Allison Horowitz, 

and Michelle McNamara. 2007. “Food insecurity works through depression, 

parenting, and infant feeding to influence overweight and health in toddlers,” 

The Journal of Nutrition 137(9): 2160-65.

Casey, Patrick H., Kitty L. Szeto, James M. Robbins, Janice E. Stuff, Carol Connell, 

Jeffrey Gossett, and Pippa M. Simpson. 2005. “Child health-related quality of 

life and household food security,” Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine 

159(1): 51-6.

Chilton, Mariana, Maureen M. Black, Carol Berkowitz, Patrick H. Casey, John 

Cook, Ruth Rose Jacobs, Alan Meyers, Deborah A. Frank, Diana Cutts, Timothy 

Heeren, Stephanie Ettinger de Cuba, and Sharon Coleman. 2009. “Food insecurity and risk of poor health among US-born children of immigrants,” American 

Journal of Public Health 99(3): 556-62.

Coleman-Jensen, Alisha, and Mark Nord. 2013. Food Insecurity Among Households 

With Working-Age Adults With Disabilities, ERR-144, U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Economic Research Service, http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/

err-economic-research-report/err144.aspx. 

Coleman-Jensen, Alisha, Mark Nord, Margaret Andrews, and Steven Carlson. 

2012. Household Food Security in the United States in 2011, ERR-141, U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, http://ers.usda.gov/

publications/err-economic-research-report/err141.aspx.
36 Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 Economic Research Service, USDA

Connell, Carol L., Kristi L. Lofton, Kathy Yadrick, and Timothy A. Rehner. 2005. 

“Children’s experiences of food insecurity can assist in understanding its effect 

on their well-being,” The Journal of Nutrition 135(7): 1683-90.

Cook, John T., Deborah A. Frank, Carol Berkowitz, Maureen M. Black, Patrick H. 

Casey, Diana B. Cutts, Alan F. Meyers, Nieves Zaldivar, Anne Skalicky, Suzette 

Levenson, Tim Heeren, and Mark Nord. 2004. “Food insecurity is associated 

with adverse health outcomes among human infants and toddlers,” The Journal 

of Nutrition 134: 1432-38.

DeNavas-Walt, Carmen, Bernadette D. Proctor, and Jessica C. Smith. 2012. 

“Income, poverty, and Health Insurance Coverage in the United States: 2011,” 

Current Population Reports, P60-243, U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. 

Census Bureau, http://www.census.gov/prod/2012pubs/p60-243.pdf.

Eicher-Miller, Heather A., April C. Mason, Connie M. Weaver, George P. McCabe, 

and Carol J. Boushey. 2009. “Food insecurity is associated with iron deficiency 

anemia in US adolescents,” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 90(5): 

1358-71.

Eicher-Miller, Heather A., April C. Mason, Connie M. Weaver, George P. McCabe, 

and Carol J. Boushey. 2011. “Food insecurity is associated with diet and bone 

mass disparities in early adolescent males but not females in the United States,” 

The Journal of Nutrition 141(9): 1738-45.

Fram, Maryah Stella, Edward A. Frongillo, Sonya J. Jones, Roger C. Williams, 

Michael P. Burke, Kendra P. DeLoach, and Christine E. Blake. 2011. “Children 

are aware of food insecurity and take responsibility for managing food 

resources,” The Journal of Nutrition 141(6): 1114-19. 

Hernandez, Daphne C., and Alison Jacknowitz. 2009. “Transient, but not persistent, 

adult food insecurity influences toddler development,” The Journal of Nutrition

139(8): 1517-24.

Howard, Larry L. 2011a. “Does food insecurity at home affect non-cognitive 

performance at school? A longitudinal analysis of elementary student classroom 

behavior,” Economics of Education Review 30(1): 157-76.

Howard, Larry L. 2011b. “Transitions between food insecurity and food security 

predict children’s social skill development during elementary school,” The 

British Journal of Nutrition 105(12): 1852-60.

Jyoti, Diana F., Edward A. Frongillo, and Sonya J. Jones. 2005. “Food insecurity 

affects school children’s academic performance, weight gain, and social skills,” 

The Journal of Nutrition 135: 2831-39.

Kirkpatrick, Sharon I., Lynn McIntyre , and Melissa L. Potestio. 2010. “Child 

hunger and long-term adverse consequences for health,” Archives of Pediatrics 

and Adolescent Medicine 164(8): 754-62.
Economic Research Service, USDA Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 37

Kleinman, Ronald E., J. Michael Murphy, Michelle Little, Maria Pagano, Cheryl 

A. Wehler, Kenneth Regal, and Michael S. Jellinek. 1998. “Hunger in Children 

in the United States: Potential Behavioral and Emotional Correlates,” Pediatrics

101(1):e3.

Larson, Nicole I., and Mary T. Story. 2011. “Food insecurity and weight status 

among U.S. children and families. A review of the literature,” American Journal 

of Preventive Medicine 40(2): 166-73.

National Research Council. 2006. Food Insecurity and Hunger in the United States: 

An Assessment of the Measure, Committee on National Statistics, Panel to 

Review the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Measurement of Food Insecurity 

and Hunger, Gooloo S. Wunderlich and Janet L. Norwood (Eds.), Washington, 

DC: The National Academies Press.

Nord, Mark. 2013 (Forthcoming). “Youth are less likely to be food insecure than 

adults in the same household,” Journal of Hunger and Environmental Nutrition.

Nord, Mark. 2009. Food Insecurity in Households with Children: Prevalence, 

Severity, and Household Characteristics, EIB-56, U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Economic Research Service, http://ers.usda.gov/publications/eibeconomic-information-bulletin/eib56.aspx.

Nord, Mark, and Alisha Coleman-Jensen. 2010. “Food insecurity after leaving 

SNAP,” Journal of Hunger & Environmental Nutrition 5(4): 434-53.

Nord, Mark, and Karla Hanson. 2012. “Adult caregiver reports of adolescents’ food 

security do not agree well with adolescents’ own reports,” Journal of Hunger & 

Environmental Nutrition 7(4): 363-80. 

Nord, Mark, Max Finberg, and James McLaughlin. 2009. “What should the government mean by hunger?” Journal of Hunger & Environmental Nutrition 4(1):1-28.

Oliveira, Victor. 2013. The Food Assistance Landscape: FY 2012 Annual Report, 

EIB-109, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, http://

www.ers.usda.gov/publications/eib-economic-information-bulletin/eib109.aspx. 

Park, Kyong, Margaret Kersey, Joni Geppert, Mary Story, Diana Cutts, and John 

H. Himes. 2009. “Household food insecurity is a risk factor for iron-deficiency 

anemia in a multi-ethnic, low-income sample of infants and toddlers,” Public 

Health Nutrition 12(11): 2120-28.

Rose-Jacobs, Ruth, Maureen M. Black, Patrick H. Casey, John T. Cook, Diana B. 

Cutts, Mariana Chilton, Timothy Heeren, Suzette M. Levenson, Alan F. Meyers, 

and Deborah A. Frank. 2008. “Household Food Insecurity: Associations with 

At-Risk Infant and Toddler Development,” Pediatrics 121(1): 65-72.

Ryu, Jeong-Hee, and Judith S. Bartfeld. 2012. “Household food insecurity during 

childhood and subsequent health status: The Early Childhood Longitudinal Study - 

Kindergarten Cohort,” American Journal of Public Health 102(11): e50-5.
38 Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 Economic Research Service, USDA

Skalicky, Anne, Alan F. Meyers, William G. Adams, Zhaoyan Yang, John T. Cook, 

and Deborah A. Frank. 2006. “Child food insecurity and iron deficiency anemia 

in low-income infants and toddlers in the United States,” Maternal and Child 

Health Journal 10(2): 177-85.

Slack, Kristen S. and Joan Yoo. 2005. “Food hardship and child behavior problems 

among low-income children,” Social Service Review 79(3): 511-36.

Weinreb, Linda, Cheryl Wehler, Jennifer Perloff, Richard Scott, David Hosmer, 

Linda Sagor, and Craig Gundersen. 2002. “Hunger: Its impact on children’s 

health and mental health,” Pediatrics 110(4): e41.

Whitaker, Robert C., Shannon M. Phillips, and Sean M. Orzol. 2006. “Food insecurity and the risks of depression and anxiety in mothers and behavior problems in 

their preschool-aged children,” Pediatrics 118(3): e859-68.

Winicki, Joshua, and Kyle Jemison. 2003. “Food insecurity and hunger in the 

kindergarten classroom: Its effect on learning and growth,” Contemporary 

Economic Policy 21(2): 145-57.

Zaslow, Martha, Jacinta Bronte-Tinkew, Randolph Capps, Allison Horowitz, 

Kristin A. Moore, and Debra Weinstein. 2009. “Food security during infancy: 

Implications for attachment and mental proficiency in toddlerhood,” Maternal 

and Child Health Journal 13(1): 66-80. 
Economic Research Service, USDA Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 39

Appendix A: Previous Study Findings

Findings from selected studies on the effects of food insecurity and food insufficiency on children’s health, development, and well-being (statistically significant 

associations, with controls included in the model, are shaded)

Introductory notes: 

• Most of the associations reported here are based on food insecurity or food 

insufficiency at the household level, not on food insecurity among children. 

Many presumed effects of household food insecurity on children appear even 

though the children themselves may not experience reductions in diet quality or 

quantity. 

• Studies controlled for income and other household characteristics likely to 

confound the relationships of interest. 

• The studies are listed by year of publication and alphabetically by author.
40 Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 Economic Research Service, USDA

Appendix table A

Condition studied Population Finding Data1 Comments Citation

Parent reported general health status of 

child on a 5-point scale 

ranging from poor to 

excellent

Children in 

kindergarten 

through eighth 

grade

Persistent food insecurity (3 or 4 observation years) was associated with lower 

health status in eighth grade. ECLS-K

The study controlled 

for child’s kindergarten health status and 

parental depression.

Ryu and 

Bartfeld, 2012 Transient food insecurity (1 or 2 observation years) was not associated with health 

status at eighth grade.

Bone mineral content

Boys ages 

8-11

Significantly lower bone mineral content 

in total body, trunk, lumbar spine, pelvis, 

and left arm in households with food 

insecurity among children. 

NHANES Eicher-Miller et 

al., 2011

Boys ages 

12-19 and girls 

ages 8-19

No statistically significant association.

USDA Food Guide 

recommended servings 

of dairy and estimated 

average requirement 

for calcium intake.

Boys ages 

8-11

2.5 times more likely to report less than 

the recommended servings of dairy and 

2.3 times more likely to have calcium 

intake below the estimated average 

requirement.

Boys ages 

12-19 and girls 

ages 8-19

No statistically significant association. 

Noncognitive abilities 

(teacher-reported: 

interpersonal relations, 

self-control, approaches to learning, and 

externalizing problem 

behavior )

Children in 

first, third, and 

fifth grade

Transition from food-insecure household 

in first grade to food-secure household 

in third grade was negatively associated 

with interpersonal relations, self-control, 

and approaches to learning persisting 

through fifth grade. 

ECLS-K

Controls for county 

characteristics in 

addition to household 

characteristics.

Contemporaneous household food Howard, 2011a

insecurity was negatively associated with 

interpersonal relations, self-control, and 

approaches to learning. 

No statistically significant association 

between food insecurity and externalizing 

problem behavior. 

Social skills (teacher 

reported: interpersonal 

relationships, selfcontrol, approaches to 

learning, externalizing 

problem behavior)

Girls in first, 

third, and fifth 

grade

Contemporaneous household food 

insecurity was negatively associated with 

composite social skills scores, self-control 

and approaches to learning scores.

ECLS-K

Controls for county 

characteristics in 

addition to household 

characteristics.

Howard, 2011b

Transitions between food insecurity and 

food security were not statistically significantly associated with social skills scores. 

Boys in first, 

third, and fifth 

grade

Transitioning from food insecurity in first 

grade to food security in third grade was 

negatively associated with composite 

social skills scores, self-control, and approaches to learning scores. 

Other transitions between food insecurity 

and food security were not statistically 

significantly associated with social skills 

scores. There was no statistically significant association between food insecurity 

and social skills measured contemporaneously.
Economic Research Service, USDA Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 41

Appendix table A—Continued

Condition studied Population Finding Data1 Comments Citation

General health 

(parent reported)

Children ages 

10-15

Poor or fair (vs. excellent, very good, or 

good) health 2.48 times more likely for 

children classified as hungry. Poor or fair 

health 4.73 times as likely for children 

who have experienced two or more 

episodes of hunger than those that have 

never experienced hunger.

NLSCY2

Controlled for baseline 

health status and 

chronic health conditions. In analyses 

stratified by gender 

rather than age, associations were stronger 

for girls than for boys.

Kirkpatrick et 

al., 2010

Children ages 

16-21 No statistically significant association. 

Chronic health conditions (heart condition, 

cerebral palsy, epilepsy, kidney disease, 

asthma, bronchitis, or 

allergies)

Children ages 

10-15 No statistically significant association.

Children ages 

16-21

Higher odds of having any chronic health 

condition or of having asthma (considered 

separately from other health conditions) 

among youth with two or more episodes 

of hunger. 

General health (parent 

reported)

Children ages 

0-36 months

Poor or fair (versus excellent, very good, 

or good) health 1.74 times more likely in 

food-insecure households

Children’s 

HealthWatch 

(formerly 

C-SNAP)

Chilton et al., 

2009 Food insecurity mediated the association 

between immigrant status of mothers and 

fair or poor health among children. 

Iron deficiency

anemia

Children ages 

3-5

10.71 times as likely for children in households with food insecurity among children

NHANES

Wide confidence intervals for the estimates 

for children ages 3-5 

and 6-11; although 

statistically significant, 

the estimate should 

be interpreted with 

caution.

Eicher-Miller et 

al., 2009

Children ages 

6-11

8.05 times as likely for children in households with food insecurity among children

Children ages 

12-15

2.95 times as likely for adolescents in 

households with food insecurity among 

children. 

Children ages 

16-19 No statistically significant association.

Iron deficiency

Children ages 

6-11

49 percent less likely among children in 

households with food insecurity among 

children. 

Unexpected finding 

that children from 

households with food 

security among children were more likely 

to be iron deficient 

than children from 

households with food 

insecurity among 

children.

Children ages 

3-5 and ages 

12-19

No statistically significant association.

Estimated average 

requirement (EAR) for 

iron intake

Children ages 

16-19

Dietary iron intake 1.87 times below the 

EAR among youth from food-insecure 

households.

Children ages 

3-15 No statistically significant association.
42 Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 Economic Research Service, USDA

Appendix table A—Continued

Condition studied Population Finding Data1 Comments Citation

Cognitive scores

Children age 9 

months and 24 

months

Children in households with food insecurity among adults at wave 2 (when child 

was 24 months old) scored 1.5 points 

lower on cognitive scores at 24 months. 

In separate analyses of boys and girls, 

the effect on boys’ scores was not statistically significant, but girls in food-insecure 

households scored 2.33 points lower.

ECLS-B

Data were collected 

at two time points, or 

waves. Wave 1 of data 

collection was conducted when the child 

was 9 months old. 

Wave 2 of data collection was conducted 

when the child was 24 

months old. Food insecurity was assessed at 

both waves, while the 

outcomes of interest 

were assessed at 

wave 2.

Hernandez 

and Jacknowitz, 2009

Food insecurity among adults at wave 1 

(when child was 9 months old) was not 

significantly associated with child cognitive scores at wave 2 (age 24 months). 

Food insecurity at both waves was not 

associated with scores at wave 2. 

Counterintuitive finding that food insecurity 

among adults at wave 

2 affected child’s cognitive scores, but food 

insecurity at both wave 

1 and at wave 2 did 

not significantly affect 

cognitive scores. 

Motor scores

No statistically significant association 

between child motor scores at wave 2 

and food insecurity among adults measured at wave 1, wave 2, or persistent 

food insecurity in both waves. 

Weight-for-age Z-score

No statistically significant association 

between weight-for-age Z-scores at wave 

2 and food insecurity among adults measured at wave 1, wave 2, or persistent 

food insecurity in both waves.

Health Status 

(Mother reported)

Children in households with food insecurity among adults at wave 2 had poorer 

health (0.17 points lower) at wave 2. In 

separate analyses of boys and girls, the 

effect on boys’ health was not statistically significant, but girls in food insecure 

households had poorer health (0.19 

points lower).

Counterintuitive finding that food insecurity 

among adults at wave 

2 affected child’s 

health status, but food 

insecurity at both wave 

1 and at wave 2 did 

not significantly affect 

health status. 

Food insecurity among adults at wave 1 

was not significantly associated with child 

health status at wave 2. Food insecurity 

at both waves was not associated with 

health status at wave 2. 

Iron deficiency anemia

Children ages 

0-36 months

1.98 times more likely for children in 

households with very low food security

Children’s 

HealthWatch 

(formerly 

C-SNAP)

Park et al., 

2009

Iron deficiency No statistically significant association.
Economic Research Service, USDA Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 43

Appendix table A—Continued

Condition studied Population Finding Data1 Comments Citation

Attachment and mental 

proficiency

Children age 9 

months and 24 

months

Children in food insecure households at 

9 months more likely to have insecure 

child attachment at 24 months and less 

advanced mental proficiency through 

indirect pathways operating through 

maternal depression and in turn parenting 

practices.

ECLS-B Zaslow et al., 

2009

Weight and BMI

Children in 

first, third, and 

fifth grade

Weak, nonsignificant negative association 

with food insecurity in current period (for 

boys, girls, and combined).

ECLS-K

Extensively specified dynamic model 

controlled for weight 

in previous period 

(kindergarten, first, 

and third grade).

Bhargava et 

al., 2008

Developmental risk 

(parent reported 

concerns about child’s 

development in: expressive and receptive 

language, fine and 

gross motor, behavior, 

social/emotional, selfhelp, and school)

Children ages 

4-36 months

1.76 times as likely for children in foodinsecure households 

Children’s 

HealthWatch 

(formerly 

C-SNAP)

Rose-Jacobs 

et al., 2008

General health (parent 

reported)

Children ages 

9 and 24 

months

Poor or fair health (versus excellent or 

good) more likely in food-insecure households. Main pathway is through parental 

depression, direct effect marginally 

significant (p=.09), not through measured 

parenting or feeding practices.

ECLS-B

Could be biased by 

measurement artifact 

of parental depression, 

leading to upward bias 

on measured food insecurity and children’s 

poor health.

Bronte-Tinkew 

et al., 2007

Weight for length (overweight)

Children ages 

9 and 24 

months

Higher weight for length in food-insecure 

households. Pathway is through parenting practices and infant feeding practices 

(mainly a measure of breastfeeding).

Structural model may 

be problematic. Food 

insecurity associated with better infant 

feeding practices and 

marginally significant 

(p=.07).

Length for age

Children ages 

9 and 24 

months

No significant association with food insecurity or mediating variables.

Iron deficiency anemia Children ages 

7-36 months

2.5 times more likely in households with 

food insecurity among children.

Children’s 

HealthWatch 

(formerly 

C-SNAP)

Sample was small. 

Should be repeated 

with larger sample.

Skalicky et al., 

2006 Anemia without iron 

deficiency

Children ages 

7-36 months

1.6 times more likely in households with 

food insecurity among children, but not 

statistically significant.
44 Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 Economic Research Service, USDA

Appendix table A—Continued

Condition studied Population Finding Data1 Comments Citation

Behavioral problems 

(problem in one or 

more of three domains: 

aggressive, anxious/

depressed, inattention/ 

hyperactivity)

Children age 3

Significant behavioral problems 1.6 times 

more likely in households with marginal 

food security among adults and 2.1 times 

more likely in households with foodinsecure adults. Similar and statistically 

significant associations with each problem domain individually.

Fragile 

Families

Strong results in a 

large sample. In addition to demographic 

and economic controls, mother’s mental 

health (which could 

be a confounding 

measurement factor) 

was controlled.

Whitaker et al., 

2006

Physical function 

(a subscale of the 

Pediatric HealthRelated Quality of Life 

measure)

Children ages 

3-17

Physical function of children in foodinsecure households 3.3 points lower 

(87.4 versus 90.7 mean for children in 

food-secure households); association was 

strongest for ages 3-8, weaker and not 

statistically significant for ages 9-11, and 

near zero for ages 12-17.

Delta NIRI Casey et al., 

2005

Psychosocial function (a subscale of 

the Pediatric HealthRelated Quality of Life 

measure)

Psychosocial function of children in 

food-insecure households 3.6 points 

lower (77.1 versus 80.7 in food-secure 

households); association was strongest 

for ages 12-17, weaker and not statistically significant for ages 3-8, and near 

zero for ages 9-11.

Change in BMI and 

weight from kindergarten to third grade

Girls in third 

grade

Higher in households with marginal food 

security or insecurity at kindergarten age; 

higher in households with marginal food 

security or insecurity in both kindergarten 

and third grade.

ECLS-K Jyoti et al., 

2005

Boys in third 

grade No statistically significant association.

Change in math score 

from kindergarten to 

third grade

Girls and boys 

in third grade

Lower in households marginally food 

secure or food insecure in kindergarten 

than in households food secure in both 

kindergarten and third grade.

Change in reading 

score from kindergarten to third grade

Girls in third 

grade

Lower in households marginally food secure or food insecure in third grade (or in 

both kindergarten and third grade) than in 

households food secure in both periods.

Boys in third 

grade No statistically significant association.

Change in social skills 

as assessed by teachers in kindergarten and 

third grade

Girls in third 

grade

Greater improvement in households that 

transitioned from marginally food secure 

or food insecure in kindergarten to food 

secure in third grade than in households 

food secure in both periods.

Boys in third 

grade

Smaller improvement (opposite of girls) 

in households that transitioned from 

marginally food secure or food insecure in 

kindergarten to food secure in third grade 

than in households food secure in both 

periods.

Unexpected finding, 

and unexpected that 

boys and girls have 

opposite patterns.
Economic Research Service, USDA Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 45

Appendix table A—Continued

Condition studied Population Finding Data1 Comments Citation

Externalizing behavior 

problems

Children ages 

3-5

Positively associated with food hardship. 

The relationship is mediated by parental 

characteristics (parental stress, warmth, 

and depression). 

Illinois 

Family 

Study3

Slack and Yoo, 

2005

Children ages 

6-12 No statistically significant association.

Internalizing behavior 

problems

Children ages 

3-5

Positively associated with food hardship. 

The relationship is mediated by parental 

characteristics (parental stress, warmth, 

and depression). 

Children ages 

6-12

Positively associated with food hardship. 

The relationship is mediated by parental 

characteristics (parental stress, warmth, 

and depression). 

Health status (reported 

by caregiver)

Children ages 

0-36 months

Fair or poor health (versus excellent or 

good) nearly twice as likely in foodinsecure households; no dose-response 

pattern observed.

Children’s 

HealthWatch 

(formerly 

C-SNAP)

Cook et al., 

2004

Hospitalization since 

birth

30 percent more likely in food-insecure 

households; dose response: 2.3 times 

more likely in households with very low 

food security.

Hospital admission on 

day of interview

Not statistically significant; weak negative 

association in sample.

At risk for growth problems (either low weight 

for age or weight for 

height)

Not statistically significant; weak positive 

association in sample.

Educational achievement—math score in 

fall of kindergarten year

Children in 

kindergarten

Lower by a half-point (mean math score 

was 19 points) in marginally secure and 

food-insecure households. Some dose response: score 1 point lower in households 

with very low food security.

ECLS-K Winicki and 

Jemison, 2003

Educational achievement—gain in math 

score from fall to spring 

of kindergarten year

Lower by 0.4 points (mean gain in math 

score was 8 points) in marginally secure 

or food-insecure households; no doseresponse pattern.

Physical growth—

height, weight, BMI, 

and changes in these 

from fall to spring

Not statistically significant; associations in 

the sample weak and inconsistent.

Depressive disorder 

and suicidal symptoms

Children ages 

15-16

Adolescents in food insufficient households much more likely to have depressive disorder and suicidal symptoms.

NHANES 

III

Alaimo et al., 

2002
46 Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 Economic Research Service, USDA

Appendix table A—Continued

Condition studied Population Finding Data1 Comments Citation

Chronic health condition count

Preschool 

children

Significantly higher in households with 

moderate child hunger.

Worcester,

MA survey 

of homeless 

and lowincome, 

housed 

mothers 

and 

children

Weinreb et al., 

2002

School-age 

children

Significantly higher in households with 

severe child hunger (measured by CCHIP 

items).4

Internalizing behavior problems (based 

on Child Behavior 

Checklist)

Preschool and 

school-age 

children

Significantly higher in households with 

severe child hunger, associations positive 

but weaker and not statistically significant 

with moderate child hunger.

Anxiety/depression 

(based on Child Behavior Checklist)

School-age 

children

Significantly higher in households with 

severe child hunger.

Academic achievement 

(based on Wechsler 

Individual Achievement 

Test Screener)

School-age 

children No statistically significant association.

Risk of overweight 

(weight-for-age higher 

than 85th percentile on 

CDC growth chart)

Girls ages 2-7 Significantly lower in food insufficient 

households.

NHANES III Alaimo et al., 

2001b

Boys ages 2-7 No statistically significant association.

Boys ages 

8-16 No statistically significant association.

White nonHispanic girls 

ages 8-16

No statistically significant association.

Black nonHispanic girls 

ages 8-16

No statistically significant association.

MexicanAmerican girls 

ages 8-16

Significantly higher in food insufficient 

households.
Economic Research Service, USDA Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 47

Appendix table A—Continued

Condition studied Population Finding Data1 Comments Citation

Fair or poor health 

status (versus excellent 

or good)

Children ages 

1-5

49 percent more likely in food insufficient 

households.

NHANES 

III

Alaimo et al., 

2001

Children ages 

6-16

58 percent more likely in food insufficient 

households.

Frequent stomach 

aches

Children ages 

4-5 

3 times as likely in food insufficient 

households.

Children ages 

6-16 

88 percent more likely in food insufficient 

households.

Frequent headaches

Children ages 

4-5 

2.5 times as likely in food insufficient 

households.

Children ages 

6-16 

67 percent more likely in food insufficient 

households.

Number of colds in 

previous 12 months

Children ages 

1-5 

57 percent more likely in food insufficient 

households.

Children ages 

6-16 

Moderately strong positive association in 

the sample, but not statistically significant.

Number of ear infections in lifetime

Children ages 

1-5 

Association weakly positive in sample, but 

not statistically significant.

Children ages 

6-16 

Association weakly positive in sample, but 

not statistically significant.

Iron deficiency

Children ages 

1-5

Association negative (opposite of 

expected) in sample, but not statistically 

significant.

Children ages 

6-16 

Association negative (opposite of 

expected) in sample, but not statistically 

significant.

Restrictive impairment 

(ages 1-5, prevented 

usual activity; ages 

6-16, prevented school 

attendance)

Children ages 

1-5

Association positive in sample, but not 

statistically significant.

Children ages 

6-16 

Association positive in sample, but not 

statistically significant.
48 Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 Economic Research Service, USDA

Appendix table A—Continued

Condition studied Population Finding Data1 Comments Citation

Cognitive development (two subtests of 

Weschler Intelligence 

Scale for ChildrenRevised)

Children ages 

6-11 No statistically significant association.

NHANES 

III

Alaimo et al., 

2001a

Children ages 

12-16 No statistically significant association.

Academic development 

(two subtests of Wide 

Range Achievement 

Test-Revised, repeated 

grade, days absent)

Children ages 

6-11 

Lower arithmetic score and more likely to 

have repeated a grade in food insufficient 

households.

Children ages 

12-16 

No statistically significant association. 

Associations in sample weak and inconsistent.

Psychosocial development (school absence, 

professional help for 

mental health, school 

suspension, number of 

good friends, trouble 

getting along with other 

children, shyness or 

slow to make friends)

Children ages 

6-11 

Child in food insufficient households 89 

percent more likely to have seen psychologist or other mental health professional because of an emotional, mental, 

or behavioral problem.

Children ages 

6-11 

Positive association with “difficulty getting 

along with others” in sample, but not 

statistically significant.

Children ages 

12-16 

Child in food-insufficient households 82 

percent more likely to have seen psychologist or other mental health professional because of an emotional, mental, 

or behavioral problem, 95 percent more 

likely to have been suspended, 74 percent more likely to have difficulty getting 

along with others.

Psychosocial dysfunction (based on Pediatric Symptom Checklist)

Children ages 

6-12

Significantly more likely in households 

with hungry children. Aggression and 

anxiety components particularly strongly 

associated with hunger.

CCHIP5

Pittsburgh 

area

Kleinman et 

al., 1998

BMI=Body mass index.

1

Data source abbreviations: ECLS-B, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort (National Center for Education Statistics); ECLS-K, 

Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten Cohort (National Center for Education Statistics); C-SNAP, Children’s Sentinel Nutrition 

Assessment Program, renamed Children’s Healthwatch in 2009; Delta NIRI, Lower Mississippi Delta Nutrition Intervention Research Initiative 

(consortium of USDA’s Agriculture Research Service, several land-grant universities, and other institutions in the region); Fragile Families, The 

Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (Princeton University); NHANES III, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey III (National 

Center for Health Statistics); NLSCY, National (Canadian) Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth (Statistics Canada and Human Resources 

and Skills Development Canada)

2

The Kirkpatrick et al. (2010) study determined child’s hunger status based on a “yes” response by the person most knowledgeable of child’s 

food intake to the question, “Has [the child] ever experienced being hungry because the family has run out of food or money to buy food?”

3

The Slack and Yoo (2005) study determined food hardship by summing parental responses to four items derived from the child items of 

USDA’s Household Food Security scale.

4

The Weinreb et al. (2002) study used a methodology developed by the Community Childhood Hunger Identification Project (CCHIP). The measure is closely related to the Children’s Food Security Scale based on the HFSSM and includes many of the same items. Based on the number 

of food insecure conditions reported, households are classified as no hunger, adult or moderate child hunger, or severe child hunger.

5

The Kleinman et al. (1998) study used data from a Community Childhood Hunger Identification Project (CCHIP) survey in low-income areas 

of Pittsburgh and surrounding Allegheny County. Children’s food security status was measured by the same eight questions as in Weinreb et al. 

(2002; see footnote 4), but categories were labeled as not hungry, at risk for hunger, or hungry.
Economic Research Service, USDA Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 49

Appendix B: Incidence of Food Insecurity in Selected 

Subpopulations, Average 2010-11

Appendix B table provides the statistics presented graphically in the main body 

of the report on food insecurity in households with children by selected household 

characteristics. The corresponding statistics for the broader category of food insecurity also are included for households with food insecurity among either adults or 

children.

For example, out of a total of 25.6 million married-couple households with children, 

about 3.5 million were food insecure, comprising 13.9 percent of all married-couple 

households with children and 44.4 percent of all food-insecure households with children. Children and adults were food insecure in about 1.6 million married-couple 

households (a subset of the 3.5 million that were food insecure), comprising 6.4 

percent of married-couple households with children and 42.2 percent of all households with food insecurity among children. Children experienced very low food 

security at times during the year in 167,000 married-couple households, comprising 

0.7 percent of married-couple households with children and 44.0 percent of all 

households with very low food security among children. These households with 

very low food security among children represent a more severely food-insecure 

subset of the households with food insecurity among children. 
50 Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 Economic Research Service, USDA

Appendix table B

Prevalence and distribution of food insecurity in households with children, by selected household 

characteristics, 2010-11 average

Characteristic

All 

food 

security 

statuses

Food-insecure 

households (food 

insecurity among 

adults or children)

Households with food 

insecurity among 

children (low or very 

low food security 

among children)

Households with 

very low food security 

among children

Number Number

Prevalence Share NumberPrevalence Share Number Prevalence Share 

1,000 1,000 — Percent — 1,000 — Percent — 1,000 — Percent —

All households with children 39,111 7,980 20.4 100.0 3,861 9.9 100.0 380 1.0 100.0

Household composition:

Married-couple household 25,575 3,546 13.9 44.4 1,629 6.4 42.2 167 0.7 44.0

Cohabiting household 2,790 805 28.8 10.1 342 12.3 8.9 29 1.0 7.5

Single female-headed household 8,528 3,112 36.5 39.0 1,635 19.2 42.3 165 1.9 43.5

Single male-headed household 1,896 459 24.2 5.7 221 11.7 5.7 16 0.8 4.2

Other household with children 322 58 18.1 0.7 34 10.5 0.9 3 0.9 0.8

Race and Hispanic ethnicity:1

White non-Hispanic 23,453 3,509 15.0 44.0 1,498 6.4 38.8 112 0.5 29.4

Black non-Hispanic 5,416 1,685 31.1 21.1 838 15.5 21.7 104 1.9 27.3

Hispanic2 7,455 2,344 31.4 29.4 1,280 17.2 33.2 136 1.8 35.7

Other non-Hispanic 2,787 443 15.9 5.5 245 8.8 6.3 29 1.0 7.6

Annual household income:

Below Federal poverty line3 7,067 3,166 44.8 39.7 1,700 24.1 44.0 196 2.8 51.7

100-130 percent of poverty line 2,468 906 36.7 11.3 422 17.1 10.9 41 1.7 10.9

130-185 percent of poverty line 3,615 1,140 31.5 14.3 558 15.4 14.5 45 1.2 11.9

Above 185 percent of poverty line 19,021 1,631 8.6 20.4 647 3.4 16.8 51 0.3 13.5

Income not reported 6,940 1,138 16.4 14.3 534 7.7 13.8 46 0.7 12.1

Residence relative to Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA): 

In principal city of MSA4 10,409 2,548 24.5 31.9 1,274 12.2 33.0 131 1.3 34.6

In suburbs or outlying areas of MSA5 17,199 3,009 17.5 37.7 1,429 8.3 37.0 146 0.9 38.5

In MSA, specific location not identified 5,496 1,135 20.7 14.2 553 10.1 14.3 52 0.9 13.6

Not in MSA (i.e., nonmetropolitan) 6,007 1,288 21.4 16.1 605 10.1 15.7 50 0.8 13.3
Economic Research Service, USDA Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 51

Appendix table B

Prevalence and distribution of food insecurity in households with children, by selected household 

characteristics, 2010-11 average—Continued

Characteristic

All 

food 

security 

statuses

Food-insecure 

households (food 

insecurity among 

adults or children)

Households with food 

insecurity among 

children (low or very 

low food security 

among children)

Households with 

very low food security 

among children

Number Number

Prevalence Share NumberPrevalence Share Number Prevalence Share 

1,000 1,000 — Percent — 1,000 — Percent — 1,000 — Percent —

Census Region:

Northeast 6,761 1,230 18.2 15.4 578 8.5 15.0 51 0.8 13.3

Midwest 8,311 1,469 17.7 18.4 670 8.1 17.3 63 0.8 16.7

South 14,696 3,193 21.7 40.0 1,567 10.7 40.6 181 1.2 47.6

West 9,343 2,089 22.4 26.2 1,046 11.2 27.1 85 0.9 22.4

Employment and labor force status of adults:

One or more employed full-time 32,247 5,073 15.7 63.6 2,301 7.1 59.6 219 0.7 57.6

Part-time, no full-time 2,767 1,111 40.2 13.9 593 21.4 15.4 51 1.8 13.4

Unemployed looking for work, 

none employed 1,840 861 46.8 10.8 470 25.5 12.2 53 2.9 13.8

Disabled, none in labor force 849 453 53.3 5.7 249 29.4 6.5 26 3.1 6.9

None in labor force for reasons other 

than disability 1,408 483 34.3 6.1 248 17.6 6.4 31 2.2 8.3

Disability status of adults in household:

Not in labor force due to disability 2,483 1,005 40.5 12.6 509 20.5 13.2 56 2.2 14.7

Other reported disability (ages 18-64)6 1,879 691 36.8 8.7 335 17.8 8.7 45 2.4 11.8

No working-age adult with disability 34,749 6,284 18.1 78.7 3,017 8.7 78.1 279 0.8 73.5

Education of most highly educated adult:

Less than high school 2,706 1,147 42.4 14.4 655 24.2 17.0 77 2.8 20.1

Completed high school (or GED) 8,525 2,525 29.6 31.6 1,238 14.5 32.1 99 1.2 26.0

Some college (including 2-year degree) 12,515 3,069 24.5 38.5 1,406 11.2 36.4 149 1.2 39.1

Four-year degree or higher 15,366 1,241 8.1 15.5 564 3.7 14.6 56 0.4 14.8

Age of oldest child in the household:

0-4 years 7,630 1,403 18.4 17.6 452 5.9 11.7 33 0.4 8.6

5-8 years 7,075 1,436 20.3 18.0 680 9.6 17.6 54 0.8 14.2

9-12 years 8,353 1,819 21.8 22.8 938 11.2 24.3 78 0.9 20.5

13-15 years 8,374 1,792 21.4 22.5 952 11.4 24.7 103 1.2 27.2

16-17 years 7,678 1,529 19.9 19.2 840 10.9 21.8 112 1.5 29.5
52 Food Insecurity in Households With Children, EIB-113 Economic Research Service, USDA

Appendix table B

Prevalence and distribution of food insecurity in households with children, by selected household 

characteristics, 2010-11 average—Continued

Characteristic

All 

food 

security 

statuses

Food-insecure 

households (food 

insecurity among 

adults or children)

Households with food 

insecurity among 

children (low or very 

low food security 

among children)

Households with 

very low food security 

among children

Number Number

Prevalence Share NumberPrevalence Share Number Prevalence Share 

1,000 1,000 — Percent — 1,000 — Percent — 1,000 — Percent —

Number of children in the household:

1 child 16,853 3,158 18.7 39.6 1,311 7.8 34.0 115 0.7 30.3

2 children 14,145 2,656 18.8 33.3 

1,301 9.2 33.7 122 0.9 32.1

3 or more children 8,113 2,166 26.7 27.1 1,249 15.4 32.3 143 1.8 37.6

Notes: For each characteristic and food security status, “prevalence” means the number of households with the specified food security status 

and the specified characteristic as a percentage of all households with the specified characteristic. “Share” means the number of households 

with the specified food security status and the specified characteristic as a percentage of all households with the specified food security status. 

For example, 13.9 percent of married-couple households were food insecure and married-couple households made up 44.4 percent of all foodinsecure households.

1

Race and Hispanic ethnicity refers to that of the household reference person (i.e., the person in whose name the residence is owned or rented). 

If residence is jointly owned or rented, any of the owners or lessees may be designated reference person.

2

Hispanics may be of any race.

3

The Federal poverty line for a family of two adults and two children in 2011 was an annual income of $22,811.

4

Households within incorporated areas of the largest cities in each metropolitan area.

5

Households in counties (or townships in New England) that are densely populated and linked to principal cities of the MSA by daily commuting 

patterns. 

6

Other reported disabilities include hearing, vision, mental, physical, self-care, and going-outside-home disabilities. Working-age adults with 

these disabilities were not reported to be out of the labor force due to disability. 

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service calculations based on Current Population Survey Food Security Supplement data.