DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 204 601 CE 029 544

TITLE School-to-Work transition: Reviews and Syntheses of

the Literature. Research on Youth Employment and

Employability Development. Youth Knowledge

Development Report 2.5.

INSTITUTION Youthwork, Inc.. Washington, D.C.

SPONS AGENCY Employment and Training Administration (DOL),

Washington, D.C. Office of Youth,Programs.

PUB DATE Map B0

NOTE 1,120p.: For related documents see note of CE 029

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AVAILABLE FROM Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Governmcat Printing,

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DESCRIPTORS Abstracts: Adolescents: Annotated Bibliographies:

Career Education: Credits: *.Demonstration Programs:

Diiabilities: *Disadvantaged Youth: Educhtlonal

PoliOy:_*Educational Research: *EducatiOn Work

Relationship: Employment Programs: Federal Programs:

Hearings: Job Search Methods: Job Skills: Motivation:

Needs: Occupational Information: *Policy Formaiion:

Public Policy: Secondaiy'Education *Youth

Employment: Youth Programs

IDENTIFIERS Private Industry: *Youth Employment and Demonstration

Projects Act

ABSTRACT

Thisvolume is one of the.produdtsofithe NknOWledge,

development* effort ,implemented under 'the "mandate of the youth

Employment and Projects Act (YEDPAI,of-19.77..-.:Under

YEDPAls discretionary authority thete have been Oihmber of efforts

to better measure the impact-of,serviOes that facilitat4 the

transition ofyouth frOt schOol Thereeeardh report. provides'

the analytical fOundatiOn:for±these, deeonStrationsiteviewing.and

synthesizing from a; policy perspective:theliterhture on

schoolt.to-work transition-acivitiest;The-doctiteni..7*ocuset on six

areas: (11 Career-Informetion,:guidanCeand jobtseeking skills: (2)

academic credit for, work'experiencsCA310dtt participation.::444 . private sector involVtent (5):::spedialAafforts for:ligh,tisk,yOubh:

and (.61 school-to-Work transition ,efforts for-.thehandiOapPOd.:The

volumecOntains:literaturerevietiHandSyntheeee around 'policy

'issue's for.eaCk.o1;these focusAreas. Additionally, itincludelvthe

results .of special bearings conducted by IOUthmorkla nonprofit

intermediary lOintlyfunded.by.the Departments,of Libor and

Education) Onthe'needsof-high 'risk isk yOuthanthe handicapped.

Annotatedbibliographiesi as well as many abstradts, areA.mcluded in

the volume. 1.KC1

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INE MATION CENTER (ERIC)."

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EDUCATION 5 WELFARE

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF

EDUCATION

THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPROOUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM

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U.S. Department of Labor

Ray Marshall, Secretary

Employment and Training Administration

Ernest G. Green, Assistant Secretary for

Employment and Training Administration

Office of Youth Programs

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contained herein.
YOUTH KNOWLEDGE DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2.15

SCHOOL-TO-WORK TRANSITION:

REVIEWS AND SYNTHESES OF

THE LITERATURE

YOUTHWORK, INC.

May 1980
A large shy

without ade

and computmany emplo,

academic skii

and requirement.

which most youti, :uire through exposure to family and

friends, as well through periods of work experience

part-time and during the summer. These skills include the

ability to make career and job choices with some intelligence,

to know where ane how to look and apply for work, to be

motivated and in6-pendent enough to enter the labor market

and to understarrf the expectations in regular jobs.

Research has documented unequivocably that youth with more

knowledge of careers, with self-assurance and motivation, as

well as realistic understanding of the demands of the workplace are more likely to hold jobs as teenagers as well as

to have subsequent labor market success as young adults.

Research has documented that the gaps in these basic

world of work skills for minorities and the poor begin even

before high school and have a cumulative, interactive impact

by limiting the chances of successful work experience during

the teen years. Evaluations have documented the dearth of

opportunities in-school and out to develop such basic skills.

Counseling and placement activities for students are college

oriented and spread too thinly; likewise, cooperative

education tends to serve the most advantaged youth who have

already set their career goals.

OVERVIEW

oth graduates and dropouts leave school

reparation for the world of work. Reading

deficits are a lifelong handicap. But

.n they could utilize youth with limited

they at least knew rudimentary work mores

'here are a cluster of basic work skills

There are a cluster of services which can be offered to teenagers, and the school is the logical setting because almost

all youth are in school at least to age 16. These "school-towork" transition activities include job-search assistance

which teaches methods of job hunting, motivational and

participatory activities to build self-esteem and confidence,

occupational information and efforts to overcome sex-stereotyping, career exploration through classroom instruction, worksite

visits, lectures, and rotational work assignments, placement

assistance, work-related counseling and followup. These

services, which go under many different names and have many

different components, might be distinguished from in-school

work experience which can also be transitional in intent

and may be combined with transition services.

There are a number of potential delivery agents for such

activities. Within the schools, guidance counselors,

cooperative and vocational education personnel could all

ii
offer such services if they had adequate resources. Private

employers in a few isolated cases have "adopted" schools;

labor unions and apprenticeship systems can do the same.

The Employment Service at one time had placement personnel

that worked at least part-time in a majority of the high

schools in the country. Community and neighborhood groups

and voluntary youth serving agencies are another alternative.

Finally, there are a number of different potential target

groups for scarce resources. Emphasis might be placed on

young women to help them overcome sex-stereotyping or on

the disadvantaged and minorities to overcome the effects

of discrimination and poverty. Alternatively, all youth

in need of services might be reached by spreading resources

more thinly. A fundamental issue is the continuity and

intensity of services.

The Youth Employment and Demonstration Projects Act of 1977

mandated the expansion of school-to-work transition services,

making all youth eligible, and requiring that every work

experience in school be combined with counseling, occupational

information, placement assistance and efforts to overcome

sex-stereotyping. The Act required that 22 percent of funds

under Youth Employment and Training Programs be set aside for

assistance to in-school youth. However, YEDPA also mandated

knowledge development activities to help better determine

the imapct of such services, the effectiveness of alternative

delivery agents and the appropriate target groups.

Under YEDPA's discretationary authority there have been a

number of efforts to better measure the impact of transition

services. There are multi-site experiments with job search

assistance and vocational exploration. Statewide private

nonprofit organizations have been established to offer an

outside approach to the delivery of services. There have

been tests of saturation of transition services in a

controlled and experimental high school. Apprenticeship

in-school programs have been initiated in multiple sites.

School-to-work transition programs have been supported throuqhout the country under a competitively funded demonstation \ project involving CETA/school cooperation. Finally, structuted

experiements have been undertaken in multiple sites utilizing

community and neighborhood groups and the Employment Service

as delivery agents. Under all these demonstrations, careful

research designs have been implemented to measure the impacts

of services.

This research report providea the analytical foundation for

these demonstrations, reviewing and synthesising from a policy

perspective the literature on school-to-work transition

activities. This is a product of Youthwork, Incorporated,

iii
a nonprofit intermediary jointly funded by the Departments of Labor and Education, as well as a consortium of foundations,

to serve as the research agent for the Exemplary In-School Grant Program which provides support for 90 local in-school

projects with innovative features and demonstrated cooperation between local education agencies and prime sponsors. The grants have six focus areas: (1) career information,

guidance and job-seeking skills; (2) academic credit for

work experience; (3) youth participation; (4) private sector

involvement; (5) special efforts for high risk youth; and

(6) school-to-work transition efforts for the handicapped. This volume contains literature reviews and synthesis around

key policy issues for each of these focus areas. Additionally,

it includes the results of special hearings conducted by

Youthwork on the needs of high risk youth and the handicapped.

This volume is one of the products of the "knowledge development" effort implementing under the mandate of the Youth

Employment and Demonstration Projects Act of 1977. The

knowledge development effort consists of hundreds of separate research, evaluation and demonstration activities which will

result in literally thousands of written products. The

activities have been structured from the outset so that each

is self-standing but also interrelated With a host of other

activities. The framework is presented in A Knowledge

Development Plan for the Youth Employment and Demonstration

Projects Act of 1977, A Knowled Develo ment Plan for the

Youth Initiatives Fisca 1979 and Completing the Youth Agenda: A Plan for Knowledge Development, Dissemination and Application

for Fiscal 1980.

Information is available or will be coming available from the

various knowledge development activities to help resolve an

almost limitless array of issues, but answers to policy

questions will usually require integration and synthesis from

a number of separate products, which, in turn, will depend on

knowledge and availability of these products. A major shortcoming of past research, evaluation and demonstration activity

has been the failure to organize and disseminate the products

adequately to assure the full exploitation of the findings.

The magnitude and structure of the youth knowledge development

effort puts a premium on organization and dissemination of

findings.

As part of its knowledge development mandate, the Office of

Youth Programs of the Department of Labor will organize,

publish and disseminate the written products of all major

research, evaluation and demonstration activities supported

7

iv
directly by or mounted in conjunction with the knowledge

development effort. Some of the same products may also be

published and disseminated through other channels, but

they will be included in the structured series of Youth

Knowledge Development Retorts in order to facilitate access

and integration.

The Youth Knowledge Development Reports, of which this is one,

are divided into twelve broad categories:

1. Knowledge Development Framework: The products in this

category are concerned with the structure of knowledge development activities, and the assessment methodologies which are

employed, validation of measurement instruments, the

translation of knowledge into policy, and the strategy for

disseminating findings.

2. Research on Youth Em lo

Development: The products in

of existing data, presenation

special studies of dimensions

and policy analyses.

ent and Em lo abilit

t s category represent analyses

of findings from new data sources,

on youth labor market problems

3. Program Evaluations: The products in this. category

include impact, process and benefit-cost evaluations of youth

programs including the Summer Youth Employment Program, Job

Corps, the Young Adult Conservation Corps, Youth Employment

and Training Programs, Youth Community Conservation and

Improvement Projects and the Targeted Jobs Tax Credit.

4. Service and Partici?ant Mix:. The evaluations and demonstrations summarized in this category concern the matching of

different types of youth with different service combinations.

This involves experiments with work vs. work plus remediation

vs. straight remediation as treatment options. It also includes attempts to mix disadvantaged and more affluent participants, as well as youth with older workers.

5. Education and Training Approaches: The products in

this category present the findings of structured experiements

to test the impact and effectiveness of various education and

vocational training approaches including specific education

methodologies for the disadvantaged, alternative education

approaches and advanced career training.

6. Pre-Employment and Transition Servites: The products

in this category present the findings of structured experiments

to test the impact and effectiveness of school-to-work transition

activities, vocational exploration, job-search assistance and

other efforts to better prepare youth for labor market success.
7. Youth Work E-c2erience: The products in this category

address the organization of work activities, their output,

productive roles for youth and the impacts of various emplryment approaches.

8. Implementation Issues: This category includes crosscutting analyses of the practical lessons concerning "how-todo-it." Issues such as learning curves, replication processes and programmatic "batting averages" will be addressed under

this category, as well as the comparative advantages of alternative delivery agents.

9. Design and Organizational Alternatives: The products in this category represent assessments of demonstrations of

alternative program and delivery arrangements such as

consolidation, year-round preparation for summer programming,

the ube of incentives and multi-year tracking of individuals.

10. Special Needs Groups: The products in this category

present findings on the special problems of and adaptations

needed for significant segments including minorities, young

mothers, troubled youth, Indochinese refugees and the

handicapped.

11. Innovative A roaches: The products in this category

present t e findings of those activities designed to explore new approaches. The subjects covered include the Youth

Incentive Entitlement Pilot Projects, private sector initiatives, the national youth service experiement, and energy initiatives in weatherization, low-head hydroelectric dam

restoration, windpower and the like.

12. Institutional Linkages: The products in this category

will include studies of institutional arrangements and linkages as well as assessments of deomonstration activities to

encourage such linkages with education, volunteer groups,

drug abuse agencies and the like.

In each of these knowledge development categories, there will

be a range of discrete demonstration, research and evaluation

activities, focused on different policy, program and

analytical issues. For instance, all experimental demonstration projects have both process and impact evaluations,

frequently undertaken by different evaluation agents.

Findings will be published as they become available so that

there will usually be a series of reports as evidence

accumulates. To organize these products, each publication

is classified in one of the twelve broad knowledge development

categories, described in terms of the more specific issue,

activity or cluster of activities to which it is addressed,

with an identifier of the product and what it represents

relative to other products in the demonstration. Hence, the
multiple products under a knowledge development activity are

closely interrelated and the activities in each broad cluster

have significant interconnections.

This volume supplements the reviews in Between Two Worlds- -

Youth Transition' from School to Work and Youth EmplOyMent

and Train What Works' Best for Whom also in the "research

on you employment an emp oy ty development" category.

There are a number of related studies of YEDPA school-to-work

transition demonstrations in the pre-employment and transition

services category. Of particular. .importance are School-toWork Transition' Services--The Exemplary In- School' Project

Demonstration, F'inding's' of the Youth Career Development

Program and Process Studies of the Youth Career Development

Program.

ROBERT TAGGART

Administrator

Office of Youth Programs

vii

10
CONTENTS

Review of Literature:

Career Information, Guidance

and Job Seeking Skills ix

Review of Literature:

Academic Credit for Work

Experience 141

Review of Literature:

Youth Participation 216

Review of Literature:

Private Sector Involvement 266

Review of Literature:

High Risk Youth .., 424

Public Forum: High Risk Youth

Review of : Handicapped Youth 740

Public Forum: Handicapped Youth 953

11

viii
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE:

CAREER INFORMATION, GUIDANCE AND

JOB SEEKING SKILLS

ix

12
CONTENTS

Page

Acknowledgments iii

Introduction 1

Chapter One -- The Nature and Evolution of Work-Education

Programs 6

The Reorientation of Vocational Education

From Vocational Guidance to Career Guidance

The Career Education Movement

Implications for this Review

7

9

11

14

Chapter Two -- Facilitating the School-To-Work Transitition . . . 16

Lessons from Experience 16

Effective Forms of Collaboration and Other Structural

Arrangements 19

Public vs. Private Sector Programmatic Experience . . 29

Chapter Three - Learning About and Seeking Employment 31

Work Values of Youth 31

Attitudes Toward Career Planning 33

Knowledge of. Career Planning 33

Assistance with Career Planning 4 35

Effectiveness of Various Approaches to Providing

Career Information 40

Chapter Four -- National Occupational Information Coordinating

Committee 58

Enabling Legislation 58

Mandates and Objectives 59

NOICC-SOICC Structure 61

Attention to the Labor Market Information Needs

of Youth 62

Chapter Five -- Career Information Materials 65

Government Publications 65

Surveys of Instructional Materials for Career Education 67

Combating Race and Sex Bias 77

Career Information fox Special Groups 77

Chapter Six -- Summary and Recommendations 89

x

13
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE:

CAREER INFORMATION, GUIDANCE AND

JOB SEEKING SKILLS
INTRODUCTION

This paper involved completion of the activities below.

Conducting an ERIC search and other related computer-based

searches of literature in the appropriate focus area.

A review of appropriate literature and research material

available at the Department of Labor. This review shall be an

extensive assessment of the material relevant to the focus

area. Compilation of a comprehensive bibliography of all collected

sources and citations;

The literature will be examined and the most useful material

selected for inclusion in and the construction of an annotated

bibliography;

There will be an interpretive narrative and analysis

coalescimg what is known within the focus area about each

'policy issue around which the literature review shall be

focused.;

The final step shall be the identification of next steps or

research strategies which Youthwork should engage in to answer

the knowledge development gaps which current research and

projects noted earlier leave unanswered.

The literatur review examined information on the current state of the

art in the focus tree of career information, guidance and job-seeking skills

with regard to the following list of policy issues.

1. What forms of collaboration among employment, training,

educational (including colleges and universities), and

rehabilitation institutions (including. CBO's) are the most

effective and the most successful in facilitating the

school-to-work transition. sequence? Also, what dorms of

collaboration and what structural arrangements best serve the

young people in terms of linking occupational and educational

information services, systems, and resources, and in helping

them find placements in private sector, unsubsidized jobs

after program completion?

2. What do we know 'about the relative effect and value of private

sector vs. public sector programmatic experience in terms of

skills acquired, utility and accuracy of career information,

later (after program) job placement, career and educational

success and overall (long-term) employability? To what extent
does what type of programmatic experience change/alter the

impact as a result of the age of the participants?

3. What do we know about the career information material in terms

of providing information about job seeking skills and about

jobs which participants can obtain after leaving school? This

information should be clarified in terms of time, intent, and

who produced it. What kinds of information do participants need for certain types of decision making, e.g., jobs, career

paths, voting.

4. What do we know about how career information literature and

material has changed in tone, intent, and direction in the

past several years? Be especially sensitive to changes in sex

stereotyping, thrust of the material, projected outcomes, and

adaptation of the material for youth who do not speak English.

(The intent of this question is to provide a sense of changes in this literature area, the direction of the changes, and

what it has meant and could mean in operational terms.

5. What do we know about how Career Information Projects are generally characterized in terms of their transmittal of information to participants? How were the services delivered

to the students? What were the networks that were used, and

were they either new networks or existing networks; how will the delivery networks address and help overcome problems of sex stereotyping? Are new networks established for purposes

of reaching hard-to-reach young people?

6. What do we know about who the individuals are who provide

career information material to the project participants? How

are they prepared and trained for the task? What are their

levels of training and education? How can school counselors,

teachers, and other school counseling personnel be better

informed about the functioning of the world of work? How long have the personnel been involved in providing career

information? How effectively can peer counselors provide the

information, compared with trained "professionals?" Are there

different mechanisms for providing this information beyond

peer counselors and professional counselors, such as business

people and others in the community? This question incorporates Career Information items #3 and #5 from the 1978

Youthwork Application Guidelines.

7. What do we know concerning the extent to which the CETA system

or private industry were at all involved helping develop, maintain, and operate career information networks and data

bases? CThe intent of this question is to determine who was

involved in the development, creation, and dissemination of

the career information material.)

8. What do we know about how young people can be more effectively

motivated and assisted in using occupational information for

career planning.

162
9. What do we know about the availability of career information

for special populations, e.g., Hispanics, those with low

reading levels, for rural areas?

10. What do we know about the most important and salient sources

of information, e.g., peers, parents, employers, teachers,

etc., which young people use when they make job, career, and

personal decisions?

Briefly summarized here are the procedures followed in carrying out terms

of the contract. While the work assignment specifies an ERIC search. None of

the three focus area concepts are listed as descriptors in the ERIC thesauras.

The accompanying table identifies those descriptors most closely related to

the focus area and the number of documents in the data base through 1977. A

perusal of abstracts for the 11 descriptors indicated that the "Youth Employment" category related more closely to the ten policy issues than any of the

other individual categories. In actual practice, a given document may be

classified with respect to multiple descriptors.

The primary strategy for this project was to conduct a computer search of

the ERIC data base for "Youth Employment" and then to supplement the search

with a subjective, manual search of the other ten descriptors as needs

dictated. A computer search for the period 1966 through September 1979

yielded 450 documents. In reviewing these 450 documents it was discovered

that the more relevant publications were those completed in the last six

years. As a result, publications in ERIC and CIJE prior to January 1974 were

disregarded. Appendix A provides listing by title of the 267 publications

processed in ERIC and CIJE since January 1974. Appendix B contains abstracts

from Appendix A that were deemed to be most related to the policy issues.

Data were also collected by several other means. A letter was sent to

the National Commission for Manpower Policy requesting copies of relevant

publications. Twenty-eight papers and reports were received from this

request. In early December, the conractor spent two days in Washington

collecting publications at the Department of Labor. About 30 or so publications and papers were obtained at the Office of Youth Programs and at

the ETA Inquiries Unit. Meetings with Evelyn Ganzglass in ETA and

Russell Flanders at the NOICC resulted in a number of other valuable

17
suggestions and publications. Another valuable source of information proved

to be the author's own personal library.

This paper is organized according to major concepts. Chapter One is a

background discussion of the history and legislation in those professional

fields most related to the policy issues. In Chapter Two policy issues one and two are addressed. Chaptei Three is primarily related to issues number

five, six, eight and ten. Chapter Four is designed to illustrate the

potential of the NOICC as it relat,3 to CETA (issue number seven). Chapter

Five includes a discussion of issues number three, four, nine and to some

extent, number five. The last chapter summarizes the paper and makes

recommendations for next steps.

4
TABLE 1

RELATED DESCRIPTORS

Descriptor Beginning CIJE RIE

Date

Career Education October 1971 1,286 3,237

Career Choice July 1966 661 808

Career Planning July 1966 739 1,179

Job Skills July 1966 373 1,406

Job Application July 1966 74 135

Job Search Methods December 1976 0 4

Occupational

Information. Jbly 1966 573 1736

Occupational

Guidance July 1966 575 1,595

Occupational Choice. July 1966 497 576

Vocational Counseling July 1966 730 986

Youth Employment July 1966.. 75 218

Source: Thesauras of ERIC Descriptors, 7th Edition. New York: Macmillian

Information, 1977.

19
CRAFTIER ONE

THE NATURE AND EVOLUTION

OF WORK-EDUCATION PROGRAMS

Several decades ago, interest in work as the object of professional study

was almost the exclusive domain of vocational psychologists. As the 1980's

begin, however, work has become the focus of a considerable amount of public

discussion, research, legislation, and popular and professional writing. So,

too, has the number and type of individuals interested in work expanded to

include a wide variety of social and behavioral scientists; educators;

business, labor, and industry leaders; bureaucrats; legislators; and

laypersons. 1

Generally speaking, there are four professional fields that have

work-education relationships as a major concern: (a) vocational education,

(b) career guidance and counseling, (c) career education, and (d) employment

and training. Each of these fields have separate histories, professional

affiliations, and bodies of literature.2

Youth employment issues as they are addressed in this paper are primarily

a function of the latter category. However, a state of the art review for the

topics of career information, guidance and job seekingskills cannot be

achieved without examining the literature in all four areas. The following

brief summaries of vocational education, career guidance and counseling, and

Career: education , are ',designed to provide the:reader with.: beiterperipective . of the :nature and historical deVe/opment of each Profeasional field. (The

employment and training field is not-discussed under the assumption :that the.

reader is .already.. familiar with it.) In particular, the discussion is

directed toward demonstrating, kow vocational edicatiOl, career -guidance and

couriteling, and career: have evolved to the .' pOint where their

.

, .proprietary interests %. are now .'quite- (employment and training

included).
The Reorientation of Vocational Education

Notwithstanding the claim that "Vocational education is as old as man

himself"3 the first nationwide system of public school vocational education

was created by the Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 (P.L. 64-347). This Act provided

a grant in perpetuity to the states of approximately $7.2 million annually for

vocational instruction in three service areas: agriculture, trade and

industrial education, and home economics. A series of amendments in 1929,

1934, 1936, and 1946 extended and augmented Smith-Hughes slightly, but the

basic nature of vocational education changed little up through the early

1960's.

The 1946 amendments (George-Barden Act) authorized for the first time the

use of federal funds for vocational guidance. It was expected that such funds

would enable the states to:

1. Provide for supervision of vocational guidance.

2. Train vocational counselors.

3. Maintain a program of vocational counseling for the secondary

and adult level.

4. Produce and publish occupational information for vocational

counselors and teachers.

By 1960, however, less than half the states (21) reported use of federal funds

for vocational guidance. In the same year, less than one percent (.84) of the

federal money for vocational education was used for guidance.4

Passage of the Vocational Education Act of 1963 (P.L. 88-210) resulted in

sweeping changes in vocational education, leading one author to characterize

the Act as ". . . no less than a reorientation of the traditional emphasis

from filling the requirements of the labor market to meeting the needs of

people."5 Among the provisions and funding arrangements of VEA 1963 was the

requirement for states to use three percent of their respective allotments of

federal funds for ancillary services. These included (but were not limited

to) administration, teacher education, and vocational guidance and counseling.

7

21
The Vocational Education Amendments of 1968 (P.L. 90-576) moved

vocational education even farther in the direction of providing more

comprehensive education for work programs and services. Embodied in the Act

was a recognition that "Orientation and assistance in vocational choice may

often be more valid determinants of employment success, and therefore more

profitable uses of educational funds, than specific skill training."6

Vocational guidance and counseling was encouraged in several sections

including the provision for entering into cooperative arrangements with the

system of state public employment offices to make available occupational

information regarding "reasonable prospects of employment in the community and

elsewhere." A new Part D. Exemplary Programs and Projects was designed to

stimulate new ways to create a bridge between school and earning a living for

young people. Projects later funded under this part became precursors of

career education.

The most recent vocational education legislation (Title 11, Education

Amendments of 1976, P.L. 94-482) finds concern for vocational guidance and

counseling reflected throughout. A specific mandate is expressed in Sec. 134

Vocational Guidance and Counseling in which not less than 20 per centum of the

funds available to the States under Section 130(a) be used to support programs

for vocational development* guidance and counseling programs and services.

These include the initiation, implementation, and improvement of high quality

vocational guidance and counseling programs and activities; vocational

counseling for children, youth and adults; provision of educational. and job

placement services; overcoming sex stereotyping and sex discrimination;

vocational and education counseling for youth offenders and adults in

correctional institutions; vocational guidance and expldration programs at the

local level.

*See in the next section how concern for vocational development came about.

22 8
From Vocational Guidance to Career Guidance

Frank Parsons, director of the First vocational guidance center in the

United States, provided the framework for the first theory of occupational

choice. In 1909, he proposed a method for vocational guidance which he

outlined in a three-phase approach: study and understanding of self, study of

the requirements of occupations, and decisionmaking about the relationship

among the facts obtained. 7 The effect of Parson's "trait-and-factor" theory

was the institutionalization of guidance practices that emphasized individual

testing, dispensing occupational information, and matching individual traits

with an "appropriate" cccupation.

According to Herr and Cramer, 8 for most of its first fifty years

vocational guidance has concerned itself with predicting occupational choice

or occupational success from an individual's test scores prior to entry into

the labor market. Its major reference point has been the requirements of the

occupational structure rather than individual preferences or values.

At mid-century, alternative theories of vocational behavior began to

emerge. The work of Ginzberg et al. 9 and of Super10 marked a shift away from

the Parsonian model of "matching men and jobs" and its static notion of

"occupational choice", to a model that focused on "vocational development"

(late career development) as a process rather than an event. As Super

explained:

Vocational development is conceived as one aspect of individual

development . . . Work, like social -life and intellectual

activity, is one specific medium through which the total

personality can manifest itself. Like other aspects of

development, vocational development may be conceived of as beginning early in life, and as proceeding along a curve until late

in life . . . Central to Super's theory of vocational development are the processes of

formation, translation into occupational terms, and implementation of a self

concept. The use of career models in vocational guidance has slowly begun to

elevate the concern for self-understanding to the same level of importance as

occupational information. "In this view, the primary objectives of vocational
guidance are seen as developing the individual's skills to make a free and

informed choice of career and appropriately preparing for that career, rather

than for the needs of the labor market. "12

The mid-to-late 1960s was a significant period for the career guidance

and counseling field in which numerous texts and collections of readings were

published relating to vocational guidance and career development. 13

These

were very influential in communicating career development concepts and methods

to practitioners, counselor educators and graduate students. These same

publications were also very influential in bringing about the reorientation of

vocational education discussed in the previous section. A number of

university-based counselor education programs like those at The Pennsylvania

State University, the University of Missouri, and the University of Minnesota

became centers for providing leadership in career guidance and counseling,

developing cooperation with vocational education, and conceptualizing the

forerunners of career education.

Current philosophical assumptions about career guidance and about the

knowledge and competencies that counselors should possess are reflected in a

1976 position paper adopted by The Association of Counselor Education and

Supervision. This paper advocates a significant development role fop

counselors involved in both group and individual activities designed to

promote knowledge, attitudes and skills which individuals need for

self-definition and career planning. 14

These competencies are:

1. Career and human development theory and research, and the skills necessary to translate this knowledge into

developmental career guidance and career education programs.

2. Career information resources, and the necessary skills to

assist teachers, administrators, community agency personnel,

paraprofessionals, and peers to integrate this type of

information into the teaching-counseling process.

3. Career assessment strategies, and the skills necessary to

assist individuals to use these data in the decision-making

process.

4. Individual and group counseling practices, and the skills

necessary to assist individuals in career planning using both

approaches.

24

10
5. Career decision making processes, and the skills necessary to

implement programs designed to facilitate career

decision-making for clientele in educational and community

agency settings.

6. Job placement services, and the skills necessary to assist

their clientele to seek, acqLire, and maintain employment.

7. The unique career development needs of special clientele

groups (women, minorities, handicapped, disadvantaged, adults,

etc.), and the ski'is necessary to assist them in their

developmint.

8. Sexism and racism, and the necessary skills to reduce

institutional discrimination in order to broaden the career

opportunities available for all persons.

9. The roles that life style and leisure play in career

development, and the skills necessary to assist clientele to

select and prepare for occupations which coincide with various

preferences.

10. Consultation strategies and the skills necessary to assist

others (teachers, parents, peers, etc.) to deliver indirect

career guidance services.

11. Synthesizing strategies, and the skills necessary to assist

individuals to understcad the interrelatedness of their career

decisions and life roles.

12. Program development and curricular infusion strategies, and

the skills necessary to design and implement career awareness,

self-development, career exploration, and job placement

programs with educational and community agency settings.

13. Organizational development and change processes, and the

skills necessary to facilitate change in educators' attitudes

toward career education.

14. Program evaluation techniques, and the skills necessary to

acquire evidence of the effectiveness of career guidance and

career education programming.

15. Educational trends and state and federal legislation which may

influence the dirlopment and implementation of career

guidance programs.

The Career Education Movement

On January 23, 1971, then Commissioner of Education Sidney P. Harland

delivered a speech before the Annual Convention of the National Association of

11
Secondary School Principals entitled "Career Education Now".

16

This speech

launched a national movement, the likes of which has seldom been seen in the

history of education. 17

Though Marland is often called the "Father of Career Education" (a

characterization he denies), credit for fashioning the concept is due more to

the efforts of people like Gysbers and Herr. 18

In 1969, Herr delivered a paper in which he described how career development could serve as a common

thread to unify the entire educational system at all levels. 19

This led Herr

to later describe career education as the ". . . institutionalization Of

career development and the marrying of it with occupational education". 20

Marland's role in career education was not limited to speech-making.

Utilizing the "discretionary" authority provided the Commission under federal

legislation, the U.S. Office of Education supported a wide variety of career

education pilot projects with funds obtained from Part C and Part D of Public

Law 90-576 (VEA 1968). 21

During the early 1970s a total of 236 projects were

supported, amounting to approximately $65 million, in some of the earliest

attempts to bring model programs of career education into operation in local

school districts. Independent of these projects, the National Institute.of

Education was actively involved in research and development of four different

delivery systems for career education: (a) School-Based Model 1,

(b) Employer-Based Model 11 (later renamed Experienced-Based Career

Education), (c) Home/Community-Based Model 111, and

(d) Rural/Residential-Based Model IV. Countless other projects were initiated

during this period by state and local, education agencies.

Two significant events occurred in 1974 that resulted in greater autonomy

for career education.22

One was passage of the Education Amendments of 1974,

Section 406 (P.L. 93.380) which provided for the first time separate

leadership' responsibility and legislative authority for career education.

Beginning in Fiscal Year 1975, projects were funded under this legislation in

six different categories:

1. Activities designed to- effect -incremental improvements- in K-12 career education programs.

26

12
2. Activities designed to demonstrate the most effective methods

and techniques in career education in such settings as the

senior high school, the community college, adult and community

education agencies, and institutions of higher education.

3. Activities designed to demonstrate the most effective methods

and techniques in career education for such special segments

of the population as handicapped, gifted and talented,

minority and low income youth, and to reduce sex stereotyping

in career choices.

4. Activities designed to demonstrate the most effective methods

and techniques for the training and retraining of persons for

conducting career education programs.

5. Activities designed to communicate career education

philosophy, methods, program activities, and evaluation

results to career education practitioners and to the general

public.

6. Projects for development of State plans for implementation of

career education in the local educational agencies of the

States, under the provision of Subpart C of 45 CFR

Part 160d.

These activities were significant in moving career education beyond the

research and development phase to demonstrating its efficacy and to planning

for comprehensive statewide implementation.

A second important event in 1974 was the adoption by the U.S. Office of

Education of an "official" policy paper that defined career education as ". .

. the totality of experiences through which one learns about and prepares to

engage in work as part of her or his way of living

.,24 Even though dozens of

definitions had been proposed for career education prior to 1974, this

definition represented a concensus that helped to unite' many disparate

constituencies, and to clarify the relationship between career education and

-vocational education.

The enactment of the Career Education Incentive Act (P.L. 95-207) on

December 13, 1977 gave further credence to career education's importance, and

laid the foundation for nationwide implementation. This act provided a

live-year, $325 million authorization to assist states and local educational

--Algencies ". . in making education as preparation for work and as a means of

relating work values to other life roles and choices (such as family life), ,a
major goal of all who teach and all who learn . . . H25

Payments to local

educational agencies may be used for:

1. Instilling career education concepts

classroom. and approaches in the

2. Developing and implementing comprehensive career guidance, counseling, placement, and follow-up services.

3. Developing and implementing collaborative relationships with organizations representing the handicapped, and women. minority groups

4. Developing and implementing work experiences whose primary for students purpose is career exploration.

5. Training of local career education coordinators.

6. Providing inservice education for educational personnel.

7. Conducting

educational agencies.

institutes for members of boards of local

8. Purchasing instructional materials and supplies.

9. Establishing

councils.

and operating community career education

10. Establishing and operating career education resource centers.

11. Adapting, reviewing, and revising local plans.

12. Conducting needs assessments and evaluations.

Even though. Congress has failed to appropriate full-funding under the legislation (about 40 percent of authorization), thousands of local education agencies have nonetheless been aided in initiating new.or augmenting existing

career education programs.

Implications for this Review

Brief as it may be, this discussion of major historical developments and federal legislation in the fields of vocational education, career guidance and counseling, and career educatton provides a background and point of departure from which to review the'literature on career iaformstion, guidance and job

seeking skills. Two points should be kept in mind: (a) research and practice
in the various work-education fields are evolving at such a rate that the

state of the art becomes rapidly antiquated, and (b) a short project of the

duration of this contract can only hope to capture a sample (hopefully a

representative one) of a much more comprehensive body of literature.

15
CHAPTER TWO

FACILITATING THE SCHOOL-TO-WORK

TRANSITION

After nearly two decades of concerted efforts to improve the various

means by which individuals make the transition from school to work, there has

accumulated an extraordinarily large body of literature on theory, research

and practice. This chapter will examine a cross-section of such literature in

an effort to determine what forms of institutional collaboration and what

structural arrangements are the more effective. Emphasis will be given to

secondary literature soruces and literature summaries and evaluations.

Lessons from Experience

A number of excellent books and monographs addressing the subject of

,school-to-work transitions are available,

e.g., From School to Work: Improving the Transition26

, Rite of Passe e: The. Crisis of Youth's Transition from School to Work27

The Boundless Resource: A Prospectus for an Education-Work Policy28 and

The Lingering Crisis of Youth Unemployment, . Hang= in a monograph entitled

Career Education,a mn ensive-Employment,and. Training Act analyzes these four publications and-more than 30 others in an.effort'to explai ". . what has seemed to work reasonably ,well, and what not so well in

school-related manpower program efforts on behalf of disadvantaged youth

." Following in'abbreviated form are his conclusions.

Relatively Ineffective Program Strategies

. Attempts- to Return. Dropouts t Traditional Schools

t K atVil4t1:'521' tuf
The problems faced by near-poor youth are virtually

indistinguishable from those facing economic disadvantage, and

experience shows that program effectiveness improves when prograis

are not too highly segregated or participants too indelibly

labelled.

3. Programs of Complete Remediation and Comprehensive Services

Individualized, comprehensive treatment programs seldom work

well, and often do not appear to work at all. The national

experience with Job Corps demonstrates the uncertain effectivess of

complete remediation.

4. Programs Consisting Only of In-School and Summer Work

Experience

Work experience by itself has no appreciable effect on the

employability of enrollees. Positive results were achieved only

when work experience was directly relevant to a post-program job.

5. The Work Incentive Program (WIN)

It would be a mistake to assume, that WIN as currently

organized can reasonably be expected to prepare any large portion

of the youngest clientele to compete successfully in the labor

market.

6. Program of Intensive Counseling

Counseling in manpower programs has generally produced little

success in solving problems not directly related to work;

contingency management and behavior modification systems using

rewards and other tokens have been flashy in the short run,-but

generally ineffective over a sustained period of time.

7. Vocational Education or Other Strategies That Isolate Youth

From Life Experiences

Vocational skill training has positive effects on

employability, but only in limited circumstances. While skill

training is an important tool, it seldom solves difficult problems

by itself.

8. Programs Seeking to Refine School-to-Work Transition

Mechanisms

Sponsors of transition services often imbue them with magical

powers they simply do not have. By themselves, transition services

cannot offset deficiencies in educational systems or differences in

young peoples' abilities, characteristics, and backgrounds.

9. Rural Programs Consisting of Work Experience and Visitation to

Urban Areas

17

31
None of the DOL rural youth literature reveals a single instance of a program that worked successfully, either in terms of empirical evidence or subjective reasoning.

B. Programs and Services of Demonstrated Effectiveness

1. Increasing the Levels of Education Attainment

Practically every study available on this subject indicates that success in the workplace is directly and inseparably related to the level of education attained. Race combined with low educational attainment is associated with the most severe labor market maladjustment.

2. Work Experience Relevant to Vocational Objectives

Only when work experience was directly related to post-program jobs were positive effects noted. The clear implication is that rather than becoming to an end unto itself, work experience should provide exposure to different kinds of work to help the individual decide what he or she wants to do. Very few positive results have been shown by work experience programs anywhere in working with the most severely maladjusted.

3. Increasing the Extent. of Labor Market Information and

World-of-Work Understanding

The more a young person knows about the world -of- work,, the higher his or her wages and occupational status are likely to be. Programs of labor market information, aimed at the disproportionately large segments of black youth with meager labor market knowledge, may be a useful instrument for equalizing opportunity.

4. Programs Offering Career Education and Labor Market Exposure

Impressive national results appear to be accumulating in the area of programs designed for the specific purpose of providing labor market exposure and career education through a series of

temporary assignments to a variety of work situations.

5. Vocational Training and Counseling

The available body of information fails to produce evidence that vocational training and counseling in and of themselves produce long-term benefits in the market place. However, there is not complete agreement on the subject, and several authorities note that these activities, when conducted in combination with other youth services, are often associated with positive outcomes.
6. Program Strategies to Improve Individuals' Coping Skills

From the entire body of available information, it appears that

the single most important variable in determining success in work

and life adjustment is the acquisition of behavioral traits that

enable youth to interact, grow, and function within formal or

informal social groups--such things as developing and executing,

plans, working with others, controlling impulses, processing and

interpreting information, communicating, problem solving, and

working with an authority structure. These are often called

"coping skills."

7. Experiencing Rewards for Accomplishments

Throughout the youth literature, there runs a consistent

thread of evidence that successful outcomes are often associated

with programs that allow young persons to experience the intangible

but very important rewards of being a part of something larger and

of contributing to its successful accomplishment.

8. Public Service Employment

The experience of Emergency Employment Act funded

"transitional" employment in the early 1970s proved that young

people in public service jobs made significant gains in the labor

market, especially when skill development was included as part of

the job experience. The major limitation of PSE as an effective

program strategy, however, is that available resources cannot reach

more than a small percentage of the unemployed population.

Effective Forms of Collaboration and Other Structural Arrangements

The analysis above by Mangum provides evidence of general program

characteristics that seem to be effective in facilitating school-to-work

transitions. This section contains descriptions of specific programs and

services. Tables 2 and 3 provide insight into forms of collaboration and

structural linkages that have proven effective in actual operation. The

programs cited in Table 3 are particularly unique in that they received

funding from multiple sources. In all, twenty-five different sources were

mentioned with CETA (12 times) and vocati9nal education (9 times) being the

more common. Insight into other programs and additional forms of collaboration may be gained by reading Job Strategies for Urban Youth: Sixteen

- Pilot Programs for Action

31

, "Community Resources for Career Education32

,

. Youth Program Models and Innovations

33

, Education and Training Programs for,

Youth: What Works Best for Whom?

34

, Education for Employment: Knowledge

for Action35

, and Brid in the Ga A Stud of Education-to-Work Link es36

. 19

33
TABLE 2

EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS THAT WORK

Project

Clientele

Description

Alternate learning Project,

Providence, Rhode Island

high school students A community-based alternative to

traditional school, with emphasis on

basic skills, career education,

performance-based graudation, and

parent and student participation.

2. Career Intern Program, High school dropouts and A three phase

Philadelphia, program involving a Pennsylvania potential dropouts mixture of academic and carter

education (phase one), individualized

instruction and on-site exploration

(phase two), and placement into

college, OJT, advanced skill training or employment (phase three).

Counseling support is provided

throughout.

3. Environmental Career-Oriented 12 students,

The infusion.of

Learnini, Seattle, ecological concepts, Washington .teachers and staff

career information, and future

understanding into the learning

world of children by utilizing a formatthat requires no major change

in the existing learning climate.

4, ECOS Training Institute,

Yorktown Heights, New York

IR 34

teams of 142 teachers,

administrators, and

community representatives

A program offering workshops designed

to assist diverse local school

districts to infuse environmental

or career education components into

their curriculum
!able' (cont.)

Project Clientele Description

Experience-Based Career Education,

Appalachia Education Laboratory,

Charleston, Vest Virginia

Experience-Based Career Education,

Northwest Regional Educational

Laboratory, Portland, Oregon

Experience-Based Career Education,

Far West Laboratory, San

Francisco, California

Functional Literacy,

Carmel, California

Lincoln County Exemplary

Project in Career Education

Hamlin, Vest Virginia

high school students

Secondary or postsecondary students

(grades 7-14)

high school students,

adaptable to special

target groups

grades 6-12 and adult

K-12 students and

dropouts

Learning about and exploring career

options through experience in a

community setting.

A full-time alternative operated as

a separate,program for the traditional

school (even offi;campus), or can be

operated as an inschool option to

supplement. or extend traditional

instruction.

An alternative program using the

entire community as a school emphasizing direct experience in a wide

variety of real-life settings.

An educational program of task-related/

functional-literacy training for regular

and remedial classes, vocational

education,,idult education, and adult

basic edication.

A program for improving 'a rural area

school program with expanded career,

edicational services by utilizing

comprehensive career-orientation

and exemplary activities.

37
Table 2 (cont,)

Project Clientele Description

10, Needs and Objectives for

Bind Advancement and

Development, Lawrence, Michigan

K-12 students, young

adults, and total

families

11. Occupational and Career develop. X-12 students

sent, Marietta, Georgia

12, Occupational Versatility,

Tempe, Arizona

13 Readings, Relevancy and

Reinforcement, San Jose,

California

14, Experience-Based Career

Education, Research for

Better Schools, Philadelphia,

Pennsylvania

as

middle and junior high

school students

grades 7.9

grade 9.12 students,

teachers, school/ . community groups

A School Year Tutorial Program, a Summer Educatior Program, and a Family Unit Program designed to meet

the special needs of migrant students through individualized

instruction, including career

awareness and prevocational programs.

A sequential career education program

focusing on awareness, exploration,

and preparation.

An exploratory, pre-vocational

experience for all students in a general, multiple-activity industrial

arts laboratory.

A motivational basic-skill program

that interrelates the reading and

mathematics curricula through

gaming/simulation activities

involving career awareness.

A program of inquiry and planning

that integrates school and colillunity

experiences to help students develop

life goals, career choices, and

post - secondary` plans,

39
in the various work-education fields are evolving at such a rate that the

state of the art becomes rapidly antiquated, and (b) a short project of the

duration of this contract can only hope to capture a sample (hopefully a

representative one) of a much more comprehensive body of literature.
TABLE 3

TWENTY-TWO MULTI-FUNDED WORK

AND SERVICE EDUCATION PROJECTS

Project

Clientele

01.~M.m141.M.,.

1. Center for Yublic Affairs Service

Learning, Indiana Dniver4ity.,

Bloomington, Indiana

2, Executive High School

Internships) New York City,

New York

3. Environmental Intern Prowl,

Lincoln, Massachusetts

4. Tuscon Skills Center,

Tuscon, Arizona

S. Work Experience for Juvenile

Offenders, Poplar Bluffs,

Missouri

6. Oenesco Migrant Center,

State University College

at Genesco, Nev York

7. Taki....±1...2W.Istortunities

Indust:id Council, Yakima,

Watington

Description

undergraduates and graduate Develop paid, internship positions

college' students with federal, State and local

Public agencies, and some private

enterprises,

high school students in

grades 11 and 12

high school and college

students between the ages

of 19 and 29

disadvantaged and

unemployed adults and

youth

juvenile offenders

referred by the courts

migrant farm worker

families

a mixed community of

whites, blacks, Native

Aiericant and

IndneChinese refugees

Internship programs for high school

students in 30 school districts in

18 states.

Places students as interns in public

and private agencies concerned with

environmental protection.

Provides institutional and on-the-job

training, counseling, and supportive

services to its enrollees.

A program to provide vocational

evaluation, career information,

counseling and work experience.

Direct and indirect basic sod

vocational education provided along

with a variety of other health

and supportive services.

Provides the gamut of employment

development services, including

pre -vocational.training, occupa4.onal

training, work education, and a °1-1 9E4

variety, of eupportive services.
Table 3 (cont.)

Project

A.m.Innsno Clientele Description

Work Education for the mentally retarded Comprehensive services provided to

Handicapped, Los Angeles, people of all ages the handicapped, including work

California education in the fields of gardening

and horticulture,

9. Oklahoma Skills Center, disadvantaged and Provides skill training and other

Oklahoma City, Oklahoma unemployed individuals manpower services, including work

education,

10, Adult Migrant Job Training

Program, Sarasota, Florida

11. Offender Aid and Restoration

Pr, Charlottesville,

.Virginia

ar

migrant farm-worker Vocational training to help migrants

families find permanent employment. Comprehensive support services (e.g.,

transportation, child care, legal aid,

health services) also provided.

adult city and county

jail inmates

12. Newark Manpower Training Skill disadvantaged unemployed

Center Newark, New Jersey and underemployed citizens

43

Recruits and trains citizen volunteers

to work on a oneto-one basis with

inmates performing all kinds of

personal and employment counseling.

Attempts are also made to place

ex-inmates in training positions,

work experience programs, and jobs.

Offers a full range of employment and

and development services -- outreach,

recruitment, counseling, supportive

services, remedial education, and

occupational training (including

pre-vocational training).

44
Table 3 (cont.)

Project

Clientele Description

13, Georgia Governor's Intern

Program, Atlanta, Georgia

14. Co-op Work Experience,

Denver, Colorado

4.111.INM

undergraduate and A program that combines internships

graduate college in the executive branch of State

students

government, state and local agencies,

the legislature, and public and

private non-profit organizations with

academic growth.

junior high school

potential dropouts

15. Project 70001,

high school dropouts

Wilmington, Delaware

Mixing work experience with regular

academic work and providing a training-related course as part

of the students' curricula.

A national organization promoted

by DECA which provides technical

assistance and other services to

local 70001 programs. Full-time

work experience in distributive

education is provided along with

GED instruction.

16. The Institute for Public

elementary, high school Marshal community resources to Affairs, Portland, Oregon .and college teachers support and promote career education

providi.internships for teachers of

career education.

17. Detroit Urban Corps, high school and college Provides off-campus work-study Detroit, Michigan

students

internships in city agencies and

non-profit corporations.

18. Training for the Blind,

visually impaired

unemployed adults

Classroom vocational training for, , transcribing machine operators aidl

a full range of support services.
6. Program Strategies to Improve Individuals' Coping Skills

From the entire body of available information, it appears that

the single most important variable in determining success in work

and life adjustment is the acquisition of behavioral traits that

enable youth to interact, grow, and function within formal or

informal social groups--such things as developing and executing

plans, working with others, controlling impulses, processing and

interpreting information, communicating, problem solving, and

working with an authority structure. These are often called

"coping skills."

7. Experiencing Rewards for Accomplishments

Throughout the youth literature, there runs a consistent

thread of evidence that successful outcomes are often associated

with programs that allow young persons to experience the intangible

but very important rewards of being a part of something larger and

of contributing to its successful accomplishment.

8. Public Service Employment

The experience of Emergency Employment Act funded

"transitional" employment in the early 1970s proved that young

people in public service jobs made significant gains in the labor

market, especially when skill development was included as part of

the job experience. The major limitation of PSE as an effective

program strategy, however, is that available resources cannot reach

more than a small percentage of the unemployed population.

Effective Forms of Collaboration and Other Structural Arrangements

The analysis above by Mangum provides evidence of general program

characteristics that seem to be effective in facilitating school-to-work

transitions. This section contains descriptions of specific programs and

services. Tables 2 and 3 provide insight into forms of collaboration and

structural linkages that have proven effective in actual operation. The

programs cited in Table 3 are particularly unique in that they received

funding from multiple sources. In all, twenty-five different sources were

mentioned with CETA (12 times) and vocational education (9 times) being the

more common. Insight into other programs and additional forms of collaboration may be gained by reading Job Strategies for Urban Youth: Sixteen

Pilot Programs for Action31

, "Community Resources for Career Education"32

, Youth Program Models and Innovations33

, Education and Training Programs for

Youth: What Works Best for Whom?34

, Education for Employment: Knowledge

for Action35

, and Brid in the Ga.: A Stud of Education-to-Work Links es36

19
Logical analysis of exemplary programs of the type contained in Tables 2

and 3 begins to illuminate

tating career development37

. the Committee for Economic

elements that contribute effectively to faciliBorrowing also from summaries by Mangum38 and

Development39

, the following list of 12 characteristics serves to encompass the more frequently cited structural

arrangements that best serve young people.

1. Basic Education. Central to preparing workers for meaningful

employment is a significant improvement in functional literacy

for both youths and adults.

2. Dropout prevention. Keeping youth in school and re-enrollment

of recent dropouts must be stressed. Alternative school

programs such as the Career Intern Program and

Experience-Based Career Education should be employed in lieu

of traditional school practices.

3. Integrating classroom and workplace. The most promising and

potentially far-reaching means of bringing schools, youths,

and the world of work closer together is through increasing

the ways in which the teenage years can become a time for

gaining experience through both schooling and working.

4. Combining career and academic education. The introduction of

a sequential career education program beginning at the

elementary school level holds promise of helping to prevent

later adjustment problems.

5. Career information, counseling, and placement. One way to

improve the link between school and work is to help overcome

the glaring inadequacies in guidance, counseling, and

placement services now available to young poeple.

6. Vocational education. Vocational education should be expanded

and updgraded and should be brought into closer contact with

the world of work and the specific needs of employers.

7. jultiple options. Not all youth are best served by being in

either formal education or regular jobs. The range of

opportunities and experiences provided by various Community

Based Organizations and those programs stimulated by

YEDPA legislation should be encouraged and expanded.

8. Affective and coping skills. Attitudes, values, and habits

related to work, self confidence, self discipline, problem

solving and analytical skills, interpersonal relations and

reactions to authority all should have priority over

occupational skills in preparation for employment.

48 28
.9. Job-seeking skills. Next to personal attributes,

understanding of the labor market and job-seeking skills are

usually the most important determinants of labor market

success.

10. Differentiated skill training. Careful analysis should

precede occupational skill training to determine which

occupations are best learned in the classroom, which on the

job, and which require no forward preparation. The answer may

differ for different groups. Classroom occupational training

should rarely occur for disadvantaged youth without a direct

placement tie into a job following training.

11. Heterogeneous grouping. Experience has demonstrated the error

of limiting enrollment in any program to the most

disadvantaged. There should be a mix which offers positive

peer influence and role models.

12. Community support. An effective attack on the problem of

school-to-work transition requires strong backing and close

collaboration among all major community elements. The

Work-Education Consortium of the National Manpower Institute

appears to be an especially promising model.

Thus, the essence of effective forms of collaboration and structural

arrangements that best serve young people is pluralism, with a sufficient

variety of foci, loci, and time lines to satisfy the needs of all. if there

is any one factor that influences success, it is probably the following:

. . . the quality and commitment of administrators and staff may

constitute the single most important variable influencing the

overall results of employment and training programs generally, and

youth programs in particular. And while the influence of program

administration is seldom treated in formal analyses of program

results, it nevertheless appears that strong leadership is a requisite to program success. In the entire history of federally

funded manpower programs, the one thing that most successful

programs have shared in common Inf the presence of competent,

enthusiastic, and informed leaders.

Public vs. Private Sector Programmatic Experience

Examples cited in the previous section provide evidence of substantial

effort (and apparent success) toward assisting youth in bridging the gap

between education and work. It begins to become intuitively clear that a well

planned approach to youth employment and training programs at the local level
would be designed to optimize the mix of: (a) school-based and non-school

programming; (b) private sector approaches for those who are "job ready"; and

(c) public sector programming for those who are not.

41

In general, educators have been the main initiators of efforts to better

link education and work. 42

As DeLone

43

notes, ". . . there are few examples

of successful programming (and consequently little programming 'lore') arqund

which to build private-sector-intensive youth employment and training

programs, other than those which are school-related. This is in part a

consequence of the predominantly public sector focus of past youth

programming."

As a result, greater understanding of the relative effectiveness of

private sector programmatic experience must await further demonstration and

testing of the type currently being carried out by the Corporation for

Public/Private Ventures. 44

This effort consists of five broad initiatives

designed to replicate models and programs that have already worked

Jobs - for - Youth, 70001 LTD) or are thought to be workable (e.g., Youth

Entrepreneurship).

30
CHAPTER THREE

LEARNING ABOUT AND SEEKING EMPLOYMENT

The process of learning about and preparing to engage in work can be

haphazard and random or systematic, informed and purposeful. Whic is the more

accurate characterization of the way young people approach work? This chapter

reviews a sampling of the literature related to ymith work values and

attitudes toward career planning; the extentof career information knowledge;

how and with whom young people interact in career planning; and, the

effectiveness of various educational approaches to facilitating career

development.

Work Values of Youth

One frequently.. reads or hears popular accounts about how young, people

have rejected the' notion of work. Serious injury, however, suggests a different: view. In 1974, Daniel Yankelovich reporteUionHa:itudy jointly

fundedby five major philanthropic foundations. 45 The etudywalvthelifth in

a series of research projects on AmericanyOUth thatjankelovich.bes carried

out since 1967. As such, it is one of the few.reporti of its type that offers

the benefit of a longitudinal perspective.46 The sample, was based on

3,522 one to. two-hour personal interviews with a cross-section of the

country's Youth population, age sixteen to twenty-five.

The most significant finding of the study was the extraordinary pattern

of change that occurred between the late 1960s and early 1970s. The study

shows in great detail effects of the diffusion of a set of New Values that

incubated on the nation's campuses in the 1960s and have since spread out to

the entire youth generation. Especially significant is Yankelovich's

observation that: ". . . we are amazed by the rapidity with which this

process is now taking place, by its complexity, and by the problems of

adaptation it poses to the institutions of the society." Briefly summarized

below are his major findings in relation to work and career.
There has been a steady increase in traditional career

aspirations on campus, such as the desire to get ahead, to find

economic security, and to enjoy careers which provide opportunities

for both money and greater self-expression and self-fulfillment.

The size of the career-minded group of college students has

steadily grown over the past six years.

Even as college students are pausing to consolidate their

views and values and to synthesize them with traditional career

goals, they can see evidence all around them that the desire for

personal self-fulfillment and the desire for a successful career

need not be incompatible.

A most striking finding of the study was the extent to which

the gap between college and non-college youth has closed. The

research shows, to an almost uncanny degree, that non-college youth

today is just about where the college population was in 1969.

Social values with regard to work, money, and family are slowly

being transformed. And the same intangible conflict between

self-fulfillment and the economic security is spreading throughout

every group in the youth population.

Many non-college youth, including those working in blue-collar

jobs, have taken up the quest of their college peers for a new

definition of success. Certainly there is no indication that young

workers are willing to sacrifice economic gains for

self-fulfillment. The change that appears to be occurring is the

emphasis on rewards that go beyond economic security.

Young working people, regardless of the nature of their work,

say they are ready to work hard. They do not shirk from physically

hard work, and they are not worried about being asked to do more

than they do now.

The difference between the personal rewards and satisfaction

found at work by college-educated young people and blue-collar

workers point to one of the major disparities in our society. The

young blue-collar worker often brings to the job many of the same

desires for rewarding work that demand the use of his brains, full

resources, and creativity. However, unlike the young executive or professional, a job is often found to be just a way to kill time

and make a living.

The intensity and universality of the desire for more

education and training, undoubtedly one of the key findings of the

study, reflects the main strategy expressed by non-college youth

for dealing constructively with their present and future job

frustrations, and their readiness to do something positive about it

given the opportunity.

These data point to the conclusion that work which provides psychological

as well as economic benefits is as attractive to the nation's high school

32

52
graduates as to its college graduates. However, that the majority of

noncollege youthface the prospect of growing difficulties with their jobs

must be regarded as a matter of serious conce.

Attitudes Toward Career Planning

The desire of young people for more information and assistance in career

planning is reported by a number of studies. In a national survey of

approximately 32,000 students enrolled in 200 schools, Prediger, Roth and

Noeth48

found that 73 percent of grade eight and 79 percent of grade &even

students reported a perceived need for help in "making career plans." Parish,

Rosenberg and Wilkinson49

cite three studies relating to student needs for

career information:

In a survey sponsOred by the Department of Labor, Thal-Larsen

(1971) found that the majority of students surveyed wanted to know

more shout their chosen field. Thomas (1973) surveyed 2,100 New

Jersey students' career needs. He found that career information

was a -high priority. Kinnick (1974) surveyed the educational

information needs of high school students. She concluded that

student information needs far outdistanced available information..

The Annual Gallup Polls of Attitudes Toward Education provide evidence

that the general public also acknowledges the need for greater attention to

career planning. The 1973 poll showed that 90 percent of respondents answered

yes to the following questions: "Should public schools give more emphasis to

a study of trades, professions, and businesses to help students decide on

their careers?"50

A related question asked in 1971 revealed that 60 percent

of respondents agreed that ". . . too much emphasis is placed in the high

schools on preparing students for college and not enough emphasis on preparing

students for occupations that do not require a college degree51.

Knowledge of Career Information

Much of the rationale for the current interest in education-work programs

is based on evidence that youth lack "adequate" knowledge of career information. The findings of nine studies are reported by Parish, Rosenberg and

Wilkinson: 52

33
The Manpower Administration (DOL) conducted a career information survey of several hundred thousand fifteen- to

eighteen-year-olds enrolled in high. schools in 1969. Results

showed that students scoring low on the occupational information

test outnumbered high scorers almost seven to one. Prediger, Roth,

and Noeth (1973), in the previously mentioned ACT study, found that

less than 50 percent of eleventh graders and approximately

40 percent of eighth graders answer correctly only one-half to

three-fourths of the questions related to occupational knowledge.

The 1976 National Assessment of Education Programs study

(NAEP) was conducted to determine occupational knowledge of

thirteen-and seventeen-year-old high school students. Results

surprisingly showed about 75 percent correct response to

occupational knowledge questions.

The State of Texas Education Agency (1976) surveyed the career education needs of students in their State. They found that

knowledge of occupations ranked lowest of eight factors in career

decision-making. Parnes and Kohen (1973), in a national study of

high school dropouts, found a high lack of information about salary

and educational requirements for occupations. Kohen and Breenich

(1975) developed a test to analyze the amount of occupational

information known, and administered it to five thousand men, ages

fourteen to twenty-four. They found that most subjects only had

adequate knowledge of salary information and that white males knew

more about occupations than black males. Laner (1971) surveyed

high school students' needs for labor market information in career

decision-making and found that two-thirds of the students reached

decisions about their careers with the absence of appropriate

information about jobs and careers.

Krueger (1975) reviewed the knowledge of outlook projections

for seven occupational clusters with high school students in

Nevada. He simply asked students to rank the clusters according to

demand for workers. Results showed that students' knowledge was not significantly different from what would have been expected by

chance.

The American Insitute for Research in the Behavioral Sciences

conducted a five-year longitudinal study on the career development

of 108,000 youth (Flanagan, 1973). Among other results, they found

statistically significant relationships between an occupational

information test score and (1) average hourly earnings and

(2) occupational status.

Perceptions by vocational educators concerning labor market problems of

high school graduates seem to agree with what previous studies have measured

directly. About half of the sample of 69 vocational educators surveyed by

Garbin, Campbell, Jackum and Feldman53 believed that youths frequently have

unrealistic aspirations and expectations toward job requirements and salaries.

54 34
In addition, over 40 percent of respondents attributed labor market problems

of youth to (among other things) "lack of knowledge of the real demands of

work." Similar findings indicating little understanding of concepts of

success and achievement are reported by Lashner and Snyderman54 in a study of

450 high school dropouts from a North Philadelphia ghetto.

Parnes and Kohen55 offer persuasive evidence of considerable variation in

the extent of occupational information according to demographic and social

characteristics. A national sample of young men 14 to 24 years of age was

administered a test of occupational information. Data were analyzed

separately for those in school, those out of school and, within each group for

blacks and whites. There was a substantial relation for students between

grade level and occupational fnformation (i.e., seniors scored about

two-thirds of a standard deviation higher tgan freshmen.) For those out of

school, occupational information was strongly related to education attainment

and, to a lesser degree, years in the-labor market since leaving school. For

all sub-groups, extent of labor market information was found to bear strong

positive relationships to socioeconomic status and measured intelligence.

Urban youth scored higher than rural youth in all subgroups. Finally, when

all of the other factors were controlled, white youth scored consistently

higher than black youth on extent of occupational information.

Assistance with Career Planning

The need for assistance with career planning appears to be in sharp

constrast to the help youth actually receive. The Predinger, Roth, and

Noeth56

study for ha showed that half of the 11th graders, and slightly more

8th graders, state they have received little or no help with career planning.

Since 84 percent of 11th graders said they can usually or almost always see a

counselor when they want to the lack of help with career planning apparently

isn't due to the unavailability of school counselors. The implication is (for

whatever reason) that many counselors simply are not providing help with

career planning and, as a result, students do not expect or request help.

With whom then do youth consult in the process of making educational and

occupational decisions? Data from the ACT study57 are summarized in Table4.

35
The table shows over 90 percent of the 11th graders indicate that they have

discuiSed their occupational choices with a parent, relative, or guardian.

More conventional career guidance activities, however, are utilized considerably less. The breadth of evidence indicates that a substantial number

of 11th graders have had little involvement in formal career planning at a

time when major decisions are becoming' imminent.

As part of the National Assessment of Education Progreps, 58 a sample of

17 year olds was asked to indicate persons with whom career plans have been

discussed at least once. Again, parents are the most fLaquently listed

category (62 percent), followed by peers (3a percent), school counselors

(35 percent), teachers (14 percent), and other adults (14 percent). But,

seventeen year olds in school were less likely to have talked to a parent than

those still in school 34 percent compared to 64 perceat.

Similar patterns are found in relation to educational decision making.

In a study of over 30,000 high school seniors in four states, Tillery59

reports that of those who considered college, the most frequently cited

sources of advice about choice of colleges were: parents (43 percent),

counselors (22 percent), other students (16 percent), teachers (10 percent),

and college admissions officers (9 percent).

The above studies describe whom youth consult with in making choices

about occupations and college. A 1973 Bureau of Labor Statistics study cited

by Mangum60

illustrates typical methods employed in a job search. Responses

of over ten million wage and salary workers who sought work sometime in 1972

are summarized in Table 5. Two-thirds applied directly to employers, one-half

inquired among friends, and about one quarter asked relatives. For those who

actually attained a job, one-third did so through direct application to

employers. Public and private employment services were less used and much

less effective than direct means.

Job-seeking behavior, however, is much more complex than Table 5

suggests. A more analytical treatment is provided in a special report of the

National Commission for Manpower Policy61 entitled Labor Market Intermediaries. See especially Stevens' paper on "A Reexamination of What Is Known

53 36
TABLE 4

SUMMARY OF RESPONSES TO SELECTED CAREER PLANNING INVOLVEMENT QUESTIONS

Typical Activities

A. Activities related to students'

let two occupational choices

1. Discussed the jobs with a

parent, relative, or guardian

2. Talked with workers in the jobs

about how they came to be in

the jobs.

3. Talked with a counselor or

teacher about how my goals,

interests, and abilities

relate to the jobs.

B. Activities related to career plans

in general

4. Discussed, in class, jobs

related to the subject we

were studying.

5. Took a course in school that

studied several different

types of jobs.

6. Read a job description from

the school library or guidance

office job files.

7. Took a tour through a local

industry, business, hospital,

or office to observe what the

various jobs were like.

8. Attended a "job fair" or

"career day" where workers

talked about jobs.

9. Took part in an actual or a

practice job interview.

Response

Option

Grade 8 Grade 11

%JM SF %Tot. lati SF %TO.

A 19 14 17 11 6 9

B 38 36 37 32 23 28

C 43 50 47 56 71 63

A 49 52 50 43 40 41

B 36 35 36 36 39 37

C 15 13 14 21 22 22

A 63 65 64 46 38 42

B 28 26 27 37 39 38

C 9 9 9 17 23 20

A 33 32 33 25 20 23

B 48 48 48 47 49 48

C 19 20 19 28 31 30

A 71 80 76 66 70 68

B 22 16 19 26 23 25

C 7 4 5 8 7 7

A 60 62 61 44 36 40

B 28 28 28 37 37 37

C 12 10 11 19 27 23

A 32 37 34 41 42 41

B 47 44 46 42 43 42

C 21 18 20 17 16 16

A 78 82 80 67 63 65

B 17 14 16 24 26 25

C 5 3 4 9 10 10

A 75 80 78 55 54 55

B 18 15 17 31 34 32

C 6 4 5 14 12 13

A. No, I haven't done this OR the time I spent on this is not worth mentioning.

B. Yes, I have dine this but only once or twice.

C: Yes, I have done this several times.

Source: Prediger, Roth and Noeth, 1973, p. 17.

37
TABLE 5

METHODS USED TO SEEK AND FIND WORK

(1972)

Job Search Job Finding

Method Number Percent Number Percent

TotalliNrisands) 10,437 100.0% 10,437 100.0%

Applied directly to employer 66.0 34.9

Asked friends:

About jobs where they work 50.8 12.4

About jobs elsewhere 41.8 5.5

Asked relatives:

About jobs where they work 28.4 6.1

About jobs elsewhere 27.3 2.2

Answered newspaper ads:

Local 45.9 12.2

Nonlocal 11.7 1.3

Private employment agency 21.0 5.6

State employment agency 33.5 5.1

School placement office 12.5 3.0

Civil service test 15.3 2.1

Asked teacher or professor 10.4 1.4

Went to place where employers come

to pick up people 1.4 0.1

Placed ads in newspaper:

Local 1.6 0.2

Nonlocal 0.5 (a)

Answered ads in professional or

trade journals 4.9 0.4

Union hiring halls 6.0 1.5

Contact local organization 5.6 0.8

Placed ads in professional or

trade journals 0.6 (a)

Other 11.8 5.2

(a)Less than 0.05 percent

Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Jobseeking

Methods Used by American Workers, Bulletin 1886 (Washington, D.C.: U.S

Government Printing Office, 1975), pp. 4 and 7.

38
About Jobseeking Behavior in the United States," in which 34 studies spanning

the period 1937-1977 are reviewed.

Mangum

62

notes that reliance on informal methods of job search is not

irrational. Friends or relatives who work in an establishment are generally

more interested in the job seeker's welfare and more knowledgeable about job

quality. Applying directly to an employer may open up a job for which no

vacancy exists.

Wegmann

63

provides evidence that job-finding is a highly teachable/

learnable skill. He describes three programs that successfully help persons

unemployed for substantial periods of time to obtain jobs within a few weeks.

A number of elements typically found in job-search assistance programs seems

to be keys to their success:

1. One principle of an effective program is that it provides a structure that defines looking for a job as itself a full-time

job, to be worked at eight hours a day, five days a week.

2. Another key to success is that the group nature of these

programs provides the social support necessary to sustain a

continued effort.

3. While continued effort is important, that effort is much more

likely to lead to success if it is well placed. These

programs, therefore, stress direct approaches to potential

employers.

4. There is intense preparation for the employment interview.

Interview situations are role-played and often videotaped so that they can be played back and critiqued.

5. All of this takes place in an atmosphere as deliberately

upbeat as possible. This helps to generate the inner

confidence and positive attitudes that themselves contribute

to successful job interviews.

Importantly, job-search assistant programs such as these

(i.e., "job-finding club", "Job Factory", and "Self-Directed Placement

Corporation") represent new directions for DOL funded projects. The

preparation and dissemination of "Guidelines and Considerations for CETA Prime

Sponsors"

64

that is designed to help foster a bvoader range of career

39
information, counseling and information services under CETA programs is

another significant DOL initiative worth noting.

Effectiveness of Various Approaches to Providing Career Information

A steadily increasing number of projects, curricula, and guidance and

counseling approaches are being used to disseminate career information solely

or as part of a more comprehensive program. A 1979 publication entitled

Career Information: Resources, Applications, and Research 1950-1979 by

Parish, Rosenberg and Wilkinson provides an impressive review of the

effectiveness of various approaches including: career education projects,

career information units or courses, methods of disseminating career information, effects of career information on special groups, and computerized

and other technical career information systems (see Tables 6, 7 and 8.)

Suffice it here to only include the summary and conclusions from the review

and to recommend to the reader a thorough study of the document. 65

1. Federal and state legislation, and funding for career information and related projects has increased significantly

over the past ten years. Future funding apparently will

remain high.

2. School age students' expressed need for career information is

high while knowledge of information, at this time, is low.

3. Career information publications, both commercial and

non-commercial in a variety of formats, are increasingly

abundant. Many questions of impact, quality, and usage remain

to be answered.

4. Different methods of presenting career information have been

evaluated in outcome studies. The most conclusive impact on

students is knowledge gained about occupations. Some

long-term practical benefits of received occupational

information have also been found. Methods of presenting

information which are innovative or experimental are more

effective than lectures or written materials alone.

5. Computerized and other technical career information systems

are developing at a rapid pace and are becoming primary means

of providing career information in some areas. Statewide

usage of these systems has been supported by federal and state

legislation. Most of the systems are interactive and provide

localized, updated information about occupations, training,

and outlook. Some of the systems incorporate guidance

functions such as decision-making training.

60 40
TABLE 6

SELECTED STUDIES OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF OCCUPATIONAL .UNITS OR COURSES

SOURCE

Chambela

(1968)

Cherdack

(1914)

Cuony &

Hoppock

(1954)

Cuony &

Noppock

(1951)

POPULATION SAMPLE

SAMPLED SIZE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE(S) DEPENDED VARIABLE(S) RESULTS

9th grade 98 guidance unit shift in occupational choice experimental>control

V8

control

knowledge of occupations no difference between

groups

9-12 grade 60 occupational models on knowledge of occupations experimental>control

disadvantaged videotape (self-report) VI traditional counseling

(control)

12th grade 10 course or job

orientation and

occupations

VS

control group

Darcy) 9 -12 grade

Kaufman & (N.A.)*

Miller

Devalt 11th grade 62

(1963)

course on world of work

VI control

career planning unit

V8

control

one year follow-up

job satisfaction experimental >control

earnings experimental>control

five year follow-up

job satisfaction experimental>control

earnings experimental>control

# weeks employed experimental>control

five year follow-up

wages earned no difference between

groups

realism of choice experimental>control

(continued)

*N.A. means that the data were not available when the review of the literature was conducted.

61 62
EFFECTIVENESS OF OCCUPATIONAL UNITS -- 2

POPULATION SAMPLE SOURCE SAMPLED SIZE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE(S)

AIYMMOMIV Emerson 9.12 grade

(1966)

DEPENDENT VARIABLE(S) RESULTS MNIMs.1.10.

occupational information

(N.A.) class

prepost

Eversoll 11th grade 201

(1911) males

Freeland

(1975)

12th grade

Navajo

Indians

Gorman 11th grade

(1956) males

industrial arts careers information

Vs control

117 career information unit

(5 hour)

prepost

124 classroom unit on

occupations

VI

control

Guerra 9th grade 60

(1963) males

Hamdani

(1974)

10th grade

disadvantaged (N.A.)

occupations unit

vs

control

career awareness

curriculum

Vs control

percentage of group 70% percent before

treatment

making career decisions 82% percent after

attitude toward industrial

arts occupations experimental > control

knowledge of occupations ,experimental > control

information seeking behavior experimental > control

occupational choide no significant change

knowledge of occupations significant gain

change in vocational

preference

concern over problem areas

realism of choice

experimental > control

experimental > control

no difference between

groups occupational knowledge experimental > control

study habits no difference between'

group

vocational maturity experimental > control

information seeking behavior experimental > control

(continued)

64
EFFECTIVENESS OF OCCUPATIONAL UNITS -- 3

POPULATION SAMPLE

SOURCE SAMPLED SIZE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE(S) DEPENDENT VARIABLE(S) RESULTS

Hill 9th grade 602 one semester class in realism of choice experimental ) control

(1965) occupational information stability of choice experimental ) control

VI control

Hurwitz & 11th grade information unit on status of chosen occupations. .boys > girls

White (N.A.) opportunities for women

(1917) boys

VS

girls

Lawson & 11th & 12th 313 videotape presentation student reaction "majority of responses

Bancroft grade of occupations counselor reaction were favorable"

(1966)

Leonard 10th & 11th 26 career course realism of choice "considerable change

(1961) grade low pre-post change of plans choices"

achievers

Nichol 9th grade 140 small group career vocational maturity.,....no difference between

(1969) discussion

groups

VI

control

Poltkin 9-12th grade occupational information

(1966) low ability (N.A.) classes

males vs ' control

63

vocational interest patterns no difference between

groups

66

(continued)
EFFECTIVENESS OF OCCUPATIONAL UNITS -- 4

POPULATION SAMPLE

SOURCE SAMPLED SIZE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE(S) DEPENDENT VARIABLE(S) RESULTS

Robertson 9.12 grade classroom unit

(1910) vocational (N.A.) vs agriculture & control

horticulture

Salas 9.12 grade

(1976) Black students (N.A.)

structured career

orientation program Vs

control

Schmeiding 11th & 12th 78 occupations information & Jensen grade vs

(1968) American control

Indians

Stugart 9.12 grade

(1970) Minority (N.A.)

students

Toporowaki 12th grade 300

(1961j non-academic

interests:

intensity

clarity

change

consistency

no difference between

groups

changes in expressed

interests

no difference between

groups

vocational maturity no difference between

groups vocational tenacity no difference between

groups occupational information information seeking experimental > control

through modeling behavior

VA

control

occupations unit 3 month follow-up

VS interests no difference between

control

groups occupational information no difference between

groups independence in choice experimental > control

more money experimental > control

job satisfaction experimental > control

furthering education no difference between

groups percentage employed experimental > control

(continued)

.
EFFECTIVENESS OF OCCUPATIONAL UNITS -- 5

SOURCE

Tripp

(1974)

POPULATION SAMPLE

SAMPLED SIZE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE(S) DEPENDENT VARIABLE(S) RESULTS

9-12 grade 120 occupational unit on

construction occupations

VS

control West 9.12 grade 97 (1967) Black

students

Witczak

& Ehlers

(1970)

career guidance with

occupation information

vs

control

10th grade 60 occupational information

and field trips

(post questionnaire)

Wixom 9th grade 145 occupation unit

(1963) (post questionnaire)

Wolf 11th & 12th

(1966) grade

296 unit on agricultural

occupations

vs control

Source: Parish, Rosenberg and Wilkinson, 1979, Appendix A.

69

knowledge of construction no difference between

occupations groups

interests experimental > control

occupational knowledge no difference between

groups

estivate of ability no difference between

to do job groups

self-reported

awareness, "gains reported

attitude by participants"

realism

three year follow-up

change in career choice 34% change

occupational aspirations no difference between

scale groups

70
TABLE

STUDIES COMPARING DIFFERENT METHODS OF DISSEMINATING OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION

POPULATION SAMPLE

SOURCE SAMPLED SIZE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE(S) DEPENDENT VARIABLE(S) RESULTS

p.psen 9th grade 262

(1912) rural

Johnson,

Korn, &

Duna

(1975)

Jones &

krumboltz

(1910)

Laramore

(1911)

M.

written and videotapes

1) of field trips

VS

2) written

9.12th grade 58 1) slide-tape & audio

reluctant vs

2) written

VS

control

10th grade 210 problem solving film

1) active participation

with film

2) problem solving

3) passive

occupational knowledge 1 > 2

information test. 1 > 2

attitudes 1 > 2

expressed interest experimental > control

inventoried interest experimental > control

attitudes experimental > control

exploratory behavior no difference between

groups 1 and 2

9th grade 110

controls

4) traditiotal film

5) written specific

information

6) written general

information

7) filler film

1) speakers

VS

2) slide-tape

Vs

3) written

occupational information 2 > 3

intent to explore informatiml : 2 > 3

actual information no difference between

seeking behavior groups

(continued)
DISSEMINATING OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION -- 2

SOURCE

POPULATION SAMPLE

SAMPLED SIZE INDEPENDENT VARIABLES) DEPENDENT VARIABLE(S) RESULTS

MacDonald 12th grade 129

(1972)

Miller

(1953)

9.12th grade 99

Nowakowski 9.12th grade

(1974) girls

Petersen

(1971)

1) videotape

V8

2) slides and videotape

Vs

3) control

1) films & discussion

2) field trips and

discussion

3) control

183 1) classroom instruction

2) group interaction

3) control

9th grade 170 1) video

Vs

2) audio

73

occupational information no difference between

groups student receptivity 2 > 1

occupational information 2 > 1 > 3

stability of occupation 2 > 1 > 3

choice

vocational maturity no difference between

° groups

2 > 1 .7. 3 no difference between

groups vocational concept . no difference betweeen

groups

vocational motivation

self-concept

vocational maturity no difference between

groups

attitude scale no difference between

occupational information

retention of information

groups

1 > 2

groups

no difference between

groups

74

(continued)
DISSEMINATING OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION -- 3

POPULATION SAMPLE

SOURCE SAMPLED SIZE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE(S) DEMENT MEWS) RESULTS .......11mOmm000l

Pilsto & 9.12th grade 139 1) computer feedback realise of choice 1 and 3 > 2

Myers on selfknowledge

(1975) vs

2) occupational class

system

vs

3) both of the above

Raskin 12th grade 115 1) information lecture change of plans 1= 2 > 3

(1968) girls vt

2) psychosocis: information vs

3) control

SLirsishi "Adolescents" 1) field trip & discussion partition level I > 2

(1975) Puerto Rican (N.A.) vs

2) work experience occupational choice 1 > 2 Smith 9.I2th grade 174 1) formal lecture change in interest no difference between

(1970) 2) group guidance

groups

3) control self-initiated

exploration no difference between

groups

(continued)

"iR
DISSEMIWATINO OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION -- 4

SOURCE

POPULATION SAMPLE

SAMPLED SIZI INDEPENDENT VARIABLE(S) DEPENDENT VARIABLE(S) RESULTS

Stilwell &

Thoreson

(1912)

Sturges

(1969)

Yungman

(1967)

10th grade 241

boys

!lexical:

American &

White

1) video modeling

(ethnic similarity &

dissimilarity) vs

2) reading a script &

listening

high school 210 1) unit with field

experience Vs

2) unit with textbook

12th grade 80

black

noncollege

1) written materials

Vs

2) tape recordings

vs

3) tape recordings and

photographs

VS

control

Source: Parish, Rosenberg and Wilkinson, 1979, Appendix B.

77

vocational inter_at no difference between

groups

informationseeking no difference between

behavior groups

vocational attitudes no difference between

groups (interaction)

occupational knowledge 1= 2

aspirations 1 = 2 all measures

attitudes 1: 2 showed gain for

importance of job 1 LI 2 both groups

factors

occupational information 3 > 2 =1 control

78
TAR

STUDIES EVALUATING CAREER INFORMATION SYSTEMS

SOURCE

Arnold

(1918)

POPULATION SAMPLE

SAMPLED SIZE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE(S) DEPENDENT VARIABLE(S) RESULTS

high school 183 CIS (Georgia)

Jr. college

college

McKinley 9.12th grade 500

& Adams

(1911)

Weick adults 267

(1912) Employment

Service

clientele

Ross Compaity

(1911) College

CIS (Oregon)

Vs

control

1) CIS (Oregon)

VS

2) manual

VS

3) traditional counseling

CIS (Oregon)

(N.A.) vs

traditional counseling

(control)

user reaction 96% easy to use

821 useful

87% helped in

decision making

861 sought additional

information

use 501 voluntary usage

knowledge of occupations experimental > control

career plans experimental > control

job planning 1= 2 > 3

client exploratory

activity 1: 2 > 3

satisfaction with

information 1.) 2 > 3

career planning control > experimental

career certainty control > experimental

time to obtain

information experimental > control

satisfaction no difference between

groups

(continued)
'

EVALUATING SYSTEMS - 2

POPULATION SAMPLE

SOURCE SAMPLED SIZE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE(S) DEPENDENT VARIABLE(S) RESULTS

Colorado disadvantaged 143 CIS (Colorado)

Career youth in workshop setting gain in needs and

values awareness

Information self/career-matching

System

awareness

(1918)

satisfaction majority positive

significant gain

significant gain

Denver 10.12th grade 150 CIS (Colorado). number of occupations

Public seen As options experimental > control

Schools information-seeking

(1979) behavior experimental > control

increase in number of

non - traditional careers experimental > control

Rosenberg college 96 1) CIS (Colorado) knowledge of occupational

(1978) students vs information

undecided 2) large career group, realism of choice

majors lecture va

3) combination of 1) & 2)

vs

4) control

deciding on a career/

major experimental > control

experimental > control

no difference between

groups

Wolff 10.12th grade 519 CIS (Colorado) change in preferred

(1916) and Vocation- occupation 70%

all Rehabil- certainty of preference 69%

itation adults satisfaction with CIS 91% positive

(continued)

81
EVALUATING SYSTEMS -- 3

POPULATION SAMPLE

SOURCE SAMPLED SIZE INDEPENDENT VARIABLES) DEPENDENT VARIABLE(S) RESULTS

Harris

(1916)

bola

& Kane

lea grade 131 CVIS

VS

control

10 -12thigrade 72

disadvantaged

vocational

1) CVIS

78

2) counselor-based

information

VS

3) control

lelhaus, 10th grade 108 CVIS

Hershenson high and low vs

& Vermillion ability

individual counseling

(1973)

Schroeder

and

/deo

(1915)

N3

10-12th grade CVIS

(N.A.)

number of occupations

no difference between

considered as options groups

'congruence (realism) .no difference between

groups

occupational information experimental > control

vocational maturity experimental > control

occupational information 1 > 2 ) 3

cheap 41. occupational

choice

interaction

low readiness

changed more with

counseling

satisfaction with no difference between

vocational choice groups

user satisfaction majority of positive

responses

(continued)
EVALUATING SYSTEMS -- 4

POPULATION SAMPLE

SOURCE SAMPLED SIZE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE(S) DEPENDENT VARIABLE(S) RESULTS

Smith & 10.12th grade 1168 CVIS user reaction majority said it was

Gimmestad interesting & helpful

(1915)

70 CVIS attitude of planfulness experimental > control

vs occupational information no difference between

control groups

vocational maturity experimental > control

Doerr 9-12th grade DISCOVER user satisfaction

(1979) (N.A.)

majority liked it, &

thought it was useful

Rayman, 7-12th grade 60 DISCOVER user satisfaction majority said it 04as

Bryson, & vs useful

Bowlsbey traditional guidance specification of plans experimental > control

(1978) occupational knowledge no difference between

groups

vocational maturity no difference between

groups

vocational exploratory no difference between

behavior groups

self-awareness no difference between,

groups

decision - making' skills no difference between

groups

(continued)

85'
EVALUATING SYSTEMS 5

SOURCE

POPULATION SAMPLE

SAMPLED SIZE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE(S) DEPENDENT VARIABLE(S) RESULTS

Savin

(1979)

James &

Smith

(1972)

Myers

(1972)

Drake)

Friel, &

Tyler

(1976)

87

9.12th grade 295 DISCOVER

11th grade ECES

disadvantaged (N.A.) vs

traditional counseling

(control)

10th grade 2245 ECES

vs

control

10th glide 1) Yas III

(N.A.) vs

2) ECES II

VS

student reaction

(two separate years)

1978 1919

recommend

to a

friend 91% 67%

like it

very much 73% 51%

very

helpful 56% .48%

career choice change

and certainty

control > experimental

decision-making ability control > experimental

considered

experimental > control

vocational maturity:

planning orientation experimental > control

use of resources

experimental > control

occupational information no difference between

groups

decision-making ability no difference between

groups

occupational knowledge... 1 > 2 and 3

decision-making skills 1 > 2 and 3

attitudes 1 > 2 and 3

information-seeking

behavior 1 > 2 and 3

(continued)
EVALUATING SYSTEMS -- 6

POPULATION SAMPLE

SOURCE SAMPLED SIZE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE(S) DEPENDENT VARIABLE(S) RESULTS

Chapman, community

Katz, Norris college

and Pears students

(1977)

SIGI

(N.A.) vs control

Federicksen co' unity 500 SIP,

(1918) college vs traditional counseling

(control)

Willinghain

(1970)

English

(1974)

89

10.12th grade 155 and

community

college

12th grade 150

SIGI

vs

control

1) VIEW

2) GIS

VS

3) control

user satisfaction 86-94 high ratings

decision-making ability experimental > control

awareness of career

satisfaction experimental > control

information seeking

behavior experimental > control

knowledge of chosen

occupation experimental > control

grade point average no difference between

groups attrition no difference between

groups student ratings no difference between

groups information about

occupation experimental > control

college information experimental > control

certainty of choice experimental > control

satisfaction with pians experimental > control

awareness of values .experimental > control

amount of information.., ,experimental > control

certainty of major experimental > control

vocational maturity... 1: 2 > 3

on certain subscales

90

(continued)'
EVALUATING SYSTEMS -- 7

POPULATION SAMPLE

SOURCE SAMPLED SIZE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE(S) DEPENDENT VARIABLE(S) RESULTS

Gerstein 9.12th grade 175 VIEI student opinion majority positive to VIM

& Hoover

v. vocational maturity experimental > control

(1969) control occupational knowledge experimental > control

Harris 10.12th grade 120 VIEW user satisfaction majority positive to VIEI

(1976) vs vocational maturity experimental > control

control

on two subscales

Link 9.12th grade 20 VIEW voluntary usage 601

11910) high

student satisfaction majority positive

schools

9-12th grade 1,765 VIEW

Nogle

(1972)

recognition of VIEW as source of information 141

use of VIEW 8%

student reaction majority positive

counselor & teacher

reaction majority positive

vocational choice status,,no difference between

groups Whitfield 9-11th grade 1,296 VIEW

information-seeking behavior.,no difference between

and

vs groups Glaeser control

awareness , no difference between

(1968) groups

Source: Parish, Rosenberg and Wilkinson, 1919, Appendix C.

92
6. Studies evaluating career information systems have shown a

majority of favorable student responses in :-.Apfulness, ease

of use, and quality of information provided. Impacts of the

use of these systems have been found in the voational maturity

attitudes, and exploratory behavior of students. Also, users

gain in their knowledge of occupations to a significant

extent.

7. Many excellent organizations and institutions are continuously

conducting research in career information. Since publications

often lag one/or two years behind completion of research,

interested ildividuals are encouraged to maintain contact with

the organizatt"ons previously mentioned.

8. It appears th career information research is lacking and

could be improve in the following ways:

A. Longitudinal studies need to be conducted to determine

the actualpractical benefits of career information

programs or s?stems, rather than just pure information

gain. Included among the criteria might be job

satisfaction, earnings, cr career stability.

B. Long-term retention of career information (e.g. one year

later) should be used as an outcome criterion more

frequently than immediate knowledge gained.

C. Career information research needs to be integrated with

career development (maturity) research to determine

optimum stages of readiness for using such information.

D. Further investigation of why career information has not

enhanced realism of choices needs to be conducted.

E. Effects of career information systems or programs need to

be factor analyzed for sex, volunteer versus compulsory

usage, adults versus school age students, and personality

factors.

F. Investigations into students' cognitive processing of

career information needs to be conducted. This will help

to determine what students do internally with the

information they receive.

5793
CRAFTER FOUR

NATIONAL OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION

COORDINATING COMMITTEE

The nature, comprehensiveness, and future potential of the National

Occupational Information Coordinating Committee (NOICC) and the State

Occupational Information Coordinating Committees (SOICCs) are such as to merit

separate attention iu this chapter. The following discussion is synthesized

from two recent NOICC publications. 66

Enabling Legislation

Four separatelegislative acts have been passed that specifically refer

to the NOICC and SOICCs. The first of these, the Education Amendments of

1976, (P.L. 94-482) establishes the NOICC in these words:

Section 161 (b) (1) - ". . . There is hereby established a National

Occupational Information Coordinating Committee which shall consist of the Commissioner (of Education), the Administrator (of the National Center for Education Statistics), the Commissioner of Labor Statistics, and the Assistant Secretary for Employment and Training."

And charges the NOICC with specific functions:

Section 161 (b) (1) - "This committee shall--

(A) in the use of program data and

coorindation between, and coMmuaication.

plannert( of programs .itUthoriZed: by

Comprehensive EaploYment and Trainint

security agengtadministratOtsreaearch

and training planning and Adminiiterinj

State, and locarleveli;

employment data, improve

among, administrators and

this Act and by the

Act of 1973, employment

personnel, and employment

agencies at the Federal,

(B) develop and implement. . . an occupational information system to meet the common occupational information needs of vocational education programs and employment and training 'programs at the National, State, and local levels, which system shall include data on occupational demand and supply based on-uniform definitions, standardized estimating procedures, and standardized occupational classifications, and
(C) assist State occupational information coordinating

committees . . ."

Additionally, the legislation pertaining to SOICCs states that:

. . . each State receiving assistance under this Act and under the

Comprehensive Employment Training Act of 1973 shall establish a

State Occupational Information Coordinating Committee composed of

representatives of the State board, the State Employment Security

Agency, the State Manpower Services Council, and the agency

administering the vocational rehabilitation program. This

committee shall, with funds available to it from the National

Coordinating Committee, implement an occupational information

system in the State which will meet the common needs for the

planning for, and the operation of, programs of the State board

assisted under this Act and of the administering agencies under the

Comprehensive Employment and Training Act of 1973."

Subsequent legislation has expanded the scope of NOICC 'and SOICC

activities. The Youth Employment and Demonstration Projects Act (YEDPA) of

1977 (P.L. 95-93), among other things, directs NOICC to respond to the

occupational information needs of unemployed youth. The third piece of

legislation to refer to the NOICC is The Career Education Incentive Act of

1977 (P.L. 95-207). Section 12(a) of this Act charges the Commissioner of

Education with cooperating and consulting with the NOICC in examining the

"occupational information needs of individuals and organizations eligible for

participation in programs assisted by this Act." Finally, The Comprehensive

Employment and Training Act (CETA) Amendments of 1978 (P.L. 55-524), which

superseded YEDPA, charges the NOICC with additional responsibilities

concerning the labor market information needs of youth.

Mandates and Wectives

Arising from the legislation are three broad mandates:

1. To Improve Communication and Coordination

The basic objective of the NOICC and the SOICCs is to foster

linkages and otherwise create a cooperative atmosphere among the users and

producers of occupational and related data. Activities will be directed

96"
primarily toward vocational education, vocational rehabilitation, and manpower

training planners and administrators. The NOICC is supporting SOICCs to meet

these objectives within the States.

2. To Develo' and I dement an Occu ational Information S stem OIS

The legislation specifies the purpose of an OIS but does little to

explain the specific information to be used and the manner in which an OIS is

to be developed and implemented. This mandate, therefore, has been expanded

into a series of objectives, the first of which defines an OIS and its basic

content. Another objective establishes a strategy for development and

implementation.

The NOICC will not be a primary data gathering agency but

principally will coordinate such efforts among its member agencies. The OIS

will consist of: the identified specific occupational and related information

or data elements developed through programs of NOICC/SOICC member agencies and

other agencies in the National, State, and local levels, as well as identified

procedures for the systematic assembly, analysis, and presentation of the

data. The NOICC is supporting SOICC activities concerning the implementation

of the OIS in the States.

The OIS development process will be multi-faceted to meet the needs of

various users and satisfy legislative requirements. Of necessity, the

development of an OIS will be a process with users' information needs being

better satisfied as system capabilities and resource expand. At the same

time that the OIS is being developed, the system will also be operational,

providing reliable and relevant information to a variety of user groups at

periodic intervals. This dual requirement---that the system be,operational

and developmental simultaneously---dictates that the On implementation plan

consider two objectives, one directed toward urgent short-term operational

consideration and the other toward long-term OIS development objectives.

96

60
3. To Give Special Attention to the Labor Market Information (LMI)

Needs of Youth

The legislation has directed the NOICC to encourage the development

and use of career outlook information needed by youth and to encourage

existing programs to make employment and career counseling available to youth.

The NOICC has two primary objectives in this area. They are to:

Fund and otherwise support research and demonstration

activities.

Establish and guide SOICC efforts in career information

development and delivery.

To a significant extent the three broad legislative mandates

described above are interrelated. The development of an OIS, for example,

will include labor market and training information for use in career

information delivery systems.

NOICC-SOICC Structure

The NOICC comprises members of four Federal agencies. It is bound by

interagency Agreement, and is governed by a board made up of representatives

of the statutory members. The statutory members are jointly responsible for

the operation of the NOICC, and, by extension, the SOICCs. The four agencies

represented by the statutory members, and referred to as the NOICC member

agencies, are: The Office of Education (OE), the National Center for

Education Statistics (NCES), the Employment and Training Administration (ETA),

and the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS).

An Interagency Agreement has been signed by the statutory members that

specifies how the NOICC shall conduct its affairs. The agreement incorporates

the legislative mandates and specifies procedures for the conduct of business,

including staffing of the Committee and arrangements for office space. It

provides the NOICC with procedures for the utilization and disbursement of

funds. It allows the NOICC to determine the purpose for which available funds

will be expended subject to the concurrence of the four-party Technical

Steering Group.
The SOICC structure is similar to the NOICC structure in concept.

Figure 1 depicts NOICC/SOICC organizational interrelationships and shows them

as the center of a series of linkages extending across Federal and State

agency boundaries.

Attention to the Labor Market Information Needs of Youth

The NOICC has initiated various activities that relate to the labor

market information needs of youth. A description of the major projects in

process is presented below:

Provision of Labor Market Information to Philadelphia's Inner-City Youth--In August, 1978, the NOICC funded, through ETA, a project to provide enriched labor market information to a sample of minority inner-city youth in Philadelphia and to measure their success in the job market as compared with a control group whose members did not receive the intensified exposure to labor market information.

Two-Phased Study of Career Guidance Information--In early August, 1978, the NOICC transferred money to the National Institute of Education (NIE) to allow NIE to support a two-phased study concerned with career information. One phase will examine the content, quality, and methods of delivering career information to secondary school students. The second will evaluate the effectiveness of alternative information delivery systems in improving career awareness. Assistance in the Establishment of Career Information S stems--In September, 197S, the NOICC transferred money to the Joint Fund for the Improvement of Post-Secondary Education (FIPSE) to augment resources being made available by FIPSE to the Oregon Career Information Service. The purpose of the project is to provide technical assistance to at least five states to establish career information systems, to lay the foundation for self-sustaining technical assistance and training services, and to develop an institute-like approach to training that draws on the resources of existing successful State CISs. The FIPSE and the NOICC staff stress that their support of this project is not an endorsement of any particular career information system or system component.

SOICC directors in a growing number of States are working closely with

youth-oriented programs to determine the information needs cif the programs and

disseminate program information. Several SOICCs are developing career

information delivery systems in their States. Specific activities initiated

by SOICCs to help meet the labor market information needs of youth are

described below:

62 98
Department of Health Department of Labor

Education, and Welfare

Rehabilitation

Services

Administration Office National Employment Bureau

of Center for and of

Education Education Training Labor

Statistics NOICC Administration Statistics

Regional Offices Regional Offices Regional Offices

Vocational State Vocational State Employment State

Rehabilitation Education Agency Security Agency Employment

Agency and Training Council

SOICC

Local Education

Agency

Employment Prime

Security Sponsors

Local Office

FIGURE 1. NOICC/SOICC ORGANIZATIONAL INTERRELATIONSHIPS
Training for Parent Surrogates of Institutionalized YouthThe SOICC of the District of Columbia is developing a training module for institutional staff, serving as parent surrogates for "-,stitutionalized youth. The training will develop career :%ness as it relates to the interests, skills, and abilities of ',I'te youth. The project will provide a forum for interaction

!en institutionalized youth and institutional staff and 'ssinals. Staff will be trained in special group and ,dual career counseling techniques appropriate for youth with low motivation.

a Information Systems Development- -A number of SOICCs, Maine, Nebraska, North Carolina, and South Carolina, are involved in the development and implementation of career information systems. Funds for these efforts have been obtained frogl a variety of local and State program sources. The systems are des5;ned specifically to provide meaningful career information to

The NOICC's mandate to give special attention to the labor market

information needs of youth will be met in part through a new grants program

still being developed. The general direction of the program is described

below:

CIDS Grants Program--In June, 1979, the NOICC will announce to the SOICCs a competitive grants program designed to encourage and support the implementation of Statewide Career Information Delivery Systems (CIDS). The grant awards are expected to be made to about 11 SOICCs by January, 1980. In addition to special-purpose projects being conducted by SOICCs, the CIDS program is responsive to specific activities called for in the CETA Amendments of 1978. Briefly, they are: Providing occupational and career outlook information, assisting the development of State occupational information systems, providing employment and career counseling information to post-secondary youth, and supporting counseling in correctional institutions through the provision of career information.

Although a great deal of work remains to be done by the NOICC and SOICCs,

much has been accomplished. The results of the activities mentioned above as well as new activities are reported in periodic NOICC publications.

-101 64
CHAPTER FIVE

CAREER INFORMATION MATERIALS

The development and dissemination of occupational information materials

has been a function of the federal government for many years (the

Dictionary of Occupational Titles was first published in 1939). 67 In the last

decade or so, state departments of education, universities, local education

agencies and a host of other public and private organizations have become

actively involved in materials development stimulated in large part by

vocational education and career education research and development monies. So

too have commercial publishing companies' become large-scale developers of

occupational information and other types of instructional materials. This

chapter will describe the nature and scope of materials development and

illustrate how materials have changed'in recent years.

Government Publications

The federal government is unquestionably the largest publisher of career

information materials. In response to Section 12a of the Career Education

Incentive Act which calls for the furnishing of information to interested

parties on "Federal programs which gather, analyze, and disseminate

occupational and career information" the NOICC

68 has completed a comprehensive

survey. The 283 page NOICC publication identifies all federal agencies and

organizations that "collet, analyze or publish data related to occupational

supply or demand". The number of agencies involved, and the number and type

of materials provided by the federal government boggles the mind.

A more succinct listing of commonly used government publications has been

identified by Parish, Rosenberg, and Wilkinson69 as follows:

The Occupational Outlook Handbook is one of the most comprehensive

sources of occupational and industrial career information

available. Published every two years by the U.S. Department of

Labor's Bureau of Labor Statistics, it provides information on the

nature.of work, long-term employMent outlook, and related topics

for hundreds of occupations, and major industries.
The Occupational Outlook Quarterly supplements the Occupational Outlook Handbook by presenting up-to-date occupational outlook and other timely manpower information.

The Dictionary of Occupational Titles, (D.O.T.), published by the U.S. Department of Labor's Bureau of Employment Security, is an encyclopedia of job definitions and related data. The 1977 edition of the D.O.T. contains information on about 22,000 jobs.

The Handbook on Women Workers is published every two years by the U.S. Department of Labor's Women's Bureau. It is a sourcebook of

facts on women's employment, occupations, earnings, education, and related subjects.

U.S. Army Opportunies, U.S. Navy Occupational Handbook, U.S. Air Force Occupational Handbook, and Occupational Specialties issued by the U.S. Marine Corps. Each major branch of the Armed Forces published a comprehensive career handbook and related materials which' describe occupations and training programs for enlisted men.

Guide to Federal Career Literature. This guide is a directory of publications from departments and agencies within the federal

government. Also included are general publications (e.g., "Who's Hiring Engineers").

Federal Career Direct. This directory is a guide to government

agencies which hire people with specific college degrees and career interests.

Guide to Local Occupational Information. This pub7.ication is a directory of selected State Employment Service studies, bulletins, brochures, and other releases intended to provide current local

occupational information for use in designing training programs, for counseling in local public employment offices and schools, and to offer individual jobseekers and vocational counselors concrete information on job opportunities in specific occupations or groups of occupations.

The Occupational Outlook Handbook is probably more widely used than other

government publications of its types for disseminating occupational

information to youth.

Essentially all occupational information publications of the federal

government are similar in format and appearance. The

Health Careers Guidebook70

published in 1979 is a typical example. This

softcover book is approximately 8 11 x 11 inches in size; the text is printed

margin to margin interrupted only occasionally by a black and white

103 66
photograph; occupational descriptions are written in the same impersonal and

repetitive style; and concepts and vocabulary are often quite sophisticated as

the following excerpt demonstrates: "Anatomy, pharmacology, biochemistry,

physiology, microbiology, and pathology are some of the basic science courses

which are formerly taught in laboratories and classrooms during the first

2 years, followed by 2 years of clinical teaching, when the student began to

work with patients and learned to apply basic medical knowledge to solving

clinical problems."

Efforts by the federal government to produce low cost, up-to-date,

comprehensive, technically accurate career information materials are to be

applauded. However, inspection of many such materials causes one to question

the extent to which knowledge of teaching/learning variables (e.g., interests,

abilities, values, motivation, learning style, readability) has been applied

during development. Perhaps the lack of students' occupational knowlege, that

was discussed in a pervious chapter, is related to the type of materials they

use (or don't use as the case may be).

Surveys of Instructional Materials for Career Education

Since 1970 thousands of materials, both commercial and noncommercial have

been produced. A number of surveys have been conducted, as follows, to

catalog and evaluate these materials:

1. Search and Assessment of Commercial Career Education

Materials. Peat, Marwick, Mitchell and Co., 1972.

2. Instructional Materials for Career Education: A Search and

Assessment for the Office of Education. Peat, Marwick,

Mitchell and Co., 1974.

3. Abstracts of Instructional Materials for Career Education.

Bibliography Series No. 15, The Center for Vocational and

Technical Education, 1972.

4. Supplement to Abs.

tracts of Instructional Materials for Career Ed

Bibliography Series No. 16, The Center for

Technical Education, 1973.

ucation.

Vocational and

5. Review and Analysis of Sources of Occupational

for Career Education. Information Series No.

for Vocational and Technical Education, 1973.

104

Information

89, The Center
6. EPIE Career Education Selection and Evaluation Tools:

Volume 2, Analyses of Seven Hundred Prescreened Materials. EPIE Institute, 1975.

7. "The Status of Career Education as Reflected in Instructional and Reference Materials." In. D. H. McLaughlin, Career Education in the Public Schools 1974-75: A National Survey. Palo Alto, California: American Institutes for Research, May, 1976.

The latter study, designed to update previous su:veys, was conducted by

the American Institutes for Research as part of the Congressic.nally-mandated

national survey of career education carried out in late 1975 and early 1976.

Approximately 3,000 materials were screened, 2,900 were .ataloged, and

670 commercial as well as a randomly drawn sample of 90 noncommercial

materials were evaluated. The sheer number of materials identified by AIR is

significant in recognition of the fact that materials developed prior to 1971

(the beginning of the "career education movement") were excluded from the

survey. In addition to the impressive number of materials identified, other

changes and characteristics can be observed: (a) the commercial publishing

industry has undertaken a major role in materials development, (b) federal and

state funding of career education research and development projects has

resulted in a large number of locally-developed materials, (c) concern for

providing students with "occupational information" has broadened to include

attention to affective and coping skills as well (e.g., self awareness, values

clarification, decision making, job seeking), (d) emphasis on printed

materials has been augmented by the production of a wide variety of instructional formats and media. (e) materials are now available for the entire

range of grade levels K-12 (materials are also available for adult and

post-secondary levels although most surveys do not address these levels).

Representative examples of commercial career education and guidance

materials are summarized in Tables 9, 10, 11. Access to non-commercial

instructional materials is provided through a monthly catalog of

Resources in Vocational Education published by the National Center for

Research in Vocational Education. Each issue of the Vocational Guidance

Quarterly also contains listings of "Current Career Literature". In an

effort to disseminate "public domain" materials generated by federally

105 68
TABLE 9

A SAMPLING OF PRINTED MATTER

Occupational Filing Systems

Name

Carcerdex

Career Information Kit

Career Kits and Career

Opportunity Boxes

Career Skills Matrix

The Job Box

Mini-Briefs

Occupational Library

Printed Volumes

Concise Handbook of

Occupations

Dictionary of Occupational

Titles

Encyclopedia of Careers

and Vocational Guidat7e

(Hopke)

Guide to Careers through

College Majors and Guide

to Careers through

Vocational Training

Publisher

Career Associates

Science Research

Assoc.

Houghton Mifflin

Westinghouse Learning

Corporation

Fearon Publishers

Description

1000+ card-file guide to sources

of career information

600 pieces of current literature

filed alphabetically by job

families. Cross-referenced by

Dewey Decimal System.

5 boxes of job information

(100-125 cards each) relating to

English, social studies, math,

foreign languages, and science.

Entry-level jobs

70 booklets relating to 7 job

clusters for "special need"

students.

Occupational Awareness Data regarding 1800 occupations

related to school subject matter

areas. Chronicle Guidance

Publications, Inc.

Doubleday & Company

U.S. Department of

Labor

J.G. Ferguson Co.

Educational and

Testing Service

69

106

Over 650 occupations by DOT

classification. Supplemented by

microfiche and viewdecks. An

excellent resource.

300+ jobs described.

Described in detail elsewhere in

in this volume. A primary

resource.

650 occupations and 71. articles

As the title suggest.
Name

Handbook of Job Facts

Occupational Outlook

Handbook and Occupational

Quarterly

Printed Series

Career Core Competencies:

A Cooperative Education

Approach

Popeye Career Awareness

Book and Poster Library (E)

Career Education Books (E)

Exploring Careers

Series (E)

Highway to Work and

Play (E)

When You Grow Up (E)

Junior Guidance Booklets

National Guidance Handbook

Guidance Series Booklets

New Rochester Occupational

Reading Series

Pete Saves the Day

Learn to Earn

A Good Worker

Deciding

Decisions and Outcomes

How to Decide: A Guide

For Women

Decide for Yourself

Exploring Careers Series

Vocations in Trades.

Series

Publisher

Science Research

Assoc.

U.S. Department of

McGraw-Hill, Gregg

King Comic Books

E.M. Hale and Co.

Williams Morrow

and Co.

McKnight

Mini Productions

Science Research

Assoc.

Mafex

College Entrance

Examination Board

Career Research and

Advisory Ceritre

William Morrow

70

Description

300 major occupations.

Trends and outlook in over 80C

occupations and industries with

a quarterly supplement. Another

primary resource.

7 student text-workbooks, 7

filmstrips, 21 interview cassettes

dealing with school and careers,

decision-making, self-identity,

communications at work, human

relations at work, getting a job,

keeping a job.

Popeye negotiates the USOE

clusters.

"Careers in" many occupations

Many titles relating to careers..

Activity oriented awareness

readings.

Cluster posters

15 titles for Jr. High vocational

and tech. ed.

41 paperbacks re guidance work

world exploration for non-academic

students

Text and workbook for practical

employment skills

Stories about work-study

Workbook for trainable young

adults

Decision-making workbooks:

Junior High School through adult

Decision-making workbook

A book for each cluster explorin

trades occupations
Name

World of Work: Readings in

Interpersonal Relationships

Career Exploration and

Planning

Finding Your First Job

Career Education Program

Catalyst: Career

Opportunities Series,

Educational Opportunities

Series, Self-Guidance Series

Messner Career Books

Finding a Job You Feel

Good About

Careers Wheels

Low to Select a Private

Vocational School

How to Complete Job

Applications Forms

Vocational Biographies

Careers in Depth

Publisher Description

McGraw-Hill 50 short stories about jobs

Houghton Mifflin

Catalyst

Julian Messner

Argus Communications

American Personnel

and Guidance Assoc.

Text and workbook stressing

self-awareness and understanding

Workbook for job-hunting skills

K-12 career education lesson plans

Women and Careers

"Your Career in" over 35

occupational areas

Paperback and spirit matter

program 7-adult

Career Information via disc-dial

Caveats and how-to's

Vocational Biographies, 475 career areas in biographical

Inc. form

Richards Rosen Press

Source: Herr and Cramer, 1979, pp. 312-314.

Series of books on various

careers
TABLE 10

EXAMPLES OF CAREER GUIDANCE MEDIA

Films

Name

Library of Career

Counseling Films

Bread and Butterflies

The Working Worlds

Project WERC Film Series

Vocational Films

Career Decision Making

Other Media

Career Kits for Kids (E)

The. Lollipop Dragon (E)

Targo Explores the World

of Work (E)

Job Opportunities Now

Exploring Careers Series

Getting Your Money's Worh

Career Development for

Children Project (E)

Introduction to Careers

Series

DUSO: Developing Under

standing of self and

others (E)

TAD: Toward Affective

Development (E)

Publisher.

Counselor Films, Inc.

Agency for Instruc

tional Television

Olympus Publishing

American Personnel and

Guidance Association

Boughton Mifflin

Counseling Films

Description

Over 30 films and sound filmstrips

on the work world

15 TV programs on careers. for

9-12 year olds

13 films on career clusters

World of work exploration

10 films on general and specific

aspects of work

Behavioral Emphasis

Encyclopedia Britan Career awareness (6 occups.)

nica Educational

Corp.

Singer Society for

Visual Education, Inc.

Singer Society for

Visual Education, Inc.

McKnight

American Guidance

Service, Inc.

World of work awareness

6 filmstrips introducing

clusters

9-part program for

15 clusters

Consumer awareness

Career'awareness, work activities:

self awareness

Exploration of various careerv.

Understanding social and

emotional behavior

Psychological or affective

education
Name

Compulearn Career

'Education Program

Career Awareness Field

Trips (E)

Career Values: What Really

Matters to You?

Changing Work Ethic

jobs and Gender

Jobs for High School

Students

The Paycheck Puzzle

You and Your Job Interview

What You Should Know Before

You Go to Work

Choosing Your Career

Job Hunting: Where to Begin

Career Discoveries Series

High School as a Tryout

Focus on Self-Develop

(E)

Job Family Series Booklets

and Cassettes

IDecision-Making for Career

Development

glICOUU Widening Occupational

Roles Kit

laYS: Career Exploration

anro,Bram

ANN: Knowledge Needed-to

;'Obtain Work

Career Development:

Education for Living

Preparing for an Interview

',Career Decisions: Finding,

'',Getting, and Keeping a Job

areer Clusters and the

World of Work

rogrammed Work Awareness

`` "Kit

Publisher Description

Random House

Guidance Associates

Science Research

Assoc.

J.C. Penney

J. C . Penney

AV Laboratory

Educational Prop.

Chronicle Guid.

Elementary through adult

individualized instruction

in career education

7 programs to simulate field trips

to various industries

Personal values and career

decisions

Work attitudes and jobs

Sex and career choice

Entry level jobs

Economic awareness

How-to-do-it

Employer expectations

Holland's typology and choice

sources of employment information

6 job groups explored

Career exploration through

high school

Self-understanding and

understanding of others and the

environment

Jobs and the clusters

Workbooks and Cassettes

Career Exploration

Career exploration related to

interests

64 transparencies related to

selecting and applying for a job

Exploration of work and work

values

How-to-do-it

Influences on job choice

15 career clusters

33 weekly units
Name

Fascinating World of Work

Careertapes

Career Survival Skills

Target Vocational

Transparencies

Your're Hired

A Complete Learning

System for Career

Education

The World of Work Series

Hard Choices: Strategies

for Decision-Making

Decision-Making: Dealing

with Crises

Career Lab

Career Awareness Series

Career Guidance and

Counseling FilmstripMaterials

Me, Myself, and I (E)

Career Flashcards

Magic Circle Programs (E)

Real People at Work (E)

Career Directions:

Planning for Career

Decisions

Publisher

National CareenConsultants

&cm* /.In

C.E. Merrill

Mafex

Classroom World

Productions

I(T) WOWS), Inc.

Educational Resource

Division of Educa

tional Design,, Inc.

Center for Humanities

Westinghouse Learning

Corporation

Aims Instructional

Media Services

Charles W. Clark Co.

EyeGate Instructional

Materials

CFI

Human Development

Training Institute

Changing. Times

Educational Service

Description

16 titles in various occupations

72 people in different occupations

talk about exploration, entry, and

training in their fields

Understanding the use of resources

for career and life planning

How to fill out forms

Job - seeking behaviors

12 monographs

3-part related to getting and

keeping a job

Decision-making skills

Techniques for crisis management

9 units related to careers

Scope of work in various career

areas Many materials for career

awareness and exploration

Elementary psychology course

Career Awareness

Interpersonal Effectiveness

ixercises

Resource kits K-6

4 units for career planning
Name Publisher Description

Non-Traditional Careers for Pathescope Educational Filmstrips and cassettes regarding

Women Films women's work roles past and

present

Vocational Decisions QED Productions Filmstrips and cassettes for

vocational awareness

Career Awareness Singer Career Systems Electronic media and gaming for

Laboratory career awareness

Careers in Focus McGraw-Hill Career exploration and

self-discovery

Career Information Center Hoffman Educational Career exploration related to

Systems interests

Job Lab 1 and Job Lab 2 Houghton Mifflin, Career exploration via job

description cards for elementary

and secondary

Source: Herr and Cramer, 1979, pp. 316-318.
Name

Career Insights and

Self-Awareness Games (E)

EXPO 10: Exploring Career

Interests (E)

Job Experience Kits

Grow Power: A DecisionMaking and Personality

Development Game (E)

Steady Job: A Vocational

Orientation Game

Generation Rap: The

Parents ana Kids Game

Scope Visuals 16: Career

Crosswords

Life Career

Game of Life

COMPUIEARN

Career Games

Careers

Community Decisions Games

Edventure II: Career

Guidance Game

Edventure Lifelong Learning

Simulation

The Job Game

TABLE 11

EXAMPLES OF CAREER GUIDANCE

SIMULATIONS AND GAMES

Publisher

Houghton Mifflin

7CareerExPloration-Games

Science Research

Educational Activities

Mafex

Spinnaker

Scholastic Books

Bobbs-Merrill

Milton Bradley Co.

U.S. Office of

Education

E.N. Chapman

Parker Brothers

Education Ventures

Abt Associates

Employment Training

Corp.

Description

Insight and awareness

Occupational exploration

20 occupations for work

simulation

Physical, mental, social, and

emotional growth awareness

Attitudes and behavior related

to employability

Parent-child interaction

Careers through crossword

puzzles

tareer planning and

decision-making

Decision-making: 2-8 players

CoMputer simulation

Career search and decision-making

for grades 8-13

8 occupations and success

Variety of decision-making

situations

20 years in the future and choice

in the educational marketplace

Educational and work choices

in the future

Finding jobs

Educational Media Corp.

and.Cramer, 1979, p. 320.

-113

Four career exploration strategies
funded projects, the U.S. Office of Career Education has awarded a contract to

Health-Education-Research, Inc. This company produces on a subscription

basis, a monthly newsletter (Career Education Service News) and periodic

packets of teacher-oriented lesson plans.

Combating Race and Sex Bias

The previously reported AIR survey of career education instructional

materials71

found considerable race and sex bias. For commercial materials,

51 percent contained a few (one or two) instances of race bias, while

7 percent contained extensive race bias. The situation was substantially

worse with sex bias, 47 percent reflecting some bias and 29 percent reflecting

extensive bias. The average material contained a few positive references to

ethnic minority groups and females, but approxiamtely 25 percent of all

materials made reference only to white males. For the sample of noncommercial

materials, 70 percent were found to be free of race bias and 51 percent were found to be free of sex bias.

Concern to combat race and sex bias prompted EPIE Institute to include a

chapter on each in its NIE supported publi-ntion on career education

instructional materials. 72

These are excellent discussions on how to detect

race and sex bias and how to counteract their effects in the classroom. Also

included are checklists to be used in evaluating instructional materials.

In a 1977 publication entitled Sex harness In Career Education,73 three

categories of materials and resources are provided to aid in eliminating sex

stereotyping and sex bias. These materials are displayed in Tables 12, 13,

and 14. The number of resource and instructional materials for eliminating

race sterotyping and bias appears to be significantly less than those

available for eliminating sex stereotyping and bias.

Career Information for Special Groups

The AIR survey74

of instructional materials found about 10 percent of

commercial materials and 5 percent of noncommercial materials addressed to the

needs of "special populations" (i.e., culturally different, ethnic, females,

77
TABLE 12

RESOURCES FOR SEX PAIR MATERIALS

Author Title Yr. of

Pub.

Major Topics Availability

American Associa

tion of School

Administrators

Sex Equality. in

Educational

Materials

1975 Assessment techniques,

guidelines for sex

fair language usage

Birk, Janice M., Racial and Sex- 1973 Slide-tape presenta

COoper, Jackie, Role Stereotyp

tion, assessment in

and. Taney, Mary ing in Career strument, data on in

Faith Information formation materials

Houghton Mifflin Avoiding Stereotypes; Princi

pies and Appli

cations

Ivins, Linda G.

Macmillan

115

Inservice Teach

er Awareness/

Evaluation

Skills

1976 Guidelines for sex

fairness in materials,

including specific sections on' "roles and

activities" and "language"

forthcoming

(late

1977)

Materials to promote

skills in the evaluation of textbooks and

program materials and

in the development of

non-sexist curriculum

Guidelines for 1975 SpeCific guidelines

Creating Poi for teachers' materials

tine Sexual and and texts in a variety

Racial Images in of content areas

Educational

Materials

41....dmmommmp.

American Association of

School Administrators

1801 N. Moore Street

Arlington, VA 22209

$2.50

Janice M. Birk

University of Maryland

Counseling Center

Shoemaker Building

College Park, MD 20742

Houghton Mifflin

Boiton, HA

Ms. Linda G. Ivins

YWCA of Oahu

University Branch

1820 University Avenue

Honolulu, Hawaii 96822

Macmillan

New York, NY

11
TABLE 12

RESOURCES FOR SEX PAIR MATERIALS

Author Title Yr. of Major Topics Availability

Pub..

Women on Words Guidelines for forth- Includes checklist for Women on Words and Images

and Images . Sex-Fair Voca- coming evaluating sex bias in P.O. Box 2163

tional Education (Sept. vocational education Princeton, NJ 08540

Materials 1977) materials and guidelines for the creative

use of sex-biased

materials

Source: Peterson and Vetter, 1911 p. 29.

118
TABLE 13

MATERIaLS FOR USE WITH STUDENTS

Author Title Yr. of

Pub. Type

Major Topics Availability

Ahlum, Carol Feminist Resources 1975 Bibliography

and Fralley, for Schools and of Curricular

Jackie Colleges: A Guide

.,..----._ Materials

to Curricular

Materials

Cally Curtis Twelve Like You 1975 Audiovisual,

Company 16 mm film,

15 minutes

Center for

Equity Career Education

Cornerstone

Productions

Feminists

Northwest

Equity Career Ed

ucation Curriculu

lum Guide

Looking at Tomor

row: What Will

You Choose?

Curriculum

Guide-Grades

3, 6, 8, &, 10

1975 Audiovisual,

16 mm film,

16 Mantes

Planning for Free 1975 Curriculum

Lives: Curriculum materials

Materials for

Combating Sex

Stereotyping in

H ,omeEconomics Family Living,

and Career. Awareness Courses

Sections on The Student, The Teacher,

The Counselor, Health

and Home Economics

Kits and Games

Twelve "career women"

discuss their ideas

and experiences

Lessons, learning activities, evaluation

suggestions and

recommended materials

Young women shown

working in a range

of occupations from

bricklayer to violin

maker

Career Awareness,

Family Living,

Home Economics

Feminist Press

College at Old Westbury

Box 334

Old Westbury, NY 11568

The Cally Curtis Company

1111 N. Las Palmas Ave.

Hollywood, CA 90038

Maple Heights City

School District

The Center for Equity

Career Education

5500 Clement Drive

Maple Heights, OH 44137

Cornerstone Productions

6087 Sunset Blvd.

Suite 403

Hollywood, CA 90028

Feminists Northwest

5038 Nicklas Place, N.E.

Seattle, WA 98105

$3.50

%.1
Author Title Yr. of

Pub. Type

Major Topics Availability

Guidance

Associates

Women Today 1974 Audiovisual,

filmstrip

Kane, Irene, People at Work

Copi, Tom

and Cade,

Cathy

Leib,

Prudence

McClure,

Gail T.

Kedsger,

Betty

Minneapolis

Board of

Education

121

1975 Audiovisual

(photographs)

Sex, Roles: Past, 1975 Bibliography

Present and Future

Women in Science

and Technology:

Careers for To

day and Tomorrow

Women at Work

Eliminating Sex

Bia in Education

1976 Individual

reading or

group use

1975 Individual

reading or

group use

Seconday

level lesson

plans

Key issues of sex

fairness are defined

and explored

20 bill photos of men

and women in nontraditional occupations

Guide to simulations

games, and activities

Specific information

about careers in

science and technology

Women at work in 188

different occupations, including

many non-traditional

occupations, photographs and commentary

19 topics, including

Career and Family

Decisions, Job Characteristics, Status

of Careers, and Life

Cycles

Guidance Associates

757 3rd Avenue

New York, NY 10017

Change for Children

2588 Mission Street

No. 226

San Francisco, CA 94110

$6.00

The Population Institute

Organization Liaison

Division

110 Maryland Ave., N.E.

Washington, D.C. 20002

$.50

The American College

Testing Program

P.O. Box 168

Iowa City, IA 52240

$1.50

Sheed and Ward, Inc.

New York

$1.95

Board of Education

Special School District

#1

807 N.E. Broadway

Minneapolis, MN 55413

122
Author Title Yp:i.of

Type

Major Topics Availability

Mitchell, I Can Be AnyJoyce thing: Careers

Slayton and Colleges for

Young Women

'Mitchell, Free to Choose:

Joyce Decicioa Making

Slayton for Young Mel

National Hard Hats ... Association High Heels

of Women in

Construction

1915 Individual

reading or

group use

1976 Individual

reading or

group use

1972 Audiovisual

1 film,

10 minutes

Pathescope, Non-Traditional 1915 Audiovisual,

Educational Careers for Women

Films, Inc.

Research

and Information Center

Re3rouce

Center on

Sex Roles

in Education

12

Elimination Sex

Discrimination

in Schools: A

Source Book

Today's Changing

Roles: An Approach

to Nonsexist

2 filmstrips

1975 Handbook

1974 Lessons, with

behavioral

objectives,

concepts, and,

student

materials

Descriptions of career areas, specific

information about

which schools have

most women in nontraditional areas

The roles women play

in the construction

industry

Women in non-traditional jobs, historically and currently

Sections oa the

Importannce of NonSexist Language, Sex

Bias in Instrutctional

Materials, Sex Bias

in High School Guidance and Counseling

Sections on awareness

of role stereotypes;

attitudes, values

choices; Where Will

I be In Five Years?

College Board Publication Orders

Box 2815

Princeton, NJ 08540

$6.50 hardcover

$4.50 paperback

Delacorte Press

New York

$1.95

National Association of

Women in Construction

Washington, D.C. Chapter

5340 Odell Road

Beltville, MD 20705

Pathescope Educational

Films, Inc.

71 Weyman Avenue

New Rochelle, NY 10802

Research and Information Center

North Carolina Department of Public

Instruction

Raleigh, NC

Resource Center on Sex

Roles in Education

National Foundation for

the Improvement of

Education

1201 16th Street, MX

Washington, D,C, 2003. 4

$3.00
Author Title

Schloat Masculinity

Productions

Yr. of

Pub. Type

Major Topics Availability

1974 Audiovisual,

4 filmstrips

Scholz, How to Decide: 1975 Workbook

Nelle T., A Guide for

Sosebee, Women

Judith, and

Hiller,

Gordon P.

Assumption, myths,

and stereotypes about

men and masculinity,

new options and

directions

Sections on: who are

you? What ,do you need

to know? How do you

take action?

Scott, Vocational Readi- Curriculum Simulation games and Jeanne and nest Package Unit role playing-women in

Rabin,

marriage and careers Maureen

today

Seed,

Sandra

Vetter,

Louise and

Sethney,

Barbara J.

Saturday's Child 1974 Individual

reading or

group use

Planning Ahead 1975 Curriculum

for the World Unit

of Work

Source: Peterson and Vetter, 1977, pp. 30-33.

125

Interview with and

photographs of 36 women on their jobs

Looking Ahead to Your

Occupation, Working

Women Who Are

They? What Is Hy

Future?

Schloat Productions

150 White Plains Road

Tarrytown, NY 10591

College Board

Publications

Orders

Box 2815

Princeton, NY 08540

$5.95

YWCA

1215 Lodi Place

Los Angeles, CA 900

$25,00

Bantam Books

New York

$1.25 paperback

Center for Vocational Education

1960 Xenny Road

Columbus, OH 43210

Teacher manual

$2.50

Student Materials

$1.50

Complete set,

including transparency masters

transparency mute

$4.50

120
TABLE 14

INSERVICE EDUCATION RESOURCES

Author Title Yr. of

Pub.

Major Topics Availability

Bem, Sandra L. and

Bem, Daryl J.

Training the Woman To

Know Her Place: The

Social Antecedents of

Women in the World of

Work

1915 Socialization practices

and current realities for

women and work

Calabrese, Marylyn Public School Districts ForthE. Comprehensive Package coming

Clark, Susan

Ellis Associates

Inc.

121

Inservice Teacher

Training Modules

Elementary/

Secondary Levels

Expanding Nontraditional Opportunities

in Vocational Education

Facilitation packets for

implementing a systems

approach for eliminating

sex discrimination in

the institutional structure, policies, and operations of a public

school district

Forth- Modules to eliminate

coming elements of sex role

role socialization from

the elementary/secondary

levels

1911. Three Inservice training

packages: Approaches

Expanding Nontraditional

Opportunities4n Vocational Ecucation: Barriers

to Expanding Nontraditional Opportunities for

Vocational Education Students; and Legislation

Addressing Equal Opportunity in Vocational

Education and Employment

Pennsylvania Department of

Education

Division of Pupil Personnel

Services

Box 911

Harrisburg, PA 17126

Ms. Marylyn E. Calsbrese

Tredyffrin/East Town

School District

501 Howellville Road

Berwyn, PA 19312

3

Ms. Susan Clark

Hope School District 1-A

117 East 2nd Street

Hope, AR 71801

Ellis Associates, Inc.

P.O. Box 466

College Park, MD. 20140

120"
Author Title Yr. of

Pub.

Major Topics Availability

Emma Willard Task

Force on Education

Farmer, Helen S.

and Backer, Thomas

Feminists North- west

House, Elaine and

Katzell, Mildred

E. (eds.)

"Joan and Paul" in 1973 Teaching guide for a roleSexism in Education

playing approach to vocational counseling; Curriculum planning; Career

counseling; Male-female re- lationships: Job finding;

Raising children

New Career Options

for Woman

Forthcoming

(1977)

Three part series: A

Counselor's Source book,

Things Are Looking Up,

and Selected Annotated

Bibliography

Whatever Happened 1975 Awareness game for educato Debbie Kraft?

tors, counselors, students

and parents

Facilitating Career Development

for Girls and

Women

Maisel, Mary Lou Seventh/Eighth/

Grade/ Middle

Pupils Teacher

Training Resource

Guide

New Hampshire Depart- Multi-Media Kit

sent of Education

129

1975 Report of National Vocational Guidance Association Conference on guidance and women

Forthcoming

Sex fair learning in

career education, career

education resource guide

Manual for organizing and

conducting workshops with

100 items

Box 14220

University Station

Minneapolis, MN 55408

$3.50

Human Sciences Press

72 Fifth Avenue

New York, NY 10011

Feminists Northwest

5038 Nicklas Place, N.E.,

Seattle, WA 98105

$.50

American Personnel and

Guidance Association

Publication Sales

1607 New Hampshire

Avenue, N.W.

Washington, D.C. 20009

Mrs. Mary Lou Maisel

Waterville Board of

Education

Pleasant Street

Waterville, ME 04901

SEGO PROJECT

American Personnel and

Guidance Association

1607 New Hampshire Ave., N.W. Washington, D.C. 20009
Author Title Yr. of

Pub.

Major Topics Availability

Smith, Walter S.

Stebgins, Linda B.,

Amers, Nancy L. and

Rhodes, llama

Teacher Training

Package Preservice/

Inservice Elementary Level

Sex Fairness in

Career Guidance:

A Learning Kit

Forth- Modules and a/v's on becoming bavior and attitudes

of teachers, sex role

stereotyping awareness, and

techniques to combat

problems of sex role

stereotyping

1915 Orientation to sex fairness; Reco ednations for

a comprehensive sex-fair

career guidance program;

Guidelines and recommendations for sex-fair use

of career interest inventories; Resource guide.

Includes supplementary

materials: pre- and

post-assessment techniques; Spirit masters;

Transcripts of counselorclient interactions; Role

play scenarios;, Audiotape of four counseling

interviews

Dr. Walter S. Smith

University of Kansas

School of Education

Department of Curriculum

and Instruction

Bailey Nall

Lawrence, KS 66045

Abt Publications

55 Wheeler St.

Cambridge, MA 02139

$15.00

Source: Peterson and Vetter, 1977, pp. 34-36.

1 132
gifted and talented, incarcerated, mentally handicapped, physically

handicapped, problem reader and senior citizen). Not surprising, a greater

proportion of noncommercial materials have been developed for mentally and

physically handicapped than have commercial materials. Commercial materials

address the needs of females more than any other special population. Only a

handful of materials were identified for culturally different, ethnic and

problem reader populations. Of those materials developed for special

populations, they tended to receive "average" ratings in terms of presence of

objectives and learner performance evaluation.

Since completion of the AIR survey in 1975, a substantial number of texts

and reference materials have been written on career and vocational education

for "special needs students":

1. Appleby, J.A. Training Programs and Placement Services. Salt

Lake City: Olympus Publishing Company, 1978.

2. Bailey, L.J. (ED) A Teacher's Handbook on Career Development

for Students with Special Needs: Grades K-12. Springfield,

Illinois: Illinois Office of Education, 1977, 250 pp.

3. Brolin, D.E. and Kokaska, C.J. Career Education for

Handicapped Children and Youth. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E.

Merrill Publishing Company, 1979.

4. Brolin, D.C., McKay, D.J. and West, L.L. Trainer's Guide to

Life Centered Career Education. Reston. Virginia: The

Council for Exceptional Children, 1978.

5. Cook, P.L., Dahl, P.R. and Gale, M.A. Vocational

Opportunities. Salt Lake City: Olympus Publishing Company,

1978.

6. Dahl, P.R., Appleby, J.A. and Lipe, D. Mainstreaming

Guidebook for Vocational Educators. Salt Lake City:

Olympus Publishing Company, 1978.

7. Gardner, D.C. and Warren, S.A. Careers and Disabilities:

A Career Education Approach. Stamford, Connecticut:

'Greylock Publishers, 1978.

8. Gillet, P. Career Education for Children with Learning

Disabilities. San ,Rafael, California: Academic Therapy

Publications, 1978.

87
9. Hoyt, K.B. Career Ecucation for Special Populations.

Washington, D.C.: U.S. Office of Career Education, 1976.

26 pp. (ED 132 428).

10. Lutz, R.J. and Phelps. L.A. Career Exploration and

Preparation for the Special Needs Learner. Rockleigh, New

Jersey: Allyn and Bacon, 1977.

11. Vocational education - and end to dependency. Common Sense

from Closer Look, Newsletter published by the Parents'

Campaign for Handicapped Children and Youth, Summer 1978,

12 pp.

ut;

12. Vocational Education of Handicapped Students: A Guide for

Policy Development. Reston, Virginia: The Council for

Exceptional Children, 1978.

13. Wall, J.E. (Ed) Vocational Education for Special Groups:

Yearbook 6. Washington, D.C.: American Vocational

Association, 1976.

Text and reference materials of this type generally precede the

development of student instructional materials. The writer's knowledge of

instructional materials for career and vocational education leads him to

believe that a greater proportion of materials for special populations now

exist than was the case at the time of the AIR survey.

134

88
CHAPTER SIX

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Specific findings and conclusions related to the various policy issues

are integrated into the discussion of each chapter. As a result, only major

conclusions are provided here: (a) Learning about and preparing for work in

each of its various forms (vocational education,, career guidance and

counseling, career education, employment and training) has become a significant theme in education at all age levels. Differences among the

various professional fields appear minimal in relation to their shared

commonalities. The future of education-work programs is a subject for

considerable optimism. (b) The conduct of past and present educatioa-work

programs has provided insight into program strategies, and principles that work

successfully. A pot pourri of model programs have been developed that are

potentially replicable in a variety of other settings. Particularly

impressive is the number of successful programs in,career education that have

been developed during its relatively short life span.(:c) A number of

anomalies characterize the education-work literature for youth: work

attitudesand values of youth are more positive than popular wisdom.suggests;

the desire of youth for assistance with career planning is much greater than

the level of assistance actually received; parental interest in and support

for education-work programs appear to be greater than that expressed by

teachers and other educationists. Given the needs that exist, it is

heartening that a body of research is accumulating to suggest that

education-work concepts, attitudes and skills can and are being successfully

taught. (d) The recently established .NoicC!.soxdc network holds,,the:promise of being able to accomplisk.,important-..breakthioughs,'.1h proving occupational

information ,to youth.. .(e) EduCation-wOri:instrUctionil materials are taking'

on whole new character. Po;IticUlarly noteworthy is ihe.,.attention.given ,to ;a .

. , broad range of concepts,,attitudet.inclskills -(as.opposeclt.oAuStroccupational:

informatiOU),..aud:'.the develOpment.of,:a,:wide,VirietY of [Nadia and other

forMats (as opposed. printed'. :Material) Eederally-Produced

occupational informatioaAlppear!ybland.jnrelitiontO:thelmiterexaMplei,of

cOmmercially-prodUced Materials... 'The elimination of -rice and sex bias is. a
conscious concern of curriculum theorists and is gradually being reflected in

improved materials.

The previous chapters contain many specific conclusions and implications

for additional research. Following are eight major recommendations that

Youthwork should consider as it works toward the long-range goal of reducing

youth unemployment and other related education-work transistion problems.

1. Short projects of the type carried out under the present contract

suffer from having to address too many broad issues in too little time.

Future contractual activities should concentrate on doing more thorough and

exhaustive literautre reviews on specific topical areas like jobseeking

skills, work attitudes and values, the role of counselors in youth employment

and training programs, and the like.

2. Writers of literature reviews should be provided more time in

completing work assignments. Unavoidable delays are often encountered in

ordering materials for ERIC or other agencies and publishers, and in

corresponding with project directors about on-going research. Literature

reviews that rely only on conventional sources and material "on the shelf" are

unduly limited. Serendipity is a characteristic of research that should be

encouraged, not stifled.

3. Some type of comprehensive theory-building model should be developed

to provide direction for literature reviews and to aid in monitoring and

up-dating the state of the art as it evolves. One approach might be to

develop research summaries on various constructs of the type provided by

Crites in his classic text on Vocational Psychology. 75 Another useful

approach worth con6idc-ing is that taken in the USOE policy paper on career

education in which "basic concept assumptions" and "programmatic assumptions"

have been identified. 76

For example, the following programmatic assumption,

"Good work habits and positive attitudes toward work an be taught effectively

to most individuals. Assimilation of such knowledge is most effective if

begun in the early childhood years." provides a point of departure for

examining past theory and research as well as to 'suggest designs for future

empirical research.
4. What is the role of literature reviewers once a paper has been

completed? By virtue of the experience gained in conducting a review, such

persons become potentially valuable resources in planning next steps. Written

recommendations are only one means of sharing knowledge gained. Interpersonal

dialogue is another means that should be provided for. Literature reviewers

should be involved in formal "debriefings" and "brainstorming" activities with

federal policy-makers in formulating future research agendas.

5. The lack of commonly understood and applied terms and concepts is an

impediment to improved communications in the various education-work fields.

The federal government should adopt a glossary of career development concepts

of the type proposed by Super. 77 The term "career-type work" used in

Toward a Federal Poli on Education and Work78 is an example of a phrase that

detracts from efforts by Super and others to develop a glossary of constructs

linked to psychological theory. Careers are person-centered and not

occupation or work centered.

6. Future research and programmatic efforts for youth should continue

to distinguish among different clientele and their different educational and

occupational needs. Several examples will illustrate this. In-school youth

in the process of formulating future career goals have much different needs

than out-of-school youth looking for a specific job. Youth wanting a job

while attending college have much different needs than a high school dropout

wanting a job to help support self and family. The role of career information

must necessarily differ from various clientele. The concept of learning style

that is currently attracting attention in the national press should be

investigated in relation to its implications for education-work programs.

7. The commercial publishing industry has produced some impressive

examples of education-work instructional materials. Publishers have a role to

play in advancing the implementation of education-work programs that has not

been given adequate consideration. This is a subject having far-reaching

implications for policy and programming. It may be, for example, that the

federal government should concentrate kts efforts on producing career

information for handicapped learners and other special groups and leave to

a7
private, enterprise the development of materials for more conventional groups,

as they currently do is other areas of education.

8. Plans should be developed now for synthesizing and disseminating

knowledge gained from the Operation of current Youthwork and other YEDPA-CETA

funded demonstration projects.

.138

92
REFERENCES AND NOTES

1. Bailey, L.J. "Implications of the Current Interest in Education-Work Work

Concepts." Journal of Industrial Teacher Education, 1978, 15(3),

55-68.

2. The intent here is to provide four functional categories that aid

understanding of work-education programs. None of the categories

are mutually exclusive.

3. Panel of Consultants on Vocational Education. Education for a Changing

World of Work. Washington, D.C.: U.S.Government Printing Office,

1964, p. 18.

4. Ibid. p. 49.

5. Mangum, G.L. Reorienting Vocational Education. Ann Arbor, Michigan:

Institute of Labor and Industrial Relations, 1968, p. 1.

6. Notes and Working Papers Concerning the Administration of Programs

Authorized Under Vocational Education Act of 1963, Public

Law 88-210, As Amended. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing

Office, 1968, p. 49.

7. Bailey, L.J. and Stadt, R.W. Career Education: Neu Approaches to Human

Development. Bloomington, Illinois: McKnight, 1973, p. 59.

8. Herr, E.L. and Cramer, S.H. Career Guidance Through the Life Span:

Systematic Approaches. Boston, Massachusetts: Little, Brown and

Company, 1979, p. 6.

9. Ginzberg, E., Ginsburg, S.W., Axelrad, S., and Rerma, J.L.

Occupational Choice: An Approach to a General Theory. New York:

Columbia University Press, 1951.

10. Super, D.E. "A Theory of Vocational Development." American Psychologist,

1953, 8, 185-190.

11. Super, D.E. The Psychology of Careers. New York: Harper and Brothers,

1957, p. 185.

12. Herr and Cramer, 1979, p. 8&9. Note how this shift away from meeting the

needs of the labor market to meeting the needs of people parallels

the reorientation of vocational education.

13. Among the more prominent publications were: Osipow, S.H.

Theories of Career. Development. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts,

1968; Crites, J.O. Vocational Psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill,

1969; Demos, G.D. and Grant, B. (Eds.) Vocational Guidance Readings.

Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas Publisher, 1965;

Peters, H.J. and Hansen, J.C. (Eds.)

Vocational Guidance and Career Development: Selected Readings. New

York: The Macmillan Company, 1968; Zytowski, D.G. (Ed.)

Vocational Behavior: Readings in Theory and Practice. New

13J3
York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1968; Borow, H. (ED.) Man in a

World at Work. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin Company,

1964; Roth, R.M. Hershenson, D.B., and Hilliard, T. The Psychology

of Vocational Development: Readings in Theory and Research. Boston,

Massachusetts: Allyn and Bacon, 1970.

14. Herr and Cramer, 1979, p. 13.

15. Association for Counselor Education and Supervision. "Position Paper on

Counselor Preparation for Career Development/Career Education."

Washington, D.C.: ACES, 1976, pp. 10 & 11.

16. Marland, S.P. "Career Education Now". Address given at the NASSP

Convention. Houston, Texas, Janyary 23, 1971.

17. Ben Brodinsky in a December 1979 article in the Phi Delta Kappan

characterizes career education as "the decade's moderate success

story".

18. See Bailey and Stadt's (1973, pp. 264-268) discussion of the 1969

"National Conference on Exemplary Programs and Projects".

19. Herr, E.L. "Unifying an Entire System of Education Around a Career

Development Theme". Atlanta, Georgia, March 1969.

20. Herr, E.L. Review and Synthesis of Foundations for Career Education.

Columbus, Ohio: The Center for Vocational and Technical Education,

March 1972, p. 8.

21. Index of Interim, Supplemental, and Final Reports from Career Education

Pilot Projects Supported Under Part C and Part D of Public Law 90-576.

Columbus, Ohio: The National Center for Research in Vocational

Education, May 1978.

22. Bailey, L.J. "Current Status of Career Education". Illinois Career

Education Journal. 1975, 32(4), 29-31.

23. Profiles of Career Education Projects. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government

Printing Office, December 1976, pp. xii and xiii.

24. Hoyt, K.B. An Introduction to Career Education: A Policy Paper of the

U.S. Office of Education, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing

Office, 1975, p. 4.

25. Public Law 95-207. Career Education Incentive Act, December 13, 1977.

26. National Commission for Manpower Policy. From School to Work:

Improving, the Transition. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing

Office, April 1976.

27. Rite of Passage: The Crisis of Youth's Transition from School to Work.

New York: National Child Labor Committee, 1976.

-14o 94
28. Wirtz, W. The Boundless Resource: A Prospectus for an EducationWork Policy. Washington, D.C.: The New Republic Book Company, 1975.

29. Stevenson, W., Seninger, S.F. and Mangum. S.L. The Lingering Crisis

of Youth Unemployment. Kalamazoo, Michigan: W.E. Upjohn Institute

for Employment Research, 1978.

30. Mangum, G.L. Career Education and the Comprehensive Employment and

Training -Act. Washington, D.C.: Office of Career Education, February

1978.

31. Job Strategies for Urban Youth. Scarseale, New York: Work in American

Institute, June 1979.

32. Hoyt, K.B. "Community Resources for Career Education". Occupational

Outlook Quarterly, 1977, 21(2), 20-21.

33. Youth Program Models and Innovations. Washington, D.C.: Employment and

Training Administration, Office of Youth Programs, February 1979.

34. Mangum, G. and Walsh, J. Employment and Training Programs for Youth:

What Works Best for Whom? Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing

Office, May, 1978.

35. Task Force on Education and Employment, National Academy of Education.

Education for Employment: Knowledge for Action. Washington, D.C.:

Acropolis Books LTD., 1979.

36. Bridging the Gap: A Study of Education-To-Work Linkages. New York:

College Entrance Examination Board, 1975.

37. The criterion "facilitating career development" is used here in preference

to the more limited criterion of "job placement". See Introduction

for this paper, issue number 1.

38. Mangum, 1978, pp. 46 & 47.

39. Jobs for the Hard-to-Employ: New Directions for a Public-Private

Partnership. New York: Committee for Economic Development, Janaury

1978, pp. 53-59.

40. Mangum, 1978, p. 33.

41. Delore, R.H. "Youth Employment and the Private Sector". In Increasing

Job Opportunities in the Private Sector. A Special Report of the

National Commission for Manpower Policy, Special Report No. 29.

Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, November 1978,

p. 224.

42. Galligher, D. "Community Efforts to Link Education and Work". In

National Commission for Manpower Policy, 1976, p. 153.

43. Delore, 1978, p. 223.

IT
44. Ibid, p. 226-232.

45. Yankelovich, D. The New Morality: A Profile of American Youth in

the 70's. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1974.

46. See also the following study of Pennsylvania college students in which

youth express similar favorable positive attitudes toward work.

Gottlieb, D. Youth and the Meaning of Work. University Park,

Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State University, 1973.

47. Rockefeller, J.D. The Second American Revolution: Some Personal

Observations. New York: Harper & Row, 1973.

48. Prediger, D.J., Roth, J.D. and Noeth, R.J. Nationwide Study of Student

Career Development: Summary of Results. Iowa City, Iowa: The

American College Testing Program, 1973.

49. Parish, P.A., Rosenberg, H. and Wilkinson, L. Carer Information:

Resources, Applications, and Research, 1950-1979. Boulder, Colorado:

University of Colorado, 1979, p. 6.

50. "Fifth Annual Gallup Poll of Public Attitudes Toward Education".

Phi Delta Kappan, 1973, 55 (1), 38-51.

51. "The Third Annual Survey of the Public Attitudes Toward the Public

Schools." Phi Delta Kappan, 1971, 53(1), 33-48.

52. Parish, Rosenberg and Wilinson, 1979, pp. 607.

53. Garbin, A.P., Campbell, R., Jackson, D.P. and Feldman, R: Problems in

the Transition from 4.10 School to Work as Perceived by Vocational

Educalcs. Columbus, Ohio: Center for Vocational and Technical

Educa tion, 1967.

54. Leshner, S.S. and Snyderman, G.S. "Job Seeking Patterns of Disadvantaged

Youth". Employment Service Review, November 1966, 53-55.

55. Parnes, H.S. and Kohen, A.I. Occupational Information and Labor Market

Status: The Case of Young Men. Columbus, Ohio: The Ohio State

University Center for Human Resource Research, September 1973.

56. Prediger, Roth and Noeth, 1973.

57. Ibid, p. 17.

58. Katz, M.R., Miller-Tiedeman, A., Osipow, S.H., and Tiedeman, D.V.

The Cross-Sectional Sto of Earl' Career. Development as Revealed

by the National Assessment of Educational Progress, Washington D.C.:

U.S. Government Printing Office, Janauary 1977.

59. Tillery, D. Distribution and Differentiation of Youth: A Study of

Transition from School to College. Cambridge, Massachusetts:

Ballinger Publishing Company, 1973.

142 96
60. Mangum. G.L. Employability, Employment, and Income: A Reassessment

of Manpower Policy. Salt Lake City, Utah: Olympus Publishing

Company, 1976, p. 145.

61. Labor Market Intermediaries. A Special Report of the National Commission

for Manpower Policy, Special Report No. 22. Washington, D.C.: U.S.

Government Printing Office, March 1978.

62. Mangum, 1976, p. 144.

63. Wegmann, R.G. "Job-Search Assistance Programs: Implication for the

School". Phi Delta Kappan, 1979, 6(4), 271-271.

64. "Systems of Career/Occupatinal Infomation for Youth and Other CETA

Participants: Guidelines and Considerations for CETA Prime Sponsors".

Washington, D.C.: Employment and Training Administration, Office of

Youth Programs, July 1979.

65. Parish, Rosenberg and Wilkinson, 1979, pp. 29 & 30.

66. The Status of the NOICC/SOICC Network. Washington, D.C.: National

Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, May 1, 1979;

A Study of State Occupational Information Development and

Utilization Efforts. Washington, D.C.: National Occupational

Information Coordinating Committee, July 1978.

67. See the following publication for related events in the history of

vocational guidance: Borow, H. (Ed.) Man in a World at Work. Boston,

Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1964, 45-64.

68. NOICC-Related Activities: A Review of Federal Programs. Washington,

D.C.: National Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, July

1979.

69. Parish, Rosenberg and Wilkinson, 1979, pp. 7 & 8.

70. Health Careers Guidebook, Fourth Edition. Washington, D.C.: U.S.

Goverment Printing Office, 1979.

71. McLaughlin, D.H. Career Education in the Public Schools 1974-75:

A National Survey. Palo Alto, California: American Institutes for

Research, May 1976.

72. See Chapters Two and Three in EPIE Career Education Selection & Evaluation

Tools: Volume 1, How to Select and Evaluate Instructional Materials.

New York: EPIE Institute, 1975.

73. Peterson, M. and Vetter, L. Sex Fairness in Career Education, Information

Series No. 109. Columbus, Ohio: The Center for Vocational Education,

1977.

74. McLaughlin, 1976, pp. 158 & 159.

143

97
75. See Chapter 13 in Cirtes, J.0. Vocational Psychology: The Study

of Vocational Behavior and Development. New York: McGraw-Hill Book

Company, 1969.

76. Hoyt, 1975, PP. 4-8.

77. Super, D.E. "The Babble That is Babel: A Basic Glossary

Education". Journal of Career Education, 1979, 5(3),

78. Stern, B.E. Toward a Federal Policy on Education and Work.

D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, March 1977.

444

98

for Career

-156 -171.

Washington,
APPENDIX A

LISTING OF 267 DOCUMENTS

IDENTIFIED BY COMPUTER

SEARCH OF ERIC DATA BASE,

JANUARY 1974 THROUGH SEPTEMBER

1979 FOR "YOUTH' EMPLOYMENT"

SEARCH DESCRIPTOR
CIJE Documents

Martinez, D. R. Hispanic Yeah Employment: Programs and Problems. AGENDA,

1979,9 (1), 14-16. (EJ 199 938).

YEDPA Focus: The Tennessee Transition. Site Report No. 1. VocEd, 1979,

54 (2), 47-48. (EJ 199 202).

Rieder, Corinne H. Tracking Success in Youth Employment. VocEd. 1979, 54 (2), 37-39. (EJ 199 199).

Polhemus, Craig; Mounts, Gregory J. A Renewed Deal for Youth Employment. Occupational Outlook Quarterly, 1978, 22 (3), 14-17. (EJ 197 477).

Silberman, Harry F. Academic versus Vocational Education in the United

States. International Review of Education, 1978, 24 (2), 167-76. (EJ 195 616).

Hill, Robert B. The Illusion of

14-25. (EJ 193 598).

Young, Anne McDougall Students,

October 1977. Monthly Labor

Black Progress. Social Policy, 1978, 9 (3),

Graduates, and Dropouts in the Labor Market,

Review, 1978, 101 (6), 44-47. (EJ 191 951).

Deutermann, William V., Jr.; Brown, Scott Campbell, Voluntary Part-Time. Workers: A Growing Part of the Labor Force. Monthly Labor Review, 1978,

101 (6), 44-47. (EJ 191 951).

Leon, Carol, Young Adults: A Transitional Group with Changing Labor Force

Patterns. Monthly Labor Review, 1978, 101 (5), 3-9. (EJ 191 937).

Court, Anne, The States as Brokers

53 (6), 52-54. (EJ 191 935).

Feldman, Marvin J. Plenty of Work:

48-51. (EJ 191 934).

for Federal Jobs Programs. VocEd, 1978,

Not Enough Jobs. VocEd. 1978, 53 (6),

Gess, Larry R. A National Policy for Job Creation and Youth Development.

VocEd, 1978, 53 (6), 43-47. (EJ 191 933).

Derber, Charles, Unemployment and the Entitled Worker: Job Entitlement and Radical Political Attitudes among the Youthful Unemployed. Social

Problems, 1978, 26 (1), 26-37. (EJ 191 743).

Flynn, Brigid Sullivan, Michigan Puts the Unemployed to WORC. Parks and

Recreation, 1978, 13 (5) 47-67. (EJ 189 530).

Mundy, Jennifer A., Science and Technology in Schools and Working Life: Are We Aiming in the Right Direction? Comparative Education, 1978, 14 (2)

109-20. (EJ 188 154).

Reubens, Beatrice G. The Interface between School and Work: The Employment Service in Japan, Sweden and Great Britain. Illinois Career Education

Journal, 1978,-34 (4), 18-23. (EJ 182 942).

146

100
Herr, Edwin L., Long Thomas E. Making Youth Aware of the World of Work: An

International Perspective. Illinois Career Education Journal, 1978,

34 (4), 7-14. (EJ 182 941).

Cooper, Maudine Rice, NUL Youth Programs.

46-56. (EJ 182 540).

Anderson, Bernard, The Youth Unemployment

3 (1), 16-21. (EJ 182 536).

Urban League Review. 1977, 3 (1),

Crisis. Urban League Review, 1977,

North, Henry, The Plight of Unemployed Black Youths. Crisis. 1978, 85 (5),

160-1. (ES 182 514).

Feldman, Lloyd, OECD Nations Launch

3 (3) 2-8. (EJ 180 950).

Mahoney, James, Education-Work

Youth Job Programs. Worklife, 1978,

Council: The Puerto Rican Experience.

Community and Junior College Journal, 1978, 48 (5) 22-3. (EJ 178 081).

Sinclair, Michael, Public Policy

Educational Planning, 1977,

to Improve the Employability of Young People.

4 (2), 94-105. (EJ 177 614).

Gartley, Wayne, Some Reasons for Youth Unemployment. School Guidance Worker,

1978, 33 (3), 14-7. (EJ 177 251).

Dayton, Charles W. The Dimensions of Youth Unemployment.

Employment Counseling, 1978, 15 (1) 3-27. (EJ 177 175).

Journal of

Higgins, Kitty, The Youth Employment Act: What Is It? American Vocational

Journal, 1978, 53 (1) 42, 44-6. (EJ 175 166).

Better Job Information and Training Ahead for Unemployed Youth. American

Vocational Journal, 1978, 53 (2) 23-4. (EJ 175 136).

Hoy, John D. Higher Education and Youth Unemployment. Educational Record,

1978, 59 (1), 70-6, (EJ 173 875).

Cullen, Bud, The Importance of Effective Guidance. Elements of Technology,

1977-78, 7 (4), 14-5. (EJ 173 079).

Bodine, Merle W. Manpower Legislation--Past, Present and Future. Wisconsin

Vocational Educator, 1978, 2 (2), 5-7. (EJ 173 015).

Lehrmann, Eugene, Youth Unemployment; Voc Ed as Partner or Reactor? American

Vocational Journal, 1977,-52 (9), 30-3. (EJ 172 966).

Blau, Ruth S., Holmes, Deborah A. Meeting the Mandate to Employ Youth.

Worklife, 1978, 3 (1) 2-7. (EJ 171 123).

Sartin, Robert. Youth Unemployment: Part Problem, Part Sympton. American

Vocational Journal, 1977, 52 (7) 26-30. (EJ 171 112).

101

147
Griffin, Dean, Youth Unemployment: Can Voc Ed Do

American Vocational Journal, 1977, 52 (7), 24-5.

Baal, Ione, There are Jobs for Youth in Des Moines.

Journal, 1977, 52 (8), 48, 50, 56. (EJ 169 174).

Anything About It?

American Vocational

Kuriakose, P. T., Development and Youth Work: An Indian Point of View.

Aspects: The International Journal of Volunteer Service, 1977, 1 (3), 8.

(EJ 169 158).

Vincent, Murray; Reeder, Rollin, A Health Care Staff Training Model. Health

Education 1977, 8 (3) 14-16. (EJ 168 685).

Kunerth, Jeff, Proven Formula for Employing Youth: 70001. Worklife, 1977,

2 (10), 10-13. (EJ 167 231).

Youth Employment and Unemployment. OECD Observer, 1977, 87, 31-35. (EJ 166

608).

Matthews, Bruce E.; Yaple, Charles H. YCC: A Recipe for Youth Development.

Conservationist, 1977, 32 (3), 11-12. (EJ 166 570).

Woerner, Louise, Helping the Elderly Help Themselves.

Economics, 1977, 69 (4), 18-20. (EJ 165 430).

Journal of Home

Franchak, Stephen J.; Meehan, Merrill L., Evaluating Programs for Placing Youth in Jobs. Journal of Vocational Education Research, 1977, 2 (1),

1-15. (EJ 165 423).

Woods, Dorothea, Youth Unemployment: Views and Responses. A Global Problem.

Aspects: Revue Internationale du Service Volontaire, 1977, 1 (2), 16-20.

(EJ 165 379).

Westcott, Diane N. The Nation's Youth: An Employment Perspective. Worklife,

1977, 2 (6), 13-18. (EJ 163 801).

Dungworth, David, Report from Europe. Educational Forum, 1977, 41 (4),

492-500. (EJ 163 581).

Eberly, Donald J. A Universal Youth Service. Social Policy, 1977, 7 (4),

43-6. (EJ 161 410).

Gleazer, Edmund J., Jr. A Time to Act. Community and Junior College Journal,

1977, 47 (7), 6-12. (EJ 160 783).

Harris, Robert C. Pending Youth Employment and Training Legislation.

American Vocational Journal, 1977, 52 (5), 21-23. (EJ 160 096).

Manpower Division Looks at CETA. American Vocational Journal, 1977, 52 (2),

71-73. (EJ 154 621).

Education, Work, and the Young. School Shop, 1977, 36 (7), 27-29.

(EJ 154 561).

148 102
Reubens, Beatrice G. Lessons from Abroad on Employing Youth. Worklife, 1977,

2 (2), 13-15. (EJ 153 230).

Burdetsky, Ben. Troubled Transition: From School to Work. Worklife, 1978,

1 (11), 2-8. (EJ 150 967).

Fullerton, Howard N., Jr.; Flaim, Paul 0. New Labor Force Projections to

1990. Monthly Labor Review, 1976, 99 (12), 3-13. (EJ 149 792).

Wirtz, Willard, Education/Work Policy: A New Imperative, A New Prospect.

Phi Delta Kappan, 1976, 58 (1) 126-131. (EJ 146 446).

Lieberman, Myron, The Future of the Custodial School. Phi Delta Kappan, 1976,

58 (1), 122-125. (EJ 146 445).

Murray, Len. Young Worker Education. Training Officer, 1976, 12 (7),

172-173. (EJ 145 901).

Helmore, R. L. A Unified Approach to Vocational Preparation. Training

Officer, 1976, 12 (7), 160-162. (EJ 145 897).

Silberman, Harry, Improving Work as a Socialization System. Educational

Horizons, 1975-76, 54 (2), 84-9. (EJ 145 756).

Westcott, Diane N. Youth in the Labor Force: An Area Study. Monthly Labor

Review, 1976, 99 (7), 3-9. (EJ 142 453).

David, Bernice F., LEAP, In the Right Direction. Worklife, 1976, 1 (8), 8-13.

Baker, B. Kimball, It's Summer Job Time Again. Worklife, 1976 1 (5), 29-32.

(EJ 137 517).

Frank, Derek. The Cost of Commitment. Training Officer, 1975, 11 (12) 292-4.

(EJ 132 232).

Hedges, Janice Neipert, Youth Unemployment in the year 1974-75 Recession.

Monthly Labor Review, 1976, 99 (1), 49-56. (EJ 130 602).

Grossman, Allyson Sherman, Women in the Labor Force: The Early Years.

Monthly Labor Review, 1975, 98 (11), 3-9. (EJ 127 263).

Guzzardi, Walter, Jr. Education for the World of Work. Fortune, 1975, 92 (4),

124-9, 184, 193. (EJ 125 412).

Vail'eva, E. K. The Socio-occupational Status of Urban Youth. Soviet

Education. 1975, 17, 10-11, 5-142. (EJ 124 930).

Gregg, Edna L. How Young People Hunt for Jobs. Journal of Business

Education, 1975, 50 (8) 324-5. (EJ 118 916).

Schubert, Richard F. We Need a "Rite of Passage" Between School and Work.

Occupational Outlook Quarterly, 1975, 19 (2), 31-4. (EJ 118 863).

103

149
Kicking Off Into Tomorrow. Manpower, 1975, 7,(6), 27-9. (EJ 118 846).

Gifford, Winston C. Firm Support for Summer Jobs. Manpower, 1975, 7 (4), 29-31. (EJ 115 520).

Goldfarb, Robert S. Quantitative Research on the Minimum Wage. Monthly Labor Review, 1975, 98 (4), 44-6. (EJ 115 467).

Atherton, John. The Transition from School to Work. Training Officer, 1975, 11 (3), 74-6. (EJ 115 456).

Rubber Plastics Processing Industry Training Board. Industrial Training International 1974, 9 (11), 338-9. (EJ 108 673).

Uka, N. The Nigerian Youth and Vocational Education. West African Journal of Education, 1974, 18 (1), 39-43. (EJ 107 586).

Tsong, Peter Z. W. Changing Patterns of Labor Force Participation Rates of Nonwhites in the South. Phylon, 1974, 35 (3), 301-312. (EJ 106 797).

Baizerman, Michael; Cooper, Nicholas C. Working Youths: Select Findings from an Exploratory Study.

7-16. (EJ 105 031).

Journal of Youth and Adolexcence, 1974, 3 (1),

Tucker, Larry 0.; Rooker, M. Ferne. TEP: A Constructive Summer Activity. Vocational Guidance Quarterly. 1974, 23 (1), 77-79. (EJ 103 890).

Cohen, Eli E. Revenue Sharing and Youth Manpower Programs. New Generation, 1974, 56 (1), 25-28. (EJ 103 386).

de Figueroa, Teresa Orrego. Youth in Latin America: Reality and Expectations. Americas, 1974, 26 (1), 1-16. (EJ 103 375).

Aguayo, Al. Middle/Junior High School Counselor's Corner. Elementary School Guidance and Counseling, 1974, 8 (4), 210-312. (EJ 097 671).

Aronowitz, Stanley, Employer--School Partnerships. New Generation, 1973, 55 (2&3), 23-36. (EJ 097 201).

Slotkin, Herman. Five Company Programs. New Generation, 1973, 55 (2&3), 8-19. (EJ 097 199).

The Employer's Role in the Transition of Youth: From School to Work. A Conference Report. New Generation, 1973, 55 (2&3), 2-6. (EJ-097 198).

Levine, Donald M. Schools, Youth, and Employment. IAR Research Bulletin, 1974, 14 (2), 3-7. (EJ 094 559).

Eberly, Donald J. An Action Learning Program that Pt..)vides a Change, NASSP Bulletin, 1974, 58 (380), 30-6. (EJ 093 834).

Adolexcence and the Secondary School. Educational Documentation and Information, 1973, 187, 15-81. (EJ 090 263).

150

104
Michelotti, Kopp. Young Workers: In School and Out. Monthly Labor Review,

1973, 96 (9), 11-15. (EJ 083 755).

Marshall, Patricia, Corporate Attitudes Toward Young Workers. Manpower, 1973,

5 (8), 24-28. (EJ 083 687).

105

151
ERIC Documents

Compilation of Reports on the 1978 Summer Youth Employment Program.

Volume II. Washington, D.C.: Office of Youth Programs, 1979, (ED 170

435).

Compilation of Reports on the 1978 Summer Youth Employment Program.

Volume I. Washington, D.C., Office of Youth Programs, 1979. (ED 170

434).

Youth Programs Models and Innovations. Washington, D.C. Office of Youth

Programs, 1979. (ED 169 383).

Youth Emplo anent and Training Act o*: 1977. Washington, D.C. Senate Committee

on Human Resources, 1977. (ED 169 242).

AKnowl.eize/evelop,ment Plan for Youth Initiatives Fiscal 1979. Washington, D.C. Office of Youth Programs, 1978. (ED 169 221).

The Effectiveness of the Washington Occupation Information Service. (WOIS) as

a Career Guidance Instrument for Youth Employment Training Program (YETP)

Clients: An Evaluation of Training and Implementation in 21 Washington

State Comprehensive Employment Training Act (CETA) Sites. Washington

University, Seattle, 1975. (ED 169 220).

CETA Comes to College. Sacramento, California: California Community and

Junior College Association, 1978. (ED 168 628).

Students' Attitudes to Work and Une.lo rent. Part II: The Attitude

Questionnaire. Research Service #152.

Department, 1979. (ED 167 846).

Toronto (Ontario). Research

A Comprehensive Career Development Employability, Vocational, and Coping

Skills Training Program for YETP/SPEDY Youth in the Genesee Intermediate

School District. Executive Summary. Final Report. Amherst, Mass.;

Genesee Intermediate School District. Flint, Mich. Vocational Education

and Career Development Services. 1978. (ED 167 841).

Preparation for Self-Employment: A New Dimension In Vocational Education. A

Report of the National Advisory Council on Vocational Education. Issue

No. 1, January, 1979. Washington D.C., 1979. (ED 167 832).

ETA:. Helping to Improve American Worklife. Washington D.C., 1978. (ED 167

804).

Community Education-Work Councils and CETA-School Collaboration under YEDPA.

Prepared for the Work-Education Consortium Conferences on Enhancing,

Education-Work Transitions for Youth: The Community Collaboration

Approach. Washington, D.C. 1978. (ED 167 768).

Coordinating Education and Work: Challenges to Current Thought and Practice.

Bloomington, Ind.,'1978. (ED 166 78k).

106

1 52
Towards Work-Education Collaboration: Revitalizing an American Tradition.

Washington, D.C.; Ohio State University, Columbus. National Center for

Research in Vocational Education, 1979. (ED 166 417).

Students and Schools. Washington, D.C., 1979. (ED 166 341).

Proceedir-s: National Youth Workers Conference, 1978. Washington, D.C.,

1978. (ED 166 302).

Full Employment and Balanced Growth Act of 1978. Public Law 95-523--Oct. 27,

1978. 95th Congress. Washington, D.C., 1978. (ED 164 974).

Comprehensive Employment and Training Act Amendments of 1978. Conference

Report (To Accompany S.2570). Ninety-Fifth Congress. Second Session.

Washington, D.C. House, 1978. (ED 164 962).

Youth Unemployment: The Outlook and Some Policy Strategies. Budget Issue

Paper for Fiscal Year 1979. Washington, D.C. Congressional Budget

Office, 1978. (ED 164 961).

Remarks of Ernest L. Boyer, U.S. Commissioner of Education at the 1978

Convention of the Ame-scan Vocational Association, Dallas, Texas,

Saturday, December 2, 1978. Dallas, Texas, 1978. (ED 164 960).

Youth Unemployment: Solving the Problem. Washington, D.C., 1978. (ED 165

874).

Refining the Career Education Concept: Part III. Monographs on Career

Education. Washington, D.C., 1978. (ED 164 860).

The Noneconomic Impacts of the Job Corps. R&D Monograph 64. Cambridge,

Mass., 1978. (ED 164 831).

Report on Joint DHEW/DOL Youth Employment and Demonstration Projects Act

Workshops (Dallas, Texas; San Diego, California; Boston, Massachusetts;

Atlanta, Georgia; and Cincinnati, Ohio, December 12, 1977 - January 20,

1978). Washington, D.C., 1978. (ED 164 817).

Final Report--Secondary Impact Study. Chico, California, 1978. (ED 164 244).

Schools and Work. Discussion Paper No. 1. Perth, Australia, 1978. (ED 163

611).

Students, Graduates, and Dropouts In the Labor Market, October 1977. ,Special

Labor Force Report 215. Washington, D.C., Monthly Labor Review, 1978.

Youth Labor Markets acid the Military. The Rand Paper Series. Santa Monica,

California, 1978. (ED 163 199).

Young Women and Employment: What We Know and Need to Know About the

School-to-Work Transition. Washington, D.C., 1978. (ED 163 113).

National Alliance of Business and Career Education. Monographs on Career

Education. Washington, D.C., 1978. (ED 162 160).

107

153
Poor Administration of the 1977 Summer Program for Economically

Disadvantaged Youth in New York City. Washington, D.C., Division of Human Resources, 1978. (ED 161 997).

How Young People Find Career-Entry Jobs: A Review of the Literature.

Baltimore, Maryland, Center for Social Organization of Schools, 1977. (ED 160 821).

YEDPA and Career Education. Washington, D.C., 1978. (ED 160 793).

Research Perpectives on the Transition from School to Work. Report of a

European Contact Workshop Organized by the Institute of Education (ECF)

under the Auspices of the Council of Europe with the Participation of the Commission of the European Communities, Brugge, July, 1977. Strasbourg (France). (ED 160 760).

A Knowledge Development Plan for the Youth Employment and Demonstration Projects Act of 1977. Washington, D.C., Office of Youth Programs. (ED 160 743).

Improving Job Opportunities for Youth: A Review of Prime Sponsor Experience in Implementing the Youth Employment and Demonstration Projects Act. Washington, D.C., 1978. (ED 159 414).

The Challenge of Preparing an Urban Population for Full Employment. 1978 National Leadership Conference for Administrators of Vocational Education in Large Cities. Leadership Training Series No. 56. Ohio State University, Columbus. National Center for Research in Vocational Education. 1978. (ED 159 406).

Employment and Training Report of the President. Transmitted to the Congress,

1978. Washington, D.C.: Office of Human Development, 1978. (ED 159 3gg7.

Job Placement Center. Final Report. Pittsburgh, Pa., 1977. (ED 159 304).

Metropolitan Youth Education Center. Colorado. (ED 158 220).

The Lingering Crisis of Youth Unemployment. Salt Lake City, Utah, Human Resources Institute, 1978. (ED 157 985).

Youth Socialization Via National Service. (ED 156 936).

The Challenge of Youth Employment in Urban Areas. Ohio State University, Columbus. National Center for Research in Vocational Education, 1978.

(ED 156 914).

The Youth Labor Market: A Dynamic Overview. Washington, D.C., 1978. (ED 156 877).

Youth Serving the Community: Realistic Public Service Roles for Young

Workers. Final Report. New York, N.Y., 1978. (ED 156 838).

108

154
Youth Employment Money: Designing Your Local Program. Michigan State

University, East Lansing. Proaction Inst., 1977. (ED 156 735).

Counting Youth: A Comparison of Youth Labor Force Statistics in the Current

Population Survey and the National Longitudinal Surveys. Columbus, Ohio,

Center for Human Resource Research, 1978. (ED 155 491).

Industry/Education Community Councils. NIE Papers in Education and Work:

Number 9. 1977. (ED 155 487).

Career Education and the Comprehensive Employment and Training Act. 1978.

(ED 155 353).

The Youth-Community Coordination Project. Final Report. Washington, D.C.,

1978. (ED 155 298).

Youth and Minority Unemployment: A Study Prepared for the Use of the Joint

Economic Committee, Congress of the United States, Ninety-fifth Congress,

First Session. Joint Committee Print. Washington, D.C., 1977. (ED 155

250)

Employment and Training Administration (DOL). Washington, D.C. Office of

Youth Programs. 1978. (ED 154 243).

An Employment Strategy for the United States: Next Steps. Second Annual

Report to the President and the Congress of the National Commission for

Manpower Policy. Report No. 5. Washington, D.C., 1976. (ED 154 185).

An Interim Report to the Congress of the National Commission for Manpower

Policy. Public Service Employment and Other Responses to Continuing

Unemployment. Report No. 2. Washington, D.C., 1975. (ED 154 183).

Directions for a National Manpower Policy: A Collection of Policy Papers

Prepared for Three Re ional Conferences. A Special Report of the

National Commission for Manpower Policy. Special Report No. 14.

Washington, D.C., 1976. (ED 154 180).

YEDPA: Obligations and Opportunities for American Education. 1977. (ED 154

165).

Youth Unemployment. New York, N.Y., 1977. (ED 154 049).

An Interim Report to the President and the Congress of the National Commission

for Manpower Policy. Addressing Continuing High Levels of Unemployment.

Report No. 4. Washington, D.C., 1976. (ED 153 086).

National Service Programs and Their Effects on Military Manpower and Civilian

Youth Problems. Budget Issue Paper for Fiscal Year 1979. Washington,

D.C. Congressional Budget Office. 1978. (ED 151 584).

A Monitorin and Assessment Plan for the Youth Employment and Demonstration

Pro ects Act of 1977. Washington, D.C., 1977. (ED 151 580).
Toward a Federal Policy on Education and Work. Washington, D.C., 1977. (ED 151 579).

A Guide to Evaluating CETA Title I Programs. Wisconsin Vocational Studies Center, 1975. (ED 151 556).

Services to the American Indian Population to Bridge the Gap between

Education, Culture and the World of Work. Final Report. Rhinelander, Wisconsin, 1978. (ED 151 539).

Oversight Hearing on Youth Employment and Demonstrations Projects Act. Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Employment Opportunities of the Committee on Education and Labor, House of Representatives Ninety-Fifth Congress, First Session (Washington, D.C., November 10, 1977). Washington, D.C., House Committee on Education and Labor, 1977. (ED 151 523).

Handy Reference Guide to the Fair Labor Standards Act. Washington, D.C., Wage and Honor Division, 1977. (ED 150 404).

Child Labor Requirements Nonagricultural Occupations under the Fair Labor Standards Act. Child Labor Bulletin No. 101. Washington, D.C., Wage and Hour Division. 1977. (ED 150 403).

Child Labor Requirements in Agriculture under the Fair Labor Standards Act. Child Labor Bulletin No. 102. Washington, D.C., Wage and Hour Div. 1977. (ED 150 402).

A Planning Charter for the Youth Employment and Demonstration Projects Act of 1977. Washington, D.C., Office of Youth Programs, 1977. (ED 150 321).

Youth Unemployment: The Nature of the Problem and Proposed Solutions. Portland State University,

207). Oregon School of Urban Affairs, 1977. CO 150

Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act Amendments of 1977. Hearin& Before the Subcommittee on Economic Opportunity of the Committee on Education and Labor on H.R. 1137 and H.R. 6111, House of Representatives, Ninety- fifth Congress, First Session. 1977. (ED 149 255).

Career Education: The Role of School-Related Youth Groups and Voluntary Organizations. Information Series No. 18. Columbus, ERIC Clearinghouse

on Career Education, 1977. (ED 149 178).

Our National Education and Work Policy: Pitfalls and Possibilities. A

Position Paper of the AFT Task Force on Educational Issues. Washington, D.C., 1977. (ED 149 012).

The NFE Exchange, No. 9/10, September/November 1977. East Lansing. Inst. for International Studies in Education. 1977. (ED 148 616).

156

110
Youth Unemployment: Implications for Vocational Education R&D. Occasional

Paper No. 32. - Columbus, Ohio. Center for Vocational Education, 1977.

(ED 147 636).

Increasing the Impact of Innovative Projects. Conference Proceedings.

Leadership Training Series No. 51. Ohio State Univ., Columbus. Center

for Vocational Education, 1977. (ED 147 571).

A Comprehensive Occupational Education System: Research and Experimentation

in a Career Development Center. Volume II. Plan for a Comprehensive

Occupational Education System in New York City's Borough of the Bronx.

Brooklyn, N.Y. Division of Educational Planning and Support, 1977.

(ED 147 495).

A Comprehensive Occupational Education System. Research and Experimentation

in a Career Development Center. Volume I. Planning a Comprehensive

Occupational Education System for a Major Metropolitan Area. Brooklyn,

N.Y. Division of Educational Planning and Support, 1977. (ED 147 494).

Career Education: An'Open Door Policy. Bloomington, Indiana, 1977. (ED 147

487).

Comprehensive Employment and Training Act. Hearing Before the Task Force on

Human Resources of the Committee on the Budget, House of Representatives,

Ninety-Fifth Congress, First Session (June 30, 1977). Washington, D.C.

House Committee on the Budget, 1977. (ED 146 431).

Australia. Transition from School to Work or Further Sutdy. Reviews of

National Policies for Education. Paris (France), 1977. (ED 146 389).

Wisconsin Occupational Information System. Annual Progress Report. July 14,

1976 - July 13, 1977. Second Year of Operation. Madison University,

Madison. Wisconsin Vocational Studies Center, 1977. (ED 145 191).

Youth Employment and Training Act of 1977 and Related Legislation; Hearings

before the Subcommittee on Employment Opportunities of the Committee on

Education and Labor House of Re resentatives Ninet -fifth Congress

First Session on H.R. 6138, to Provide Employment and Training Opportunities for Youth. Hearings Held in Washington, D.C., April 19, 21, 27,

and 28, 1977. Washington, D.C., House Committee on Education and Labor,

1977. (ED 145 174).

Entry of Young People into Working Life. General Report. Paris (France),

1977. (ED 145 075).

Public Employment and Training Assistance: Alternative Federal Approaches.

Washington, D.C., Congressional Budget Office. 1977. (ED 143 861).

An Act to Provide Employment and Training Opportunities for Youth, and to

Provide for Other Improvements in Employment and Training Programs.

Public Law 95-93. Ninety-fifth Congress. Washington, D.C., 1977.

(ED 143 857).
Bridges to Work:

N.Y.

International Comparison of Transition Services. New York, Conservation of Human Resources Project. 1977. (ED 143 853).

Reasonable Expectations: Limits on the Promise of Community Councils. Washington, D.C., 1976. (ED 142 727).

Community Councils and the Transitions Between Education and Work. Washington, D.C. 1976. (ED 142 726).

International Pers ectives on Problems of Hi her Education:

Youth Access S stems lo ent. Conference Pa ers

1977. (ED 142 146).

Number Four. New York, N.Y.,

Crucial Issues Pertaining to the Establishment

Councils. of Community-Education Work Washington, D.C., 1976. (ED 141 591).

Policy Options for the Teenage Unemployment Problem.

Washington, D.C. Background Paper No. 13. Congressional Budget Office, 1976. (ED 141 587).

Public Works Employment Act of 1977; Hearings before the Subcommittee on Regional and Communicty Development of the Committee on Environment and Public Works, United States Senate. Ninety- Fifth Congress, First Session on S. 427, A Bill to Provide Additional Authorizations for the

February 2, 3, and 4,

PiorioentProranvJLLtokBftmithorizeaProramforlotoublicienf Teems ed Youth in Communit I..rovement Pro'ects and for Other Pu oses.

1977. Serial No. 95-H5. Washington, D.C. Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works, 1977. (ED 141 579).

Bringing the World of Work and the Institutions of Education Closer To ether. Two Commencement Addresses at the Ohio State University. aesio,All, Occasional Ohio State University. Columbus. Center for Vocational Education. (ED 140 102).

Industry-Education C,

918).

ieborative Efforts in Youth Employment. 1976. (ED 139

Youth Employment; Hearin] before the Joint Economic

United States, Ninety-fourth Committee, Congress of the

1976. Congress, Second Session. Washington, D.C., (ED 139 913).

Youth Unemployment: The Need

1977. folESTAutimaLmAgusash. Washington, D.C., (ED 139 912).

To Amend the Youth Conservation Corps Act of 1970; Hearing before the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs United States Senate, Ninety- ress Second Session on 8.2630 A Bill to Amend the Youth Conservation teli.R. 10138 An Act to Create the 'ma Adult Conservation Corps topmanvt the Youth

Senate Committee on Interior and

fourth Con

Conservation Corps. Washington, D.C.

Insular Affairs. (ED 139 909).

Career Thresholds: Lou itudinal Studies of the Educational and Labor Market gerieliniIen.voleumsiE. Ohio State University, Columbus. Center for Human Resource Research, 1977. (ED 138 831).

112

158
Directions for a National Manpower Policy: A Report on the Proceedings of

Three Regional Conferences. Special Report No. 13. Washington, D.C.,

1976. (ED 138 763).

From School to Work. Improving the Transition. Washington, D.C., 1976.

(ED 138 724).

Analysis and Synthesis of DOL Experience in Youth Transition to Work Programs.

Final Report. Alexandria, Virginia, 1976. (ED 138 721).

Bills to Increase Employment Opportunities through the Youth Conservation

Corps and Other Means, 95th Congress, First Session. Washington, D.C.,

1977. (ED 138 710).

Rite of Passage: The Crisis of Youth's Transition from School to Work.

New York, N.Y., 1976. (ED 138 709).

Young People in the Federal Republic of Germany. Bonn (West Germany). 1977

(ED 138 535).

Students Graduatdt and Dro outs in the Labor Market October 1975. Special

Labor Force Report 199. Washington, D.C., 1976. (ED 137 662).,

Labor Market Information for Youths. Philadelphia, Pa. School of Business

Administration, 1975. .(ED 134 708).

Youth Policy in Transition. Santa Monica, California, 1976. (ED 132 067).

Youth Employment Laws: A Handbook for Supervisors of Young Workers. Pontiac

City School District, Mich. Dept. of Research and Evaluation. (ED 131

284)

The Young Worker and the Law: A Guide for 14-18 Year Olds. Michigan,

Department of Research and Evaluation. (ED 131 283).

Community Education Work Councils. Occasional Paper No. 17. Columbus, Ohio.

Center for Vocational Education, 1976. (ED 131 266).

A Longitudinal Study of Selected Out of School NYC-2 Programs in Four Cities.

Final Report. Washington, D.C. Manpower Research Projects, 1975.

(ED 129 952).

Education and Work. Report of a Seminar. Policy Analysis Service Reports,

Vol. 2, No. 1 June 1976. Washidgton, D.C., Policy Analysis Service.

(ED 128 599).

To Authorize A Limited Waiver of the Child Labor Provisions of the Fair Labor

Standards Act of 1938 with Respect to Certain Agricultural Hand Harvest

Laborers. Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Agricultural Labor of the

Committee on Education and Labor, House of Representatives, Ninety-fourth

Congress, First Session on H.R. 632 (Washington, D.C., April 18, 1975).

Washington, D.C., House Committee on Education and Labor, 1975. (ED 128

133).

113
Agricultural Child Labor Provisions of FLSA, 1975; Hearing before the

Subcommittee on Labor of the Committee and Public Welfare, United States

Senate, Ninety-fourth Congress, First Session (Presque Isle, Maine, January 18, 1975). Washington, D.C., Senate Committee on Labor and Public Welfare, 1975. (ED 125 803).

Agricultural Child Labor Provisions of FLSA, 1974; Hearing Before the

Subcommittee on Labor of the Committee on Labor and Public Welfare, United States Senate, Ninety-third Congress, Second Session (Portland, Oregon. December 6, 1974). Washington, D.C. Senate Committee on Labor and Public Welfare, 1975. (ED 125 802).

The Transition from School to Work: A Study of Laws, Regulations and Practices Restricting Work Experience and Employment Opportunities for Youth. Final Report. Washington, D.C., 1975. (ED 124 762).

1975 Rural Manpower Report North Dakota. North Dakota State Employment Security Bureau. Bismarck Employment Service Division, 1975. (ED 124 363).

Does Authoritarian "Big Stick" Counseling Get Results with Unemployed Youth? 1975. (ED 123 544).

A Step-By-Step Guide to Job Placement. Augusta, Maine. Bureau of Vocational Education. (ED 121 988).

Survey of Des Moines Student Employment. Summer 1974 School Year 1974-75.

Des Moines Public Schools, Iowa, 1975. (ED 121 945).

Youth Develo ment Program Models: A Technical Assistance P hlet.

Washington, D.C., 1971. (ED 119 017).

Project 70,001. An Exemplary Program Establishing Cooperative Distributive

Education for Disadvantaged Youth. Final Report. Hartford, Connecticut. Division of Vocational Education, 1975. (ED 118 917).

Employing Youth in Farm Occupations. Special Paper No. 26. East Lansing. Center for Rural Manpower and Public Affairs, 1975. (ED 118 775).

Deprived Urban Youth: An Economic and Cross-Cultural Analysis of the United

States, Columbia and Peru. 1975. (ED 118 695).

The Measurement of Work-Relevant Attitudes. Final Report.

Manpower Research Projects, 1975. (ED 117 515).

Springfield School District Youth Placement Service.

Schools, Oregon. (ED 117 481).

Washington, D.C.

Springfield Public

An Act to Amend the Youth Conservation Corps Act of 1972 to Expand and Make

Permanent the Youth Youth Conservation Corps, and for Other Purposes. Washington, D.C., 1974. (ED 117 337).

160 114
Youth in the WIN Program: Report on a Survey of Client Backgrounds, Program

Experience, and Subsequent Labor Force Participation. Washington, D.C.,

1975. (ED 117 264).

Effectiveness of High School Job Training: Assessment of Class of 1972 One

and One-Half Years After Graduation. Washington, D.C., 1975.

Job Loss and Other Factors Behind the Recent Increase in Unemployment. Report

No. 446. Washington, D.C., 1975. (ED 112 122).

Career Thresholds: A Longitudinal Study of the Educational and Labor Market

Experience of Male Youth. Volume Five. Ohio State University, Columbus.

Center for Human Resource Research, 1975. (ED 111 961).

Dependents Education: Career Education Grades 9-12. Appendix A: United

States Occupational Manpower and Training Needs, with Emphasis on the

17-20 Year Old Population. Washington, D.C. European Area, 1974.

(ED 111 948).

The E erimental Manpower Laborato as an R & D Capabilit . Final Re ort.

Washington, D.C., Division of Behavioral Sciences, 1974. (ED 111 936).

Final Report on the Yo4LEtaistjatamnascilI21:1112sLiiill South

Carolina. Rock Hill Planning and Management Dept., S.C. (ED 111 899).

Review and Synthesis of Job Placement Literature: Volume I of a Research

Project to Develop a Coordinated Comprehensive Placement System.

Wisconsin University, Madison. Center for Studies in Vocational and

Technical Education, 1975.- (ED 109 428).

Phase 2--Optimizing the Benefits of Neighborhood Youth Corps Projects for

Rural Youth: A Follow Up Study of 1144 Young Adults. Minneapolis,

Minn., 1969. (ED 109 364).

University Library Participation in the Neighborhood Youth Corps Program.

Rochester, Michigan, Kresge Library, 1974. (ED 108 568).

Youth and the Meaning of Work. Part II. Houston University, Texas, 1974.

(ED 108 530).

Youth 1974: Finance-Related Attitudes. Report on the Institute's Third

Biennial Survey of Americans Ages 14 through 25. New York, N.Y., 1974.

(ED 107 559).

Conceptualization of Prototype Placement Program. Ohio State University.

Columbus, Center for Vocational and Technical EducAion, 1973. (ED 106

649).

Model for Implementation of School Placement Services. 1974. (ED 106 477).

Model for School Pre-Employment Activities. 1974. (ED 106 476).

115

161
Career Education: Report of a wingspread conference sponsoreli by National Urban Coalition and Racine

1974.

Environment Committee. Racine, Wisconsin, (ED 106 439).

Extended School Year Programs: The Effects on Achievement and Other Phases of Students' Lives. 1974. (ED 105 635).

1974 Rural Manpower Report. North Dakota. Bismarck Employment Service Division, 1974. (Eu 104 623).

A Study of the East Los Angeles Youth Training and Employment Project. Santa Monica, California, 1971. (ED 103 717).

The New Partnership--Academia and the World of Work, 1974. (ED 103 616).

We, The Youth of America. Suitland, Md., 1973. (ED 102 253).

Job 0 ortunit and Career Books for Junior and Senior Hi _h School Libraries and Guidance Departments. 1974. (ED 101 247).

1973 Rural Manpower Report. North Dakota. ES-225F. Bismarck Employment Service Division, 1973. (ED 100 572).

eriment in the Streets: The Chica o Youth Develo went Project. Final Report. Michigan University, Ana Arbor. Institute for Social Research, 1974. (ED 099 533).

Employability Skills for the Vocational Cooperative Education Student; Cooperative Business Education I: 7775.06. Miami, Florida, 1972. (ED 097 474).

An Investigation of the Influence of the In-School Neighborhood Youth Corps on Employment and Earnings in Houston, Texas, Final Report. Houston University, Texas. Department of Economics, 1974. (ED 097 385).

Sociological Research on Employment Patterns of Youth. Washington, D.C. Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. 1974. (ED 095 406).

Years for Decision: A Longitudinal Study of the Educational and Labor Market Experience of Young Women. Volume Three. Columbus, Ohio. Center for Human Resource Research, 1973. (ED 094 135).

Career Education--Prognosis for a Policy. Menlo Park, California. Educational Policy Research Center, 1971. (ED 094 118).

New Roles for Youth in the School and the Community. New York, N.Y., 1974. (ED 106 182).

Public Law 93-203 Ninet -Third Con ress S. 1559. (Comprehensive Employment and Training Act of 1973). Washington, D.C., 1973. (ED 092 777).

Opportunities for Youth: Culture Design for an Unknown Culture. 1974. (ED 088 790).

62 116.
An Occupational Vocational-Education Model for the State of Delaware. Final

Report. Milford, 1973. (ED 085 532).

The Transition from High School to Work: The Work Attitudes and Early

Occupational Experiences of Young Men. A Special Report from the Youth

in Transition Project. Michigan University, Ann Arbor. Survey Research

Center, 1973. (ED 085 512).

To Expand and Make Permanent the Youth Conservation Corps. Hearing Before the

Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs (U.S. Senate, Ninety-third

Congress, 1st Session on S. 1871, July 25, 1973). Washington, D.C.

Senate Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, 1973. (ED 085 488).

Youth Action to Improve Housing: A. Demonstration in Maintenance Training in

the District of Columbia. Washington, D.C., 1973. (ED 085 442).

Youth: Transition to Adulthood. Report of the Panel on Youth of the

President's Science Advisory Committee. Washington, D.C., 1973. (ED 085

303).

Transition from School to Work: The Role of Career Education. Ithaca, New

York, 1972. (ED 084 461).

Job Losers, Leavers, and Entrants: Traits and Trends. Washington, D.C.,

1973. (ED 084 454).

An Empirical Analysis of the Dual Labor Market Theory. Ohio State University,

Columbus. Center for Human Resource Research, 1973. (ED 084 406).

Economics of Job Search: A Biracial Analysis of Job Search Behavior of Urban

Male Youth Ages 18-22. 1973. (ED 084 359).

Surve and Anal sis of In-School NYC Pro rams. Final Re ort. Lansing,

Michigan, 1973. ED 084 333).

Employment of School Age Youth, October 1972. Special Labor Force Report 158.

Washington, D.C., Division of Labor Force Studies, 1973. (ED 083 474).

Competency Among Hard-To-Employ Youths. Final Report. Michigan University,

Ann Arbor. Center for Research on Utilization of Scientific Knowledge,

1973. (ED 083 430).

Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Equal Opportunities of the Committee on

Education and Labor, House of Representatives, Ninety-third Congress.

First Session on H.R. 7807. Comprehensive Youth Opportunities Act of

1973. Hearing Held Washington, D.C., May 17, 1973. Washington, D.C.,

House Committee on Education and Labor, 1973. (ED 083 351).

Boys Residential Youth Center (Effect of Innovative, Supportive Services in

Changing. Attitudes of "High Risk" Youth). Final Report. New Haven,

Connecticut, 1969. (ED 081 979).

117

163
An Analysis of (1) The Cyclical Stability of Aggregate Employment and (2) The Effects of Federal Minimum Wage Legislation on Teenage Employment. New York, N.Y., 1971. (ED 081 972).

Hardcore Youth Unemployment.

961). California University, Berkeley, 1970. (ED 081

Survey of Recent Literature Relevant to Optimizing the Benefits of Neighborhood Youth Corps Projects for Rural Youth. Minneapolis, Minnesota, 1969. (ED 081 917).

Phase I - Optimizing the, Benefits of Neighborhood Youth Corps Projects for Rural Youth. Final"Report. Minneapolis, Minnesota, 1969. (ED 819 916).

Demonstration Project to Design, Develop and Teach a Model Health Care Career Program for the Neighborhood Youth Corps.

(ED 081 899). Weston, Massachusetts, 1973.

Public Service Employment: An Analysis of its History, Problems, and Prospects. Praeger Special Studies in U.S. Economic, Social and Political Issues Series. 1973. (ED 081 899).

164

118
APPENDIX B

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF

DOCUMENTS FROM APPENDIX A

RELATED TO FOCUS AREA

ISSUES

119

165
CIJE Abstracts

YEDPA Focus: The Tennessee Transition. Site Report No. 1. VocEd, 1979,

54 (2), 47-48. (ES 199 938).

This first in a series highlighting Youth Employment and Demonstration

Projects Act of 1977 (YEDPA) programs describes a guidance and placement

program in Williamson County, Tennesse, to ease students' transition

from school to work through career counselling, job training at Yates

Vocational Center, job placement, and community liaiatm services.

The States as Brokers for Federal Jobs Programs. VocEd, 1978, 53 (6), 52-54.

(EJ 191 935).

Discusses how labor and education can work together to help young people

train for jobs, hold jobs, and continue their education. Focus is on

state agencies coordinating provisions of the Youth Employment

Demonstration Projects Act of 1977 and CETA/YEDPA programs. (MF)

Plenty of Wor%: Not Enough Jobs. VocEd, 1978, 53 (6), 48-51. (EJ 191 934).

The president of the New York Fashion Institute of Technology says that

vocational education should prepare people for always-abundant work,

either on their own or in organizations, and not for jobs that will

always be scarce. He suggests some approaches for linking vocational

education and work. (MF)

A National Policy for Job Creation and Youth Development. VocEd, 1978,

53 (6), 43-47. (EJ 191 933).

The author presents an 18-point action plan to develop youth's job skills

and job opportunities. He calls for a comprehensive youth development

policy including job stimulation, mastery of basis competencies and

employability skills, And the establishment of local-state-federal youth

development councils. (MF)

Unemployment and the Entitled Worker: Job Entitlement and Radical Political

Attitudes Among the Youthful Unemployed. (Social Problems, 1978, 26 (1),

26-37. (EJ 191 743).

The growing atmosphere of entitlement belief among the youthful

unemployed has proved conducive to radical ideologies. Findings indicate

that young, unemployed workers tend to have a universalistic, rather than

an individualistic attitude towards job entitlement. (WI)

Michigan Puts the Unemployed to WORC. Parks and Recreation, 1978, 13 (5),

47, 67. (EJ 189 530).

In an attempt to alleviate problems stemming from high youth unemployment

and dwindling operation and maintenance funds for public lands, the

Michigan legislature instituted the Work Opportunity Resources Corps

(WORC), a successful project that put the unemployed to work doing construction, clean up, and iehabilitatiOn work for public parks and

facilities. (DS)

120

166.
NUL Youth Programs. Urban League Review, 1977, 3 (1), 46-56. (EJ 182 540).

This article indicates some of the ways in which the National Urban

League: has dealt with the problem of minority youth. These ways include

programs such as the Street Academy Program, student internship programs,

and the Balck Executive Exchange Program, a conference on youth

employment, and affiliation with other programs. (Author/AM)

Education-Work Council: The Puerto Rican Experience. Community and Junior

College Journal, 1978, 48 (5), 22-3. (EJ 178 081).

Describes the activities of the Education-Work Council at Bayamon

Regional College (Puerto Rico), one of six colleges participating in a

demonstration program aimed at addressing the problems of unemployed

youth. (LH)

Public Policy to Improvie the Employability of Young People. Educational

Planning, 1977, 4 (2), 94-105. (EJ 177 614).

Compares a state program to deal with youth unemployment, the Ontario

Career Action Program, with cooperative education programs generally.

(Author/IRT)

The Dimensions of Youth Unemployment. Journal of Employment Counselling,

1978, 15 (1), 3-27. (EJ 177 175).

This article explores the lack of job skills and the changing attitudes

of youth toward work as central contributors to youth unemployment.

(Author/MFD)

There are Jobs for Youth in Des Moines. American Vocational Journai, 1977,

52 (8), 48, 50, 56. (E.) 169 174).

The history of Des Moines' Career Placement Center is described and three

categories of its year-round s-Irvice are explained: odd-job employment

through the Rent-A-Kid program, regular part-time employment for students, and permanent employment for graduates. The center's

relationship with the school district's work experience and co-op

programs is also discussed. (BM)

Proven Formula for Employing Youth: 70001. Worklife, 1977, 2 (10), 10-13.

(EJ 167 231).

"70001 Ltd." is a national nonprofit organization which offers unemployed

dropouts a way to complete high school without returning to the public

school classroom ana also to get employment in retail sales occupations.

Its ceucers, frequently located in shopping centers, provide a business

rather than school Invironment. (MF'

YCC: A Recipe for Youth Development. Conservationist, 1977, 32 (3), 11-12.

(EJ 166 570).

A YCC project to improve and finish a complete outdoor education center

is described. The program and objectil.es are outlined. Methods of

121 167
evaluating the students experiences are listed. Testing showed that the

students attitudes toward themselves, peers, and the environment became

more positive. (AJ)

Helping the Elderly Help Themselves. Journal of Home Economics, 1977, 69 (4),

18-20. (EJ 165 430).

A private-sector solution to the problems of the elderly is HomeCall,

Inc. Using the home management approach, the corporation allows the

aging to remain in their homes and buy needed services for home

maintenance from high school and college age persons.

Evaluating Programs for Placing Youth in Jobs. Journal of Vocational

Education Research, 1977, 2 (1), 1-15. (EJ 165 423).

A study to evaluate the effectiveness of three school-based job placement programs in Pennsylvania secondary area vocational-technical schools

indicated that a formalized job placement system can increase the probability of employment for graduates and school leavers. Detailed results

are presented in narrative and tabular form. (MF)

A Universal Youth Service. Social Policy, 1977, 7 (4), 43-6. (EJ 161 410).

Examines the Program for Local Service (PLS)-, which began in 1943 in the

Seattle area. Essentially, the program provided for youth volunteers to

serve in approved public or nonprofit organizations. (Author/AM)

Education, Work and the Young. School Shop, 1977, 36 (7), 27-29. (EJ 154

561).

A U.S. Office of Education (USOE) study presents a mixed picture on

efforts of secondary schools to prepare adolescents for the world of

work. (Editor)

LEAP, in the Right Direction. Worklife, 1976, 1 (8), 8-13. (EJ 142 451).

The National Urban League's LEAP program has opened career opportunities

for nearly 17,000 minority men and women in nine years. Aimed at getting

minority groups into apprenticeships in the building and construction

unions nationwide, LEAP staff recruits youth at high school career days

and in less traditional places. (AJ)

It's Summer Job Time Again. Worklife, 1976, 1 (5), 29-32. (EJ 137 517).

A sampling of innovative summer jobs funded through the Comprehensive

Employment and Training Act (CETA) for economically disadvantaged youth,

14-21 years of age, is presented. (LH)

Education far the World of Work. Fortune, 1975, 92 (4), 124-9, 184, 188, 193.

(EJ 125 412).

Some of today's teenage unemployment can be blamed on poor connections

between schooling and jobs. In many communities businessmen are collaborating with educators to bring the two worlds closer together. In the

168 122
first of a series of articles, the author

events linking the two worlds. (Author/BP)

We Need a "Rite of Passage" Between School and

Quarterly, 1975, 19 (2), 31-4. (EJ 118 863)

cites specific programs and

Work. Occupational Outlook

A former Under Secretary of Labor examines some of the reasons why young

-people have difficulty in making the transtion from student to worker.

The Department of Labor has responded by providing ten initial grants

averaging $300,000, during 1974-75 to stimulate the creation of

occupational information systems in ten selected states. (Author/ED)

Firm Support for Summer Jobs. Manpower, 1975, 7 (4), 29-31. (EJ 115 520).

The Ralston Purina Company of St. Louis pays community agencies to place

youth in summer jobs. (BP)

Working Youths: Select Findings from an Exploratory Study. Journal of Youth

. and Adolescence, 1974, 3 (1), 7-16. (EJ 105 031).

The purpose of this study was to learn more specific research questions

and hypotheses for more rigorous research about the life situation and

personal experiences of youths who work. 272 youths were interviewed.

Select findings from 51 cases are presented on the youth's orientation

to their future: (Author/RC).

TEP: A Constructive Summer Activity. Vocational Guidance Quarterly, 1974,

23 (1), 77-79. (EJ 103 890).

A summer employment program was set up for low-income teenagers to earn

spending money while learning a little about the world of work. (Author)

Middle/Junior High School Counselors' Corner. Elementary School Guidance and

Counseling, 1974,_8-(4), 210-312. (EJ 097 671).

This article provides a brief description of the Sun Valley-Las Casitas

(Colorado) Youth Employment program. This program was developed in

response to increasing anti-social activity among Chicano youths. A

brief evaluation of the program is included. (RWP)

Employer-School Partnerships. New Generation, 1973, 55 (2&3), 23-36.

(EJ 097 201).

Surveys school-employer and cooperative education programs, past and

present. (Author/SB)

Five Company Programs. Nev Generation, 1973, 55 (2&3), 8-19. (EJ 097 199).

This survey of programs operated by five large New York City area

emp:.ayerc was undertaken to discover what can be effectively done to ease the csitical transition from school to work--or from school to

unemploymtnt to work--in good times and bad. (Author)

123

169
An Action Learning Program that Provides a Change. NASSP Bulletin, 1974,

58 (380), 30-6. (EJ 093 834).

Answers to the questions most commonly asked about Action Learning are

beginning to be answered by a test project in Seattle. This article

provides insight into what's happening. (Editor)

170 124
ERIC Abstracts

Youth Programs Models and Innovations. Washington, D.C. Office of Youth

programs, 1979. (ED 169 383).

This report describes twenty federally funded youth employment program

models and innovations. Each four-page description includes the following: program title, name of operating agency, project costs, source of

funds, number of participants, unique program features, duration of

grant, major program goals and objectives, prime sponsor, contact person,

program description, administrative and staffing requirements, recruitment/client profile, outcomes to date, problems/progress, implementation

hints, and general comments. Some representative program titles are the

following: Coordinated Vocational Academic Education, Out-of-School

Youth Cooperative Training Program, City Youth Employment Program, Restructuring Paramedical Occupations, Housing Authority Management Aide,

Job Preparation Program, Training and Work Experience Project, and

Placement Services fur the Handicapped. (EM)

The Effectiveness of the Washington Occupation Information Service (WOIS) as a

Career Guidance Instrument for Youth F loyment TrainiAg Pro ram (YETP)

Clients: An Evaluation of Trainin: and I 14 lementstion in 21 Washington

State Comprehensive Employment Training Act (CETA) Sites. Washington

University, Seattle. Educational Assessment Center, 1978. (ED 169 220).

An evaluation was conducted to determine the usefulness and effectiveness

of the Washington Occupation Information Service (WOIS) materials and

training workshops. Eighty-five Youth Employment and Training Project

(YETP) counselors and administrators from twenty-one Comprehensive

Employment Training Act (CETA) sites throughout Washington participated

in the workshops, which held at eight locations. WhIle at the workshops, the participa .340-sed .$1eir effectiveness through skills

tests, direct observatiows, ;itings, and subsequently, through telephone

interviews. Overall, tSk... tniOning seminars were judge,t to be successful,

although trainees ar. xhree lv,:ations did not achiev_ passing ratings on the post tests. The_ telepho::t interviews also inc'lded questions on the

use and effectivenesa of Wgi materials. Two of the twenty-one sites

were not using the matee.e, at all. Eighty-nine percent of those

commented positively 61x,...7.t The, YETP c:,ents at all sites were

asked to complete V:xmil, 91.ssing the WOIS msterials. Only six sites

returned the question and their results flowed client satisfaction

to be very high. It found that the deg'e. r,f successfulness of WOIS

varied from site to site due to the followipy iLotors: (1) lack of planning time; (2) lack of interest in WOIS by ,;e ?..,:sonnel; (3) complexity

and reading 2evel of materials beyond clit:.Jts' .--,ope; and ;'; lack of

coordination of VMS with other training matL::104.:,v. (ELG)

A Comprehensive Development

Skills Training Provam for YETP/SPEDY 1.uut:, in the Genesee Intermediate

School District. Executive Summary. Fin :. Report. Flint, Michigan,

Vocational Education and Career Development Services, 1978. (ED 167 841).

A CETA Youth Project was designed to provide training in vocational

awareness, self-awareness, coping skills, job skills, employability
skills, career planning, and remedial reading. Over 500 youths between

14-21 wal:e involved ant) many received computer interactional career

training in coordinati with an individualized career class. Significant gains were repsrttl in career exploration, decision making and

career planning. Self-yvport data of the youth confirmed that they were

definitely helped in dv:iding what they wanted to do in their futures.

A 75% increase in the level of coping skills for school and work settings

was found as a result of a systematic delivery of twelve one-hour modules. A similar viz was found in the ability of youth to identify job

openings, develop xvnumes, and take interviews. Two hundred of the five

hundred received 90 hours of vocational training in one of eight different programs. Instructors' ratings of their learnings indicated a marked

improvement. An lamease in reading levels resulted from the application

of a remedial tm!aing conducted on an individual basis and at a work

setting as opposed to an academic setting. Work experiences provided

youth with income ''') help keep them in school and job experiences, which

will help prepare them for future employment. (The complex management

system of the project is described, along with recommendations for

improvements. Data tables are appended.) (Author/CT)

Community Educaticn W Councils.: and CETA-School Collaboration under YEDPA.

Prepared for th,L. Work-Educat;an Consortium Conferences on Enhancing

Education-Work Tranaitiong for Youth: The Community Collaboration

Approach. Washingtoi:, 1978. (ED 167 768).

This report reviews .:nislatively mandated linkages between prime

sponsors and local ezIncetion agencies (LEAS) in providing employment,

education, and training for youth. The legislation discussed includes

(1) the 1977 youth etvloyment and demonstration projects act (YEDPA),

(2) the young..odut conservation corps, (3) the youth incentive entitlement pilot projects, (4) the youth community conservation and improvement

projects, and (5) the youth employment and training program. Senate and

house bil]y, Po,: continuation and revision of the comprehensive employment

and trai:ting amendments (CETA) of 1978, which incorporates YEDPA, arc

discussed, Highlights are presented from a series of department of

Health, Education and Welfare/Department of Labor workshops for prime

sponsors and representatives of LEAS to provide information and to

encourage collaboration on projects authorized under YEDPA. Partit11-

pants's view on implementing collaboration, career development, work

expeeAuce, and academic credit are reported. Various examples are

providtd to demonstrate the work-education consortium council's involvement in assisting CETA/LEA collaboration, involvement with LEAS and

involvement with CETA prime sponsors. The appendix contains relevant

sections of Title IV--Youth Programs of the Comprehensive and Training

Amendments of 1978. (CSS)

Towards Work-Education Collaboration: Revitalizing an American Tradition.

Wasbington, D.C.; Columbus, Ohio. National Center for Research in

Voca=ional Education, 1979.41 (ED 166 417).

Communicty Work-Education Councils are supplying "grass roots" citizen

involvement in policymaking on transitional services for youth moving

from school to work. Since 1977, almost 1,000 people in thirty-three

communities have participated in local work-education councils affiliated

126
with the national work -education consortium. On the average, the

councils consist of twenty-three members representing community leaders

and program directors. The success of such collaborative efforts depends

on the presence of the following fundamentals: leadership,

representation, responsibility, understanding, resources, and

independence to assess their own needs, priorities, ability to initiate

actions, and proper timing for changes. Unlike the needs and priorities

of federal and state programs which are mandated, those of local councils

are selected to suit their specific situations, and vary from emphasis on data collection (to aid'in developing local awareness and understanding

of youth transition issues) to the provision of accurate and up-to-date

career information for youth. Eight of the thirty-three councils

represent rural areas and, with the assistance of the national manpower

institute, have formulated a charter of ten major propositions to improve

rural youth transition. As communities, in general, build on this

charter and the other fundamentals of collaboration, they will achieve

greater influence in shaping education-and-work policy for youth

transition. (ELG)

Youth Unemployment: Solving the Problem. Washington, D.C., 1978. (ED 164

874).

This multi-authored book concentrates on how vocational education can

help alleviate youth unemployment. G. Swanson reviews the role of vocational education in the nation's employment and training programs. He

discusses education and training legislation, changes in legislative and

program emphasis, and the national commitment to institution-based programs. R. Evans examines national youth employment legislation and its

underlying issues and policies. R. Taggart and G. Wurzberg address themselves to opportunities for vocational education in youth employment and

training programs. D. Robinson deals with special needs youth: minorities, handicapped, females, and dropouts. J. Rossbach illustrates

effective strategies for implementing the federal youth legislation,

emphasizing CETA and the Youth Employment and Demonstration Projects Act.

L. D. Briggs examines components of exemplary training programs for

youth. G. Venn describes successful patterns of serving youth through

vocational education, emphasizing the need for educational change.

Finally, L. Gess stresses the need for a national youth development policy, elaborating on the function of policy makers in stimulating youth

employment. Several chapters have lists of suggested readings and

addresses to write for further information. (CT)

The Noneconomic Impacts of the Job Corps. R&D Monograph 64. Cambridge,

Massachusetts, 1978. (ED 164 831).

A three-year pilot study was conducted to determine the non-economic

benefits of the Job Corps on the impact areas of jobs, society, and

health. Representing seven Job Corps Centers, a sample of 489 youths

between the ages of 16 and 22 participated, of whom 85 percent were black

and 87 percent were urban. In order to draw comparisons, the participants were chosen from three different groups: persisters or those who

remained in the Job Corps at least three months; those who dropped out of

the program earlier; and those who did not enroll. Of the twenty-one

outcomes which were measured covering the three impact areas, persisters

12173
were found to have improved in eight areas (job seeking skills, job

satisfaction, attitude toward authority, self-esteem, crime reduction,

nutrition behavior, family relations, and leisure time), while dropouts

only improved in two and non-enrollees in five. Particularly impressive

was the Job Corps' impact on (1) crime reduction, which showed that the

Corps can function effectively as a rehabilitation agent (delinquent

females were found to have benefitted the most with only a four percent

rate of recidivism among persisters, or compared to a much higher rate

for nonenrolled and dropout females; and (2) health, which resulted from

the Corps' providing free medical care to participants, including physical examinations, doctor visits, dental care, and family life and

nutrition education. (Numerous tables throughout display various

analyses of the data collected for this study.) (ELG)

Final Report--Secondary Impact Study. Chico, California, 1978. (ED 164 244).

The Special Secondary Impact Program instituted in fourteen California

secondary schools provided counselling and part time jobs to migrant students to help them stay in school long enough to graduate. The study

examined the program's effect on inter-and intra-state migrant secondary

school students. Variables measured migrant enrollment, migrant enrollment in various types of courses (vocational, college and university

preparatory, and other classes), and number of migrant students graduating. Each target school was paired to a comparison school with like

population size, migrant impaction, and socio-economic description;

migrant students participating in the work study program were compared

with other migrants in their own schools as well as in the comparison

school. Data were developed from 1975 through 1978. In 1977-78 substantial enrollment increases for migrant students were noted at the target

schools. No change in number of school enrollment days for students participating in the program was seen. Participation in work study seemed

to increase the proportion of college preparatory classes taken in high

school by a student as well as the proportion of vocational classes taken

by a female student. For all three years target schools had greater percentages of migrants graduation; tables and graphs suggest that the

target migrant students graduated more often than the comparison students. However, all three groups of migrants graduated with

approximately the same degree of frequency in 1977-78. (DS)

Young Women and Employment: What We Know and Need to Know About the School

to-Work Transition. Washington, D.C., 1978. (ED 163 113).

In this report, summaries of papers given at the conference on young

women's work to school transition are reprinted. Themes addressed

include: (1) problems of teenagers, teenage mothers, and the transition

to adulthood; (2) problems faced by youth and minority youth; and

(3) responsibilities of educators; (4) employment programs; (5) employment prospects in the private sector; and (6) Federal programs for youth

employment. Recommendations of the conference are: (1) women and minorities must work together to improve their job options; (2) stereotypes of

people's expectations of women must be changed if they are to have equal

employment opportunities; (3) institutional changes to promote collective

action and to eliminate sex roles are needed; (4) women must be exposed

to the option of non-traditional employment before they enter high128

174
school; (5) parents must be informed eat job options and of the fact

that their daughters will probably work, extra training must be provided for minority women; (7) good data 1, must be created to provide

information on the employment and unempliyment of women, particularly

minorities. Appendices include a list of conference participants, the

conference agenda, and a bibliography of books related to women and

emplopuent.t, (WI)

National Alliance of Business and Career Education. Monographs on Career

Education. Washington, D.C., 1978. (ED 162 160).

This monograph, summarizing the ideas of participants attending a two-day

mini-conference, provides educators with information on the relationship

between the National Alliance with a section presenting background information on NAB and several standard NAB youth programs. The next section

provides specific examples of NAB involvement with local career education

efforts, including the NAB Career Guidance Institute (CGI) youth program.

Also, examples of collaboration between NAB and Youth Employment Demonstration Program Act (YEDPA) programs in local career education efforts

are presented. Then follows a section highlighting five common problems

along with suggested solutions for closer NAB and career education working relationships. The next section summarizes the hopes and aspirations

expressed by the participants and is followed by some concluding remarks.

A list of participants and issues raised by the participants is attached.

(EN)

How Young People Find Career-Entry Jobs: A Review of the Literature.

Baltimore, Maryland, Center for Social Organization of Schools, 1977.

(ED 160 821).

This report examines the existing literature concerning how young people

enter the labor market and specifies what important questions may be analyzed by existing but untapped data and what issues require further

research. In reviewing the extent of current knowledge, its scope is

found to be limited to three general areas: the role is known of background factors, ability, school performance, and the influence of

teachers, family, and friends on the age (or grade level) at which young

men make the transition from school to work; people are influenced by

their personalities to aspire to certain types of occupations; and young

people find jobs primarily through the assistance of acquaintances and

relatives but prefer direct application .without the intervention of a

third party. Routes for further investigation are suggested as follows:

(1) age/SES socio-economic status/race/education-specific distributions

and transition rates for full- and part-time schooling and simultaneous

employment; (2) longitudinal studies of preferences that include later

actual job outcome characteristics to test the assumption that career

aspiration helps to explain the allocation of different jobs; (3) data on

recruitment methods used nationally by employers (i.e., 'data indicating

age-specific preferences for employees and based on actual behavior); and

(4) more elaborate study of the process of job search, emphasizing patterms of job seeking across occupational situses, heterogeneity of job

search methods, and the relationships among duration, intensity, and

methods of search. (Author/ELG)

12175
Improving Job Opportunities for Youth: A Review of Prime Sponsor Experience

in Implementing the Youth Employment and Demonstration Projects Act.

Washington, D.C. 1978. (ED 159 414).

This report of the National Council on Employment Policy to the

Department of Labor identifies some major themes and analyzes the diverse

experiences occurring in ten case studies. The case studies examine a

total of thirty-seven prime sponsors (in twelve states) charged with

improving job opportunities for youth. "Summary and Recommendations,"

the first of the report's three parts, draws some tentative conclusions

about the effectiveness of prime sponsors and the Department of Labor in

implementing the new youth programs and offers some guidance for forthcoming operations. Part 2, "The National Picture," presents the national

backdrop to the prime sponsor experience. It analyzes national level

conditions and national office policy's direct effects on prime sponsor

plans and experiences. The third part, "Experiences at the Local Level,"

analyzes the case study patterns with reference to the objectives of

the Department of Labor's Office of Youth Programs. In this major portion of the report, there are reviews of knowledge development, work

experience quality under the Youth Employment and Demonstration Projects

Act, youth participation, targeting, substitution, coordinating services

for youth, involvement of community-based organizations, and changes in

institutional relationships. (CSS)

Job Placement Center. Final Report. Pittsburgh, Pa., 1977. (ED 159 304).

Objectives of the second-year project described in this report were

(1) to conduct a series of one-day workshops on job searching skills for

at least 400 high school students and recent graduates; (2) to test

interested students and match individual abilities and interests with

available employment; (3) to contact at least 600 potential employers;

(4) to involve the Bureau of Employment Security; (5) to fill at least

50% of the openings listed with the Center with participating students

and graduates; and (6) to determine the feasibility of establishing satellite centers. Procedures for attaining these objectives are described,

as well as results obtained, including results of a pilot study on satellite placement centers. Four major evaluations are presented: the

Placement Center project overall, and a one-year followup are presented

and include implementing the Job Placement Center program within the high

schools of one or two interested school districts. The major portion of

the report consists of appendixes--primarily the evaluation forms and

responses for both the Job Placement Center and the pilot study.

(Related document ED 137 582 presents the first-year report of the

project.) (BL)

Metropolitan Youth Education Center. 1975 (ED 158 220).

The Metropolitan Youth Education Center's program is designed to help

high school dropouts and the unemployed or under-employed whose problems

are attributable to educational deprivation. The educational program is

highly individualized. Each student program is developed to meFtt the

personal goals, time available, ability and achievement level ,1.f the

student. Within this framework the Center provides basic education, the

prerequisite experiences to qualify for a diploma or to participate in

1 76 130
the General Educational Development Test (GED), as well as training in

employable skills. The students participating in this program range

from 16 to 26 years of age. Their predominant academic deficiencies fall

in the area of reading problems. Counselling services include personal,

academic, social, and vocational counselling which focuses on the establishment of realistic goals and self-concepts for progress into adult

society. Some of the problems of maintaining the programs are funding,

high student turnover and poor transportation to the four geographic

locations. goiever, within a 12-month period 204 students successfully

completed the GED, 258 students received formal high school diplomas and

68 students successfully parti,cipated in a Cooperative Work Study

Program. (Author)

Youth Serving the Communit : Realistic Public Service Roles for Young

Workers. Final Report. New York, N.Y., 1978. (ED 156 838).

This report on youth employment programs is intended to help prime

sponsors and program operators implement innovative youth employment

efforts under the Comprehensive Employment and Training Act (CETA) and

the Youth Employment and Demonstration Project Act (YEDPA). The content

is in two chapters. Chapter 1 covers the introduction, meeting community

needs, recognizing needs of youth, staff, and project elements. The

second chapter, comprising most of the report, provides brief descriptions of work experience projects (many of which involve adults but can

be adapted to meet the needs and abilities of youth) in the following ten

areas: housing, health, environment and conservation, social services,

public safety, public works, cultural and beautification, education,

economic and community development, and clerical and administrative.

Each of the many projects covered includes project title, city and/or

state, bibliographic citation, and description. A bibliography containing 156 references is attached. (EM)

Career Education and the Comprehensive Employment and Training Act. 1978.

(ED 155 353).

The information presented in this document is intended to guide career

educators who wish to tap CETA (Comprehensive Education and Training Act)

funds to help support career education endeavors for inshcool youth,

especially since the 1977 additions from the Youth Employment and Demonstration Project Act (YEDPA) have given CETA a more zignificant role with

the inschool population. The author first traces the role of youth in

pre-CETA manpower programs and in CETA programs to 1977. The relative

effectiveness of CETA program strategies over the past fifteen years is

then summarized and includes a discussion of ineffective program strategies, programs and services of demonstrated effectiveness, strategies

that appear to work best for certain target groups, and administration

practices and related factors :which iniluence success. Next the options

available for serving inschool youth under the 1977-78 laws and practices

are delineated and a discussion focusing on CETA/Career Education interface is presented Finally, recommends ions are offered for linking

career education to current youth employment policies for the enrichment

of both. (BM)
Toward a Federal Policy on Education and Work. Washington, D.C., 1977.

(ED 151 579).

Aspects of the relationship between education and work (career education)

for youths and adults and directions for future federal policy in this

area are identified in this document. Part 1 examines the problems that

youths face in making a successful transition from school to work,

including knowledge of the labor market, self-knowledge of abilities and

aptitudes, occupational socialization, certifying competencies, and

assistance in finding work and developing job seeking skills. Effectiveness of current programs in addressing these problems is also discussed.

It is suggested that the Vocational Education Act or the Comprehensive

Employment and Training Act (CETA) be amended to effect the provision of

school-based placement services and establishment of state career information systems. It is also contended that federal activities in the

areas of certification of competencies, occupational socialization, and

self-knowledge of abilities and aptitudes fall within the categories of

research and development or technical assistance and training and could

be funded under current discretionary authority and budget levels.

Part 2 addresses the problems which adults face in finding opportunities

to change their career or life directions and the inequitable distribution of work in American society. Recommendations for federal policy

focus on research on career and life redirection and renewal, career

information and guidance systems, time-income tradeoff and work scheduling options, and leave-of-absence without pay. Implementation of these

recommendations is discussed. (TA)

Services to the American Indian Population to Bridge the Gap Between

Education, Culture and the World of Work. Final Report. Rhinelander,

Wisconsin, 1978. (ED 151 539).

A project involving three vocational technical and adult education (VTAE)

districts in Wisconsin was undertaken to develop and field test a model

for improving the bridge between school, cultures, and the world of work

for American Indians. Each of the districts had unique needs which

necessitated differing methodologies to achieve the project goals. The

project results follow: (1) approximately 900 American Indian youth were reached through the project activities; (2) activities, such as sending

letters and making presentations, were implemented to familiarize out-ofschool American Indian youth with educational and training opportunit,...,N;

(3) many in-school American Indian youth took advantage of occupatio;lA

guidance and counselling opportunities made available to them; (4) V;AE

student services staff gained a better appreciation of Native American

school participation problems; (5) VTAE faculty members were familiarized

with Wisconsin American Indian culture, aspirations, problems, and needs

through inservice programs, workshops, and working with Native American

students; (6) a slide series featuring Native Americans in successful job

situations was well accepted by students; and (7) the operational model

to improve the bridge between school and work for American Indians varied

in each of the districts. The results indicate that all expectations

were met and exceeded during the first year of the project. (EM)
Career Education: The Role of School-Related Youth Groups and Voluntary

Organizations. Information Series No. 108. Ohio State University,

Columbus. ERIC Clearinghouse on Career Education, 1977. (ED 149 178).

Purposes and activities of existing youth groups and voluntary

organizations are reviewed in this information analysis paper to determine their relationship to career education. Addressed to youth groups

and voluntary organization leaders and sponsors, school administrators

and state department vocational education personnel, the paper also identifies areas which need youth group or volunteer participation and

outlines strategies for filling these needs. Topics discussed include

the following: The individual alodel of career education, the role of

school youth groups and volunteer organizations in career education and an overview of the current career education impact of school youth

groups. School groups designed to help prepare students for occupations

discussed are Distributive Education Clubs of America, Vocational Industrial Clubs of America, Future Homemakers of America, Future Business

Leaders of America, Office Education Association, A Future Farmers of

America. The following information about thes. 1ps is provided:

Sponsoring organization, distribution, participa1,0J types of career

education emphasis provided, and contacts. An ovi cw of the current

career education impact of volunteer organizations is presented and the

following volunteer organizations are described: Boys Clubs of America,

Boy Scouts of America (Exploring Division), Girls Clubs of America, Inc.,

Girl Scouts of the USA, 4-H Clubs, Hire-A-Neighborhood-Youth (WMCA),

Junior Achievement, and the American National Red Cross. (TA)

A Comprehensive Occupational Education System: Research and Experimentation

in a Career Development Center. Volume II. Plan for Comprehensive Occupational Education System in New York City's Borough of the Bronx.

Brooklyn N.Y. Division of Educational Planning and Support, 1977.

(ED 147 495).

Designed to gather and analyze the information needed to develop a plan

for a model comprehensive occupational educational system (CDES), this

research project is reported in five chapters. Chapter 1 provides an

overview of the project which was conducted in the Bronx borough of New

York City because this area exemplifies the problems of urban education

and has a high unemployment rate for minority teenagers. Chapter 2

defines the existing occupational education delivery system, identifies

the unmet needs of the target population and provides an analysis of the

labor market. Chapers 3 and 4 present the plan for a COES and its component parts: a career development center (CDC), a centralized

information system, and a career guidance system. Organized schemes for

both a COES and a CDC are presented, as well as sections dealing with

facilities planning, transportation and scheduling patterns, curriculum

development and coordination with business/industry/labor/community. The

final chapter presents the conclusions and recommendations of the COER

Project (Comprehensive Occupational Education Research). Suggested

guidelines for developing such a system in other large cities are included in a companion document. (BM)

A Comprehensive Occupational Education System. Research and Experimentation

in a Career Development Center. Volume I. Planning a Comprehensive

pN
Occupational Education System for a Major Metropolitan Area. Brooklyn,

N.Y. Division of Educational Planning and Support, 1977. (ED 147 494).

Intended primarily for directors of occupational education for the

development of a comprehensive occupational education system (COES) based

upon the COER (Comprehensive Occupation Education Research) Project model

developed in New York City. After describing the background, objectives,

and implementation of the COER Project and briefly explaining the systems

approach to planning, the recommended action steps for planning such a system are presented under the following twelve major divisions: a comprehensive occupational education plan for a major metropolitan area;

coordination--involvement, business, industry, labor, the community;

public attitudes; vocational guidance, counselling, placement and

followup; personnel development; articulation; monitoring and evaluation;

remediation; handicapped and bilingual; and planning alternative facilities for comprehensive occupational education: a career development

center. Finally, guidelines for planning a career levelopment center

facility are presented. (BM)

Wisconsin Occupational Information System. Annual Progress Report. July 14,

1976 July 13, 1977. Second Year of Operation. Me4ison. Wisconsin

Vocational Studies Center, 1977. (U) 145 191).

The 1977 activities and progress of the Wisconsin Occupational

Information System (WOIS) are described in this second annual report. An

introduction presents an overview of WOIS, including a description of the

computerized system, which is designed to provide quick, accurate, up-todate occupational information for career decision making to a variety of

persons. The body of the report is divided into seven sections:

(1) administrative and organizational information, including the staffing

pattern and job description for WOIS; (2). information development;

(3) delivery systems; (4) user services (product, price, inservice, promotion-marketing information); (5) evaluation; (6) financial information

(WOIS salaries and wages, direct and indirect costs) and (7) future

directions for information delivery, information development, user services, and evaluation procedures. Data tables are presented throughout

the report, and a ninety-three-page appendix includes such items as a

sample occupational description, sample quickie questionnaires, a user

services brochure, and sample user survey sheets. (BL)

Community Councils and the Transitions Between Education and Work.

Washington, D.C., 1976. (ED 142 726).

A change is needed in the present arrangements for the transition of

youth (ages 14 to 20) from education to work to improve their access to

roles which aid in occupational maturity. There are a number of

components to an improvement effort and, within the components, there are

alternative approaches such as starting with a process rather than a

program. A community collaborative process (community education-work

councils) among the institutions and individuals that have the responsibility, resources, and influence to deal effectively with the school to

work transition process should be established. There needs to be some

systematic research of the council concept as a broad collaborative process at the community level and its effect on the school to work
transition of youths. A project hypothesizing that collaboration among

specified institutions will lead to a set of actions that will provide

enlarged opportunities for the occupational maturity of youth can be

designed by using the National Manpower Institute's (NMI) pilot effort to

increase collaboration at the community level as an illustration. This

research project will involve the testing of five subhypotheses evolving

from NMI's effort that represent the expected outcomes of the collaboraAve process. (In addition to discussing the state of the art of

community education-work councils in dealing with the youth transition

from education to work, this paper also addresses briefly the use of such

councils in the transition of adults from work to education.) (EM)

Industry-Education Collaborative Efforts in Youth Employment. 1976. (ED 139

918).

Increasing attention is being paid to linking education and the market

place to preppre youth for a productive role in work. Three areas constitute the ingredients for developing a realistic strategy: (1) Changes

in the market place, (2) a delivery system for increased youth employment, and (3) local industry-education councils. Over the next decade

significant changes will have impact on the employment situation for

youth and will require major adjustments in the educational programs

focusing on school-to-work transition. Some of these trends are technological changes, occupational changes from goods to services, new market

areas primarily in the South and southwest, a rise in educational

requirements, higher incomes, declining birthrate, and more women and

blacks in the work force. A delivery system for youth employment should

focus on school-to-work transition, with industry and education collaborating on the following:. Statement of goals, staff development programs

in career education, school building coordinators in career education,

curriculum restructuring to reflect career education concepts, career

information/resource centers, job placement services (including needs

assessment, job development, student development, placement, and followup), school building-employer partnerships, and task forces of

volunteer career consultants. Industry-education councils can link the

market place and the delivery system on the local level as representatives of business, education, labor, government, agriculture, and the

professions work together on coordination of school industry cooperative

efforts. (LMS)

From School to Work. Improving the Transition. Washington, D.C., 1976.

(ED 138 724).

Youth employment is the focus of this compilation of eleven working

papers (by selected specialists) developed to aid the National Commission

for Manpower Policy (NMCP) in its ongoing efforts to develop a national

manpower policy. An introductory section comments on the overall needs/

conclusions revealed by the policy papers. Policy paper titles and

authors are "Youth Transition to Work:. The Problem and Federal Policy

Setting," by Paul E. Barton; "The Youth Labor Market," by Marcia Freedman; "Corporate Hiring Practices," by the NCMP staff; "Labor Market

Experience of Non-college Youth: A Longitudinal Analysis," by Herbert S.

Parnes and Andrew I. Kohen; "The Competencies of Youth," by Ralph Winfred

Tyler; "Employment and Training Link Education and ,Work," by Dennis

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181
Galagher; "Informational and Counselor Needs in the Transition Process,"

by Seymour L. Wolfbein; "Apprenticeship: A Potential Weapon against

Minority Youth Unemployment," by Ernest G. Green; "Problems of Rural

Youth," by Ray Marshall; and "Foreign and American Experience with the

Youth Transition," by Beatrice G. Reubens. The appendix outlines issues

and policy perspectives drawn from the policy papers. (SH)

Analysis and Synthesis of DOL Experience in Youth Transition to Work Programs.

Final Report. Alexandria, Va., 1976. (ED 138 721).

This report reviews the experience with Federal programs concerned with

the transition from school to work and abstracts lessons and guiding

principles which might prove useful for planning and administering

training and employment programs. The current labor force situation of

youth (persons 16-24 years of age) is reviewed, impediments to the

employment of youth are examined, the demographic and attitudinal characteristics of hard-to-employ youth are analyzed, guiding principles

developed, and program implications described. Recommendations are made

relating to skill training, remedial education, work experience, assessment, counselling, job development and placement, and program

coordination. A selected bibliography is also included. (Author/WL)

Rite of Passage: The Crisis of Youth's Transition from School to Work.

New York, N.Y., 1976. (ED 138 709).

Current high unemployment and underemployment for all youth, and

particularly for youths from poor and minority families, led to this

study on the crisis of youth's transition from school to work. The study

was conducted in four phases: A review of the literature and interviews

with work-force experts to identify issues and alternatives; an analysis

of the data and opinions gathered and the preparation of a background

paper; a critical analysis of that paper; and the preparation of a position paper on youth employment containing specific policy and

programmatic recommendations for both short and long-term policies. The

sixteen recommendations are presented as a group and then substantiated

individually in discussions of (1) the background of work and labor practices, (2) the labor market, including the current job situation,

credentialism, child labor laws, and labor market data and information,

(3) preparation for work, including education, vocational education in

the high schools, postsecondary vocational education, career education,

youth manpower programs, evaluation of the Comprehensive Employment and

Training Act (CETA), and linkages, and (4) Federal Involvement in dealing

with these issues. (TA)

Labor Market Information for Youths. Phildelphia, Pa: School of Business

Administration, 1975. (ED 134 708).

This volume brings together the thirteen papers delivered at the

Conference on improving Labor Market Information for Youth, conducted by

the U.S. Department of Labor and Temple University in 1974. The papers

focus on assessing the role of labor market information in the process

of helping to endow young people with what they need to transact with

the school-work connection. The beginning papers discuss several of the

issues surrounding high unemployment among youth, followed by a factual

136

182.
review of where the United States is and where it is expected to be in

the immediate years ahead in some important dimensions of the population,

labor force, and employment trends relating to youth. The latter series

of papers contain a discussion of the potentialities of improving labor

market information for young people, not only in the kind of information

but in the manner in which it is made available. Titles of the papers

are "The Rites of Passsage," "Approaches to the Transition from School to

Work," "New Developments in Career Education: A National Perspective,"

"Proposal for Educational Work Experience," "The New Worker--Implications

of Demographic Tv-ends," "Youth Employment and Career Entry," "Youth

Employment Opportanities: Changes in the Relative Position of College

and High School Graduates," "Improved Labor Market Information and Career

Choice: Issues is frogram Evaluation," "Improved Job Information: Its

Impact on Long-Run Labor Market Experience," "Occupational Data: The

Foundation of a Labor Market Information System," "Application of Information Systems to Career and Job Choicl," "The California Experience,"

and "Organization of a Career Information System: The Oregon Approach."

(SH)

A Step-By-Step Guide to Job Placement. Topsham, Maine. (ED 121 988).

The document presents a procedural guide for setting up and managing a

job placement program for high school graduates. Four alternative models

are presented: (1) a school-based aladel involving a placement person,

placement office, comprehensive program, and integration into the school

program; (2) a placement team model, involving teacher volunteers;

(3) a regional center model, a cooperative plan utilizing a regional

vocational center; and (4) a senior placement assistant model, featuring

the active involvmeklt of a placement during the final semester to assist

seniors in job - seeking. Steps for a comprehensive placement program are

presented together with materials that will help the students and placement person in he process of job-seeking: (1) needs assessment,

discussing student needs and employer needs; (2) job development;

(3) stAent development, descriptions of job-seeking/job-keeping

seminars, services for undergraduates, games, activities, forms, and

questionnaires; (4) the placement system, discussing the placement of

youn3er students, the company file, various job-related forms, placing

seniors before graduation, and coordination with existing placement

agencies; (5) student followup, focusing on employer role, post-graduate

followup methods and forms, and undergraduate followup groups; and

(6) evaluation methods and forms. (EC)

Project 70,001. An Exemplary Program Establishing Cooperative Distributive

Education for Disadvantaged Youth. Final Report. Hartford, Connecticut.

Division of Vocational Education, 1975. (ED 118 917).

The project combines full-time and on-the-job work experience with

related programs of youth activities and classroom instruction, and provides an avenue for acquiring the Connecticut State Equivalency Diploma.

It is aimed at serving young adults in Hartford, Connecticut who have

left school before completing twelve years and who are unable to obtain

employment. As of June 30, 1975, eighteen of twenty-five enrollees have

been placed in training stations and more than sixty have been interviewed and pretested. More than seventy business contacts have been

137

18t)
made. An advisory committee and a chapter of the Distributive Education

Clubs of America (DECA) have been formed. A sample of the interview

questionnaire which is administered to the prospective program participants appears in the appendix. Also appended are lists of the

participating business firms, membership lists of the DECA chapter and

advisory council, testing data, and information concerning project

meetings. (NJ)

Springfield School District Youth Placement Service. Springfield, Oregon.

(ED 117 481).

The job placement guide, des_ ,d to help individuals (high school or

college students or graduates) nd suitable employment, is presented in

five sections. Each section .4..nrt, items such as checklists, suggestions, and inventories which a stc;ert can use independently to improve

his chances of finding a satisfacto The first section deals with

self-evaluation and includes a person.4..: inventory and a personal vocational quest naaire. The second set. is presents a job conditions

checklist, Buil_ ' 'tons for finding jo. ..;rnacion and job openings, and

a brief descrip a of placement serv. A. ;0!_dance in job evaluation.

Section three hcl-lrr the individual r,e14,- io: t successful job interview. The detail: 0 writing a relv.. 1.retiet:ted in section four.

The final section 0.i:e.,es some suggesti..wts for jot success. Appended are

personal data and _ .asume forms, a sample, resume, and an employer

prospect list form, ;IS)

Review and Synthesis of Job Placement Literature: Volume I of a Research

Project to Develop a Coidrdinated Comprehensive Placement System.

Wisconsin University, Ma4ison. Center for Studies in Vocational awl

Technical Education, 1975. (ED 109 428).

The five-part document reviews the literature of job placement and the

relationship between youth and employment--the barriers, services, and

specific needs. The first part discusses in particular the importance of

the work role, the preparatioa of youth for employment, and the methods

used to secure work as these affect youth's entry into the labor market.

In part 2, the placement needs of youth are examined in terms of unem- ployment, edscational opportunities, career planning, and jab seeking

skills. Specific youth groups are discussed regarding the n.,ique factors

,ffeclag youth'::: abilities to enter an occupational role. The groups

ire: women (in particular, the o.norities), rural youth, dropouts, college bound, and noncollege bound students. Specific problems, possible

,ducatioal pathways for job preparation, surveya of current vocational

guidance programs, and recommendations for vocational guidance discussed for each gr.eup. In pa-t 3, components of the guidance system

through a literature :urve7 of educational and guidance services are presented. In part 4, the family, school, an government as providers of

placement services are reviewed. In part :7., tilt, exemplary models of

placement services are presented. A summary of ..ade current status of

career guidance of youth and a bi'aliography are inclred. (it ,thor/JB)

Youth and the Meaning of Work. Pa ; :t II, Houston Uaiversity, Texas, 1974.

(ED 108 530).

184 138
This document represents a followup of college seniors who

graduated in the spiring of 1972. The i:cst stage of the research dealt

with the career related aspirations, expectations, and apprehensions of

1,858 American college seniors of the class of 1972. This document,

which is the second stage of the study, is based on data obtained from

this group oue year after college graduation. The major purpose of the

followup study is to ident1fy the fit between career-related expectations

and career-related outcoL.:s one year after college graduation. The

document begins with a discussion and review of the first study. The

chapters describe: (1) the procedures utilized in the development of the

followup questionnaire, the process utilized in efforts to reach the res- pondents, tbn results of these efforts, and data dealing with the

representativeness of the followup sample; (2) the marital, geographic,

and caree -related attitudes of graduates; (3) respondents who entered

the employment market after graduation, the process by which college

graduates seek employment, and general attitudes toward current and

future work settings; (4) experiences and attitudes of those who have

pursued graduate and professional school involvements, noting how variables such as sex and field of study relate to variation in graduate

school experience and attitudes; and (5) differenzes and similarities

between three groups using sex, socioeconomic status, and field of study

as variables in explaining differences in post-college activities.

(Author/KE)

Youth 1974: Finance-Related Attitudes. Report on the Institute's Third

Biennial Survey of Americans Ages 14 through 15. New York, N.Y., 1974.

(ED 107 559).

The probability sample for this national survey of youth's attitudes

included 2,510 young people between the ages of 14 and 25 years. Results

indicate that au the start of the 1970's there was a major turn al,t4.1t in

attitudes. The fast ..fangin .1,..titudes of the 1960's seem to have been

replaced by a more stable and corlervative set of views and values.

Young people have grown quite serious and more conventional. Interest in

the youth counterculture has declined while there is a growing interest

in executive and professiorn1 lifestyles. are included on youth's

attitudes toward money, coni.Jmerism, life insurance, life insurance companies, responsibility for fi,ancial well-being, alternative lifestyles,

marriage and the family, work, and careers. (Author/DE)

Model for Implementation. of school Placement Services. 1974. (ED 106 477).

The guide is designed to provide school administrators and guidance

directors with an outline of what has been and what can be developed in

the areas of structure and organization of student job placement programs. It describes a motel program developed for the Akron-Summit

County Ohio secondary schools, and cAlsists of dete.l.led outlines of the

program's orientation and structure. The section 1,,1 orientation deals

with: communicating with top ti4ministrativc f.,;.:aff, contacting and interviewing school principals ant' counselors, meeting with students, and

contacting and involving individuals and groups in the community. The

program structure section deals with: office and logistical organization, staff selection and orienPation, data processing, staff

organization, in-school and out-of-school program phases, and job

139

/85
development. More than half of the guide consists of sample forms and

reports dealing with program procedures and student identification,

illustrative of the structure within which a placement specialist could

operate. (Author/JR)

Model for School Pre-Employment Activities. 1974. (ED 106 476).

The guide argues for the establishment of placement services in secondary

schools and provides detailed instructional units and suggestions for

conducting pre-employment clinics which aim to provide all students leaving school with a basic understanding and working knowledge of the skills

necessary to seek out and obtain employment or additional training and to

utilize available community employment services. Two units focus on

pre-employment forms such as want ads and resumes. Other sections of the

guide describe procedures for: surveying and assessing employment opportunities in the community, in business, and in industry; compiling and

using a guidance career resource file; analyzing promotion opportunities

in assorted job situations; keeping a job, once one is found; and start- ing a business. Suggestions for planning a job hunting clinic and a

sample clinic outline are also provided. Also included are a sample job

application and McBee card, and an agency and organization contact sheet.

A packet containing an assortment of pre-employment-job hunting materials

is appended. (JR)

New Roles for Youth in the School and the Community. New York, N.Y., 1974.

(ED 106 182).

This book provides descriptions of youth involvement projects that have

made significant contributions to young people, their schools, and their

communities. Each description is intended to provide information for

starting and operating similar youth projects. They explain how a par- ticular project began, mention the important problems encountered, and

indicate the kind of support needed for operating the project. Each

chapter has a special focus and contains in depth descriptions of three

appropriate programs and shorter descriptions of additional supplementary

projects. Chapter topics include (1) Youth as Curriculum Builders, (2)

Youth as Teachers, (3) Youth as Community Manpower, (4) Youth as

Entrepreneurs, (5) Youth as Community Problem-Solvers, (6) Youth as

Communicators, and (7) Youth as Resources fcr Youth. The final chapter

offers suggestions on how to judge quality programs, tips for getting a

project started, and necessary adult leadership qualities. (DE)

Bo a Residential Youth Center (Effect of Innovative, Supportive Services in

Changing Attitudes of "High Risk" Youth). Final Report. New Haven,

Connecticut, 1969. (ED 081 979).

The Residential Youth Center, based in the inner city, was established to

house those "high risk" .youths who were not being reached 1)7 existing

manpower programs. The staff consisted of, indigenous, nonprofessional

personnel who worked intensively with families. The project was able to

effect tremendous behavioral changes in dozens of 16-21 year old male

youth who were subsequently enrolled in manpower programs. (Author)

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140
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE:

ACADEMIC CREDIT FOR WORK EXPERIENCE
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

PREFACE 143

INTRODUCTION 146

PURPOSE AND ORGANIZATION 147

DEFINITION OF TERMS 148

;,0 BACKGROUND AND HISTORY 149

PLACEMENTS 155

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 158

COOPERATIVE ARRANGEMENTS/COLLABORATION 162

INTERINSTITUTIONAL LINKAGES 162

PRIVATE SECTOR ROLE 164

TRANSFERABILITY OF CREDIT 167

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 169

CREDIT 171

TYPES AND AMOUNTS OF CREDIT AWARDED 171

CREDIT ASSIGNMENT PROCEDURES 172

TRANSFERABILITY OF CREDIT 175

AWARDING OF CREDIT FOR SUMMER WORK EXPERIENCE 176

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 177

APPENDIX: POLICY QUESTIONS RAISED BY YOUTHWORK AND DOL 180

BIBLIOGRAPHY IST
PREFACE

In August, 1977, the United States Congress approved a bill to combat

youth unemployment titled, Youth Employment and Demonstration Projects Act

(YEDPA). The YEDPA authorizes programs designed to provide youths between the

ages of 14 and 21 with short-term employment, counseling and related services,

education and training. Structured as a demonstration project and written as

an amendment to the 1973 Comprehensive Employment and Training Act (CETA),

YEDPA seeks to determine effective ways of addressing the unemployment

problems of youth. In 1978, when CETA was reauthorized, YEDPA was incorporated into the new legislation without change, but extended for only one more

year (unlike the rest of the CETA legislation) since Congress wanted to see the results of the demonstration before making any decisions regarding the

youth employment program.

Youthwork, Incorporated, a private, non-profit corporation established by

the U. S. Department of Labor, is responsible for helping to implement the Act

(Public Law 95-93). Its functions are to fund and manage exemplary in-school

projects and to develop new knowledge and policy recommendations with regard

to four topical areas: (1) job creation through youth-operated projects;

(2) career information, guidance, and job-seeking skills; (3) expanded

private-sector involvement; and (4) the award of academic credit for work

experience. In addition, Youthwork is charged with developing knowledge about

effective programs and strategies for serving two special target

populations: handicapped and high risk youth.

Six literature searches were commissioned by Youthwork in an effort to

determine the state of the art of each of the above four areas and the two

special categories of youth. The staff of Youthwork, Inc. requested a review

of the literature and current research on the awarding of academic credit for

work experience as a basis for planning future knowledge development in this

area, an important one given the emphasis placed by Congress on the

relationship between education and work in the 1977 Act, the 1978 CETA

reauthorization, and in the legislative revisions currently underway.

The major data sources for this paper were:

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189
I. Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC). The

following descriptors were used in the computer search:

academic credit, college credit, credits; cooperative

education, work experience, work experience programs, work

study program, experiential programs, field experience

programs; experiential education, career exploration,

experience-based; employment experience, job training,

on-the-job training, apprenticeship, in-plant programs; CETA

or Comprehensive Employment and Training Act; school industry

relationship, interagency cooperation; and student evaluation.

2. The Employment and Training Administration (ETA) Index. The

following descriptors were used in a hand search: work experience; youth programs, education; youth; on-the-job training, job training, apprenticeship; and the titles of specific

programs funded by the Department of Labor (DOL) that provide

youth with work experience opportunities, such as the

Neighborhood Youth Corps (NYC), Summer Program for

Economically Disadvantaged Youth (SPEDY)--now called the

Summer Youth Employment Program (SYEP), and CETA.

3. Department of Labor officials who provided me with published

and unpublished reports and documents of relevance to the

search.

4. Representatives of organizations involved in projects

concerned with CETA/LEA collaboration such as the National

Governor's Association, the Chief State School Officers, and

the National Association of State Boards of Education.

The results of those searches and information sought elsewhere (e.g.,

libraries, telephone discussions with individuals involved in operating work

experience or related kinds of programs) are reported in this paper.

The issue of awarding credit for work experience and other types of

experiential learning forces us to reexamine the structure and equity of our

educational institutions, our definitions of and distinctions between education and training, the purposes for which we are educating our youth, and the

reasons we are unable, with our existing educational system, to reach a

particular segment of our youth--the high-school dropout. The educational

system of the United States attempts to meet the needs of a brouler spectrum

of children and youth than any other country in the world. That it fails to

meet the needs of all youngsters should therefore not be surprisin. I firmly

believe the answer lies in providing our youth with as many different types of

educational approaches as we can while advising them of the advantages,

.L.;,0 144
disadvantages and purposes of each. I look upon the new programs developed

under YEDPA, and subsequent legislation, with the hope that as a result of

these programs new methods for teaching "hard to reach" youngsters will be

demonstrated. A more far reaching result will be the closer cooperation and

collaboration of the educational community and the employment and training

community in preparing American youth to lead productive and satisfying lives.

145 -19,1
INTRODUCTION

Some educators looked upon the passage of the Youth Employment and

Demonstration Projects Act (YEDPA) in 1977 with the hope that it would, at

last, legitimize experiential education and resolve the controversy surrounding what is called competence- or performance-based education and the current

system, which is a time-based one. That hope stemmed from the use of the

phrase "academic credit" in the legislation. Knowing that any academic credit

awarded for learning resulting from experience in an out-of-school setting has

to be substantiated and documented to an extent not required for classroom

learning, these educators hoped that the legislation would stimulate a reform

of the entire credit system.

Morris Keeton (1977) described the current system for awarding credits

thusly.

Credit hours do not signify directly what has been learned or

achieved, but represent a time-served measure that correlates,

only roughly and in unknown ways and degrees what has been

learned. (Keeton et al, 1977: 14)

The controversy over credit is related to concerns about the equity of the

present educational system as well as the value of experiential education.

Basically, higher education has been designed for white

middle-class children who can attend residential

programs . . . In this sense, the disenfranchised are the

non-young, non-white, non-middle- and upper-class

students . . . Experiential learnings is a mode of learning

more amendable to the realities of the lives of those who have

been excluded from the traditional mode . . . (Gartner in

Keeton et al, 1977: 38)

Alan Gartner contends that unless experiential education is given a full

status and recognition it will always been seen as an alternative, a poor

substitute for, traditional educational methods.

'..\* The for es at play in this controversy include educators who advocate

performance- ased credit structures, proponents of education as preparation

192 146
for life and work, and policy makers who are determined that agencies and

institutions that provide services to youths at the federal, state and local

levels must work more cooperatively and, therefore, effectively in providing

those services. Arguments over the extent to which education should address

the practical realities of every day life versus other "higher" aims are

long-standing among educators. So are arguments about whether and how to

categorize students for instructional purposes into those of different

achievement levels and goals. Because the issue of awarding credit for work

experience is so closely tied to these basic philosophical and ideological

concerns, they must be confronted by youth employment and training policy

makers if they wish to influence the direction the educational systrm takes

with regard to them.

PURPOSE AND ORGANIZATION

The purpose of this paper is to determine the extent to which current

knowledge can answer eight policy questions raised by Youthwork, Inc. and the

Department of Labor regarding the awarding of academic credit for work experience. These questions, which are included in the appendix (pages 34-35) can,

with some overlap, be grouped into three issue areas.

1. Placements--the differential impact of placing studens in onversus off-campus work experience slots, in public versus

private sector jobs.

2. Cooperative Arrangements/Collaboration--interinstitutional

linkages that promote and strengthen programs that award

academic credit for work experience.

3. Credit--the types and quantities in which credit is awarded,

procedures for evaluating student performance and awarding

credit, transferrability of credit from one institution to

another, and the awarding of credit for summer work

experience.

Most of the questions (numbers 3, 5, 6, 7 and 8) focus in whole or in

part on the awarding of credit. However, the kinds of credit that can be

awarded are related to where a student is placed, and the transferrability of

credit is dependent, in some measure, on how it was awarded. Thus the reader

is cautioned against interpreting these groupings as discrete categories. In

147

1 93
fact, two questions (numbers 6 and 7) are addressed both under the issue area

of Cooperative Arrangements/Collaboration and under that of Credit. Conclusions and recommendations for further research will be discussed within each

area rather than at the end of this paper.

The remainder of this section of the paper will define key terms and

present historical and contextual information about work experience programs.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

Tension between the philosophy that the primary purpose of education is

to train abstract thinkers and the belief that it should prepare youngsters to

lead satisfying and productive lives, lives devoted largely to work, is

reflected in the terms common to education. In the 1950's, during the

post-Sputnik reaction to the expansionist efforts of the progressive education

movement, that had until that time dominated American education, secondary

curricula became structured once again by study of the traditional

disciplines. (Cremin, 1964; Bailey, 1977) The fifties marked a return to a more conservative view of education, especially secondary education, whose

purpose was to develop the ability to think. As a result, the curricular and

credit structures of the high school were more closely aligned to

postsecondary institutions so that a high school education would serve as

preparation for college. Graduation requirements and the dichotomy between

"academic" and elective courses are the result of the concerns of that era for

establishing educational priorities and training youth to think. (Cremin,

1964)

"Academic", whose root meaning is "theoretical" or "abstract" (Webster's

New World Dictionary, 1970), is defined at the secondary level of education as

courses in English, foreign languages, history, economics, mathematics and

science. (Good, 1973) By and large, high school graduation requirements

specify the number of units students must complete in those disciplines.

Academic credit, therefore, is credit awarded for an academic course.

Postsecondary institutions use a slightly different definition, but one

nonetheless that relates to graduation requirements. There the term is

iY4
applied to a general or liberal arts course of study, as opposed to a technical or vocational one. Courses required for the degree are generally

considered "academic" courses. More recently, however, the term has been

broadened to distinguish instructional from noninstructional activities.

Credit is the method by which learning is quantified and certified. It

is awat!td on the basis of time spent in the classroom, commonly known as

"seat time." At secondary schools, credits are "commonly expressed in units,

a unit generally being defined as one subject taken for 1 year, the class

meeting 1 hour daily 5 days a week." (Good, 1973: 153 emphasis added)

Depending upon the local school calendar the total number of hours a class

will meet during the course of the year will vary. The number may range from

120 to 150 hours of classroom or laboratory time.

Postsecondary institutions use the "credit hour"--the equivalent of one

hour's instruction per week in a given subject for a designated number of

weeks in the term. Quarter hours are computed on the basis of a 12-week term,

while semester hours are figured on an 18-week term. The amount of credit

associated with a particular course depends upon the subject being taught

(e.g., one hour of art history is generally worth more credit than one hour of

'drawing) and the number of hours the class is scheduled to meet.

Because credit is awarded on the basis of time spent in a class and in

accordance with a course description prepared by the teacher, rather than on

an assessment of what each student has learned, the kind of credit awarded

depends on the subject of the course. Thus in work experience programs students earn work experience credits, in career exploration classes they earn

career exploration credits, and in English classes they earn English credits.

BACKGROUND AND HISTORY

The establishment of vocational education in this country coincided with

the beginnings of the formal progressive education movement. The Smith-Hughes

Act authorizing federal funding of vocation eduCation was passed in 1917. In

1918 the Committee on the Reorganization of Secondary Education of the

National Education Association published its "even Cardinal Principles of

149

195
Secondary Education." Included among these were vocation education, which the

Committee advocated should be 'part of a comprehensive high school. (Bailey,

1977)

Then in 1939, one year after the progressive education movment had

reached its peak (Crean, 1964: 324), the American Council on Education

criticised vocational education as being too narrow and specific. In

Equal Educational Opportunity for Youth, the Council advocated a closer

relationship between vocational and general education. The following year,

the American Youth Commission of the Council introduced work experience as a necessary part of general education in its publication,

What the High Schools Ought to Teach. (Bailey, 1977)

The movement toward the unification of vocational and academic education

was essentially halted from the 1950's until the mid-sixties. The 1960's

marked the beginning of the current education and work movement. In 1963 the

Smith-Hughes Act was revitalized as the Vocational Education Act. From 1963

to 1968 24 major pieces of legislation were passed, including the Elementary

and Secondary Education Act of 1965 and the Higher Education Act of 1965. The

mid-sixties also gave rise to school critics like John Holt, Postman and

Weingartner, Kohl, Goodman and Illich who advocated reforms ranging from a student-centered approach to education to the elimination of the school as such. It was juat around this time, beginning in 1961 with passage of the

Manpower and Development Training Act, that the federal government began

playing a major role in vocational education and training programs with its

efforts to serve those who were both out of school and out of work.

In-school work experience programs were first federally authorized under

the 1968 Amendments to the Vocational Education Act of 1963. Called the

Cooperative Education and Work Study progrmas, these parts of the Act enabled

secondary and postsecondary schools to establish part-time employment programs

for their, students. The Cooperative Education program, is intended as part of

the students total vocational education. Thework experience placement is to

be in a position relevant to the, student's occupational choice and training

curriculum. The Work: Study program is intended solely as a financial aid
program to youngsters who would otherwise be unable. to complete their

schooling.

V. .tt':

design,

education and work experience programs were originally

ow-income youth--students who would not be continuing their

high school. High-school work experience programs were

developed ..) validate a de facto situation (many youths had part-time

jobs during chool year) and bring it within the realm of the school; and

(2) teach students about paid employment while providing some economic assistance to tbiae who might otherwise not be able to complete school.

Circumstances '-ave since changed the focus of these programs:

o low income, largely minority youth and their parents became

aware of and opposed to what was, in effect, a two-track

educational system that channeled them, into vocational areas_

not requiring postsecondary education, while middle-class

youngsters were directed toward academic, college-preparatory

programs;

o significant numbers of white, middle-class youths sought

alternatives to the college-preparatory program; and

o entrance to and continued participation in co-op and work

experience programs became more and more dependent upon

students' attitudes--as measured by past achievement,

//// attendance, and discipline records--screening out problem

students, large numbers of whom are from low income families,

and others who do not function well in the standard

curriculum.

Eventually, because high school vocational and work experience programs

no longer served their intended populations, other programs funded by the

Department of Labor, were developed. Some of these programs were established

entirely outside the school systems and are designed for high-school dropouts.

Others, especially the most recent ones established under YEDPA and CETA, have

both in- and out-of-school components in order to help their participants

either remain in or return to school.

High school work experience programs are an outgrowth of cooperative

education, which was developed at the postsecondary level. In 1906 the Dean

of the University of Cincinnati, Herman Schneider established a program for
engineering students whereby they alternated periods of study with periods of

full-time employment at engineering companies. In 1921 Antioch College, in

Yellowsprings, Ohio, became the first liberal arts college to offer its students a co-op program. Then in 1924 the General Motors Institute opened the

first industry-sponsored co-op program.

Cooperative education spread slowly during the next forty years, largely

in the fields of engineering and business. However, between 19C2 and the present time a 'tremendous growth spurt resulted in approximately

1,000 postsecondary institutions offering some type of cooperative education

to their students.

The definition of cooperative education as set forth by the Cooperative

Education Division of the American Society for Engineering Education

(CED/ASEE) is as follows:

. . . the integration of classroom work and practical industrial

experience in an organized program under which students alternate

periods of attendance at college with periods of employment in

industry, business or government. The employment constitutes a regular, continuing and essential element in the educational

process, and some minimum amount of employment and minimum standard

of performance are included in the requirements for a degree. The

plan requires that a student's employment be related to some phase of the branch or field of study in which he is engaged, and that it

be diversified in order to afford a spread of experience. It

requires further that his industrial work shall increase in

difficulty and responsibility as he progresses through his college

curriculum, and in general shall parallel as closely as possible

his progress through the academic phases of his education.

(Heybourne, 1978: 336)

The CED/ASEE definition was universally accepted by postsecondary

cooperative educators until co-op spread widely among two -year institutions

and liberal arts colleges. In 1977 the Cooperative Education Association,

which had worked in harmony with CED/ASEE until then, decided to establish

itself as a separate organization because of definitional disagreements

between the two groups. TheCooperative Education Association prefers a

broader definition that includes a wide range of program structures and

varying patterns of combining education and work. (Heybourne, 1978)

152

198
More recently developed programs have experimented with the original

design developed by Schneider. As a result, some of the kinds of programs

often labeled cooperative education include internships, professional practicums, "interlude" programs, universities without walls, and experiential

education programs. (Collins in Keeton, 1971)

Much of the recent growth in co-op has taken place at two-year

institutions. Nearly half of all cooperative education programs are now

operated by two-year colleges. (Cohen et al, 1977) Most two-year programs

focus on such trade and technical careers as auto repair, air conditioning

maintenance, electronics technician, licensed practical nurse, dental assistant, laboratory technician, bookkeeper, clerical worker and accountant.

These programs are much more likely than those at four- and five-year

institutions to develop parallel work and schooling patterns.

Although cooperative education is much more widespread at the secondary

than the postsecondary level of education in this country, few books and

articles on co-op programs discuss them. The literature on the subject is

heavily weighted toward college and university programs. High school co-op

programs are usually categorized as work experience or vocational education

and often the program itself is titled cooperative vocational education.

High school work experience programs fall into several categories. The

traditional program involves part-time employment for students during the

school year and full-time employment during the summer. Some programs require

enrollment in a related instruction class, which often meets once or twice a

week during lunch hour or before or after school. There are two other types

of work experience programs: exploratory work experience and vocational work

experience (often also called cooperative vocational education). In the

former, students are usually not paid since they do not fill part-time jobs

with one employer for the year, but rotate among several employers so they can

observe a variety of jobs or careers in operation. Exploratory work

experience programs are intended to help youngsters make decisions about the

type of work they would like to pursue. Vocational work experience is

patterned after postsecondary cooperative education programs, except students

153
work part-time and go to school part-time. Their work placement is intended

to relate to the occupational classes in which they are enrolled.

There are many other kinds of programs that, in effect, provide students

with work experience, that may or may not earn them credit (academic or otherwise) and pay. These programs come under such rubrics as service-learning,

experiential education, career education, and community education. What they

have in common with work experience programs is their infusion of pragmatic

concerns into the school curriculum and the opportunity they provide students

to incorporate experience in the "real" world into their school experience.

Where they are dissimilar is in the extent to which their requirements for

participation and credit are "academic" is focus and whether the staff member

responsible for the program is credentialed as a counselor, an instructor in a

specific discipline, or as a work experience coordinator, career education

specialist or vocational instructor.

2O0

154
PLACEMENTS

Interestingly enough, although there is not much evidence one way or the

other, there is a widespread belief that work experience placements in private

sector jobs result in more positive outcomes for participants than 21acements

in public sector jobs. (Council of Great City Schools, 1979; Idea et al,

1976; Mangum, 1978; Mangum and Walsh, 1978; Pines and Morlock, 1978, U.S.

Congressional Budget Office, 1976; U.S. Department of Labor, Impacts of YEDPA

on Educaldon/CETA Relationships, 1978; Barton and Fraser, 1978, Vol. 2)

Some studies of cooperative education programs indicate very positive

outcomes for students. A study conducted by Batelle Columbus Laboratories in

1973 (Barton and Fraser, 1978, Vol. 2) and another conducted by Hayes and

Travis in 1976 (Barton and Fraser, 1978, Vol. 2) found that 46% and 53%,

respectively, received and accepted offers of full-time employment after

graduation. Only the Hayes and Travis study, however, identified the

employers as members of the private sector. The problem with most studies of

cooperative education programs is just that--distinctions are not made between

public and private sector employers and therefore outcomes cannot be related

to one or the other.

The Interim Report on Program Implementation of Youth Entitlement

Demonstration (Ball et al, 1979) did make some comparison between public and

private sector 'placements. However, these were limited to counts of the types

of positions available in each sector; information supportive of the contention that the private sector offers students more varied experiences. The

authors report that more than two-thirds of the reported job hours spent by

students working in the public schools were in custodial and maintenance or

clerical positions. (They also raise a concern about the nature of students'

summertime experiences working at schools) Students who worked at

other public agencies were reported to have similar job hour reports with the

exceptions of more participant hours in groundskeeping and community worker

and recreation aide positions. The final public sector category report was on

nonprofit agencies. The two most heavily reported positions were child care

worker and recreation aide. These figures are contrasted with those reported

for private sector jobs.

155

20.1
The private-sector emphasis of several programs contributed to 12 kercent of all Tier I job hours and nearly 22 percent of Tier II job hours being spent by participants in jobs at private firms . . . Work in private firms tended to represent a different mix than jobs for public and nonprofit sponsors. (Ball et al, 1979: 102)

Although clerical and building maintenance occupations still predominated,

food service workers came in a strong third (33.3%, 18.9% and 14.3% respectively). And in most sites "small 'mom and pop' restaurants . . . appeared to

be the primary source of food service jobs." (Ball et al, 1978: 105) Other

types of positions that were available only to participants in the private

sector included sales, fabric and garment work, auto mechanics, service station operation, assembly and packaging, and warehousing/materials handling.

These positions together comprised 35% of the reported job hours.

While this study confirms what everyone already knew, or at least

strongly suspected, that the private sector can offer a wider range of

entry-level positions for work experience students, it does not provide

information on the differential impact of public versus private sector

placements.

A 1968 survey of secondary agricultural work experience program staff

members reported that placement of students in "commercial, out-of-school

settings that provide real job experiences closely related to the student's

course of study" was one of the procedures most high rated by program staff.

Again, however, this does not provide evidence of differential impact.

Only two other reports were found that directly addressed the issue of

the impact of the location of the work experience placement on students. Both

of these (Edelstein, 1975; Sexton, 1976) based their information on research

conducted by the Bureau of Applied Social Research (Columbia University, 1973)

for the Office of Education (its report is titled

Federal College Work-Study Program). These two reports used the Bureau of

Applied Social Research's findings to support arguments that college

work-study programs should expand their off-campus placements. The findings

reported by Edelstein and Sexton state that most programs offered only

on-campus employment. These jobs were reported to have little relationship to

202 156
the participants' academic programs, were largely low-level clerical,

security, maintenance and other campus support positions, and were reported to

provide little job satisfaction to participants. In addition, of those

institutions operating offcampus work-study programs, 75% were reported to be

highly satisfied with it and felt it "not only increases the educational

advantages to the student, but that it improved the institution's image in the

community." (Sexton, 1976: 46)

The underlying issue of private versus public sector placements is

subsidy of private business and substitution of adult workers with youths.

Because policy makers feared a federally-supported youth employment program in

the private sector would have these results, the youth employment programs

have, with the exception of a few experiments, been limited to public sector

placements. The VEPS experiment (Vocational Exploration in the Private

Sector) which was conducted for two years (1971-1973) appears to have somewhat

discounted this fear.

...employers not only failed to get rich from these limited wage

subsidies but viewed the subsidy as only a partial offset to significant extraordinary costs which they incurred in providing

part-time work experience and career exploration to disadvantaged

youth. (Pines and Morlock, 1978: 13; Mangum and Walsh, 1978: 66)

Other reported outcomes of the program include the wide range of positions

available to students (service 20.7%, operative 19%, clerical 27.8%, laborer

13.9%, sales 11.1%, craftsmen 6.5%); improved grade point averages of participants (62%, 32% declined); high school return rate (90.1% remained in school,

53.9% completed VEPS): and a high job placement rate after completing the program (69% remained with VEPS employers, 6.3% hired by other private work

sites). (Sprengel and Torrey, 1974: 3-5)

Other studies link positive programmatic outcomes to post-program jobs

(Walther, 1976; Pines and Morlock, 1978), but fail to expand on the nature of

the relationship or specify whether such a correlation occurs more frequently

in public or private sector work experience programs.

20 157 1-)
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Unfortunately, the scarcity of data prevent draviag any conclusions about

the differential impacts of private versus public sector placements. Logic

tells us, and this at least appears to be supported, that there are much wider

vocational opportunities in the private sector. Students can be exposed to a

broader range of occupations there than in the public sector. Other possible

differences that need verification include:

o higher post-program placement rate for private sector programs;

o higher private sector employment rate for private sector

program completers;

o higher school retention rate for private sector programs; and

o greater participant satisfaction with type of placement in private sector programs.

These are differences that the VEPS study implies. However, the study was conducted nearly ten years ago and, until YEDPA, no other private sector

research has been carried out.

Questions that need to be answered include:

o What impact, if any, would more extensive private sector work experience programs have on the labor market?

o What ratio of work experience and cooperative education program placements are in the private versus public sectors? Can data from these non-DOL-funded programs be analyzed to determine the differential impact of public and private sector placements?

'What is the correlation between placement site (public versus private sector, on-campus versus off-campus) and post-program employment status in the short and long run?

o How widely divergent, if at all, are the skills and knowledge that can be acquired at private versus public sector placements? How transferrable are these skills and knowledge?

o What are participants' perceptions regarding public and private sector work experiences? Do participants' view one or

204 158
the participants' academic programs, were largely low-level clerical,

security, maintenance and other campus support positions, and were reported to

provide little job satisfaction to participants. In addition, of those

institutions operating off campus work - study programs, 75% were reported to be

highly satisfied with it and felt it "not only increases the educational

advantages to the student, but that it improved the institution's image in the

community." (Sexton, 1976: 46)

The underlying issue of private versus public sector placements is

subsidy of private business and substitution of adult workers with youths.

Because policy makers feared a federally-supported youth employment program in

the private sector would have these results, the youth ;employment programs

have, with the exception of a few experiments, been limited to public sector

placements. The VEPS experiment (Vocational Exploration in the Private

Sector) which was conducted for two years (1971-1973) appears to have somewhat

discounted this fear.

...employers not only failed to get rich from these.; limited wage

subsidies but viewed the subsidy as only a partial offset to significant extraordinary costs which they incurred in providing

part-time work experience and career exploration to 4isadvantaged

youth. (Pines and Morlock, 1978: 13; Mangum and Walsii, 1978: 66)

Other reported outcomes of the program include the wide range of positions

available to students (service 20.7%, operative 19%, clerical 27.8%, laborer

13.9%, sales 11.1%, craftsmen 6.5%); improved grade point averages of participants (62%, 32% declined); high school return rate (90.1% remained in school,

53.9% completed VEPS): and a high job placement rate after completing the program (69% remained with VEPS employers, 6.3% hired by other private work

sites). (Sprengel and Tomey, 1974: 3-5)

Other studies link positive programmatic outcomes to post-program jobs

(Walther, 1976; Pines and Morlock, 1978), but fail to expand on the nature of

the relationship or specify whether such a correlation occurs more frequently

in public or private sector work experience programs.

159

205
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Unfortunately, the scarcity of data prevent drawing any conclusions about

the differential impacts of private versus public sector placements. Logic

tells usl and this at least appears to be supported, that there are much wider

vocational opportunities in the private sector. Students can be exposed to a broader range of occupations there than in the public sector. Other possible

differences that need verification include:

o higher post-program placement rate for private sector

programs;

o higher private sector employment rate for private sector

program completers;

o higher school retention rate for private sector programs; and

o greater participant satisfaction with type of placement in private sector programs.

These are differences that the VEPS study implies. However, the study was conducted nearly ten years ago and, until YEDPA, no other private sector

research has been carried out.

Questions that need to be answered include:

o What impact, if any, would more extensive private sector work

experience programs have on the labor market?

o What ratio of work experience and cooperative education

program placements are in the private versus public sectors? -.Can data from these non-DOL-funded programs be analyzed to determine the differential impact of public and private sector placements?

o What is the correlation between placement site (public versus

private sector, on-campus versus off-campus) and post-program

employment status in the short and long run?

o How widely divergent, if at all, are the skills and knowledge

that can be acquired at private versus public sector

placements? How transferrable are these skills and knowledge?

What are participants' perceptions regarding public and

private sector work experiences? Do participants' view one or

160

206
the other as more desireable? Do participants distinguish

between the two?

No studies have been made to compare DOL-funded work experience programs

with others. It woula\he useful to du so given the lack of restrictions on

use of the private sector in those programs. It would, at the very least, be

useful to leafin whether there are differences in outcomes for participants of

those programs who are placed in private sector slots as compared to those

placed .14.,....p)ublic sector slots. (Not all work experience and cooperative

education program placements are in the private sector.)

Finally, given the more recent focus on the development of

non-occupationally related skills such as the ability to develop and execute

plans, interpersonal skills, cooperative skills, processing and interpreting

information, communication skills, problems solving skills,, ability to accept

and handle responsibility, and ability to accept direction Tangum and Walsh,

1978: 74), research needs to be conducted to determine?-whether and how

(

location of placement site might affect those outcomes. is very possible

that such outcomes will be more greatly affected by the personality and skill

of the work supervisor than whether he or she is a public or private sector

employee.

161 20 7/
COOPERATIVE ARRANGEMENTS/COLLABORATION

The essential ingredients to effective cooperative efforts and

interinstitutional linkages are the desire to establish relations among all

parties and the ability to understand and work around one another's constraints. Most of the collaborative arrangements described in the literature

are the result of past history and prior institutional and personal relationships. In places where there has been regular communication between local

education agencies and CETA, it is continued and often leads to the development of innovative programs. Where no such history exists, or where prior

relationships have been poor, collaborative efforts are strained and tend to

follow the path of least resistance.

Nor is it clear exactly what collaboration or cooperation are or should

be. There are few instances in the literature of specific examples of the

forms collaborative arrangements might take. There are no studies on the

comparative effectiveness of institutional linkages among the various constituences involved in providing education and employment services to youth.

INTERINSTITUTIONAL LINKAGES

A report prepared by Kirschner Associates (Blank, 1979) suggests a number

of steps to facilitate cooperative efforts based on the experiences of the

State of Maryland. These include:

1. early involvement of the LEA in designing the program;

4 2. establishment of a CETA/LEA liaison as a formal position that is part of the program or is an adjunct position filled by an individual who has credibility with the LEA (e.g., a former

school board member);

3. regular and frequent meetings at both the administrative and

staff levels of the LEA and CETA;

4. in-service meetings with school faculty to inform them about

the program, its tarket population, and goals;

5. establishment of carry over funds to ease the disjunction

between CETA and LEA funding cycles;

162

2O
6. state-wide meetings of prime sponsors and schools to address

issues, problems, and solutions;

7. development of technical assistance capacity at the state

level;

8. placement of a staff person at each school site to coordinate

the program; and

9. involvement of both CETA and LEA personnel in the hiring of

program staff.

Mangum (1978) suggests that each state career education coordinator

should be placed on the state manpower services council and that a local

career education coordinator should sit on the prime sponsor's manpower

advisory committee. He advocates the linking of career education with youth

employment programs as a means of insuring that youth employment programs

include career development components and as a method of linking the LEA and

CETA. He even goes so far as to recommend requiring that every prime sponsor

youth plan include a career development component. (Mangum, 1978: 45)

Most of the literature, however, speaks in more global terms when

discussing the issue of collaboration. Colmen and Wurzburg (1979), for example, suggest that collaboration could be furthered through the joint

development of legislation by education and manpower policy makers. (As a

matter of fact, the new youth employment and training legislation is being

rewritten with input from both education and manpower officials. In addition,

education legislation currently underway is being designed so that it will

complement the youth bill.) They also suggest that some CETA funds be

channeled directly to the local level through the state as an incentive to

participation by LEAs and an assurance of some measure of independence for

them. Finally, they recommend the establishment of more realistic timetables

by national policy makers.

Reports and case studies of the kinds of arrangements made at local sites

indicate that each site must develop its own--that the process of coming to

agreements is as important, if not more so, than the nature of the agreements

reached. (National Council on Employment Policy, 1978; National Association

of State Boards of Education, 1979;. U.S. DOL, Impacts of YEDPA on Education/CETA Relationships, 1978, Ball et al, 1979)
Although collaborations appear to be matters of procedure simply

arranged, much more institutional identity is at stake than is

first obvious. All partners need time to define roles and

respective instructional responsibilities. (DeMeester, n.d.: 8)

Many arrangements are the result of obvious delineations of

responsibility. In the University Year for ACTION programs, which are funded

by ACTION and co-sponsored by the participating university and community or public service agencies, the collaborative structure is determined by the

characteristics of the participating institutions and agencies. The

university recruits and selects students, finds work assignments, evaluates

learning and awards credit. The community and public service agencies provide

job descriptions and supervise students' work on the job. ACTION provides

students with stipends for off-Cimpus living expenses and supports a university faculty member to supervise the students' learning and award

credit. ACTION also provides per diem and travel to and from work sites for

the faculty supervisor. (Graham, 1972)

A complicating factor in the establishment of institutional linkages is

added by those areas that operate as consortia. Mirengoff and Rindler (1978)

found that consortia are more politically sensitive than city or county prime

sponsors, in part as a result of the desire by each member to get a fair share

of the available resources, and in part because of the already existing tensions between urban and suburban communities. This delicate balance among

members can be upset by racial or ethnic tensions and competition for scarce work experience slots in inner city industrial areas.

PRIVATE SECTOR ROLE

The role of the private sector in CETA programs has been almost entirely

absent because of the legislative mandates and federal regulations prohibiting

it. However, secondary schools and postsecondary institutions have

established a variety of linkages with businesses, industry, and unions in an effort to insure that students graduating from cooperative education and

vocational programs have the necessary skills and contacts to find work.

210
The linkages established take many forms. Most common are advisory

committees or councils, composed of representatives from these three segments

(business, industry, unions) who work with school personnel on curriculum, who

help develop on-the-job training and work experience slots, and who, in

effect, serve as a public relations group for the program. Such groups usually take an active role in helping to solve problems, modernizing and

up-dating vocational programs, and opening doors in the private sector.

The Work-Education Councils project of the National Manpower Institute

(funded by the Department of Labor) operate in much the same manner. These

councils, composed of representatives from industry, commerce, labor, education, government, social service agencies and advocacy groups, are designed to

bring together all constituencies concerned with helping youth make the

transition from school to work. These groups are responsible for identifying

the major local barriers to that transition and designing and implementing

programs to overcome them. The exact form the specific program takes can

range from the development of a clearinghouse for employer resources to

publication of a directory of local career development programs or programs

that provide educators with access to and experience in business, industry and

labor. (National Manpower Institute, 1978; Gudenburg, 1976)

A close working, relationship between local educators and employers can

result in benefits for both. In Downey, California, for example, North

American Rockwell's space division has been involved with local schools since

1964. It provides clerical and secretarial work experience to selected adult

education students of cne school district and supplies teachers and course

materials for a junior college electronics and computer technology program.

Another junior college offers college credit in fourteen courses to employees

at the North American plant. (Banta and Marshall, 1970)

Many two-year postsecondary institutions have developed a program whereby

courses are offered to employees of companies on the company grounds. (Banta

and Marshall, 1970; Beman and Parsons, 1979; Granger and Moore, 1976) Similar

programs have been developed in cooperation with public agencies at both

two-and four-year institutions. (Hoffman, 1976; Central Michigan University,

1974)

165

211
At the secondary level in urban areas across the country (New York City,

Newark, New Orleans, Atlanta, San Jose, Detroit and Dallas, to name a few),

local companies have been making commitments to work cooperatively with educators to improve the schools. This very specific commitment to improve

education is called "partnerships" or "adopt-a-school" programs. (Institute

for Educational Development, 1969; Shive and Rogus, 1979) The result of this

type of effort is the establishment of work experience or internship-like programs, development of new curriculum, workshops by employees on job-seeking

and job-finding skills, and some job placement programs.

Linkages with the private sector in cooperative education and work

experience programs also include the involvement of the work supervisor in

identifying the competencies that can be acquired on the job and assessing the

extent to which the student has acquired them. Although not used as

extensively or effectively as is probably desireable, training plans or

written agreements with employers help structure the students' experience and

defined expected outcomes. Types of agreements used range from very simple

forms stating the overall goal, dates of employment, names and titles of

parties to the agreement, compensation provided (and by whom), and whether

credit will be proved for the experience, to combined agreement/training plans

that list behaviorally-stated objectives the student will be expected to

achieve. However, although widely advocated by educators and program staff,

written agreements are not as widely used as might be expected. (Peart, 1977:

63) More often, program staff rely in job descriptions provided by the

employer and on oral communications and site visits as well as student

reports. (Peart, 1977: 64)

The value of training plans is cited throughout the literature. (Cushman

et al, 1968; Edelstein, 1975; Elias and Niederkorn, 1978; Johnston, 1978;

Peart, 1977; Stull, 1977; White and Eley, 1976) Not only do they provide a written record of understanding among all parties involved, they provide a standard for assessing student development of competencies and facilitate the

involvement of the work supervisor in assessing student performance.

212

166
TRANSFERABILITY OF CREDIT

Collaboration of educational institutions for the purpose of facilitating

the transfer of credit is rare. The most extensive form of such collaboration

exists within state postsecondary structures, whereby two-year institutions

have been developed so that their programs are well-articulated with the

state's four-year institutions. What that means, however, is that students

are informed about the course requirements for transferring from the tvo- to

the four-year institution, they are informed about the courses the institution

requires and accepts, and the two-year college structures its collegepreparatory program to meet those requirements. This situation is similar for

secondary institutions, which try to articulate their programs as much as possible so that students who complete the college preparatory program at the

school encounter little or no trouble when seeking admission to the state's

'colleges and universities.

The transfer of credits is strictly within the purview of the accepting

institution, be it a secondary school, college, or a university. The

following factors are weighed when credit transfers are considered.

1. The characteristics of the receiving institution, its

programs, and its degree requirements.

2. The transfer applicant's needs and educational and

occupational objectives--past and present.

3. The characteristics of the institution or agency which awarded

the credit (including, but not restricted to, its

accreditation status)--for example, credit may be awarded by

collegiate institutions, accredited and non-accredited;

non-collegiate organizations, such as business, industry, and

unions which offer courses and programs; armed forces; foreign

institutions; and credit based on external examination.

4. The characteristics of the credit reported on the transcript:

a. types or levels of credit--for example, remedial,

baccalaurete, technical and/or occupational,

professional, graduate, non-credit, etc.

b. basis on which the credit was awarded--for example,

traditional classroom credit, non-traditional credit

(such as credit by examination, credit awarded on the

basis of experiential learning, etc.), credit for

167213
military service, home studies/ correspondence,

television courses, etc. (Wermers, 1978: iv)

In addition, postsecondary institutions distinguish between acceptance of

credit for admission to the school and acceptance of credit toward a specific

degree.

Similar circumstances are considered by secondary schools when a transfer

of credit is requested.

Only two studies were found that addressed the issue of transferrability

of work experience credit. Both of these were studies of postsecondary institutions and both were conducted more than 10 years ago. A 1966 study by Lauda

compiled the findings of several surveys of postsecondary institutions. Among

these was a 1964 survey of 54 institutions of which 41 responsed. Fifty-seven

percent of the respondents stated that they would accept credit for work

experience from a transfer student. Another survey, reporting information

ONpiled from 201 institutions in the United States and Puerto Rico, noted

that 43 institutions responded to a question about acceptance of transfer

credits. Of these 20 (43.5%) reported they would accept credit based on work

experience from a transfer student and the remainder (23) said they would not,

that the student would have to be reexamined.

The other study was conducted in 1967 by Wayne Purtzer, who sent a survey

instrument to the department chairmen of 80 schools listed in the

Industrial Teacher Education Directory. He received 48 usable responses. He

sought information about required grade point averages for transfer students,

restrictions on the acceptance of transfer credit, procedures, and general

admissions and degree requirements. The size of the sample and the lack of

consistent responses across institutions prevented the author from reaching

any clearcut conclusions.

The major barrier to the transferrability of work experience or other

experience-based credits is the wide diversity in the criteria and methods for

awarding such credit. Even though the great majority of schools at the

secondary level award credits on the basis of time, the formula used varies

214 168
considerably. Some schools stipulate a two-for-one formula that requires the

student to spend twice as many hours on the job as in the classroom for the

same amount of credit. The basis for computing formulas also varies. That

is, one school may require 132 hours of class time as the base while another

requires only 120 or another requires 150. Thus the two-for-one formula could

range from a low of 240 hours to a high of 300. At the same time, there is

great diversity across programs in the quality of that time.

Terminology also causes confusion. All too often researchers use the

term "credit" and "unit" interchangeably. A unit stands for more than one

credit (see Definition of Terms, page 4), usually on the basis of ten to one.

Some schools record units on students' transcripts while others record --t credits. Thus one school might require 20 units for graduation and another

200 credits. A single course would, in the first instance, carry from .5 to

1.0 units and, in the second, from 5 to 10 credits.

Some schools use credits rather than units because it enables them to

award variable amounts--that is, credits in multiple amounts ranging from 2 or

3 all the way up to 15 or 20. This method offers greater flexibility and

allows for more individualization. The unit, also called the carnegie unit

after the man who conceived it, limits the quantities in which credit can be

awarded to multiples of five. Schools using the unit as a basis for their

credit system usually do not award credit in amounts smaller than .5 or larger

than 1.5 for. a single course.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

As long as there are no common criteria and standards for awarding work

experience credit, and as long as the methods of awarding credit vary widely,

the acceptance of credit awarded by one institution at another will be

limited. Gutcher and Mast (1977) contend that the development of a "nationally acceptable system of evaluating work experience to award college credit"

is dependent upon the development of "valid and reliable instrumentation,

adequate norms, interpretive materials, and standards," which, in turn, will

lead to the transferrability of such credits.

169 215
Because the establishment of linkages and collaborative arrangements is a

process that must take place at the local level, the kind of research that

might yield the most productive information is one that examines the processes

used at a select number of sites. The thrust of the youth employment program

is to effect change in the structures and systems that provide services to

youth. Change is a process that involves a multiplicity of forces that both

impede and facilitate change. These need to be studied to determine whether

there are patterns that can be identified and to identify information and

action that could.be taken by others to help reduce the effects of hindering

forces.

The lack of consistent information about credit practices at secondary

schools warrants a survey of schools and programs to determine policies and

procedures for transfer of work experience credits. The information available

in the literature focused primarily on postsecondary institutions.

216

170
CREDIT

There is a dearth of information extant on the credit practices of work

experience and related high school programs across the country. Inconsistencies within program models (such as Experience-Based Career Education) and

from school to school and district to district compound the difficulties

inherent in describing school credit practices. Nor has the literative served

to clarify the problem. Instead researchers, especially some of those who

recently have begun to closely examine the impact of YEDPA and the 1978 CETA

legislation, have added to the problem by not taking care to define their

terms or obtain specifics from program staff.

TYPES AND AMOUNTS OF CREDIT AWARDED

The recent Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation (Ball et al, 1979)

study of the youth entitlement demonstration is a case in point. In the

interim report the authors cite the credit practices of several of the sites

under study.

o Baltimore, where "one-half of one academic credit was awarded

for 132 hours experience if the youths worked steadily for a

period of time."

o Denver, which was "more generous, with five credit hours

awarded for every 250 hours of work."

o Albuquerque, which "offered one school course credit per

semester to each youth in Entitlement who worked 240 hours a semester and participated in job readiness courses offered by

school counselors."

Berkeley, where students could earn "10 academic credits per

semester" if they "attended either the regular or alternative

high school." Ball et al, 1979: 144)

In actuality, every site noted above is awarding credit on a two-for-one

basis. The variations are due to differences in the base number of hours and

the fact that some sites are using credits and others are computing units.

Baltimore, for example, records carnegie units and uses 132 as the base number

of hours for a standard course. Thus, work experience students can only earn

.5 units for 132 hours of work while students in an English class would earn

171
1.0 units for a 132-hour class. Denver, no doubt, is using a similar system.

However, rather than recording units it records credits. Therefore, the five

credit hours students earn in Denver for 250 hours of work is comparable to

the .5 Baltimore allowed. In fact, Baltimore is the more generous site.

Albuquerque uses the same system as Denver, but has a base figure of 120

instead of 125, and is more generous since it does not require a two-for-one

computation. However, Albuquerque does require attendance in a related

course--whose hourly attendance requirements are not reported. Finally, the

Berkeley program is evidently working on the basis of credits, instead of

units, making it comparable to Albuquerque. However, we are not informed of

the base number of hours used for computing the credits assigned.

Unfortunately, the authors do not fully understand what they are reporting and do not realize the definitional problems inherent in discussions

of credit. The type .of credit awarded is not identified except by use

(misuse) of the term "academic". Very few programs enable high school

students to earn academic credits through experiencebased kinds of programs.

Most record the credit as work experience or career development credit on students' transcripts. For students not planning to seek entrance to college

this causes no problems and may, in fact, be helpful. However unless and

until surveys of the credit practices of schools with regard to work

experience and other experience-based programs are conducted in such a way

that distinctions among the kinds and amounts of credit awarded, and the

methods and criteria used to award the credit, can be made, we will not be

able to make any final judgments about their comparative value.

CREDIT ASSIGNMENT PROCEDURES

There are a few programs that do award academic credit for experiential

activities. Experience-Based Career Education is one program model designed

to do just that. The. Executive High School Internships programs also offer

students credit in the course areas required for graduation. These programs

are able to award academic credit because they use a credit assignment model

that is not based on time, but on performance or on the basis of satisfactory

participation in a program designed and judged to carry a certain credit

value.

218 172
The Executive High School Internship program and some of the Northwest

Laboratory's EBCE programs award credit on the basis of satisfactory completion of the program. The program is considered to enable participants to

acquire knowledge and skills over the period of time of a single term or a

year comparable to that which the students would normally learn in class.

Thus the students are awarded credits in those subjects required at that grade

level (e.g., sophomore, junior, senior) plus electives that reflect the unique

content of the program. For students in the internship program it might mean

elective business or social science credits. For EBCE students the credits

would vary considerably, depending on their individual programs.

The Far West EBCE model is an example of performance-based credit

assignment. In this program student project requirements were designed so

that an individual project could be translated into variable credits. Every

student project is expected to meet the following minimal requirements:

Basic skills: effective use of at least one method of

acquiring and one method of communicating information.

o Application of problem-solving skills in the investigation of

a significant problem in the career/subject field under study.

o Career development: acquisition of reasonably extensive

information about two careers in the field and an evaluation

of those careers against the student's own interests, values,

goals, and abilities; or acquisition of some specific career

entrance skills.

o Content goals: understanding

define) at least five major

techniques appropriate to the

student desires to earn credit.

101)

(ability to use, not just

concepts, ideas, skills or subject area in which the

(Chatham and Johnson, 1976:

A student who satisfactorily completes a project meeting the above

requirements is awarded five credits (.5 carnegie units) in one or more subject areas, depending upon the content and skills learned. For example, a

single project could earn a student 2 credits in English and 3 in American

government. Time is used as a check against the quantity and quality of

learning reflected by the project. While some students might be able to

complete such a project in 50 hours (including both time spent with resources

and completing the products for the ell!Ft), others might need 90 hours.

173
However, any student claiming to have completed such a project in 30 hours

would be seriously questioned.

Students who work better in smaller units can plan two or three

consecutive projects to meet the requirements for five credits. The kind of

credit awarded is based upon the skills, concepts, and techniques the student

acquires through the project. Five Project Planning Packages (Commerce,

Communications and Media, Life Science, Physical Science and Social Science)

offer guidelines for determining the kinds of learning that warrant credits in

specific areas. (Banker, Chatham et al, 1976)

A few work experience programs have begun to incorporate some performance-based credit assignment techniques into, their system. The

entitlement program of the city consortium prime sponsor in Maryland is an

example. There students are awarded .5 units of credit for 132 hours of work

experience (a typical two-for-one formula). However, students' work

performance is evaluated using a form called the Employee Progress Report or

EPR. Students are rated on a scale of one to five (five equals excellent, one equals unsatisfactory) on thirteen qualities including:

o amount of work completed

o knowledge of job

o overall quality of work

o ability to follow directions

o initiative

o attendance

o interest-motivation

o dependability

o personal appearance

o communication (oral, written)

o re.lponse to criticism

o self control

o getting along with others

The employer is then asked to rate the student on the basis of whether, if a

position were available, the student would be recommended to fill it (also on

a scale of one to five, with five equaling a definite yes and one a definite

no). The student is rated near the end of each semester and must receive an

overall score of 2:5 for each EPR in order to obtain the credit. Thus, while

'the credit assignment is not strictly performance-based, performance provides
a check against time and insures a minimum standard of performance by the

participants. The limitation of the method is that students are only rated

once a semester at the end of the term. If they were rated three or four

times each semester not only could the evaluation serve as an early warning

signal for youngsters having problems, but progress over the course of the

term could be tracked and each participant would have a better chance of

obtaining a 2.5 average for the term.

TRANSFERABILITY OF CREDIT

As discussed in the section on Cooperative Arrangements/Collaboration,

the major barrier to the transferrability of credit is the lack of accurate

information about the specifics of school credit assignment systems. This is

not so much a problem at the postsecondary as it is on the secondary level of

education.

The American Council on Education publishes the Guide to the Evaluation

of Educational Experiences in the Armed Services (1974) and a similar document

on Evaluating'Apprenticeship Training for College Level Credit (1978). These

two publications, which are regularly up-dated to incorporate new programs and

courses, evaluates each course or program, makes semester credit hour recommendations, provides a course description, and recommed a category of credit

(e.g., vocational/certificate, technical/associate degree, upper division

baccalaureate degree, or graduate degree). However, the information provided

by these publications is only a recommendation. The final decision is made by

the institution to which the student applies.

There is no such similar document at the secondary level, so far as this

author knows. Nor is there anything comparable to the Report to the American

Association of Collegiate Registrars and Admission Officers on Transfer Credit

Practices of Selected Educational Institutions (Wermers (ed.), 1978) at the

secondary level.

175 221
AWARDING OF CREDIT FOR SUMMER WORK EXPERIENCES

There is little mention in the literature of summer work experience

programs that award credit. A summary of reports on the Summer Youth Employment Program (Brandeis University, 1979) makes no mention of credit.

Evidently none of the programs have been able to make the necessary arrangements to be able to award students credit for their summer work experience

participation.

that

A report on youth employment programs in the State of Maryland states

A number of program coordinators mentioned that it would be

advantageous to operate the program year-round, and thus give a

greater number of students an opportunity to earn academic credit.

However, it has been difficult to obtain school personnel that

could be hired for the summer and some of the systems have not been

eager to extend the program over vacation. (Blank, 1979: 29)

In order to be able to award credit for summer work experience programs the

school must be involved and there must be a certificated teacher (or work

experience coordinator) on the staff. This entails extra expenditures for the

school district. It means the students must enroll in summer school (and

cannot be dropouts), that sufficient time and personnel be made available to

perform the tasks necessary for enrollmentin the program, and that there be

sufficient staff hired for the summer program to supervise the students' work,

assess their performance, and record progress, performance and credits earned.

Schools do not have the budget to conduct extensive summer work

experience programs for credit. In communities across the country summer

school is being eliminated. This is especially true in California because of

the budget reductions due to Proposition 13. In addition, districts are

extremely reluctant to establish programs that have uncertain funding futures

since they do not want to start something they may be expected to continue

even though continued funding may not be available.

In some cases communities do not have the resources to pay for

expanded education programs. Furthermore, small, relatively poor

176
school districts are reluctant to institute new programs with

federal or other funds unless they feel confident that the

additional services can be maintained over a period of time without

creating an undue burden on their tax dollars. They do not want to

build up expectations and get people used to services which cannot

be absorbed into local budgets. Because of YEDPA's original

one-year authorization, the long -term, funding issue remains and is

of concern especially to smaller, conservative towns. (U.S. DOL,

Impacts of YEDPA on Education/CETA Relationships, 1978: 25)

Although the above authors state that this concern is especially true for

smaller districts, large urban districts are having as many budget problems as the small ones. Nor are they any less subject to public criticism for

starting programs they cannot continue. Only those districts that are

operating summer school programs and that can afford to add on to those

programs are likely to be receptive. However, even they will require some

financial incentives to do so.

One program that is offering summer work experience students credit is

operated by the City of Duluth Prime Sponsor and the. Duluth Public Shools.

The students, sixty-five high school students, earn .5 units for completing "a

successful work experience" and .5 units for participation in a program of

weekly four-hour job-seeiing seminars. The program was funded by a combination of state summer school aid, secondary vocational aid, Summer Programs

for Economically Disadvantaged funds, and funds from the Governor's Youth

Program. (Minnesota Department of Education, 1979: 33)

Out-of-school youth cannot earn secondary credit. The only option that

might be available would be a program in cooperation with a two-year institution which could, if willing, award high-school dropouts credit for their work

experience.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Unless researchers and policy makers alike take more care in their use of

terms the issue of awarding credit for"work experience will remain confused.

The awarding of academic credit will not be possible without the use of a

performance-based assessment method.
Academic credit may not be the issue in youth employment programs,

however. If, in fact, elective credit will'achieve the results sought, that

is, provide sufficient incentive to participants to remain in (or return to)

school and complete their education, then the Department of Labor does not

need to become embroiled in the controversy over competency-based education.

If I presume correctly that the reports on youth employment programs use the

term "academic" credit as a synonym for work experience (or other elective

credit such as career development) credit, then this supposition may well be

true.

On the other hand, academic credit may be a more useful incentive to

certain types of participants. In which case, some research should be under-

. taken to determine whether there are differential impacts on program

participants when different types of credit are awarded. Such information may

help policy makers decide what it is they really want from the schools and

thus enable attention to focus on the development of effective methods and

strategies to achieve it.

Current credit practices of secondary schools need to be surveyed. Where

academic credit is in fact being awarded, detailed information about the

procedures and criteria used for awarding the credit need to be provided. If

a program evaluation method is used then the criteria for satisfactory participation and the methods used in designing the program to be judged worthy

of credit need spelling out. Furthermore, the exact amount and types of

credit students earn through such programs should be documented. If the

experience designed for credit method is used, the site development procedures

should be documented as well as the criteria and standards for credit assignment, methods of assessing student performance, and the roles of school, CETA,

and employers should be specified. Again, information about the number and

types of credit students earn through such programs should be surveyed so that

the extent to which the methods have been effectively used can be determined.

With the compilation of current practices across the country it might be

possible to begin making the transfer of work experience credits more

feasible. The credit transfer policies and procedures of secondary schools

should be a part of such a nationwide survey.

224 178
The problem of awarding credit for summer work experience requires two

things: (1) evidence that youth employment program funding will have stability, and (2) financial incentives to the schools for providing a summer

school work experience program. Although prime sponsors could work with

community-based organizations and seek state accreditation as a private

school, thus allowing them to award the credit themselves, this could only be

done on a very limited scale. It is more practical to provide financial

assistance to the schools, either in direct costs or by supporting staff

positions (or a combination of both), and help them operate the summer youth

employment program as a summer school program. Questions that need answering

include:

o To what extent will the schools respond to financial

incentives for operating a summer program?

o What restrictions will schools want to place on the program to

meet their criteria of acceptability for credit? For example,

will they want students to work less than full-time so they

can attend some type of related class in order to be awarded

credit?

o Will schools want to open the program to a broader category of

students?

o What are the comparative impacts of a summer program targeted

to CETA-eligible youth that does not award credit and one

(with a mixed and without a mixed population) that does.

fig 22.5
APPENDIX: POLICY QUESTIONS

RAISED BY YOUTHWORK AND DOL

POLICY ISSUES TO BE ADDRESSED IN THE LITERATURE REVIEW:

FOCUS AREA: ACADEMIC CREDIT FOR WORK EXPERIENCE

The following issues represent the most salient and current concerns around

which the literature review must be focused. The material examined during the

literature review must be examined with respect to each of the following

issues.

1. What forms of collaboration among employment, training, educational

(including colleges and universities), and rehabilitation institutions

(including CBO's) are the most effective and the most successful in

facilitating the school-to-work transition sequence? Specifically, what

forms of collaboration and what structural arrangements improve programs

of academic credit and best serve the young people in terms of placing

them in private sector, unsubsidized jobs after program completion?

2. What do we know about the relative effect and value of private sector vs.

public sector programmatic experience in terms of skills acquired, later

(after program) job placement; career and educational success, and overall (long-term) employability? To what extent does what type of

programmatic experience change/alter the impact as a result of the age of

the participants?

3. What do we know about the types of academic credit, e.g., elective,

required, for basic skills, for coping skills, etc., which are currently

being awarded, by what kinds of institutions, for what kinds of work

experience, and for the attainment of what competencies? How can

classroom experiences and approaches be changed to reinforce work

experiences? (The intent of this question is to develop as complete a

picture as possible of the types of academic credit which various

institutions award for varying kinds of work experience.)

4. What do we know about the placement of the work sites? Is it inside or

outside a school system? Does the placement for the work experience

affect the quality and the kinds of information, competencies, and skills

acquired by the participants? If so, what kind of effect does it have?

How can work sites which are part of an academic credit program be better

Managed and maintained to help achieve better program quality? This

question incorporates Academic Credit item #5 from the 1978 Youthwork.

Application Guidelines.

5. Identify and describe the procedures for determining the awarding of

academic credit and the measuring of competencies, basic as well as

coping and occupational skills. (The intent of this question is, among

others, to determine the institutional context and support for less

conventional means for awarding academic credit for work experience.)

Specific questions will include: How can school personnel and systems be

motivated for and made more knowledgeable about the techniques and values

of awarding academic credit for work, including new or improved

approaches? This question incorporates Academic Credit item #4 from the

1978 Youthwork Application Guidelines.

226 180
6. To what extent do we know if academic credits awarded to participants are

transferrable to other institutions, both within the same and in

different school systems? (The intent of this questions is to determine

the extent to which the academic credit is idiosyncratically awarded and

has little utility outside of that institution, thus locking the participant into that school and providing him/her with few transferrable

resources.) What do we know about the linkages between the kinds of work

experience and the kinds of academic credit that are being awarded in

differing locales? What do we know in particular about the differences

in awarding academic credit for the same types of experience in differing

school districts? Are there differences among states, with particular

reference to the adoption of competency based curricula contrasted with

areas/states where such curricula are not used. This question incorporates Academic Credit item #3 from the 1978 Youthwork Application

Guidelines.

7. What do we know about how the private sector can assist schools in

identifying competencies developed, assessing youth work performance, and

improving and expanding efforts to accredit work experience?

8. How can summer youth work be designed and structured to meet school

requirements for award of academic credit, reinforcing school-year work?

November 1979

182
SUPPLEMENT TO THE BIBLIOGRAPHY

ANNOTATED REFERENCES

Bailey, Larry J. Career and Vocational Education in the 1980s: Toward a

Process Approach. Carbondale, Illinois. Occupational Education Program,

Department of Vocational Education Studies, Southern Illinois University

at Carbondale. (Reprint) February 1977.

The author presents a summary of the history of education in the United

States, looking at if from a theoretical perspective. This summary

provides the background information and theoretical grounding for the

balance of the book, which seeks to present vocational education and

career education as an extension of both theory and history in American

education.

Good, Carter V. and Winifred R. Merkel. (Eds.) Dictionary of Education. (3rd

ed.) New York, New York. McGraw-Hill Book Company. 1973.

A dictionary of terms used in education and terms that have particular

meaning in the field of education.

Gudenberg, Karl A. On Developing Community Work-Education Councils.

Washington, D.C. National Manpower Institute. 1977.

This guidebook describes the purposes of work-education councils; how to

set them up; who to include on the council; and the kinds of

responsibilities and tasks they can carry out.

National Manpower Institute. The Work-Education Consortium: An Inventory of

Projects in Progress. Washington, D.C. National Manpower Institute.

April 1978.

Contains summaries of current and completed activities sponsored or

conducted by local collaborative councils (also called community

work-education councils) through a project conducted by_ the National

Manpower Institute. Projects demonstrate the kinds of activities, carried

out by the councils and exemplify the collaborative efforts of local

education, manpower, business, industry, labor and social service groups.

Wermers, Donald J. (ed.) Report to the American Association of Collegiate

Registrars and Admissions Officers on Transfer Credit Practices of

Selected Educational Institutions: A Directory of Higher Education

Institutions in Each State and Territory: and the Practices for Acceptance of Transfer Credit by a. Reporting Institution in Each State.

Washington, D.C. American Association of Collegiate Registrars and

Admissions Officers. 1978.

Lists the acceptance practices of one institution in each state regarding

the transfer of credit from other institutions in that state. The information compiled by AACRAO is not comprehensive, but is meant to exemplify

transfer credit practices and policies.

182
OTHER REFERENCES

Chronicle of Higher Education. "Excerpts from Carnegie Council's Report on Youth." The Chronicle of Higher Education, 19, 14, 11-14. December 3, 1979.

Cremin, Lawrence A. The Transformation of the School: Progressivism in American Education 1876-1957. New York, New York. Vintage Books. 1964.

Edson, C. H. "The Reform of Vocational Education: The Relationship Between Jobs and Schooling." Urban Education, 12, 4, 451-462. January 1978.

Myers, Catherine. "Boost Aid, Improve Programs for Youths Not in College,

Carnegie Panel Urges." The Chronicle of Higher Education, 19, 14, 1, 3. December 3, 1979.

National Manpower Institute. Work and Service Experience for Youth.

Washington, D.C. National Manpower Institute. March 1978.

U.S. Congress. Policy Options for the Teenage Unemployment Problem. Background Paper No. 13. Washington, D.C. Congressional Budget Office,

Congress of the United States. September 21, 1976.

U.S. Congress. Report of Congressional Budget Office Conference on the

Teenage Unemployment Problem: What are the Options? Washington, D.C.

Congressional Budget Office, Congress of the United States. October 14,

1976.

Watkins, Beverly T. "'Continuing-Education Unit' Gains as Meaure of Non-Credit Study." The Chronicle of Higher Education, 18, 18, 8. July 9, 1979.

183 229
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ANNOTATED REFERENCES

Aun, Emil Michael. "Liking Life with Academe." Manpower, 6, 6, 26-31. June 1974.

Article on NYC Urban Corps, established in 1966. College students are placed in work experience slots according to their majors and career interests. They work up to 15 hours per week in city offices during the

school years and 35 hours per week for 10 weeks during the summers. Pay ranges from $2.25-$3.25 with 20% paid by the city and 80% paid by the

institution with U.S. OE College Work Study funds.

Ayres, Mary Ellen. "Cooperative Education: Where School and Industry Meet."

Occupational Outlook Quarterly, 22, 3, 21-23. Fall 1978.

Overview of coop education at the post-secondary level and a description

of three different types of programs.

Bailey, Larry J. "Implications of the Current 'Education and Work "Studies

Phenomenon.". Department of Vocational Education Studies, Southern

Illinois University, Carbondale, Illinois. June 15, 1977. A discussion

paper prepared under Illinois Office-of 8deration, Department of Adult, Vocational and Technical Education grant BBC-87-244.

This paper is the second part of the grant'S .final project report, entitled Career and. Vocational Education in the 1980's: Toward a

Process Approach. The first part summarizes activities related'to the

reprinting and dissemination of a monograph prepared under another grant. The monograph discussed the.. continued evolution of Bailey's theory of career education, which is rooted in humanistic psychology and career development theory. TbisAocument reviews the literature and ,research with regard to: the quality of working life; the career, education move- ment; the reform of secondary education; manpower development; and the reappraisal of vocational education philosophy and purpose. It draws concluiions 'and makes recommendations for the Department of Adult,

Vocational and Technical Education of the Tllinois Office of Education.

Ball, Joseph, William Diza, Joah Leiman, Sheila Mandel and Kenneth McNutt.

The Youth Entitlement Demonstration: An Interim Report on Program

Implementation. New York, New York. Manpower Demonstration Research

Corporation. April 1979.

An interim report on the_entitlement subtitle of the YEDPA legislation of 1977, it includes chapters on the role of achools in implementing the entitlement program and on preliminary findings resulting from AIDRC's

study. The major issue related to CETA/LEA collaboration and,-coordina- tion with the entitlement program haeto do with the establishment and

enforcement of minimal attendance and academic standards for continuing participation in the program by eligible students. Since schools are designed to serve all students most have few orno.standards regarding appropriate attendance or academic standing for continued enrollment.

Standards. exist for graduation, not enrollment. In addition, it is to the disadvantage of schools to expell students for poor attendance and

academic records since they lose ADA funding from the state on the basis

185
of the number of bodies in attendance. Other problems included flexible

scheduling to enable participants to have sufficient time to get to work

and spend at the job site, and the awarding of credit for their work

experience. Reports of methods used to award credit and the amounts and

types of credit awarded are not sufficiently detailed to enable

cross-site comparisons.

Banker, Nancy Sirmay. Knowledge Development Guidebook: Academic Credit for

Work Experience. Draft of a document under publication by Youthwork,

Inc., Washington, D.C., 1978.

A guidebook to YEDPA program operators to help them plan and carry out

knowledge development activities mandated by the legislation. This document is specifically focused upon knowledge development concerns of

programs that seek to award academic credit to their participants. It

provides an array of research questions that programs could address,

suggests methods of collecting data to answer those questions, and offers

guidelines for planning knowledge development activities and

incorporating them into the operating process.

Banker, Nancy, Karen H. Chatham et al., James N. Johnson (ed).

E 'erience -Based Career Education: The Far West Model. Four Volumes.

San Francisco: Far West Laboratory for Educational Research and

Development, 1976.

This four-volume work contains operational guidelines, examples, forms,

procedures, and complete information regarding the Far West Laboratory

model of EBCE. The volumes include information on managing and administering a program, recruiting and developing resources, the guidanceand

instruction component, and methods of assessing learning and awarding

academic credit.

Barclay, Suzanne, Christine Botton, George Farkas, Ernst W. Stromsdorfer (Abt

Associates, Inc.) and Randall J. Olsen (Yale University). Schooling and

Work Among Youths From Low-Income Households: A Baseline Report from the

Entitlement Demonstration. New York, New York. Manpower Demonstration

Research Corporation. April 1979.

Provides descriptive information regarding the youth entitlement program,

analyses the policy and methodological issues of the study, and presents

preliminary concluzionm based on the available data.

Barton, Paul E. and Bryn a Stare Fraser. Between Two Worlds:

From School to Work. Three Volumes. A synthesis of knowledge, a summary

of program evaluations and a research and experimentation strategy.

Washington, D.C.: National Manpower Institute, Center for Education and

Work, August 1978.

Youth Transition

This three-volume work addresses the current state of youth transition

programs and the major issues and problems that must be faced if youths

are to be helped in making the transition from school to work. Volume 1

spells out existing problems, conditions, and issues. Volume 2 compiles

and summarizes the major evaluation studies of transition programs.

232 18.6:
Volume 3 suggests a strategy for carrying out further research and

experimentation in this area.

Beister, Thomas W. Evaluation of Cumulative Effects of RBS Career Education,

1974-1976. Philadelphia, PA: Research for Better Schools, Inc., 1976.

This report presents data collected during a two-year period using

control and experimental groups. The data focus primarily on student

outcmes.

Beister, Thomas W., Mark W. Blair and Keith M. Kershner. Replication of RBS

Career Education: The 1976-1977 Pilot Site Effort. Philadelphia, PA:

Research for Better Schools, Inc., 1977.

This is a report of findings that resulted from the evaluation of RBS'

pilot sites. The report analyses student outcome data and participant

opinions and perceptions. The primary emphasis on the evaluation was to

determine whether student effects demonstrated in previous evaluations

were replicated at the pilot sites.

Bernhardt, Vickie L. and Thomas R. Owens. Experience-Based Career Education:

Evaluation Synthesis of Second Year. Pilot Sites 1976-77. Draft for

Review and Discussion Only. Portland, OR: Northwest Regional

Educational Laboratory, 1978.

This unpublished paper compiled data from all four laboratories--Far West

Laboratory, Northwest Laboratory, Research for Better Schools, and

Appalachia Laboratory--in order to synthesize evaluation data each had

obtained from programs implementing their EBCE models. The purpose of

the report is to describe common outcomes demonstrated across all four

models and across the ten pilot sites studied.

Blank, Rolf. An Analysis of Academic Credit for Work Experience and

Transition Services in CETA-LEA Programs. A report prepared for the

National Association of State Boards of Education Task Force and the

Maryland State Department of Education, April 1979. Washington, D.C.

Kirschner Associates, Inc. 1979.

Reports on the issues and barriers related to the awarding of academic.

credit faced by the State of Maryland and the actions taken by state and

local officials to overcome barriers.and resolve the issues. The actions

taken include insuring that there is a staff person in each school

participating in the CETA program to supervise students work experience

activities and smooth logistical and. programmatic operations; providing

follow-up services to participants after completing or terminating the

program and after graduation from school; establishing the work

experience program as part of a comprehensive program of employability

skills training; establishing a liaison person to maintain' open

communications between CETA and LEA personnel and organizational

structures.

Bonham, George W. (Ed. in Chief). Change: The Magazine of Learning. Special

Issue: Education and Work--Two Worlds.or One? A special issue presenting the comments and papers of fifty authorities on the issues related to

1871

433
how colleges and universities can serve adults in transition.

July-August 1979.

In cooperation with the Harvard Graduate School. of Education, Change

Magazine conducted a colloquium on education and work transition issues

for adults and postsecondary institutions. Included in the issue are the

papers presented by participants and the discussions they engendered.

Issues discussed included lifelong learning, education and leisure, new

workers, career changes and enrichment'of workers' lives.

Breen, Paul, Thomas F. Donlop and Urban Whitaker. Teaching and Assessing

Interpersonal Competence--A CAEL Handbook. Princeton, New

Jersey: Educational Testing Service, CAEL, 1977.

A complete text, including theory with regard to personal and

work-related interpersonal skills and interactions, administrative

procedures for teaching interpersonal skills in sponsored experiential

education programs, assessment strategies, and a variety of sample

materials such as course outline and agreement form. The discussion of

adaptive functional, and specific content skills (pp. 22-33) may be

particularly useful to understanding and describing some of the skills

needed by YEDPA program participants. The models of interpersonal

competence described on pages 34-38 offer insight into some of the kinds

of skills youth might have an opportunity to acquire on the job.

Cates, Jim C, and Norvell Northcutt. Competency-Based High School Diploma. A

proposal submitted to the Associate Administrator for Policy, Evaluation

and Research, Employment and Training Administration, U.S. DOL, dated

March 1976. Submitted by The University of Texas at Austin, Division of

Extension, Industrial and Business Training Bureail, Austin, Texas.

This proposal, which was funded by ETA, proposes to develop a program by

which participants can obtain a compentency-based high school diploma.

The C-B HSD would be awarded on the basis of tests (primarily the Adult

Performance Learner tests developed by the proposal authors) and

activities designed to demonstrate proficiency. The C-B HSD would be

awarded for both "generalized" competencies and for demonstrated performance in either an occupational/vocational area, an advanced academic

area, or in an advanced specialized area. The participant must score at

a certain level on the APL competency test or pass APL mastery tests.

Cohen, Alan J., Robert T. Deane and Steven Frankel. Cooperative Education--A

National Assessment: Executivegamory. Covers period of performance

during July 1975 to November 1977. Prepared for the Postsecondary Education Programs Division of the Office of Planning, Budgeting and

Evaluation; Office of Education, U.S. DHEW. Contract No. 0E-300-75-0343.

Silver Spring, Maryland. Applied Management Sciences, Inc. 1977. ERIC

No. ED148-236.

Provides information about postsecondary cooperative education programs

nationwide. Defines cooperative education, discusses benefits to

participants, describes limitations to expansion, analyses the role of

the federal government in its development, and presents suggestions for

the future.

188

234
Collins, A. Michael. Dual Enrollment as an Operating Engineer Apprentice and

an Associate Degree Candidate. Final Report. Washingtm, D.C.:

National Joint Apprenticeship and Training Committee for Operating

Engineers, International Union of Operating Engineers. December 1975.

ERIC No. ED131233.

This is a report that documents the processes and outcomes of the dual

enrollment program, a project funded by the Department of Labor to

demonstrate the feasibility and outcomes of combining college enrollment

with participation in an operating engineer apprenticeship program. It

provides information about how the project was established, the problems

entailed in establishing, cooperative relations between colleges and

apprenticeship programs, the objectives of the project, the curricula

developed for it, results and recommendations. Appendices include information about course requirements of the participating postsecondary

institutions and national standards for operating engineer apprenticeships.

Colmen, Joseph and Gregory Wirzburg. Involving Schools in Employment and

Training Programs. Washington, D.C.: National Council on Employment

Policy, May 1979. Prepared for Office of Program Evaluation, Employment

and Training Administration, U.S. DOL. Report MEL 79-15. Contract

No. 23-11-77-06.

Analyses reasons for hostility between employment and training and

education .institutions -- isolation of two systems, tendency of the first

to blame the second for problems it is trying to solve, lack of

participation by educators in the development of YED ?A legislation,

divergent structures and funding cycles.

Corder, Reginald, et al. External Evaluator's Final Reports on the

Experience-Based Career Education Programs. Nine Volumes. Berkeley, CA:

Educational Testing Service, 1976.

This extensive study reported by ETS incorporated a variety of evaluation

approaches. An ethnographic or anthropological study was conducted on

each of the demonstration programs of the four laboratories. The report

also presents participant observations, an interorganizational analysis

of the multi-year, multi-organizational research and development effort

that resulted in the EBCE model, and a report of student outcomes and

participant opinions of EBCE.

Council of Great City School. Youth Employment and Training Programs and the

Urban School: Profiles and .Commentary. Washington, D.C. Youth

Employment Assistance Project, Council of Great City Schools. August

1979.

The report examines YETP programs in five cities: Atlanta, Pittsburg,

Dade County (Miami), Chicago, and Portland, Oregon. Each program's

particular characteristics are described including such things as how the

private sector has been involved and whether or not the awarding of

academic credit is an issue. Each program has a slightly different focus

ranging from counseling (Atlanta) to cooperative education (Dade County)

and entrepreneurialism (Portland).

189 235
Craig, Joyce L. The School-To-Work Transition Program: A Process Model for

Linking Career Education Programs With In-School CETA Youth Programs.

DOL ETA Technical Assistance and Training System, Region VI, Dallas,

Texas, 2/77. Final Report on the Development of Program Process Models

for...Contract #JC 48-0716006.

This three-ring binder of materials includes (1) a workshop agenda,

training format, goals and objectives, and statement of rationale for the

training program; (2) a paper titled "Career Education: A Brief Look at

Its Development and Current Status"; (3) a section on self-awareness,

decision-making and human relations skills; (4) information on occupational information resource centers; (5) information about the Camp

Gary Job Corps Center program, rules and curriculum; and (6) a

description of the model itself. Evidently, no provisions are made for

awarding credit for work experience in the model described.

Cushman, Harold R., et al. The Development and Improvement of Directed Work

Experience Programs in Expanded Vocational Education Offerings in

Agriculture at the Secondary School Level. Final Report. Ithaca, New

York: State University of New York, College of Agriculture at Cornell,

1968.

This report presents findings resulting from a pilot test of procedures

and guidelines developed for use in work experience programs directed by

secondary high schools. In addition to reporting the results of that

test the publication also draws conclusions about the effectiveness of

work experience programs and the best methods and procedures for quality

programs.

DeMeester, Lynn, Collaborations for Combining Career and Liberal Education.

Reports from the Fund. Washington, D. C. Fund for the Improvement of

Postsecondary Education, Education Division, U.S. DREW. n.d.

Reports on the Fund's ,program of projects that support and stimulate the

establishment of collaborations for combining career and liberal

education. These .projects fall into the following categories:

(a) merged degree programs; (b) programs that extend beyond postsecondary

institutions; and (c) overcoming credit barriers.

Edelstein, Fritz. A Guide to Operating an Off-Campus College Work-Study

Program. Washington, D.C. National Association of Student Financial Aid

Administrators and Project for Service-Learning, American Association of

Community and Junior Colleges. May 1975. ERIC No. ED111243.

The Guide offers suggestions for how to develop and operate or expand

off-campus College Work/Study Programs. It is intended as a supplement

to the U.S. Office of Education's College Work-Study Manual. Here the

author advocates greater use of off-campus job placements for program

participants because of the greater financial and career development

benefits that can result. The author presents information about these

benefits and statistical data to support his contention.

Evenson, Jill and Nancy Banker. "Utility of Community-Based Learning

Resources." A paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American

Educational Research Association, New York City, April 1977.

190

236
In this paper the authors re-examine evaluation data collected on three

Far West Laboratory EBCE pilot programs in order to determine the extent

to which the community can be used as a learning resource. The authors

conclude that the data support the feasibility of the Far West EBCE

approach, but that the quality of learning outcomes depends in large part

upon the nature and quality of the development of the community

resources. Ferrin, Richard I. and Arbeiter, Solomon, (Project Director and Co-Director,

respectively) Bridging the Gap: A Study of Education-to-Work Linkages.

Final Report of the State-Level Study in Career Education. Prepared by

the College Entrance Examination Board for the Education and Work Group,

NIE Contract No. NIE-C-74-0146, June 18, 1975.

This two-volume document (the main and Supplemental Report) describe the

findings of a study of the education-to-work transition, the barriers

that make the transition difficult for many individuals, and the range of

mechanisms that are or might be used to link the worlds of education and

work. The first volume reports the methods and research approach used,

how the study was limited, the survey of current linkages conducted, the

analysis and interpretation of the survey findings, alternative linkages

that could be established, barriers to and proposals for linkages, and

recommendations for further research and development by NIE. The second

volume examines current linkages in greater detail and presents the

researchers' observations and impressions based upon interviews with

state and local representatives.

Fischer, Ruth "The City Peace Corps." Change, 6, 2, 20-23. March 1974.

This article reports on the activities and outcomes of the Urban Corps of

New York City, which was created by the then newlyelected Mayor John V.

Lindsay. The Program was begun under HEW's College Work Study Program

and was the first one to offer students jobs on the college campus.

Frankel, Steven M. Executive Summary: An Assessment of School-Supervised

Work Education Programs. System Development Corporation. Prepared for

U.S. DHEW, OE's Office of Planning, Budgeting and Evaluation,

September 14, 1973.

This document summarizes the significant findings, overall methodology,

and policy recommendations that resulted from a study conducted by SDC to

examine the different configurations of work education programs that

existed in the U.S. in 1973. The study was designed to determine the

degree to which different types of programs met their intended objectives

and to suggest ways in which they might be modified or expanded. The

kinds of programs studied included Cooperative education, Job Corps, work

study (NYC and WECEP), and career exploration programs. Although the

document is relatively old, it provides still-relevant information about

the relationship between program goals and objectives and program

structure and participant outcomes.

Graham, Dick. "University Year for ACTION." Change, 4, 1, 7 and 61.

February 1972.

191 23!
In this article the author preseats a brief overview of the University

Year for ACTION program including its goals, structure, and the extent to

which it has been implemented across the country.

Gutcher, Dale and William Mast. "College Credit for Non-Traditional Learning

Experiences: An Historical Perspective." Journal of Industrial Teacher

Education, 14, 4, 56-62. Summer 1977.

Traces the history of college credit for work and other experience from

its origins in vocational teacher education to today. Summarizes surveys

of institutions regarding awarding of such credit. These summaries lead

to current trend toward credit by evaluation as developed by CAEL and the

National Occupational Competency Testing Institute (NOCTI). Author

contends development of "nationally acceptable system of evaluating work

experience to award college credit" is dependent on development of "valid

and reliable instrumentation, adequate norms, interpretive materials, and

standards" which will lead to the transferrability of such credits.

Heyborne, Robert L. "A Crisis in Cooperative Education." Engineering

Education, 68, 4, 334-337. January 1978.

Explains Cooperative Education Association/American Society for

Electrical Engineers, Cooperative Education Division split in 1976.

Focuses on definition of cooperative education.

Hunt, Donald C. and Robert Auld, eds. 50 Views of Cooperative Education. 2nd

ed. Detroit, Michigan. Midwest Center for Cooperative Education,

University of Detroit. July 1974.

A compilation of summaries of the presentations by faculty at a series of

one-week "Institutes on Administrative Training in Cooperative Education"

during 1972-:.,74 sponsored by the Midwest Center for Cooperative

Education at the University of Detroit. The summaries were prepared by

the presenters, who were drawn from cooperative education colleges and

sajor business, industrial and governmental organizations that were participating in cooperative education at the time. The presentations are

grouped into such areas as philosophy, academic credit, and federal

funding.

Jastram, Virginia Clapp et al. Work Experience Education: A Handbook for

California Secondary Schools. Sacramento, California. California State

Department of Education. 1972. ERIC No. ED079512.

Describes in detail guidelines

experience education programs

information regarding types of

for work experience education,

success, and pertinent laws and

for the development and operation of work

in California. The handbook includes

programs, development of a district plan

methods of operation, recommendations for

regulations.

Johnson, Johnny M. "Cooperative Education--Learning by Design or by

Accident?" The Agricultural Education Magazine, 50, 12, 267 and 272.

June 1978.

238 192
Stresses importance of good planning for successful OJT programs.

Strongly recommends individual training plans jointly developed by

employer and teacher.

Jones, Joan, Rebecca Watts and Sybil Downing. Work Experience and Academic

Credit: Issues and Concerns. Information Series No. 166. Columbus,

Ohio. The National Center for Research in Vocational Education, Ohio

State University. January 1979.

This publication was prepared to help CETA prime sponsors and local

education officials understand the issues relative to the awarding of

academic credit for work experience. It raises and addresses such

commonly asked questions as "What are the legal and regulatory aspects of

granting academic credit for work experience?" and "What are the

trade-offs and incentives for awarding academic credit for work experience?" The issues and concerns discussed were developed in part as a

result of two conferences at which representatives of state departments

of education, CETA prime sponsors, local school districts, private

businesses, community-based organizations, and junior colleges debated

and discussed CETA/LEA cooperation and the awarding of academic credit

for work experience. Included in the document is a very useful chart

that outlines by state the impact of state legislation or constitutional

statute, State Board policy, SDE regulations, LEA policy, postsecondary

rules, accreditation rules and future policy rules.

Keeton, Morris T. "Integrating Education and Practical Experience in American

Higher Education." Liberal Education, 63, 259-270. May 1977.

In this article, Keeton addresses questions of national purpose and

policies with regard to experiential education rat the postsecondary

level. The article, which is one of a set in this edition of the

magazine that are devoted to comparing and contrasting education and work

programs in the United States and China, delineates the characteristics

of the United States that shape how national policies are set and

implemented. Keeton outlines the factors he believes must be taken into

consideration in establishing a national policy on experiential

education, and suggests some ways to go about it.

Keeton, Morris T. and associates. Experiential Learning: Rationale,

Characteristics, and Assessment. San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass

Publishers, 1977.

A collection of papers commissioned in the early stages of the development of the Cooperative Assessment of Experiential Learning (CAEL). The

papers focus on one of the three areas listed in the book's title:

(1) the rationale behind experiential learning; (2) its characteristics;

or (3) methods of assessing experiential learning.

Knapp, Joan. CAEL Working Paper No. 6. A Guide for Assessing Prior

Experience Through Portfolios. Princeton, New Jersey: Educational

Testing Service, 1975.

This CAEL document presents complete and detailed information on methods

used to collect credit for it. The publication contains sample forms and

student-developed materials as well.

19323j
Lauda, Donald Paul. Factors Related to the Granting of College-University

Credit for Trade and Industrial Experience in Institutions Offering

Industrial Education. Ames, Iowa. Iowa State University of Science and

Technology. 1966. ERIC No. ED016052.

In this publication the author has compiled the findings of several

surveys of institutions in the U.S. and Puerto Rico that offer industrial

education curricula to determine their policies regarding the awarding of

college credit for trade and work experience. The studies reported were

all conducted in the mid- and late-sixties.

Leonardi, Rudi A., William W. =Zeller, Lynn G. Smith and Vicky Carlyle.

A High Support Youth Work and Education Model Demonstration. National

Office for Social Responsibility: San Francisco, CA, June 1977.

This document presents a program development model developed by NOSR and

used in California by the California CETA Balance of State Prime Sponsor.

It explains that underlying concepts and principles of the Model,

describes the model, and presents an example of an implementation of the

model at one site (Sutter County, CA).

Lesh, Seymour, Jeffrey Newman, Lillian Jordan and Charlotte Cash. Youth

Serving the Community: Realistic Public Service Roles for Young Workers.

R&D Monograph 68. Washington, D.C. Employment and Training

Administration, U.S. DOL. 1979.

Provides general guidelines for work experience projects--whereby.groups

of youth under careful supervision carry out a specific task within a

limited time frame--and describes several actual projects within 10 different categories. The categories including housing, health, environment

and conservation, social services, public safety, public works, culture

and beautification education, economic and community development, and

clerical and administrative activities. Within each category additional

guidelines are provided that concern the peculiarities of the structure

and purpose of projects within it. The awarding of credit-is encouraged.

Los Angeles Community College District. Angeles

District District Plan for Cooperative Education. Los Angeles,

California. June 1976. ERIC No. ED124425.

..utline requirements, purpose,, mutual. responsibilities and 'marling of

credit for college work experience programs in the Los Angeles Community

College District. Credit to be awarded is specified in terms of maximum

amounts, but ,the type of credit is not specified. Sample forms are

attached.

Magnum, Garth L. Career Education and the Comprehensive'Employment and

Training Act. Washington, D. C. Office. of Career Education. U.S.

Government Printing Office. Stock. No. 017-080-01862-4. February 1978.

Bumeerizes much of what was said in Employment and Training Programs

for Youth: What Works Best for Whom? by Magnum avd John Walsh; and

extends the discussion to include an examination of the most appropriate

role for career education and the U.S. Office of Career Education in the
CETA youth effort. Includes brief overview descriptions of eleven CETA

programs, a discussion of the relative effectiveness of program

stategies, and proposes greater articulation of career education with

CETA program to aid in the development of youth employability skills and

help increase CETA-eligible youth's motivation to complete their

education. Suggests that the state career education coordinator should

be a key link between CETA and career education.

t4Magnum, Garth and John Walsh. Employment and Training Programs for You s: What Works Best For Whom? A report to the Office of Youth Programs,

Employment and Training Administration, U.S. DOL, from the National Council on Employment Policy. Washington, D.C. Office of Youth Programs,

Employment and Training Administration, U.S. DOL. May 1978.

A careful examination of the complete range of employment and training

programs for youth since the establishment of the Manpower Development

and Training Act. This review of the literature analyzes the evaluation

reports and other written information that shed light on the effectiveness of programs and program components with various target groups

ranging from the earliest identified group, unemployed youths, to more

recent categories such as the disadvantaged, minority disadvantaged,

hard-core disadvantaged youths. Major conclusions are that evaluations

of programs have for the most part not linked outcomes to target populations nor outcomes to program components. Recommends coupling of work

experience programs with career exploration, performance standards and

participant accountability, and the teaching of acceptable work behavior

patterns. The authors stress the importance of recognizing the limitations of typical employment and training programs to deal with the

sociological problems of many of their intended participants.

McBride, Paul W. "The Co-Op Industrial Education Experiment, 1900-1917."

History of Education Quarterly, 14, 52, 209-221. Summer 1974.

Relates the history of co-op industrial education in the period from

1900-1917. With cooperation of the schools, industries formed so-called

industrial schools--four-year "training" programs consisting mostly of

work with some schooling during which time the students, young men and

boys of high school age, were paid for below current wages for their

work. Some "schools" were also reimbursed for their "expenses" out of

state and local taxes. These schools were highly exploitive of students.

Mills, Ted. Work as a Learning Experience. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State

University, The Center for Vocational Education, June 1977.

A paper presented at the Third National Forum on Education and Work in

San Francisco, California and published in Current Issues in Righer

Education, 1977 by the American Association for Higher Education and

Jossey-Bass, Inc. Mills presents the view that American society has

experienced a shift in the purpose of education from development of the

self to development of an individual capable of functioning successfully

in an economic system. This, in tura, has resulted in greater demands

and pressures on employers to provide activities and circumstances that

foster the development of the self in the work setting.

195
Minnesota Department of Education. Partners: CETA, Education, Youth. St.

Paul, Minnesota. Youth Employment Education Unit, Division of Special

Services, Minnesota Department of Education. February 1979. Documents

Code No. IX-A-12.

A review of the history, analysis of the issues, and a description of

actions to date regarding CETA youth programs and education in Minnesota.

The discussion of the issue of credit includes a listing of pertinent

educational regulations and legislation and an analysis of how they

impact on the goals and purposes within CETA concerning the awarding of

credit for work experience and other activities.

Mirengoff, William and Lester Rindler. CETA: Manpower Programs Under Local

Control. Washington, D.C. Assembly of Behavioral and Social Sciences,

National Academy of Sciences/National Research Council. 1978. ERIC

No. ED163223.

This report, which is the final in a series of three that were conducted

since the first year of CETA's operation, examines the differences

between CETA Title I programs and their predecessors and compares

legislative goals with CETA's results to date. It focuses on transitional activities related to the change from centralized to local

control.

NASBE. Ceta-Education Collaboration Issues in Three States. Volume I.

Washington, D. C.: NASBE. August 1979.

Reports activities and outcomes of a process used by NASBE with three

states to assist them in identifying and solving some of their CETA-LEA

problems. With each state the project staff helped establish a task

force that identified the problems, came up with some alternative solutions and set goals for achieving them, established time lines,

identified needed information, solicited constituency input, reported

progress on the data c,-.11ection and constituency input, resulted in the

drafting of policy statements that are reviewed by the Board and revised,

and adopted the policy and monitored, evaluated and revised it.

NASBE. Educational Governance and Youth Employment Issues. Volume II. By Russell W. Meyers, Wesley Apker and Anne Radford. Washington, D.C.:

NASBE. August 1979.

Volume II presents4an overview of the educational governing structures

and regulations within the 50 states. It summarizes the relationships of

state and local agencies and how they are structured. The report also

presents in summary form information about how curriculum guidance and

counseling, high school graduation requirements, teacher certification,

and teacher and administrator certification requirements are shaped by

these governing bodies and what the statutes and regulations stipulate.

National Center for Service-Learning. "Service-Learning in Secondary

Schools." Synergist, 8, 3, 2-5. Winter 1980.

Reports the findings of a national survey conducted by the National

Center for Service-Learning in 1978. Findings show that the majority of

196

242
schools with such programs began awarding credit in only the past five

years (since 1970).

National Academy of Sciences. Employment and Training Programs: The Local

View. Washington, D.C. Committee on Evaluation of Employment and

Training Programs, National' Research Council, National Academy of

Sciences. 1978.

This publication presents the findings of nine case studies that

"exemplify some of the problems noted in the ... national reports:

piecemeal planning, difficulty in arranging on-the-job training, too much

emphasis on work experience programs, poor coordination between sponsors

and employment service agencies, inadequate arrangements for placing

participants into jobs, and a tendency on the part of some local

governments to, rely on CETA for maintaining public service." p. viii

from the preface by Philip Rutledge, Chairman of the Committee. The

focus in the document is on the transition from HDTA to CETA at the nine

case study sites. The report is concerned with the problems of the

transition, the extent to which new innovation programs were initiated,

and with reviewing program planning, administration and the clients

served.

National Association of Secondary School Principals.

Twenty-Five Action-Learning Schools. Reston, VA: National Association

of Secondary School Principals, 1974.

This booklet describes the goals and purpose of action-learning programs

and how they address the issues and concerns outlined in three influential panel reports: (1) Youth: Transition to Adulthood, report on the

Panel on Youth of the President's Science Advisory Committee, chaired by

James S. Coleman; (2) The Reform of Secondary Education, the recommendations by the National Commission on the Reform of Secondary Education,

chaired by B. Frank Brown; and (3) National Panel on High Schools and

Adolescent Education, appointed by the Office of Education and chaired by

John Henry Martin. The document describes the background and development

of the action-learning movement, the kinds of programs it encompasses,

and includes one-page descriptions of 25 schools that offer a wide

variety of action-learning programs to their students--some programs

offering students credit, others pay for their productive participation.

National Council on Employment Policy. The Unfolding Youth Initiatives:

Prime S onsor erience in .lementin: the Youth lo ent and

Demonstration Projects Act (YEDPA). (Report No. 2 in a series 'Prepared

for Office of Program Evaluation, Employment and Training Administration,

U.S. DOL. August 1978. Contract No. 23-11-77-06, Report MEL 87-13.

This is the second in a series of reports representing findings about the

implementation of YEDPA. The document has two major parts: an overview

of the findings and 10 case studies that provided the information from

which conclusions are drawn. It is a very straightforward and useful

study, one that pulls no punches in presenting the obstacles YEDPA

encountered and the problems, successes, and inadequacies of the programs

studied.

197 243
Owens, Thomas R. and Joseph F. Baena. FY76 Final Evaluation Report of the

NWREL Experience-Based Career Education Program. Portland, OR:

Northwest Regional Educational Laboratories, 1976.

This is a summative report that presents the findings for the

demonstration and pilot sites implemented under the NWREL model.

Findings are for both first- and second-year students. This report also

summarizes data and presents results of the evaluation of three sets of

program materials.

Pace, Wayne R. Making Contacts and Negotiating Agreements for Organizational

Communication Internships. Paper presents at the International

Communication Association Conference in Philadelphia, May 1-5, 1979.

Utah. May 1979. ERIC No. ED169585.

Presents guidelines for developing organizational communication

internships, based on author's experiences at Brigham Young University in

Salt Lake City, Utah, which requires a field experience as part of its

course requirements for graduation.

Pines, Marion W. and James H. Morlock. Work Experience Perspectives: CETA

Program Models. U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training

Administration, 1978.

An informative handbook on work experience programs for CETA-eligible

participants. Discusses site recruitment, contract monitoring by the

prime sponsor (to insure accountability), model programs, and accounting

procedures. The specific programs described are characterized as falling into three basic models: (1) work experience coupled with secondary

education and targeted for youth; (2) work experience coupled with coping

skills targeted for "undereducated underachievers"; and (3) work experience coupled with skills training and payment of wages.

Unfortunately, the document does not discuss the award of academic credit

for work experience.

Purtzer, Wayne R: Policies Affecting Acceptance of Transfer Credit for

Courses in Technical Education. University of Nebraska. 1967. ERIC

No. 019046.

In this report the results of a survey of 80 schools listed in the

Industrial Teacher Education Directory are presented. The purpose of the

survey was to determine the policies and practices of the institutions

regarding: (1) the transferability of credit (technical course credit,

work experience credit, the credit from one type of institution to

another), (2) the awarding of credit for work experience and for skills

acquired outside the ken of the institution (e.g., military training),

and (3) the requirements for graduation, and the relationship between

institutional policies and the size and structure of the institution and

its methods and tools for evaluating performance for credit. No clearcut

conclusions were made on the basis of this study. There were too many

variables and too much diversity across respondents.

19 8

24 4
Richard A. Gibboney Associates, Inc. The Career Intern Program: Final

Report. Volume I: An Experiment in Career Education that Worked. NIE

Papers in Education and Work: Number Seven. U.S. HEW, NIE, Education

and Work Group. Washington, D.C., May 1977. (Gibboney is located in

Blue Bell, PA) Volume II: Technical Appendices.

This two-volume document presents the final summative report on the

Career Intern Program developed by the Reverend Dr. Leon Sullivan,

founder and chairman of the board of the Opportunities Industrialization

Centers of American (01Cs/A). The program began to focus on youth in

Philadelphia in 1972. Until that time the OICs/A had concentrated on providing job preparation and skill training to out-of-school youth and

adults (18 and over). This report addresses the last 18 months of

development of the CIP.

Rosen, David Paul, Layton Olson and Karon Cox. Masters of Reality:

Certificate or Performance? Toward Policy and Practice for PostSecondary Education and Work Programs Based on Outcomes for Students.

Washington, D.C.: The National Advisory Council for Career Education,

1977.

This report presents information gathered by the authors in a series of

visits to education and work programs at a variety of postsecondary

institutions across the United States. Each program has been described

in a profile and the information compiled across programs is presented

along with suggestions and recommendations for future development and

research in postsecondary education and work programs.

Searcy, Ellen. Work Experience as Preparation for Adulthood: A Review of

Job Training, Vocational, and Career Education Programs, An Analysis of

Current Research, and Recommendations for Future Research. Prepared for

the Interagency Panel for Research and Development on Adolescence.

Social Research Group, The George Washington University, Washington,

D.C., May 1973.

This report examines work experience programs and research efforts funded

by the departments of HEW, Labor, and Defense and by ACTION. It

summarizes the work experience programs funded through those agencies and

reviews and summarizes related research. Finally, the author makes

recommendations for future research. Many of the recommendations made,

as for example, (1) state learner and program objectives in measurable

terms, (2) develop tests to measure "personal qualities" that are "broadly defined" and difficult to quantify, and (3) put Federal dollars

into pilot programs and demonstration projects with built-in experimental

designs, have been carried out in the years since the report was

published.

Sexton, Robert F. Experiential Education and Community Involvement Practices

at the Postsecondary Level: Implicaticis for Career Education. A paper

prepared by the Office of Career Education, Office of Education, U.S.

DHEW. November 1976. ERIC No. ED138771.

-1.99

245
The author presents a typology of experiential education programs and

describes one operating program in each category to exemplify its purpose

and structure. He also discusses the issues and problems surrounding

experiential education, such as the conflict between the concerns of the

participating educational institution and those of the funding source and

participating employers. The author concludes with a series of

recommendations for action at the federal level.

Sexton, Robert F. and Richard A. Ungerer. Rationales for Experiential

Education. ERIC/Higher Education Research Project No. 3. Prepared by

the ERIC Clearinghouse on Higher Education of the George Washington

University. Published by the American Association for Higher Education,

Washington, D.C., 1975.

The document surveys experiential education and reviews it as a concept.

The authors distinguish between experiential education and experiential

learning. The literature reviewed by the authors ranged from that which

addressed the issues of experiential education from a developmental

psychology perspective, to those examining the labor market situation,

the status of career education, and the character of the then current

student population.

Sharon, Amiel T. ZAEL Working Paper No. 8: A Task-Based Model For Assessing

Work Experience. Princeton, New Jersey: CAEL, Educational Testing

Service, April 1975.

As stated in the introductory chapter, the purpose of this document is

"to present a generalizable model, called the Work Assessment Model, for

assessing specific competencies in occupational fields." It includes a

definition of work experience, descriptions of work experience programs,

assessment methods that can be used at the postsecondary level, procedures for identifying and defining occupational competencies and relating

them to educational program objectives, and a full statement and description of the model. The model is applied to three occupational fields

(data processing, law enforcement and secretarial science) to demonstrate

how it can be used. Guidelines are presented for evaluating the model

and cost estimates for using it are provided.

Shea, Mary Lou. Cooperative Education Arrangements. Springfield, Illinois.

Springfield Division of Adult Vocational and Technical Education,

Illinois State Office of Education. 1978. ERIC No. ED158042.

Defines cooperative education so as to include a wide range of program

types from work-study to internships, Experience-Based Career Education

and entrepreneurship. Each program type is described, including whether

or not credit is awarded and the major purposes of the program.

Shively, Joe and Rebecca Watts. Final Evaluation Report on 1976-77 Implementation Sites. Charleston, WV: Appalachia Educational Laboratory, 1977.

This report has two major sections. One reports and summarizes the

quantitative data collected. The other presents a series of student

(EBCE and non-EBCE) case studies.

200 16R
Spotts, Robert and Jill Evenson. Experience-Based Career Education: Evaluation of Outcomes at Three Pilot Programs 1976-77. San Francisco: Far

West Laboratory for Educational Research and Development, 1977.

This evaluation was undertaken to collect evidence from stable operating

pilot programs about the effectiveness of FWL-EBCE model in achieving

student outcomes related to career development and personal and interpersonal development. This study, in part, sought to determine the

reliability of the Far West model and the extent to which other sites

could achieve the same or similar outcomes as those achieved by the

demonstration site.

Sprengel, Donald P. and Allen E. Tomey. Vocational Exploration in the Private

Sector: Final Report and Assessment, 1972-73; Comparison of Impact of

the Pilot and Experimental Years. St. Louis, MO: St. Louis University,

1974.

This final report presents an assessment of program operations,

administration and the impact of the program on participants. It

provides a description of the program, its program objectives and

summaries of the cities in which it was implemented. Impact data

reported include dropout rates, academic performance, school attendance,

disciplinary status, and follow-up data upon program completion or

termination.

Stull, William A. "Statement of Student Trainee Learning

Objectives: Alternative to Traditional Training Plan."

Business Education Forum, 32, 2, 3-5. November 1977.

Proposes use of statement student of learning objectives (SSLO) in lieu

of training plan. These are to be five to ten behaviorally-stated

objectives developed by the student and the employer with review and

input by teachers. The student's grade is based on the evaluation of his

or her achievement of these objectives.

Systems Research Incorporated. In-School Youth Manpower: A Guide to Local

Strategies and Methods. Final Report on the Survey and Analysis of

Innovative In-School Neighborhood Youth Corps Program Models. Prepared

for the U.S. DOL, June 1973. Contract No. 42-26-72-09.

This document is the result of a year-long study of NYC programs. It is

intended as a handbook for prospective implementers of NYC In-School

programs. It describes the basic components of such programs (e.g.,

enrollee entree and orientation, employer entry and orientation, matching

and alignment), crici areas of emphasis such as self-image, development,

vocational skills, and income maintenance.

Ungerer, Richard A. The Work and Education Initiative and Experiential

Education Programs in the United States. Washington, D.C.: National

Manpower Institute, n.d.

This publication presents an overAew of the Work and Education

Initiative launched under the Ford Administration. Half of the article

is devoted to describing the Work Education Consortium Project operated

201 rs< 4 71
by the National Manpower Institute. The last section discusses work

experience and experiential education in oroad terms.

U.S. DREW, Office of Education. The Education of Adolescents: The Final

Report and Recommendations of the National Panel on High School and

Adolescent Education, 1976.

Presents the Panel's recommendations with regard to adolescent education.

Makes recommendations with regard to work experience, use of the

community in the educational process and as a learning site, and the

certification and credentinling of learning. Recommendations include

offering opportunities to more students to gain work experience during

their formal education, reducing the legal school day in order to allow

students to participate in a variety of learning programs not located on

the high-school grounds, and making available alternative methods of

certifying learning and obtaining credentials. The document focuses oL

institutional and policy change at the state and local level.

U.S. Department of Labor. Consideration and Elements for CETA/LEA Agreement. Office of Youth Programs, Employment and Training Administration, U.S.

DOL. December 1977.

Raises the issues to be addressed and the component parts to be included

in agreements developed by CETA and LEA representatives in order to

establish and operate YEDPA programs for youth. Stipulates the principles programs are expected to follow including targeting of services to

youth in greatest need, provision of comprehensive services, emphasis on

development of opportunities for youth to complete their education, and

the relationship between education and work.

U.S. Department of Labor. Final Report on Prime Sponsor Utilization of

Colleges and Universities in the Implementation of CETA Youth Programs.

Washington, D. C. Office of Youth Programs, Employment and Training

Administration, U.S DOL. n.d.

A survey of colleges and universities that foduses particularly on

minority colleges and universities, which analyses existing linkages

between them and CETA youth programs. The report presents evidence the

four-year institutions have the greatest difficulties in relating to CETA

clients clients. Two year institutions appear to have the orientation

and curricula most appropriate to CETA clients but lack administrative

and fiscal resources necessary to develop and operate programs.

U.S. DOL, Employment and Training Administration, Office of Youth Programs.

Impacts of YEDPA on Education/CETA Relationships at the Local Level:

Five Case Studies. Prepared jointly by representatives of DREW and DOL's

Qffice of Youth Programs. August 1978. Office of Youth Programs Special

Report Number 1.

A report based on site visits conducted in April 1977 at five locations:

Houston, Texas; Worcester, Massachusetts; Minnesota BOS; Fairfax County,

Virginia; and Los Angeles, California. At the time the limited study was

conducted, programs had been in operation only About 4 months and only 8

months had passed since the signing of YEDPA. The major question the

202 2 4 8
study sought to address was why some communities were successful and

others were not in promoting institutional change establishing effective

linkages between employment and training institutions and school systems.

U.S. DOL. Work-Education Councils and the Possibilities for Collaborative

Efforts under YEDPA. Employment and Training Administration, Office of

Youth Programs, May 1978.

This document describes the structure and activities of the

Work-Education Consortium project operated by the National Manpower

Institute. These activities are discussed in relation to YEDPA and CETA

and the roles work-education councils can play in implementing youth

programs.

U.S. Department of Labor. Youth Program Models and Innovations. Washington,

D.C. Office of Youth Programs, U.S. DOL. Monthly.

A monthly compilation of youth program models and innovations. The

listings are identified by the Office of Youth Programs, U.S. Department

of Labor with help from the American Vocational Association, Council of

Great City Schools, McClure-Lundberg Associates, National Association of

Counties, National Collaboration for Youth, National Commission on Resources for Youth, National Council of LaRaza, National Governor's

Association, and U.S. Conference of Mayors. The first monthly publication of program models and innovations is dated September 1978, the most

recent is October 1979.

Walther, Regis H. and Margaret L. Magnusson. A Longitudinal Study of Selected

Out of School NYC-2 Programs in Four Cities. Final/Report. Prepared for

Manpower Administration, U.S. DOL, Manpower Research Projects, George

Washington University, June 1975.

This document reports the results of an extensive study of the

effectiveness of out-of-school Neighborhood Youth Corps (NYC) programs in

enhancing the employability of their enrollees. The programs in four

cities were studied: Atlanta, Georgia; Baltimore, Maryland; Cincinnati,

Ohio; and St. Louis, Missouri. An additional purpose of the study was to

compare the new design of the Corps, NYC-2, to the original, NYC-1.

White, Thomas R. and Robert K. Eley. Occupational Training Plans for

Disadvantaged and Handica ed Students in Vocational Education:

A Manual for Use in Cooperative Work Experience Programs. Bloomington,

Indiana. Vocational Education Program, School of Education, Indiana

University. July 1976. ERIC No. ED132286.

A manual on training plans for disadvantaged and handicapped students for

use in cooperative work experience programs. It provides information

regarding the special needs of such youth and how programs for them

should differ from those for other students. The publication states the

purposes of training plans and provides samples that demonstrate the

range offhandicaps as well as occupations. The authors also list the

steps to follow in developing a plsn. The samples identify the type of

individual for which they are intended, e.g., trzinable mentally retarded

and the occupation for which the student is to 1:0,7! trained.

203

249
Willingham, Warren W. Principles of Good Practice in Assessing Experiential

Learning. Princeton, New Jersey: Educational Testing Service, 1977.

This document summarizes those assessment procedures CAEL has found to be

most effective, accurate, and useful in evaluating experiential learning

for credit. These principles are presented in the context of CAEL's six

"basic steps" and offer the reader considerable detail and rationale.

The appendix includes an annotated list of CAEL's reports.

Willingham, Warren W., John R. Valley and Morris T. Keeton. Assessing

Experiential Learning--A Summary Report of the CAEL Project. Princeton,

New Jersey: CAEL, Educational Testing Service, 1977.

Reports the validation process and outcome that was used to test the

validity of CAEL's assessment materials, approaches and procedures.

230

204
OTHER REFERENCES

Abbott, William L. "College Credits: Trend in Apprenticeships." Worklife,

2, 9, 27-30. September 1977.

American Council on Education. A Guide to Educational Programs in

Nancollegiate Organizations. Washington, D. C. American Council of

Education and the Office of Educational Credit, New York State Education

Department. January 1976. ERIC No. ED122147.

Baird, Leonard L., issue ed. Assessing Student Academic and Social Progress.

No. 18, Summer, 1977. New Directions for Community Colleges, Arthur M.

Cohen and Florence B. Brawer (eds.). San Francisco. Jossey-Bass Inc.,

1977.

Bank, Adrianne. Evaluation Report on the Tunbridge Program, Lone Mountain

College. September, 1975-January 1976. Publication information not

available. This may be an unpublished report.

Banta, Trudy and Patricia Marshall. "Bringing Schools and Industry Together."

Manpower, 2, 6, 24-41. June 1970.

Berkeley, Muriel, Faye Baumgarner and Lois Morrill, eds. Young Women and

Employment: What We Know and Need to Know About the School-to-Work

Transition. Report of a conference prepared for the Women's Bureau

Employment and Training Administration, U.S. DOL, 1978. Washington, D.C.

Social Research Group, The George Washington University, 1978. Contract

No. 41-USC-252 (c) (3).

Berman, Richard R. and Michael H. Parsons. "Turning the System Around:

Cooperation Between Business and College." Community College Review, 6,

3, 60-64. Winter 1979.

Bilek, Robert and Frances Haley. Community Laboratory in Political Science.

Profiles of Promise 8. ERIC Clearinghouse for Social Studies/Social

Science Education, Boulder, Colorado; Social Science Education

Consortium, Boulder, Colorado, 1973.

Bortnick, Barrie D., et al. Initiating Experiential Learning Programs: Four

Case Studies. CAEL Institutional Report. The Consortium of the California State University and Colleges. Memphis State University. Union

College. University of Kentucky. September 1976.

Brandeis University. Youth Programs: Knowledge Development Through the Youth

Initiatives. Waltham, Massachusetts. The Center for Public Service,

Brandeis University. September 1979.

Branscomb, Lewis M. and Paul C. Gilmore. "Education in Private Industry."

Daedalus, 104, 1, 222-233. Winter 1975.

Brooks, Kent, et al. Start-Up Trainiy20 In Mississippi: Program Development

Guide. Jackson, Mississippi. Division of Vocational and Technical

205 25/
Education, Mississippi State Department of Education. 1974. ERIC

No. ED098375.

Brown, Donal V. Industry-Education Cooperative Program for Preservice and

Inservice Vocational and Technical Teacher Training. Final report pre- pared for the Office of Education, U.S. DREW, Oak Ridge, Tennessee. Nuclear Division, Union Carbinde Corporation. December 1970. ERIC

No. ED054364.

Brown, Sylvia J. and Cynthia Jahn Whitten. Cooperative Education for Graduate

Students. Boston, Massachusetts. Cooperative Education Research Center,

Northeastern University. 1977. ERIC No. ED146883.

CAEL. The Refinement and Modification of an Instrument for Assessing the

Achievement of Interpersonal Skills of Social Work Students. Institu- tional Report No. 4. Wayne State University. September 1975.

Calhoun, Annie Belle et al. An Individualized Competence-Based Assessment Model. GAEL Institutional Report. Metropolitan State University. September 1976.

California State Polytechnic College. Work Experience Education: Research for Accountability. Prepared for the Office of Education, U.S. DHEA. San Luis Obispo, California. California State Polytechnic College. 1971. ERIC No. ED068719.

California State Department of Education. A Unified Approach to Occupational

Education. Report of the Commission on Vocational Education. Sacramento, California. California State Department of Education. 1979.

Central Michigan University. University Without Walls, Honolulu Model Cities. Mount Pleasant, Michigan. Central Michigan University. 1974. ERIC No. ED108308.

Chastain, Lynda. "South Carolina TEC's Industrial Training Program."

Training and Development Journal, 29, 11, 34-36. November 1975.

Christensen, Frank A. Guidelines and Procedures for the Assessment of

Experiential Learning and the Selection and Training of Field Experts.

CAEL Institutional Report No. 5. William Rainey Harper College. September 1975.

Cohen, Alan J., Robert T. Deane and Steven Frankel.

Cooperative EducationA National Assessment: Final Report, Volume I.

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REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE:

YOUTH OPERATED PROJECTS

262

216
TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. INTRODUCTION

II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ON

YOUTH OPERATED PROJECTS

A. Annotated Biblography

B. Definitions

C. Forms and Characteristics of

Youth Operated Projects

D. Biblography

III. RECOMMENDATIONS

REFERENCES

APPENDIX A: Sources Consulted During Literature Search

APPENDIX B: Youthwork Questions

217

2 3

218

221

223

236

238

251

253

260

262

264
I. INTRODUCTION

This paper provides a literature review of "youth operated projects," and

contains some specific recommendations for additional knowledge development

efforts. In this paper the term "youth operated project" (YOP) is defined as a project in which youth assume major responsibility for both staffing and

managing a project which leads to the production of goods or services.

This broad definition encompasses a variety of program models. Youth

operated projects may, for example, be school-based or community-based, they

may have profit or nonprofit status, they may or may not produce income, they

may lead to the production of goods or of services, a project's youth

participants may or may not receive financial renumeration. The range of

possible goods and services that youth might provide further extends the

number of different forms that projects might assume. The essential feature

is that youth participate actively in program decision making which leads to

the production of goods or services.

A conceptual difficulty encountered throughout our work for this review

is that there is no commonly accepted definition of what constitutes a YOP.

One reason for this may be, as suggested by Pressman, that the current

interest in job creation through youth operated projects represents a newly

evolved amalgram of two m.re familiar program forms: "(1) youth employment

projects with a growing emphasis on youth involvement and (2) youth participation projects, which most often do not involve the creation of paid jobs,

are not targeted primarily towards low income youth, and have a separate

history of their own." (p. 2)

According to Pressman, application guidelines for what he calls youth

operated projects "suggest that participants in these programs should play

major roles in program planning, program management and operation (including

presumably program direction), task analysis, job creation, and program

assessment and evaluation." (p. 2) For the purpose of selecting materials

for inclusion in our literature review, we have chosen not to incorporate

these additional criteria which would unduly limit the sample in this early

stage of analysis. Hence our own definition requires only th#t service or 218 264
production projects have "some" youth participation in management. Similarly,

we have not included in our definition such desirable, though perhaps

inessential, program features as "periodic in-process evaluation by

students..." (Pressman p. 1) or "opportunity to work with adults who can

serve as models or mentors." (Graham, p. 2) Again, this would have been too

limiting at this stage of analysis.

The less limiting definition of YOP used in this paper,is in keeping with

the philosophy reflected in DOL Guidelines for Exemplary Programs, as reported

by Rist (1978, p. 38):

Job creation through youth operated projects has been selected as a primary area of focus because it raises crucial issues in national

policy toward youth. Usually, young people are the "objects" of

programs serving principally as spectators and consumers of goods

and services. This passive role excludes young people from

important experiences and skills. To be competent is to be the

subject of an activity not the object. The measure of competence

is what a person can do. Youth operated projects are a way to

experiment with approaches that develop competence by actively

involving the enrollee in the task of creating socially meaningful

and economically gainful employment.

At present there are two nationally supported initiatives of particular

relevance to the study of YOPs. One is the establishement of twelve project

sites designed to test "job creation through youth operated projects,"

monitored through Youthwork, Inc. The other is the funding by the Department

of Labor of youth entrepreneurships or youth business ventures through organizations such as Community Youth Enterprises and the Corporation for Public/

Private Ventures. Many of these entrepreneurships may also fit our definition

of youth operated projects. It should be cautioned, however, that a youth

enterpreneurship may not necessarily qualify as a YOP; the criterion of youth

particiapation in management decisions must be met if an entrepreneurship, or

any other project, is to be classified as a YOP. Further, just as not all

youth enterpreneurships are YOPs, not all are enterpreneurships. The YOP

umbrella covers a greatly varied range of program possibilities.

Youth operati'l projects, though not so labeled, have existed in our

society for many years. An early example was the Junior Achievement Program,

initiated in 1919 and today active in 1500 communities. Another example is

219

265
the nationally distributed Foxfire magazine, put out since 1966 by high school

students from Rabun Gap, Georgia. Other examples are to be found in the

program files of a number of organizations which gather information on youth

projects.

The problem is that most of this information--brochures, project review,

sites reports, evaluations and the like--remains tucked away in files. Little

of it is availablein the literature and almost none has received systematic

treatment of any kind. While indentification and analysis of this material

might provide useful information, such a research effort is beyond the scope

of the present literature review. For purposes of this paper, we review only

that material appearing in published documents or readily available through

information services. Sources consulted during our search are listed in

appendix A, and include a search of the ERIC system and a review of the NTIS

bibliography provided for a study of youth employment by Mangum and Walsh

(1978).

In all, only 18 sources, seven of which were about the same project

yielded information on projects which fit the definition of youth operated

projects. This literature is reviewed in Section II.

Though in some cases the literature contains rich descriptive material,

most of the project descriptions provide incomplete information on program

operation and outcomes. Further, because most of the reported information is

anecdotal and limited by program-specific concerns, any attempt at post hoc

comparative analysis is not possible.

This absence of information in the literature underscores the need for

knowledge development related to YOPs. Some recommendations are included in

Section III.

266

220
II. REVEIW OF THE LITERATURE ON YOUTH OPERATED PROJECTS

The literature which served as the source for this description of YOPs

is, as already mentioned, exceedingly thin. YOPs per se have emerged only

recently as a subject of interest to policy makers and researchers. Apart

from the studies sponsored by Youthwork (Rist), the literature search turned

up virtually nothing that dealt directly with youth-operated projects as an

issue. Instead, sources of information were limited to works that focused on single project (Blake, Wigginton, Wood, Mottel, Cribb), or described a series

of projects (NCRY, n.d., 1974; McCloskey & Kleinbard; OFY; Fenton). For the

latter, projects were collected under zomon criteria, but the criteria were

not the same as those for YON. Descriptions of single projects, meanwhile,

reflected each project's, or the author's, interests, which again were not

YOPs as such.

In most cases, the program information was descriptive rather than

analytic, and anecdotal and impressionistic rather than systematic or methodologically rigorous. There is no record of systematic efforts either to

measure changes as a result of program efforts, or to relate program outcomes

to the effects of specific program components. 2urthermore, since most of the

information is program specific and non-comparative, it is impossible to

construct any post hoc analysik. of ki,1::s of models or viaponents are

"best" or most effective in producing rsired outcomes.

In sum, despite the preserxe :,1me vivid and intelligent descriptions

of a rich variety of prograa sctiviti, for the purposPA of this paper the

literature may be characterized a vxce, uneven and off the YOP target. Our

approach for this section, the2,it:,:e, is to introduce c works that do bear

significantly on YOPs, describe what they report ,e the issues under

examination, and note the remaining gaps in what is

Given the extreme diveristy in the sources that form the basis of this

review, we have considered best to orient r,ader to it thoroughly in

advance of the discussion of characteristics and outcomes of youth operated

projects. This is done through a brief, narrative overview of each of the

221

267
works to indicate their form, substance, style and range, followed by an

examination of the operating definitions for the approach to youth programing

employed by each of the works tha:-. treats mutiple projects.

222 268
A. Annotated Bibliography

A review of the works that proved most relevant to the present interest

in youth operated projects will indicate their diversity of focus, mehtodology

and style. A biblographic listing of these works appears at the end of this

section (p. 52).

(1) The report by Fenton (1970) describes a series of fourteen "youth

involvement" projects that were sponsored by the Office of Economic

Opportunity (OEO) in the late 1960s. As an outgrowth of the War on Poverty,

these projects were a contemporary attempt to deal positively with the

alienation and disenfranchisement that were perceived to be a major cause of

often destructive unrest by urban minority youth. The projects sought to

redress the "social inequity" that is "a major determinant of youth deviance"

by giving youth formal policy and decision making roles in OEO- funded

community action agencies. An important item in OEO's policy agenda was to

test the concept of youth involvement. Forms of involvement included youth

representation on the board of the adult sponsoring organization, a youth

board serving in an advisory capacity to the adult organization, a youth board

totally responsible for the youth program of the adult organization, and youth

staffing and managing of the youth program. In this Final Report to OEO on

these projects, Fenton states that of the twelve projects described, seven had

"formal

All projects in the first category included skill training as a

substantial component, and given the fact that they were all timelimited demonstration grants, the business ventures themselves were

more training operations than substantive, permanent commercial

enterprises.

(2) Forging New Relationships: The CETA/School Nexus

(Rita, 1978) is the first of a series of interim reports to be presented by

the Youthwork National Policy study. This report focuses on the early record

of instances of cooperation and collaboration between LEAs and CETA prime

sponsors in the implementation of the Exemplary In-School Demonstration

projects administered by Youthwork, Inc. Chapter Three examines that LEA-CETA

collaboration in the context of youth operated projects. Eight of the twelve

YOP sites provided data for the report. The sites had been in operation from

223 269
two to eight months at the time of the study. In general, collaboration

between LEAs and CETA prime spnosors was found to be "minimal," revolving

around fiscal and space concerns. Discussion of programatic mateters was

limited by mutual hostility and distrust. Rist tries to establish differences

among projects in small cities, large metropolitan areas, and rural areas, and

among CETA-sponsored and LEA-sponsored YOPs. He also breaks down YOPs

according to project "activity type" - peer counseling (2 projects), work

experience (4 project), brokerage model (1 project) and profit making

(1 project) - and compares these types of sponsorships. Rist concludes that

CETA-sponsored YOPs were implemented more quickly and faithfully to their

proposals, and served a higher proportion of their target population, than

were CETA-sponsored YOPs; and that sites in smaller cities were more quickly

implemented than were those in large metropolitan areas. These findings were

limited, however, by the small size of the sample, and by the fact that only

two of the youth operated projects accurately fit the "youth operated" title.

(p. 59) In addition, the Rist findings do not show how the reported outcomes

relate to the sites' status as YOPs; the findings with regard to patterns of

LEA-CETA collaboration, size of city and identity of sponsor (CETA or LEA)

seem substantially the same for YOPs as they are for the three other Youthwork

program types.

(3) In Strategies for Coordinating Education and Employment Services: A

Preliminary Analysis of Four In-School Alternatives, Rist (1979) offers

some new ways to compare YOPs, using data collected at seven to ten sites that

had been in operation from eight to twelve months (through August, 1979).

Three issues were examined, and comparisons were made between LEA-sponsored,

CETA-sponsored, and NPO *- sponsored YOPs for each issue. The first issue was

speed of reaching proposed plan; the three CETA-sponsored programs were more

successful than three of the four LEA-sponsored sites. The second issue is

adult versus youth management of progiams; seven of ten programs were

classified as adult-managed. The third issue is program strategies; ten sites

are categorized as either peer counseling (2 sites), work experience (6 sites)

or brokerage (2 sites).** In this "Occasional Paper #1," Rist is essentially

*non-profit organization

**As in the previous Rist work, these terms are not defined.

224 2 ;,0
proposing different ways to sort data on YOPs, w attempting to draw

conclusions. At this still-early stage of the Yo: :k demonstration and

knowledge development effort, Rist cautions that "thi, eaper should be viewed

as an attempt to provide a conceptual framework for examining the youthinitiated projects." (An unexplained development in this paper is the

author's replacement of the usual term "youth-operated projects" by the term

"youth-initiated projects." The change is uniform throughout Chapter Three;

the more familiar term does not appear except in the chapter title, "Job

Creation through Youth Operated Projects,: and in a quotation from an early

DOL document.)

(4) Opportunities for Youth (OFY) was a summer program announced by the

government of Canada which in 1971, with a budget of $24.7 million, funded a

wide variety of activities that were proposed and operated by youth. 2,312

projects were approved, resulting in 27,832 jobs for youth, and encompassing

"all kinds of community-oriented projects, such as urban redevelopment,

pollution studies, social services for the elderly, day-care centers, and

cultural activities." OFY was created in response to widespread concern over

growing numbers of disaffected young people (including many thought of as

"dirty hippies") who would be "released from their studies during the summer"

and, unoccupied in jobs or other "meaningful activities," set adrift in

Canadian society. OFY was targeted at students, especially post-secondary

students, who were seen as embodying the most potentially volatile combination

of unemployment, inactivity, nonparticipation and social unrest. The

evaluation of OFY contained in the Report of the Evaluation Task Force to the

Secretary of State (OFY, 1971) combines a description of the central planning

and implementation for the program with a largely statistical report of outcomes. The limitations on the evaluation were primarily methodological:

(OFY's) objectives were ambitious, overlapping and sometimes vague.

The concrete details of the programme - that is, the projects

themselves - were wholly determined by the participants rather than

by the criteria of the granting agency. There was no single,

definable set of objectives which the programme sought to achieve

by its choice of projects, and therefore no explicit set of

criteria for the evaluation of the programme at that level. How to

compare, for example, the relative costs and benefits of a travelling theatre troupe in northern Quebec with those of a "speed"

clinic in Thunder Bay or a food co-op in Saskatoon? (pp. iii-iv)

225

271
Hence, no attempt is made to describe any individual projects, although there

is a statistical breakdown by type (Research, Recreational, Social Service and

Cultural) and by 25 sub-types. Criteria for approval of projects included a minimum number of jobs provided, that no profit-making activities be funded,

and that projects must benefit persons other than those immediately employed.

The evaluators used mostly survey methods to record project dimensions and to

measure various project effects on youth, community and nation. Two key

findings were that (a) although students did work, OFY did nothing to alter

the conditions of student unempoloyment, and was probably misconceived as an

employment program, and (b) "there was a direct correlation between the size

of a project and the degree to which its members were involved in planning and

decision making. For all types and in all regions, smaller projects were more

truly democratic than were larger ones." (p. 73) Comparing projects that

were initiated by adult agencies with those inititated by youth themselves,

the study found that

The participants' total involvement in all aspects of the design

and management of projects ... is difficult to obtain in a project

that was conceived, not by young people themselves, but either by a formal agency or one that is too large to allow the complete

involvement of all concerned. (pp. 76-77)

(5) Youth Into Adult. A 1974 publication of the National Commission on Resources for Youth (NCRY), bases its selection and description of youth

projects on the NCRY definition of youth participation. This emphasizes

responsible action by youth to meet needs in the community as a way of helping

to meet developmental needs of youth. The definition, as indicated below,

differs from the one we utilize here for YOPs, but in some projects there is

overlap.

Most of the projects reported in Youth into Adult have been site-visited

by the authors, who provide details orf youth activities, project goals and

transcriptions of interviews with project leaders. The treatment is not

systematic however, and there is no comparison between projects; nor is there

quantitiative information on such dimensions as goods and services produced.

Nine projects are described, each of which demonstrates some significant

youth particiaption: youth helping other youth, youth serving needy people in

226 22
the community, youth helping to maintain and manage residential youth homes.

Four of the nine projects focus on youth's role in helping drug users. The

nine projects are: Project Community (a center for troubled youth;

Number Nine (a crisis center); Encounter (a non-residential drug program);

Compass (a residential drag program); Community Meical Corps (in which high

school students from South-Bronx help to check for blood poisoning, take

medical histories and Increase community awareness of health problems); The

Yorkville Youth Council (tutoring and teaching by high school students);

Chinese Youth Council (teaching of adults by high school and college

students); Film Club (films produced and distributed by students); and Foxfire

(a national magazine produced by students).

Of all the projects described, Foxfire is the one that most approximates

our definition of YOPs. Students plan and manage the production of the

magazine. They participate in all aspects of its publication, from writing to

sales. the first two Foxfire books, anthologized collections of articles from

the magazine, are described briefly. These are published by Doubleday, and by

the time of publication of Youth into Adult, they had sold more than 600,000

copies between them.

In a final chapter, "Towards a Model for Youth into Adult Programs," the

authors identify nine elements that they argue are essential to the best

projects, and they offer practical guidelines for starting projects. Finally,

there is a nine-page annotated bibliography,

(6) What Kids Can Do, another NCRY publication, contains a book called

40 Projects by Groups of Kids, nine newsletters published by NCRY, and some information about Youth Tutoring Youth projects. Once again, the definition

and project selection are based on the NCkl model that emphasizes developmental needs of youth. These include the stipulation that the project must

"give the young person a responsible role, with some voice in the operation of

the project and, whenever feasible,, in the planning phases as well." (P. ii)

The forty projects are divided into the following categories: Zommunity

Service, Medical, Legal Service, Crisis intervent4-4n, Ecology, Day Care and

Teaching, and Community Arts. The newsletters describe projects that range

from construction to ecology.

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273
Project descriptions are brief and focus on the activities of the youth.

No effort is made to compare projectS in terms of the quantity of goods or

services that they produce. Each of the forty projects is described as to its

purpose, benefits to youth, type of career exploration, possible stonsors

(institutional base), adult supervisors. Data is not quantified, but

anecdotal and typically is based on interviews with project staff and/or

students. In terms of YOPs, the following projects come closest to the

definition used for this paper:

Youth initiated and staff a natural science museum in Cornwall, New

York (P. 2). Young people worked with adult consumers to develop

an alternative to high-priced food in their community. They

identified wholesale food outlets, arranged for community residents

to order food, and utilized the wholesale outles to fill the orders

(p. 24). Adolescents staffed a day care center that was set up in

the parking lot of a supermarket. Parents could leave their young

children in the center while they shopped. Teenagers collaborated

with skilled adults to teach the children. Parents were urged to

spend time in the center to observe how their children were taught

(p. 88). Young people from New York City's Lower East Side started

a magazine, The Fourth Street i, that traced the culture of Puerto

Ricans after they immigrate to New York. The student editorial

board of the magazine planned each issue and worked with other

students to collect materials including photographs, interviews and

art. The magazine was sold in the community, and the local school

district purchased copies for use in classes (p. 94).

(7) New Roles for Youth in the School and the Community, like the other NCRY

materials, focuses on projects that attend to a broad range of developmental

needs a adolescents. The book contains case studies and descriptions of

nearly 100 projects that fulfill NCRY's criteria for youth participation. The

descriptions are, for the most part, based on site visits by trained

consultants. The descriptions usually contain information about the nature of

the target group, size of the project and the sponsoring institution.

Each of the book's major chapters focuses on a different "new role" for

youth: Youth as Curriculum Builders, as Teachers, as Community Manpower, as

Entrepreneurs, as Community Problem Solvers, as Communicators (magazines, the

arts), as Resources for Youth. Each chapter describes projects in which youth

assume active roles in their communities. A number of the projects do

approximate the criteria for YOPs. In the Social Studies Lab in Enfield,
Connecticut, students produce slide-tapes and other media presentations about

subjects of concern to them. Students staff the program and train new

students in how to operate equipment. Students plan and develop most of the

lab activities and are involved in budgeting (p. 11). In the Bilingual

Tutorial Project, Chicano youth, including those of high school and college

age, started and staffed a project for teaching English and Spanish to

non-English speaking children in Richmond, California. The project was

conducted with the assistance of the public schools, but was youth-run

(p. 44).

The chapter on "Youth as Entrepreneurs" describes the multiple business

enterprises at Manual High School in Denver, Colorado. In 1.74r program, high

school students worked on urban renewal projects in , r', community by

building houses, fixing sidewalks and doing other const:' J1 work. The

students formed mini-corporations to manage the work and, through these,

participated in all aspects of the renewal projects: borrowing the funds,

designing the house, doing the actual construction, and selling the house.

The program was based in the school and there was close cooperation with

Denver's unions (p. 107). This same chapter describes two other small

businesses in which youth had significant roles, Soul Gate Shopping Center in

Cleveland and Soul-Mobile Record Shop in Washington, D.C.

Two cultural journalism publications in which students play major roles

in the planning, operation and management, are described in the chapter on

"Youth As Communicators" (pp. 182-193). These publications (Foxfire and

The Fourth Street i) are discussed elsewhere in this paper and we will not

describe them here.

The final chapter of New Roles contains practical hints on starting and

operating youth participation projects and offers a description of "An

Effective Adult Leader," providing some general guidelines that may be useful

in YOPs.

(8) Moments: the Foxfire Experience, (Wigginton, 1975) contains a description of the way the Foxfire project is conducted as well as

229
introductions to the first three Foxfire books. The author is the founder of

Foxfire.

Foxfire is a magazine begun in 1966 as the project of an English class in

the Rabun Gap-Nacoochee School, situated in the northeast corner of Georgia.

Students from the class undertook to study and record the folk and material

culture of the elderly residents of their region of the wountains. These

people were dying off, and with them, according to the author, a style of life

unique to that region was disappearing. The students meet with these poovle,

talk with them about their lives, and record their memories and their daily

activities. The records on video-tape audio-tape, photographs and notes are

then reworked by the students into the magazine called Foxfire. The magazine

is planned, laid out and written by students. Students also are responsible,

in consultation with the professional staff, for business arpects of running

the magazine (advertising, subscription, accz.untin!7, and even writ4ng checks).

By 1974, subscriptions to the magazine were bringing in $36,000, which meant

that the magazine was generating $11,000 in profits (p. 104).

Doubleday Publishing Company took an interest in the work of the

students. Their articles for the magazine were edited and collected in

The Foxfire Book, (Doubleday, 1972). With'n four years, this book had sold

more than one million copies (p. 132). So much interest was generated in

Foxfire as an educational project, that it began to receive as many as

14,000 letters a year (p. 133). By now, Foxfire has published its sixth book.

Students have used the proceeds from these sales to purchase land in the area

and to build a historical restoration (p. 142). They still pUbLish the

magazine and use it to advertise local crafts which helps bring income to the

people of the area. Organizationally, Foxfire is a non-profit corporation

with e national and a community board (both composed of adults).' It is

directed by an adult (Wigginton) -.but students play a large role in all

aspects of project operation. Stikienfts have also helped to disseminate the

Foxfire concept to many other communities across the country.

Moments contains a detailed description by Wigginton of how he works with

the students. It focuses on how to help students grow from initial shyness

and hesitation into assuming an even larger role in the creation of the

230 276
magazine. Wigginton describes the specific skills that he tries to help

students develop (in photography writing, layout, interviewing, marketing).

He focuses especially on how skill deveopment and level of difficulty is

geared to his personal knowledge of each student's needs.

(9) The Foxfire Book, published in 1972, contins 33 articles written by

students about the folk and material culture of the people of the southern

Appalachian Mountains. Subjects range from "Building a Log Cabin" to "Soap

Making" to "Slaughtering Hogs" to "Faith Healing." All the material was

collected by the students in interviews with persons who live in the mountains

(northeast Georgia, primarily). The introduction is written by B. Eliot Wigginton, founder of the Foxfire project. It describes how the project got

started (as an English class) and some of the early problems.

(10) Foxfire 2, published in 1973, again contains articles written by

students about the folk and material culture of the people of Southern

Appalachia. The Introduction, by B. E. Wigginton argues for the value of

giving young people active and relevant classroom activities (such as the

Foxfire project).

(11) In Foxfire 3 (1975), the introduction by Wigginton describes how

students are involved in dec/sion-making in the Foxfire project. Students

make decisions abbut such issues as whether a company can use Foxfire in its

commercials. Students also vote on such decisions as how to utilize proceeds

from the sale of the Foxfire books. They also voted to purchase a 50-acre

tract of land that is to be used as a historical restoration site.

(12) In Foxfire 4, (1977), once again, the introduction discusses the

educational philosophy behind Foxfire (active and experiential rather than

passive), and some projects that have developed either because Foxfire was

able to help them using proceeds from its sale of books, or because of

Foxfire's influence as a program model.

(13) In the introduction to Foxfire 5 (1979) Wigginton discusses the problems

that occur when people feel powerless. He sees Foxfife-type projects as an

231 277
answer to this feeling because they train young people in how to be effectual

members of a community and bring them closer to their communities:

Part of the answer, I believe, lies in programs of the type that

Foxfire sponsors within--and with the vital support of--the public

schools. Such programs build on and reinforce the basic skills

that many teachers are struggling to help students master by

putting those skills to work in the real world. But more than

that, they also build students' self-confidence and conviction of

self-worth; they give students an intimate knowlege of the background and culture of their community, out of which the commitment

to its future grows; and they give students a working knowledge of

the mechanisms by which tasks get done in any community and in ways

acceptable to the majority of those concerned (p. 13).

(14) You and Aunt Arie, A Guide to Cultural Jounalism Based on Foxfire and

Its Descendants, (Wood, 1975) contains a detailed description of the practical

aspects of running a cultural journalism project like Foxfire. The author

started one of the Foxfire "descendants". Called Salt, it is based.in Maine.

The audience for this book is the teacher who runs a Foxfire-type project, or

student participant. The chapter titles will make it clear what kinds of

information the book contains:

Getting into It: what you can expect when you work on a magazine

that takes its stories from your own community.

You've Got to Decide: the decisions each publication needs to

make.

An Interview: how to have a good interview.

Catching an Image: photography.

Darkroom: developing film and making enlargements.

Transcribing: make a word-for-word transcript of a recording.

The Crunch...Writing the Story: how to write a story and some

kinds of stories you might write.

The Great Assembly...Layout: Laying out a page so that it attracts

the eye.

You're a Business: circulation, advertising, correspondence,

printing costs, copywrighting, and other money matters.

And You're Something More: your project is more than a jar of

peanut butter.

232
(15) Student Power: Practice and Promise (Wittes, et al., 1975) describes

six alternatives school programs in which students had significant roles in

governance. The students helped to shape the kinds and types of services that

each school provides. Each school is described in a separate chapter.

The materials in this book are presented in a more systematic fashion

than in some of the °the,- publications we have discussed. Each chapter

includes discussion of the 10.story and impetus for the new program; the

governance structure and the extent to which students participate; the school

curriculum and the roles of students and teachers in determiniing it; the

values, goals, satisfactions, and dissatisfactions of key participants in each

program; and the informal influence structures. There is information on the

size, type of student, ethnic ratios, for each school, as well as its

relationships to the larger inocitutions or school system.. There is detailed

discussion of the process by which decisions are made in each school, and thus

of the type of youth-adult collaboration.

Student participation in school governance represents a specialized case

of yout'l operate' projects. In all of these projects, students, either

th=ough representatives or through school-wide meetings, have a significant

role in determining the nature of the services that the school provides,

including the content of the curriculum, and the time structure of classes.

In several of the schools, students participate in hiring and in allocating

funes.

Z16) The report by Blake, et al., describes the Youth Employment Planning

Team (YEPT) program of the School of Urban Affairs at Portland (OR) State

University, held during the summer of 1977. While YEPT did not fit the YOP

definition in that it did not produce goods or services, it is pertinent to

YOPs in that its purpose was to engage a diverse group of high school age

youth in the planning of new, long-term public service employment for young

people. The YEPT "was organized as a project-oriented learning situation

where youth were employed to study a problem and generate solutions, while at

the same time receiving strong educational support, to carry out project

tasks." By the end of the 10-week project, the local public transit agency

had agreed to create 50 year-round jobs for youth, age 15-19, in the agency.

233

2f3
These were to be part-time during the school year, full-time during summer,

with academic credit, teacher evaluations and counseling to take related

courses provided. Late political developments prevented these jobs from

materializing. The report describes the rationale, development and outcomes

of the project, including such details as youth recruitment, supervision,

training, and generation of strategirf. for dealing with prospective employers.

The Blake, et al., paper describi: 'he YEPT is among the best examples

of a program that combines employment ..17,* employability skills with careful

attention to systematic education and part.:.:471tion in planning and decision

making:

It was found that wwing youth to de and educational

programs for thembeiv,: promotes effe.J.i? .r;r:nlng and sound

program development. r !42)

The most effective lea-7:, skill develormnt took place when the

youths learned about thcc....,. wol7k and themselves through a process of

action/ reflection/ acl:i:;.%. (p. 154)

(17) CHARAS: The Impossible Dome Builders (1973) describes a cooperative

effort between Buckminster Fuller and a group of young adults and adolescents

from New York City's Lower East Side. The young people, many of them former

gang members (some former gang leaders), worked to overcome the problems of

their impoverished community. They mct Fuller and, through him, leamed the

complex geometry of building geodesic domes. They learned how to build their

own domes, plann4ng> designing and operating the dome-building project themselves, and raising funds from local foundations. AL one point, ,,he domes

were c)..1!,idered as a inexpensive alterna'tve for urban housing. Me book's

major value is inspirational: it shows how young people can work togodler to

overctve many obstacles and carry out plans that they themselves nmie

developed.

(18) The article by Cribb on "Black Youth Businet,r1. S-lhol and Showcase"

(1972) describes, in part, a fried chicken business that was started by a

group of youth in Tampa, Florida. With a starting capital of 510,000 from the

Office of Economic Opportunity, and $15,GJO from the Greater Tampa Chamber of

Commerce, these youth formed an enterprise which broue't in $75.$100 a day on

234 260
weekdays, and $175 a day on weekends. Students tot managerial and on-the-job

training, for which they were paid a salary. Profits went to Youth Enterprises of the Tampa Youth Board. This article includes little analysis, and

is journalistic in style.
B. Definitions

Each of the sources that treat mutlitple projects employs its own

I definition for the programs on which it focuses. Only in the case of Rist

does this definition correspond to Youthwork's and this paper's definition of

youth operated projects. Since the other works do not directly address YOPs,

therfore, it seems advisable to review the definition and/or criteria they

employ in order to clarify their respective contexts. This will serve the

additional purpose of indicating the limitations on any comparisons that may

be made among different sources.

Fenton uses the term "youth involvement" to characterize the central

feature of the projects he examines:

What we mean by Youth Involvment is initial participation by

project beneficiaries in the determination of the nature of their

programs and continuing participation in on-going managerial and

policy-making activities. (p. 15)

This concenption is similar to what is sometimes called "organizational youth

participation," meaning having a decision-making role in project governance.

Its origins are rooted in the "maximum feasible participation" principle of

the War on Poverty, which argued that recipients of public services ought to

have a voice in how those services are planned and administered. Its

rationale, although it accommodates other purposes, is largely political, and

is often defended by citing principles of democracy.

The National Commission on Resrouces for Youth uses the term "youth

participation" to describe the kinds of programs it promotes. In its most

succinct definition of this term, NCRY has noted:

Youth Participation can thus be defined as involving youth in

responsible, challenging action, that meets genuine needs, with

opportunity for planning and/or decision making affecting others,

in an activity whose impact or consequences extends to others - i.e., outside or beyond the youth participants themselves. (NCRY,

1975, p. 26)

235 282
This conception broadens the arena of participatory activity from involvement

in the youth project itself to active participation in community life. The

emphasis is on engaging youth in maturity-producing experiences that benefit

others in addition to themselves. The definition, it should be noted, is

NCRY's own, not that of th.1 projects it describes. NCRY uses it as a

criterion for selecting those locally-developed projects it wishes to present

as models. Although NCRY claims ma.v. benefits from youth participation, its

primary focus is on meeting the developmental needs of youth while meeting

community needs. The principle is applicable, according to NCRY, in a wide

range of programs serving youth, including employment, delinquency prevention,

educational, community development, social action, and so forth. The YEPT

project described by Blake, et al., explicitly adopted NCRY's definition of

youth participation to guide its conception and development. (Blake, et al.,

p. 145)

The Opportunities for Youth (OFY) program in Canada may come closest

conceptually to synthesizing the features of the other projects currently

under examination. That is because OFY combined youth employment goals with

emphasis on project planning and management by youth and on project activities

whose benefits extended to others. No formal definition of the youth role was developed for this program, and the three "major goals" were stated rather

loosely as (1) to provide employment for students, (2) to ensure that the jobs

provided were seen as "meaningful" by the students, and (3) that the program

have "a beneficial effect on national unity." Unfortunately for the purposes

of this review, the evaluators of OFY saw the program "as a kind of planned

'anarchism" (p. 7) (in the classical sense of spontaneous selforganization), a condition exacerbate' the the last-minute rush to implement

it. As a result, many measures of _program effects were rather seriously

compromised in their usefulness.

237

2S3
C. Forms and Charactierstics of Youth Operated Projects

Introduction

The projects that conform, to a greater or lesser degree, to the

definition for youth operated projects as employed in this paper encompass a

great range of forms, types and characterisitcs. In fact, virtually anything

is possible. The possibilities are nearly as endless as the variety of goods

and services, since, theoretically, any project in which youth provide a good

or a service could become "youth operated" by giving youth a major role in

planning and management.

Several of the works under review offer typologies of the projects they

describe. NCRY categories youth participation projects according to what

youth do. Chapter headings, as mentioned above, include youth as Curriculum

Builders, as Teachers, as Community Manpower, as Entrepreneurs, as Community

Problem-Solvers, as Communicators, as Resources for Youth. The Canadian

report on Opportunities for Youth offers a typology of its projects, with four

main categories (research, recreational, social service and cultural) in

25 subcategories (OFY, p. 45) that is as global as is NCRY's. Rist classifies

eight Youthwork sites into four (undefined) "models": Peer Counseling,

Brokerage, Profit Making and Work Experience. (1978, p. 54) In a short paper

prepared for Youthwork, Graham ventures a different categorization, under

"Three Approaches to Youth Operated Programs." The three approaches are

(1) shcool-sheltered projects, (2) projects of personal or community services

outside of school, and (3) income producing outside of school. (Graham, p. 2)

The questions posed by Youthwork for this paper identified a number of

other dimensions on which to examine youth operated projects. .In the pages

that follow, we have drawn together some information and comments under

headings derived from those questions for the purpose of; indicating what the

literature has to say about each topic. Sothe representative anecdotal

material is cited or presented in order to convey both the content and the

quality of the information in the literature.

Generally speaking, the literature does not provide extensive information

on any of the questions. Several issues that are central to an assessment of
the promise of youth operated projects as a strategy for increasing

employment, employability and broader developmental opportunities for youth

are not addressed in the literature to any degree whatever. Nowhere, for

example, is there any mention of "the relative effect of private sector vs.

public sector programmatic experience," whether in terms of outcomes on youth

or any other dimension. Nor is there any consideration of the age of youth

participants as a factor of any kind in YOPs. The literature is also silent

on the subject of financial versus non-financial incentives and disincentives,

apart from passing comments such as that a youth leader of a project "felt he

wanted people's involvement to be based on their willingness to cooperate and

function rather than the money derived from their efforts." (Mottel, p. 25)

Finally, there is no information on multi-site YOPs as compared to single site

ones. The Role Of Adults

Adult supervision, or the role of the adult, is the factor that, more

than any other, determines whether a project is "youth operated." As noted

earlier, any project that involves youth in providing a good or a service can

become youth operated by affording youth a major role in planning and

management. But judging from the small number of true YOPs relative to the

large number of projects in which the role of youth is limited to simple

production or service activities as staff, this seldom occurs. There is no

inherent reason, for example, why Youth Tutoring Youth programs should not be

YOPs, but apart from individual decisions (exceedingly important developmentally to youth) by youth concerning how to teach their "tutees," these

programs are nearly always planned and managed by adults.

The issue of the adult role is complicated by the fact that permitting

substantial control to be wielded by youth may be a process that takes place

over time. Conceivably, a project that is not "youth operated" in its early

stages will become so at a later one. Of course, the opposite may occur as

well. Fenton describes a grant request for a "youth involvemnt" project which

"grew out of the indigenous activity of a group of local youth and the plan

submitted was drawn directly by the youth."

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285
The board executive and membership structure proposed by Y.F.F.

[the youth group] provided for substantial youth involvement in the

program submitted. Local adults approved this arrangement though

it became clear that their approval was based on the expectation

that the program would never be funded. When, in fact, funding

appeared possible, a series of abandonments ensued as group after

group of adults withdrew their support. (p. 50)

Gaining by youth of a major role in planning and managing a project is of

course a developmental process for youth no less than for adults. Treatment

in the literature of these issues is typically either anecdotal, as above, or

indirect.

The role of the adult supervisor is a topic which has received some

attention in the literature. A three-page discussion of the adult role in

New Roles for Youth makes reference to the importance of adults who facilitate

rather than control youth decision-making, have a strong sense of their own

adult identity, and are committed to principles of individual development

while sharing a commitment to project goals. (NCRY, 1974, pp. 233-235)

In an account of one of his projects, Fenton observes:

Youth involvement is frequently frustrated in the face of strong

charismatic leadership. However, when such leadership is truly

committed to participation by youth, it facilitates the process by

adding the weight and prestige of the leader to the ideas and

thoughts of the neophyte participants. This is in effect what

occurred in Dayton. (p. 47)

Literature on Foxfire provides an outstanding example of ,a project in

which the adult leader took on the role of facilitator, giving major project

responsibilites to youth. In this case the adult viewed his responsibilities

as those of presenting challenges, insisting on high standards, assisting in

fund raising, and adding stability by his adult presence. (McCloseky &

Kleinbard, p. 185) Notably, during one project year, the adult supervisor was geographically removed from the project, partcipating through weekly communication and providing a final check of page proofs; during this year t;:7 high

school students produced a national magazine, virtually on their own. (McCloskey & Kleinbard, p. 174)

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240
Further, reports of the CHARAS experience demonstrate the potential for

dramatic outcomes that can be achieved, at least in part, as a result of adult

patience and ingenuity. (Mottel)

The literature also provides examples of a variety of models for project

supervision. One model is that of "troubled youth" being supervised by young

adults (ages 20-25) who have themselves had personal problems, including

problems with the law. (Rleinbard & McCloskey, p. 37) Another model is one

in which professional volunteers from medical and nursing schools work with

students who then work with individual families, serving as liaison between

community and medical professionals. In the Foxfire model, senior high school

students provide some supervision for junior students, teaching skills to the

incoming class which will in turn assume responsibility for passing these

skills along.

Reflecting its unsystematic nature, the literature contains almost no

discussion concerning ratios of staff to youth participants in YOPs. Rist

does report that in Youthwork project the staff/enrollee ratio is "low: in

order to provide a strong support system for potential dropouts. (Rist, 1978,

p. 48); and a YOP in Portland was reported as having a 3/10 ration. The

effectiveness of these kinds of ratios is not evaluated, although an

evaluation of the Canadian operated Opportunities for Youth reports

participant dissatisfaction when there was a lack of supervisory support.

(OFY, p. 49)

Institutional Collaboration

A central ;purpose of the exemplary in-school demonstration projects

administered by Youthwork is to stimulate and learn from differnt forms of

collabvTation and cooperation among institutions in providing services to

youth. As this is t relatively new policy focus in youth programing, it has

received little systematic attention in the literature on youth operated

projects. The subject is treated anecdotally and superficially, however, in

several individual project descriptions.

The one exception to this general lack of direct or in-depth analysis, in

the sources reviewed, of institutional collaboration is found in Rist (1978),

11111MIONIMINIPOINNOMeat

243.
whose primary focus is "the CETA/school nexus." It might be conjectured that

Rist's findings with regard to institutional collaboration probably say more

about collaboration under a Youthwork contract than about collaboration

related to youth operated projects per se. Rist found essentially the same

patterns emerging for the other three program thrusts of Youthwork as for

youth operated projects: strained relationships between CETA prime sponsors

and schools stemming both from differences in philosophy and style and from

sparring over regulations. "Minimal cooperation (fiscal monitoring and space)

has occurred at the youth operated projects but... the underlying attitudes

are not cooperative and supportive, but hostile." (pp. 42-43)

Rist examined such devices as advisory groups and school-CETA liaison

role for facilitating collaboration for youth operated projects, but did not

find evidence that they played a key role. (pp. 45-47) The 22 percent

set-aside for in-school programs under YETP had no discernible effect on

relations between the two organizations. (pp. 47-48) The youth operated

projects were found to duplicate some services already offered by other

programs; but as a result of Youthwork these were more comprehensive, better

integrated and more targeted for disadvantaged youth. (p. 58)

One of the few accounts of institutional collaboration in a youth

operated project is found in Blake, et al., which describes support-building

efforts undertaken by project members:

Several members of the youth planning team different ones each

time -attended YEPT meetings with the Tri-Met management, the

transit workers' union, and representatives of various youthserving agencies. illter each of these meetings the youth and

leaders who attended discussed with the entire group what had

transpired. (p. 152)

Later, a section entitled "Forming Alliances with Other Agencies to Implement

Youth Participation"describes efforts by project leaders. A key alliance was

made with the city of Portland's Youth Services Division (YSD) which

controlled much of the city's youth employment money. Repeated meetings with

the head of the agency led to "a general consensus and an alliance based on

mutual trust, common goals, and a philosophy shared by the leaders of YEPT and

the YSD."

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242
The literature is never more substantial or specific than this. Hence, answers to such pointed questions posed by Youthwork as "what forms of

collaboration and what structural arrangements best serve young people in

terms of placing them in private sector, unsubsidized jobs after program

completion?" are not close to being found, or even inferrable in the

literature.

Community Resources and YOPs

Much of the available literature does not examine in any detail the role

of community resources in the implementaion of youth operated projects. The

NCRY publications, in particular New Roles for Youth (1974), give tliF subject

the most direct consideration. There is a vivid description, for example, of

a series of projects based at Manual High School in Denver. Several of these

qualify as youth operated projects. One involved house construction, beginning with the formation by a group of carpentry, masonry and electricity

students in the vocational arts program of the Manual High School Realty

Corporation, for the purpose of building a house. "Valuable help came from a

teacher at Manual who was also a part-time realtor and from a Denver

construction company that agreed to sponsor the project. As an initial

safeguard, this construction company agreed to complete construction if Manual

High School students were unable to finish the project." (p. 109) A Denver

bank loaned the project $16,000. In other instances of community support:

Twenty-six local labor unions cooperated on the project, and a

union carpenter worked full time in the Manual High School classrooms to supplement the instruction of the regular industrial arts

teachers... A number of construction companies allowed students to

use their latest and most elaborate equipment - equipment that most

vocational high schools just cannot afford. This helped to insure

that skills students acquired and the jobs they learned to do would

not be obsolete nor out of line with what might be anticipated by

the time they entered the employment market. (p. 109-110)

Eventaully, the house was sold for $2,000 less than the Realty Corporation's

out-of-pocket costs. The project led to still bigger projects at the high

school, including a leading role in local urban renewal. The Realty

Corporation and three other "companies" that had been formed (the Architectural Company, which worked on the desiga for the house, the Manual

Accounting Company, which reviewed the bills, paid them and maintained the

243

2 9
books; and the Thunderbolt Construction Company, which was responsible for the

actual building of the house) gave way to a new organization, the Creative

Urban Living Environment (CULE). Under initial contracts with Denver's urban

renewal authorities totaling $61,000, CULE undertook "the rehabilitation of at

least fifteen houses, the design fo four mini-parks, the installation of

twenty-one blocks of sidewalks, and the publication of a bulletin explaining

to local residents their options under the urban renewal program." (p. 113)

Accounts in such detail of the involvement of community resources in

youth operated projects are rare, if not nonexistent, in the literature. The

project-making enterprise of Black youth in Tampa obtained the assistance of

mid-level and top executives of local branches of leading corporations and

banks. (Cribb, p. 14) The Community at large is a necessary resource, of

course, in the operation of Foxfire (Wigginton), which is based on reporting

by students of the particular culture of local inhabitants. It is this

culture that makes both the magazine and the book unique and is a major cause

of their popularity.

The literature also contains references to negative involvement of

community resources. Blake, et al., tell of attempts to persuade the local

transit system to cooperate with the Youth Employment Planning Team - attempts

that were fruitless until the mayor of Portland (positive resource) criticized

the agency's inadequate response to youth needs. (p. 157) CHARAS, the former

New York street gang which had built geodesic domes, found one of its domes

destroyed by an over-zealous Fire Department. (Mottel, p. 45) Yet they were

surprised by the visit of the city's Housing Commissioner, who advised them to

get a building permit, adding that his staff would be "receptive and

understanding" (Mottel, p. 37)

As these examples illustrate, the literature provides only sketchy and

anecdotal information on the subject of community resources in youth operated

projects. Nowhere is it systematically treated. The only actual discussion

however brief, of the role of community resources as an issue appears in

New Roles for Youth:

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244
Denver's contributions to Manual High School are numerous indeed.

They include the use of equipment from construction companies,

instruction from union journeymen, bank loans, and a press that has

given much favorable publicity to the school. Such support is

necessary for student entrepreneur programs that need the kinds of

skills and equipment the business world possesses and the schools

do not-and perhaps should not. It is much more economical for

businesses to supply facilities out of their surpluses than it is

for schools to borrow or purchase such facilities on the open

market. The latter course would make prohibitive the cost of

nearly all realistic student entrepreneur programs. For a school,

the challenge is to make its goals sufficiently attractive and its

interest sufficiently obvious to persuade community business and

labor groups that the cultivation of skills in potential employees

and the goodwill generated by providing men and supplies will, in

terms of sheer good business sense, ultimately outweight whatever

immediate costs are involved. (pp. 129-130)

Size of YOPs

It would be useful to know, of course, if youth operated projects had a typical, or an optimum, number of participants, or if different project

conditions, advantages, problems or outcomes could be correlated with

different project sizes. Unfortunately, the literature does not provide this

information. Mere reports on the number of participants in each project are

not difficult to find. The problem is in making some sense of the numbers.

They range, for example, from three participants, the minimum in the Canadian

Opportunities for Youth Program (which nationally had 27,032 student

participants) to several hundred. Number Nine, a drug treatment and peer

education program, had,a-staff --staff of 20 young people (average age 20) (McCloskey

and Kleinbard, p. 4 1 ). The 12th and Oxford Corporation had a board of

-1'' directors comprising of 12 local youth: "The youth, board and staff set

policy, manage and control the corporation... The Board provides the major

vehicle for youth involvement in all aspects of program development and

operation." The "program participants" numbered 76. (Fenton, pp. 56,58) But

we are not told what the Corporation itself does, nor what the participants

do. As these examples illustrate, the figures on number of participants are meaningless because, first, it is not clear whether "participants" are board

members, project leaders, project staff, simply "involved" in the project's

activities, or some other role, and, second, the projects are so totally

different from one another that they would not be comparable even if

participants were counted in some uniform mann-r.

..::: 245 291
It must be recalled, furthermore, that few of the projects described in

the literature are true youth operated projects according to the current

definition. Information from Rist on number of participants in Youthwork's

YOPs, moreover, only gives a range across the twelve projected sites ("a low

of 35 to a high of 300 disadvantaged youth," 1979, p. 33) and a projected

total number (1750 youth). In sum, there is little to be learned from the

figure on number of participants in youth operated projects. Nowhere in the

literature is this treated as an issue in itself.

Another dimension of project size is "dollar volume of sales and services

provided" by youth operated projects. Nowhere in the literature are figures

reported for dollar volume.

Finanacial Status

Very little attention is given in the literature to the details of the

financial status of youth operated projects. There is no information, for

example, on the subject suggested by Youthwork's question of "financial plans

to utilize income generated by the various youth operated components and to

leverage monies from other funding scurces." A limited exception is the

discussion by Wigginton, in his introduction to Foxfire 3, of how his students

vote to decide what to do with proceeds from the Foxfire books. (Wigginton,

1975 (A))

One issue that emerges in the literature is the difficulties that attend

income-producing youth employment projects that are created with public funds.

How should they be evaluated? Should they be expected to compete in the

marketplace? Should they be expected to pay their own way? How should income

from project activities be utilized? The issue was faced ten years ago in the

projects described by Fedton, who argued that

success... is properly evaluted by programmatic, rather than

commercial, standards in that the ability to plan and conduct such

activities is at issue here; such abilities do not insure success in highly competitive industries where forces much beyond the reach

of the project will determine outcomes. R.G.S. demonstrated the

ability of youth to deal with the complexities of creating

businesses with originality and vigor. On the other hand, such

attempts as the laudromat by the Hartranft project represent the

impossibility of a successful experience in the face of the

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292
difficulties suffered as a consequence of their status as a federolly-funded project. This status rendered the group unable to

deal 'th such exigencies as contracts, leases, purchases and the

. 102)

takes a position on the issue of the self-sufficiency of youth

operated s ventures:

A progru or student entrepreneurs must perform at least two jobs;

the busine6ses with which it may compete have to perform only one.

To compete with an established business, a student program must do

a job e the standard price; to achieve its long-range educational

purpose. , the project must teach the students how to do the job -

and the.-, involves developing related skills that may never have

seemed a.:Luificant to a student before. This in itself is a value

that is probably of more enduring worth than the financial success

of a student enterprise. It is doubtful, in fact, that the value

of a given project should be assessed with great emphasis on

fianancial profit. When a school performs its related educationnal

tasks, a project almost inevitably, and justifiably, winds up

costing more money than can be charged for the job that is being

done. (NCRY, 1974, p. 128.)

Only Rist addresses the problem of disposal of income produced by a

project. It is mentioned in the context of a discussion of CETA-LEA

relations, and the restrictions placed on project-produced income by federal

regulations. Rist reports that the problem was resolved, but does not say

how:

Three CETA prime sponsors began their association with the youth

initiated projects by interpreting regulations so stringently as to

inhibit any creativity project operators might have shown. This

resulted in reduced flexibility which in turn increased the time

needed to successfully implement the exemplary programs. An

example of this occurred at five sites where there was a question

as to how income produced by projects was to be used. These sites

wanted to funnel the money back into the projects for capital

spending or increased stipends for the youth. Two prime sponsors

and one regional DOL denied this request initially but subsequently

(two months later) reversed themselves and allowed this money to be

spent to help sustain the project. This is but one example of how

CETA regulations and DOL guidelines slowed the development of the

youth operated projects. Our data indicate that now, nine months

since contracts were signed, this issue has been resolved at these

five sites.

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293
Outcomes for Youth

There are many claims in the literature for a variety of positive program

outcomes for youth as a result of participation in YOPs. These range over

skills acquisition, attitude changes, educational growth, career exploration

and job placement. These claims are often made convincingly, and they may

well be valid. For the most part, however, substantiation is purely

anedcotal.

The literature, in fact, is practically devoid of evaluations that treat

program outcomes. Even less does it contain reports on pre- and post-testing,

except occasionally to imply that such took place. Occasional references to

evaluation results tend to be second hand and non-specific - for example,

"Tests conducted at the program's conclusion showed that most participants had

not only learned a practical work skill but had also improved their business

vocabulary and their mathematics skills." (NCRY, 1974, p. 123) The

evaluation of the Canadian Opportunities for Youth program, the only

quantitative report on outcomes, is limited by reporting aggregrate results of

over 2,000 projects that the authors acknowledge to be baffling in their

diversity. (OFY, pp. iii-iv) The outcomes can be of interest only in terms

of this one large-scale Canadian experiment.

These caveats noted, the literatrue does contain some descriptive

accounts of the processes by which programmatic activities lead to desired and

significant outcomes. Blake, et al., for example, offer the following:

The most effective learning and skill development took place when

the youths learned about their work and themselves through a

process of action/reflection/action. The youths acted upon their

environment in a constructive project, they discussed and summed up

their experience (successes and failures), learned related theory

and history and technical skills related to more successful

completion of their project, and then returned to the project armed

with their new understanding. Such education was directed toward

the solution of a particular problem, unlike the prevalent banking

model of education, in which teachers deposit "knowledge" in a youth's head and expect him/her to draw it out and apply it many

years later.

This type of learning experience developed personal skills

(responsibility, decision-making, compassion, cooperation, working

in groups, and personal problem-solving) as well as technical,

248 294
vocationally-related skills. Youth were working at jobs which will

hopefully be related to their future careers, and they had a

significant voice in deciding what they want to do and how it

should be done. Youths also made choices now, rather than learning

about making them in the future. (pp. 145-146)

The strength of an account such as this is also its weakness, that is, its

program specificity. It is of a piece with the context of the project;

outcomes are inseparable from a unique process. To take another example,

Foxfire students are described as having acquired a discipline for learning,

an appreciation of interdisciplinary learning, a sense of community

responsibility, and sensitivity to the arts and their role in enhancing

communication. In addition,

Foxfire students have acquired vocational skills which are transferable, marketable, and useful during one's lifetime, i.e.,

editing and writing, photography, darkroom marketing, bookeeping,

printing, typing, filing transcribing, design, organization and

management, circulation, advertising, public relations, public

speaking, museum curation, community leadership, banking.

(Wigginton, 1975, p. vii)

The trouble with these reported outcomes, and many like them in the

literature, is not their credibility, nor even (for the moment) the fact that

they are not substantiated. The problem, for the purposes of this paper, is

that results are not meaningful without a systematic understanding of what

produced them. It is the systematic treatment of program components and how

they relate to outcomes that advances knowledge, and that is missing from the

literature.

In a paper prepared for Youthwork, Pressman invokes a need to identify

"differential outcomes" of youth operated projects - that is, those outcomes

which seem to relate most directly to the fact that they are youth-operated.

It is these differential outcomes, the ones that differentiate youth operated

projects from other program forms, on which the question of YOPs as a policy

issue depends. As yet, such outcomes have not been identified in the

literature.

The "weakness" of the literature in answering certain policy-related

questions, however, should not be mistaken for a weakness in the projects
themselves. There can be little doubt that most of the projects described in

the literature were quite effective in their own terms - and not just because

it is successful projects that tend to get written about. The absence of

systematic measures of program effectiveness means only that success was not

measured, not that it did not occur. The distinction is an important one,

particularly for program operators, who do not need tests and measures to tell

them whether they were successful. For the, success is self-evident, or easily "proven" by showing the outcomes that to them are far more meaningful

than test results - a carefully constructed house, a popular magazine, an old

person who is less lonely, a youth who is coping better personally now, a

group of youths who feel a new sense of confidence in their ability to make

decisions.

The issue goes deeper than finding ways to measure these gains. One must

seriously consider the effect on these programs of subjecting them to rigorous

evaluation. Many of them did not evolve in systematic fashion, as the

literature amply reflects. In contrast to some projects that result from

federal initiatives, they operate unencumbered by externally imposed

regulation and reporting procedures. It is realistic to suspect that their

functioning would be altered, perhaps significantly, by the demands of policy

imperatives for more systematic knowledge, testing and control.

To say that the needs of policy makers are sometimes in conflict with the

needs of practitioners is not to force a choice. The point, rather, is to

recognize the legitimacy of both sets of needs, and to seek an appropirate

balance. The need from a policy point of view to identify and measure

differential outcomes of youth operated projects, for example, should not be

allowed to bury the need at the project level for the exercise of creativity,

spontaneity, risk taking and other such elusive ingredients of program

effectiveness. Rather than conventional monitoring, testing and control

procedures, there is a need to develop what have been called "ecologically

gentle" methodologies.

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250
D. Bibliography

The following works are discussed individually above, pages 8 to 27. The

numbers in parentheses below that precede each work indicate the order in

which they appear in that discussion.

(16) Blake, Gerald, et al. "Recruiting Unemployed Youth as Plinners of Youth

Employment," in Arthur Pearl, et al., eds. The Value of Youth. Davis,

California: Responsible Action. 1978, pp. 141-158.

(18) Cribb, Herschel. "Black Youth Business: Symbol and Success.".

Opportunity 2, 2. March, 1972.

(1) Fenton, Calvin, W. Youth Monitoring and Self-Evaluation Services. Final

Report. Washington, D.C.: University Research Corp. Office of

Economic Opportunity, Washington, D.C. November 30, 1970.

(5) McClosky, Mildred and Kleinbard, Peter. Youth into Adult. New York:

National Commission on Resources for Youth. (NCRY) 1974.

(17) Mottel, Syeus. Charas: The Improbable Dome Builders. New York: Drake

Publishers. 1973.

(7) National Commission on Resources for Youth (NCRY). New Roles for Youth

in the School and the Community. New York: Citation Press. 1974.

(6) National Commission on Resources for Youth (NCRY). What Kids Can Do.

New York: NCRY. Undated.

(4) Opportunities for Youth '71 (OFY). Report of. the Evaluation Task Force

to the Secretary of State. Ottawa, Canada. February, 1972.

(2) Rist, Ray. Forging New Relationships: The CETA/School Nexus. Interim

Report #1. Youthwork National Policy Study. Cornell University.

June, 1979.

(3) Rist, Ray

Services:

Occasional

University.

Strategies for Coordinating Education and Employment A Preliminary Analysis of Four In-School Alternatives.

Paper #1. Youthwork National Policy Study. Cornell

November, 1979.

(9) Wigginton, Elliot, ed. The Foxfire Book. Garxen City, New York:

Doubleday. 1972.

(10) Wigginton, Eliot, ed. Foxfire 2. Garden City, New York: Doubleday.

1973.

(11) Wigginton, Eliot, ed. Foxfire 3. Garden City, New York: Doubleday.

1975 (A).

25

97
(12) Wigginton, Eliot, ed. Foxfire 4. Garden City, New York: Doubleday,

1977.

(13) Wigginton, Eliot. ed. Foxfire 5. Garden City, New York: Doubleday.

1979.

(8) Wigginton, Eliot. Moments: The Foxfire Experience. Washington, D.C.:

Foxfire Fund and IDEAS. 1975(B).

(15) Wittes, G., et al. Student Power: Practice and Promise.

(14) Wood, P. You and Aunt Arie: A Guide to Cultural Journalism Based

on Foxfire and its Descendants. Washington, D.C.: IDEAS. 1975.

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III. RECOMMENDATIONS

Over the past twenty years there has been a proliferation of federally

funded programs designed to deal in various ways with problems related to

youth unemployment; some of these programs have also been concerned with

easing the transition from school to work, increasing educational attainment,

and enhancing adolescent development.

Recently there have been efforts to pull together what is known about the

operation and effects of these youth programs* and to study additional

programs within a knowledge development framework designed to provide

comparative data on certain types of program outcomes and program

components.** No doubt, some of the data produced from this research may be

generalizable in its applicability to youth operated projects, especially

since a few of the programs being studied probably qualify as YOPs, though

they are not so labeled.***

If implementation of effective youth operated projects is considered

important however, additional knowledge development activities specifically

keyed on YOPs will be needed. Notable gaps in knowledge have been documented

in Section II, prepared in response to a series of questions posed by

Youthwork, Inc. Similar questions about the operation and outcomes of YOPs,

recorded in papers written by Graham and by Pressman, remain unanswered.

Designing a knowlege development plan which would answer some of these

questions is beyond the scope of this paper. However, based on the literature

review and our own knowledge of youth operated projects and other forms of

*See, for example, Mangum and Walsh, Taggart, and Walther.

**See, for example, the plans and studies outlined in U.S. Department of

Labor, A Knowledge Development Plan for Youth Initiatives/Fiscal 1979.

***For example, Aunt Martha's Youth Industries, Park Forest, Illinois;

projects of The Corporation for Youth Enterprises, Washington, D.C.;

programs of The Corporation for Public/Private Ventures, Philadelphia,

Pennsylvania; and Junior Achievement Adaptation, San Diego, California.

253 299
youth participation, we offer some thoughts and recommendations which might be considered in the design of such a plar.. The following are discussed:

(1) Issues arising from problems of defintion, (2) Defining program goals and

objectives, (3) Some short term research strategies, and (4) Some short term

capacity-building strategies.

(1) Issues arising from problems of definition.

As we have noted, there is not definition, consistently acknowledged of what constitutes a youth operated project. Given this conceptual looseness, there is no way to verify that any particular program under study is actually

functioning as a youth operated project. As mentioned in Section II, Rist

encountered exactly this issue when he studied twelve projects labeled is "youth operated" and found that only two "accurately fit the 'youth operated' title." (Rist, 1978, p. 59)

Given this absence of clarity, some cautionary points are in order. For

one thing, it is important that the concept of the youth operated prbject, as a programmatic strategy for enhancing youth development and employment, be kept from becoming overly identified with any individual attempts to implement it. The danger is that unsuccessful attempts at implementing any single YOP model, such as "entrepreneurships" or "brokerage,: may serve to discredit the

broader concept of YOPs themselves. For example, while some youth

entrepreneurships may be categorized as YOPs, negative results from

evaluations of entrepreneurships should not necessarily point to the failure

of the YOP concept; nor would positive results validate other kinds of program

models.

Similarly, results from the study of early experimental "approximation" of YOPs should be interpreted cautiously. Consider, for example, the

Youthwork projects, established as part of a knowledge development effort to

learn more about implementing YOPs. One might expect that, in some of the

cases studied, youth may start out with little role in planning and

management, but that their participation will be gradually increased as the

project finds its way. Given this necessary process of program development, it would be premature to measure proximate outcomes of such a project and to

interpret them, without qualification, as "outcomes of a YOP."

300

254
A related point concerns the composition and size of any research sample.

There is a wide range of practical variations on the theoretical concept of

the youth operated project. Variations encompass, first, those that reflect

different sets of program goals or intended outcomes; but in addition, within

programs which share similar goals, there is the possibility for a range of

variations among program components, such as quality of adult supervision,

type of youth involvement, provision for career exploration, and so forth.

Until distinctions among programs are made explicit, there may be a tendency

to lump dissimilar youth operated projects into the same study sample,

obscuring program differences and yielding data about average program outcomes

which are not really representative of any of the program models. It is

especially important, methodologically, to attend to program differences and

to study "enough" YOPs to obtain a fair sampling of the range of program

variations.

In sum, there is an immediate need to clarify the operational defintion

of "youth operated projects." It is also important to clarify distinctions

among various kinds of program models with respect to both intended outcomes,

and program components.

(2) Defining Program Goals and Objectives.

In a paper entitled "Job Creation Through Youth Operated Projects: What

We Need to Learn and Why We Need to Learn It," Harvey Pressman summarizes

results of a conference held in May, 1978. One of the issues discussed is the

importance of determining whether there is anything about youth operated

projects that makes them "special"--different, better, worse -- than other

kinds of projects for youth. As Pressman notes, gaining insights into this

issue requires information on such potential program outcomes as development

of management skills, maturity, coping skills, self assurance, humane

qualities, and employability skills (pp. 4-5).

From a policy perspective, information concerning these outcomes is

needed because the overarching issue regarding public support of youth

programs is

255301
What kinds of activities, and in what combinations, will best further the total development of youth between the ages of 16 and 21? (Barton and Fraser, Vol. 1, p. 82)

This is not a radical or new idea, but it does serve as a timely reminder,

given pressures to evaluate many youth programs in terms of immediate job

placement or "positive termination." Short term accountability, as provided

through such data as immediate placement, is important. But these objectives

relate to only a small part of "the total development of youth." There are

obvious dangers in relying heavily on one or serveral easily measured

immediate program outcomes, for this can result in the neglect of other

desirable, though more elusive, kinds of outcomes that may have a long term

effect on employability, career advancement, or the generation of citizenry

with desired human and social qualities.

Thus the broader perspective reflected in the Pressman paper is

important. It is encouraging, too, that the knowlege development plan of DOL

demonstrates a similar concern for attending to the range of potential

outcomes from certain kinds of federally funded youth programs.

In theory, at least, youth operated projects provide an opportunity for

meeting some of the developmental needs of youth that extend beyond the goal

fo short term job placement. It is important that efforts be made to define,

operationalize and validate these outcomes of youth operated projects.

(3) Short Term Knowlege Development Activities.

Several short term knowlege development activities which seem appropriate

are outlined below. We recommend that these, as well as other kinds of

studies of youth operated projects, be conducted witin an interdisciplinary

framework, the importance of which is argued by Barton and Fraser. They point

out that no single field of research comprehends the study of all the factors

involved in the transition process which prepares youth for work and for

assuming adult roles (Summary, p. 33). Their report makes a strong case,

which we endorse as particularly applicable to youth operated projects, for an

interdisciplinary approach to the study of youth employment- -for research

efforts which synthesize concepts, methodologies and findings from a variety

of:-fields including: "knowlege of market forces: youth cultures; identity,'
self-esteem, and motivation; learning theory and practice; juvenile justice

administration; employment skill acquisitiDn; and organizational behavior."

(Summary, p. 14)

Recommended short term knowledge development activities are the

following:

a) Preparation of one or several concept papers.

One or several papers are needed to clarify the definition of "youth

operated project." One or several papers might also initiate the process of

operationalizing and validating the outcomes of youth operated projects.

Questions such as the following might be addressed: What outcomes are desired

from YOPs? What can be realistically expected? How might program achievements be operationalized? What might,rachievements cost in terms of financial

commitments as well as the costs of "options foregone"- (i.e., forgoing

programmatic attempts to achieve competing goals)?

b) Study of "YOPs that work"

Given recent national interest in youth operated projects, as well as a

growing number of programs qualifying as YOPs at the grass root level, it

would be useful to have some immediate information on the operation and

outcomes of effective programs as distinct from projects still in the

developmenta;. stage. The literature review of Section II documents that such

information is not available at present.

One way to generate some of this information would be to conduct studies

of existing programs, relying heavily on site visits to gather qualitative

observations as well as quantitative information on program components and

outcomes. For this initial step, "outstanding" or "successful " prggrams might

be selected by canvassing persons knowledgeable of the fleld, and asking them

to select program candidates for further study. There are a number of

organizations, of which NCRY is only one, for which files on youth projects

are maintained. Conversations with persons in some of these organizations*

*Such organizations include Junior Achievement; National Association of

Counties; National Endowment for the Humanities, Office of Youth Programs;

U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, Youth

Program Models and Innovations; and The Robert F. Kennedy Memorial.

257 d03
suggest that files do contain at least some descriptions of programs which fit

the YOP definition.

Analysis of successful existing programs has practical appeal as a knowlege development strategy because it eliminates the time and expense of

setting up experimental projects and waiting for them to develop into fully

operational programs.

c) Comparative Studies

Studies conducted within a comparative framework would yield information

not only on what "works", but also on "what works best." Comparative analyses

might focus on (1) program variations among various types of YOPs, (2) YOPs

with goals relating to youth employment as compared with other youth

employment projects .which are not youth manages;, and (3) YOPs as compared with

other models for youth participatiopn (of which the YOP offers only one set of

variations).

This is a more sophisticated research task than that proposed in (b),

above, but still has the practical appeal of generating information from

existing programs.

d) Retrospective case histories of what happened to youth from

outstanding YOPs

A difficult but important question concerns the long term effects on

individuals, participating in youth operated projects. Most research is

limited, by having to measure immediate program effects whereas, as discussed

above, many of the experiences gained in YOPs may not have consequences until

later in adult life.

We are aware of projects, such as Foxfire and others, which fit the YOP

definition and have been in existence for eight years or longer. Informal

inquiries indicate that it would be possible to identify and interview some of

the young adults who first participated in these programs and to trace their

histories of employment and human development. This would be an initial step

in gathering longitudinal data of importance for a comprehensive evaluation of

the impacts of YOPs.

304

258
(4) Capacity-building strategies

To foster interdisciplinary collaboration and to enhance YOP

implementation, we offer several final remarks. First, the proposal of Barton

and Fraser for various forms of "networking" (Summary, p. 9) among

researchers, including the conduct of interdisciplinary meetings and the

circulation of a newsletter, seems particularly appropriate to YOP knowledge

development efforts. We would add to this recommendation that thought also be

given to providing more opportunities for dialogue between policy makers and

practitioners, who may share similar interests, but have different ways of

conceptualizing and prioritizing issues related to program implementation.

Finally, we would emphasize the importance of various kinds of training

and support services for adult supervisors of youth operated projects.

Assuming the responsibility of supervisor, while at the same time encouraging

youth decision making, it in most cases an unfamiliar and difficult role for

adults to assume. Our experience suggests that this capactiy can be enhanced

by providing adult supervisors opportunity to meet with, or view films of,

peers who are successful in this adult role, working with youth.

259

305
REFERENCES*

Barton, Paul E. and Fraser, Bryna Shore. Between Two Words: Youth

Transition from School to Work. Prepared by the Center for Education and Work, National Manpower Institute for the Employment and Training Administration, U.S. Department of Labor, August, 1978.

Graham, Richard A. Youth Planned and Operated- In-School and Communit Based Projects. Washington, D.C.: Youthwork, Inc., n.d.

Mangum, Garth and Walsh, John. Employment and Training Programs for Youth: What Works Best for Whom? Prepared by the National Council on Employment Policy for the Employment and Training Administation. U.S. Department of Labor, May, 1978.

National Commission on Resources for Youth, Inc. Youth Participation. A

report to the Office of Youth Development, Department of Health, Education and Welfare, December, 197J.

Pressman, Harvey. Job Creation Through Youth Operated Projects: What We Need to Learn/Why We Need to Learn It. Washington, D.C.: Youthwork, Inc., n.d.

Rist, Ray. Forging New Relationships: The CETA/School Nexus. Interim Report #1. Youthwork National Policy Study, Cornell University, June, 1978,

Taggart, Robert. "Employment and Training Programs for Youth" in National Commission for Manpower Policy, From School to Work: Improving the Transition. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976.

U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administation. A

Knowlege Development Plan for Youth Initiatives, Fiscal 1979.

Walther, Regis H. Analysis and Synthesis of DOL Experience in Youth Transition to Work Programs. Prepared for the Employment and Training Administration, U.S. Department of Labor, December, 1976.

*See also Bibligraphy, page 52.

306

260
Appendix A:

Sources Consulted During Literature Search

Appendix B:

Youthwork Questions
APPENDIX A.

Sources Consulted During Literature Search

Bibligraphies from the following sources were consulted:

Catalog of Materials for Youth Programs. Listing of Available Technical Assistance and Training Materials and Films. U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, Office of Youth Programs. September, 1979.

Educational Research Information Center. Teachers College, Columbia Uniiersity. (Search on "youth particpation in employment programs ").

Evaluation Reports Stocked by the National Technical Information

Service (NTIS). U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training

Administration, Office of Program Evaluation. Washington, D.C.

Mangum, Garth and. Walsh, John. Employment and Training Programs for Youth: What. Works Best for Whom? Prepared by the. National Council on Employment Policy for the Employment and Training Administration, U.S. Department of Labor. May, 1978.

Youth Project, Youth Library. National Association of Counties Research Inc.

Youthworkd Bibliography. National Youthworker Education Project. Center for Youth Development and Research. University of Minnesota. January, 1978.

In addition, the folloiwng individuals were interviewed to obtain their

recommendations on sources of information pertinent to the literature search:

Marion Blakey. National Endowment for the Humanities, Office of Youth

Programs (telephone interview).

Pam Clark. U.S. Department of Labor, Office of Youth. Programs.

Frank Cole. U.S. Department of Labor, Office of Youth Programs.

Christine Davis. Community Youth Enterprises.

Evelyn Ganzglass. U.S. Department of Labor, Office of Youth Programs.

David Hackett. Robert F. Kennedy Memorial, The Youth Policy Institute.

Harry Lieberman. U.S. Department of Labor, OPER.

John Lindia. U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Office of Career Education.

Verne McArthur. Institute of Human Services, New Hampshire College.
Ellem McGiver. National Association of Counties.

Ann Radford. National Association of State Boards of Education. (telephone

interview).

John Walsh. Co-author of Employment and Training Programs for Youth. (See

above for complete reference. (telephone interview).

Pat Wilkenson. U.S. Department of Labor, Office of Youth Programs.

Finally, the following individuals were consulted, briefly through telephone

interview:

Garth Mangum. University of Utah. Co-author of Employment and Training

Programs for Youth. (See above for complete reference).

Ray Rist. Youthwork National Policy Study, Cornell Universtiy.

John Russell. American Vocational Association, Youth Entrepreneurship

Program.

Jane Seidman. U.S. Department of Labor, Office of Youth Programs.

Bernadine Watson. Corporation for Public/Private Ventures.

Gregory Wurzberg. National Council on Employment Policy.

263

3
APPENDIX B.

Youthwork's Questions On Youth Operated Projects

1. What forms of collaboration among employment, training educational (including colleges and universities). and rehabilitation institutions

(including CBO's) are the most effective and the most successful in facilitating the school-to-work transition sequence? Specifically, what forms of collaboration and what structural arrangements 'pest serve the young people in terms of placing them in private sector, unsubsidized

jobs after program completion? How can school systems incorporate youth operated projects as part of their learning programs?

2. What do we know about the relative effect and value of private sector vs. public sector programmatic experience in terms of skills acquired, later (after program), job placement, career and educational success, and overall (long-term) employability? To what extent does what type of

programmatic experience change/alter the impact as a result of the age of the participants?

3. What do we know about the significance of financial and nonfinancial incentives and disincentives, e.g., barriers, to participants? Is there a different impact of differing levels of financial and nonfinancial

incentives on participant performance and project outcomes?

4. What do we know about the characteristics of youth operated enterprises, e.g., do they provide goods or services? What, is the size.of the youth operated enterprises, both in terms of number of participants and dollar volume of sales and services provided? (The intent in this question is to get a clear impression of the descriptive characteristics of youth

operated enterprises to better understand the differences and similari- ties among them.) Specific questions will include: How can community resources be brought together in the implementation of youth operated projects?

5. What do we know about the quality of work supervision of the youth

operated enterprise participants by professional staff? What were the number of and types of skills developed by participants in youth operated projects? What is the amount of career exposure and exploration to which

the participants in youth operated projects have ben exposed, and how has it affected their career planning? What do we know about the length of time participants have spent in given enterprises, during the length of the projects? What do we know about changes in participants; attitudes and beliefs as a result of youth operated projects? What kinds of pre- and post-testing were done to determine the project's impacts?

6. What do we know about how programs devised financial plans to utilize

income generated by the various youth operated components and to leverage monies from other funding sources? How-were the plans operationalized?

Where were they weak and where were they strong, and what does this tell us about the need for planning for leveraging income from other sources and for utilizing the income generated by youth operated projects?
7. What do we know about how well multiple sites/programs administered by a

single operator function? What does it say about the problems in

managing a multi-site youth operated enterprise?

8. What do we know about the various forms, kinds, and types of youth

operated enterprises, both income and nonincome generating? What are the

salient and central characteristics of each type of enterprise, how they

work, and their long-term durability? (The intent of this question is to

identify and describe the various kinds of youth operated projects/

enterprises and how they work.) Specific questions will include:

How can useful projects be identified, planned, and operated by

youth?

How can retired or experienced entrepreneurs be brought in to assist

youth in running projects?

October 1979
.REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE:.

EXPANDED PRIVATE SECTOR INVOLVEMENT
TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE 266

TABLE OF CONTENTS 267

FORWORD 271

I. PRIVATE SECTOR INVOLVEMENT IN YOUTH TRANSITION TO

WORK PROGRAMS: REVIEW AND SYNTHESIS OF RESEARCH

LITERATURE 274

II.

Overview 274

Labor Department Programs Since CETA 275

School-Based Programs 276

Career Education 276

Vocational Education 277

Cooperative Education 278

Definitions 279

BACKGROUND: A BRIEF, HISTORY OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF

FEDERAL TRANSITION-TO-WORK PROGRAMS INVOLVING THE

PRIVATE SECTOR 281

Employment and Training (Manpower) Programs 282

Job Corps 283

Vocational Exploration Program (VEP) 284

National Alliance of Business JOBS Program 285

Operation Young Adults 285

CETA Programs 286

Supported Work 287

School-Based Programs 288

Experience-Based Career. Education 288

Cooperative Educatimi 289

Career Intern Program 290

70001 Ltd 292

Vocational Education 293

Summary 293

RESEARCH QUESTIONS DERIVED IRON ISSUES OF CRITICAL

CONCERN. .. . .. . ...... . .. . .. ............ . . .. ............... .... .. . . A. What forms of collaboration among employment, training,

private sector employers educational (including colleges

and universities), and iehabilitation institutions (including CB0s) are the:iota effective: .and most successful in

facilitating the ichool--to-work. transition sequence?

Specifically, whit:foram. of,c011aboiation'and what

structural arrangements best serve the Young Pee Pie in terms of placing them in private seitot, unsubsidised

jobs after program completion
1. Summary

2. What do we not know about the effectiveness

of collaboration? 303

303

B. What do we know about the relative effect and value

of private sector vs. public sector programmatic

experience in terms of the skills acquired, later

(after program) job placment career and educational

success and overall (long-term) employability? To

what extent does what type of programmatic experience

change or alter the impact as a result of the age of

the participant? 304

1. Summary 3Q6

2. What do we not know about the relative benefits

to youth of public vs. private sector job

experience') 307

C. What do we know about the effectiveness of and

measurement of various incentives, both monetary and

nonmonetary, to increased private sector involvement

in youth transition to work efforts?

1. Source of Skilled Workers

2. Training Subsidies

3. Subsidizing Youth "Trainee Wages"

4. Wage Exemptions and Tax Credits

5. Summary

6. What do we not know about the effectiveness of

various incentives?

D. What do we know about the effectiveness of various

kinds and levels of incentives for participants')

1. Summary

2. What do we not know about the effectiveness of

participant incentives?

E. What do we know about the effectiveness of efforts to

reduce institutioaal barriers (including social, legal

and regulatory costs) to greater private sector involvement in youth school to work transition programs?

1. Summary

2. What do we not know about ways to reduce these

barriers?

F. What do we know about the effectiveness of processes

and mechanisms to improve the attitudes of employers

and schools (including colleges and universities,

community based organizations and others) toward more

joint participation in youth programs?

314

268

307

308

308

309

310

313

314

317

320

322

323

325

326

327
1. Summary 329

2. What do we not know about these processes and

mechanisms? 330

G. What do we know about the accuracy, fairness and

utility of various criteria used to measure the

effectiveness of private sector involvement in youth

programs, particularly with respect to skills acquisition and transference? What alternative approaches

may be considered with what projected outcomes? 330

1. Summary 336

2. What do we not know about these criteria? 337

H. What do we know about how private sector work supervisors caa be better prepared to supervise youth?-

How can unions and other individuals and groups, e.g.,

retired workers, serve as resources to schools to

improve youth orientation to the world of work and

private sector employment opportunities?

1. Summary

2. What do we not know about how supervisors can be

better.prepared to work with youth or how individuals

and organizations can serve as resources to youth?

I. What do we know about how needed support services to

in-school youth at private sector jobs can be arranged

and provided?

1. Summary

2. What do we not know about how support services

to in-school youth can be provided?

J. What do we know about how students can "be helped to

avoid unreal expectations of future employment? What

do we know about haw new methods and flexible

approaches can be developed for youth to learn about

and prepare for trades for which there may be

apprenticeship?

1. Summary

2. What do we know about preparing youth-for "realistic"'

careers and creating flexible new apprenticeship

programs?.....,

WHAT THE LABOR DEPARTHENT'S OFFICE OF YOUTH .PROGRAMS HAS

LEARNED FROM . . . .. . . ... . . . . ASSUMPTIONS UNDERLYING POLICY AND PRACTICE TEAT ARE JUSTIFIED

BY THE RESEARCH FINDINGS--FURTH4R RESEARCH NOT OF HIGH PRIORITY

338

341

342

343

345

346

347

352

"353

355

358
VI. ASSUMPTIONS UNDERLYING POLICY AND PRACTICE WHICH ARE NOT

JUSTIFIED BY THE RESEARCH--FURTHER RESEARCH OF HIGH PRIORITY

VII. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

VIII. A PROPOSED RESEARCH AGENDA FOR THE 1980s

REFERENCES

SELECTED ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

APPENDIX -- SELECTED DESCRIPTIVE AND ANECDOTAL MATERIALS

BIBLIOGRAPHY

APPENDIX -- SOURCES AND CONTACTS FOR INFORMATION PRESENTED IN

THIS REPORT

316

361

362

369

380

386

396

398

.421
FORWORD

America characterizes itself, and is characterized by others, as a capitalistic, private enterprise society. This characterization, indeed,

serves as an important standard against which the condition of our political

and economic system is assessed.

Even governmentally-sponsored programs (or perhaps especially

governmentally-sponsored programs) are held accountable in terms of this

standard. Welfare, unemployment insurance, health insurance programs, etc.,

must be prepared to withstand (especially at their point of initiation) what

amounts to a political litmus paper test: "Does the initiative promote the

private enterprise system or does it contribute to its erosion?"

The rhetoric of almost any new. governmental initiative, as a result, is

filled with language attesting that the program is not only consistent with

but will, ultimately, strengthen our private enterprise society.

The history of manpower programs, and of what are now less

chauvinistically called employment and training programs, does not present

an exception to this rule. From the outset these programs have been argued

for in terms of "making youth productive members of our society;" "keeping

youth from becoming permanent members of society's welfare roles;" and

"preparing youth for transition into permanent employment in our private

enterprise economy."

. . These governmentally-sponsored efforts to help youth (and particularly

"disadvantaged" youth) make the transition from school-to-work are the general

subject of this paper. The specific emphasis, however, is on the extent to

which the private sector has become effectively invol;led with these programs

and made contributions to resolving the problems which gave rise to them.

The logic of involving the private sector in these programs in theory

seems inescapable. If, in fact, the programs are aimed principally at preparing ("disadvantaged") youth for participation in our private enterprise

economy it is difficult, indeed, for either government or the private sector

to fail to declare, and make a show of, their interest in working vigorously

to accomplish this objective.
However, in practice, and in the long-run, both government and the

private sector have managed to elude this logic. It seems that government

and the private sector mix like oil and water. For example, what seemed to

develop as a .genuine commitment on the part of government and the private

sector to work together on manpower programs, through such initiatives as

Plans for Progress and the National Alliance of Businessmen, fairly quickly

gave way to a state of affairs where the form but not the substance of

commitment to private sector involvement was maintained.

With the passage of the Youth Employment and Demonstration Projects Act

of 1977 (YEDPA) and the passage of the 1978 Comprehensive. Employment and

Training Act, which contains a Title VII calling for a major Private Sector

Initiatives Program (PSIP), another crossroads in terms of getting the government and the private sector to work together on what has been the intractable

problem of youth unemployment seems to have been reached.

The experience of transition programs to date is that without private

sector involvement there is not the impact we hope for in preparing youth

for employment. What reasonable expectations can we have, however, as to what

can be accomplished in resolving youth unemployment and transition from school

to work problems if the public and private sectors do commit themselves to

working together? What are the conditions that must exist for such commitment

and involvement to go beyond public relations to sustained and effective

contributions?

At this juncture, when the hopes for private sector involvement seem

newly emergent, these questions above seem to be key ones. It seems particularly important therefore to review the literature and the evaluations and

assessments of past efforts involving the private sector in transition from

school-to-work to see what instruction they can provide. The writing of this

paper provided opportunity for such a review. Based on it, "what do we know

and what don't we know" about private sector involvement in youth transition?

The principal conclusion is that this whole field of private sector

involvement with youth transition programs, while rich in anecdotal examples,

is very poorly documented and researched in any formal sense. The result is

that, in spite of substantial experimentation, we really know little about

what motivates and sustains private sector involvement and what outcomes can

be expected from such participation.

318

272
What this conclusion of course implies is that there is need for a wide

range of more formal analyses of private sector involvement efforts from case

studies to formal evaluations of existing programs of promise, to new program

development and research efforts. These analyses of private sector involvement need to occur at a variety of levels from the conceptual (why, under what

conditions, with what objectives) to the technical (how, with what incentives

and assistance, involving whom, with what accountability structures).

Finally, we should consider the possibility that the sparcity of formal,

objective analyses reflects resistance of the actors and the issues to formal

analysis. What we do know suggests private sector sensitivity to more paper

work and more intense scrutiny as a "reward" for their involvement. What we

do know suggests that the area is sufficiently complex that it has been

difficult to discern the impact of discrete variables on outcomes, such as

the impact of minimum wages on private sector hiring of youth.

The paper states frustration with the failure to clearly delineate the

objectives of private sector involvement programs and the inability to draw

comparisons between various approaches because of the lack of standardized

measures. Indeed, this may all suggest that the design of knowledge development

tools to learn more about what seems to work and at what cost may be as

important as the challenge of devising youth programs which more closely

involve the private sector.

Richard Ungerer, Director

Work-Education Consortium Project

273

31 3
I. PRIVATE SECTOR INVOLVEMENT IN

YOUTH TRANSITION TO WORK PROGRAMS: REVIEW

AND SYNTHESIS OF RESEARCH LITERATURE

Overview

In January of 1968 President Lyndon Johnson called the nation's top

business leaders to the White House to enlist their aid in a difficult task:

creating jobs for= thousands of youth in urban ghettos which had been the scene

of widespread riots and looting during the previous two years. The idea was

simple: get the kids off the streets and into paying jobs and hope the long;

hot summers would _cool off. There were other good reasons for business and

industry to accept the challenge a shortage of entry-level workers and

pressure from civil rights groups to hire minorities. Out of that difficult

time, the National Alliance of Businessmen

. was born. In many ways, its creation also marked the first time in recent history that the federal government

had made a serious attempt to involve the private sector in solVing the

nation's fastgrowing youth unemployment problem.

Much lip-service has been paid the notion that business and industry have

a role in' hiring and training youth and easing the transition from school to

work. After a period of decline, the NAB 'again is active and in the summer of

1978 placed more than 231,000 youth in jobs at no cost to the government. But

the government has tried other approaches to involve'the private sector since

NAB was created more than a decade ago. The Neighborhood Youth Corps, Job

Corps, Manpower Development and Training Act, Vocational Education Act, career

education, Comprehensive Employment and Training Act, Vocational Exploration

-Program, Youth Employment and Demonstration Projects the list is a familiar

one. All have tried -- at least sporadically -- to get business people

interested in the employment problems of youth.

Given~ the billions of dollars spent during the past decade on federal

youth programs and the often-serious attempts made at collaborating with the

private sector, one might assume a large reservoir of knowledge about which

programs work which don't, and why. However, this isn't the case.
During an exhaustive two-month search, we turned up only a handful of

recent comprehensive evaluations on the success or failure of youth programs

involving the private sector. We were especially interested in programs for

in-school and disadvantaged youth. Certainly, a number of isolated studies

have been written which give insights into why one program in one area turned

out the way it did. There are also several national evaluations of programs

run under the Manpower Development and Training Act, the predecessor to CETA.

One should be cautious, however, in applying results of these MDTA

studies to the present situation. MDTA had many more separate programs than

CETA and was centrally run from Washington instead of through a decentralized

network of state and local governments. It also was created during a period

of relatively low unemployment, low inflation and economic boom.

Labor Department Programs Since CETA

Striking, though, is the absence of private sector program evaluations

since the demise of MDTA. There is an often-heard explanation for this: Just

after CETA got off the ground in 1974, the nation was hit by a severe recession. Unemployment soared, and local prime sponsors found themselves hardpressed to place CETA clients in private sector jobs which didn't exist.

The economic scene was beginning to improve somewhat when Jimmy Carter

was elected President in 1976, but unemployment still was severe. One of

Carter's early moves was to double public service employment under CETA.

Prime sponsors again were hard-pressed, but managed to put 725,000 jobless

people on the CETA payroll. The speed at which jobs were created precluded

any close involvement with the private sector.

The role of business and industry has come up again only during the

past year or so as overall unemployment has declined. Yet the problems of

youth have, if anything, become more severe. Recognizing this, the Carter

administration urged passage of the billion-dollar-a-year Youth Employment

and Demonstration Projects Act (YEDPA) and a $400 million Private Sector

Initiative Program (PSIP) to expand job and training opportunities for the

hard-to-employ. Congress agreed. At the same time, Congress also recognized

the growing youth unemployment problem and in October 1978 chopped 100,000

275 321
public service jobs from CETA reauthorizing legislation and transferred

$400 million in spending authority to youth jobs and on-the-job training.

Whether YEDPA or PSIP will yield new data on involving the private sector

remains to be seen. YEDPA, especially, should prove a rich source of new

information, given its emphasis on knowledge development.

School-Based Programs: Vocational Education, Career Education, Cooperative

Education and Related Efforts

If research is scanty on private sector involvement in Labor Department

employment and training programs, what of the success of school-based private

sector programs? Again, the evidence is slim, but the reasons are different.

On a small scale, cooperation between education and industry has been

going on with little fanfare for decades, but only recently has it begun to

get any real attention. Traditionally, the private sector's main contact with

students, during the school year has been through part-time jobs and organizations such as Distributive Education, Jr. Achievement and a variety of civic

groups.

Career Education

While some of the programs are career oriented, none has any measurable

goals and none has ever been evaluated for effectiveness. Cooperative education, too, has long been popular and fortunately there are some studies to

measure its success that will be discussed later in this paper. A real turning point, however, was the advent of career education in 1971, made possible

in large part by the Vocational Education Amendments of 1968. Since that

time, the federal government has spent more than $80 million on career education activities. Almost all of this amount has been used for demonstration

projects of various types. Despite the rhetoric of career educators that

participation by the private sector is essential, the U.S. Office of Education

has never funded the formal evaluations n3cessary to find out which approaches

work best.

This situation may change if and as the new Career Education Incentive

Act is implemented during the next five years. First-year funding (for fiscal
1979) is set at $20.0 million and the U.S. Office of Career Education is

emphasizing private sector involvement.

Vocational Education

Much of the early career education money came from the Vocational

Education Act. Here too, program evaluation is a relative rarity. The General Accounting Office pointed that out in 1974 in a severely critical

report.* While working to reauthorize the Vocational Education Act in 1976,

Congress became so exasperated with the lack -of data that it mandated a fiveyear national study to be conducted by the National Institute of Education.

That study is now under way at the direction of Dr. Henry David of the

University of. Texas.

The data problem in vocational education continues, Unable to find out

from the U.S. Office of Education how funds for vocational "programs of

national significance" were spent during fiscal 1978, Congress cut nearly

$20 million from the appropriation for 1979.

Cooperative Education

In terms of research, cooperative education is one of the better

documented efforts involving the ,private sector. In cooperative education

Programs, students spends half a day in'the-clasiroom and the other half in a

paid work setting related to their ackool:work. . Programs may be ai the secondary or postsecondary level. 'Ernst Stramsdorfer in'1973 published an

extensive evaluation of the employer-initiated co-op program in. Dayton, Ohio,

while the U.S. Office of Education in 1976 published a two-part study of high

school cooperative educatiaa authorized 'ilder the Vocational Education Act.

The > study wasdone by,,Systeis Deielopment,,f oration and Olympus Research

Company. These are the major-sources o

On the other hand, a study of estsecondary cooperative education

completed ,in 1976 byv.the Detroit, Institu e,:40* Technology was the first full.;

scale evaluation in:that4rograli's 73 Year-hi4orITAI * "What Is the Role of Federal Assistance in Vocational Education?" U.S.

General Accounting Office, Dec. 28, 1974.
Thus, we are faced with the difficult task of drawing conclusions from a

collection of evaluations done in the late 1960's and early 1970's under MDTA

and a smattering of studies of school-based programs linked with the private

sector. A large number of projects are either planned or under way. These

will measure the effects of YEDPA, the new Career Education Incentive Act,

vocational education, CETA's Summer Program for Economically Disadvantaged

Youth, Vocational Exploration Program and the Private Sector Initiative

Program.

Within five years or so we may know much more about involving the private

sector in youth transition to work programs.

Our goal in this paper is to extract from the available literature data

which might serve as a nucleus for future knowledge development efforts.

Specifically, we wanted to know what works and why regarding 10 central

policy issues:

*collaboration among employment, training, private sector employers,

schools and other agencies

*The relative effect and value of private sector vs. public sector

work experiences

*Various incentives to increase private sector involvement

*Various incentives to encourage participation by youth in work

experience or training activities

*Barriers to greater private sector involvement

*Attitudes of employers, schools and community-based organizations

to joint participation in youth programs

*The accuracy, fairness and utility of criteria used to measure

program effectiveness

*Improved preparation of work supervisors and better use of unions,

individuals and groups as world- of-work resources for youth

*Support services for youth in private-sector work activities

*Unreal expectation of youth toward their future employment and new

approaches to apprenticeship

In the remainder of this paper, we will review the literature on the

success and weakness of federal youth transition programs, discuss what

research tells us we know and don't know about each of the 10 issues of

critical concern, then examine some assumptions underlying policy and practice

which either are j'Ustified or not justified by the research findings.

278
Some De4dnitions

Two legitimate questions to ask at this point, however, are what is meant

by "private sector participation" and what constitutes a "youth transition-towork" program? Private sector participation may be viewed as a continuum. In

reviewing the literature, evidence of some kind of minimum contact between the

private sector and other youth-serving organizations such as schools or job

training agencies was sought. An example of minimum participation would be

an informal arrangement between a vocational school and a local business for

the referral of graduates. Another example would be participation by local

business people on an advisory board for career education, job training, or similar youth-oriented effort. An absolute minimum level of involvement would

be the use by private employers of DOL subminimum wage certificates for hiring

youth.

Further along the continuum would be the provision of work experience

or part-time employment slots for students by private employers. Such programs as cooperative education or Experience-Based Career Education (EBCE)

come under this intermediate category.

At the far end of the Continuum are those rare initiatives in which the

private sector is deeply involved in the collaborative design of a comprehensive youth work preparation program, provides jobs and training opportunities

and hires all or some of the successful completers. The Department of Labor's

recent $3 million contract with Control Data Corp. (in which the firm guarantees training and placement of Job Corps graduates) is a program in which

the private sector is deeply involved.

The term "school-to-work transition" is a recent invention that has come

to denote a fairly specific group of programs, all of which are designed to

help young people make the transition from the classroom to the workplace.

This paper defines youth as anyone between the ages of 16 and 24, a category

used by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. A transition-to-work initiative

includes any of the following: collaboration between schools and other

employment-related community groups; work exploration; vocational counseling;

work experience, career education; vocational education; on-the-job training;

occupational information and experimental efforts such as the Youth Incentive

Entitlement Pilot Projects.

325

279
The perimeters of this review were self-selecting in two ways. Because

the paper is limited.to assessment of evaluation (as opposed to descriptive or

anecdotal) data, such interesting but poorly documented topics as the impact

of school-based job placement centers have been omitted.

In addition, emphasis was placed on programs in which the federal

government plays or played a role (usually financial), because the paper is

intended to be useful in the formulation of federal policy. It also is true

that federal programs generally tend to be better documented.

In summary, this literature review covers a broad continuum, from minimal

participation such as the use of minimum wage waivers to deep involvement such

as hiring guarantees. It is limited to evaluation studies, especially those

focusing on federal programs and revolves around the ten policy issues. Other

programs in which the federal government plays a less obvious role (such as

cooperative education) also are included, however.

326

Zap .
II. BACKGROUND: A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE EFFECTIVENESS

OF FEDERAL TRANSITION-TO-WORK YOUTH PROGRAMS

INVOLVING THE PRIVATE SECTOR

While creation of the National Alliance of Businessmen marked an important step toward greater involvement 'by the private sector, Congress long

before hag mandated that more attention be paid the youth unemployment problem

when it passed amendments to the Manpower Development and Training Act iu

1963. A number of experimental youth programs sprang from this mandate, but

only a few emphasized participation by business and industry. By 1967, a goal

had been set that 25 percent of all MDTA participants were to be young people.

Until CETA was enacted in late 1973, the major manpower programs dealing with

youth were:

Youth Opportunity Centers, set up in 1965 and run by the U.S.

Employment Service, designed to provide work orientation and

placement. These were abolished after several years'

experimentation.

Neighborhood Youth Corps, begun in 1964 under the Economic

Opportunity Act, designed to provide a "constructive work

experience for disadvantaged youth. NYC was not intended

as a private: sector program, although some of the job slots

during the late 1960's were in business and industry.

Job Corps, started in 1965 to provide job training at residential centers . The Job , Corps proved relativelY

successful and was, continued u,,der CETA., The Carter administratioh in 1977 parsuaded Congress to double the size of the Job. Corps. Participation by the private sector varies, but often includes provision of equipment and

supervisors . In addition, many. Job Corps centers are

operated under contract with the Labor Department by large

corporations such as RCA.

What follows isAidescription and discussion of each

private sector effort.

Or,
A. W.cjpsirtaiALTrOAin/SLpLanower)Prormas (Target Group: Low-Income

Persons Only)

Analysis of the few evaluations from this period that. concentrate on

private sector involvement reveals a few standout programs. Probably the best

known is the Training and Technology (TAT) project, begun in 1968 as an experimental program by the Labor Department and the Oak Ridge (Tenn.) Associated

Universities. Using the resources of private industry, TAT succeeded both in

meeting employers' hiring needs and creating a mechanism for training lowskill workers for high-pay, high-skill jobs. Some 67 percent of all enrollees

were youth aged 22 and under.

TAT's success rate is demonstrable. A 1973 DOL evaluation found that

more than 90 percent of the first 2,000 TAT graduates were placed in industrial

jobs. Dropout rates averaged just 18 percent from 1968 to 1972. Cost per

placement averaged about $4,500, compared with $4,900 for other MDTA

training. 2/

TAT now is an ongoing program supported with local funds and assistance

by DOL and the Department of Energy. However, other sources have "bought

into" the program, including local public schools, Work Incentive Program

(WIN) operators, Standard Oil of Indiana and the Tennessee Department of

Corrections.

Why has TAT been so successful? According to the Labor Department,

"the explanation encompasses a number of factors, beginning with the industrial setting and the related ability of the staff to combine the best

elements of 9.nstitutional and on-the-job training." DOL also points out

that:

instructors are craftsmen with current industrial experience;

the recruitment/selection process puts "consistent emphasis"

on job development and placement;

shop training is "rigorous, relatively lengthy and at the

same time, flexible and individualized";

careful attention is given academic instruction, including remedial training;

program staff members have close relationships with the

congractor/employers;
- comprehensive support services are provided, with counselors

monitoring trainees' progress;

in-depth union and community support have been mobilized; and

strong management and professional program development services

free the training'staff to concentrate on training. 4/

Emrloyment and training, expert Anita Vogel adds:

The program established credibility by initial stringent

admission criteria for enrollees--high school diploma plus

two years of job experience or some post secondary vocational

training. With experience in selection and training, TAT has

gradually been able to admit, train and place greater proportions of disadvantaged, under-educated minority members

without work histories. 5/

Regis Walther says ur's selection criteria "assures high motivation and

a high probability of placement in a job with a very high rate of pay." W

Job Corps (Target Group: Low-Income Youth 16-24)

The Jab Corps has had somewhat less success. Since it is a multi site

effort, an involvement by the private sector varies from one site to the next,

the impact of business and industry on the program is almost impossible to

assess. To our knowledge, no studies have been conducted on this topic.

According to Vogel, however, the private sector has been no more

successful than anyone else in, operating residential centers. She says:

Initially it was anticipated that private .corporations would

be superior as administrators and educators, particularly in

the very large urban centers. In practice there has been no

consistently superior type of contractor. The quality of

administration and staff morale at paiticular. Job Corps

Centers at a given time, rather than public or private

auspices has been crucial to the success of centers. 6/

Adds Sar Levitan: "The original blithe confidence of Job Corps

officialdom and corporate directors that free enterprise could fashion the

Job Corps into a "machine for transforiing people" faded before the

/ difficulty of the task". 7

293 329
Vocational Exploration Program (VEP) (Target Group: Dropout-Prone Low-Income

Youth)

Another early manpower program which actively sought participation from

the private sector was the Vocational Exploration Program (VEP),

. which continues today under the Comprehensive Employment and Training Act. In 1974,

the Center for Urban Studies at St. Louis University published an evaluation

of 20 VEP sites conducted over a two-year period. 8/

VEP originally was a Neighborhood Youth Corps effort designed to place

youth in work/training positions in the private sector and pay a portion of

their wages. The percentage of wages paid by NYC compensated the private

sector employers only for such costs as increased supervision and training.

Dropout-prone youth were placed in the private sector during a summer and

subsequent school year and received intensive counseling, orientation to the

world of work, career exploration, on the job training and work experience.

In encouraging participation of employers, VEP performed best when there

was "personalized and individual contact," said the researchers. Major

problems included high local unemployment, lack of summer jobs in July when

the program began, employer unfamiliarity with VEP and reduction of the

employer subsidy during the second year from two-thirds to one-half.

The researchers found several positive results of the VEP program

however. The school dropout rate was below 10 percent, 62 percent of the

enrollees improved their grade point averages, school attendance improved

slightly and there was noticeable improvement in discipline. In addition,

69 percent of the second year VEP completers were kept on full-time by their

employers and another 6.3 percent found other private sector jobs.

What was the secret? The researchers noted that more second year

participants were high school seniors and fewer were considered "probable

dropouts," so there is evidence of "creaming." But there also were problems.

Counselors sometimes developed jobs without regard to future potential of

enrollees; program quality varied greatly from site to site; and the

vocational exploration component was not widely implemented.

Today, VEP is operated by the Labor Department through contracts with

the National Alliance of Businessmen (now National Alliance of Business) and

284
the AFL-CIO's Human Resource Development Institute. No longer are wage

subsidies available, however.

National Alliance of Business JOBS Program (Target Group: Low Income Youth)

Despite its longevity and popularity with the Labor Department, the

National Alliance of Business JOBS program has not proven to be overwhelmingly

successful. The basic premise sounds like a good one: concentrate on disadvantaged youngsters: "hire now, train later"; provide needed support

services; and subsidize with federal funds the marginal costs of hiring and

training. But according to a 1970 study of 10 NAB/JOBS programs, there was

little impact upon the statistical numbers of the unemployed. 2/

Most of the jobs, said the researchers, were low-level dead-end positions

with little correlation to the skills shortages reported by industries.

Support services often were lacking and few linkages were forged with other

manpower programs, educational systems and health or social welfare

organizations.

Vogel adds that the actual number of placements during 'the. first two

years of the JOBS effort was never pinpointed, then concludes: "There is

general agreement that the program collapsed under the economic recession of

1970. The disadvantaged, being among the last hired, were the first

fired." 12/

On the other hand, retention rates were greatly improved where companies

provided good job coaching and supervisory and human relations training.

Most trainees said the program helped them meet daily living expenses and

improved their family lives. Employers were sensitized to the needs of

disadvantaged youth, a group many had never worked with before. 11/

Operation Young Adults (Target Group: Low Income Dropouts or Dropout Prone

Youth)

Beyond these few evaluations, there is little research to document the

success or failure of private sector youth programs in pre-CETA days. One

exception is a 1972 report on 'Operation Young Adults, a project run by Roch12/ ester (N.Y.) Jobs, Inc. -- Designed to experiment with several types of

285 331
work education programs, Operation Young Adults enrolled 350 young people of

both sexes aged 14 through 20, who either had dropped out of school or were

dropout prone. The program followed a half-time school/half-time work

pattern and used nontraditional educational approaches and special counseling.

Participants were enrolled in one of three components: a special inschool program combined with a sheltered workshop; a special industrial

work/study program designed to build good work attitudes; and a half-school/

half-work program in which student teams of 20 worked renovating houses.

The program cost $1.7 million over two years. Evaluators found that:

during a period of high unemployment, employers were reluctant

to hire youth in the 16-20 age bracket; those under 16 were

"virtually impossible" to place;

success in renovating homes depends largely on how many homes

are available at a low price; and

business, labor, religious and social groups cooperated well

together, probably because of a history of good local

relationships.

CETA Programs

If evaluations of pre-CETA youth programs are scarce, evaluations since

CETA was enacted are almost nonexistent. As mentioned in the previous chapter, recession, the doubling of public service employment and the newness of

the CETA program are responsible for most of this gap. But the CETA law

itself also has prevented funding of programs which might yield interesting

data. CETA prime sponsors are prohibited from subsidizing any private sector

costs other than above-normal training expenditures. This prevents the use of

wage subsidies, outright training subsidies and other innovative approaches

which might prove very attractive to private employers.

The new Private Sector Initiative Program (PSIP) provides an opportunity

to try new employment and training experiments. Although wage subsidies still

are prohibited, the Private Industry Councils established under PSIP have a chance to create incentives and support services that may herald a new era in

private sector involvement in CETA.

Another deterrent to increased private sector involvement is ever- increasing CETA paperwork. 12/ Dozens of forms must be filled out and

286 332
employers are required to keep their books open for audit three years after

participation in a CETA program, further dampening their interest. Such

provisions may be necessary to insure honesty, but do little to encourage

business and industry participation.

Finally, CETA is a much more decentralized, less categorical program.

As a result it is much more difficult (a) to design evaluation studies which

reflect local diversity and (b) to implement national evaluations due to

possible local sensitivity to assessment from outside the community.

Supported Work , (Target Group: Low Income Dro outs, Welfare Mothers, Ex-Drug

Abusers, Ex-Offenders, Recovering Alcoholi s and Former Mental Patients)

One recent ambitious federal manpower effort with some private sector

involvement is the National Supported Work Demonstration, begun in March 1975.

The program has several unique aspects, not the least of which is its funding

and administrative set-up. Primary funding comes from the Department of Labor

and the Ford Foundation, but other federal agencies also have made conttibutions. These include the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration, HEW's

Office of Planning and Evaluation, the National Institute on Drug Abuse, the

Department of Housing and Urban Development and the Economic Development

Administration.

The program itself is administered through an independent quasigovernment nonprofit organization, the Manpower Demonstration Research

Corporation.

The Supported Work Demonstration is targeted at some of the nation's

hardest-to-employ groups: out-of-school youth, welfare mothers, former drug

addicts, ex-offenders, recovering alcoholics and former mental patients. It

is a transitional program; participants leave at the end of a fixed period of

time whether they have obtained a regular job or not. While in the program,

participants earn entry-level wages and have the chance to earn more with good

performance and attendance. The gradual accumulation of job skills and work

habits is a key to the success of Supported Work.

Each of the 1/, Supported Work sites makes its own arrangements for

training of which some have been contracted to the private sector.

287

333
A full evaluation of the program is due to be published soon. A review

of the program's first year, however, shows that of 807 original participants,

17 percent had left for a job, 2 percent had returned to school, 11 percent

had been fired or resigned for "neutral" reasons and 44 percent were fired or

resigned for "negative" reasons. A total of 26 percent of participants were

still in the program. Significantly, youth survived the difficult first month

of the program in greater percentages than any other group. 14/

School-Based Programs

As observed earlier, evaluations of private sector youth programs

sponsored by educational agencies are not abundant, especially in the areas of career and vocational education. There are, however, a few exceptions.

Experience-Based Career Education (Target Group: Dropout Prone Low Income

Youth)

Related to career education (though not identical to it, despite the

program's name) is Experience-Based Career Education (EBCE). The National

Institute of Education has funded' a series of evaluations to test EBCE's

goal of providing iropout prone youth with an "alternative" classroom learning

environment coupled with career exploration in the private sector.

An EBCE program in Oregon is typical: during the school year 29 students

completed eight employer site explorations, spent 108 days in learning experiences on three employer sites, were tutored in two skills, and participated in

many hours of independent study, seminars, counseling and enrichment

activities. 15/

The program produced several measurable results in an evaluation

completed in late 1973 by the Northwest Regional Educational Lab in Portland.

Participants showed little improvement in basic skills and self-concepts, but

showed gains in a number of "survival" skills. Seniors reached a "high level"

of career maturity. Employers said students improved their work performance,

adherence to work schedules, acceptance of responsibility, interest in and

enthusiasm for work, judgment, ability to work with others, and ability to

learn through work experiences. 16/

288 334
The success of EBCE led to its certification in 1975 as a proven

demonstration project by the federal government's Joint Dissemination Review

Panel. EBCE is the only school-to-work project ever approved by the panel.

Cooperative Education (Target Group: Generally Students of All Income

Backgrounds, Either at Secondary or Postsecondary Level)

The field of cooperative education has produced several useful

evaluations. The term "cooperative education" has been much abused in recent

years, used to describe nearly any program inwhich schools and employers participate. Generally, however, cooperative education is defined as a statecertified program in which students spend part of their day in the classroom

and the rest in a work setting related to their studies.

At the postsecondary level, cooperative education appears to have strong

acceptance among employers. A 1974 Detroit Institute of Technology study

revealed that 76 percent of employers rated their cooperative education

17/ experiences as good or excellent. -- Co-op students got high ratings by

employers for work performance and 62 percent of co-op graduates got job

offers. The also showed that co-op students earned more and

faster promotions.

Evaluations at the secondary level tend to confirm the popularity of

cooperative education. A 1973 Office of Education study of 50 work education

programs concluded that "specific occupational training programs (cooperative

education programs for the most part) appear to be generating the most enthusiasm among students, employers, and school officials because they are meeting

, 18/ the expressed needs and objectives of all three groups."

Co-op programs, said the study, are more likely than any other kind of

in-school program to: provide students with job-related school instruction;

have a followup program for graduates; have an advisory committee; provide

job placement services; have a high rate of job-related placements; provide

students with jobs that offer formal on-the-job training; help students' in

deciding on an occupation; provide students with jobs that fit into their

career plans; provide students with jobs with high levels of responsibility;

19/ and provide students with inherently satisfying jobs. --

289 335
On the other hand, co-op programs were found to discriminate against

students on the basis of attitude; be less effective in reducing student

absenteeism; and interfere with students' other activities such as schoolwork

and sports. 12/

Another study revealed the difficulty in placing students during economic

downturns and developing jobs for handicapped students. 21/ -- The picture of

cooperative education presented by most research studies, however, is encouraging. A summary from a 1976 Office of Education evaluation is typical:

"The picture overall is a very positive one. Students apparently are pleased

with the program, employers rate the students' skills generally high, and most

important, students are learning the skills taught in the...program. n

Postsecondary co-op programs also earned high marks in a 1978 national

study conducted by Applied Management Sciences. Researchers studied 80 twoand four-year schooli first-hand and surveyed 32 others by mail. They found

that more co-op students than nonparticipants said their job skills improved

as they progressed through college. Co-op, said the AMS report, "contributes

to after-graduation employment, to a more direct relationship between college

major and full-time after-graduation employment and a more direct relationship

between current job and career plans." Money earned in co-op programs was a

powerful incentive for students to participate, the study also found.

The study found co-op programs to be cost effective, with the only

additional costs to employers going for startup and evaluation expenses. A

total of 96 percent of the employers surveyed said they would continue to

participate in their local co-op programs. Employers said they reaped substrltial benefits in terms of student productivity, community relations and

identification and recruitment of future full-time employees.

The most cost-effective programs, said the study, were in professional

av,a such as business and engineering; programs linked with the liberal arts

less cost-effective. Benefits to students were most pronounced in

baccalaureate degree' programs; less so in associate degree programs. 11/

Career IlItTiilatgasQlgel (Target Group: Low Income Dropout Prone Youth)

The Career Intern Program also has earned high marks. Designed and

developed by the Philadelphia-based Opportunities Industrialization Centers of

290

336
America, the CIP effort was financed by the National Institute of Education.

The idea was to create a special urban high school for about 250 students a

year who were "turned off" by regular academic programs. Successful completion of the special program was required with a regular high school diploma.

Actually a hybrid form of cooperative education, the Philadelphia CIP

program also included a series of hands-on work experiences in private industry for each participant during the second semester. Work experiences were

tied to participants' career goals and each "intern" was required to have two

hands-on experiences of one week each. Evaluations were performed by the work

supervisor and the CIP job developer. One important aspect was that jobs

were in the "primary" labor market, high-pay high-status occupations to which

most interns had never had access.

Results of the program were impressive. By ,December 1975, 67 percent of

the CIP students but only 13 percent of a control group had graduated or were

attending school. About 44 percent of the CIP interns had received high

school diplomas and 23 percent were still attending class. Only 7 percent of

the control students had diplomas and only 6 percent were in school. In

addition, there were indications of improvement in reading and mathematics

achievement.

Seventy-seven graduates were followed up after having been out of CIP

from six months to a year. A total of 71 percent of the interns were employed

or in postsecondary education, compared to only 39 percent of the controls.

However, not a single one of the control group had enrolled in college or

trade school, in contrast to 29 peicent of the male interns. 261

Particularly impressive is the research &sign: three separate groups

of applicants, with participants and nonparticipants, were chosen at random

from the applicant pool. Say the researchers:

The design contributes to believability in two ways. First,

the replication of findings across three separate groups

suggests that whatever is happening, is not a one-time, one

group event. Second, the true experimental and control

groups permit strong inference that whatever is happening is

due to the internship experience, rather than to changes which

would probably have occurred without OIC." 25/

337

291
70001 Ltd. (Target Group: School Dropouts and Young Public Assistance

Recipients)

Another program which deserves mention is 70001 Ltd., a nonprofit

organization founded by the Thom McAn Shoe. Company. The program is aimed at

high school dropouts and is a careful, mix of special classroom work and

related job experience. A unique aspect of 70001 is its "franchise" concept.

Local CETA or educational agencies interested in starting a 70001 program con- tact with the organization's national headquarters in Newark, Delaware. 70001

then subcontracts with the sponsoring/operating agency to franchise the use of

the 70001 Ltd. name, instructional materials, training

organization activities and so oh.

The role of the national organization, then, is

services, youth

to insure that

subcontractors meet quality control standards. Currently, there are 16 programs in 9 states.. However, a contract signed in 1978 with the Labor

Department will expand the number of franchised programs to 50 and increase

membership to 12,500 during the next four yektrs. The Distributive Education

Clubs of America are, responsible for promoting the organization.

Employers must agree in writing to see that enrollees receive "special

concern" and to evaluate enrollees' work. Although all participants are high

school dropouts and 90 percent are on some kind of public assistance at

enrollment time, 71 percent are still working after a year or more. In 1976,

the organization did a followup study of program graduates in five states.

Of 227 graduates, 75 percent were employed or had gone back to school; 91 per- . cent of those working were in full-time jobs; average full-time wages amounted

to $3.13 per hour; only 15 percent were jobless; 30 percent were involved in

some sort of higher education; and 63 percent of those working were in

occupations in the fields of retailing and distribution.

Seventy percent of the graduates rated the 70001 program as "excellent"

or "very good," while 73 percent said the program was "excellent" or "very

good" in helping them learn to work with others. a/ Evaluations to be performed in conjunction with the DOL-sponsored expansion should reveal just how

successful the 70001 concept can be.

292

338
Vocational Education (Target Group: Generally Youth -From All Income

Backgrounds)

As far as vocational education is concerned, evaluations are relatively

common, but little has been done to document the impact of private sector

involvement. However, the quality of vocational education evaluations has

been uneven. As Henry David, director of NIE's national vocational education

study, noted: "There is not a large number of studies conducted with much

vigor. There are no studies conducted with a control group. But we shall try

27/ to make sense of what there is". --

Summary

The data on private sector involvement in youth transition programs are

from such an uneven body of literature that comparisons are very difficult to

make. The most readily available figures are job placement rates.. But in and

of themselves, placement rates are influenced too much by economic conditions

and client characteristics to be useful in comparing program effectiveness.

Except for carefully controlled experiments such as the Career Intern Program,

control groups have not been used, so that comparisons within programs also

are not possible.

Literally dozens of program descriptions and case studies are available

which claim achievements of one kind or another (again, usually in terms of

job placements) but offer little information on the reasons for success.

There is little agreement in nearly all the available research on how

program effects can be weighed. Should one measure long-term or short-term

success? Is it too expensive to use a control group? Who is to be the main

program beneficiary, the student or the employer? How can the effects of

economics, attitudes, program design and test instruments be isolated and

taken into account? Should a pre-test and post-test be used? These and

other questions bedevil attempts to evaluate programs and compare their

results with one another. It may even prove impossible to measure, the precise

effects of complex social experiments such as the ones described here, even if

time and budgetary limitations are not factors. Still, several conclusions

can be drawn from the available data, and these will be described next.
In comparing the results of these and related programs, it is important

to bear in mind that "youth" is not a homogenous category. As Regis Walther

has noted, "Strategies which work for one category of youth will not necessarily work for another. It seems obvious that the needs of the college-bound

category are different from the needs of the school dropouts. Even within

major categories there can be significant differences in need which should be

recongized." 27a/

Walther suggests three main categories of disadvantaged youth;

disadvantaged high school graduates; rebels, and low self-esteem types.

Perhaps the most direct attempt to assess which approaches work best with

different groups of youth is Garth Mangum and John Walsh's "Employment and

Training Programs for Youth: What Works Best for Whom?" (q.v.).

Intorduction to the Matrix Presented on the Following Three Pages

The matrix chart on the following three pages presents a thumbnail sketch

of 13 school-to-work programs, some still in operation, others long ago completed. Included is the NAB/JOBS program, six employment and training

programs (TAT, Job Corps, Operation Young Adults, CETA OJT, Supported Work),

five school-based programs (EBCE, cooperative education, Career Intern Program, vocational education, career education) and the privately operated

70001 network of franchises.

The matrix outlines program goals, delivery mechanisms, evaluation

methods, signs of program success and lessons for replication. Because so

much of the research still has not been completed, YEDPA programs are not

included in the matrix.

340

294
Prop

TAT (STA)

Program Cool

placement of hard.to.

employ in bilk skill

jobs

Summary of Youth Transition to Vick Programs Involving the Private Sector

Deliver, Mechanism !valuation Method

coiltastion, OR, C11111 measured placement and

room, remedial skills dropout rates and cost

training using industry per placement !/

resources

Job Corps provide intensive job classroom and bandaon

(CITA) training i placement training in residential

to low.income youth centers through residential

facilities

VI?

(CITA)

NAB/Jobs

(private)

Inlet career exploretion and counseling

opportunities for low"

income youth

work exploration ectivities viprivate employers plus individual

counseling

Proves Success? tenon for leplication

94 of first 1000 en. 1. use experiencemorblen as instructors toile.' placed. 14 2. deliver comprehensive, support services

dropout rate,. C.P.P. 3. insure intensive training

$400 less than average 4. promote good counicationi

5. mobilize union and tonality support

6. strong management

No knows evaluations comparing 'ocelot of centers run

by private sector with those run by public agencies. 12/

no control group; sear

cured inprovemeott in

school work, attenu

dance and job place.

lent y

recruit businesses to voluntary cooperation by measured Dumber of jobs

voluntarily open suss private sector, No sub. created 1 impact 0:

mar jobs to troll sidles available total youth jollies'

come youth rate dl

Operation to train dropouts aged components included no control group.

Young 14.20 for construction sheltered workshop notion based on proiras

Adults jobs work; study; home rehab; followup

(NOTA) cowling

measurable improvements 1. level of employer subsidy influences

in dropout rites, grade participation

averages, attendance, 1. personal approach best in recruiting

discipline. 7511 place- employers

lent rate. 3. local unemployment rate affects job

openings

4. impact influenced by eligibility requi

mints; "creaming" it a potential

problem

total John created OA" knot; hundreds of

thousands of jobs erested, but 'little impact

on jobless ststiatice

some lure' in Wino

ill thoi(17-10; thole

loungerleposaibletli

plact. *obi gotta

needediare Woes

1. number of jobs created; tied closely to

unemployment situation

2. good job coaching and supervision had

positive impact,' on program

3. employers gain experience working with

disadvantaged'

1, employers reluctant to hire 16.10 yest

olds' when unemployment is high

I. rehab, program depends on supply of

cheap houses

3. good cooperation among business, lobo'

other groups, if there is good

history of it
Program Prop Goal

CM OR

(CITA)

train low income people

for jobs by lubeididos

etployer training costs

Supported tubing and ?lomat

work of very bard'to'employ

(CITA) through intensive Or?

6 meal work

/vedett provide dropoutprone

heed youth itralternative"

Career high school propel

.1 Education combined it/work

(VIE) experience,

Cooperative introduce I prepare

Education young people in all.

(OE) income brackets for

world of work

Career

Intern

Program

Delivery Neckties

reimbursements to em'

ployers of amounts up

to 50% of vase, and

fringes

13 test sites; make own arrangements for train

ing; come it privste

sector

create a special Ilk

high Wool for dro

ontrone students;

combined w/work ex.

perience

separate high school

program combined w/

rotating work expert

emcee v/private sector

high school & college

students cabine class.

room study v/related

work experience

special high school

program netted by

Opportunities Indus.

trialization Centers;

work experience part

time in private sector

Evglatiot Dethod

no recent evaluations;

only annual DM figures

available .f./

control group. Evalual

tics measured poet

program results 11

tested variety of self.

concept and skills ma

cures; writing, career

knowledge, tesponsi'

With etc,

Program Succeed

38.1% placed in jobs,

PT 76 ()kapott Report

of ?resident, 1178)

93 placement; gains in

earnings posted

no controls; measured

program components, not

attitudes of partici.

pants; no placement

followup

control groups & follow

up survey used. locus

on esployeettrelated

outcome s/

70001 Ltd, to provide dropouts v/ 10001 "franchised" to d/ no control group; (private) work & training ins local 'genies who make elphisis on outcomes

supportive atmosphere training arrangements, satisfaction v/progru

local 70001 clubi offer

support

Vocational to equip high school I simulated wort environs

Education poitscroadary students meets within the pub.

(0E) viseleable skills lir school system

343

lessons for Replication

Absence of evaluations makes

lessons difficult to generalize.

Project still under evaluation,

few gain it basic 1. IRE is a feasible alternative for

skills or self'coacepts dropout.prom youth

mutable improvements 2. major gains possible in career

in work habits, "ors development

'Jul" skills, career 3, should not expect major turnarounds

maturity in basic skills, lelkotcepti

high placement rates; 1, very popular among students and

program succeeded in employers alike

providing formal OJT; L provides good jobrelated oppertunitil

helping studenti decide 3. may cut into students' afterhours

on careers; get jabs activities

more participants than 1. good evaluation design proved that CU

controls; got jobs, re is a viable program for urban minors

tuned for tore school. youths

tag or graduated. Caine 2, strongest potential is in number of

in reed*, & math youth who go on to college

711 working after one 1. franchising allows centralized control

year; 30% involved in over program standards

higher ed; 70% rate 2. local "clubs" provide needed peer

program excellent or support

very good

To our knowledge, no evaluation has ever dealt with

private sector involvement in vocational education.

344
Program

Career

Education

(OE)

Program Coal

to intmate career

Development into public school curriculums

345

_._._, Delivery Mechanism Evaluation Method Program Success? Lessons for Replication

involvement by public

schools viemployers &

community organization!

& career exploration

activities

To our knowledge, no evaluation has ever dealt specifically

with private sector involvement in career education.

346
CODE TO EVALUATIONS CITED IN MATRIX CHARTS

DOL Programs

a/ Davies, Mary F., A Model for Training the Disadvantaged: TAT at Oak Ridge, Manpower Administration, U.S. Department of Labor, 1973.

b/ See Levitan, Sar, The Job Corps: A Social Experiment that Works, John Hopkins University Press, 1975.

c/ Sprengel, Donald P., et al., Youth Training in the Private Sector, A Model for Implementation, Center for Urban Programs, St. Louis University, 1974.

d/ Greenleigh Associates, Inc., The Job Opportunities in the Business Sector Program, Greenleigh Associates, Inc., 1970.

e/ Rochester Jobs, Inc., Final RewtaqetAtlg.onYotinAdults, Rochester N.Y., Rochester Jobs, Inc., 1972.

f/ U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Report of the President, 1978.

Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation, Summary of the First Annual Report on the National Supported Work Demonstration, Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation, 1976.

School-Based Programs

a/ Herron, Marshall, et al., Employer-Based Career Education: FY 1973 Evaluation Report, Northwest Regional Laboratory, 1973.

b/ Frankel, Stephen M., Executive Summary: An Assessment of School- Supervised Work-Education

1973.

Programs, Systems Development Corporation,

c/ The National Institute of Education, The Career Intern Program: An Experiment in Career Education That Worked, 1977.

d/ National Manpower

Research and Experimentation

Institute, The Youth Transition to Work: Synthesis,

Strategy, Volume I, 1978.

34 7

298
III. RESEARCH QUESTIONS DERIVED FROM POLICY ISSUES

OF CRITICAL CONCERN

A. What forms of collaboration among employment, training, private

sector employers, educational (including colleges and universities),

and rehabilitative institutions (including community based organizations) are the most effective and the most successful in

facilitating the school-to-work transition sequence? Specifically,

what forms of collaboration and what structural arrangements best

serve the young people in terms of placing them in private sector,

unsubsidized jobs after program completion?

The concept of collaboration among various community, private and

government sectors is a fairly recent phenomenon in the history of youth

transition to work programs. Collaboration represents both a growing sophistication about the causes and cures of high rates of youth unemployment and a

desire by public administrators to make the most efficient use of tax dollars.

We have come a long way in our thinking about youth unemployment since

the mid 1960's when the general concensus was that if simply enough jobs were

provided, the nation's low-income youth would be integrated back into the

mainstream of society. Over the last decade, however, it has become clear

that a shortage of jobs is a major problem, but not the only one. Thus, other

sectors of the community have gradually been drawn into job training and

related efforts: schools to provide remedial academic skills; social service

agencies to provide counseling, outreach, health care and transportation;

employers to provide work experience opportunities, as well as jobs; labor

unions to expand apprenticeship opportunities.

Underlying this movement is the assumption that a comprehensive array of

services will better serve the transition needs of. youth. However, empirical

evidence to document this assumption or to spell out the best ways to coordinate services is sorely lacking. Similarly, it is a common sense assumption

that coordination of services will help stretchfederal dollars and increase

the impact of programs by reducing overlap and duplication. Again, however,

there is almost no research to back up what has become a major new feature

of federal policy.

This growing interest in collaboration to improve transition services for

youth can be traced, in part, to President Gerald Ford's August 1974 speech at
Ohio State University, in which he called for a "new partnership" between

educators and business people. Shortly thereafter, Ford created an Interagency Task Force composed of representatives of the departments of Labor,

HEW and Commerce. Efforts of this task force led to development of several

pilot initiatives that crossed traditional boundaries between agencies, such

as the Work-Education Consortium Project and the National Occupational

Information Coordinating Committee.

The Youth Employment and Demonstration Projects Act and the Career

Education Incentive Act, both enacted in 1977, built upon these experiments

to encourage--and in some cases mandate--further collaboration.

Inflation, and the resulting desire of political administrations to hold

down federal spending, has helped maintain interest in the concept of collaboration. The small amount of research that exists on the effectiveness of

collaboration in youth transition efforts serves mostly to document just how

difficult the process can be.

Congress enacted YEDPA both as a jobs program and as a vehicle for

fostering new collaborative relationships. Initial research shows that such

relationships need more time to flower and mature. Wurtzburg says, "The first

interim report of YEDPA at the local level demonstrated that prime sponsors

are taking the initiative; but that private sector interests, for the most

part, are not responding. There has been no dramatic change since that time.

Neither does there seem to be much promise for any breakthrough, similar to

the breakthrough with LEAs (local education agencies) that now seems possible." 30/

Despite his gloomy assessment, Wurzburg says there is "scattered

evidence" of some "genuine contact"--no quantum leaps, "but it could presage

the kind of modest, undramatic breakthrough that will mark change on this

front." 211

Community-based organizations (CBOs), however, are much more involved in

YEDPA programs, primarily because the language of the law gives CBOs "special

consideration" in the provision of services. Whether CBOs are more effectivethan other service deliverers is a "moot point," according to Wurzburg. CBOs,

he says, are a very diverse group and generalizations are not easy to make.

Preliminary evidence, however, suggests that CBOs are no more cost-effective,

300

349
able to reach target groups or provide better services than other agencies.

Again, generalizations should be avoided, Wurzburg warns.

32/

Unions, says Wurzburg, were only "peripherally involved" with YEDPA's

early phases, despite some "notable exceptions." Labor unions, he says,

usually "make themselves heard only when their interests seem to be

threatened.'

, 33/

Employers, schools and CETA prime sponsors all play collaborative roles

in the Youth Incentive Entitlement Pilot Projects. MDRC has completed two

studies of YIEPP so far and has found numerous barriers to collaboration that

include stringent eligibility and research requirements, a mismatch in funding

cycles between schools and prime sponsors, business hours that would not

accommodate part-time or school-year work experiences, difficulties in matching jobs to individual interests and aspirations, finding worksites close to

schools or participants' homes, and heavy reporting burdens. lig

YIEPP is a complgx_program implemented quickly under heavy pressure from

the Department of Labor, so barriers to collaboration may well be programmatic

rather than inherent. Unfortunately, YIEPP is being phased out in fiscal year

1980, so a long-term test of its collaborative impact will not be possible.

The MDRC evaluation four' that agencies mostly did what they already

knew how to do when forming collaborative alliances under YIEPP. Schools provided initial publicity and academic instruction; prime sponsors, Job Service

offices and schools advit interested youths about the program; and community

based organizations were used to recruit and enroll high school dropouts.

Employers provided jobs and training opportunities. 25/

Another vehicle that has been instrumental in promoting greater

collaboration is the work education council. Although known by a variety of

names, these councils, most organized in the past few years, generally concentrate on bringing together youth-oriented segments of the community in a

neutral atmosphere that promotes discussion and cooperation. The best known

of these councils probably are those which were begun or expanded with funds

under the Work-Education Consortium Project, begun in 1975 through the joint

effort of the departments of Labor, HEW and Commerce. Together, these 32

councils have helped create a national network of collaborative efforts, each

designed to fit local needs. The National Manpower Institute has acted as

intermediary for the councils and managed the grant money. Councils serve

303.

3 ()
areas of the country as diverse as Bethel, Maine and Detroit, Michigan. The

Industry-Education Council of California is a statewide network.

Whether these councils have been successful in creating permanent new collaborative arrangements is still unclear. The National Institute of Education has funded a two-year study by Abt Associates of Cambridge, Mass- achusetts to assess the impact of the councils. At this point, the study has not been completed. But preliminary evidence shows that the "getting togerher" of diverse community groups is the most notable feature of the

councils. 2§./ However, Abt researchers have not documented any measurable

impact councils have made in any community. Study director Audrey Prager said it is difficult to assess the councils because so few of them have any

measurable goals. 21/

Other kinds of councils also exist in great profusion, including career education advisory councils, vocational education advisory councils, CETA youth councils and others. To date, little significant research has been done to assess their effectiveness, although Ray Rist has found that a few councils

created under YEDPA have helped improve prograth quality. 37A/

The federal government also has tried legislative mandates to foster more cooperation among related employment and training agencies. The Vocational

Education Amendments of 1976 and the Comprehensive Employment and Training Act amendments of 1978 included provisions designed to improve collaboration. These included such measures as broadening the representation of advisory councils and requiring mutual sign-off on program planning documents.

The most significant collaborative mandate, however, is the 22 percent earmark of Youth Employment and Training Program (YEDPA) funds for in-school youth programs to be operated under joint contract between prime sponsors and schools. The setaside has been a powerful lure, since hundreds of millions of dollars are 'nvolved. According to the National Council on Employment Policy, "The impact of the 22 percent setaside cannot be overstated." 22/ Whether the collaborative arrangements developed under the setaside would continue without the mandate is unknown.

Collaboration with the private sector is being enzouraged through two other recently developed mechanisms: Private Industry Councils (created by the 1978 CETA amendments) and the provision of custom-training by vocational

schools and community colleges.

302

351
Over 450 Private Industry Councils have been formed so far, each made up

of a majority of business and industry representatives. They have the responsibility of encouraging more private sector participation in CETA and helping

job training programs match more closely the actual manpower needs of business

and industry. Forging new school-to-work linkages is also listed in the CETA

law-among the PICs' mandates.

It is still too early to tell whether the PICs will be able to create a

truly collaborative atmosphere for local CETA planning. Preliminary evidence

suggests that most PICs are acting in an advisory capacity; few are actually

operating programs.

39/ -- Yet business people apparently are responding well

to the call for increased private sector involvement and that enthusiasm has

not been lost on members of Congress who were initially skeptical about the

Private Sector Initiative Program.

40/

Summary

Collaboration among educators, prime sponsors, employers, labor unions,

community organizations and government is a relatively new but growing phenomenon. The federal government, increasingly sophisticated about the causes of

youth unemployment and desiring to stretch limited resources, is encouraging

more such collaborative efforts through incentives, mandates and such experiments as PICs and work-education councils. Because most of these initiatives

are relatively recent, little data exist on their impact. There are indications, however, that new relationships are being created among formerly

disparate groups.

The degree to which collaboration is responsible for gains in youth

employment is moot at this point, simply because the available evidence is

inadequate. Results of the Abt Associates study of work-education councils,

plus further research on the YETP setaside and the evolving Private Industry

Councils will shed more light on the subject.

What do we not know about the wffectiveness of collaboration?

As mentioned, the concept of collaboration has not had time to take firm

root. Ultimately, however, collaboration may prove to be very difficult to

352

303
measure. The question of "end results" immediately presents itself. The goal of a work-education council, for example, may be simply to bring together segments of the community which previously worked in isolation. There may be no conscious attempt to directly affect local youth employment rates. Researchers must take into consideration these somewhat nebulous but still

worthwhile goals in evaluating the effectiveness of some forms of collaborative efforts. The effects of PICs and YETP setasides will be easier to

measure.

B. What do we know about the relative

sector vs. public effect and value of private sector programmatic

skills acquired, experience in terms of the later (after program)

educational job placement, career and success and overall

what extent does (long-term) employability? To what type of

alter the impact programmatic experience change or as a result of the age of the participant?

The federal government's renewed interest in expanding private sector

involvement in work preparation programs is based largely on projections that the vast majority of new jobs they expect to be created during the next decade or so will be in private business and industry. Thus, employment

opportunities for the disadvantaged in the private sector are encouraged

because that is where most of the jobs are. But is there any advantage to youth of obtaining work experience or training in the private, as opposed to the public, sector? The literature simply does not say. To our knowledge, there exists not a single evaluation that addresses this topic. Nonetheless, more knowledge about the relative benefits of public vs. private sector work

experiences would be quite helpful in formulating federal youth employment policies.

The Labor Department has recognized the knowledge gaps in this area and in the summer of 1979 launched a $7 million project to compare the impact of public and private sector employment on low-income youth. Four cities and a group of rural Minnesota counties were selected for the project, which will

employ about 320 youths at each site in full-time subsidized jobs. The Center for Urban Studies at St. Louis University has developed guidelines being used by all the project sites to aid comparability. Results of the "Public vs. Private Sector Jobs Demonstration Project" should be available some time in 1980.

304

353
This project represents virtually the only attempt ever made to

specifically compare public and private sector jobs in terms of skills

obtained and future labor market success. Previous research offers very few

clues as to the possible outcome of this project. Herbert Parnes, in documenting that occupational informati.on and work experience have a positive impact

on the later success of youth (esTtLially whites), did not compare work experiences in the public and private sector. In examining the data from his

national longitudinal study of youLif men, Parnes found that young whites got

better jobs and higher pay as they obtained more work experience and bsgan to

stay with a single employer for longer periods of time. Work experience and

job tenure had little impact on later career success for black youths, however, Parnes discovered. The wages of black youth increased at a much smaller

41/ rate than those for whites. --

In the realm of federal youth programs, comparisons between public and

private sector job advantages are made impossible by the fact that most

programs are designed to create either public or private sector work opportunities, but rarely both. Under the Youth Employment and Demonstration

Projects Act, for example, only the Entitlement program authorizes a mixture

of public and private sector work. Unfortunately, no attempt has been made to

analyze whether one form of employment has any advantage over another; the

purpose of the Entitlement is to encourage low-income youth to complete high

school by guaranteeing them jobs. Prime sponsors have been free to mix and

match public and private sector job slots.

Intuitively, at least, it would seem that private sector work would

benefit the older youth seeking a permanent foothold in the labor market.

Not only are there more jobs in the private sector, they often pay more and

provide wider opportunities for advancement. The public sector, on the other

hand, has generally done more to encourage hiring of minorities and the disadvantaged. Often there are more entry level positions in the public sector

and--in government, at least--steps toward advancement are clear-cut. Subsequent research must be awaited before any of these assumptions can be proven

or disproven.

In many federal transition to work programs, this assumption is put into

practice. Younger teenagers often are placed in public or nonprofit agencies,

305 354
where it is hoped they'll learn good work habits and attitudes in an atmosphere less stressful than the private sector, with its dedication to profit

and productivity. When, and if, these youngsters become job ready, they then

are referred to private employers.

But because the profit motive creates a work environment quite different from that in the public sector, it is reasonable to ask whether youngsters

get appropriate experiences in nonprofit organizations.

Regis Walther, for example, argues that the private sector may offer

higher quality work experience opportunities. "There may be no 'hard data' on

this point," he says, "but there is widespread impression that work sites in

the private sector are more likely to require the youth to meet performance

standards, and thus provide better training." 41A/

There is a clear dichotomy here. If private employers indeed offer

better quality work experiences, but are less tolerant of low productivity and poor work habits, the cards appear to be stacked against the disadvantaged youth who need help the most. The federal government has offered a broad

range of incentives to increase the number of private sector work experience sites. The relative success of these are examined in the next section.

Sumsjan

The relative benefits of private vs. public sector work experience is one of the most poorly researched issues in the transition-to-work arena. Although a number of studies have analyzed the benefits to youth of work

experience in general, none to our knowledge has examined whether the private or public sector is the best place to get it. A $7 million project begun in mid-1979 to test in several sites the value of public vs. private sector jobs

for low-income youth should provide answers to many questions. At this point,

however, about all that can be said is that the gradual accumulation of work

experience helps young people (white youths in particular) compete in the

labor market for better paying, more prestigious jobs.

306

355
What do we not know about the relative benefitsto youth of public vs. private

sector job experience?

Because of the paucity of research literature, it is far easier to list

what we do not know about public vs. private sector work benefits than what

we do k.,iow. The question examined in this section summarizes the largest

gaps in our knowledge: Paraphrased and somewhat expanded, these include:

*Do young people acquire different kinds of skills in public sector

vs. private sector jobs?

*Are public or private sector jobs the most beneficial to young

people in terms of later career success and earnings?*

*Are young people who get their early work experience in the

public sector able to get private sector jobs later on?

*Do benefits of public vs. private sector jobs vary according to

the age of the job-holder?*

*Do public or private sector jobs have any differential impact on

the likelihood that a job-holder will pursue further education?

*Do minorities or women receive any advantages from public vs.

private sector work experiences?

*Are there differences in the unemployment rates of youths with

work histories primarily in the public vs. private sector?

As can be readily seen, there is a great deal to be learned in this

area.

C. What do we know about the effectiveness of and measurement of

various incentives, both monetary and =monetary, to increased

private sector involvement in youth transition to work efforts?

Incentives offered by the federal government to expand private sector

involvement in employment and training programs can be divided into two basic

types: those which provide employers with a source of needed job skills; and

those which reduce employer costs. In addition, however, some very large

*Ray Rist has found some evidence that private sector jobs benefit older

youth most (Rist, Ray, et al., Strttuies for Coordinating Education and

Employment Services, Occasional Paper No. 1, Youthwork Nationk1 Policy

Study, Cornell University, Nov. 1979).

307
companies will participate in employment and training programs solely out of

concern for their public image or because of "social conscience." Still,

the private sector appears to respond best to incentives which will help them

reduce costs or improve the efficiency of their organizations.

Vogel lists these incentives--discussed in detail below--which the

federal government has tried in recent years with varying degrees of success:

source of needed workers;

subsidies for costs and training;

direct wage subsidies;

reduction of transaction costs for firms participating in OJT; and

government subsidizing of youth "trainee wages." --

42/

Source of Skilled Workers

Employers needed a source of skilled workers when the NAB was organized

during the late 1960's, a period of rapid economic expansion. This need

declined drastically when the economy took a turn for the worse, however, and

NAB's effectiveness declined accordingly. Some programs, like TAT, however,

managed to weather the recession by concentrating on training in emerging

high technology occupations where skills, rather than manpower, were in short

supply.

On the other hand, a 1978 National Association of Manufacturer's survey

found that business people would be more inclined to participate in federal

job training programs if participants were better qualified and if programs

were better coordinated with company needs. IT

Training Subsidies

Training subsidies, on the other hand, have been a mainstay of federal

manpower programs since the days of MDTA. None of the available research,

however, isolates the effects of training subsidies from other factors behind

an employer's decision to become involved in a job training program.

308

357
Subsidies at least have the potential of reducing manpower costs, however, so

probably serve their intended purpose to some extent.

But these subsidies often stumble over three problems:

employers often feel the paperwork burden of fedral manpower

programs outweighs the benefits of the subsidies;

unions object to the presence of subsidied employees when

regular workers are being laid off; any

employers view the training subsidies as payment for hiring

the disadvantaged, so often provide little or no training.

According to Vogel, "Subsidies of any kind work only when there is solid

economic expansion. They do not work if unions object or when other categories of workers are being laid off."

44/ On-the-job-training subsidies

accounted for only 8.6% of all CETA spending in 1977. AY

Direct wage subsidies are not allowed under CETA, but are permitted in

certain cases under the Youth Employment and Demonstration Projects Act.

Intuitively, direct wage subsidies would seem to be a valuable tool, but

research to back up such an assumption is lacking. Subsidies of this kind are

rather common in Europe, but it ki,....cyfir-alt4o apply the results of these

experiences to the domestic scene.

Vogel cites an experimental program operated several years ago by the

Institute of Public Administration in New York City in which direct wage subsidies were paid to employers who agreed to upgrade the job skills of lowlevel employees. The program ran into trouble, however, when employers proved

reluctant to upgrade workers' job skills, feared they would not be reimbursed

for what upgrading they did, failed to upgrade skills because of a. lack of

in-house capacity and failed to understand the concept of upgrading. The

program also proved to be more expensive than either hands-on or classroom

training. AY

Subsidizing Youth "Trainee Wages"

Programs designed to subsidize youth "trainee wages" are very poorly

documented and little is known about their effects. As Vogel points out, subsidizing trainee wages has not been permitted except for a brief period in
the 1960's. 47/ -- The Youth Entitlement program allows wage subsidies, the

subject of evaluations now under way.

Beyond these five categories are a number of approaches which are being

tried but have never been evaluated. Some are completely new ideas, while

others are variations on earlier themes. Many are based on the idea of com- munity collaboration. Examples include collaborating with schools to develop

curriculums in jobs where there are vacancies in the local labor market, and

wi_h government agencies, employers and universities to develop better labor

market data.

However, the Department of Labor is giving new attention to trainee

subsidies. On March 5, 1979, a $4.4 million DOL contract was signed with

Control Data Corporation to train and place 300 Job Corps enrollees during

the next three years. The contract money provides for a complete subsidy of

training costs and wages for the participants, with Control Data guaranteeing

jobs to all successful completers. The Control Data contract is a substantial

departure from the usual subsidies and reimbursements offered private sector

employers. Subsequent evaluations of the effectiveness of this approach will

shed new light on the value of wage and training subsidies as an inducement

for expanded private sector involvement in youth jobs programs.

WaL,.1 Exemptions and Tax Credits

Two other hiring incentives sbluld be noted: minimum wage exemptions and

employment tax credits.

Under the Federal Minimum Wage Act, student leazners, apprentices,

messengers and full-time students may be paid less than the minimum wage by

employers who apply to the Department of Labor for a special waiver. The

student learner program permits payment of 75 percent of the minimum wage to

vocational education students 16 years of age and older for part-time work

related to their training. Full-time students in certain occupations may work

,after schorl for up to 20 hours per week a4. 85 percent of the wage base.

Colleges and universities also may employ students under the. latter

conditions.

*See the St. Louis University studies on the Vocational Exploration Program.

310

35-9
These waivers are popular among employers. The number of certificates

obtained to employ full-time students more than tripled between fiscal years

48/ 1974 and 1975, jumping from 7,551 to 26,170. -- The Congressional Budget

Office notes that most of this increase is attributable to changes made in

the law in 1974 to include colleges and additional retail and service

establishments, and which made the certificates easier to get. 49/

There are, to our knowledge, no evaluations of the effectiveness of the

waivers. This seems unfortunate in light of employers' frequent complaints

that the minimum wage is so high it prevents them from hiring young people.

Employment tax credits, on the other hand, have been evaluated but the

evidence is contradictory. The federal government's most recent experiences

with employment tax credits were under the Work Incentive (WIN) Program tax

credit of 1971 and the Tax Reduction and Simplification Act of 1977. The tax

credit authorized by the latter act expired in 1978. It allowed employers a

credit of 50 percent of the increase in their wage base under the Federal

Unemployment Tax Act, above 102 percent of the wage base in the previous

year. The FUTA base for a year consists of wages paid up to $4,200 per

employee. Nn one employer could claim more than $100,000 in credits for a

single year. There was also a requirement that total wages paid rise by at

least 5 percent to make sure the Employment Tax Credit reflected actual

increases in employment.

This tax credit was replaced in October 1978 by a Targeted Jobs Tax

Credit limited to a specific ,ist of hard-to-employ populations. Under the

new program, 50 percent of the first $6,000 in wages of the first year of

employment, and 25 percent of the first $6,000 in wages of the second year

can be taken as a tax credit by the employer.

To be eligible for the credit, employers must hire individuals who meet

one or more of these eligibility requirements: youth aged 18-25 from families

with incomes of less than 70 percent of the Bureau of Labor Statistics lower

living standard; participants in cooperative education programs; AFDC recipients; SSI (Supplemental Security Income) recipients; welfare recipients of

more than 30 days; handicapped individuals in vocational rehabilitation

programs; Vietnam-era veterans under age 35 from low-income families; and

parolees who are members of low-income families.

311

36
Because the original tax credit was not targeted, its effect on youth

unemployment is unclear.

Oa the positive side, John Bishop, a University of Wisconsin economist

who helped direct a major study on the potential of wage subsidies, told

Congress the untargeted tax credit resulted in "statistically significant

increases in employment." According to Bishop, the tax credit induced an

8 percent increase in employment in construction and a 2 or 3 percent increase

in retailing. For the industries studied, Bishop said the total increase in

employment "seems to be 400,000 plus or minus 400,000"--certainly not a precise conclusion. 50/ --

Bolstering this view are results of a recent study from the W.E. Upjohn

Institute for Employment Research. According to the study, employment tax

credits are the best way to induce businesses to hire new people because they

reduce the cost of labor and actually curb inflation. Tax credits are especially effective for small businesses, which often have a heavier wage and

salary burden than larger firms, the study adds, 51/

But there are indications that the Targeted Jobs Tax Credit is indeed

creating jobs for disadvantaged youth. According to Labor Department figures,

nearly one-half of the 8,400 people hired during the first six weeks of the

program were disadvantaged young people. Another 28 percent were youth

enrolled in cooperative education 52/

programs. --

In a related vein, the allowance of total wage subsidies under YEDPA's

Youth Incentive Entitlement Pilot Projects offers an interesting test of their

merit. While the YIEPP projects have been in operation for only a year, some

encouraging signs have emerged. A $25 million project being operated by the

CETA prime sponsor in Philadelphia, for example, got commitments from the

private sector for 60 percent of the program's 5,400 projected job slots.

According to the city's Area Manpower Planning Council, the enthusiasm shown

by the private sector for the program stemmed from:

the proposed use o! complete wage subsidies;

the extensive scope and resources of the project; and

the use of employer-related and union-related nonprofit

organizations for job development.

361

312
An added incentive is that employers are paid directly by the project,

thereby eliminating red tape such as contractual arrangements, personnel and

payroll paperwork and record keeping. According to the council, "Anything

less than a direct incentive to a firm, it was learned, will cause the com- pany's pany's decision-makers to exhibit great reluctance to participate." The

Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation currently is studying various

aspects of the YIEPP.

So far, MDRC has found that all but three of 17 prime sponsors running

the larger YIUP projects offered a full 100 percent subsidy to induce local

businesses to provide employment for the youths. Two sponsors decided not to

have private sector worksites and Mississippi offered a 75 percent subsidy.54/

Although prime sponsors made efforts to contact businesses through intermediaries such as chambers of commerce and National Alliance of Business offices,

the proportion of jobs in the private sector was lower than prime sponsors had

originally projected. 55/ In its initial evaluation of YIEPP, MDRC found that

only 12.8 percent of the total hours worked were in private for profit firms.

Over half the hours worked were in public educational agencies and other

public organizations. 56/

Summa

What, then, do we know about the effectiveness of various incentives to

increase private sector involvement in youth programs? These points stand

out:

programs which offer employers a source of needed workers

function best during times of low unemployment and economic

expansion, or when they are concentrated in emerging

occupational fields;

subsidies for on-the-job training also work beet when

unemployment is low;

direct wage subsidies show promise as an effective

employment-inducing tool, especially if targeted on hard-to-employ groups;

little is known about potentially promising approaches

such as subsidizing youth "trainee wages" and encouraging

collaboration between the private sector and the community;

313 362
employment tax credits appear

unemployment and, if targeted

inflationary;

employers are more willing to

tape is kept to a minimum.

to have some impact in reducing

on the hard-to-employ, are not

participate in programs if red

What do we not know about the effectiveness of various incentives?

The biggest gaps in our knowledge of incentives are in the areas of

targeted employment tax credits and wage subsidies, two approaches which seem

to hold great promise. Research resulting from the new Targeted Jobs Tax

Credit and the wage subsidies allowable under YEDPA should go a long way

toward filling these gaps.

It seems clear that providing on-the-job training subsidies and sources

of needed skills work well only when the economy is moing forward. It seems

just as clear that employers will shy away from any employment incentive

program laden with red tape.

In seeking new data, emphasis should be given to designing rigorous

evaluations to assess the impact of a program against its economic and social

backdrop. The current absence of such research makes it all the more

imperative that design models

The knowledge gap goes beyoad the question of finar:ial incentives.

Attitudes of employers and workeri3 are Significant factor, as well. Almost

no research exists, for exwTie, on ways in which the pri-,ate sector can train

supervisors to work effectively wit the disadvantaged.

In addition, there al.e mmero'd anecdotal examp:ds of programs actively

involving the private sectw; is ..inich there seem to no incentives to participate beyond a sense of sic responsibility. example, see the World

of Work program description on par 55. We kl)! 6:.rost nothing about the

processes and mecUrisms which make such prograxl aa..--;ed in and

znd fail in another.

Introduction to Matrix on ?ollowing Page

The matrix on the following page outlines six incentives listed by

,cnite Vogel which the federal government has tried in recent years to induce

314
the private sector t9 hire more low tacome youth. Listed are the incentives,

the legislation that authorized them, sources of information about program

impacts (the studies themselves axe jetailed in the text of the paper) and

lessons for replication.

Some recent incentives, such as the Targeted Jobs Tax Credit and the

Youth Incentive Entitlement Pil,A Project are not included because evaluations

are not yet complete.

364

315
Incentive

source of needed

worker/skills

OJT Subsidies

direct wage

subsidies

collaboration

with community

agencies

tax credits for

employment

wage

exemptions

SUMMARY OF FEDERAL HIRING INCENTIVES

Program Evaluation

Authorization Source

1. TAT, 2. NAB/JOBS 1. Davies, Mary F.,

(MDTA) (DOL) Manpower Admin.,

1973

CETA

MDTA

VIER

Work/Education

Consortium Project

(DOL)

New Jobs Tax Credit

Fair Labor

Standards Act

2. Oreealeigh Associates, 1970

Vogel, Anita F.,

citation of New York

study; MDRC study

no evaluations of

private sector involvement yet available*

Successes?

1. Placed 94 of first

2,000 graduates

Lessons for

Replication

1. Intensive training in high

demand jobs improves

placement ratio

2. No knowledge of exact 2. of jobs created; program slumped during

recession

University of

Wisconsin project;

John Bishop, Director

no evaluations

available

*Abt Associates study under way but not yet complete

365

few cited; problems with

employer suspicions and

lack of understanding of

goals

program not completed

induced measurable

reductions in unemployment; created up to

400,000 jobs

Employers will voluntarily

create many jobs only when

economy is expanding

1. make goals of program clear

2. maybe more expensive than

hands-on or OJT

tax credits induce hiring and

do not fuel inflation, if

targeted on the hard-core

unemployed

366
D. What do we know about the effectiveness of vas minds and levels of

incentives for participants?

In the rather brief history of federal policies designed to encourage

more private sector involvement in youth transition-to-work efforts, incentives generally have been aimed more at employers than participants. The

reason this is scris not clear--perhaps it is an outgrowth of a widely held

assumption that low-income alienated youth all desire steady jobs and that

provision of such work opportunities is all that is necessary. In reality,

the situation is not so simple. High school dropouts, for example, may resist

returning to the classroom to earn a General Education (GED) certificate,

despite its impact on later earnings and job success. In addition, private

sector jobs opened up through government efforts tend to be in low-paying,

low-status occupations that may not appear desirable to many youth. At the

same time, however, it is important to remember that in almost every federally

funded jobs program, the number of applicants far exceeds the supply of job

openings.

Thus, it appears that incentives beyond a decent wage probably are not

necessary to induce young people to take a job, but to help them make the

often difficult transition from marginal labor market participant to skilled

worker, To many youth, those who lack steady work histories and who live in

poverty areas, wages earned while participating in a work experience or job

training program probably are the greatest incentives. Inflation, however,

continues to make such job opportunities, which usually pay little more than

the minimum wage, less attractive. Traditionally, about the only other

incentives that are offered are in the form of support services such as

transportation and child care.

The available literature tells very little about the success of

participant incentives, possibly because the problem has always been a shortage of jobs, not eligible participants. Ray Rist, in one of the few available

studies, found mixed results from incentives such as academic credit for work

experience. 564/

Enactment of the Youth Employment and Demonstration Projects Act put a

new emphasis on participant incentives through the Youth Incentive Entitlement

Pilot Projects. In fact, the entire YIEPP program is an incentive, since it

is designed to test the effectiveness of guaranteeing jobs to high school

317
dropouts or dropout prone youths who return to or stay in school. YIEPP is

a rather expensive program, because it also authorizes 100 percent wage

subsidies to employers who provide jobs for participants.

Preliminary evidence also suggests YIEPP has not been particularly

successful in luring dropouts back to the classroom. According to the April

1979 MDRC study, "Entitlement may not be a sufficiently attractive offer to

draw dropouts in high proportions. They appear to be reluctant to return to

a regular school setting and, where there were not well-established educational alternatives, dropouts may have been discouraged. In addition, the

part-time hours and wages of Entitlement during the school year may have provided an insufficient monetary incentive for dropouts. Moreover, other youth

employment programs that do not require schooling, or do provide training

stipends for school participation, may have attracted some dropouts as an

alternative to Entitlement." 57!

It is perhaps not surprising that the often bitter high school memories

of dropouts would be enough to overcome the YIEPP incentives of a guaranteed

job and income. Nor is it surprising that wages must be perceived as high

enough to sustain a decent living. One should keep in mind that high school

dropouts are no longer children--they are competing against adults in a

crowded labor market. Because so many dropouts are married or have children,

their income needs are not comparable to those of their peers who are still

in school.

Thus, the preliminary findings of the YIEPP program indicate that the

promise of a job is, by itself, insufficient to induce dropouts to get further

education.

Another incentive being tried out under the Youth Employment Act,

apparently with only limited success, is the awarding of academic credit for

work experience. On the face of it, this would seem a particularly attractive

incentive to youth, especially dropouts, who lack only a few credits for graduation. But schools are reluctant, in the absence of recognized $tandards,

to award credit for so nebulous a term as "work experience." 28/ In the

YIEPP program, there has been only "limited success, although many sites have

attempted to utilize the idea. State regulations are usually strict ir

allowing such credits, and a 'back to basics' movement in education hair

S.tfluenced school systems. There is increasing sensitivity among school

318 368
officials to 'corruption of academic standards.' School systems may also

have been resistant to academic credit for Entitlement work because it interferred with their own school-sponsored academic work credit programs; many

already were, in connection with their vocational training programs, building

up their own relationships with employers." 121

Under YEDPA in general, researchers have found that "most program

60/ enrollees...are not yet receiving academic credit for their work." The

reasons are similar to those listed above under YIEPP. Wurzburg notes, "it

remains to be seen whether the absence of academic credit will be decisive in

determining program success or failure..." 61/

However, the number of programs that do award academic credit for work

experience appears to be growing, and already are far more prevalent than

under previous CETA efforts. It must be left to future research to determine

the viability of the concept.

Job sharing is another incentive that is beginning to get some serious

attention. The main advantage of job sharing--at least to young trainees--is

that it provides access to responsible skilled jobs normally inaccessable to

entry-level workers. Under a genuine job sharing arrangement (as opposed to

the more common "shadow" program in which youngsters merely follow adult

workers through normal job tasks), two or more people share, usually on a

rotating basis, a job normally performed by only one person.

Job sharing is becoming more popular mainly because it affords women with

small children the opportunity to work part-time in a responsible job that

pays well. Indeed, one of the few studies shared by two people are filled

exclusively by women. The stady, conducted by Stanford University researcher

Gretl Meier, confirmed that many of the shared jobs are in high-paying, highprestige occupations. Twenty-six percent were teachers, 25 percent administrators, 19 percent researchers, 15 7,errent clerical workers, 13 percent

counselors and social service workers, and 12 percent "others," including

editors and librarians. 62/

Job sharing, a concept still struggling to gain widespread acceptance,

has not been widely used to open more jobs for youth. Examples of such job

sharing examples are rare. The Continental Bank of Chicago is trying an

experimental job-sharing program involving youth. Continental has been a

leader in cooperative education since the 1950s, when it first began to hire

319 369
high school juniors and seniors part-time. Bank directors have been very

satisfied with their program, claiming the co-op students make better

employees. 63/

A final type of participant incentive is the opportunity to own one's

own business--an "entrepreneurship" incentive. The Corporation for Public/

Private Ventures, with funds from the Labor Department, foundations, and private corporations is testing the entrepreneurship incentive through its Open

Roads--New Enterprises effort. Among the projects funded under the effort are

an auto repair shop (Aetna Life and Casualty of Hartford, Conn. provided

$300,000 for this project), an ice cream store and a housing rehabilitation

company.. Training and support services are integral to the youth-run businesses. The entrepreneurship programs not only provide an incentive to

participants but help create jobs for young people. At least that is the

hope. The effectiveness of this effort must await further evaluation.

Because incentives have been directed more toward employers than

participants,, the available literature tells very little about their effectiveness in encouraging disadvantaged youth to get the education and job

skills they need for stable employment. Although support services such as child care and transportation have often been provided in the past, their

effectiveness as incentives has not been researched.

The Youth Incentive Entitlement Pilot Projects was designed to test the

impact of guaranteed jobs on youth willing to return to or remain in school.

Initial data indicate the minimum wage jobs have not been particularly

successful in this regard. The availability of academic credit for work

experience also has not proven a strong inducement for dropouts or similar

youth to continue their educations, although evidence so far is only

preliminary.

It is too soon to make any generalizations about other participant

incentives such as job sharing or entrepreneurship opportunities. Pilot

programs are under way to test these and similar approaches but have not

yielded any important results thus far.

3293;0
Although the literature does not say so directly, it strongly implies

that the best incentives for youth program participants are opportunities

to earn money, get out of school and be placed in jobs. Dropouts, especially, seem particularly reluctant to continue their educations as a prerequisite to job placement.

Ultimately, says Regis Walther, the issue is "how can the 'hard core

unemployed' be served and at the same time the cost to the employer kept

within acceptable limits. The strategy may be different depending upon

whether the employer is in the profit or nonprofit sector. Government agencies and nonprofit organizations often accept responsibility for placing

disadvantaged youth and have a higher toleration for low productivity.

Private employers, being sensitive to the profit situatio C,..j.r enterprise, tend to be much less tolerant of low productivity, in. eves inclined

to carry poorly performing employees as a social responsibiliti.'

63A/

But beyond these data, the information on the effectiveness of

participant incentives is scarce indeed. The importance of support services

is very poorly documented. Intuitively, at least, provision of services such

as child care and transportation vouchers would seem to be important incentives for potential participants. But, to date, little research has been

undertaken to identify the importance of support service incentives.

The issue of participant incentives goes far beyond those actually

identified as such, e.g., job guarantees and child care. Almost all work

preparation programs are in and of themselves incentives, providing such

inducements as:

*opportunities for job training

*wages

*supportive environments in which to discover one's interests and

aspirations

*opportunities to escape welfare dependency

*job placement

*remedial reading, writing and math instruction

321
Each participant has his o: her own motives for enrolling and it would

be difficult (although not impossible) to sort out which of the inherent or specific program incentives proved most attractive. There is much work to

be done in this area.

What do we not know ,.bout the effectiveness of participant incentives?

Because participant incentives have rarely been a specifically identified

feature of work preparation programs, their effectiveness is poorly understood. Perhaps the biggest gap in our knowledge is the extent to which the

inherent incentives in current programs attract participants. Defense

Department research--if available--might shed some light on the incentive

value of job training to potential recruits. Data from the Labor Department's

National Longitudinal Study also would be useful.

More information is needed on the YIEtP proram as well. -f wages from

part-time jobs were nct enough inducement to high school dropouts, what level

of wages would be more effective? Do dropouts discount the value of a high

school diploma completely, or is it the idea of returning to the highly

structured educational environment that tarns them off?

Regis Walther offers some answers:

"There is a wide range of reasons why students drop out of school,

and different types of incentives are probably needed for different categories of dropouts. My longitudinal research indicated

for the particular samples of disadvantage youth that economic

factors played a minor part in causing the student to leave school.

Among the males, in particular, many had effectively dropped out of

school a number of years before it was legal for them to do so.

They had experienced many years of failure, had an extremely ne6-

ative attitude toward school, were reading a number of grades

below grade level, and most of the schools were illequipped to deal

with them. Most of them recognized the economic value of a high

school diploma but could not cope with the school curriculum.

Financial incentives did not serve to motivate such youth to

complete high school. There is considerable literature about how

such youth can be encouraged to continue their education." 63A/

Crucial,-to understanding the role of participant incentives is more

knowledge about the success of support services in attracting enroll-:es.

.322

3(2
In sum, what we don't know about the effectiveness of participant

incentives far outstrips what we do know.

In addition, much more needs to be learned about the role of academic

credit for work experience. The knowledge gap is two-fold: whether academic

credit is an attractive incentive and whether it is a practical idea, given

strict state regulations and the absence ef approved standards.

E. What do we know about the effectiveness of efforts to reduce

institutional barriers (including social, legal and regulatory costs)_to

greater rivate sector involvement in outh school-to-work transition

programs?

Researchers have done a much better job identifying barriers to greater

private sector youth program involvement than they have discovering how these

barriers can be overcome. Drawn from two major reports,* these barriers

include:

school attendance laws;

federal child labor laws;

unemployment compensation laws (state and federal);

social security withholding;

minimum wage laws;

occupational licensing, both state and union;

minimum age for driver's license;

geographical/transportation barriers;

racial and sex discrimination;

employer attitudes toward young workers;

poor academic preparation of job-seekers; and

decline in the number of entry-level jobs.

*The Manpower Institute, Study of Corporate Youth Employment Policies and

Practices, Washington, D.C., 1973. Vocational Foundation, Inc., Our Time

to Listen, 1978.

323 373
The biggest problem in examining these barriers is attempting to isolate

their effects from one another. There is even disagreement.on whether issues

such as the minimum wage and child labor laws have any adverse affect at all.

A 1965 Stanford Research Institute study, for example, concluded that "many

variations and intricacies of child labor laws probably have little effect on

the work opportunities of youth except insofar as they serve to confuse labor

and school officials and employers." 64/

Debate still continues as well over the impact of the new minimum wage

law. The Department of Labor calculated that a 25 percent boost in the minimum mum wage would lower teenage employment from 3 percent to 6 percent. The

Congressional Budget Office noted, however,

There are...enough ambiguities in the results of these

studies to cast some doubt on the findings...(I)t is very

difficult to explain satisfactorily the level of teenage

employment and to isolate the effects of any single

influence such as the minimum wage. The range of results

from attempts to do so has been wide. 66/

A 1975 study by the National Manpower Institute for the National

Committee on the Employment of Youth found that 19 percent of employers

thought child labor laws were impediments to hiring, while 64 percent thought

they were not. In addition, 90 percent said changes in child labor laws

,would not influence them to hire more 14 and 15 year olds, while 59 percent

67/ said "no" in the case of 16 and 17 year olds.

The effects of other barriers such as race and sex discrimination and

geography are equally difficult to assess. Race discrimination is almost

surely a factor, revealing itself to some extent in the wide disparity between

jobless rates for black and white teenagers (about 14 percent for whites, com- pared to over 37 percent for blacks). But how much of that gap is due to

discrimination and how much to the fact that 56 percent of black teens live in

central cities with few job opportunities?

Georgetown University researchers Bradley Billings and Selma Mushkin

listed the following variables as having an impact on teenage job opportun-,

ities: median hourly wages; unemployment tax contribution rate; degree of

unionization (for out of school youth only); job training completion ratios;

and proportion of youth to total males and the ratio of blacks to whites. 68/

324
Employer attitudes toward young workers no doubt have an impact on job opportunities but there is little research to back up such an assumption. This

potentially important issue is all the more difficult to assess since the

hiring practices of employers usually are decentralized and the result of the

perceptions and attitudes of the individuals in charge of employee

69/ selection. --

At conferences and pa%nol discussions invollthig employers one repeatedly

heays that young workers are less educated and less motivated than in times

past and that they change jobs so rapidly that investment in training is

hardly worthwhile.*

Indeed, a 1977 survey by the National Federation of Independent Business

found that 38 percent of employers complained that job applicants "won't

stay long", 39 percent complained about "no job skills", 13 percent said

applicants "can't read", 34 percent said they had "inflated wage expectations", and 21 percent complained about the appearance of applicants. Only

70/ 19 percent of the employers had no complaints. -- As Regis Walther notes, it is important to know whether these attitudes

are justified. "It is important to know if these attitudes are based on

realistic or unrealistic app7aisals. If they are based primarily on employer

prejudice, a str%tegy directed toward giving the youth a chance to demonstrate

their work competence can be effective. On the other hand, it will be futile

to attempt to change the attitudes of employers if they encounter frequent

examples of inadequate performance on the part of the youth referred to them.

A predictable result will be that the employer will be less likely to accept

a referral the next time around. My review of the evidence leads me to conclude that there are serious employability problems of some categories of

youth, which go beyond the problems created by adverse attitudes of

employers." 70A/

Summary

In summary, then, conclusions about barriers to greater private sector

youth program involvement include the following:

*See, for example, "'Basic Skills' Must Include Work and Life Values,

Panelists Agree," Education and Work, Oct. 2, 1979.

325

375
almost no research exists on the effectiveness

approaches to reduce barriers;

isolating the effects of individual barriers is

and maybe impossible, task;

confusion over laws and regulations may be more

than the laws and regulations themselves;

of various

a difficult,

of a barrier

the impact of tle minima:. -age on teenage unemployment is

unclear but probably slightl armful;

race and sex discrimination. ,Intinue to have a negative

impact on teenage job oppor,Alties but to an unknown

extent.*

What do we not know at.. nays to reduce thesti

It is probably fair ,;17 that we kno;,,, .~bout how to reduce

these barriers. Some, state and firal chil6 labor laws, always

will be on the lawbooks is yoz form or ani,ther, and it may be prildent to

design programs to conform 'Atli them while attempting to revise and update

them periodically.

Other barriers, such as the minimum wage, can be reduc by taking

advantage of waivers available from the Department of Labor. But no one

really knows whether the minimum wage is a significant barrier. Ultimately,

it may be better to focus research not so much on determining the effects of

individual barriers, but on ways to overcome them. The complexity of the

labor market mskez isolating barriers a risky business. Working to reduce

barriers already identified, however, may yield measurable results in terms

of grer job 4portunities or lower unemployment.

;1'i-7441i/is Walther notes, however, there is "some evidence" that minAty

femej.es find work easier tbm do minori*g males. 70A/

376

326
F. What do we know about the effectiveness of,..cocesses and mechanisms to

improve the attitudes of employers and schools, including colleges and

universities, community-based organizations and others toward more

joint participation in youth programs?

With the (at best) mixed success of federal efforts to directly induce

the private sector to participate in employment and training programs, new

attention is being ,:aid to collaboration between business people and other

community groups as a way oi opening up new jobs and training slots.

Many new insights should result from the Labor Department's multi-year

effort to establish and develop a network of local school-to-work councils

with the aid of the National Manpower Institute, National Alliance of Business

and the American Association of Community and Junior'College.

Community interaction was a basic hope for the NAB when it established

its decentralized network of "metro" offices. The recently created "private

industry councils" encourage more private sector involvement in CETA and show

how seriously the idea of community collaboration is being pursued.

Career education since its inception has stressed the importance of

processes to involve the %hole gaaut of community organizations, from local

chambers of commerce to the Girl Scouts.

This new emphasis on .)mmnni.y involvement is not really new. The

concept of allowing more local control ovtx federal programs is one of the

characteristics that distinguishes CETA from MDTA. Yst it is ironic that so

little research has been done to .!:rid out whether local leaders are able to

run programs better than federal Administrators can. More importantly,

almost no research has been financed to discover"in those areas where Local

collaboration seems to be workingwhat :.he common denominators are. True,

all communities are different t: szme extent. Yet little f-'fort has been

made to analyze local conditions which make cooperation among disparate

groups a working reality or merely an objective.

In searching for the common denominators of local collaborative success,

research findings from such disciplines as organizational dynamics may prove

helpful, but are outside the scope of thispaper. Still, very little of this

information has been worked into the evaluations -)Z locally operated

327 377
employment and training programs. Some "common sense" assumptions about

factors influencing local collaborative processes might include:

local political realities - is the area under the

of a political. "boss," a city management committee,

lacking strong leadership?

the history of past collaborative attempts - have

fruitful or destructive?

influence

or is it

they been

the disparity among competing interest groups - is the area

racially or ethnically homogenous? Is there a strong sense

of regional or local provencialism?

the existence of a community leadership structure - are there

respected and effective leaders in the community, even if they

are outside the main political process?

On the other hand, there are dozens of anecdotal examples of community

youth efforts which appear to be successful, but which have never been rigorously evaluated. A typical example: employers in El Monte, California,

have hired more than 350 street gang members as a result of a program run

by the local police department and Boys' Club. Over 60 companies have participated. The local Chamber of Commerce and several city governments put

up nearly $100,000 a year to keep the, program operating. Employers think so

highly of it they voluntarily contact program operators when they have job

openings. 21/

On the surface, this World of Work program sounds like a smashing

success. Unfortunately, no formal records have ever been kept. Why have

employers been so eager to get involved? What has been the key to raising

private sector operating funds? Have only the easiest-to-place gang members

benefitted? How long do they stay on the job? Do they advance in their

careers? Is the program cost effective? What individual or organization was

responsible for getting community groups to participate? What was the key to

success? These basic questions must, go unanswered until the program is

examined more closely.

This example is very typical of the sketchy information which exlsts on

getting the private sector and community groups (especially schools) to work

together. Perhaps more will be known when the results of new YEDPA and PSIP

efforts are scrutinized.

3

328 378
Until then, the evidence Oil what' processes are most effective remains

meager indeed. The few studies which exist of experience-based career education and cooperative education shed a little light on the subject. A 1974

EBCE evaluation found that 14 Philadelphia employers who backed out of a

second year's participation in the program did so because: funds or staff

were unavailable; activitles were not adequate; students were perceived as

insufficiently motivated; and some of the employers were in the process of an

internal reorganization. However, 87 percent of the employers stuck with the

program.

72/ --

The Office of Education evaluation of 50 cooperative education programs

concluded only that, "Employers feel that they are getting their money's

worth out of the student workers and are contributing to their occupation. .22/

The Detroit Institute of Technology study of postsecondary cooperative education found that employers had participated in cooperative education for an

average of 9 years each, so obviously they like something about it. 74/

Stromsdorfer found that co-op ed employers--in Dayton, at least--had

been established longer than nonpartidipating employers, were larger, and

tended to serve local and regional markets rather than national or international markets. Nonparticipants, on the other hand, did not make a practice

of hiring 16 and 17 year olds at all, but the researchers found no "hard core

resistance" to the co-op program. 75/

The 1978 NAM survey revealed that employers get involved in job training

programs for reasons that combine pragmatism with social conscience. In

order, these reasons were: monetary savings; productive workers; clear,

simple on-the-job training contracts; good recruiting service; and gains in

social regognition.

Summary

None of these studies iniicates wha6 the best approaches might be. One

is forced to read "between the lines" of existing research and make some tentative statements about what we know about effective collaborative.processes:

A program must offer an employer a clear incentive to

participate, be it in the form of funds or a chance to

improve the local community;

329 3
There must be a forum such as an advisory panel in which

competing interest groups can meet and resolve problems;

Success is heavily influenced by the amount and quality of

communication;

The amount of collaboration will be influenced by past

experiences;

Program success hinges on the existence of a leader or

leaders with active commitment to the program;

There should be a mechanism, however informal, for measuring

program success, which, unfortunately for youth nrograms,,

usually centers around the number of job placements; and

Success has a great deal to do with the extent to which the

goals of various interest groups are accommodated.

These are only assumptions; "signposts" to be used in evaluating results

of future research on this topic.

What do we not know about these processes and mechanisms?

Is is clear that there is little hard evidence to go on in devising

mechanisms for private sector collaboration with schools and other community

organizations. It is a virgin field and one that begs exploration. There are

signs, however, that we have begun to be more sophisticated in our thinking

about employment and training. Increasingly, program designers appear to be

paying more attention to the human factors on which success rides or falls.

G. What do we know about the accuracy, fairness and utility of various

criteria used to measure the effectiveness of private sector involvement

in youth programs, particularly with respect to skills acquisition and

transference? What alternative a 'roaches ma be considered with what

projected outcomes?

Measuring the effectiveness of youth employment and training programs is

a thorny issue for many reasons :

330

330
Until then, the evidence on what processes are most effective remains

381
There must be a forum such as an advisory panel in which

competing interest groups can meet and resolve problems;

Success is heavily influenced by the amount and quality of

communication;

The amount of collaboration will be influenced by past

experiences;

Program success hinges on the existence of a leader or

leaders with active commitment to the program;

There should be a mechanism, however informal, for measuring

program success, which, unfortunately for youth programs,

usually centers around the number of job placements; and

Success has a great deal to do with the extent to which the

goals of various interest groups are accommodated.

These are _only assumptions; "signposts" to be used in evaluating results

of future research on this topic.

What do we not knov about these processes and mechanisms?

Is is clear that there is little hard evidence to go on in devising

mechanisms for private sector collaboration with schools and other community

organizations. It is a virgin field and one that begs exploration. There are

signs, however, that we have begun to be more' sophisticated in our thinking

about employment and training. Increasingly, program designers appear to be

paying more attention to the human factors on which success rides or falls.

G. What do we know about the accuracy, fairness and utility of various

criteria used to measure the effectiveness of rivate sector involvement

in youth programs, particularly with respect to skills acquisition and

transference? What alternative approaches may bc considered with what

projected outcomes?

Measuring the effectiveness of youth employment and training programs is

a thorny issue for many reasons:

332 382
extensive testing and use of control groups are expensive and

time-consuming processes;

isolating variables from a complex economic and social context

is a frustrating and difficult task;

initial program goals often are not spelled out clearly,

making evaluation difficult;

there is the danger that some types of evaluations may mask

race and sex discrimination;

in youth programs involving the private sector, there often is

disagreement over who should benefit most from the program,

the youth or the employers;

many traditional measures, such as job placements and job

duration, are poor indicators of youth program success since

young people change jobs frequently anyway as part of the

normal school-to-work transition process.

There are other factors, but these indicate why the range of youth

program evaluations is so inconsistent in quality. Of these factors, the two

most difficult probably are measuring the long-term effects of youth programs

and isolating social and economic factors from one another. Longitudinal

studies are expensive. When they are undertaken, they often result in a mass of data about a fairly broad topic. These data are extremely helpful, but

often difficult to interpret.

Herbert Parnes' National Longitudinal Survey 'of the labor market

experiences of young men has been gathering mountains of data at Ohio State

University for more than 10 years. It tells a great deal about the factors

which influence labor market entry, but sheds little light on the private sector's rTecific role. 22/ Similarly, the Labor Department's Continuous

Longitudinal Manpower. Survey is a basic source of data oirCETA clients, but

does aft analyze the success of programs involving the private sector versus

those which don't. 28/

Yet longitudinal surveys may be the only type which can adequately

assess the impact of private sector youth transition to work programs. As

research and common sense have shown; the school-to-work transition is a "volatile" one, characterized by rapid job-changing as youths "find them-

.selves" in the labor market. -- So youth programs which,emphasize quick job

placements often do so on the assumption that, labor market experience will

79/
help youngsters secure future jobs. Yet there is little hard evidence that

this is so for disadvantaged 80/

groups. -- Such evidence could be developed

through a well-constructed longitudinal survey.

To isolate a multiplicity of social and economic variables, control

groups often are used to measure specific program approaches. These, too,

are expensive and difficult to construct, but probably provide the best

data on what works.

Some well constructed evaluations have been done by the National

Institute of Education in connection with Experience-Based Career Education.

A 1974 EBCE evaluation used this approach:

Four student groups were selected for analysis. Two were

experimental groups, two were control groups.

A pre-test, post-test measurement package was designed. Students were tested at the beginning and end of the school year. Two of the measures used were standardized

commercially available tests. The other two were designed

specially for the project.

Another series of measures was constructed for the experi- mental group only. Included were an Employer Cluster Test, the Student Opinion Survey, the Parent Opinion Survey, the Employer Checklist and Interview, the Career Exploration

Student Questionnaire, and a number of forms. The tests were administered in varying cycles. 81/ Unfortunately, the study did not explain why only the experimental group was given these tests.

This well-thought-out evaluation model has made EBCE one of the better

documented of all career education related programs. Yet even here the

results are not definitive.

CETA-type programs, on the other hand, generally stress number and

percentage placed in jobs, income increases after participation, and length

of job retention. Training programs usually include dropout rates in their

evaluations. Missing from most CETA evaluations, however, are such important

items as placement in jobs related to training, potential of jobs for future

career development, and the degree of sex stereotyping in placement. In point

of fact, the job placement rate has proved an extremely unreliable measure of

program success. Several studies have shown that less than half of those

recorded as "permanent" placements still are on the job six months later. IV

3 3,4

384
Unfortunately, the vast majority of private sector youth program

evaluations defy comparison. There are four reasons for this situation:

the absence of standard federal evaluation models which can

be "plugged into" an experimental program;

pressure to get the program off the ground, which usually

eliminates needed planning time;

inexperience among program staff;

lack of funds

While it is probably impossible to solve all these problems, a good

beginning would be to clearly define program goals, allow enough time for an evaluation design to be developed, and earmark enough of the budget for a thorough analysis of the program's impact. Until these basic conditions are

met, it will continue to be extremely difficult to generalize about what

programs work and why.

The Department of Labor's Office of Youth Programs has realized the

necessity for developing comparable evaluation data. With Youth Employment

Act money, a special battery of tests has been developed by the Educational

Testing Service to evaluate program participants according to several criteria. These tests are administered to participants and a national control

group to measure employability skills and rates of employment both before and

after their experiences in YEDPA programs.

Standardized individual participant profiles also are being compiled, as

are employer ratings, program completion and follow-up data. When tabulated,

this information will present one of the most comprehensive pictures of youth

programs and participants ever assembled. Thus, our knowledge about the

utility and comparability of evaluation data and techniques stands to be

greatly enhanced just a few years down the road.

What can be said about the projected outcomes of various evaluation

designs? The literature is not very specific, but these points can be made

about the following list of common evaluation measures:

*Job Placement--Is heavily influenced by the overall health of

the economy; negative attitudes of employers toward hiring

the young; and the "volatility" of the youth labor market in

which young entrants switch jobs frequently in their search

335 385
for meaningful and well-paying work. May mask race and sex discrimination.

*Mastery of Job Skills--Is a good measure of participants' ability to learn, but by itself ignores employability and human relations skills. May work against youngsters with low levels of basic academic skills or with histories of

failure.

*Career Maturity--Reliable instruments exist to measure

occupational knowledge and career maturity and these are often used to evaluate work experience programs or those designed for younger teenagers. These measures appear to

be vital to any assessment of programs not specifically

designed to place youngsters immediately in full-time

jobs. Over-emphasis will put younger teenagers and

minorities at a disadvantage, however.

*Human Relations Skills--Are directly connected to on-the-job

success and can be evaluated in a number of ways, including

simulations. One of the biggest obstacles is overcoming the low self-esteem of many disadvantaged youth, which

appears in the forms of both aggressiveness and defensiveness.

Special attention should be given to evaluations that involve delinquent or severely aliented youth, who frequently are placed into programs with less troubled youngsters and pay

have a higher failure rate.

Summaa

What can be said, then, of the evaluations which constitute the basic

literature on youth transition-to-work programs? The most obvious conclusion

is that most studies rely heavily on job placement rates to measure program

effectiveness. Yet placement rates are greatly affected by local and national

economic conditions, the skills of participants and the "volatility" of

youth's transition to work. An overemphasis on placement rates also may mask

race and sex discrimination if success is achieved through placements in lowskill or traditionally "female" jobs.

Conspicuously absent from nearly all evaluations are control groups by

which some measure of comparability might be achieved. Rarely does a study

say why a control group is not part of the evaluation design. The cost and

complexity of control groups are likely deterrents. The evaluation of the

Career Intern Program is a laudable exception to the lack of control group

evaluations.
Missing, too, from most evaluations is a follow-up of program

participants. Again, cost and complexity probably limit the amount of information which can be gathered from participants six months or a year after

they leave a program. Such data would be valuable, however.

The absence of such basic evaluation techniques as pre- and post-tests,

control groups and participant follow-up plays havoc with any attempt to discover what has been learned from youth transition-to-work efforts. Thus there

is a tendency to "reinvent the wheel" each time a new initiative is begun

because the insights gained from previous efforts are lost in a jumble of

inadequate and confusing data.

What do we not know about these criteria?

A great deal is known about testing in the social sciences. Rigorous

scientific procedures have been devised and a number of standardized measures

have been developed. These instruments are far from perfect, however, and are

only as good as the clarity with which the objective is defined. Even these

standards, however, have not often been used to evaluate private sector youth

programs for a variety of reasons. Thus what we don't know about program

effectiveness is more a function of this lack of uniformity than it is of

defects in the evaluation process itself. While each has its problems, good

tests are available for measuring such crucial factors as career interest,

occupational awareness, occupational maturity, basic academic skills, personality traits, and aptitudes. As former NIE director Harold Hodgkinson once

observed, there are virtually no human educational skills or personality

traits which cannot be tested with a fair amount of accuracy. -W

Until program goals are specified more clearly and evaluation designs

made more uniform, it will be difficult, if not impossible, to compare program

effects or assess whether certain kinds of measures are even applicable to

youth programs.

H. What do we know about how private sector work supervisors can be better

prepared to supervise youth? How can unions and other individuals and

337

387
groups, e.g., retired workers, serve as resources to schools to improve

youth orientation to the world of work and private sector employment

opportunities?

It is a common assumption that young workers need more supervision than

do adults. Youngsters lack familiarity with general work routines and specific job tasks. In the working world at large, most training is acquired on

the job, with supervisors or older employees providing instruction and special

help as needed. This "hands-on" training is generally viewed--especially by

employers--as the fastest and most effective method of creating productive

workers.

Although private sector employers appear willing to continue training

their young workers, there is growing concern that the reading, writing and

math skills of the young--plus such desirable attitudes as dedication to

work--are inadequate and declining further. Thus, it takes longer for young

workers to become productive and the amount of needed supervision is

increased.

It is the cost of supervision, rather than an inherent "generation gap"

between adult and youthful workers that appears to create the greatest resistance among employers to participating in federal transition to work programs.

Indeed, in an evaluation of the Massachusetts Secondary School Work. Experience

Program, the most frequent reason given for not hiring more students was the

"insufficient number of supervisory personnel. Employers felt students

required a lot of supervision which took a big chunk out of the supervisor's

day."

The need for increased supervision of job trainees is an implicit

assumption in most CETA programs, in which dollar reimbursements are paid to

cover just such expenses as increased supervisory time.

But it is one thing to say that more and better supervision is needed

and another to say how it can best be provided. As with many of the other

issues addressed in this paper; the available literature is more descriptive

than evaluative. Rarely does the research say how supervisors can be better

prepared to.deal with young job trainees. Programs pay employers reimbursements to provide additional supervision, not, as a rule, to improve its

quality.

338 388
In addition to the financial burden to employers of increased

supervision. r-rvisors themselves often must cope with their own negative

attitudes .-01 the young in general and the low-income specifically.

Although : , currently heard about the "generation gap" that sparked so

many argu .11g the 1960s, adults often feel the younger generation has

less commitm( ird work than before. Researchers have not yet addressed,

however, how th r, itudes of adults and youth can be modified to allow more

give-and-take in ti transmission of job skills and work habits.

Racism, usually covert but sometimes overt, certainly has a substantial

impact on the relations between supervisors and trainees, but it is very elusive and diffic,' to document. The National Commission on Employment Policy

has declared that, racism is the chief barrier to more job opportunities for

low income blacks but has cited no research (other than income and employment

85/ statistics) to back up that charge. -- But even if racism already had been

identified as a quantifiable barrier to more private sector work opportunities, no research exists on ways in which the race-conscious attitudes of

supervisors have been successfully mollified.

One must go back to 1969 to find a program that specifically looked at

the quality and amount of supervision needed to successfully move high school

dropouts into productive jobs. The Equitable Life Assurance Company in 1969

began hiring dropouts for entry-level jobs and initially experienced a high

failure rate. Results were improved when better supervision and remedial

education were added. The company chose supervisors known to be sympathetic

to the plight of the dropouts and made clear that the supervisors' work with

the youngsters would not be charged against their regular budget or efficiency

rating.

During the second year of the program, supervisors were challenged to

prepare the youngsters for a specific job within the company. During the

third year, the task was to prepare the young dropouts for promotion. The

success rate increased each year. 86/ -- The National Alliance of Business probably has the most experience in

providing special training to supervisors who work with the disadvantaged.

For nearly a decade, most NAB metro offices throughout the nation have offered

a program called "Awareness Training." Supervisors participate in seven

special exercises concentrating on effective communication and interpersonal

339 383
skills. Topics include selective listening, instruction in giving and receiving information, bias, value systems, problem solving, and management styles.

Although the training sessions have not been rigorously evaluated, Garth

Mangum reports that "most employers who have had representatives attend these

training sessions report that it has been useful in keeping newly hired disadvantaged workers on the job." Mangum adds that a common reason the

disadvantaged give for quitting a job "is that they don't like the supervisors

, 87/ or the way they are treated."

Most programs to secure greater involvement in work preparation of the

young by the private sector are based on the inherent assumption that isolation of youth and adults from one another is a cause of distrust or

misunderstanding, Many programs have been started that encourage the sharing

of knowledge and experiences between adults and youngsters. For example:

*Employees of the Husky Oil Company volunteer to provide information in schools on various career opportunities in the oil industry.

*General Electric operates Programs to Increase Minority Engineering Graduates, aimed at encouraging talented minorities to get better training and preparation for engineering careers.

*Shell Oil Company employees help students prepare for college entrance tests, apply for financial assistance, and deal with admissions paperwork under the sponsor for Educational Opportunity program.

*Kodak's Colorado division runs a series of career education

tours that offer junior high school students opportunities

to discuss the relationship of academic subjects to the world of work and talk with employees about their special interests.

Many other examples exist of efforts aimed at breaking down the barriers

between youth and working adults. The point is that none, to our knowledge,

has been specifically evaluated. One reason may be that the quantifiable

goals of such programs are difficult to define. Only through a longitudinal

survey can --one track a change in attitudes, and even then the results are

rarely conclusive.

One must read between the lines of the available literature to assess

how effective the use of working adults or retired persona can be as a

340

3
resource to youth. One problem--a major one--is logistics: how and when do

these resource persons make their information available. In many communities, business people maintain a speaker's bureau of individuals who are

available to go into schools and provide career related information. Yet in

one of the most active, operated in conjunction with the Business Industry

Community Education Partnership (BICEP) in Salt Lake City, Utah, only 7 percentnt of classroom teachers made use of speaker's bureau. -- As Wurzburg

noted, teachers often resent activities which compete for classroom time

89/ normally devoted to academic instruction. --

Still, there is a severe lack of evidence on the impact either of better

preparing work supervisors or using working adults as career resource persons. A study begun in 1979 by the National School Volunteer Program may

help illuminate the subject. Their study will focus on the best procedures

for utilizing volunteers to improve vocational education in urban areas. A

project funded by ACTION in the summer of 1979 also may prove useful; a fourcity pilot test of volunteer "service learning," in which young people work

with other community groups to improve local conditions. Another potential

source of data is the Work Education Consortium Project. The 32 work-educatiOn councils established or expanded with federal money in 1975 have

emphasized local collaborative action. Many of the councils have established

strong linkages between schools and local employers and have involved retired

workers, business leaders, union officials and others. A great deal of

descriptive information exists on these councils and should be examined in

greater detail.

Summa

The relationships between worksite supervisors and young job-holders is

of prime importance to the success of any work preparation program involving

the private sector. Despite evidence that supervisors often are biased

against young people (especially if they are black or hispanic), there is

little information available on the best ways to recruit and train supervisors who will work well with them. The National Alliance of Business has

several years' experience in providing supervisor training, but its impact

has never been fully evaluated.

39.E

341
To most employers, the cost of supervisory time is a major factor in

their reluctance to participate in youth work programs. As a result, most

CETA efforts reimburse employers for the additional supervision needed for

young job trainees.

There is much more agreement about the necessity for good supervision

than on the best ways to providi it. Previous experience shows that the best

supervisors tend to be men and Women sympathetic to the plight of the disadvantaged and to whom they can relate. Descriptive literature often alludes

to the necessity for a mixture of toughness, compassion and patience, but the

extent to which these qualities are vital to success has never been

documented.

Efforts aimed at overcoming the generational barriers between youth and

adults are fairly common but poorly documented, possibly because of the difficulty in defining precise objectives. Methods of improving communication and

interaction among disparate groups of people are well developed in the social

sciences but are outside the scope of this paper. However, this knowledge

should be put to use in assessing ways to create supportive learning

environments for supervisors and their charges.

What do we not know about how supervisors can be better prepared to work with

outh or how individuals and or anizations can serve as resources to outh?

This issue is really intwo parts and the literature provides very little

information abort either one. As mentioned, most of the research is merely

descriptive, but does serve to document the growing interest in cdllaboration

from which efforts to provide greater contact between youth and adults are

derived.

From Labor Department and HEW literature, it is clear we know very little

about how supervisors can become more effective in working with youth, especially the disadvantaged and minorities. Answers to this question may have to

come from the wider body of sociological and psychological research data.

Theories and training programs abound on topics such as teamwork, communication, supervision, discipline, and goal-setting. Preparing supervisors to

work with youth is really no different than other training efforts aimed at

improving motivation, communication and understanding. The experiences of

342

392
the private sector in achieving these goals with their regular employees may

be useful in evaluating the special problems in dealing with disadvantaged

youth.

The available research is no more helpful in identifying ways in which

adults can serve as world-of-work resources for youth. Not only do we not

know the best ways in which these resources can be provided, it is unclear

whether greater contacts between youths and adults are even helpful. An

investigatic,a of the literature in the geneial area of counseling might turn

up some answers.

Specifically lacking are evaluations of the various collaborative efforts

that have begun in recent years either as a result of federal interest (,g.,

the Work-Education Consortium Project) or a general dissatisfaction with the

isolated and monolithic nature of many institutions. The concept of a collaborative sharing of resources is very attractive but must be tested with

greater vigor. We cannot say at this point what approach works best or

whether the concept is viable at all.

I. What do we know about how needed support services to inschool youth at

private sector jobs can be arranged and provided.

The literature on the provision of support services is mostly descriptive

and, as discussed in Question D, lacks assessments orits success. That many

youth placed in private sector jobs or work experience situations need various

support services is assumed with growing frequency as our sophistication about

the employability needs of the young increases. Indeed, many, if not most,

current programs linked with the private sector provide support services that

may include:

*counseling

*day care

*transportation

*special supervision

*training

*career information

393
*..job placement services

*aptitude assessment

Although evaluations of support services are scarce, anecdotal examples

are fairly numerous. For example:

*Seventy-four youths in Binghamton, N.Y. received, along with their vocational training, a battery of aptitude tests,

career counseling, academic tutoring, job placement and employability skills instruction. Project staff included

a placement development specialist, a career education

instructor and a counselor.

*Youths who participated in a 1977 CETA Title III program in Tifton, Ga. received personal counseling, health care, and job placement services from local agencies as part of their

training program. A second job placement was offered if the

first proved unsatisfactory.

*The Department of Social and Economic Services in St. Peters- burg, Fla provided day care, health care, and other social

services to 265 youthful offenders. -The local Vocational

Assistance Center provided funds for :: transportation, tools, union dues and job development assistance.

*In-school delinquent youth in Cincinnati participated in a

1977 CETA program in which they received, in addition to job counseling and placement, support services that included

diagnostic tests, juvenile therapy groups, counselor training,

transportation and cultural enrichment. 90/

These examples are typical of the support services that have been and

are being provided disadvantaged youth placed in private sector jobs and work

experience slots. Often, these services are provided through collaborative

arrangements with .various community organizations. Schools, for example, may

provide remedial academic instruction and career counseling; local social

services departments may provide screening, health and child care; vocational

education agencies may provide transportation, tools and employability skills

instruction; and employers may provide specia/ training'or supervision.

There is almost widespread agreement that support services are needed

to help many young.people, primarily the disadvantaged, make the transition

from school to work.. Many lack knowledge about such basics as job interviewing, filling out applications and Social Security forms, working with others
and reporting to work on time. The high percentage of single household heads

and teenage mothers among the low-income young makes such services as child

care and transportation vital to program success.

While the need for support services is increasingly understood,

evaluations of what kinds of services are needed most and how they can be

delivered most effectively have not been undertaken to any useful extent.

BLcause many youth transition programs are complex amalgams of agencies and

services and operate within a variety of social and economic contexts, evaluation of the specific role played by support services is a difficult task. It

is fairly safe to say that without support services, many programs involving

private sector work experiences would be doomed to failure. Yet it cannot be

said that the presence of a comprehensive array of services insures program

success. According to Garth Mangum, "No components of employment and training

programs are more difficult to analyze and to prescribe for than counseling

and supportive services." Support services, he said, "have rarely been provided from employment and training program funds; in most cases, counselors

promoted them on a voluntary basis." Thus, Mangum contends that the call for

support services over the years has been more "rhetoric." 91/

It is noteworthy that the generally rigorous evaluations planned or

undertaken since enactment of the Youth Employment. Act do not include assessments of support services as they influence program quality. Because of the

increased collaboration resulting from YEDPA's mandates and incentives, support services appear to be getting new attention. At this point, however, the

assumption that support services make a difference is still only an assumption; the degree of impact has not been rigorously tested.

Sunj ala

Support services ranging from counseling to child care play an apparently

important role in the success of youth transition-to-work programs. However,

researchers have made few attempts to assess just how important that role is

or how support services can best be provided. The need for support services

is obvious to many program administrators: disadvantaged youth often have no

knowledge of the labor market; lack reliable transportation; often need

345
medical and dental care; and frequently lack basic reading and writing skills

needed for job success. The literature abounds with anecdotal examples of how

support services have been creatively provided at low cost (e.g., repairing

the cars of job trainees at local vocational schools). But rarely, if ever,

have attempts been made to isolate a particular support service and evaluate

its individual impact on a program. Instead, support services generally are

supplied as needed, given the usual budget restrictions.

A likely reason for the paucity of research on support services is the

difficulty in measuring their impact.

Provision of effective support services is one of the most poorly

documented areas of the transition-to-work issue. Until experimental programs

using control groups are set up to test the value of various support services,

the level of knowledge will remain low.

What do we not know about how support services to in-school youth can be

provided?

The importance of support services to the success of work preparation

programs involving in-school youth is now leas often questioned and indeed

appears rather obvious. We know much less, however,about how these support

services can be provided most effectively.

Support services address a number of needs, including:

*transportation between the school and the job site

*job related reading and math skills

*employability skills training

*career counseling

*day care

*wages to help meet personal and family expenses

*job placement

The available literature is almost completely silent about the best ways

in which these needs can be met, even though many work preparation programs

provide various support services. These services are rarely, if ever,

346 396
evaluated separately in the program evaluations done in the past, and so it

is difficult to say either what we know or don't know about the best ways to

provide them. We can say, for example, that students who are provided

occupational information tend to do better in terms of job hunting, but we

can't say how this information can be provided most effectively.

Evaluation of support service delivery mechanisms is a field that

requires much more attention by researchers if transition-to-work programs

are to become truly effective.

J. What do we know about how students can be helped to avoid unreal

expectations of future employment? What do we know about how new

methods and flexible approaches can be developed for youth to learn

about and prepare for trades for which there may be apprenticeship?

For a variety of reasons, young people often have quite unrealistic

expectations about their careers. The National Assessment of Educational

Progress consistently turns up youth's rather appalling ignorance about

careers. One poll even discovered that 14 percent of the nation's 13-year

olds believed the right to a good job was guaranteed by the Constitution. 93/

. At the same time, however, other studies, notably Ohio State University's

National Longitudinal Study and the Career Thresholds effort by the University

of Michigan at Ann Arbor, have found that the career ambitions of the young

undergo a rather 4rastic transformation as they leave school and make their

way into the working world. The important question here is whether it is

dysfunctional for large numbers of young people to dream of becoming professional athletes, ballerinas or corporation presidents, when in fact their

careers are far more likely to take less lofty paths. For many, this gradual

adjustment of career objectives is a normal part of life with few serious consequences. For others, however, especially poor inner-city youngsters whose

idea of success is derived largely from mass media images, an 'inability to

define realistic career goals may be an extremely frustrating experience.

This frustration can lead to severe alienation, self-hatred, ennui and even

violence.

Ignorance of labor market realities plays a large role in the disparity

between the career aspirations of youth and their likely alternatives. Regis

347
Walther notes that research studies document the effectiveness of more and

better labor market information in 94/ overcoming this ignorance. --

Labor market information and other forms of career advice generally are

provided to youth by counselors. Most researchers are extremely gloomy in

their assessments of vocational counseling success, however. According to

Regis Walther, "The available evidence with respect to the effectiveness of

counseling is discouraging. No studies were located which have demonstrated

a positive relationship between amount or type of counseling and the achievement of program goals." 21/ Walther describes three types of counseling

commonly used to help disadvantaged youth assess their abilities and

aspirations and make realistic career decisions:

*Insight Counseling, designed to increase the individuals'

understanding of himself and the world.

*Personal Problems Counseling, aimed at helping young people

deal with personal problems that interfere with their

vocational training.

*Contingency Management, which involves the use of reinforcements and manipulation of the learning environment to

encourage desired behavior. 96/

In his review of Labor Department literature, Walther found that

counselors rarely spent much time providing vocational counseling but that

job-related counseling nonetheless was more effective than any other type. 221

Counselors, said Walther, should put most of their efforts into activities

"specifically related to work." In helping disadvantaged youth set realistic

goals, Walther suggested the following counseling priorities:

*Vocational Information--to learn about various job opportunities

*Vocational Exploration--to explore personal abilities and

aspirations

*Job Seeking Skills--to improve personal employability

*Job Application Skills--to improve interviewing, resume and related skills

*Better Understanding of Own Behavior--to learn how attitudes

and behavior affect job performance and supervisory ratings

348 3,98.
*Career Advancement Skills--to avoid becoming trapped in deadend jobs and learn the importance of building a solid work

reputation

*Helping Youth Resolve Work Problems - -to work out problems

with supervisors and fellow weeLers

*Helping Improve Job Performance--specific help in improving

job-related weaknesses

*Constructive Use of Assignments--work assignments should be

coupled with employability development and be in line with

individual abilities and needs. 98/

Garth Mangum and John Walsh cite research on vocational counseling

provided at skills centers operated under the Manpower Development and

Training Act and conclude that it was the "heart of the skills center operation."22/ Yet the skills center counselors "seldom mentioned vocational

guidance as one of their goals or responsibilities," Mangum and Walsh

reported. "When asked whether all enrolless were enrolled in the courses

most suited to their aptitudes, the majority of counselors admitted frankly

that they did not know, and that probably nobody did. The problem seemed to

be that the range of occupational offerings was limited, and that most

enrollees: shared similar characteristics."

100/

The major reasons for the lack of employment counseling, said Mangum and

Walsh, were the overall shortage of counselors and the time available to deal

with anything otber than the behavioral and other problems of participants.

Although it is generally believed that young people should prepare

themselves for "realistic" careers, this same supposition has worked to the

disservice of thousands of low-income youth (especially minorities) who have

been told by counselors and others the only "realistic" choices open to them

are in low-skill low-status occupations. That schools track black youths into

vocational programs while preparing white youngsters for college is a charge

of long-standing. Indeed, blacks to this day often regard vocational education programs as "dumping grounds" for students that school administrators

and teachers dub as losers.

101/ --- An ongoing debate within the black community

is whether minority youngsters should be training for skilled blue collar

jobs (an idealogy fostered by Booker T. Washington and his Tuskegee Institute)
or for the more competitive, more demanding professions (a concept professed

by W.E.B. DuBois).

Thus, preparing young people for "realistic" careers is not so easy as it sounds at first. The concepts of desire, ambition and motivation have been

left out. A recent Temple University study found that highly motivated

youth--especially blacks--really do get better jobs at higher pay than their 102/ less-motiveated peers. --- Said the researchers: "A high priority in this

regard is the need to determine at what school level and at what ages these

attitudes can be most effectively instilled." They pointed out there is "an

important guidance role for families, counselors and suppliers of labor market

information to the young." 103/

According to Regis Walther's literature review, "it appears that the best

strategy for improving self-confidence is to provide, opportunities for success

experiences and to help the individual interpret these successes as worthwhile

accomplishments. Earning money, completing a task, contributing to a common

goal are all possible ways for an individual to experience success . . . It is

important, therefore, that he be able to fail without seriously adverse consequences. He needs to be able to start afresh in a new situation on at

least several occasions so that he may have a chance to break the vicious

cycle of repetitive failures resulting from his conviction that failure is

inevitable." 104/

Thus, preparation for "realistic" careers is a two-sided coin. Young

people need to learn both their limitations and their potentials and be

steered into careers that make the most of their individual assets.

Apprenticeship is a method of preparing youth for realistic careers that

has always been more'popular in Europe than in the United States. Only during the past five years or so has the federal government made any effort to

counteract a steady decline in the number of apprenticeship trainees. The

Bureau of Apprenticeship Training, inactive since 1969, was revived in 1975,

marking the beginning of a new focus on apprenticeship.

Apprenticeship has a good record of success in training and placing

completers into skilled jobs at high pay. According to James Mitchell,

workers who go through the apprenticeship system "enjoy greater employment

stability, have higher lifetime earnings, and are more successful in advancing

beyond the journeyman level." 105/

350

40Q
However, only about 45,000 new journeymen come out of registered

apprenticeship programs each year, despite Bureau of Labor Statistics projections that some 400,000 new craftsworkers are needed every year in America.

Paul Barton and Bryna Fraser claim that low esteen accorded blue collar

work and barriers within the trades themselves are mainly responsible for

this disparity.

106/ These barriers include:

*the historical view by labor unions that apprenticeship is a

useful regulator of entry into the labor market and a means of

controlling and protecting their trade jurisdictions;

*the claim of labor unions, and to some extent employers, that

qualification for apprenticeship be geared toward labor market

needs, not individual ability;

*the lack of incentives for employers or trainees to participate in apprenticeship programs. 107/

Garth Mangum adds that unions and employers both think that young

people--even 18 and 19 year olds--are "too unreliable" to stick with a multiyear apprenticeship program because they lack maturity and clear ideas about

their career interests.

108/

Most researchers--even the Department of Labor--are not particularly

optimistic about the potential role apprenticeship is likely to play in solving the youth unemployment problem. Says Mangum: "If the extended

adolescence of U.S. youth has had an effect on their stability, it is doubtful that apprenticeship will become a viable transitional program for youth,

at least during periods when labor markets are slack."

109/

The Labor Department's Office of Youth Programs adds that current

apprenticeship programs already are oversubscribed: "The current apprenticeship system appears to be used to capacity in the sdnse that pre-apprenticeship efforts are already at a scale several times that of entry apprenticeship

opportunities for disadvantaged young people.

110/ ---

Nonetheless, many new apprenticeship efforts have begun in recent years

aimed at increasing participation of underserved groups such as women, minorities and the disadvantaged. Apprenticeship programs also have been linked

with community colleges and military job training. Current examples of innovative apprenticeship programs include the pre-employment training (PET)

initiative of the carpenter's union, the performance-based training program of

351 401
the plasterers and cement masons, and the International Union of Operating

Engineers' modular instruction units.

In addition, the Bureau of Apprenticeship training has added some 30

occupations to the list of apprenticeable trades, which now totals 885.

Unions, trade schools and community colleges are devising formal training

programs for these new occupations.

Among the more innovative apprenticeship efforts are those aimed at

preparing women for nontraditional occupations. One example is the CETAfunded Teenage Women in Nontraditional Employment (TWINE) program operated by

the Economic Opportunity Board of Clark County, Nevada. Several groups of

sixty low-income teenage mothers were taught home renovation and weatherization skills while being prepared for apprenticeship tests. Instruction in

basic academic skills and wor., habits also was provided. A preliminary

report Ou the project showed 200 apprenticeship placements, two referrals to

other programs and two "non-positive" terminations. The most serious problem

was a lack of in-depth counseling to help overcome the doubts many young women

had about their abilities to handle construction jobs. Many women lost interest in construction work when they got first-hand experience with on-the-job

conditions, program administrators added. 111/

Such innovative apprenticeship programs still are very rare and it is

unclear whether they can be expanded, given current unemployment levels and

union protectiveness. At the very least, it appears that apprenticeship is

most useful to older teenagers and young adults with a good understanding of

their career interests and with the maturity to stay with a program.

Summary

While it is clear'that many youth possess unrealistic expectations about

career opportunities, these expectations have been shown to change greatly

with age and labor market experience. Occupational information appears to be

one vehicle useful in helping youth make realistic decisions.

Less clear are the roles expectations and aspirations play in motivating

bright youth with few opportunities to achieve success beyond that anticipated

by peers and adults. Minorities, especially, are sensitive to the fact that

352,
counselors and teachers historically have tended to define "realistic" careers

too narrowly.

The literature is fairly pessimistic about the role counselors play in

helping young people decide on careers. Vocational counseling in programs for

the disadvantaged has been

uneven quality.

Perhaps the best approach is for

others to help disadvantaged youth develop

their limitations and their potentials.

Apprenticeship does not hold great

available only sporadically and has been of very

counselors, parents, teachers and

self-confidence and understand both

promise in providing the skills

necessary to employ large numbers of disadvantaged youth. Not only is the

current system oversubscribed, apprenticeship openings are manipulated by

organized labor control the number of new entrants into particular trades and

thus help avoid widespread unemployment of adults during economic downturns.

The general disdain for blue collar work also contributes to apprenticeship's

lack of popularity.

Apprenticeship does, however, hold promise for women and many minorities,

who traditionally have found it difficult to enter the skilled trades. Experimental programs under way in several parts of the country have posted some

success and these should be encouraged.

What do we not know about preparing youth for "realistic" careers and creating

flexible new apprenticeship programs?

Improved occupational information and vocational counseling appear to be

the chief weapons in the battle against unrealistic career expectations.

Much more must be learned about why vocational counseling has such a poor

record. Is it because counselors are poorly trained? Have too many other

duties? Know little about the world of work themselves? Cannot relate to

the attitudes of low-income youth? Although the failure of counseling is

well documented, little is known about what makes it succeed.

Little also is known about the best ways to inspire youth to learn about

and live up to their potentials. In many ways, this is the crux of the whole

employability problem. It is clear from the literature that self-destructive

attitudes, rather than inherent lack of ability, are most harmful to the

353 403
development of disadvantaged youth. If transportable, well-structured methods

can be devised to overcome these attitudinal obstacles, the battle against

youth unemployment might take a turn for the better.

Another area in which knowledge is lacking is the impact of efforts such

as work experience and career exploration on the career decisions of the

young. Although the literature is not hopeful about the possibilities of

determining the precise effects of such programs, longitudinal studies using

control groups might produce some answers.. Many millions of dollars are

spent each year on programs designed solely to help young people make career

decisions and it is difficult to understand why so little is known about

their impact.

In the area of apprenticeship, the biggest gaps in our knowledge are

related to the experiences of participants in different age groups and the

impact on special groups such as women. If it is really true that most teenagers lack the commitment to succeed in apprenticeship, then money need not

be spent encouraging their expanded participation. Too little also is understood about whether programs to prepare females for nontraditional employment

succeed and for whom.

404

354
IV. WHAT THE LABOR DEPARTMENT'S OFFICE OF YOUTH

PROGRAMS HAS LEARNED FROM YEDPA*

As this paper is being written, preliminary findings from dozens of

pilot projects funded. under YEDPA are beginning to filter into the Office of

Youth Programs. According to a summary of these findings published in October

1978. (no specific studies are cited), well-run youth programs do make a difference in the lives of participants, but work opportunities in the private

sector remain very limited. Among the report's findings:

*Placement rates into unsubsidized employment under YEDPA are "quite

low." In fiscal 1978, less than 20 percent of YETP and YCCIP terminees

entered private employment. In 1978,'only 3.6 percent of all YETP participants were in private sector on-the-job training. "This is characteristic of

all youth programs which serve primarily teenagers."

Preliminary lessons from the Targeted Jobs Tax Credit and the Entitlement

program include:

"First and foremost, it is unrealistic to expect high direct placement

rates for programs which provide short duration or seasonal and inschool work

experience, where participants are selected because of their labor market

difficulties, and where funds are concentrated in areas where there are sir

nificant private sector job deficits.";

"The impediments are not just red tape nor can they be overcome by

'bribes' to employers";

"Under the Entitlement program, the private sector provided only one in

seven needed job opportunities, even at a 100 percent federal subsidy";

"Anecdotal evidence suggests that even the 100 percent subsidy may not

cover the costs of supervising the Entitlement youth. There has been no

evidence of increased hiring for the sake of subsidies";

"Attempts to reduce (Entitlement) subsidy levels in private sector jobs

after participants: stayed for a period of time have not been successful.

Either the youth are job ready and will be picked up by the employer or they

are not, and a reduced subsidy formula creates red tape which discourages

continued participation by the employer.";

*Material in this section is excerpted from Youth Employment Policies and

Programs for the 1980s: Anailysis and Proposals of the Department of Labor,

Office of Youth Programs, October, 1979.
"Taere are few replicable packages" that encourage private sector

employeis to hire CETA youth;

Private sector work experience is not a realistic alternative for

younger youth simply because of their age;

"Private employers have a negative perception of CETA youth, so much so

that motivated- youth are better served by downplaying their program

participation so they will not, be typecast as a "disadvantaged" individual";

The guaranteed jobs provided under the Entitlement program can "increase

opportunities for a disadvantaged clientele. Although the full wage subsidy

is not an 'open sesame,' it is a necessary tool if poor students are to gain

private sector work experience during their teens. ".

"Intermediary groups such as 70001 Ltd. and community-based organizations

"can provide a continuing and personal linkage to employers, as well as a

mechanism for sorting amont disadvantaged youth."

"Some institutional skills centers have established a track record with

employers to a large extent by determining the specific competencies they

require, then meeting these competencies."

"While OJT is too cumbersome to the employer because it requires

payrolling and reilibursement, the tax credit is too 'general in that it

certifies the participant but does not assure the job is a real training or

career entry opportunity . . . It should be possible to certify career entry

positions and to have a try-out period, which is payrolled without red tape."

"Ties between public sector jobs and' the private sector should become

more distinct as the jobs become more nearly like permanent adult employment."

Summing up, the Office of Youth Programs report concludes, "Local

organized labor and the private sector have been directly involved in the

operation of (OMA) programs in very few locations. While the projects

resulting from their involvement are laudable and should be encouraged, it

does not appear that this can become a major element of) local programming

because of the enormous administrative effort needed to energize and coordinate all the players. The extra effort makes the most sense for career

training and entry efforts, where the linkages are needed directly into adult

jobs, where more is being invested per individual and where fewer

participants locally are involved.
"The current apprenticeship system-appears to be used to capacity in the

sense that preapprenticeship efforts are already at - scale several times

that of entry apprenticeship opportunities for disadvantaged young people. . . Expansion of apprenticeship opportunities, particularly for low-income youth,

would require the introduction of some type of financial incentives for

employers."

The report discusses a variety of topics related to issues covered in

this paper. It is very unfortunate that the report is not footnoted. It

remains, however, an important benchmark.

357 407
V. ASSUMPTIONS UNDERLYING POLICY AND PRACTICE THAT ARE JUSTIFIED BY

THE RESEARCH FINDINGS--FURTHER RESEARCH NOT OF HIGH PRIORITY

In a field as poorly documented as private sector participation in

youth transition programs, one would be hard-pressed to name issue areas in

which further research is not needed. Yet, there are several policy practices based on assumptions which are reasonably well documented, and which

needn't be "discovered" all over again. First, however, it may be useful to

describe current federal policies and practices as they relate to youth

programs in general, and private sector participation in particular:

After several years of "benign neglect," private sector

involvement is being given a new push through such efforts as the Private Sector Initiative Program, YEDPA and career

education.

While recognizing that youth unemployment and school-to-work

transition problems affect all young people, the government

has increasingly targeted education, employment and training programs on the economically disadvantaged.

Due largely to pressures from organized labor, the federal government has not supported a subminimum wage for teenagers

and is not likely to in the near future.

The CETA bill passed by Congress in 1978 reflects a growing emphasis on job training programs rather than public service

employment.

The government is beginning to experiment with other mechanisms to encourage more youth employment such as the

Targeted Jobs Tax Credit, passed in 1978.

The Carter administration has placed much more emphasis on youth programs run through the Department of Labor than on

Office of Education efforts such as career and vocational

education.

Passage of the Youth Employment and Demonstration Projects Act reflects a new willingness by the government to exper- iment with a variety of approaches to solving the youth

unemployment problem.

Until recently, the federal government has allowed private

sector employers to receive subsidies only for the outstanding

costs of training the jobless, but now seems more willing

358

4 08
to experiment with more direct incentives such as total wage

subsidies.

In general, federal policies and practices reflect these assumptions:

(1) Youth unemployment is a serious problem, more so among minorities and

the poor. (2) Thus, with limited government resources available, it is best

to direct aid at, those who need it most. (3) It is not clear which approaches

work best, and a one billion dollar a year expenditure is justified over the

short-run to find some answers. (4) The private sector should play a strong

role- in combatting youth unemployment, even though past experiences have

shown mixed results. (5) Payment of subminimum wages will not be permitted.

(6) Local communities should be encouraged--with federal seed money if necessary--to explore innovative solutions of their own.

How well are these assumptions justified by the available research?

Several policy assumptions (such as the fear that employers will lay off their

regular workers if wage subsidies for the jobless become available) are moot

because there is no evidence to back any particular position at all. Others

(such as the effect of economic conditions on the willingness of employers to

hire the hard-core jobless) are better documented. Arguments for greater

involvement by the private sector in youth programs usually stem not from

evidence that business people are better trainers or administrators, but from

the fact that four-fifths of all jobs are in business and industry, not in the

public sector.

The experimental nature of YEDPA also is based on the recognition that

research is lacking on the best ways to tackle the youth employment dilemma.

The government can be commended for wanting to find some hard data by funding

a sizeable research and development program such as YEDPA. The absence of a

knowledge base is reflected as well in experiments with wage subsidies and

tax credits, areas in which facts are hard to come by.

On the other hand, research has amply documented the reluctance of

employers to get involved in government employment and training programs.

Their concerns over high training and supervisory costs, low productivity of

young workers, high turnover, red tape and confusing laws and regulations

have often been heard.

Thus, the government's efforts to try more direct incentives seem

justified. Less justifiable are the government's hopes that more emphasis on

359
job training and private sector participation will be a long-term solution to

the youth unemployment issue. Previous research cited in this paper shows a

clear connection between the national jobless rate and the willingness of private employers to hire the disadvantaged. As unemployment goes up, so do

union objections about the presence of subsidized trainees when older, more

experienced workers are being laid off. 56/ -- It is not coincidental that the

government began reemphasizing training and private sector participation just

as the unemployment rate declined to its lowest level in four years. But

government leaders grudgingly admit that more joblessness may result from

"tight money" policies being pursued to fight inflation. A substantial boost

in unemployment will put'government efforts to open new youth training and

job opportunities in the private sector to a severe test.

So long as unemployment is at an acceptable level, however, the private

sector seems willing to try again to work with disadvantaged youth. Employers

are deeply concerned about the low level of work preparedness among the young,

declining productivity and quality control and the high costs to the community

of youth unemployment.

410

360
VI. ASSUMPTIONS UNDERLYING POLICY AND PRACTICE WHICH ARE NOT JUSTIFIED

BY THE RESEARCH -- FURTHER RESEARCH OF HIGH PRIORITY

It should be clear by now that the research in this field is of widely

varying quality. A few of the existing evaluations (notably those on the

Career Intern Program and Supported Work) are well-designed. The majority,

however, lack key components and thus give no clear indication about the

direction public policy should take.

In most cases, it is not necessary to invent new types of programs or

ways to measure their success. The need is for a unified perspective applicable to the whole array of demonstration projects. Modern evaluation

techniques have grown quite sophisticated. Given enough planning time and

money, it should be possible to measure the success of nearly any transitionto-work program with a fair degree of accuracy and in such a way to make

comparison useful.

The necessity for a cohesive evaluation framework must be addressed, or

there never will be a body of literature strong enough either to confirm or

dispute the truth of policy assumptions which have a great deal to do with how

billions of federal dollars are spent each year.

Yet there still is much to be learned about private sector involvement

in yout programs. These are discussed, by issue area, in Section VII, A

Research Agenda for the 1980s.

It is noteworthy that the Department of Labor has at last come to grips

with the need for better program evaluation. The special battery of tests

developed by the Educational Testing Service and creation of a national control group to help evaluate the effects of YEDPA programs represent a near

quantum leap in the federal government's recognition that social programs are

of little value unless a unified basic literature about what works and why is

created. This kind of systematic, long-range planning has been in desperately

short supply and must be encouraged in the future. In years to come, it may

be possible to say far more definitively which federal youth policies are

supported by evaluation data. The emphasis placed on coordinated evaluation

under YEDPA may prove to be its greatest contribution to the resolution of

youth unemployment.

4

361
VII. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Despite its increasing emphasis, private sector participation in youth

transition to work programs is not well documented. Not only is there a

paucity of literature, but that which does exist is in no way standardized to

make comparisons possible.

While formal evaluations are scarce, an abundance of anecdotal

information reveals a variety of seemingly successful youth programs in which

private employers play a major role. These programs are startling in their

diversity, ranging from in-depth community collaboration to subsidized

training to exotic forms of cooperative education.

Research on Labor Department private sector youth programs has been

undertaken only sporadically during the last 10 years. Since the time CETA

was enacted in 1973, there has.been a severe drop-off in the number of such

evaluations, due primarily to an emphasis on anti-recession public service

employment. Improvement in the national unemployment rate has led to new

interest in private sector involvement and on-the-job training.

Research on school-based programs involving the private sector is equally

scarce. Two of the most popular types, vocational education and cooperative

education, have been studied only occasionally during the previous decade.

While research on the private sector's role in vocational education is very

sketchy, evidence generally supports the goals of cooperative education, which

appears .popular with employers and students alike. Despite federal expenditures of $80 million,, there is almost no research on the effects of career

education.

With the federal government's commitment to greater private sector

participation in mind, 10 issues of critical concern emerge from a review of

the literature:

What forms' of collaboration among employment, training, private

sector employers, educational (including colleges and univer- sities), and rehabilitation institutions (including CBO's) are the

most effective and the most successful in facilitating the school- to-work transition sequence? Specifically, what forms of collab- oration and what structural arrangements best serve the young people in terms of placing them in private sector, unsubsidized

jobs after program completion?
What do we know about the relative effect and value of private

sector vs. public sector programmatic experience in terms of skills

acquired, later (after program) job placement, career and educational success, and overall (long-term) employability? To what

extent does what type of programmatic experience change/alter the

impact as a result of the age of the participants?

What do we know about the effectiveness of and measurement of

various types of incentives, both monetary and nonmonetary, to

increased private sector involvement in youth transition to work

efforts?

What do we know about the effectiveness of various kinds and

levels of incentives for participants? Specific questions will

include: How can job-sharing arrangements be devised between

students and other part-time workers?

What do we know of the effectiveness of efforts to reduce

institutional barriers (including social, legal, and regulatory

costs) to greater private sector involvement in youth school-towork transition programs?

What do we know about the effectiveness of processes and mechanisms

to improve the attitudes of employers and schools, including

colleges and universities, community-based organizations, and

others toward more joint participation in youth programs?

What do we presently know about the accuracy, fairness, and

utility of various criteria used to measure the effectiveness of

private sector involvement youth programs, particularly with

respect to skills acquisition and transference? What alternative

approaches may be considered with what projected outcomes?

What do we know about how private sector work supervisors can be

better prepared to supervise youth? How can unions and other

individuals and groups, e.g., retired workers, serve as resources

to schools to improve youth orientation to the world of work and

private sector employment opportunities?

What do we know about how needed support services to in-school

youth at private sector jobs can be arranged and provided?

What do we know about how students can be helped to avoid unreal

expectations of future employment? What do we know about how new

methods and flexible approaches can be developed for youth to learn

about and prepare for trades for which there may be apprenticeship?

Little research has been done on any of these issues of concern. There

is some evidence that employers respond to traditional incentives suck as

training subsidies and sources of skilled workers only when the economy is

363 413
expanding. More direct incentives such as wage subsidies have rarely been

tried, mainly because of legal limitations. The history of employment tax

credits is mixed and still in dispute, although the new Targeted Jobs Tax

Credit appears to have resulted in the hiring of substantial number of youth.

Equally little is known about reducing institutional barriers to greater

private sector participation. The research is not even clear whether barriers such as child labor law, bonding and insurance are obstacles in and of

themselves, or merely act to confuse employers and thus make them hesitant to

get involved.

One of the hottest issues, the impact of the minimum wage, is far from

resolved and has resulted in establishment of a federal task force to examine

its effects.

The lack of standardized measures is one of the great impediments to

assessing the results of private sector youth programs. Although many test

instruments exist, they are not used in any coherent way to isolate the

factors contributing to program success or failure. Thus, even if a large

body of literature existed, it would be nearly impossible to say with any

assurance what works and what doesn't. Only when there is agreement on

program goals and how to measure them will the situation improve.

Anecdotal evidence suggests that employers are deeply concerned about

declining productivity, the poor work preparation "of young people and the

high costs of youth unemployment. They consistently praise on-the-job training as the best kind of CETA program and have long supported such school-based

efforts as cooperative education, distributive education and Junior

Achievement.

Very little research has been done on the mechanisms and processes which

best facilitate collaboration between schools and employers (exceptions are

Wurzburg and Rist, q.v.). The Youth Employment and Demonstration Projects

Act strongly encourages such partnerships and may yield new data. New

emphasis on training in the 1978 CETA amendments also may prove useful.

One of the biggest problems is designing evaluations to adequately

measure the impact of private sector youth programs. The school-to-work

transition is characterized by rapid job changing. Thus the effects of youth

programs on-future career success may'dot be readily, apparent. In addition,

programs which stress rapid job placement may actually do more harm than good

364 414
by placing youth in jobs that are dead-end, sex stereotyped or not matched

to individual aspirations. Evidence suggests that work experience, per se is

somewhat helpful, but less so for minorities and the disadvantaged, who remain

unable to get a "foothold" in the adult labor market.

Because the reserach literature is so spotty, it is difficult to say

whether assumptions underlying public policy and practice in the field are

misguided or not. It appears, however, that government leaders have recognized this knowledge gap and are making serious efforts to fill it through

programs such as YEDPA and career education, both of which have strong

evaluation components.

365 415
Program

;.TAT (MDTA)

Job Corps

(CETA)

PROGRAM CHARACTERISTICS,

YOUTH TRANSITION TO WORK PROGRAMS

INVOLVING THE PRIVATE SECTOR

Year Begun/Concluded Funding

1968, ongoing

1964, ongoing

(CETA) 1972, ongoing

NAB/JOBS 1968, ongoing

(private)

:Operation Young 1912, two year

'Adults (}IOTA) project

CETA/OJT 1913; 1977

(includes YEDPA) YEDPA

Apported Work

mcpity.

1915, ongoing

No national totals

available; cost per

trainee $2,690

$296 million,

FY '78

$5 million in

FY '78

No cost to federal

government.

$1.7 million

$1.91 billion,

CETA/OJT; $114

million; YEDPA

(To be supplied.)

Enrollment

4,000 grads since

1968

44,000 slots,

FY '79, serving

nearly 15,000

enrollees

5,000; FY '78

231,000 jobs

created, 1978

Local Administrative Piency

Oak Ridge, Tenn. Associated

Universities & DOL

Job Corps Centers

Local CETA prime sponsors, in

cooperation with AFL-CIO and

National Alliance of Business

NAB "metro" offices

350 a Rochester Jobs, Inc., a

coHHunity-based organization

CETA/OJT, 48,400

FY '79; YEDPA,

336,600, FY 179.

Network of 450 prime sponsors-- units of state, and local, govern - meat

1,782 in 21 cities, CETA prime sponsors in conjuncJuly 1919 tion with Manpower Demonstration

and Research Corp.

417
INTRODUCTION TO MATRIX

The following matrix summarizes characteristics of 13 school-to-work

programs, some privately supported, some school-based and some supported by

Labor Department funds. Ongoing and completed programs are included and the

list is intended as a representative--not comprehensive--group illustrating

a variety of approaches and goals.

Private programs include NAB/JOBS and 70001 Ltd. DOL programs include

TAT, Job Corps, VEP, Operation Young Adults, CETA/OJT and Supported Work.

School-based programs are career education, vocational education, cooperative

education, Career Intern Program, and EBCE.

Because evaluations still are under way, recent efforts operated under

the Youth Employment Act are not included.
Program

PROGRAM, CHARACTERISTICS,

YOUTH TRANSITION TO WORK PROGRAMS

INVOLVING THE PRIVATE SECTOR

Year Begun/Concluded

Experience-based 1911 as Office of Education

career education demonstration; ongoing

(NIB)

Cooperative

Education (OE)

Career Intern

Jrogram (NIB)

70001 Ltd.

(private)

No federal support for high

school co-op; post secondary 1968, as part of

Higher Education Act

1972, ongoing

1969, ongoing

Funding

Approx. $30 million

in fiscal 1979,

state, local, fed.

No national figures

for secondary co-op

2) $15 million

postsecondary

$5 million, FY '78

for program in 4

cities

Enrollment

Approx. 20,000; all

states but Vermont

available

programs

2) 200,000 postsecondary, FY '79

261 in initial 1972

test in Philadelphia

$800,000 DOL con- From 76-79, 8,417

tract, plus service entered program

fees to franchisers

, Vocational 1911 (Smith-Hughes Act) $614 in FY '79

Education (OE)

4areer, Education

il0E)

1974 (Special Projects

Act) 1911. Career

Education Incentive Act,

ongoing

$19.5 million,

FY '19

Annually. serves

2,000,000 students

Serves'students in

about 1/3 of nation's

16,000 school list

Local Administrative Agency

Local education agencies

Local education agency or

postsecondary school

Opportunities Industrialization Centers of America,

Inc. Local agencies selected to

"franchise" the 10001

concept

Local vocational education

agency

Local education agency
VIII. A PROPOSED RESEARCH AGENDA FOR THE 1980s

To propose a research agenda on private sector participation in youth

transition to work programs is a little like predicting the winner of a

political race before all the returns are in--certain trends are apparent,

but the final outcome is still in doubt. Since the enactment of YEDPA in

1977, literally hundreds of pilot projects and demonstration programs have

been funded at a cost in the hundreds of millions of dollars. YEDPA is a

massive social experiment, unique in its emphasis on evaluation. Results from

these experiments may change our assumptions about youth programs and what

makes them work. New questions undoubtedly will be raised as the old ones are answered. Thus, proposing a research agenda when so 'much research on

this topic is only half-completed is a bit tricky. Nonetheless,, there are

unanswered questions about each of the 10 issues of significance discussed

in this paper. Obtaining answers to these questions should be the aim of

future evaluation studies.

1. What forms of collaboration are most effective?

The term collaboration has been loosely applied to a number of efforts

in which many organization and individuals work together toward the resolution

of school-to-work issues. But the term collaboration is imprecise. Future

research studies of its impact must define clearly what collaboration is that

it intends to accomplish. Otherwise, researchers are likely to find little

measurable impact and conclude that collaboration--about which there are

several anecdotal examples of success--is not a useful approach to solving

youth employment problems.

Questions to which researchers should address themselves in the future

include:

*Is collaboration more effective at the federal, state or local

levels?

*What are the most effective roles to be played by collaborating

agencies and individuals?

*What is the role of leadership in collaborative efforts and how

can it best be encouraged?
*Can collaboration have a measurable impact on local youth

employment rates?

*Does collaboration lead to innovative approaches to problems or merely institutionalize the status quo?

*Does collaboration result in more efficient use of federal and

local dollars?

*Is an appeal to self-interest the most effective method of

encouraging collaboration?

*Does the participation of young peoplein collaborative activities

have any impact?

*To what extent does local political and economic history effect

the nature and extent of collaboration?

Other questions could be added to the research agenda. Collaboration

may prove very difficult to assess, concretely, however, because it is a process dependent mostly on the vaguaries of human interaction, not a. product

that can be isolated and evaluated by itself. To test the impact of local

collaboration, it may prove fruitful to select two similar communities, one

of which possesses an active collaborative spirit. These two communities

could be compared and the effects of collaboration measured. At the federal

level, useful measures of collaborative impacts would include whether new or

improved services have been made possible and whether the cost-benefit of

programs has been increased.

2. Is public or private sector work preparation most useful in preparing

young people for the world of work?

Because this is one of the most poorly documented of all the issues

addressed in this paper, the research needs are substantial. The Labor

Department's current test of public vs. private sector work experience will

provide many answers. Until those data are available, however, it is difficult to propose a research agenda that does not duplicate evaluations already

under way. Among the most useful information to be sought in these evaluations include the impact of public or.private work experience on youth of

different ages and backgrounds the types of work experiences that are most

422

, 4 ,
helpful, impact of the size of the firm or organization, and the nature and

quality of supervision provided.

3. What are the most effective incentives for private employers?

A variety of incentives has been used to entice private sector employers

to participate in work preparation programs. The impact of these has been

assessed to varying degrees. We know, for example, that the effectiveness of

incentives is tied to the overall health of the economy; that employers are

more willing to participate if job trainees are of high quality and if paperwork is kept to a minimum. But we also know that the percentage of private

employers involved in work preparation programs historically has been very low

and remains so. Even total wage subsidies cannot by themselves overcome the

reluctance of employers to hire and train the disadvantaged unless they are

severely short of manpower.

Many incentives are relatively new and thus have not been rigorously

tested: targeted tax credits, wage subsidies, etc. Evaluations are under

way, however, and should bear fruit in the near future.

It is fairly clear from the literature that employers most want

productive stable workers and that all the incentives in the world will not be

enough to encourage widespread hiring of unproductive, unstable workers.

Much more needs to be learned about programs that produce employable individuals who can read, write, work with others, show up on time, and use their

time productively. The ready availability of truly job-ready workers probably

is the most effective incentive for greater private sector involvement.

Existing programs--and there are many examples--could be tested and compared

to find out what employability approaches work best and whether these need be

coupled with other cash incentives such as training or wage subsidies. Some

work in this area already has been done. The, overriding need is,for a unified

perspective and comparable research methods.

4. What kinds of incentives to youth program participants are most

effective?

Because work preparation program incentives have in the past been

concentrated on employers rather than participants, little is known about
what attracts young people the most. The opportunity to earn wages is an

obviously important. incentive, but its precise importance has never been

documented. Among the questions yet to be addressed include:

*What level of wages is necessary to sustain involvement by youth

in work preparation programs?

*Do high school dropouts perceive the opportunity to earn a diploma as an incentive to enrollment in a work preparation program?

*To what extent does the opportunity to leave the classroom parttime act as an incentive for in-school youth?

*Must jobs be "meaningful" to attract the sustained interest of youth?

*To what extent does the availability of support services such as

job placement and transportation act as an incentive?

*To what extent do family and community pressures and expectations

act as incentives or disincentives toward participation in a federal work preparation program?

*To what extent do opportunitites to work in pleasant "high status"

environments such as offices and to wear "ousiness clothes" act

as incentives or disincentives?

*Are job opportunities in the private sector more attractive to

youth than jobs in nonprofit organizations?

*To what extent is the availabilit,y of child care an incentive to

participate in a work preparation program' if it means a temporary

decrease in wages?

*To what extent do the attitudes of many disadvantaged youth about the credibility or desirability of enrolling in work preparation

programs offset available incentives?

5. What do we know about the effectiveness of efforts to reduce

institutional barriers to sleattEErtatesector involvement in youth

transition to work programs?

These barriers are legion and well-documented. They range from child

labor laws to racial discrimination. Needed is more research into the best

ways of circumventing or eliminating this array of barriers. There are many

anecdotal examples of instances in which school attendance or graduation

372 424
requirements laws have been waived, insurance and bonding provided through

membership fees or other subsidies, occupational licensing laws rewritten,

transportation provided, attitudes changed and academic skills upgraded. It

is up to researchers to document these successes and find common denominators

so that these efforts caa be replicated.

More is known about the impact of some barriers than others. The effects

of child labor and minimum wage laws, for example, are not well understood.

Problems with transportation to work sites and with creating jobs during

economic downturns are well documented. Controlled experiments are needed to

isolate and assess the barriers about which we know little. The impact of

race and sex discrimination probably heads the list but is the most difficult

to measure. Indeed, attitudinal barriers, whether based on age, race or sex,

may prove the most important barriers if researchers are able to pin down

their often subtle effects. Overcoming these attitudinal barriers will be a

long and complicated process and there is no magic formula for success.

6. How can the attitudes of e slo ers and schools toward more oint

participation in youth programs be improved?

So far, the evidence suggests that the most effective way to create more

joint participation is to require it, as is done under the Youth Employment

and Training Projects. YEDPA evaluations should be able to assess the extent

of collaboration between schools and CETA agencies before and after enactment

of YEDPA. But there is no requirement in any legislation for the participation of private industry. Indeed, private employers are just barely more

active under YEDPA than previous youth initiatives, despite the limited

availability of wage subsidies and other experimental incentives. The

National Commission on Employment Policy has recommended that employers with

government contracts be required to hire a certain percentage of low income

people. But the viability of this form of coercion has never been tested.

The literature sheds little light on the effectiveness of other methods

to secure joint participation by schools and employers. Cooperative education

probably provides the best documentation of such joint actions. In this

review, cooperative education has the best track record of nearly all transition-to-work efforts, although its successes are mainly with middle class

youngsters.

373 425
Evaluations are badly needed on topics such as:

*joint development of custom training by employers and vocational

schools

*the relative success' of programs jointly developed versus those

operated by a single agency

*the impact of barriers such as classroom scheduling and

transportation

*school-based job placement agencies

*effects of such collaborative efforts as speakers bureaus, plant

tours and career days

*the effectiveness of formal collaborative organizations such as work-education councils and private industry councils

*the role of organized labor in industry/education collaboration

*the role of schools and businesses in local economic development

*overcoming turf battles and provincialism.

7. What do we know about the accurac' fairness and utilit' of various

criteria used to measure the effectiveness of outh transition,to work

programs involving the private sector?

One of the clearest lessons to be learned from the available literature

is that job placement and retention rates are among the poorest indicators of

youth program success. Yet these two factors are used repeatedly, nearly

always to the disservice of young people, who wind up looking uncommitted,

shiftless and unsure of their goals. This volatility of the youth labor

market no doubt is a major source of the negative attitudes toward the young

expressed by employers. It represents a clash of expectations that probably

has no solution. On the one hand, employers want employees who can quickly

become productive and will stay on the job for a reasonable length of time.

Youth, on the other hand, generally are hoping to discover their career

aspirations and abilities and break out of the dead end jobs that usually are

the only entry level opportunities available.

What comes through most clearly in the literature is the need for

agreement on the anticipated outcome of work preparation programs and on the
best ways to measure these outcomes. Studies must assess programs geared for

different age and income groups, distinguish between work exploration and job

training, and decide what it is they are trying to measure. It would be very helpful if involvement by the private sector was

included in the analysis of data from such long-range studies as the National

Longitudinal Survey or the Continuous Longitudinal Manpower Survey. Because

the transition from school to work takes many years, only a long-range

approach can accurately measure program effects.

8. How can supervisors be better prepared to work with disadvantaged youth?

How can unions and other groups and individuals serve as career resources

to youth?

On its most basic level, the interaction between a supervisor and a

disadvantaged youth is not much different than any supervisor/subordinate

relationship. To be successful, both require a certain amount of empathy,

good communication, and an understanding of expected performance and behavior.

The literature is not helpful in revealing specific ways in which supervisors

have been successfully prepared to work with disadvantaged youth. It does not

appear necessary, however, to devise programs from the ground up. Training is

a multi-billion dollar industry. Supervisory training packages exist in a

number of forms. The most promising of these could be tested easily and

inexpensively in a variety of settings in which supervisors and low-income

youth interact. In addition, much expertise has been accumulated over the

years by such organizations as the Job Corps, the National Alliance of

Business, Urban League affiliates, Opportunities Industrialization Centers,

Chrysler Learning Corp. and others. Studies of the effectiveness of their

efforts to train supervisors are almost nonexistent, but could be accomplished

systematically.

On this issue, the answers are most likely to be found outside the

specialized field of employment and training.

The available literature tells almost nothing about how adults can serve

as career resources for young people. Needed are research studies of programs

already in operation by work-education councils, chambers of commerce, unions

375 427
and school systems. The hardest question, of course, will be deciding what

it is such resource programs are trying to accomplish. Since the goal of most

probably is the broadening of students' career awareness--and not something

immediate like job placement--a longitudinal study of career maturity or

occupational awareness would likely provide the best data. Researchers should

bear in mind that programs designed primarily to bring young people and adults

into greater contact must be measured on their own terms, not national priorities such as impact on youth employment. To impose unrealistic expectations

on programs with modest goals will surely doom them to failure.

9. How can support services to in-school youth at private sector jobs be

arranged and provided?

The necessity for and success of support services can be measured with a fair degree of accuracy if there is a willingness to commit the time and

resources to a well-structured controlled experiment.. In the past, support

services have rarely been singled out for assessment, largely because of the

difficulty in isolating their effects on programs with many components. But,

given the sufficient resources, useful evaluations of support services can be

accomplished. Many programs already exist in 'hich support services play an

important role. These can be examined and compared with control groups of

in-school youth who do not receive the support services. The biggest

obstacles are time and money, not technical expertise.

Some types of support services intuitively appear to be more important

than others and should be given priority in research evaluations. These

include:

*transportation from the classroom to the worksite;

*child care for the growing number of teenage mothers;

*career counseling;

*remedial academic and employability skills training.

Another source of potentially valuable data on support services is the

Targeted Jobs Tax Credit program. It would be useful to test the impact of

support services on low-income and cooperative education youth hired under the

376 423
tax credit program. Rarely do these youth get support services as TJTC hirees

and it would be helpful to know whether long-term employability would be

enhanced if they were made available.

10. How can students be helped to avoid unreal expectations of future

employment? What is known about flexible new apprenticeship programs?

Although it is a fact that many youth have career aspirations that do

not match reality, researchers can do a real disservice to low-income or

minority youngsters by defining "realistic" career choices at too low a leve

It is an attitude that has'plagued schools--especially vocational schoolsand

created self-fulfilling prophesies by tracking disadvantaged students into

unnecessarily narrow career paths. Studies, have shown that young people with

high aspirations:tend to get letter jobs and earn higher wages. While not

everyone can be a superstar, well-meaning but misguided efforts that snuff

out hope and destroy dreams in the name of "realistic" career choices do more

harm than good.

Thus, it is incumbant upon researchers to make clear what "realistic"

career choices are and to seek those programs that strike a balance: instilling in youth the desire to make the most of their potentials while helping

them face their individual strengths and weaknesses.

Because counselors play such a key, role in federally funded work

preparation programs, more needs to be discovered about why their track

record is so poor. The literature is quite pessimistic overall and vocational

counseling is seen as a potentially significant but haphazardly provided

service. Seemingly successful programs must be sought out and common denominators discovered. Questions that need to be answered include:

*What"is the optimum ratio of counselors to counselees?

*What role does work experience play in helping youth make realistic

career decisions?

*How realistic is the career advice provided by a youth's peers,

family and friends?

*What alternatives to paper and pencil tests can help youths assess

their career interests and aptitudes?

377

423.
*What are the best ways of helping youth with histories of failure

gain the self-confidence to set higher career goals?

*What forms of occupational information are most useful to youth?

Although apprenticeship continues to enjoy, wide support in Europe, it is

not a widely used form of work preparation in America, despite efforts by the

federal government during the past several years to promote it. It appears

that younger youth--those under age 18--are considered too unstable to commit

themselvis to several years' apprenticeship, mainly because they lack knowledge about careers and have not assessed their own interests and aspirations.

While apprenticeable trades tend to pay well, it probably is i mistake to

push young people into them at too early an age. Thus, apprenticeship

programs will continue to have the most success with young people aged 19-24.

Several efforts that combine apprenticeship with schooling or military

service deserve closer attention. The Armed Forces recently began offering

apprenticeship credits for completion of certain job skills training. How

many completers become apprentices after leaving the military? Many community

colleges have forged linkages with union-sponsored apprenticeship pprograms

and offer young people opportunities to combine academic with job training.

These programs should be examined more closely. In addition, researchers

should examine trend, in the training and placement rates of the 30 or so

occupations that have been added by the Labor Department to the list of

apprenticeable trades.

Worth, too, of further examination are apprenticeship programs such as

the TWINE effort in Las Vegas designed to prepare women for nontraditional

occupations. Many such programs exist but have met with only limited success. More needs to be learned as well about programs that shorten training time

and grant credits for previous work experience.

Summa

In reviewing past evaluation efforts and assessing future research

possibilities, it is clear that the greatest need has been and remains a conceptual framework in which program results can be assessed and compared.

Historically, the emphasis always has been on program operation: numbers

378

43o
enrolled, percentage of terminations, costs per participant. Evaluation,

when it has been attempted at all, often takes a back seat. Even those programs containing strong evaluation components rarely are viewed as part of a

broader attempt to build a storehouse of knowledge that can be tapped when new

initiatives are being developed. As a result, a systematic knowledge base

never has been developed in the field of youth transition to work programs

and many valuable lessons have slipped between the cracks.

The Department of Labor's massive efforts to make YEDPA experiments yield

comparable data are commendable and worthy of further study. If it resulted

in nothing more than a comprehensive evaluation model and a state-of-the-art

knowledge base, YEDPA would have to be judged a success.

431

379
REFERENCES

1/- Stromsdorfer, Ernst W., and Fackler, James S., An Economic and

Institutional Analysis of the Cooperative Vocational Education Program in

Dayton, Ohio, Department of Economics, Indiana University, 1973.

1/ Hayes, Richard, et al., Employer Experience with Cooperative Education:

Analysis of Costs and Benefits, Detroit Institute of Technology, 1975.

3/ Davies, Mary F., A Model for Training the Disadvantaged: TAT at Oak

Ridge, Manpower Administration, U.S. Department of Labor, 1973.

Ibid., p. 2.

1/ Vogel, Anita S., A Retrospective Survey of Programs for Youth Employment

in the Private Sector Sponsored by the U.S. Department of Labor,

Corporation for Public/Private Ventures, 1978.

IA/ Walther, Regis, personal communication, Feb. 4, 1980.

61 Ibid., p. 7.

Z/ Levitan, Sar, et. al., The Job Corps: A Social Experiment That Works,

Johns Hopkins University Press, 1975.

Sprengel, Donald P., et al., Youth Training in the Private Sector, A Model

for Implementation, Center for Urban Programs, St. Louis University, 1974.

1/ Greenleigh Associates, Inc., The Job .Opportunities in the Business Sector

toms, Greenleigh Associates, Inc., 1970.-

12/ Vogel, op. cit., p. 18.

11/ Greenleigh Associates, Inc., op. cit., p. 124.

12/

ochester Jobs, Inc. Final Report: Operation Young_Adults1 Rochester

N.Y., Rochester Jobs, Inc., 1972.

12/ " ETA Choked with Paperwork, Says Federal Commission," Manpower and

'ocational Education Weekly, March 17, 1977.

danpower Demonstration Research Corporation, aaoLAieFixtumAnnual

Report on the National Supported Work Demonstration, Manpouel.

Demonstration Research Corporation, 1976.

21/ Herron, Marshall, et. al., Employer-Based Career Education: FY 1973

Evaluation Report, Northwest Regional Laboratory, 1973.

16/ Ibid.. p. 3.

117 Ibid., p. 5.

380 432
18/ Frankel, Steven M., Executive Summary: An Assessment of SchoolSupervised Work-Education Programs, Systems Development, Corporation,

1973.

12/ Ibid., p. 3.

20/

21/

22/

Frankel, op. cit., p. 4.

Buchanan, E.T., III, Mobility Through Work Experience Education, Final

Report, Tidewater Community College, Portsmouth, Va. , 1976.

U.S. Office of Education, Evaluation Summaries of Pro rams Administered

by the U.S. Office of Education, FY 1977, U.S. Government Printing

Office, 1978.

23/ Applied Management Sciences, Cooperative Education--A National Assessment

1978.

24/ The National Institute of Education, The Career Intern Program: An

Experiment in Career Education that Worked, 1977.

25/ -- Ibid., p.

26/ National

Research,

14.

Manpower Institute, The Youth Transition to Work: Synthesis

and Experimentation Strategy, Volume I, 1978.

27/ "Report to HEW: 'Little Definitive' Effect of Voc. Ed. Participation,"

Manpower and Vocational Education Weekly, October 26, 1978.

27A/ Walther, Regis, personal communication, February 4, 1980.

21/ Vogel, op. cit., p. 26.

22/ Ibid., P. 27.

22/ Wurzburg, Gregory, Improving Job Opportunities for Youth: A Review of

Prime Sponsor Experience in Implementing the Youth Employment and

Demonstration Projects Act, National Council on Employment Policy, 1979,

p. 50.

31/ Wurzburg, ibid., p. 50.

32/ Wurzburg, ibid., p. 42.

33/ Ibid., p. 51.

211/ Ball, Joseph, et al., The Youth Entitlement Demonstration: An Interim

Report on Program Implementation, Manpower Demonstration Research

Corporation, April 1979, p. 131.

35/ Ibid., p. 123.

381

433
36/

"Better Communication Chief Benefit of Work-Education Councils, Abt

Says," Education and Work, Nov. 27, 1979.

11/ Ibid.

37A/

Rist, Ray et al., Forging New Relationships: The CETA/School Nexus, Interim Report No. 1, Youthwork National Policy Study, Cornell

University, June 1978.

38/

Colmen, Joseph, and Wurzburg, Gregory, Involving Schools in Employment

and Training Programs for Youth, National Council on. Employment Policy, May 31, 1979, p.

39/

"PICs, Like Rome, Aren't Built in a Day," Manpower and Vocational

Education Weekly, Nov. 15, 1979.

"CETA Faces Tough Battles In Coming Year, Hill Staffers Say," Manpower

and Vocational Education Weekly, Nov. 22, 1979.

Parnes, Herbert, Career Thresholds, Vol. 6, Rand D Monograph 16, Employment and Training Administration, U.S. Department of Labor, 1977.

Vogel, op. cit., p. 26.

"Firms Want Better Qualified Trainees," Employment and Training Reporter, May 30, 1979, p. 663.

Vogel, op. cit., p. 27.

U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Report of the

President, Fiscal Year 1977, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1978.

Vogel, op. cit., p. 27.

Ibid., p. 26.

U.S. Congressional Budget Office, Policy Options for the Teenage Unemployment Problem, September 1976.

40/

41/

42/

43/

44/

45/

46/

47/

48/

49/

50/

51/

5i/

53/

Ibid., p. 27.

Bishop, John H., Testimony Before the Senate Subcommittee on

Administration of the Internal Revenue Code, July 26, 1978.

"Employment Tax Credit. Increases Employment, Decreases Inflation,"

Manpower and Vocational Education Weekly, October 26, 1978.

"Two-Thirds of Jobs Tax Credit Hires Are Young People, DOL Says,"

Education and Work, Sept. 4, 1979.

Area Manpower Planning Council, City of Philadelphia, An Analysis of the Potential for Wage Subsidies in the Private Sector, February 17, 1978.
54/

Ball, p. cit., p. 114.

55/

Ibid. , p. xxii.

16/ rbid. , p. xx.

56A/

Rist, Ray, et. al., Strategies for Coordinating Education and

Employment Services, Occasional Paper No. 1, Cornell University, November

1979.

17/ Ball, op. cit., p. xxi.

58/

59/

60/

61/

62/

63A/

64/

Ibid, p. 135.

Ibid, p. 143.

Whrzburg, op. cit., p. 17..

Ibid., p. 18.

"Three Fourths of Job Sharers Are Women, Stanford Study Finds," Education

and Work,Jan. 23 1979.

Center for Public Resources, Inc., Six Business Employment Programs:

Emphasis, Disadvantaged Youth, 1972.

Walther, Regis, personal communication,. Feb. 9 1980.

Stanford Research Institute, The Effects of Laws Governing'Youth

Employment and School Attendance-on Youth Offenset and Delinquency, 1965.

of Congressional Budget Office, op. cit. p. 35.

§§/ Ibid., p. 35.

National Manpower InstitUte, The Tranrition from-School to Work: A Study

of Laws, Regulations and Practices-Restricting Work Experience and

lo eat 0 ortunities for Youth, National Committee on Employment of

You 1975.

gi/ Mushkin, Selma, and Billings Bradley, Wage Saving Inducements for

Youth Employment, Georgetown University, n.d.

621

The Manpower Institute, §tudofCoorateYout

Practices, Washington, D.C., 1973.

22/ National Federation of Independent Business, NFIB Employment Report for

Small Business, 1977.

70A/

Walther, Regis, personal communication, Feb. 4, 1980.
71/

72/

73/

74/

75/

76/

77/

78/

"Police, Employers and Boys Club Finding Jobs for Gang Members,"

Education and Work, September 19, 1978.

Research for Better Schools, Inc., Summative Evaluation Report No. 3: Employer Based Career Education Program, Philadelphia, Pa., 1974.

Frankel, op. cit., p. 3.

Hayes, op. cit., p. 2.

Ibid., p. 5.

"Firms Want Better Qualified Trainees," Employment and Training Reporter, May 30, 1979, p. 663.

Parnes, Herbert, et. al., Career Thresholds: Longitudinal Studies of

the Education and Labor Market E: eriences of Young Men, Ohio State

University, Center for Human Resource Research, Columbus, Ohio, 1978.

U.S. Department of Labor, Continuous Longitudinal Manpower Survey, 1978.

79/

Center for Human Resource Research et. al., Career Thresholds, Vol. 6,

U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, 1977.

Ibid., p. 84.

Research for Better Schools, Inc., op. cit., p. 5.

"Public Jobs Programs Have Had Little Impact on Unemployed, GAO Says," Manpower and Vocational Education Weekly, April 14, 1977.

83/

"Schools Ignore Pupil Performance Research, Hodgkinson Says," Education

and Work, October 6, 1975.

Winer, Ellen and Hochman, Ruth, Report on Massachusetts Secondary School Work Experience Program, Northeastern University, Boston, Mass.,. 1976.

80/

81/

82/

.84/

85/

86/

87/

88/

89/

"Racism Is. Major Cause of Minority Youth Unemployment, Panel Hears "

Education and Work, Oct. 16, 1979.

Mangum, Garth and Walsh, John, Employment and Training for Youth: What Works Best for Whom?, National Council on Employment Policy, May, 1978.

Mangum, Garth, On -the -Job Training: CETA Program Models, Employment and

Training Administration, U.S. Department of Labor, 1977.

"BICEP Puts Muscle Into..SchoOl,to!..Work Linkages," Education andliork,

May 2, 1978.

Wurzburg, op. cit., p. 6.

436
90/

91/

92/

93/

94/

Abt Associates, Inc., National Program for Selected Population Segments,

Employment and Training Administration, U.S. Department of Labor, 1977.

Mangum and Walsh, op. cit., p. 129.

"National Assessment Finds High Schoolers 'Unrealistic' About Careers,"

Manpower and Vocational Education Weekly, Nov. 18, 1976.

"Boy, Are They In For A Surprise . . ." Education and Work, Feb. 7, 1976.

Walther, Regis H., Analysis and Synthesis of DOL Experience in Youth

Transition to Work Programs,- Manpower Research Projects, Inc., 1976.

95/ Ibid., P. 97.

96/ Ibid., p. 97.

97/ Ibid., p. 99.

98/ Ibid., p. 99.

99/ Mangum and Walsh, op. cit., p. 136.

100/ Ibid., p. 140.

101/

102/

103/

104/

105/

106/

107/

108/

109/

110/

"Over Education Woes Don't Apply to Blacks, Panelists Say," Manpower

and Vocational Education.Weekly, April 29, 1976.

"Self-Confident Young People More Likely to Get Good Jobs, Study Finds,"

Education and Work, Oct. 30, 1979.

Ibid.

Walther, op. cit., p. 82.

Mitchell, James P., "New Directions for Apprenticeship Policy,"

Worklife, January 1977.

Barton, Paul, and Fraser, Bryna, Between Two Worlds: Youth Transition

from School to Work, Vol. II, National Manpower Institute, 1978.

Ibid., p. 113.

Mangum and Walsh, op. cit., p. 122.

Ibid., p. 122.

U.S. Department of Labor, Youth Employment Policies and Programs for

the 1980's: Analysis and Proposals of the Department of Labor, Office

of Youth Programs, U.S. Department of Labor, 1979.

"Ideas and Innovations," Education and Work, Dec. 11, 1979.

385

437
SELECTED. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

(Descriptor :words at left relate to issues covered in this paper)

OVERVIEW

Vogel, Anita S., /Restrospective Survey of Programs for Youth Employment in

the Private Sector Sponsored by the U.S. Department of Labor, Corporation

for Public/Private Ventures, 1978.

After reviewing 20 years of literature regarding efforts by the U.S.

Department of Labor to place young people in private sector jobs, Vogel

discovers that "little hard data exist" and that "we don't know what

works," mainly because the problems involved are too complex to yield

easy answers. Among her conclusions: 1) programs emphasizing work

attitudes and habits are not particularly useful; 2) specific job skills

programs are useful only in that minority of jobs that require formal

training; 3) youth jobs must have some real content, to be useful; 4) the

Job Corps is most effective in orienting low income youth to the world

of work; 5) programs haveli better chance of succeeding if they provide

training for which there are manpower shortages; 6) job placements are

heavily influenced by the overall "health of the .economy; 7) on the job

training can be very effective if properly set up; 8) incentives to

employers to hire low income youth have had mixed success and are not

well documented; 9) barriers to the hiring of youth such as bonding

requirements are serious but can be overcome.

OVERVIEW

Walther, Regis H., Analysis and Synthesis of DOL Experience in Youth

Transition to Work Programs, Manpower Research Projects, Inc., 1976.

Walther analyzed research data from DOL youth barriers to successful

adjustment by youth to the labor market are lack of realistic opportunities; lack of occupational information; lack ..of appropriate skills

and knowledge; and lack of confidence in ability to succeed. DOL programs to overcome these barriers have been only fitfully successful. The
SELECTED ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

(Descriptor words at left relate to issues covered in this paper)

OVERVIEW

Vogel, Anita S., illtpthloentiestrosectiveSuramn

the Private Sector. S onsored b theAJILDtpartment of Labor, Corporation

for Public Private Ventures, 1978.

After reviewing 20 years of literature regarding efforts by the U.S.

Department of Labor to place young people in private sector jobs, Vogel

discovers that "little hard data exist" and that "we don't know what

works," mainly because the problems involved are too complex to yield

easy answers.. Among her conclusions: 1) programs emphlisizing work

attitudes and habits are not particularly useful; 2) specific job skills

programs are useful only in that minority of jobs that require formal

training; 3) youth jobs must have some real content to be useful; 4) the

Job Corps is most effective in orienting low income youth to the world

of work; 5) programs have a better chance of succeeding if they provide

training for which there are manpower, shortages; 6) job placements are

heavily influenced by the overall health of the economy; 7) on the job

training can be very effective if properly set up; 80 incentives to

employers to hire low income youth have had mixed success and are not

well documented; 9) barriers to the hiring of youth such as bonding

requirements are serious but can be overcome.

OVERVIEW

Walther, Regis H., Analysis and Synthesis of DOL Experience in Youth

Transition to Work Programs, Manpower Research Projects, Inc., 1976.

Walther analyzed research data from DOL youth barriers to successful

adjustment by youth to the labor market are: lack of realistic opportunities; lack of occupational information; lack of appropriate skills

and knowledge; and lack of confidence in ability to succeed. DOL programs to overcome these barriers have been only fitfully successful. The

387
most effective have a reputation for success, create a supportive atmosphere and provide role models for success. Programs must consider the

individual needs of each trainee. Skill training is "one of the most

useful" types of programs. Remedial education is necessary for some

trainees. Work experience is useful only when related to post-program

employment. Counselors have their biggest impact when concentrating on vocational objectives. Flexible coordination is one of the surest means

to successful program implementation.

OVERVIEW

Mangum, Garth and Walsh, John, Employment and Training Programs for Youth:

What Works Best for Whom? National Council on Employment Policy, 1978.

Mangum and Walsh reviewed the available literature on youth employment

and training programs and attempted to define which approaches are most

effective with youth of different ages and economic backgrounds. Concluding that a rereading of the literature is "not an encouraging

exercise" because of the paucity 'of effective programs, Mangum and Walsh

list several lessons learned so far: outreach is an overrated service

and by now all disadvantaged groups know about the availability of

employment services; there are no really satisfactory ways to assess

applicants, but assessment is necessary so long as there are more eligibles than openings and if a variety of services is available; work

experience without various kinds of program enrichment is ineffective;

public service employment and subsidized private sector employment are the most effective of all approaches in enhancing employability so long

as the jobs are well-designed and supported; counseling is useful if it

emphasizes employability; teaching job search skills is very worthwhile.

Even if programs all are well designed, however, youth unemployment will

remain high because of the long period in which youth make their break

from the classroom and eventually gain footholds in the labor market,

Mangum and Walsh conclude.

388
EMPLOYER INCENTIVES

PUBLIC VS. PRIVATE SECTOR WORK EXPERIENCE

Sprengel, Donalt. P., et. al., Youth Training in the Private Sector: A Model

for Implementation, Center for Urban Programs, St. Louis University,

1974.

Sprengel and associates monitored implementation of the initial

Vocational Exploration Program (VEPS) and developed a model for implementation. They concluded that low income youth can profit from work

experiences of up to 1,000 hours at a single private sector worksite so long as they are rotated to a different work and training experience

after 500 hours. Employers were found willing to split the cost of

participant wages evenly with the federal government. The researchers

also documented slight improvements in school dropout rates; improvements

in academic standing; slight improvements in school attendance; good

retention rates. by employers of VEPS enrollees; a smoothing of the

school-to-work transition for nearly 90 percent of participants.

EMPLOYER INCENTIVES

SUPERVISOR PREPARATION

Greenleigh Associates, Inc., The Job Opportunities in the Business Sector

Program, Greenleigh Associates, Inc., 1970.

5 Researchers assessed the first years of the JOBS program, operated by

the National Alliance of Businessmen. The goal was to hire and train

low-income individuals, a substantial percentage of whom were young

people. No federal subsidies were available to employers. The researchers found there were problems in publicizing the JOBS program; that the

impact on unemployment during an economic slump was negligible; that

most jobs were dead end. Employers said the low income hirees made

little economic impact on their businesses or production but did not have

worse work habits than their regular employees. The most successful of

the JOBS worksites provided supplemental job coaching and supportive

setvices, including human relations training.

389

441
EMPLOYER INCENTIVES

Perloff, Jerfrey M., Youth Wage Subsidies: The Literature and New

Experiments, Corporation for Public/Private Ventures, 1977.

Perloff, in an assessment of the impact of wage subsidies on youth

employment, criticizes past research on a number of issues: control

groups, the effects of time, failure to distinguish between wage and

employment effects, unusual measures, etc. In his estimation, the costs

of the National Alliance of Businessmen JOBS program "probably outweighed

benefits." Employment Tax Credits, on the other hand, must be tested

more rigorously to find out which firms respond and why. Perloff suggests a number of new experiments: providing teenage workers with

vouchers that only certain firms could cash in; testing the impact of

training within specific occupations; assessing the impact of unionization and minimum wages on teenage hiring; and long-term studies.

EMPLOYER INCENTIVES

COLLABORATION, FACILITATION OF

PARTICIPANT INCENTIVES

Ball, Joseph, et. al., The Youth Entitlement Demonstration: An Interim Report

on Program Implementation, Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation,

1979.

Researchers examined the implementation of the Youth Incentive

Entitlement Pilot Projects (YIEPP) during its first few months of existence. Created in 1977, YIEPP was a Labor Department effort to test the

effectiveness of a guaranteed job as an incentive for high school dropouts to return to school or to keep potential dropouts from leaving.

A unique aspect was a 100 percent federal wage subsidy to private sector

employers who provided the guaranteed jobs. Evaluation of the 17 project

sites revealed the job guarantee was not particularly effective in luring

the dropouts back to school. Although there were adequate numbers of

jobs created, those in the private sector were only .a small percentage

of the total and there were problems scheduling work and classroom

hours. But there were indications that many youth stayed in school

390

442
because of the guaranteed jobs. The researchers concluded that many

questions remain but that the "preliminary judgment is that Entitlement

is feasible in reaching and employing large numbers of eligibles."

COLLABORATION, FACILITATION OF

AVOIDING UNREAL CAREER EXPECTATIONS

Herron, Marshall, et. al., Employer-Based Career Education, FY 73 Evaluation

Report, Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, 1973.

Assessed was the Employer-Based Career Education Program in Tigard, Ore.,

a pilot project funded by the National Institute of Education. The 29

students who participated completed eight employer site explorations,

spent 108 days in learning experiences at three employer sites, were

tutored in two skills and received many hours of independent study, seminars and counseling. Tests showed the students remained about the same

in basic skills and self-concepts, but reached levels of competence in a

number of "survival" skills and improved their writing mastery. Seniors

reached a high level of career maturity and employers said participants

were enthusiastic and competent workers. Concludes the study: "All

those involved were enthusiastic about the program."

COLLABORATION, FACILITATION OF

Wurzburg, Gregory, Improving Job Opportunities for Youth: A Review of Prime

Sponsor Experience in Implementing the Youth Employment and Demonstration

Projects Act, National Council on Employment Policy, 1979.

Ten case studies were examined in this assessment of the first months of

implementation of YEDPA, a one billion dollar per year effort to discover causes and cures of youth unemployment. n general, Wurzburg

found that thousands of employment and training opportunities had been

created, but not without a great deal of stress and strain within the

CETA system. New relationships between CETA offices, schools, employers

and community-based organizations are being forged and several innovative

programs have begun. However, despite the efforts of CETA prime sponsors, the private sector has not responded well to the call; nor,

443

391
according to Wurzburg, "does there seem to be much promise for any

breakthrough . . ." There are scattered examples of good programs

involving the private sector, but the connections between CETA and private employers "still have a long way to go." Reasons include red tape,

legal barriers such as child labor laws and insurance regulations, the

tight labor market and biased attitudes by employers and public officials

alike. Wurzburg concludes that prime sponsors must get more encouragement from the Labor Department to involve the private sector and to

evaluate job slot development plans in terms of "how much of what is

learned in a certain job is transferrable to private sector employment."

COLLABORATION, FACILITATION OF

AVOIDING UNREAL CAREER EXPECTATIONS

Frankel, Steven M., Executive Summary: An Assessment of School-Supervised

Work-Education Programs, Systems Development Corporation, 1973.

Fifty high school cooperative education programs were examined and found

to be generally successful. More than any other kind of in-school program, cooperative education was judged to provide students with jobrelated instruction; have a followup program for graduates; have an

advisory committee; provide job placement services; have a high rate of

job-related placements; provide students with jobs that offer on-the-job

training; help students in deciding on a career; provide students with

jobs that fit into their career plans; provide jobs with high levels of

responsibility; and provide inherently satisfying jobs. On the other

hand, students with poor attitudes were discriminated against and cooperative education was found not to be particularly effective in reducing

absenteeism. It also interfered with other activities such as schoolwork

and sports. Frankel concludes, however, that "the overall picture is a

very positive one."

392

44.4.
AVOIDING UNREAL CAREER EXPECTATIONS

COLLABORATION, FACILITATION OF

Stromsdorfer, Ernst W., and Fackler, James S., An Economic and Institutional

Analysis of the Cooperative Vocational Education Program in Dayton, Ohio,

Department of Economics, Indiana University, 1973.

The researchers examined the characteristics and program experiences of

students in Dayton's well-established cooperative education program along

with a control group of non-participating students. They discovered

several difficulties in pinpointing the precise effects of the program

and cautioned against generalizing too far with the data. Dayton, said

the researchers, is a prosperous mid-Western city with conservative

values and a homogenous population, so is not indicative of.the nation as

a whole. Nonetheless, several positive outcomes of the co-op program

were noted: participants earned considerably higher wages during their

high school years than non-participants; participants were "far happier"

with the relevance of their high school education than were nonparticipants; participants experienced fewer months of unemployment during

summer vacations and after graduation and earned higher wages; and participants had a higher probability of graduating from high school than

students in either the vocational education or general track, but

slightly less probability than the "academic" students. On the other

hand, the co-op program students had slightly lower grades overall than

other students, possibly because time at work cut into time available for

study. Overall, the researchers concluded that the co-op program did

have "favorable labor market effects, probably because of the emphasis

on vocational education and because impact was measured in the years

right after graduation.

AVOIDING UNREAL CAREER EXPECTATIONS

COLLABORATION, FACILITATION OF

Winer, Ellen, and Hochman, Ruth, Report on the Massachusetts Secondary School

Work Experience Program, Northeastern University, Boston, Mass., 1976.

393

445
With more than 61,000 secondary school students enrolled in cooperative

education or work-study programs, Massachusetts is one of the leading

states in its attempts to smooth the school to work transition. The

researchers assessed both paid and unpaid work experience programs,

including co-op, work-study, career exploration, internships and other

initiatives. Most of the participants were female, mainly because most

jobs available were in clerical and food-service occupations. Placements

for males were harder to come by, largely because of union objections.

Few employers offered formal training. Most employers felt they got

along well with school personnel and said they would have hired more

students but had too few supervisors. College-bound students were more

likely to be in .unpaid "professional" internships. Few students saw

their work experience as a way to learn a trade, but as a way to get out

of school, earn some money and test their career interests. The program

never has been formally evaluated, a need the researchers said was

"sorely felt." Nonetheless, the work experience program appears popular

and is continuing.

AVOIDING UNREAL CAREER EXPECTATIOIL

COLLABORATION FACILITATION OF

Gibboney Associates, Inc.. The Career Intern Program: Final Report on an

Experiment in Career Education that Worked, National Institute of

Education, 1977.

Over 400 students participated in the Career Intern Program experiment in

Philadelphia, which provided an "alternative" high school for students

who had trouble coping with the regular public school system. The program was designed by Opportunities Industrialization Centers of America,

Inc. and funded by the National Institute of Education. One component of

the city's comprehensive Urban Career Education Center, the Career Intern

Program enrolled some 250 students per year at a special school where

they worked on academic subjects at their own pace. Each participant

also helped work out a Career Development Plan that fit his or her own

interest and aptitudes. Students in their last semesters were placed in

hands-on work experience situations with private sector employers. Each

394

4
participant went through two hands-on work experiences. To measure the

program's impact, participants and a control group were compared. Some

33 percent of CIP interns eventually dropped out of school, compared with

86 percent of the controls. Nine months after the program began, almost

two-thirds of the original enrollees were still in school or had grad=

uated, compared with 15 percent of the controls. However, reading,

writing and math scores remained below national averages for the controls

and CIP interns, although the interns' scores were improved. Interns

were more knowledgeable about their career interests, however, and had

better estimates of their self-worth.

PREPARING SUPERVISORS TO WORK WITH YOUTH

COLLABORATION, FACILITATION OF

Davis, Mary F., A Model for Training the Disadvantaged: TAT at Oak Ridge,

Manpower Administration, U.S. Department of Labor, 1973.

Davis examined the initial results of the Training and Technology (TAT)

program, originally funded by the Labor Department but now supported

entirely with state, local and private money. Begun in 1968, TAT managed

to place some 90 percent of its first 2,000 graduates--more than twothirds of whom were aged 22 and under--into private sector jobs. An

unusual feature of TAT is that trainees must move from their hometowns to

the Oak Ridge, Tennessee area where there are shortages of manpower

needed to fill high paying, high skill jobs. The program design itself

is largely responsible for TAT's success, however, Davis says. These

elements include: instructors who are experienced craftsmen; a constant

emphasis on job development and placement; "rigorous . . . lengthy

. . . flexible and individualized instruction"; provision of remedial

academic instruction; close relationships between staff members and

employers; comprehensive support services; union and community support;

strong management that frees trainers to concentrate ou training. TAT

still exists and has been "bought into" by local schools,. Standard Oil of

Indiana, the Work Incentive (WIN) program and other agencies and

corporations.

395

447
APPENDIX

SELECTED DESCRIPTIVE AND ANECDOTAL MATERIALS

1. Barlow, Melvin, Community Involvement in Career Education: A

Metropolitan Area Example, U.S. Office of Career Education, 1978.

2. Blair, Larry, et al, "Increasing Business and Industry Involvement in CETA Prime Sponsor Activities," Adherent, Dec., 1976.

3. Blau, Ruth S., "Meeting the Mandate to Employ Youth," Worklife, Jan., 1978.

4. Committee for Economic Development, Jobs

Directions for a Public-Private Partnership,

Development, 1978.

for the Hard-to-Employ: New

Committee for Economic

for the Teenage Unemployment

5. Congressional Budget Office, Policy Options

Problem, Congressional Budget Office, 1976.

6. Congressional Budget Office, The Teenage Unemployment Problem: What Are the Options?, Congressional Budget Office, 1976.

7. Earthman, Robert C., Hardcore Youth Unemployment, University of California, Berkeley, 1970.

'8. Gold, Chuck, Contracting with Business and Industry: A Historical Review, Bay de Noc Community College, Escanaba, MI, 1978.

9. Grasso, John T., The Contribution of Vocational. Education, Training and Work Experience to the Early_glEeer Achievements of Young Men, Center for Human Resource Research, Ohio State University, 1975.

10. Healas, Donald V., Vocational Education's Role in Establishing Secondary Students in Business and Industry, American Vocational Association, 1978.

11. Hensley, Gene, Enhancing Business and Industry Participation in Career Education, National Advisory Council for Career Education, 1977.

12. Hoyt, Kenneth, Community Resources for Career Education, U.S.

Career Education, no date.

13. Hyink, Bernard L., Cooperative Education: A Perspective,

State University and Colleges, Los Angeles, 1976.

14. Kohen, Andrew, et al, Career Thresholds: Longitudinal Studies of the Educational and Labor Market Experiences of Young Men, Vol. 6, Center for Human Resources Research, Ohio State University, 1977.

15. National Commission on Resources for Youth, New Roles for Youth in the School and the Community, 1975:

Office of

California
16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

National Institute of Education, A Comparison of Four Experience-Based

Career Education Programs, 1976.

National Urban League, Inc.

Employment, 1976.

Ornstein, Michael, et al,

Hopkins University, 1971.

, Summary Report of the Conference on Youth

Entry Into the American Labor Force, Johns

O'Toole, James, The Reserve Armv of the Underemployed, U.S.

HEW, 1975.

Persons, Edgar A., Job Creation Through Human Development,

Minnesota, School of Agriculture, 1978.

Department of

University of

Robison, David, Alternative Work Patterns: Changing Approaches to Work

Scheduling, Work in America Institute, Inc., 1976.

Sheppard, Nathaniel, Jr., "Chicago Job Training Partnership Presents A

Model for U.S. Proposal," New York Times, April 10, 1978.

Shimberg, Benjamin, ivsovinOccalReulation, Educational

Testing Service, 1976.

Sprengel, Donald, et al, Longitudinal Impact Assessment of the 1971-72

Vocational Exploration in the Private Sector Program, Center for Urban

Problems, St. Louis University, 1974.

25. Sprengel, Donald, et al, Vocational Exploration in the Private Sector:

Final Report and Assessment, 1972-73, Center for Urban Problems, St.

Louis University, 1974.

26. Sterne, Michael, "Schools Urged to Focus on Private Jobs," The New York

Times, Jan. 15, 1976.

27. U.S. Chamber of Commerce, Career Education and the Businessman, 1973.

28. U.S. Department of Labor, Manpower Administration, Breakthrough for

Disadvantaged Youth, 1969.

397

449
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Adams, Arvil V.; Mangum, Garth L.;

Wayne. Seninger, Stephen F.; and Stevenson, The Lingering Crisis of Youth Unemployment. The W.E. Upjohn Kalamazoo, Michigan: Institute of Employment Research, 1978.

Applied Management Sciences, Inu. Cooperative Education--A ment: National AssessEducation, and

Executive Summary. Ezeplred for U.S. Department of Health, Welfare, Office of

ing, and Evaluation, Education, Office of Planning, Budget- Postsecondary Programs Division, 1977.

Baldwin,

ability of Youth

Stephen Edward. ThsImpsit of Governmental Programs on The Employ- in the Seattle Labor Market. Ph.D. University of Washington, Dissertation, Seattle, 1968.

Ball,

the First Year of

Joseph. Implementing Supported Work: Job Creation Strategies During the National

Demonstration Research

Demonstration. New York: Manpower Corp., 1977.

Barton, Paul E. "Youth Policy:

August-September 1977. Getting Started." Work Education Exchange,

Baum, John F. An Evaluation of a NAB-JOBS Training

Workers. Program for Disadvantaged Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Wisconsin, Madison, 1974.

Belding, Nancye; Sparks, Tamara; and Miles, Guy H. ment: Perspectives of AdjustResearch Institute

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Bell, Robert R. "The Related Importance of Mother Black Family, and Wife Roles," in The edited by Robert Staples. Belmont, California: Publishing Co., 1971. Wadsworth

Borus, Michael;

of the Neighborhood

Brennan, John P.; and Rosen, Sidney. "A Benefit-Cost Analysis Corps: The Out-of-School Journal of Human Program in Indiana." Resources 6, Spring 1970..

Bowen, William G.

Participation.

and Finnegan, T. Aldrich. The Economics of Labor Force Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969.

Bromley, James and Wardle, Larry. CETA Program Models: Office of Manpower On-the-Job Training. Research and Development

Department. of Labor, Monograph prepared for the Employment and Training, Washington, D.C., 1977.

Bruno, Lee. CETA ProgramModels: Intake and Assessment.

Research and Office of Manpower Development Monograph prepared for the Employment, and Department of Labor, Training, Washington, D.C., 1977.

Bullock, Paul.

Ann Arbor, Michigan:

Aspirations vs. Opportunity: Careers in the Inner City. Institute of Labor and Industrial Relations, 1973.

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Cain, Glen G. "Benefit/Cost Estimates for Job Corps." Institute for

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415
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417

46J
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418
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419 471
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420
APPENDIX

SOURCES AND CONTACTS FOR INFORMATION PRESENTED IN THIS REPORT

Data bases and Libraries:

1. Educational Resources Information Clearinghouse (ERIC) for vocational

and career education, Ohio State University.

2. Employment and Training Administration Clearinghouse, U.S. Department

of Labor, Washington, D.C.

3. Office of Youth Programs Library, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington,

D.C.

4. "ORBIT" comprehensive computerized data base U.S. Department of Labor,

Washington, D.C.

5. National Institute of Education Library, Washington, D.C.

6. National Manpower Institute Library, Washington, D.C.

Organizations:

1. American Vocational Association, Wlhington, D.C.

2. National Alliance of Business, Washington, D.C.

3. National Federation of Independent Huainan- Los Angeles, Calif.

4. U.S. Chamberof Commerce Washington, D.C.

Individuals:

1. Aspleth, Mary Lou, Office of Youth Programs, U.S. Department of Labor,

Washington, D.C.

2. Barnow, Bert, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Policy, Evaluation

and Research (ASPER), U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, D.C.

3. Brack, Roland, Office of Youth ,rogramsg U.S. Department of Labor.

Washington, D.C.

. Carnevale, Tony, previously with the :v.:nate Budget C.Amittee

5. Clark, Donald, President, National Associatio,t for Industry-Education'

Cooperation, Buffalo, New York.
6. Cohen, David, Director of Research, Mayor's Office for Employment and

Training, Chicago, Ill.

7. Collins, Tom, Corporation for Public/Private Ventures, Philadelphia, Pa.

8. Cook, Leslie, Research Assistant, Wharton School of Business, University

of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.

9. Crowe, Michael, National Center for Research in Vocational Education,

Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.

10. David, Liane, George Washington University Social Research Group's ISIS

research data retrieval system (no longer in operation).

11. Drob, Judah, Former director of the Office of Research and Development

Utilization, Employment and Training Administration, U.S. Department of

Labor, Washington, D.C.

12. Fector, Al, National Academy of Science, Washington, D.C.

13. Garone, Judy, Supported work program, Manpower Research and Development

Corporation, New York, N.Y.

14. Harris, Anola, Employment and Training Administration, U.S. Department

of Labor, Washington, D.C.

15. Ivery, Robert, Director

Consortium.

of Youth Programs, Baltimore, Md. Manpower

16. Kolberg, William, Former Assistant Secretary of Labor for Employment

Training..

17. Levine, Herbert, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, N.Y.

18. Lieberman, Harry, Office of Operations Research, Employment and Training

Administration, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, D.C.

19. Long, Mae, Corporation for Public/Private Ventures, Philadelphia, Pa.

20. Miguel, Richard, National Center for Research in Vocational Education,

Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.

21. Mirengoff, William, National Academy of Science, Washington, D.C.

22. Phillips, Howard, Director Office of Research and Development Utilization,

Employment and Training Administration, U.S. Department of Labor,

Washington, D.C.

23. Shuster, Lew, Senate Budget Committee

and

4 7'4
24. Slobig, Frank, Office of Youth Programs, U.S. Department of Labor,

Washington, D.C.

25. Stern, Barry, U.S. Office of Educa'ion, Washington, D.0

423
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE:

HIGH RISK YOUTH
INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER ONE:

CHAPTER TWO:

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Collaborative Arrangement ih the

School to Work Transition

The Relative Effect and Value of

Private Sector vs. Public Sector

Job Placement Experience

CHAPTER THREE: Targeting, Identifying, and

Recruiting

CHAPTER FOUR: Inducement to Service: To Test

or Not to Test

CHAPTER FIVE: Programs Structured to Mirror

Real World Choices

CHAPTER SIX: Individualized Planning and

Assessment Plans

CHAPTER SEVEN: Motivation, Job Seeking and

Work Relevant Attitudes

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHIES

COMPREHENSIVE BIBLIOGRAPHIES

PAGE

426

433

451

476

504

517

531

545

569

612
INTRODUCTION

The Opportunities Academy of Management Training, Inc. (OAMT) has

conducted a literature review on the subject of employment and training

services for nigh-risk youth.

This review of the literature on services for high-risk youth will be

incorporated into recommerdations for future programs offering employment and

training services. The review encompassed the activities listed below,

focusing on the relevant policy issues.

Conducting an ERIC search of literature in the appropriate focus

area;

Review of appropriate literature and research material available at

the Department of Labor;

Compilation of a comprehensive bibliography of all collected sources

and citations;

The literature will be examined and the most useful material

selected for inclusion in and the construction of an annotated

bibliography;

r

There will be an interpretive narrative and analysis coalescing what

is known within the focus area about each policy issue around which

the literature review shall be focused;

The final step shall be the identification of next steps or research

strategies which Youthwork should engage in to answer the knowledge

development gaps which current research and projects noted earlier

leave unanswered.

42.6
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Programs designed to respond to the complex needs of unemployed youth can

be traced back to the Juvenile Delinquency and Youth Offenses Control Act of

1961. This marked the beginning of efforts to focus on youth unemployment as

a problem of social concern and national import.

In 1962 the Manpower Development and Training Act was passed with an

emphasis on retraining workers displaced by automation. The 1963 amendments

to the legislation focused on disadvantaged youth and a multitude of Experimental and Demonstration Projects were subsequently funded to meet the

employment needs of this population. Also in 1963 a new Vocational Education

Act was passed broadening the definition of vocational education and providing

funds for part-time employment.

The Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 (EOA) drew the lines of battle for

the "War on Poverty." For youth, the weapons to be used were

employment-related. The EOA established the Job Corps as a residential job

training and education program to serve hard core disadvantaged youth. This

program continues today, presently authorized under CETA legislation.

Included in the EOA was a Work Training Program for youth which became the

Neighborhood Youth Corps. Models were developed to serve those in school

(prevent drop-outs) as well as those who had already dropped out.

While the Economic Opportunity Act programs continued through the sixties

and into the seventies, changes the administering agencies were made, and

the focus mo"ed from centralization and categorization to decentralization and

decategorivstion.

In 1973, the Comprehdnsive Employment and Training Act (CETA) was adopted

finalizing the decentralization process by giving local prime sponsors control

over the distribution of employment and training funds in their areas.

Title IV of CETA continued the Job Corps, but other programs to serve youth

were to be adopted at the local level. In 1977, the Youth Employment and

Demonstration Projects Acts was passed.

427 4Th
Under the Youth Employment and Demonstration Projects Act (YEDPA), an array of programs and demonstration activities has been funded as a response

to the diverse needs of unemployed youth. Youth Community Conservation and

Improvement Projects (YCCIP) seek to employ jobless 16-19 year-olds in well

supervised work projects providing tangible products of benefit to the community. The Young Adult Conservation Corps (YACC) is a year-round program

providing unemployed, out-of-school youth, ages 16 through 23, an opportunity

to work on conservation and other environmental projects to maintain and

improve public parks, forests and recreational areas. Youth Incentive Entitlement Pilot Projects (YIEPP) guarantee a job and/or training for all

economically disadvantaged 16 to 19 year-olds who are already in school or

plan to return to school. The Youth Employment and Training Program (YETP)

concentrates on both in-school and out-of-school youth, with an emphasis on linking education and work. In addition, Job Corps and the Summer Program for

Economically Disadvantaged Youth (SPEDY) have been maintained and revitalized

as efforts to address all dimensions of the youth employment proglem.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

The phrase high-risk is relatively new to the literature. For the most

part, early literature includes information on the effectiveness of specialized service for exclusive groups, i.e. adjudicated youth, drug abusers, high

school dropouts etc. Few examples can be found that deal specifically with

the high-risk youth as a sub-group of the larger youth population.

Most recent literature has included the phrase high-risk as a descriptor,

however, a degree of ambiguity is evident in the multiplicity of definitions

the phrase carries. The lack of a set definition was a factor in the isolation of information relative to this specialized group. Programs generally

have been developed to serve categories of youth that might fit one definition

of high-risk youth and not another.

For the purposes of this review, the following description of high-risk

youth was used. The term high-risk, as stated by Youthwork, Inc., encompasses

"long-term unemployed youth, teenage parents, ex-juvenile justice offenders,

youth with a history of drug or alcohol abuse and high school dropouts."'

428 460
Youthwork continued by adding that "young people classified as high-risk,

regardless of the (sub) group they may be a part of, share not only their

predictably dismal employment prospects but also the effects of shortages for

teenage work experiences that might serve as a stepping stone for future

employment."

The literature review focused on an examination of information related to

the following list of policy issues.

Policy Area #1

What forms of collaboration among employment, training, educational

(including colleges and universities) and rehabilitation

institutions (including CBO's*) are the most effective and the most

successful in facilitating the school-to-work transition sequence?

Specifically, what forms of collaboration and what structural

arrangements best serve the young people in terms of placing them

in private sector, unsubsidized jobs after program completion?

*(and churches, families and community groups)

Policy Area #2

What do we know about the relative effect and value of private

sector vs. public sector job placement/experience in terms of

skills acquired, later (after program) job placement, career and

educational success and overall long-term employability? To whatextent does what type of placement change/alter the impact as a

result of the age of the participants?

Policy Area #3

What do we know about how to identify and target high-risk

populations of young people*? Once identified, how do we effectively attract and involve hard-to-reach young people in

programs designed to deliver services to them? *(at what age)

Policy Area #4

What do we know about creating and inducing access to services and

programs and ways of measuring and determining access contrasted

with testing which usually precludes opportunities for involvement?

(The intent of this question is to determine if there are other

means which meaningfully induce and encourage access to services

and programs rather than testing which is often used as a mechanism

for precluding individuals from accessing programs and services.)

481

429
Policy Area #5

What do we know about how programs can be structured to mirror real

world choices so that participants will understand the consequences

of their involvement with the program? (The intent of this

question is to determine the extent to which programs accurately

reflect real world choices which participants will be faced with

when they leave the program. A secondary intent is to insure that

they appreciate the long-run consequences of program

participation.)

Policy Area #6

What do we know about how the multitude of individualized planning

and assessment plans lead to in-school individualized education

plans; do these plans incorporate specific vocational planning

objectives? (The intent of this item is to describe the various

IEP's and how they are used to develop individualized education

plans for high risk young people so we can know what services they

are receiving and what kind of progress is being made.)

Policy Area #7

What do we know about how training and/or work experience can be

designed to improve the perceived attitudes of program participants, particularly with respect to motivation, jobseeking skills

attitudes, and work-relevant attitudes? (The intent here is to

determine the extent to which we can determine whether or not there

are other ways of assessing and improving upon the impact of

training and work programs on the attitudes and perceptions of program participants. The overall intent would be to focus in on the

impact of the programs on these characteristics of program

participants.)

PROCESS OF REVIEW

The literature review began with a search for the publications most

appropriate to study. Several computer-based literature searches were

conducted to obtain listings on the topic being studied. The computer bases

searched are listed below:

Comprehensive Dissertations Abstracts

INFORM

National Technical Information Service (NTIS)

Public Affairs Information Service International (PAIS)

Social Scisearch

Sociological Abstracts

Research and Information Services for Education

Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC)

430

482
SEARCH TOPIC

Employment and Training Programs which serve high-risk youth.

KEYWORDS

Youth Elployment and Training

Youth Legislation

Youth Unemployment

Job Corps

Youth Program Assessments

Youth motivation

Youth attitudes toward work

Youth attitudes toward job-seeking

Identification and recruitment of high-risk youth

Individualized vocational education plans

Use of Advisory Boards in youth programs

Youth skill training programs

Youthwork experience programs

Youth on the job training programs

Youth and career education

Job placement and follow-up

School-to-work transition

Successful model of youth programs for job placement

Public sector vs./private sector job placement

Relationship of age to placement success

Recruitment methods

Career education.

Publications and additional information were acquired from the following

sources:

Research and Information Services for Education

U.S. Department of Labor Library

ETA Resource Center, Region III

Free Library of Philadelphia

Temple University Library

Further information was obtained in discussion with many individuals

involved in youth employment and training programs. These include:

Youthwork, Inc.

Office of Youth Programs, DOL -

Saul Barry Wax

Lauren Kaminsky

Jayne Seidman

Frank Slobig

Pam Clark

Evelyn Ganzglass

483
Office of Planning, Evaluation

and Research, DOL

DOL Library

ETA Resource Center, Region III - Corpoeation for Public/

Private Ventures

Philadelphia Private Industry Council

Harry Lieberman

Nancy Courier

Peg Harper

Sara Elliott

Janet Wolverton

May Long

Adina Newberg

Elaine L. Simon
CHAPTER ONE

Col, e Arrangements in the School to Work Transition

The diver. "Lin the youth population and the concomitant needs and

programs of this < Lized group are many.

The youth who is in school needs a part-time or summer job and some

information abk,Art the labor market in order to continue in school

and be prepares for work as an adult; the dropout who has failed in

or been fails by the education system and is ready to try again

needs a secom6 chance; youths who graduate but can't latch onto a

job with an future require aid in mounting career ladders;

dropouts who are unsure about their futures may simply need work to

tide them over until age brings greater maturity or labor market

opportunity.1

Local governments, Community Based Organizations (CBOs), Local Education

Agencies (LEAs) and others have chosen in-school and out-of-school approaches,

mixes of services and delivery agents to meet local needs.

2 As a result,

efforts to combine formal education and work experiences and efforts at

linking CETA and schools with the private sector have emerged.

According to Walther (1976), 3 pointing to "mixed results" from DOL

sponsored projects for youth over two decades, "promising results were

achieved in particular places during specific periods of time, but these

successes have typically not been enduring, have not been transportable to

other settings, or have been limited to specific client populations." Vogel,

(19704

adds, "In considering various program models, it is important to

recognize that what works in one particular place at one specific time should

not be expected ipso facto to be transportable to other settings or to other

populations."

According to Foat and Stromquist (1979,5 several institutional

arrangements have been utilized in efforts designed to facilitate the

school-to-work transition process. Collaborative relationships have been

established among employment, training, educational and rehabilitation

institutions. Three different institutional arrangements dare tried during

the implementation of recent (1977) DOL sponsored programs: an alternative

433 485
educational delivery agency run by a CBO, an approach based on broad commun- ity/business participation, and the predominant utilization of the existing

manpower agencies and other government units. In addition, the literature

provides examples of programs that were multi-funded (CETA, OE, Private

Employers, LEA and local governments).

Many programs do not fit easily into one collaborative arrangement model.

Attempts to respond to community needs and climates have led to "improved

coordination, more meaningful school and work arrangements, and increased

experimentation and innovation." 6

The information presented here focuses on a review of programs designed

for the high-risk youth population that have identified in their descriptions

elements of collaboration. The reader should be alerted that these "elements"

often come as a listing of the organizations/agencies/institutions involved in

the administration, implementation and funding of the programs reviewed. For

the most part, little is found in the literature that details the collaborative proCesses. Given this, the programs selected for inclusion in this

chapter will be discussed by presenting program information which may suggest

the processes of collaboration and the factors which might contribute to their

effectiveness.

Information on the programs selected for review will include, wherever

possible, the following:

Collaborative/institutional arrangement

Funding source(s)

Administrative arrangement(s)

Program target population

Program goals/objectives

Evaluation/assessment findings

The first set of programs to be described reflect the institutional

arrangement based on broad community/business participation. Barton & Fraser

(1968)

7

cite the Vocational Exploration Program (VEP) as a pilot education

program for disadvantaged youth. The program allowed students to have exposure to various career options in the private sector during the summer of 1976.

434

486
A modified and expanded project was conducted in the summer of 1977. VEP was

co-sponsored by the National Alliance of Businessmen (NAB) and the AFL-CIO

Human Resource Development Institute (HRDI). The program ran for 4 weeks and

served 120 students. Some students performed "actual work," whereas others

were limited to observation. Findings from a report by Irving Lipkowitz on

the VEP state that students, their parents and the program coordinators

expressed preponderantly favorable reaction to the program. The most serious

shortcoming of the 4-week program was too little work.

According to Barton & Fraser, (1978)

8 the Job Opportunities in the

Business Sector Program (JOBS), a nationwide effort was built on a commitment

by local business communities to hire and train the hardcore disadvantaged

unemployed including high-risk youth. The program was intended to:

enable contracting companies to provide immediate employment

at regular wages for the hard-core unemployed workers

identified by the government, coupled with training and

supportive services;

provide payments to companies to cover the extra cost of

furnishing basic education, transportation services,

corrective health services, counseling, etc;

provide employment for persons who would be less qualified

than those usually hired by the contracting employer. These

persons would need more training than the typical employee;

emphasize upgrading present employees caught in low-wage

dead-end jobs to higher-level positions in addition to hiring

unskilled disadvantaged workers for entry-level jobs.9

The collaborative arrangements consisted of the National Alliance of

Businessmen, DOL Regional Manpower Administrator's offices, local public and

private organizations and local companies.

The Greenleigh Associates, Inc. performed a study to assess the impact of

the JOBS program. Among the findings stated, relative to high-risk youth,

were the following:

The JOBS program in ten SMSA's had little impact upon the

statistical number of the unemployed.

435

4S7
An appreciable number of local employee groups have been

sensitized to the needs of disadvantaged youth through the

JOBS program.

The JOBS program has not developed effective linkages with other manpower programs, education systems, and health and

social welfare organizations. The program, overall, has not

developed the capability to provide effectively the full range

of support services needed by trainees.10

Another example of a broad community/business approach as cited by SoCkol

and McClain (1978), is the Tri-lateral Council of Quality Education, Inc.

11

It Consists of the Greater Boston Chamber of Commerce, the Boston School

Department and the National Alliance of Businessmen. This collaborative

effort emphasized the one-to-one relationship of a major company or governmental agency and a local high school. Through this mechanism, business

experience, resources and personnel could be channeled to improve the value

and quality of education within the public schools. As described by Sockol,

the concrete advantages include:

(1) A feeling of ownership - the businesses aa:e more willing to

commit themselves to the needs of their respective partner

schools;

(2) Because of their strong commitments, businesses are willing to

contribute personnel, expertise and other useful resources to

their partner schools;

(3) Because of the designed close proximity to the schools, students and faculty can more easily identify with their

partner businesses; and

(4) Because of the consistency of contacts between institutions,

confusion and waste are kept to a minimum.12

Sockol and McClain continued by listing ways in which monies allocated by

the Boston business partners involved in this project have supported

appropriate school activities. The list includes the following:

(1) Scholarship funds

(2) Apprenticeship training programs for students

(3) Part-time, after-school jobs for students

(4) Full-time summer jobs for students

(5) Summer internships for teachers and guidance personnel

(6) Special grants to cover the costs of experimental programs.13

436

488
As reported by the Federal Interagency Committee on Education,

Sub-committee on Education and Work (1976), 14 the Project 70,001 is another

example of the community/business collaborative arrangement. It was founded

by the Thom McAn Shoe Company and is now a national organization promoted by

the Distributive Education Clubs of America (DECA). The Delaware program,

spotlighted here, is primarily funded by the Vocational Education Act (disadvantaged set-aside) and CETA. The program is targeted to school dropouts,

or "early leavers." Enrcllees receive full-time work experience jobs in the

distributive education field and attend General Equivalency Development (GED)

instruction.

Two problems arising from the aforementioned collaborative arrangement

have been in the areas of obtaining sufficient funds and securing program

approval. According to the sub-committee report, "Local CETA did not look

kindly on the Wilmington Schools and therefore, was not anxious to fund any

project under the administration of the school system."12 Evantually, CETA

funds were obtained through the State Education Department. Technical assistance was provided by the National 70,001 organization and additional funds

and in-kind assistance were received from Title I, Elementary and Secondary

Education Act, the Wilmington Downtown Businessmen's Association, and

Opportunities Industrialization Centers (OIC).

During 1976, the program served 88 enrollees, half of whom were members

of minority groups. Sixty-eight enrollees completed their courses; 20 dropped

out. There were no figures available on placement rates, although all 88

enrollees were placed in work experience distributive education jobs while

they were in the program.

The U.S. Department of Labor, the National Alliance of Businessmen (NAB),

and the Office of Education of HEW co-operated in the development and demonstration of a'full-year pilot program "Vocational Exploration in the Private

Sector" (VEPS) for Neighborhood Youth Corps in-school youth. The time frame

of the experimental program was June 1, 1971 to June 30, 1972. 15

437 489
VEPS program goals were to:

reduce high school dropout rates;

reduce the flow of antrained, unskilled youth into the labor market; and

provide enrollees with the widest possible exposure to the world of work.

A study was made to determine the extent to which the VEPS-I program attained its several objectives. Although research hypotheses are not explicitly stated in the longitudinal impact assessment report, several key hypotheses can be deduced from the test. The VEPS emphasis on intensive counseling coupled with paid work exploration and workexperience would have positive impact on:

academic indicators such as grade point average and attendance patterns;

graduation rates (and negative impact oa dropout rates); and

employability of youth upon graduation

The general conclusion was that:

the VEPS program proved to be an effective, significant, and lasting experience for the youth who completed the program, resulted in significant improvement in academic performance and attendance in school, and contributed significantly to the ability of the VEP-I youth to obtain full-time employment upon graduation from high school.l6

Programs designed on an institutional collaborative arrangement

utilizing, predominantly, the existing manpower agencies and other government

units, will be the next set to be described.

The Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation Supported Work Project is

a collaborative undertaking which involved: M.D.R.C., an overseer, monitor

and evaluator of employment demonstration projects, the Ford Foundation, five

federal sponsoring agencies, the Employment and Training Administration of the

Labor Department, the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration of the Justice

Department, the National Institute on Drug Abuse, the Office of Planning and
Evaluation of HEW, the Office of Policy Development and Research of HUD,

13 original project sites; and a principal research contractor, Mathematica,

Inc., with a closely aligned subcontractor, the Institute for Research on

Poverty of the University of Wisconsin. 17 The program was designed for populations who have had a traditionally difficult time gaining and maintaining

regular employment. Included in the program's target group were out-of-school

youth, former drug addicts and ex-offenders.

The program was called supported work. It was a transitional program;

participants would leave at the end of a pre-determined period of time,

whether they had obtained a job, as hoped, or not. While in the program,

supported workers would earn entry level wages, with opportunities to increase

their earnings through good performance and attendance.

The findings of a study of program effectiveness stated that "for a good

many (of the participants), the program is thus far working as intended and in

the youth group, supported work resulted in an almost 20% lower incidence of

drug use among participants."

As cited by the Office of the Secretary for Policy, Evaluation and

Research, Employment and Training Administratior/DOL (1978),18 the Oakland

Youth Work Experience Program (YWEP) is another example of a collaborative

arrangement for high-risk youth that involved existing manpower/government

agencies.

The YWEP was based conceptually upon a theoretical model developed

by the Office Youth Development (OYD), DHEW and included selected

elements of both the In- and Out-of-School Neighborhood Youth Corps

(NYC) program and the Vocational Exploration in the Private Sectors

(VEPS) program. It was developed as a model program for the U.S.

Department of Labor and the initial contract included funds for a

comprehensive, long range evaluation of its effectiveness in

realizing its stated youth development goals.19

The program's outcomes were thus: (1) to increase youth's access to

socially acceptable and meaningful roles both at school and in relation to

present and future work roles; (2) to reduce negative labeling of youth at

439

491
home, school and work; (3) to reduce feelings of alienation ;lad rejection and,

as a consequence, (4) to reduce involvement in delinquent behavior.

The target population was delinquent and pre-delinquent youth aged

sixteen to eighteen. In addition, program participants were required to meat

poverty level guidelines as specified by the Office of Management and Budget.

The program provided work experience and linked with area high schools,

adult education programs, a street academy and a local community college to

increase the youth's perception of career opportunities and improve basic

educational skills.

Close working relationships were established with health, mental health,

legal assistance and counseling agencies, as well as juvenile diversion

programs, recreational organizations, and community and culturally based

agencies. 20

The evaluation findings of Study I revealed "no empirical evidence of

favorable program impact on participants in general during the first six month

evaluation period." In Study II "respondents again reported no favorable

changes and, in fact, showed unfavorable changes in self-reported delinquency

and parental rejection." 21

As described by Barton & Fraser (1978), 22

the implementation of the Youth

Work Experience Process Model in Oakland, California provides another example

of the manpower/government institutional arrangement for the high-risk youth,

population. During the period June 1974 to June 1976, the National Office for

Social Responsibility (NOSR) developed and put into operation a Model Youth

Work Experience Program under contract to the U.S. Department of Labor's

Offender Rehabilitation Division. This effort, funded under the Manpower

Development and Training Act, was implemented with two hundred youth participants from the Oakland, California area, together with local school and

government officials, a staff or eight on site, several people in Washington

at the NOSR headquarters, and an evaluation team based in Boulder, Colorado,

that made regular visits to the Oakland site.

440 492
The purpose of the effort was to:

1. assist delinquent and disadvantaged youth in increasing their

employability through education, vocational training, work

experience, and counseling;

2. develop a model utilizing the work experience concept; and

3. disseminate the model or successful feature of the model to

local Prime Sponsors desirious of impacting the employment

and training needs of disadvantaged youth.

Evaluation findings stated "no empirical evidence of favorable program

impact on participants in general during the first six-month evaluation period

and limi'ed evidence that participation for a full year had some beneficial

effects for experimental respondents.

"23

The final program to be examined within the manpower/government

institutional arrangement section is the Experience-Based Career Education

Model. The program was chosen because of its collaborative arrangement with

cooperating school systems. The EBCE model, a'career education approach to

servicing high-risk youth, is designed to integrate knowledge of the world

of work with a strong academic education.

Under the auspices of the National Institute of Education (NIE), four

regional educational laboratories have been developed with the cooperation of

the local school systems.

Key elements of the programs include:

an emphasis on using community sites as the principal bases

for learning experiences

an individualized instructional system

a life skills component

a career development component

a system of accountability for students

441

493
Data on program outcomes showed that the experimental groups scored

significantly higher than the control group on oral communication skills and

career planning, student attitudes toward the school environment improved, and

experimental students dropped out of school at a rate of 5% while controls

students dropped out at a rate of 15%.

The last set of programs to be covered in this review is comprised of

programs in which an alternative educational delivery agency is run by a

Community Based Organization (CBO).

An example of a program designed for high-risk youth and involving a CBO

in the collaborative arrangement is the Cincinnati Clerical Co-op. The program, as described by Walther (1976), 25 was targeted toward young,

predominantly black females who qualified under poverty guidelines and were

mostly school dropouts. The program prdVided for periods of class-room work

and periods of work experience in firms of potential employers of students.

It was designed to improve clerical skills,. work habits and job-seeking

activities.

"During the first four years of operation, the Co-op achieved substantial

success in preparing its trainees for clerical jobs and the labor market performance of its graduates was significantly better than a control group

composed of enrollees in other parts of the Cincinnati Neighborhood Youth

Corps program."26

Another example of an alternative education delivery agency run by a CB0

is the Vocational Foundation, Inc. (VFI). According to the Work in America

:nstitute, Inc. (1979),27 the VFI is a private, nonprofit job placement

agency, located in New York City since 1936, which largely serves those youths

who have had some contact with the law and who are the most disadvantaged.

The program has established collaborative arrangements with the courts,

probation agencies, and public and private youth services. It has become

regarded as the agency of, last resort for the most difficult and

hardest-to-place youths.

442

494
The VFI's primary function is to place youth in jobs. The program places

approximately 40 percent of all enrolees; most ol these placements occurring

in small owner-proprietor firms.

VFI also has a developmental program, which combined OJT with classroom

instruction. The 11-month program, JUMP, trains draftsmen for professional

architectural and engineering societies. The results have been impressive:

the JUMP retention rate on the job averaged 65 percent.

The Demonstration Project on Youth Career Development for School-to-Work

Transition, as cited by Janice O. Mapp (1979)28 is another example of a CB0

focused collaborative arrangement. The program, developed by the National

Urban League, was designed to explore the feasibility of having varied organizations, both government and CBO, to link with private sector employers and

public secondary school systems to provide special career development assistance to disadvantaged high school juniors and seniors. An evaluation. design

was developed to measure not only student outcomes but also the relative

effectiveness of school-to-work transition service delivery among CBOs as

compared to other delivery agents. The model is currently being implemented

by the National Urban League, U.S. DOL Women's Bureau, SER Jobs for Progress,

U.S. Employment Service, Recruitment and Training Program, and the National

Council of Negro %men.

The final program to be offered as an example of a CB0 institutional

collaborative arrangement targeted to the high-risk population is the Career

Intern Program. As described by Barton and Fraser, 29 the program, developed

by the Opportunities Industrialization Centers of America, Inc., (OIC/A) is

an alternative high school for 16 to 21 year -old youth who are dropouts or

are in serious risk of dropping out prior to high school graduation. The program goals are to assist interns in their completion of high school, the

acquisition of career information, the development of career plans and the

improvement of basic academic skills and affective growth.

Accotding to Gibboney, Assoc. (1977), 30 the Career Intern Program was

one element of the larger Urban Career Education Center ceoncept. The UCEC

model offered a tripartite design to attack problems related to

443 495
inner-city/disadvantaged/high-risk youth. One component of UCEC, the Career

Orientation Program (COP) served selected elementary, middle and junior high

schools by assisting them in their efforts to design

. career education materials. Another component, the Community Career Program, aided parents in

obtaining legal and medical help, housing and other community services.

UCEC (CIP) was developed and tested. in Philadelphia from 1972 to 1976.

In the final evaluation report, produced by the National Institute of Education (NIE) from data collected by an outside evaluation team, it is stated:

The CIP seems able to attract, hold, motivate and change students. In addition, changes in reading and mathematics achievement and in

career development as measured by standardized tests, interview,

unobtrusive indicators and ethnographic studies also suggested benefits of CIP participation.31

Under authorization of the Youth Employment and Demonstration

Project Act of 1977 (YEDPA, PL 95-93), the Department of Labor and NIE enteredkinto an Interagency Agreement to test the replicability of the CIP. The study was designed to ascertain if the same bene- fits could be achieved in geographically, economically, and culturally diverse locations and without the "presence" of Rev. Leon Sullivan. The four sites selected for this project were

Seattle, Washington; Detroit, Michigan; Poughkeepsie, New York; and New York City.

All of the results are not yet in, however, preliminary

findings indicate the following:

Attempts to replicate the CIP have effected full or nearly

full implementation of the program.

The OIC system is a viable diffusion mechanism.

Cognitive, effective and career development gains have occurred, to varying degrees in all replication sites as measured against control, comparison, and norm reference

groups. (Ethnographic findings support the data.)32

The review of the literature of this policy area was designed to provide'

a general picture of the diversity of program models and collaborative

institutional arrangements involved in the processes of facilitating the

school-to-work transition for high-risk youth. The programs cited were considered illustrative of that diversity. Each program selected identified as its target population youth included within the Youthwork Inc. description of

444 496
high-risk youth. Each program reviewed was described according to a general

program information format. The format was designed to disclose factors,

explicit or implicit, relative to the nature and effectiveness of the

aforementioned collaborative arrangements.

Logical analysis of the review of this area illuminated an information

gap that is consistent throughout the literature. The success or failure of

most programs reviewed cannot, from the literature, be attributable solely to

the collaborative arrangements utilized by the programs. Evaluation results,

generally, do not identify collaboration as a major factor. The effectiveness

of programs was often measured in terms of cognitive and affective growth of

participants and/or job placement and only assumptions can be made about the

affect collaboration had on these outcomes. In addition, the collaborative

process, including detailed descriptions of approaches, was not covered

extensively in the literature.

Foat and Stromquist (1979)

33 have forwarded the following assessment of

the effectiveness of the three institutional arrangements previously

described.

While all three institutional arrangements are possible, some

appear to have advantages over others. Programs with

well-developed community networks tend to perform better in

gaining access to, disadvantaged and, particularly,

out-of-school youths. They also show superior performance in

obtaining diversified jobs matched to youths' interests.

The cooperation of the LEA in the identification of potential

entollees, awarding academic credit, and even granting high

school diplomas is possible, though obtaining this cooperation

is likely to be a time-consuming and laborious process in most

communities. On the other hand, it is clear that LEAs face a

number of philosophical, practical, and political

disincentives in collaborating with DOL-sponiored programs.

The fact that they have collaborated is a testament to the

powerful incentive afforded by external funding. It appears

unlikely, that LEAs will adopt these programs once federal

support is cut off.

The performance of prime sponsors as organizers of work

experiences has been rather poor, but no conclusive statements

can be made about their capabilities, as these agencies were

subject to severe time constraints during the implementation

process. Also, they were assigned tasks relatively unfamiliar

445 497
to them--the establishment of relations with the LEA and with numerous businesses and agencies in the community. It remains to be tested whether the knowledge gained from the current experience has rendered prime sponsors more proficient.

Additional information on the collaborative process was found in the

literature of the National Manpower Institute (1978) 34 which stated:

In a particular community, the most

youth to find effective means for assisting appropriate employment at the various stages in the school-to-work transition will depend on such factors as:

size and economic characteristics of the community;

capabilities and policies of local employment service/job service offices;

characteristics of the public school system;

hiring practices of large and small employers in the community}

role of community-based organizations in economic and educational affairs;

patterns of cooperation among employers, labor unions, educational institutions, and local manpower agencies; and

community attitudes toward education and work.

Recommendations for Policy

The following recommendations are forwarded to increase our knowledge of

institutional collaborative arrangements designed to facilitate the

school-to-work transition of youth in the high-risk population.

(1) Criteria for judging program effectiveness and methods for

assessing the effect of the collaborative arrangement on

program success should be clearly defined.

(2) The role of Community-Based-Organizations could be expanded to

include the use of CETA funds for in-school programs.

(Mapp 1979)35

(3) Time needs to be allotted for the development of effective

collaborative arrangements.

4 4 64 9 8
References and Notes

1. U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration Office

of Youth Programs. Putting America's Future to Work. Washington, D.C.:

U.S. Government Printing Office, 1979, p. 4.

2. Ibid. p. 5.

3. Walther, Regis H. Analysis and Synthesis of COL Experience in Youth

Transition to Work Experience. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of

Labor, Employment and Training Administration, Office of Research and

Development, 1976, p. 86.

4. Vogel, Anita S. A Retrospective Survey of Programs for Youth Employment

in the Private Sector S onsored by the U.S. Department of Labor.

Pennsylvania: Corporation for Public/Private Ventures, March 1978.

5. Foat, C. and N. Stromquist, Study of the Career Intern Programs. Interim

Non-Technical Report. Task D: Comparison of the CIP with Other Youth

Programs. California: RMC Research Corp., 1979, p. 59.

6. U.S. Department of Labor, op. cit. pp. 5-6.

7. Barton, Paul E. and Bryna Shore Fraser. Between Two Worlds: Youth

Transition from School to Work. Volume 2: Programs and Experimentation.

Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training

Administration Office of Research and Development, 1978. p. 135-137.

8. Ibid. p. 122.

9. Ibid. p. 122.

10. Ibid. p. 124.

11. Sockol, Richard A. and Thomas W. McClain. School Business Partnerships:

A Practitioner's Guide. Mass: Institute for Governmental Services,

University of Mass., 1978 pp. 2-3.

12. Ibid. p. 5.

13. Ibid. p. 29.

14. Federal Interagency Committee on Education, Sub-Committee on Education

and Work. Education Service and Work: The Multi-Funded Approach.

Washington, D.C.: 1976, p. 72-74.

15. Barton aid Fraser, op. cit., p. 75-78.

16. Ibid. p. 79.

17. Ibid. p. 108-110.

449 493
What combinations of services work best to specific sub-groups within the high-risk population?

How can feasibility studies adequately assess a community's potential for successful collaboration?

What, if any, criteria and guidelines should be established for local collaboration efforts?

How can program designs reflect the maximum utilization of existing and new collaborative arrangements?

Should program services be subdivided to foster collaboration?

Are some services best rendered by a single agency?

"An important lesson from the past is the recognition that simple or

clearcut solutions are not be anticipated for the complex problems underlying

youth employmeht" (Vogel). 36

There are no simple or clearcut answers to the problem of identifying the

most effective collaborative arrangements for the high-risk youth population.

Hopefully, continued search for answers will contribute to informed judgments.

56

448
References and Notes

1. U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration Office

of Youth Programs. Putting America's Future to Work. Washington, D.C.:

U.S. Government Printing Office, 1979, p. 4.

2. Ibid. p. 5.

3. Walther, Regis H. Analysis and Synthesis of COL Experience in Youth

Transition to Work Experience. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of

Labor, Employment and Training Administration, Office of Research and

Development, 1976, p. 86.

4. Vogel, Anita S. A Retrospective Survey of Programs for Youth Employment

in the Private Sector S onsored b the U.S. Department of Labor.

Corporation for Public/Private Ventures, March 1978. Pennsylvania:

5. Foat, C. and N. Stromquist, Study of the Career Intern Programs. Interim

Non-Technical Report. Task D: Comparison of the CIP with Other Youth

Programs. California: RMC Research Corp., 1979, p. 59.

6. U.S. Department of Labor, op. cit. pp. 5-6.

7. Barton, Paul E. and Bryna Shore Fraser. Between Two Worlds: Youth

Transition from School to Work. Volume 2: Programs and Experimentation.

Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training

Administration Office of Research and Development, 1978. p. 135-137.

8. Ibid. p. 122.

9. Ibid. p. 122.

10. Ibid. p. 124.

11. Sockol, Richard A. and Thomas W. McClain. School Business Partnerships:

A Practitioner's Guide. Mass: Institute for Governmental Services,

University of Mass., 1978 pp. 2-3.

12. Ibid. p. 5.

13. Ibid. p. 29.

14. Federal Interagency Cdmmittee on Education, Sub-Committee on Education

and Work. Education Service and Work: The Multi-Funded Approach.

Washington, D.C.: 1976, p. 72-74.

15. Barton and Fraser, op. cit., p. 75-78.

16. Ibid. p. 79.

17. Ibid. p. 108-110.

449 501
18. U.S. Department of Labor, Office of the Secretary for Policy, Evaluation and Research, Employment and Training

on Youth Unemployment. Administration. Conference Report

1978, p. 290-291.

Its Measurement and Meaning. Washington, D.C.:

19. Ibid. p. 296-298.

20. Barton and Fraser, op. cit., p. 100.

21. Ibid. p. 102.

22. Ibid. p. 98.

23. Ibid. p. 102.

24. Ibid. p. 12-13.

25. Walther, op. cit., pp. 86-87.

26. Ibid. p. 87.

27. Work in America Institute, Inc., Job Strategies

Yori: for Urban Youth. New 1979, p. 44.

28. Mapp, Janice O. The Current Role of

Employment and Training Community-Based Organizations in

Force on Youth Employment

Programs for Youth. The Vice President's Task

(Paper given at Conference

in Youth Employment, on Involving CBO's

Arkansas, 1979) p. 3.

29. Barton and Fraser, op. cit., p. 133.

30. Gibboney, Richard A. Associates. The Career Intern Program Final Report: An Experiment in

Washington, D.C.:

Career Education that Worked. Vol. 1, No. 7. U.S. National Institute of Education, May 1977, p. 14.

31. U.S. National Institute of Education, The Career Intern Project: Final Report--Executive Summary by Education and Work Group. Washington, D.C.: May, 1977, p. 3.

32. RMC Research Corp. Study of the Career

Task A: Intern Program, Final Report The Process of Implementation by Peter G. Treadway and others, Washington, D.C.: U.S. National Institute of Education, 1979, pp. 2-4.

33. Foat and Stromquist. op. cit. p. 59.

34. National Manpower Institute. Job Placement Services for Youth. Washington, D.C.: 1978 p. 5.

35. Mapp, op. cit., p. 133.

36. Vogel, op. cit., p. 38.

450

502
CHAPTER TWO

The Relative Effect and Value of Private Sector

vs. Public Sector Job Placement/Experience

A review of the literature on the relative effect of private sector vs.

public sector job placement /experience on the long-term employability of high

risk youth turned up considerable information. The information was not available from comparative studies between public/private sector work experience,

but rather in books, articles and studies of a whole gamut of youth employment

programs. Information on work experience itself, and its value in terms of

future employability was sought. This was then examined for findings related

to the location of the work experience, the public or private sector. The

benefits of individual programs in one sector needed to be weighed against the

drawbacks of same, and reviewed in terms of general issues rather than

specific program. characteristics.

The studies reviewed for this analysis paper dealt primarily with

programs offering employment and training services for disadvantaged youth.

The literature has not featured the term high -risk until. very recently, and

most of the publications reviewed were written prior to 1979. While the term

disadvantaged is not synonomous to high-risk, it can be assumed that many of

the characteristics of disadvantaged youth are found in high-risk youth

populations.

This chapter will review the effect of work experience on the long term

employability of high-risk youth. It will then discuss the relative merits

and deficiencies of work experience programs in the public sector and the

private sector.

The chapter will conclude with recommendations for policy initiatives and

suggested areas for further study. References and notes will be provided at

the end of the chapter.

Arvil V. Adams and Garth L. Mangum, 1 in their'bOok The Lingering Crisis

of Youth Unemployment, reassess the youth unemployment problem. They reviewed

451 503
several published studies and further analyzed results of a national sample of

men and women aged 16-19 followed longitudinally over a seven year period

during the late 1960s and early 1970s. Their findings indicated that joblessness among out-of-school teenage youth carries a "hangover" effect. Those

with early unfavorable labor market experiences, are more likely to have later

unfavorably labor market experiences, all other things held constant.

In Chapter Six of the Adams/Mangum book, Wayne Stephenson2

discusses this

issue at greater length. His chapter, entitled "The Relationship Between

Early Work Experience and Future Employability" describes that relationship.

The findings of a study, of 1500 young men and women followed over seven years

demonstrated that to be frequently unemployed in the early years has a deleterious effect later on. Periods out of school and out of the labor force are

viewed by employers with great concern, creating a demand side barrier to

employment.

"Youth who spent the earlier period out of school and out of the labor

force had earnings at4the end of the survey (ages 23-26) about one-half the

average for their race-sex cohort."3 1". 4 See Table 6-2. Youth who were out of

school and out of work in the earlier survey years had a much lower rate of

employment than those who were either in school, employed or both. See Table

6-1. 5

Joseph R. Antos and Wesley Mellow6

also analyzed the data from the

National Longitudinal Surveys of young men and women. They reviewed data

based on interviews with 5,225 men aged 14-24 in 1966 and 5,159 women of the

same ages in 1968. Individuals were subsequently interviewed each year

through 1970 for men and 1971 for women. Among the findings of this study are

indications that the influence of traditional human capital factors

(education, training and work experience) is strong and systematic in regard

to wage determination.

In other words, two analyses of National Longitudinal Survey Data have

pointed out a close correlation between education, training and work

experience in terms of future labor market experiences. If individuals remain

in school for a longer period they will not suffer labor market problems as

452 504
Table 6-1. Labor Force Status in Final Survey Year by Earlier School

Enrollment and Labor Force Status (percent distribution)

Final sLzvey year (23 to 26 years of age)

Status and age

Men Women

Employed Unemployed

Out of

Labor Force Employed Unemployed

Out of

Labor Force

First survey year

(16 to 19 years of

age):

In School

Employed 92.2 5.1 2.7 67.8 8.4 23.8

Unemployed 92.0 8.0 0.0 51.4 6.8 41.9

Out of labor force 91.4 \ 3.7 4.9 67.4 7.2 25.4

Out of school

Employed 95.2 1.7 3.1 60.4 6.1 33.6

Unemployed 89.7 6.9 3,4 42.3 8.5 49.3

Out of labor force 78.9 7.9 13.2 37.7 7.7 54.5

Fifth survey year

(20 to 2$ years of

age):

In school

Employed 95.4 3.3 1.3 91.7 1.7 6.6

Unemployed 100.0 0.0 0.0 57.1 14.3 28.6

Out of labor force 94.3 3.4 2.3 76.9 9.6 13.5

Out of scbool

Employed 95.2 2.9 1.9 72.2 6.7 21.1

Unemployed 80.0 9.3 10.7 49.5 13.8 36.7

Out of labor force 62.2 13.3 24.4 32.8 7.5 59.7

Total 92.4 4.0 3.5 60.0 7.3 32.7

Size of Sample 1,355 59 52 926 113 504

Source: National Longitudinal Surveys.
Table 6-2. Mean Earnings by Prior Labor Force and School Enrollment

Status for Aging Cohorts of Young Men and Young Women

Who Were Out of Schoo" in Final Survey Year

Final Survey Year (23 to 26 years of age)

Men Women

Status and age per sump year White Black White Black

Size of sample

Grand mean

1,243 402 1,053 458

$7,308 $5,634 $3,646 $3,469

First survey year

(16 to 19 years of age):

In school

Employed $7,784 $5,797 $4,188 $4,295 Unemployed 6,858 5,644 3,465 3,224 Out of labor force 6,939 5,564 4,292 3,803

Out of School

Employed 7,423 5,937 3,308 3,791 Unemployed 6,816 4,077 2,226 3,120 Out of labor force 4,676 3,921 1,962 1,879

F=3.25*** F=1.60 F=10.81*** F=5.21 

Fifth survey year

(20 to 23 years of age):

In school

Employed $7,988 $6,036 $5,695 $5,985 Unemployed 8,036 4,550 5,344 4,118 Out of labor force 6,309 3,785 4,710 4,806

Out of school

Employed 7,918 6,065 4,744 4,757 Unemployed 6,289 5,124 2,753 2,670 Out of labor force 3,959 2,084 1,222 1,530

F=7.55** ** F=5.14  F=51.09** ** F=27.E1 

Source: National Longitudinal Surveys.

Significance levels: 10%(k) 5%(** ) 1%(***) 0.1%(****).
recurrent or severe as those of individuals who neither remained in school nor

were employed. For individuals who have dropped out of school, work

experience is vital to future labor market success.

The National Child Labor Committee7 has analyzed the issue of work

experience from the point of view of youth as well as from the point of view

community service. It cites a statement from the Office of ',Youth Programs "A

Knowledge Development Plan for YEDDA 1977" which says that work experience is

the chief element for impacting on youth's ability to get and keep a job, for

career development and for providing viable and tangible community benefits

under YEDPA and CETA Title VI. While the Committee endorses the concept of

work experience, it questions whether all the goals of work experience programs have been achieved and whether all the goals are, in fact, compatible.

The Committee further identifies some characteristics which work experience

projects should offer to their participants:

1. The change to experiment

2. Real training in specific skills

3. General training in work skills and habits

While the above-mentioned sources indicated general support for work

experience and work-experience programs for youth, there are other researchers

who raise questions about the success of earlier work experience efforts.

Sar Levitan9 reviewed the Neighborhood Youth Corps (NYC) program of the

1960s and found that there was a scarcity of hard data on the impact of the

program. The NYC program for out-of-school youth seemed to be a mixture of

"work experience, income support and aging vat."10 The program, national in

scope, varied widely among communities but NYC was unable to evaluate the

effectiveness of one program over another. One statistically significant

finding of the many evaluations of NYC was that the longer a youth remained in

NYC, the less were his/her chances of being placed in a correctional

institution.

Feldman and Peeven support the theory that work experience is a significant factor in the long-term employability of youth, but they raise a

concern about whether youth can attain that early work experience: "while

507
many youthful job seekers experience difficulty in finding jobs, due in part

to inexperience and lack of training, other young persons face even greater

problems because of poverty, racial discrimination, delinquency, lack of

employment opportunities in rural areas, and physical and mental handicaps. 11

Harry Silberman12

recognizes the need for work experience for youth and

recommends organized work experience programs as being better educational

experiences than casual part-time work, obtained for income purposes. He

favors educational work experience occurring at the work place for three

reasons: To overcome the isolation of the young from the work-place, to

provide adult role models for youth and to provide needed responsibility for

youth.

Throughout the literature reviewed, there runs a consistent agreement

that work experience is a crucial need of high-risk youth in order to insure

labor market success later in life. There is considerable disagreement as to

what form this work experience should take, how it might be organized or funded, what groups it might best serve and whether it should be primarily

available in the public sector or 'private sector. In order to examine this

issue, a review of the literature an the advantages and disadvantages of work

experience/placement in the public sector and private sector will be provided.

456 508
ri

PRIVATE SECTOR WORK EXPERIENCE

Advantages

1. Most of the jobs are in the private sector.

1.

Private firms account for 3/4 - 4/5 of employment in the non-farm

economy.

13

According to the National Commission for Manpower Policy14

over

80% of the jobs in the American economy are in the private sector. It is

likely that the growth of public sector employment may be reduced sharply in

the near future. Thus, a higher proportion than 80% of future expansions'in

employment could occur in the private sector.

2. There is a wider range of job opportunities and experiences in the

private sector.

Ray Rist, 15 in a study of the Exemplary In-School Demonstration Projects

conducted 451 interviews with youth participants in the programs, as well as with staff, supervisors and program operators. Programs studied included some

with private sector participation and some without. He found that private

sector involvement results in a wider diversity of experimental job opportunities and it increased the chances of placement for youth in meaningful,

interest-related work experiences.

Private sector programs coat less.

.... -Richard R.- de- Lonel-of-the -Corporation- for -Public/Private-Ventures in

Philadelphia, writes that private sector placeMents ,are better becanse the.

costs Should be less than public service employment programs and long range

savings will be effected, through reduced welfare and other income transfer

payments. Youth will develop better work habits and skills in private sector

jobs and 'they will be able to make 'contacts which could lead to other jobs.

57

Y. th 509
Disadvantages

1. Private sector jobs are vulnerable to the ups and downs of the

economy.

Anita Vogel17

in Retrospective Survey of Programs for Youth Employment in

the Private Sector noted that past private sector initiatives in providing

jobs for the disadvantaged proved vulnerable to fluctuations in the economy.

One example of this was the Job Opportunities in the Business Sector (JOBS)

program. The program collapsed under the economic recession of 1970.

2. Youth jobs in the private sector are not "meaningful."

According to studies by Adams and Mangum

18

it is important to make youth

work experience jobs attractive. They should provide useful work experiences,

access to training and openings to new career ladders. This is most difficult

to do in the private sector where youth jobs are generally not "meaningful."

3. Barriers to youth employment must be overcome. Vogel19

cites two types of barriers to youth development in the private

sector, opportunity barriers and job requirements. The opportunity barriers

include geography and discrimination. While most high-risk youth reside in

the inner cities, the growing job market is in the suburban rings around the

cities. Discrimination is found to be a deterrent to the hiring of youth,

minorities and those with a history of drug abuse or criminal justice system

involvement. De Lonen-gives the i)eitiliatiVe'Of-iieiilaYeitOwara high risk

youth as feeling that the youth's skills and productivity are low while training costs are high. Youth tend to be unreliable and have high turnover rates.

Youth lack the proper attitude and their expectations are unrealistic.

In addition to the opportunity barriers, the job requirements barriers

which need to be overcome include entry tests and bonding availability.21
4. The younger the individual, the less appealing to most employers.

Employment and training efforts in the private sector should focus on

"job-ready" youth.

. . . the more public policy targets on the most disadvantaged

workers, the less enthusiastic will be the response of the private

sector to specific employment and training initiatives. Age is a

compounding factor here, for all other things being equal, the

younger the individual, the less appealing to most employers.22

Private sector jobs are more difficult to create for younger high-risk youth.

For youth 16-17, jobs should be tied to school retention. 23 Youth under

18 years of age need special programs, while all youth need comprehensive

services not generally provided by the private sector.24

5. Private sector programs must be monitored by the public sector.

Both Adams25 and de Lone26 recognize the need fc.- public monitoring of

private sector work experience programs for high-risk youth. Programs which

utilize public funds, directly through wage subsidies or indirectly through

tax incentives should be monitored. Monitoring should be performed to determine if conditions of good supervision, training/learning opportunities, wage

progression and good human relations atmosphere are being met.

459
Advantages

PUBLIC SECTOR WORK EXPERIENCE

1. Public sector work experience programs can better serve the

hard-to-employ.

According to the National Commission for. Manpower Policy public service

employment can serve three employment goals:

Provide esniower development experiences for the

hard-to-employaimed at facilitatiig their transition to

regular emPloyment.

2. Provide employment opportunities for regularly attached

members of the work force who lose their jobs during

economic downturns.

3. Provide employment opportunities for groups

communities which experience significant loss

employment due to major structural, dislocations.27 ,------ and

of.

Public sector strategies sholibi be engaged to provide employmeht and

training services to younger high.4isk youth.28 Public "sector jobs can more

easily be targeted to specific populations according to the Adams Mangum

study. However, they warn that too' many jobs are needed to resolve the youth

employment problem for public, sector strategies alone.

2. Public sector work experience performs useful work.

Much of the work perforled by youth in; public sector .work experience

programs, Such as weathekization of the homei.of

30 ,,Youth

be done , otherwise. ,Youth ate learning skills and performing .socially useful work at

the'same time.

3, :PUblic sector work experience

quickly.

be:established more

A t
Both the Corporation for Public/Private Ventures31

and the Adams/Mangum32

studies agree that public sector programs can be established more quickly, can recruit and place individuals faster and will show results sooner than similar

programs in the private sector.

4. Public sector programs offer advantages related to collaboration and

type of experiences.

Adams and Mangum33

have found that public sector jobs are more likely to

be "attractive," that is, to offer useful work experiences, access to training

and openings to new career ladders. They also report that the public sector

is more appropriate for younger cohorts of high-risk youth and jobs in that

sector can be more easily tied to school retention for sixteen and seventeen

year olds.

Disadvantages

1. Public sector jobs may not be "meaningful,"

Although it is in direct contrast to the findings of Adams and Mangum,

Sar Levitan34

in his review of the Neighborhood.Youth Corps public sector work

experience program, found that the agencies which provide jobs have little

incentive to offer productive or meaningful work. This is because the

agencies providing the work sites can secure labor at little or no cost and

therefore do not make an investment to assure a meaningful work opportunity.

It should be pointed out that the Levitan study was published in 1967

while the Adams/Mangum book was done in 1978. It is possible that experiences

during the ten intervening years changed the nature of public sector work

experience projects and that they have become more-attractive and meaningful.

2. Most jobs are in the private sector, and too many work experience

slots are needed for youth.

Adams and Mangum35 estimate that. 800,000 jobs would need to be created to

reduce youth unemployment to 8.5%. This would provide work experience for
many high-risk youth presently unemployed. However, too many jobs are needed

to do it all in the public sector. Since most jobs exist in the private

sector, more work experience opportunities need to be established there.

The foregoing analysis points out the pluses and minuses of work

experience efforts in the public and private sectors. The problem of youth

unemployment is a serious one, but no one type of program is without drawbacks

in alleviating the problem. What most of the literature indicates is that

work experience early in the career of an out-of-school youth is very important to later labor market success. Whether that work experience is gained in

the public sector or private sector will depend on a multiplicity of factors

including age of the participant, career interest, available funding, location, and speed with which programs get underway. The conclusion which may

be drawn from this literature review is that while work experience is crucial,

there is no evidence that private sector work experience is intrinsically more

valuable than public sector work experience, or vice versa. In each case,

the most appropriate and most available work experience opportunity should be

seized by high-risk youth, or by employment and training program operators

serving high-risk youth.

Recommendations for Policy

The policy recommendations enumerated in this section will be divided

into groups covering similar issues.

A. Both public and private sector work experience initiatives should

be pursued.

According to Anita Vogel36

a matrix of services is most appropriate for

serving high-risk youth, including job creation in the public sector, on-thejob training and institutional training in the private sector, placement with

support services, and specialized firms for employing youth. Ms. Vogel's

studies have also convinced her that a capable, enthusiastic administrator

and staff are more impqrtant to program success than any particular model.

Rist,37 MDS,

38

and the National Child Labor Committee 39 all concur in the

conclusion that the supervisor, and relationship between supervisor and
enrollees is the single most important aspect of a work experience program.

While the literature did not elaborate on any ways to assure proper staff and

supervisory personnel, several possibilities for impacting on this problem

might be considered. Programs must make thoughtful personnel decisions and

effective human relations skills. When work sites are developed in existing

public or private agencies, supervisors may need training to prepare them for

working with high-risk youth, and to create realistic expectations of the

abilities and attitudes of the youth while disabusing them of preconceived

notions and stereotypes.

Ray Rist's40

studies have indicated that the quality of the work

experience is dependent on matching the worksite activity with the youth's

career interests. Placement should be made it the sector which will offer the

best chance of matching youths' job interests with available worksites.

The attached charts from the Corporation for Public/Private Ventures

Directory41

describe a variety of programs incorporating public and private

sector involvement.

B. A variety of economic policy initiatives must be undertaken to

alleviate the problem of high youth unemployment.

The Corporation for Public/Private Ventures, in its publication

Public-Private Partnerships for Dealing with the Problems of Youth makes the

following statement:

Dealing with youth unemployment is thus a far broader task than

providing jobs alone. It encompasses the entire transition from

school to work. It must attack our most perplexing unsolved social

problems: poverty, race and how to provide some sense of personal

worth and equilibrium within a vast impersonal society, especially

among disaffected young Americans.42

In regard to the issue of poverty and unemployment, various economic

initiatives are recommended. Richard de Lone43

recommends stimulation of the

demand for labor and the economic development of the central cities as part of

the solution. Adams and Mangum44

concur on both counts recommending that the

government should support a policy of full employment as well as expanding

515

463
PRE - EMPLOYMENT PROM

PRIVATE SECTOR . NMI Of LOCATION(S) ADMINISTRATIVE CCePAIIIS/INIONS NATURE OF PROGRAM FEATURES POPULATION SERVED CONTACTS PROGRAM STRUCTURE INVOLVED INVOLVEMENT SOURCES

Administered By YOUTH ?risco George lowie,Stite.Col- Local computer

EMPLOYMENT County, HD 'lese:of,Continu- INSTITUTE jig -Education and

'Jehivioril Sri- Satoh. 1971 .epcelipociatei

'4 private;

Capacity!, non -profit,college

60 Participants,

weeks:

(1' cycle per Vr)..

Funding. ource(s):

; CITA

Provide Provides counsel- Disadvantaged high Don Veinburg CETA

esployeent. tog search skills; school graduates, Office of Works

upbeats on inter - .non - college bound Personnel)

personal relatioi- County Adminship and develop- titration Build- melt of self- ins, Upper

. eaten using vil- Marlboro, NO

derness trips al 20870

a vehicle (301) 952.3630

101111 : St. Ionia, PrOaidence,InGlIalston Purina, Ralston

-4:PCiiitai ion- Iliaisati, sod Purina and pFbFiLisency other locil Monsaitv

AND (recently urged companies :donate

1114PPRENTICISIip ' : :wlii Tooth .::,L.,.: fundif,pira .

PROGRAM': : ' Opportunities, ticipite in

Unliiited)* Joird Of'.. 'Director,, priVidelZome

-OPPORTUNITY NO UNWED

Estab. 1974

:Capacity!, . '325 :Participants: :4,Yeartycles

fundinsiource(s)1.

1144,CITA and

,Private Sector

Provide intensive individualized education; coup

selins 40 hours

of; work exiled- ence rweek;

career oriented

ielinirs;

?job placement. taidoPelt.

Other cowponies provide

, wok experience with

half jai and

esplopent.

High school drop

outs, some with

ex-offender status,

16.21 year olds

Jtn Radford' CPPV

Executive information Director , Providence

P.O. Box 6431 Inc.

St. Louis, MO materials,

63107 (314) 652.966
PRE-IKPIATENT NAGAIS

PRIVATE SECTOR

IASI Of ItC0101(11) ANUESTRATIVI COMPANIES/UNIONS NATURE Of PROGRAM FEATURES POPULATION SERVED PROGRAM STRUCTURE INVOLVED INVOLVE/VT

CONTACTS SOURCES

YOUTROSIS Indiaospolie Administered by Members of local

IN local Chamber of local Chamber

letab. 1919 Commerce of Coerce

and other local

Capacity: funding wall to medium

50 Participants Source(s): sized businesses

18 Months Lilly foundation

KING 11010- Seattle, WA

NISI MANPOWER

CONSORTIUM (CNC) STIP* Funding

Source(s): CETA

Administration, ployment

Counseling, place - meat within first

month, GED preparation.

Disadvantaged,

including handicapped, 14-21

year olds

Administered by Boeing, Lockheed, Provides Training in office Disadvantaged

local OIC Tally Corp. and assistance in machine operation

others curriculum and clerical Minimal age: 17

design, skills job placediplomat. sent. Estsb, 1917

Capacity:

20 Participants

9 Months

NcGRAW MILL New York, NT Administered by McGraw Mill end

TRAINING McGraw Mill local Wilms

PROGRAM

Estab, 1969

Capacity:

75 Participants

6 Weeks

Funding

Source(e): McGraw fill

Trains and

employs or

job placeTraining in office Disadvantaged,

skills, job place- including Wadi -

ment. capped

Nike Gunman CPPV

Director, information

229 North end visits

Delaware St.

Indianapolis,

IN 46204 (317) 637.2312

Rose Lincoln STIP report

or Leon Gruodoteio

SSMC, Room 1811

Smith Tower

Seattle, WA 18904

(206) 625-4767 or

-4822

SCOC Manager of CPPV Office Train- inhalation

ins, McGraw

Mill, Inc. 1221 Avenue of the Americas

Nev York, NT

10020 (212) 997.2769
PRE - EMPLOYMENT PROGRAMS

PRIV'A'TE SECTOR NAME OF iLCATION(S) ANNISTDATIVE CONPAIIESPI1018 NATURE Of PROGRAII FEATURES POPULATION SERVED CONTACTS SOURCES

STRICTURE INVOLVID INVOLVE=

PHILADELPNIA 2 PhiladelBUSiNESS phis high

ACADEMY* schools !stab. 1969

Capacity;

300 Participants

3 Years

Jointly 'dolga- local businesses

tered by Board

of Education rod

local businesses /Wins

Source(s): Foundation, private lector, and

school bored

STAMFORD- StsafordllT Jointly Wigs- Mgr Plant, PIC

STIP toted by Prime

Sponsor sad local

Esteb. 1975 Privste Industry

Council (PIC)

Capacity: NA

OUT OF

SCHOOL

YOUTH COOP- ERATIVE

TRAINING PROGRAM

Estab, 1972

Funding sourcitoi atm

Dallas, TX Administered by Local companies

Dallas Independent School System

Funding

Source(s); NEV

Capacity:

85 Putickati

1 Year 520

Provide

staff on hen for

trailing,

equipment,

facilities,

Enencial

aid, perticip,te in

Board of

Directors

Alternative high

school program,

training in clerical skills with

student -rue derical,tesporary

business; career

exploration and

other educational

services in alternative high school

setting.

Nigh school dropouts and potential

dropouts 10.12

grades

Kober Plant Secretarial skills Disadvantaged

provides training

facility. lobar and PIC

assist in curriculte design,

epploymeot

opportunities

Provide part Self contained

time work alternstive bilk

experience school; work

eoployeent exPegiennni individualised

learning; com -

pletion of GED; 'cadmic credit

for work; job

placement.

Ninild age: 17

Mr. Pinto, CPPV

Univerlity SCOC

11111 School, NY Report

36th and Filbert St. Phila., PA

1914

Eugene Jordan

South Phila, Nigh School, Broad and

Snyder, Phila. PA 19148

Edward Canning CETA Works

Executive STIP

Director, Report

20 Summers St. Stanford, CT

06901

(203) 348.4263

Disadvantaged, high J.E. Cogswell CPPV

school drop outs, Belles hide- Informa 16.21 years old ponied Szlioolliou

District - 3700

Bliss Avenue, Dallas, TX 75204

(214) 824-1620

521
PO-1MM MIA

NAM 01

PROW

ISCATIONM Ann=

SUM

PRIVATE SECTOR

CONPANI11/1171018 NATUR1 OD PROGRAM BROW POPULATION MID CONTACTS

INVOLVID IIVOLVININT

SOURCES

5001111 Alton, IL WITS PAMIRS

Istab. 1978

Capacity;

Open ended

11 Soothe

ST. LOUIS St. Louis, WORK-STUDY NO NOAH

MA. 1167

Capacity:

300 Participants 1 Tear

Local school district radial

Soutco(s): CITA

lord of

Education ?Idly

Sourco(s): 1111

local businesses

Ralston Purim,

Bell Telephone,

eed other local

businesses.

Source; Corporation for Public/Pabst. Ventures, Directory

Bailee rep. Comprehensive edurestatatives rational program

act as role in Which the volmodels for ;lateen provide

youth.'Pro. guidance sad vide than counseling through

with cone on intensive persoling and acing relationship

guidance on

voluoisry

basil; part

time work

experience

employment.

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work experi. take place at

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for majority

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high school sea. P.O. lox 8 informsfors, majority drop 1154 1. Broad -lion

out' or potential

drop outs.

way, Alton,

IL 62002 Progress (611) 463.2106 With Partners materials.

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fed selected 1111 B. Sev- program

juniors, OOP Ind St. materials,

college bound, St. Louie, CPPV isfor- NO 63104 million
urban economic development programs to provide more jobs in the central cities

where most high-risk youth are located. Antos and Mellow45

observe that the

impact of economic downturns fall disproportionately on youth and suggest that

macroeconomic policies designed to increase the overall level of economic

activity will do much to improve youth's situation in the labor market. While

Vogel46

supports job creation efforts in the public sector, Adams and Mangum

feel that job creation efforts must occur both in the public sector and

private sector.

C. Incentives must be provided to the private sector to stimulate

participation in the youth employment and training effort.

Anita Vogel48

recognizes the need for economic incentives to employers to

involve them in programs for youth. Among the incentives already adopted are subsidies for the costs of training, as in the OJT program, and government

. subsidy of youth "trainee wages," YEDPA programs. Whil( incentives may induce

employers to bring on employees they may not have otherwise hired, the

incentives themselves will not impact on the total number of available jobs.

The Corporation for Public/Private Ventures

49

create effective

utilization of wage subsidies and tax incentives to involve the private sector

more than they have been in the past. Adams and Mangum50

support the use of

monetary incentives to achieve greater involvement of the private sector.

D. Barriers to the full participation of youth in the labor market must

be overcome.

Anita Vogel was earlier cited for indicating specific barriers to youth

in the labor market, including opportunity barriers and job requirements. In

response to the issue of geographic barriers, we have already had recommendations of urban economic development. Vogel51

suggests not only bringing the

jobs to the youth as iv. the above solution, but also bringing the youth to the

jobs through transportation subsidies and a marketing effort to involve suburban employers. She also recommends involving employers and unions in youth

work-preparation programs as a way of reducing discrimination. de Lone52

524

468
indicates that employers may be more receptive to youth employment programs

when they are school-related.

Vogel has interviewed Seymour Brandewein in her Retrospective Survey, and

he offers some suggestions to better involve employers while reducing

barriers. He advocates concentrating efforts on those labor intensive

industries which already employ youth and focusing on smaller firms.

As an alternative to job requirements which call for a high school

diploma or similar certification, he recommends adoption of policies requiring

written references for youth. 53

The Corporation for Public/Private Ventures54

suggests exploring Talw

concepts of apprenticeship, internship and other mechanisms for assimilating

youth in the private sector.

E. Youth employment initiatives in the public or private sector should

involve the educational system.

The Committee for Economic Development55 recommends integrating the

classroom and the workpl-s:.e as a means of expanding training and job opportunities for the hardest to employ. They suggest that schools need to take as

part of their responsibility the arranging of work experience opportunities

for youth. This approach will benefit both youth and employers, according to

the Committee. Antos and Mellow56 concur with this thinking, finding that

formal education, work experience and training increase both the probability

of employment and the wage rate. They suggest that to maximize the benefits

for youth more work-study programs should be established as well as tuition

subsidies for post-secondary training for noncollege youth.

Adams and Mangum, 57 in recognizing the close correlation between school

retention and labor market success recommend expansion of cooperative

work-study programs. They too admit the need to build better bridges between

school and work. de Lone58 approaches this issue from a slightly different

perspective. Although he clearly sees the relationship between education and

labor market success, he feels that the educational system must itself be

525

469
improved as a means of increasing the educational attainment of high-risk

youth.

To summarize the recommendations, two statements from oft-quoted sources

in this Literature Review are most appropriate:

Labor market policies aimed at providing employment for

out-of-school youth who are out of work will pay off both

immediately and for years to come.59

In periods of substantial overall unemployment, public employment

programs (especially for minority and economically disadvantaged

youth) may, be useful in providing young people with essential work

experience.60

Suggested Areas For Further Study

There are many questions still unanswered about the relative effect and

value of private sector vs. public sector placement/experience on the

long-term employability of high-risk youth. These questions may be divided

into two areas, those concerned primarily with labor market issues and those

primarily directed at the needs of the youth themselves. Drawing on all of

the sources reviewed in the preparation of this document, the following

suggestions are made regarding areas for further study and research.

A. Labor Market Inquiries

1. More information is needed on the effect.of private sector work

experience programs for youth. Many new initiatives are now underway

which include private sector participation in youth employment and training programs. Are these programs successful?; what features can be

replicated?; are new jobs being created?; are certain groups of young

people better served by the private sector than others?; and many other

similar questions need to be answered by researchers and program

monitors.

2. We need to have more information about the youth labor market. What

kind of jobs are held by youth?; how do they obtain those jobs?; how long

470 526
are they attached to any job? and how long do they remain in the labor

market?

A related question is what training opportunities are associated with the

jobs youth commonly hold?

3. What effect do wage subsidies for youth have on other groups in the

labor force? Adams and Mangum61

note that illegal aliens and older

workers may be in competition with youth for low-skilled (illegal aliens)

and part-time (older workers) jobs. What policies can make youth more

attractive to employers compared with other groups in the population? At

what point are we subsidizing youth too heavily so that they begin displacing workers? All of these questions require additional research.

4. Not enough is known about how job development can improve the

long-term employability of youth through successful placement subsequent

to work experience programs.

B. Youth-directed Inquiries

I. How would youth respond to a program of guaranteed jobs?

2. Are there particular incentives which will be more successful in

corvinting drop-outs to return to school? How can educational programs

be 4.evised to more effectively attract and educate high-school drop-outs?

3. :teat is the relationship between youth unemployment and juvenile

4, inn/racy/ Can work experience programs successfully compete with the

extra-legal labor market existing in many inner-city communities? How

can peer pressure be directed toward generating acceptable work habits

and attitudes?

4. What are the effects and ramifications of youth job turnover? Does

it indicate a healthy search for appropriate employment ("a good job") or

does it substantiate the claim that youth are unreliable? Does frequent
job turnover correlate to later labor market problems? What supportive

services, if any, can reduce job turnovers?

The answers to some of these questions are presently being sought under

the Knowledge Development Plan associated with the Youth Employment and

Demonstration Projects Act. As information becomes available to program

operators, it is anticipated that. they will be able to modify existing programs and develop new ones which can employ the most effective strategies for

improving the long-term employability of high-risk youth.

472 528
References and Notes

1. Adams, Arvil V. and Garth Mangum. The Lingering Crisis of Youth

Unemployment. Michigan: Upjohn Institute for Employment Research, 1978.

2. Ibid. pp. 93-115.

3. Ibid. p. 103.

4. Ibid. pp. 106-107.

5. Ibid. pp. 104-105.

6. Antos, Joseph R. and Wesley Mellow. The Youth Labor Market: A Dynamic

Overview. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor

Statistics, 1979.

7. National Child Labor Committee. Youth Serving the Community: Realistic

Public Service Roles for Young Workers. New York: 1978.

8. Ibid. p. 7.

9. Levitan, Sir A. Antipoverty Work and Training Efforts: Goals and

Reality. Institute of Labor and Industrial Relations and the National

Manpower Policy Task Force, 1967.

10. Ibid. p. 106.

11. Feldman, Lloyd and Michael R. Peeven, "Young. Workers: Their Special

Training Needs," Manpower Research, Bulletin No. 3, May 1963, p. 9.

12. Silberman, Harry F. "A Proposal for Educational Work Experience."

Labor Market Information for Youths, edited by Seymour L. Wolfbein.

Pennsylvania: Temple University, 1975, pp. 37-55.

13. Myers, Charles A. The Role of the Private Sector in Manpower

Development. Maryland: The Johns Hopkins Press, p. 85.

14. National Commission for Manpower Policy. Fourth Annual Report to the

President and the Con ress: An Inlar ed Role for the Private Sector in

Federal Esmloymeat and Training Programs. Washington, D.C.: 1978,

p. 75.

15. Rist, Ray C. Education and Employment Training: The Views of Youth:

Interim Report #2. New York: Youthwork National Policy Study, Cornell

University, 1979.

16. de Lone, Richard H. Youth Employment and the Private Sector.

Pennsylvania: Corporation for Public/Private Ventures, 1978.

17. Vogel, Anita S. A Retrospective Survey of Programs for Youth

Employment in the Private Sector Sponsored by the United States

473

529
Department of Labor. Pennsylvania: Corporation for Public/Private

Ventures, 1978.

18. Adams, op. cit. pp. 135-136.

19. Vogel, op. cit. p. 23.

20. de Lone,op. cit. p. 11.

21. Vogel, op. cit. p. 23.

22. de Lone, op. cit. p. 6.

23. Adams, op. cit. pp. 133-135.

24. Vogel, op. cit. 'pp. 35-36.

25. Adams, op. cit. p. 136.

26. de Lone, op. cit. p. 15.

27. National Commission 'for Manpower Policy. Public Service Employment and

Other Responses to Continuing Unemployment: An Interim Report to the.

Congress. Washington, D.C.: 1975, p. 1.

28. de Lone, op. cit. p. 6.

29. Adams, op. cit. p. 133.

".

MDC Inc. Iflorkaite,Activity Under the Youth' Employment and Demonstration

Projects ACt. An Interim :Report. 'WashingtOn;)0.00 U.S..:DepartMentof

Labor, Employment and Training Administrationi'Office:of YOuthlirograms,

1978, p. 27.

31. Corporation for Public/Private Ventures. Public/Private Partnerships

for. Dealing with the Employment Problems of Youth. Pennsylvania: 1977.

32. Adams, op. cit.

33. Ibid. p. 136.

34. Levitan, op. cit. p. 50.

35. Adams, op. cit. pp. 132-133.

36. Vogel, op. cit. p. 33.

37. Rist, op. cit. p. xv.

38. MDC, op. cit. p. 6.

39. National Child Labor Committee, op. cit. p. 1-9.

40. Rist, op. cit. p. viii.
41. Corporation for Public/Private Ventures. A Directory of. Training and

Employment Programs in the Private Sector, Emphasis: Disadvantaged Youth

Pennsylvania: pp. 10-11, 20-21, 62-63.

42. CPPV, Public-Private Partnerships, p. 3.

43. de Lone, op. cit. p. 10.

44. Adams, op. cit. pp. 130-131.

45. Antos, op. cit. p. 164.

46. Vogel, op. cit. p. 33.

47. Adams, op. cit.p. 136.

48. Vogel, op. cit. p. 25.

49. CPPV, Public-Private Partneragas, p. 27.

50. Adams, op. cit. p. 133.

51. Vogel, op. cit. p. 23.

52. de Lone, op. cit. p. 13.

53. Vogel, op. cit. p. 25.

54. CPPV, Public-Private Partnerships, p. 27.

55. Committee for Economic Development. Jobs for the Hard-to-Employ: New

Directions for a Public-Private Partnership. New York: 1978, p. 55.

56. Antos, op. cit. p. 165.

57. Adams, op. cit. pp. 135-136.

58. de Lone, op. cit. p. 10.

59. Adams, op. cit. p. 115.

60. Antos, op. cit. p. 164.

61. Adams, op. cit. p. 131.

531

475
CHAPTER THREE

Targeting, Identifying, and

The experience of the,past two decades has revealedthe existence of a

vast number of youth who havelittle chance' to acquire saleable skills and

become produCtive and useful' members ofsociety. A growing recognition that

efforts to .reduce that number need to be increased' is reflected in a U.S.

Senator's presentation to the Committee. on Labor and Human Resources:

These young people enter ii.:World inwhich they are ill-prepared to

survive. Havingno,-akillithey drift'in'endeut of the welfare'

system ant Ha deed.end.joba.; Many of'theseyoung adults

are members'oUpinerity,:groupi. They feel,totally:.shutout:ef the

cycle of achievementandopiortUnity 'WhiChuii:keen one of the

markir:Of oUrA000:Fation. ,Their idlenesewhialkiesults in the

waste of huSieny,.potentiel-is'eneof the great:tragedies we must

acknewledgCandTfaceTheir frustration ,spills over inte'vielenCe0

ihuie Of'diugs and alcohol.1

These young people are to be found in communities in every part of the Nation,

but they apipear to be located in the urban centers and within certain minority

groups in far greater numbers. Many predict that the problem of youth unemployment will worsen in some'.comAansities-and for some groups in the 19806..

The question of who then should be servedo'how they should be served, where

they sheuld'he served and how they are identified, attracted to programs, and

maintained needs to be explored to some degree.

Mangum and Snedeker2 state that targeting should be based upon some kind

of service strategy. They recommend that funds should be first allocated to

problem areas, then to population groups affected by each problem area, and

finally among service strategies designed for employment preparedneis within

each group.3

rt

4

Tagga concludes tkat both teenagers and young adults have in

the past, been a major target group of eiployment and training efforts.

Three-fifths of first-time enrollees in federal eanpower programs were under

age 22 in fiscal 1974, and 64 percent were aged 18 or less.5 The effort to

serve young people who could be, at any given time, high school dropouts,

substance abusers, juvenile justice system clients, teenage parents and

TA
chronically unemployed was evident in a number of categorical programs.

Taggart states that:

Under the old categorical programs, first-time obligations per

enrollee ranged from $3,300 under the Job Corps in fiscal 1974 to

$540 for the in-school Neighborhood Youth Corps program (NYC) and

$470 for summer NYC. Between these extremes, expenditures ranged

from $1,300 under the Concentrated Employment Program (CEP) and

$1,600 under the NYC out-of-school program to $2,200 under the Job

Opportunities in the Business Sector (JOBS) and $2,800 under the

Manpower Development and Training Act - Institutional Program

(MDTA). To varying degrees, these different programs emphasized

training, placement, and other pre-employment assistance (such as assessment, placement, and counseling). The Job Corps was an

attempt at the complete remediation of the most disadvantaged

youths.6

Walther7

writes that the unemployment problems of youth have been a focus

of concern for Federal manpower planning during the past 15 years. Youth

employment services are authorized by the Comprehensive Employment and Training Act of 1973. Title III of the Act enables the Secretary of Labor to

provide services to special populations which includes youth and disadvantaged

groups. Under CETA, prime sponsors are also responsible for determining local

needs and providing programs designed to meet them through such activities as

classroom training, on-the-job training, work experience, public service

employment, counseling, testing, job development, child care and other

supportive services. 8

The Youth Employment and Demonstration Projects Act of 1977, which

amended CETA, created four 'major demonstration programs, each representing a

different way of addressing youth employment problems, and authorized a

variety of experimental and demonstration projects to test the kinds of ser- vices that work best far different work groups. 9 The Youth Incentive

Entitlement Pilot Projects (YIEPP) are designed to test the effect of guaranteed jobs on the high school return, retention, and completion rates of

economically disadvantaged youth. 10

Economically disadvantaged young people

16 to 19 years old in selected geographic areas are the target group of this

program. The Youth Community Conservation and. Improvement Projects (YCCI?)

are designed to develop the vocational potential of jobless youth by,providing

them with well-supervised work of tangible community benefit. The program is
for unemployed 16-19 year olds, with preference given to out-of-school youth

with the most severe difficulty in finding employment.11

Youth Employment and

Training Programs (YETP) seek to enhance the job prospects and career preparation of low income youth aged 16 through 21 who have the most severe problems

in entering the labor force. 12

The Young Adult Conservation Corps (YACC) is

aimed to 'give young people experience in particular occupational skills

through work on conservation and other projects. Young people aged 16 through

23 who are unemployed and out of school are eligible for the program. Preferance is given to youth from high-unemployment areas.

13

Richard de Lone states

that:

It is clear that the administrative and legislative direction of youth unemployment policy is towards targeting, with the usual standards of CETA eligibility -low-income, unemployment, and

underemployment used to define the target group. Simple grounds of

equity combined with the need to husband scarce public resources as

a strong rationale for targeting on the most disadvantaged youth.14

Mangum and Walsh15

assert that the term "hard core disadvantaged" first

came into use in connection with the 1962 Manpower Training and Development

Act's experimental programs. It was never given an essential definition, but

it generally referred to youth and adults who would not enroll in programs on

their own initiative and who suffered from severe personal problems, such as

low educational attainment and achievement levels, arrest or conviction

records, drug and alcohol use, lack of motivation, or anti-social behavior, or

found alternative sources of income in an illegal or "irregular" economy.

Youthwork16

states that the term "high risk youth" refers to those in

critical need of a job. They are in need of skills training and help in

understanding a wide range of issues and demands associated with getting and

keeping meaningful employment. They further define the term "high risk" by

stating:

They are the youth who may remain in school only because it is

better than being out on the street, or they may be out on the

street because it is better than staying in school. They are the young people who may be cynical and alienated from schools,

employers, families,,and service agencies. They may or may not be involved with the criminal justice system. They may live in inner

cities or on a farm. The common denominator is that, where

534

478
institutions and agencies reach out or profess to reach out to

assist the poor and disadvantaged, they somehow remain unaffected

by these efforts. They have not benefited from, or have not been

well served by, these institutions. These young people are thn

least likely to get a meaningful job that offers opportunities for

success and advancement.17

Traditional educational and employment programs are often :unresponsive to

the compound needs of troubled youth. To dee] effectively with this target

group requires comprehensive support, continuity of assistance and multiple

chances; this in turn, demands a delivery mechanism which can provide a full

range of services on an individualized basis. 18 This would seem to support

the position taken by Wolfbein19 tiii-C-the delivery system should be individually oriented and paced, with the recognition that the system has to deliver

different things at different times and different stages even to the same

individual. Tyler20 asserts that the 20 to 25 percent of our youth who have

not acquired the knowledge, skills, and attitudes required for a responsible

and productive life require specially designed opportunities to enable them to

learn the basic skills as well as to galn experience from production and

service to others. Mangum and Walsh also supported this position by indicating that "in addition to such traditional service components as work

experience, skills training and remedial education, isolated youth (high risk

and hard core) benefit most from intensive personal and employment counseling,

job development, subsidized employment, and job search training."21

Over the past few years several delivery service programs targeted to

"high risk" or "hard core" youth have been designed and funded. Most of these

programs have attempted to provide a comprehensive range of services on an

individualized or quasi-individualized basis. A program developed by the

Opportunities Industrialization Centers of. America, Inc., in Philadelphia

targeted to 16 through 21 year old high school drop-outs or who are in serious

risk of dropping out, combined three distinct phases of service. Phase I is

geared toward. Career Awareness, lasts 21 weeks, and includes English, math,

social studies, and science instruction on an individualized basis. Each

discipline is keyed to the world of work and related to occupations. Phase II

lasts from four months to a full year. This phase stresses individual

instruction, independent study, and exposure to "hands-on" job experiences.

Phase III allows students to concentrate on the school to work transition or

a 479 535
post-secondary education as well as complete all requirements for the high

school diploma. The population served was predominately black males and

females, most were four years behind in basic skill achievement and lived in

neighborhoods in wnich high incidence of drug abuse and gang activity are well-documented. 22

Project 70001, founded by the Thom NcAnn Shoe Company in Wilmington,

Delaware in 1969, is targeted towards unemployed male and female school dropouts in the 16-21 age range. Most of those served (90%) are economically,

socially, and educationally disadvantaged. Those served receive full-time

work experience jobs in the distributive education field and attend GED

classes in the evening. 73 The program has personal, motivational and

self-confidence building concepts, as cell as on-the-job training. Referrals

were at first produced through close working relationships with employment

services, schools and related community service agencies. After six months,

the majority of applicants found their way into 70001 through "word of mouth"

referrals. 24

Other program models that combined work experiences, career exploration,

and basic education include the Work.and Career Exploration Program25 which,

in the pilot, was targeted for 14 and 15 year old school-oriented youth. Such

youth were considered to be potential dropouts and the program consisted of

school-supervised work experience and training with exposure to real jobs and

careers. The program sought to reduce the enrollee's absence and truancy rate

and ultimately the system drop-out rate.

Neighborhood Youth Corps26

was initially a national Economic Opportunity

Act of 1964 effort to provide three types of services to 9th through 12th

grade male and female youth. The three major components consisted of:

in-school, summer, and out-of-school programs. The purpose was to prevent

potential early school leaving and encourage drop-outs to return to school.

The program was also targeted to those from low income families who were not

in school. Services were provided for those in rural areas as well as in

urban and high unemployment sectors. 26

Services included training, career

orientation, counseling, cultural enrichment, and work experiences. Walthers

and Magnusson (1975),27

Fox, May, and Schwarts (1973), 28 Smith and Pitcher

480 536
(1973),

29 and Somers and Stromsdorfer (1970)

30 conducted studies of NYC

effectiveness and concluded, for the most part, that the program did have

implications for school-to-work transition, but not necessarily for "hard

core" type individuals.

The Vocational Exploration In the Private Sector Program is another

program that addresses the needs, to some extent, of high-risk youth. The

Vocational Exploration in the Private Sector Program was a joint effort of the

U.S. Department of Labor, the National Alliance of Businessmen (NAB) and the

Office of Education of HEW. The program services were targeted to in-school

youths at least 16 years of age and who were classified as economically

disadvantaged. The major service thrust involved counseling and basic skill

remediation, career orientation, non-productive on-the-job training, and

productive work experience. The participants were recruited by Neighborhood

Youth Corps sponsors and had to be certified as "probable dropouts."31

The Youth Conservation Corps,32 while not particularly targeted for "high

risk" populations, or intended to facilitate the school to work transition,

served a number of minority youngsters between the ages of 15 and 18. Most of

the minorities served were blacks, Spanish and Native Americans. The services

sought to, while attempting to conserve public lands and waters, provide

short-term gainful employment (8-week summer program) and to provide

educational content that dealt with the natural environment. In FY 1976,

approximately 23,000 young men and women were employed in all fifty states.

Marans, Driver, and Scott (1972)33 in an early evaluation of the program,

found that black and Native Americans were less satisfied with their experience than were others and that the 15 year olds were less satisfied than the

18 year old youngsters. The most positive findings were in the areas of

quality of work assignments and development of positive work skills.

The Job Corps was established as part of the Economic Opportunity Act of

1964 and probably one of the more evaluated and surveyed programs. It was

targeted to young men and women, aged sixteen to twenty-one, from low-income

families. The lack of both adequate education and other skills needed to hold

meaningful emplOyment or successfully participate in regular school work was

another eligibility requirement. In addition, the enrollee had to live in a

481 53 7
poverty environment, be free of major medical or behavior problems, and have

basic capabilities and a desire to complete the program.

34

The programs are

basically residential and concentrate on providing comprehensive training

geared toward basic education, skill training, and useful work experience.

Support services include the provision of clothing, living and readjustment

allowances, room and board, medical and dental care, and job placement.35

As a part of a broad range of national youth employment and training

initiatives, the Job Corps has been expanded to reach a larger number (double)

of high risk young people. 36

Among male enrollees, 45 percent report previous

arrests; nearly 3 in 10 have convictions and 1 in 6 a prison record. A fifth

of female enrollees report previous arrests and a tenth have had prior

convictions. In fiscal year 1978, 71 percent of the enrollees were minorities, 86 percent high school dropouts, and almost 100 percent poor.

37

Targeting populations were changed to serve 14 and 15 year old youngsters and

those with previous behavior and other problems. A majority of the enrollees

report first having been advised of the Job Corps through friends and

relatives. Only 17 percent heard first from the employment service,

11 percent from advertisements or articled, and the remainder from schools,

probation officers, and other sources. Only 29 percent of those enrolled are

female and this represents a decrease from 31 percent in fiscal 1977 despite

expanded co-educational capacity.39

For a comparison of Job Corps enrollees

for fiscal year 1968 and 1978 see Table 1. 40

Batton and Fraser41

state that the effectiveness of the Job Corps was the

subject of great debate in the 1960s, with several studies yielding mixed

results; more recent studies point to more positive outcomes. They summarized

studies done by Levitan and Johnson (1975) 42

and Taggart (1976) 43

and found

that the Job Corps, according to these researchers, was the most ambitious of

all federal manpower efforts and also one of the most costly. In addition to

being costly, the Job Corps approach is more effective over a lengthy period

of exposure., In 1974, a quarter of the enrollees left after less than

30 days; half did not stay the three months considered a minimum for completion and this was a problem for both the residential and non-residential

center. In FY 1974, two-thirds of the program terminees were employed upon

termination and a fifth either entered the military or went back to school.

482 538
Table 1. Characteristics of Job Corps Enrollees,

Fiscal Years 1968 and 1978

(Percent distribution)

Fiscal Year

Characteristic 1968 1978

Income:

Average family income $3,300 $4,850

From families on public

assistance 27 33

Education:

High school dropouts 88 86

Less than sixth-grade

reading achievement 67 50

Race and ethnic origin:

White 30 29

Black 58 56

Hispanic 8 10

American Indian 2 3

Other minority race 1 2

Age of entry:

16 years or under 30 23

17 years 27 25

18 to 21 years 43 52

Sex:

Male 72 71

Female 28 29

Note: Detail may not add to totals because of

rounding.

483 53 D
Retention rates showed a marked gain as did educational attainment. Levitan

concluded that almost all studies found that the corpsmen were better off

after the program as measured by earnings, educational level, motivation and

work habits. He also found that the longer the stay, the greater the

beneficial impacts seemed to be.44

The General Accounting Office's Report to the Congress (1979)45

argues

that the eligibility requirements established by the Job Corps are so broad

that eligibility determinations are not very meaningful in identifying the

target poptilation. Consequently, youths enter the program without any meaningful determination that their home environment is harmful. This finding

related to the substandard living conditions, deficient or disruptive home,

potentially harmful spare time activities, and limited opportunities criteria

as a condition of eligibility. Another significant citation was that about

70 percent of all youths who eater Job Corps do not graduate. Most youth who

dropped out of the program left within 90 days.46

More space was given the discussion of Job Corps as a program because the

program is viewed by many as a last resort training and employment service for

"high risk" young men and women. Other programs deserve mention as models of

targeting to youth populations that could be considered in the "high risk"

category. During the period June 1974 to June 1976, the National Office for

Social Responsibility developed and put into operation a Model Youth Work

Experience' Program under the U.S. Department of Labor, Offender Rehabilitation

Division. 47

The program, located in the Oakland, California area was targeted

toward delinquent and disadvantaged youth in increasing their employability

through education, vocational training, work experience and counseling. The

program included elements of both the Neighborhood Youth Corps in-school and

out-of-school strategies and the Vocational Exploration in the Private Sector

approach. Stipends were provided for both classroom and work site experience.

Supportive services were established through relationships with health, mental

health, legal assistance, and counseling agencies, as well as juvenile diversion programs, recreational organizations, and community and cultural agencies

so that a comprehensive prescription approach could address the physical,

social, and psychological needs of the enrollees. The authors state that an

484
evaluation team determined that there was positive change in *the measurement

of attitudei and job satisfaction. 48

The Work Incentive Program (WIN) authorized by amendments to Title IV of

the Social Security Act in 1968, is designed to serve recipients of Aid to

Families with Dependent Children and move them from welfare to work. 49

Administered jointly by the Department of Labor and Health, Education and

Welfare, the program is designed to serve all persona over the age of 16 and

offers training, employment, or other job preparatory services. Registration

is mandatory and participation is only exempted through special consideration.

Failure to comply results in denial of further welfare benefits. In fiscal

1978, the majority of WIN registrants (three-fourths) were women, somewhat

more than half were white, about 9 percent were under

.and one-half percent were twenty to twenty-one years

Barton and Fraser,51

the findings of Richardson

20 years of age and five

of age.50 According to

and Dunning,52younger

enrollees (under 22) had higher drop-out and lower placement rates than did

the 22 years and older participatns, The greatest barrier to placement of the

younger enrollees (16 -17) was felt to be age itself. The combination of laws,

regulations, and_rekirictions impact the placement rate of those in this'age

group in meaningful.. jobs. Personal problems, arrest records, and poor

previous employment records we not seen as barriers.

Another approach worthy of note, that addresses young parents is the

Parents Preparing for Parenthood, a program located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania that services young parents. Although there is no specific age limit,

almost (95 percent) all of the program's enrollees are in their teens or early

twenties. They may enter the program while pregnant or at any time after

their baby's birth. Its services are intended to prevent mental disorders,

developmental delay, and social behavior problems in young people who are

considered to be at risk because of the age, social situation, mental status,

or other problems. The program (Triple P), started .in 1975, has two basic

components. Counseling services and intensive psychotherapy, and basic, life

skills, and prevocational education. The program serves 220 young women and

is funded by a Part F grant, National Institute for Mental Health, U.S.

Department of Health, Education and Welfare.53

485

541
Another program, based in New York City, provided intervention services

to fifty young unemployed black teenagers. Most were parents, on welfare, and

in need of remedial assistance in the basic skills. The services included

peer aides as models, job-hunting skills and tutoring. The program's

objectives were to influence job-seeking behavior and employment, school

behavior and educational planning and work behavior and attitudes towards

work. The program was cstrried out by the Metropolitan Applied Research Center

in cooperation with the Northside Center for Child Development. 54

Two major Law Enforcement Administration (LEAA) programs, the Juvenile

Delinquency Prevention Program and the Diversion of Youth from the Juvenile

Justice System Program should be mentioned as "high-risk" target efforts. The

Prevention Program and the Diversion Program both address adolescent populations and are intended to aid in the school to work transition. The

Prevention Program is intended to develop and implement new approaches and

methods to prevent juvenile delinquency by assisting non-profit youth serving

agencies expand the social, cultural, educational and health services for

youth who are in great danger of becoming delinquent. The Diversion Program

is designed to serve those who have been apprehended by the police in the com- mission of a status offense or a felony. Its focus is on the development and

testing of ways of diverting young offenders from involvement with the traditional juvenile justice system. A positive sense of self-worth and meaningful

and pvoductive work experiences are felt to be important objectives of both

prevention and diversionary programs. Such assumptions are to be tested over

time in order to determine what impact they have on reduction of youth crime

or the employability of high-risk youth. 55

Programs that are targeted to "high-risk" populations could expect to

experience recruitment problems that are unique for such a group. One of the

criticisms of Job Corps made by the General . Accounting Office5 6 Is that current efforts at recruitment and selection do not serve the youths who need the

services most, and that it has little assurance that it serves only the select

type of youths that the Congress intended. Much of the early literature on recruitment, outreach, and community penetration, writes Mangum and Walth57

deals with the inability of established agencies, such as the Employment

Service, to relate to the disadvantaged, and the poor image which such

486 542
agencies had in the communities in which the disadvantaged lived. Martin58

notes that either implicitly or explicitly most projects have taken a neighborhood or area perspective when recruiting disadvantaged youth.

Disadvantaged youth are usually concentrated in particular pockets, ghettos,

and rural hollows and recruiters guide their efforts according to such

orientation. Mangum and Walsh59 add that the preferred method of recruitment

was outreach, or assignment of specific project staff members to seek recruits

on a face-to-face basis. They write that:

This in turn meant that the recruiters should be those who were

able to be "where the action is" without looking out of place.

Thus, they had to be indigenous to the neighborhood or community,

speak the same language as the enrollees, and have some standing

with youth leaders who would otherwise give short shrift to

establishment representatives.

Whether or not such recruitment methods are still valid as the most

effective way to reach "hard-core" or "high-risk" targets is inconclusive. A

number of outreach and recruitment channels are now being commonly used to

reach certain populations. The SPEDY programs in the State of Minnesota use a

wide range of recruitment methods to attract eligible youth to their programs.

Program descriptions are sent to welfare recipients and welfare offices,

schools and school counselors, school administrators, youth service agencies,

parole agents and court service agencies. Ads are placed in newspapers and

local radio spots and words are used that focus on "jobs," "work," and "kids."

Posters are placed in strategic locations such as schools, government offices,

youth centers, and other youth-frequented locations. 60 Certain projects use

relationships to aid in their recruitment efforts. Striver (1967) found that

Community Based Organizations employed recruitment methods that were proven

useful. He writes that "from the beginning, the OIC recruitment policy has

sought to bring the poorly equipped residents of the poverty areas into the

program." However, in lieu of a large recruitment staff, OIC established

close relationships with churches, public health centers, social worker

groups, labor unions, 'Neighborhood Youth Corps, the City Civil Service

Commission, Community Action Councils, and the State Department of Public

Assistance in order to reach those in need. 61 Anderson62

supports the

community based agency effort by writing that recruiting activities by such

organizations include not only the recruiting staff, but also advertising and

487
community relation efforts. A variety of techniques are used to make the

community aware of services such as speech making, pasting billboards, handing

out leaflets, contacting other agencies, churches, and by visiting places of

public assembly. Gibboney63

advises that the Career Intern Program recruits

through a School District Coordinator who knows who are dropouts, or who were

identified as potential dropouts by school counselors. Rist64

found that program entry for young participants occurred primarily through three means.

School referrals, agency referrals, and through the youth's own initiative.

Variations in these three approaches were used by each of the ten private

sector programs. Operators of eight programs used (4 LEAs, 2 Public

Non-Profit, 2 Private Non-Profit) relied heavily upon the local schools to

help identify and refer youth. The approach that schools used to identify

youth included: supplying lists of students who met eligibility criteria,

counselors suggesting the program, teachers mentioning the program, and

school-wide announcements via bulletins over the public address system.

Vogel65

suggests a recruitment model that was used by the Apprenticeship

Outreach Program that sought minority candidates. Contractual agreements to

(a) the Urban League, which in turn subcontracted to individual local Urban

League centers in different cities to operate Labor Education and Advancement

Programs (LEAP), (b) the AFL-CIO Human Resource Development Institute (HRDI)

which contracted with local AFL-CIO building trades councils, and (c) the

Recruitment and Training Program, which develops local affiliates for such

projects. Martin (1966)66

found that one of the best methods of recruitment

of targeted youth was to involve the youth presently in the program to recruit

others of similar circumstances.

Recruitment of special populations for program services is not as easily

accomplished, even when a variety of approaches are used by a parti%ular project. Mangum and Walsh67

found that the difficulties in recruitment of

enrollees for the Job Corps was based primarily on three factors: (1) a

reluctance on the part of many potential enrollees to leave their homes;

(2) parental reservations due to often exaggerated horror stories about life

in Job Corps centers; and (3) the high dropout rate of the program which kept

the pressure on recruiters to find "new bodies."

488 544
According to the Employment and Training Report of the President (1979)8

two contradicting concerns arise over Job Corps recruiting and screening

procedures: (1) legitimate concern over red tape and paperwork, and (2) concern over selection procedures. If the procedures for reducing paperwork were

made more simplistic, then it is poznib:e that lax selectivity would increase

the dropout rate. The General Accounting Office pointed out that certain

severe criteria for Job Corps select4.oil make clear that the Congress intended

the program to be a unique last reso-:t ,Irrogram. They feel that recruiting

practices should be stringent in order to assure that Job Corps serves only

the disadvantaged population that Congress intended.76 Another problem of

recruitment is that of attracting female enrollees and poor white youth to Job

Corps centers. It appears that current outreach efforts toward this end have

not had a major impact on recruitment. It is somewhat obvious that no single

recruitment rtrategy, no single service approach, or set of "trappings" will

attract sub-groups of designated populations to a particular program.

Mangum, Morlock, Snedeker and Pines71 write that every program undertaken

to enhance the employability, employment and income of people must involve

certain planning steps. A service need for a particular target population is

determined by a set of assumptions. The authors add that:

A political consensus emerges that a serious problem exists - a

consensus more likely to be based on visceral feelings than on

data. Solutions are designed, based on some mix of what has been

tried with reasonable success, what selected research indicates,

the judgments of influential policy-makers, and a range of vested

interests.72

Where access points are located can be crucial in determining who takes

advantage of program services. The planning process should include the identification of high density areas for specific target populations. Using such

areas as access point, programs should be able to accomplish outreach to

significant -populations in need of targeted services. The location of an

access point near a public housing project, in a shopping center, or in the

middle of a low income, economically disadvantaged area populated with large

numbers of youth will predetermine who will be served more effectively than a

targeted outreach effort in itself. 73

489 545
The question often considered in the employment and training field is

"how do we reach those individuals who are most in need of services?" Mangum

and Walsh note that this question usually begs another question and that is

"which of the conditions besetting hard-core youth such as severe physhological problems, arrest and conviction records, drug and alcohol problems,

lack of motivation, anti-social behavior, severe mental and physical handicaps

can be treated by employment and training programs?"74

Martin75

states that

"if additional criteria are to be imposed, such as proper motivation for work,

normal intellectual functioning, or absence of any police or court record,

then programs cannot hope to reach the most disadvantaged." Zuckerman76

writes that for all of the concern with those most in need, there is a natural

reluctance to serving those with severe handicaps and major barriers to

employment. The risk of failure is higher. Program costs are higher. The

poorest and most disadvantaged have less political support. He adds that the

most disadvantaged are likely to be less appreciative of the services because

they often are distrustful, skeptical and hostile toward government programs.

Another serious deterrent to helping those most in need is that employers are

often most reluctant to work with a program which provides service to people

with severe problems. 77

Most programs, directly targeted to "high-risk" youth dog not claim to

have been tremendously successful with a majority of those they serve. Mangum

and Walsh assert that "with 'few exceptions, most programs directed solely

towards the bard-core disadvantaged, or those that isolated the hard-core,

have been failures....at least according to prevailing statistical norms. "78

It is the exceptions and the successes that warrant documentation in

order to support the notion that employment and training programs that serve

the hard-core, in spite of their multiplicity of problems, do provide significant services for specifically targeted individuals. However, it is difficult

to locate information on either successful or unsuccessful enrollees and what

particular treatment and service over time led to that success or failure.

Mangum and Walsh write that few attempts have been made to measure sociological gains; employment and training programs have been judged solely on

their ability to accomplish economic goals...the reduction of structural

unemployment, and the relief of cyclical unemployment. 79

Without such

490
documentation, it is more difficult to determine just what sets of

circumstances and conditions make for success with individuals within the same

high-risk category and failure for another in that same sub-group. It could

be that one was of a different motivational level, had a more positive attitude toward socializing institutions, or was afforded a different relationship

within the program during the service period. When a particular program does

indicate that its services have been meaningful for a large number of its

enrollees or that it finds that it serves certain sub-groups much better than

it does others, this information should be documented and analyzed. Foot and

Stromquist" found in their study of the OIC Career Intern Program that out of

school youths are not attracted to programs that require their return to a

traditional high school. Their experience with the school system has been

negative and they are more interested in alternative educational settings,

particularly those that offer individualized attention. They found that

in-school youths were willing to remain in school when offered a stipend. Out

of school youths are interested in programs that afford concrete individually

tailored work experience. They postulate that several factors influence program design for specific target populations and that these should be measured

whenever possible, for it is clear that they are, either singly or in combi

nation, responsible for a program's success in reaching certain populations.

Programs that serve more than one particular target group and do not focus on

an exclusive population ought to document their successes or failures and

discern through study and analysis why one group or certain individuals

belonging to sub-groups were served better than others. Wurzburg states that

there are few surprises to the outreach efforts that prime sponsors use in

implementing the Youth Employment and Demonstration Projects. Employment

Service and the schools are still the primary effort employed. Community

based organizations enjoy little discernible edge over the more traditional

outreach and enrollment services, in penetrating particular population subgroups.

81 Martin as far back as 1969 argued for the use of community based

organizations as an outreach strategy in order to each specific sub-groups.

He also asserted that experience with monetary stipends and soots]. aratus

reward systems proved to be factors in attracting and maintaining ...e.-rtain

sub-group populations in employment programs. 82

491

547
Taggart

83

states that "there is just no question that when you devote

more resources on the individualized basis and in a setting which is more in

relationship to work, and it's not the traditional failure syndrome but where

youth can move at their own pace, you find that youth can learn at a faster

rate than they do in traditional settings." He asserts that alternative

educational programs can work for "high-risk" youth populations. Hutchins

(1973)

84

in a study of male delinquents attending an alternative innovative

high school that operated on an individualized basis found that they realized

better academic success, developed more positive feelings of personal worth,

more positive self-images, and had more positive attitudes toward school than

did delinquent males who attended traditional high schools. Kammann (1972) 85

affirmed that "a choice among truly different education approaches would satisfy the diverse requirements and values of our society." The Career Intern

Progrm's success with dropouts and potential drop-outs strongly support

alternative (whether public, private, or community based) schools as one

option in serving special targets. Fantini85

says that alternative schools

are needed in order to serve and satisfy a large dissatisfied minority or that

they will disturb the climate in traditional schools for everyone. According

to Hutchins87

alternative programs should be specifically designed to help in

the areas of student alienation, basic skills improvement, human

relationships, motivation, career development and attendance and retention.

Within broad target groups such as economically disadvantaged,

minorities, teenage parents, juvenile offenders, hard-core unemployed, male

and female drop-outs, potential drop-outs, in-school and out-of-school youth,

rural and urban youth and various age categories are a number of sub-groups

that merit particular attention. In most SPEDY programs, communities where

the number of applicants exceeded the number of slots, older youth, potential

early school leavers, handicapped students, and emancipated youngsters were

all given special consideration when job slots were being filled. 88

Wurzburg

found that the problems in using just income guidelines to determine who is

eligible for YEDPA services are: "(A) that even with the highest screening

and intake procedires, ineligibles can get through if they try hard enough,

(B) parent's income is no longer determining what happens to kids: drugs,

crime, etc., (C) data collected is not always valid - it is difficult,

expensive, and time consuming to verify data. It is difficult to sort out all

492 543
the variables, especially out in the field."

89 The category of age presents a

different set of problems. "Indeei the age range encompassed in most

government statistics on youth employment (16-24) contains several cohorts

whose labor market situations are quite different. Sixteen and seventeen year

olds, 18 and 19 year olds, and 20 to 24 year olds present different unemployment and labor force participation patterns," writes Richard de Lone.

90 The

groups termed juvenile offenders, teenage parents, bubstane' abusers, and

hard-core unemployed appear to be easy to identify for these are more highly

visible. Parents, teachers and counselors, police and the courts, and social

agencies are in contact more often with youth who fall into such sub-groups

and usually show much concern, at least initially, for such youth. The U.S.

Department of Labor's report on knowledge development planning for youth

initiatives concludes that there is copious literature indicating a statistical relationship between joblessness and juvenile delinquency. They add,

however, that there is no large-scale systematic experiment to determine the

effectiveness of the employment approach in reducing crime and recidivism.91

Zuckerman is concerned that analysis of proficiency skills which are needed in

the labor market; attitudes toward work, physical and mental handicaps, ana

other real barriers to employment be an integral part of the targeting and

service development plan. He asserts that characteristics such as those both

determine real need and what pecial services are indicated in order tc help

high-risk (those most in need) overcoue barriers to compensate for past

deficiencies.

92

Mangum and Walsh raise the ultimate question, should all youth with

severe psychie-,ric and psychological problems, chronic offender records,

histories of disruptive behavior, drug, alcohol and motivational problems be

barred from employment and training programs?

93

Taggart

94

says no. It's a

very expensive investment, but for society as a whole, employment and training

services seem to pay off. He cites the rednctions in arrests during Job Corps

and then six months after Job Corps. He adds that these reductions "given the

costs of arrests and convictions, pay back the society almost half of the Job

Corps' costs alone." Zuckerman says that serving those most in need will

require more money and incur more risks of failure. It will require more

zomprehensive supportive and medical services. It will require legal,

493 54W
transportation, and even housing services, but that we must target for and

serve those with severe problems. 95

Certain findings related to targeting services to "high-risk" young men

and women, although very modest in scope, would seem to warrant the following

observations. There appears to be several areas that need further exploration

alma how to better identify and recruit high-risk populations of young people

for employment and training services. In the past, most targeting strategies

were the result of political concensus and not necessarily because of

substantial research, evaluation and planning. At the present time, we know

little about how to effectively serve a significant number of sub-groups who

generally fall into the "hard -corn" or "high-risk" disadvantaged group.

Populations often addressed, such as low income family members, minority group

membership, academic underachievers, 14 to 21 year old potential in-school

early leavers, out-of-school unemployed 16 to 19 year olds, youthful substance

abusers, juvenile and young adult offenders, teenage parents and unwed

mothers, under motivated, and inner-city or rural segments are usually

described in vague and ambiguous terms. The recruitment and selection of such

individuals for employment and training services have, in the part, been

shared by a number of agencies and organizations such as welfare and social

agencies, public and private education institutions, juvenile and criminal

systems, religious groups, community based organizations, and certain government agencies at the national, state, am; local levels. The documentation of

successful efforts at attracting and retraining such populations is sparve and

Jimly defined. The literature addresses, for the most part, who is being

serwi in the broad categories, bat fails to identify the number of severely

disadvantaged individuals served within those categories. Another area where

informAtion appears to be, at best, limited is that of "how" such youth are

being served. What works best for delinquents, teenage parents, 14 to 16 year

old offenders, 17-19 year old substance abusers, 16-21 year old out-of-school

hard -cow unemployed males, females, blacks, whites, other minorities, urban

dwellers, rural inhabitants, and any number of a combination of demographic

circumstances? Can 311 troubled and severely high-risk youth be served by

employment and training programs? Should services and programs be provided in

residential settings for :ertain sub-,,roupc. for )ut-of-school youth, both male

and female, include meaningful work experiences along with classrorm

494
instruction? If so, in what areas, to what degree, and for how long a period

of time? What part does age, race, sex, and family level of income play in

the prevention of juvenile delinquency and criminal activity for 14-16 year

old males, females, young adults, and certain minorities? Does one service

strategy work best for a particular sub-group, given similar sets of circumstances and conditions, than for that same type of group in different

geographic settings and areas? It would be reasonable to say that knowledge

gaps are evident as they concern each of the above questions.

Other serious questions also might be worthy of discussion. How

comprehensive should services be within a particular service program, for a

particular sub-group, for a specific age category, and who should provide the

services? Can the private sector be more successful in serving a particular

high-risk population than another? Can community based organizations serve a

special group at a particular point in time more efficaciously than another

service provider? Can alternative schools, both in the public and private

sector, provide more adequate services to in-school potential drop-outs or can

they better serve older drop-outs who want to return but not to traditional

settings? Do stipends, opportunities for success, and "real-world"

experiences work better for some high-risk youth than for others? How many

chances should high-risk youth have before determining that employment

services are not useful for particulL: age groups or categories? What kinds

of recruitment strategies work best for what sub-group and who should be the

recruiters? Should all programs be integrated racially, ethnically, sexually,

and employ cross-age real life learning concepts? What role does sound

management principles play in the degree of success or failure in meeting

program objectives? How much collaboration should there be in the targeting,

recruitment, and retention process? If we know very little about the first

group of questions, it would be safe to say that we know even less about the

second group as they concern youth with such severe handicaps that they merit

the classification, "high-risk."

495 JJ1
Recommendations for Polic

1. Targeting should definitely be continued and intensified as a

method of assuring that specific youth populations with the

most severe handicaps are reached and served.

2. Targeting to "high-risk" populations should be predicated upon a particular program strategy. Special problem areas should

be identified as well as the sub-groups to be served so that a

multiplicity of needs, indigenous to such groups, can be

addressed based upon sound research and evaluation findings.

3. High-risk yough should be targeted to both "alternative" and

"traditional" program delivery systems in order to afford them

the most effective service treatment. These programs could be

both individualized and open ended or highly structured and

disciplined, but according to the individual needs of those

served.

4. Any method of recruitment that has proved successful for a particular age group, sex population, or specific behavior

pattern should be employed as a means of reaching and serving

high-risk populations for which the target strategy is

intended.

5. Targeting should be aimed at those high-risk individuals who

are members of racial or ethnic sub-groups within broader

hard-core disadvantaged categories such as Hispanic, black,

Native American, rural, and migrant youth. Services to such

populations should be comprehensive in nature and offer

medical, psychological, child care, monetary, housing, legal,

transportation, and motivational and attitudinal support as

well as remediation, prevocation, and employment services.

6. Targeting should continue to address the hard-core young man

or woman who has been served once before, twice, three times

or more by existing employment and training structures but

still has not had his or her needs met at the present time.

An in-depth analysis of proficiency skills, personal needs,

and educational levels of such individuals should be conducted

before providing additional employment and training services.

7. Targeting efforts should involve the private, public and

community based sectors in the recruiting of and the servicing

efforts for high-risk youth populations.

8. All employment and training programs, whatever the major

targeting effort, should include at least 10% high-risk

sub-grow; members in order to discern the effectiveness of

such service strategy for that segment. Or, stated in another

way, all employment and training programs that have their

major targeting emphasis toward high-risk sub-groups should

496

552
include non-high-risk populations in their service delivery in

order to measure what works best for whom.

Suggested Areas for Further Study

Although, at the present time, carefully structured programs designed to

demonstrate certain youth serving concepts and test their effectiveness are

being implemented and evaluated that include high-risk populations, it is

suggested that additional studies directed at that group would be in order.

If additional studies are undertaken, the following recommendations might

be worthy of consideration.

1. Study the interaction of service providers and high-risk

sub-group individuals so that insight might be gained from the

direct observation of the roles service providers, play in the

development of the individual's negative or positive behavior

as it relates to training and employment.

2. Include more participant observer studies of sub-groups in

programs in order to gain knowledge of the individual's

behavior in various settings and service strategies. This

ought to include the collecting of pertinent information about

changes .that occur in the individual as the intensity of peer

interaction increases or decreases over a period of time.

3. Careful field studies Should be conducted in order to identify

those elements in an employment and training program that can

be considered as viable service strategies for high-risk

youth.

4. Studies about how best to measure success for high-rislit

sub-groups as contrasted with broader economical].

disadvantaged populations should be undertaken.

553

497
References and Notes

1. United States, Congressional Record, 96th Congress 2nd Session, Vol. CXXVI, No. 19.

2. Mangum, Garth and David Snedeker. Manpower Planning for Local Labor Markets, Salt Lake City: Olympus Printing Company, 1974, p. 213.

3. Ibid. p. 214.

4. Taggart, Robert. "Employment and Training Programs for Youth," From School to Work: Improving the Transition, A Collection of Policy Papers Prepared for the National Commission for nuplwat Policy, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976, p. 117.

5. Ibid.

6. Ibid.

7. Walther, Regis K.

1y.scA13:ienceinAnalsisandStDO Youth Transition to Work Experience. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, Office of Research and Development, 1976. p. 1..

8. Ibid. p. 8.

9. U.S. Department of Labor. Employment and Training Report of the President, 1979. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1979, p. 41.

10. Ibid.

11. Ibid.

12. Ibid.

13. Ibid.

14. de Lone, Richard H. -:Juth Employment and r*. Private Sector. Pennsylvania: Corporation for Public/Private Vent.L; -t. 1978, p. 3.

15. Mangum, Garth and .70an Walsh. Employment and '1..t:tal.-..(2nojns2;2:. Youth: What Works Besi; for Whom`! Washington, D.C.: Y.S. Departmery Libor, Employment and Trai4mg Administration, 1978.

16. Youthwork, Inc., HandicappedandlliAillgs n1Lt-: Spring 1979 Grant Competition, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of '::abor, Employment and Training 44ministration, Office of Youth Programs, April 1979, p. 14.

17. Ibid.

498 r. -
18. U.S. Department of Labor. Completing the Youth Agenda: A Plan for

Knowledge Development, Dissemination 4d Application for Fiscal 1979.

Employment and Training Administratio=, Washington, D.C.: October, 1978,

p. 37.

19. Wolfbein, Seymour L. "Informational and Counselor Needs in the

Transition Process," From School to Work: Improving the Transition, A

Collection of Policy Papers Pre4.04ed for the National Commission for

Manpower Policy, Washington, D.: U.S. Government Printing Office,

1976, p. 117.

20. Tyler, Ralph Winfred. "The Com7;etencies of Youth." From School to Work:

Improving the Transition. A Conection of Policy Papers Prepared for the

National Commission for Manpower Policy, Washington, D.C.: U.S.

Government Printing. Office, p. 114.

21. Mangum and Walsh, op. cit., p. 1/0.

22. Gibboney, Richard A. Associ:Qtes. The Career Intern Program Final Report:

An Experiment in Care :1:lucation that Worked, Vol. 1, No. 7.

Washington, D.C.: U.S. Nati.Jnal Institut.!. of Education, May 1977.

23. 70001 Ltd., "A Non-Profit Corpftiovi Serving Disadvantaged Youth." (A

Program Booklet published k- 700sti Ltd., Wilmington, Delaware: 1979).

24. Ibid.

25. Barton, Paul E. and Bryna Shorn: Fraser. Between Two Worlds: Youth

Transition from School to Work: Volume 1, 2, 3 and an Executive Summary.

Washington, D.C.: U.S. Ltpartmornt of Labor, Employment and Training

Administration, Office of Res4rch and Development, 1978, p. 33.

26. Ibid.

27. Walthers, Regis H. r4 Margaret Magnusson. .A Longitudinal Study of

Selected Out-of-School hfC-2 Programs in Four Cities: Final Report,

Manpower Research Project, Washingtda, D.C.: George Washington

University. June 1975.

28. Fox Andrew, Theodore May, and Paul Schwartz. Black Teenager Girl

Project, In-School Xelghborhood Youth Corps, Memphis, Tennessee: Social

Service Delivery Systems, December, 1973.

21. Smith, Robert S., and Hugh M. Pitcher. The Neighborhood Youth Corps:

An Impact Evaluation Te2hnical Analysis Paper No. 9, Washington, D.C.:

er-", U.S. Department of Labor, Office of Evaluation, OASPER, September 1973.

Somers, Gerald G. and. Ernest W. Stromsdorfer. A Cost Effectiveness

Study of the In-School and Summer Neighborhood Youth Corps, Madison,

Wiscousin: Center for Studies in Vocational and Technical Education,

Industrial Relations Researdh.Institute, University of Wisconsin, July

1970.

31. Barton and Fraser, op. cit.

499
32. Ibid.

33. Marans, Robert W., B.F. Driver, and John C. Scott. Youth and Environment: An Evaluation of the 1971 Youth Conservation Corps, Ann Arbor, Michigan: Survey Research, University of Michigan, 1972.

34. Barton and Fraser, op. cit.

35. Ibid. p. 90.

36. U.S. Department of Labor, Report to the President 1979, op. cit., p. 44.

37. Ibid.

38. Ibid. p. 1978.

39. Ibid. p. 179.

40. Ibid. p. 171.

41. Barton and Fraser, op. cit., p. 91.

42. Levitan, Sar A. and Benjamin H. Johnston. The Job Corps: A Social Experiment That Works, Policy Studies in Employment and Welfare, Number 22, Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1975.

43. Taggart, op. cit.

44. Levitan, op. cit.

45. U.S. General Accounting Office, Job Corps Should Strengthen Eligibility Requirements, A Report to the Congress, Washington, D.C.: July 1979, p. 8.

46. Ibid.

47. Barton and Fraser, op. cit.

48. Ibid. p. 103.

49. U.S. Department of Labor, Report to the President 1979, op. cit., p. 53.

50. Ibid.

51. Barton and Fraser, op. cit.

52. Richardson, Ann and Bruce B. Dunning. Youth in the WIN Program: Report on A Survey of Client Backgrounds, Program Experience, and Subsequent

Labor Force Participation. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Social Science

Research, November 1975.

53. Parents Preparing for Parenthood, "A Program for Teen-Age Parents," (Community Mental Health Center, Catchment Area 4, Philadelphia,

Pennsylvania Brochure) 1979.

500

556
54. Lewis, Hyland and Mamie Clark, et al. Improving Employment Qpportunities

for Female Black Teen-Agers in New York City, R. and D. Monograph No. 47,

Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training

Administration, 1977.

55. Barton and Fraser, op. cit., p. 117.

56. U.S. General Accounting Office, Job Corps Should Strengthen Eligibility

Requirements, op. cit., p. 8.

57. Mangum and Walsh, op. cit., p. 38.

58. Martin, John M. "Recruitment and Community Penetration," Breakthrough

for Disadvantaged Youth, ed., William Mirengoff, Washington, D.C.: U.S.

Department of Labor, 1969, p. 54.

59. Mangum and Walsh, op. cit.

60. U.S. Department of Labor. Summer Program for Economically Disadvantaged

Youth (SPEDY), Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor, Employment

and Training Administration, 1978.

61. Striver, Herbert E. Conference on the Education and.Training of Racial

Minorities, The Opportunities Industrialization Centers: A Successful

Demonstration of Minority Self-Help, Training and Education, University

of Wisconsin, 1967, p. 63.

62. Anderson, Bernard E. The Opportunities Industrialization Centers: A

Decade of Community-Based Manpower Services. Pennsylvania: University

of Pennsylvania,. 1976.

63. Gibboney, Richard A. Associates, op. cit., p. 17.

64. Rist, Ray C. Education and Employment Training: The Views of Youth.

Interim Report #2. New York: Youthwork National Policy Study, Cornell

University, 1979, p. 58.

65. Vogel, Anita S. A Retros ective Surve' of Pro rams for Youth .; lo

in the Private Sector, Spomosed by the United States Department of

Labor. Pennsylvania: Corpocation for Public/Private Ventures, March

1978, p. 14.

11 I eat

66. Martin, John M., op.

67. Mangum and Walsh, op

68. U.S. Department

President, 1979, op.

cit., p. 49.

. cit., p. 81.

of Labor.

cit., p. 178.

69. U.S. General Accounting Office.

Requirements, op. cit., p. 13.

70. Ibid. 0. 18.

501

Employment and Training Report of the

Job Corps Should Strengthen Eligibility
71. Mangum, Garth, James Morlock, Daniel Snedeker, Marion Pines. Job Market Futurity, Planning and Managing Local Manpc er Programs, Salt Lake City, Utah: Olympus Publishing Company, 1979, p. 33.

72.. Ibid.

73. Ibid. p. 276.

74. Mangum and Walsh, op. cit., p. 164.

75. Martin, John M., op. cit., p. 46.

76. Zuckerman, Allan. "Targeting CETA Services," Adherent: A Journal of

Comprehensive Employment Training and Human Resource Development, Vol. 6, No. 1, May 1979, p. 39.

77. Ibid. p. 40.

78. Mangum and Walsh, op. cit., p. 165.

79. Ibid.

80. Foat C. and N. Stromquist, Study of the Career Intern Programs. Interim Non-Technical Report. Task D: Comparison of the CIP with Other Youth Programs. California: RMC Research Corp., 1979, p. 61.

81. Wurzburg, Gregory. Improving Job Opportunities for Youth: A Review of Prime Sponsors Experience in Implementing the Youth Employment and

Demonstration Projects Act. August 1978, p. 26.

82. Martin, John M., op. cit., p. 54.

83. Taggart, Robert. "Managing Youth Services: AX Interview With Robert Taggart," Adherent A Journal of Co rehensive ..lo..ent and Human

Resources Development, Vol. 6, No. 3, December 1979, p. 13.

84. Hutchines, Robert C.1 "Attitude of Male Gang Members Related to Innovative Education," (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, the Pennsylvania State University, 1973).

85. Kamman, R. "The Case for Making Each School in Your District Different," The American School Board Journal, January 1972, p. 37.

86. Fantini, M.D. Public Schools of Choice, New York, Simon and Schuster,

1973.

87. Hutchins, Robert C. "School Options in Philadelphia: Their Present and Future Potential," Educational Leadership, November 1974, pp. 88-91.

88. U.S. Department of Labor. Summer Program for Economically Disadvantaged Youth, op. cit., p. 4-9.

89. Wurzberg, op. cit., p. 29.

502

558
90. de Lone, op. cit., p. 6.

91. U.S. Department of Labor. A Knowledge Development Plan for Youth

Initiatives. Fiscal 1979. Washington, D.C.: Employment and Training

Administration, 1979. p. 28.

92. Zuckerman, op. cit., p. 42.

93. Mangum and Walsh, op. cit., p. 165.

.#4. Taggart, "Merging Youth Services" op. cit., p. 12.

95. Zuckerman, op. cit., p. 42.

503

559
CHAPTER FOUR

Inducement to Service: To Test or Not to Test

"The testing movemeal. in the United States had been a success...", states

David C. McClelland of Harvard University Lather factiously. In his article,

"Testing for Competence Rather Than for Intelligence," McClelland contends

that even though astronomical sums are spent on testing by schools, training

programs, colleges and employers, testing itself has had quite a negative

effect on the lives of young people. He states emphatically that tests have

been given unwarranted power over the lives of young people by stamping some

of them qualified and others less qualified for a variety of aspirations,

endeavors, and requests. Most importantly, McClelland points out the primary

disservice that tests have shared, which is responsibility of screening out

black, Spanish-speaking, and other minority applicants to schools. jobs and

training programs. 1

Even in light of the existing evidence, which points to the danger of

testing because of its potential abuse, the problem is more complex than

simply to test or not to test; therefore, the overall purpose of assessment

needs to be examined.

The following points briefly summarize the most significant findings of

the study by Regis Walther, Analysis and Synthesis of DOL Experience in Youth

Transition to-Work-Programei---regardiagthefield of--tiStiaglissiiMMeni:

1. Assessments can be used for three quite different purposes:

(a) As part of the decision making process which determines who

gets admitted to a particular trail:tag grogram or work assignment, or gets referred to a particular job;

(b) As part of the vocational exploration process to get a better

understanding of the youth's abilities, interests and values;

and

504
(c) As part of an evaluation of program effectiveness.

2. Test results should not be permitted to limit unnecessarily the

options available to youth. Many tests are reasonably good measures

of the threshold ability to perform a particular task, but scores

beyond this threshold have little capacity to predict work or training performance. In such instances the test scores should not be

used beyond the level for which validity can be established.

3. Tests can be used very profitably to increase understanding about

how the characteristics of the individual relate to the requirements

and satisfaction potential of available jobs and the problems which

may be created by low test scores. In some situations, it is useful

to give the youth practice in test taking so that they can improve

their score and avoid unfair discrimination based on their lack of

experience with the particular type of test.

4. Tests can be used successfully for evaluating program effectiveness.

Standardized reading tests as a measure of the effectiveness of

remedial education programs is an obvious example. Tests can also

provide useful measures of attitude change when this is the goal of

the program.

Similarly, Backer3 contends that given certain program goals, it may be

necessary to restrict the flow of enrollees through preselection. For

example, in a training program from which only those with at least sixth grade

math skills are likely to benefit, assessment might be used to screen out all

those with less than the required math ability.

Such selection is done, for example, in the impressively successful

Training and Technology program in Oak Ridge, Tennessee. Presumably those

excluded would be channeled to another program or given the remedial education

necessary to achieve a sixth grade math level. In other cases, limited program resources mean that only a certain number of enrollees can be

accommodated at one time. Thus, it becomes necessary to restrict the flow of

those entering the program. Assessment might then be used to select those

505 561.
most likely to succeed. In either case, it is important that variables

assessed truly are relevant to successful outcomes, and are measured as

accurately as possible. Assessment should not be a means simply of keeping a

service effort to a manageable size; random selection would achieve this goal

just as well. Use of assessment tools must reflect a commitment to provide

the best possible services to program applicants. Even accurate selection of

those most likely to succeed, e.g., in a training program, might be challenged

on the grounds that it may discriminate against those who need the program's

services most. Clear statements of program goals are required in order to

decide how assessment can best be used for admission decisions.

The effort reported in this chapter examines the arer sting by

addressing the following questions:

1. What kinds of tests are used in programs which serve high risk

youth?

2. Do the identified tests have the effect of screening people out?

3. What are the pitfalls of testing?

4. How can tests be utilized as assessment tools rather than as means

of excluding needy prospective program participants? What are the

alternatives to testing?

Programs: Assessment and Research Findings

Addressing the question what kinds of tests are used in programs which

serve high -risk youth, the response is that there are as many tests as there

are programs. The issue is what kinds of tests should be used by programs

which serve high risk youth? This section reviews studies relating to testing, programs and their assessment techniques, and briefly test descriptions.

Given the needs that exist with the high-risk youth population, the reviewer's

primary objective is to identify the assessment techniques which do in fact

significantly pose the threat of screening out the needy.

506
A Study of Government Training Programs Under the Manpower Development and

Training Acts'

Government training programs established under the Manpower Development

and Training Act of 1962 were based on the premise that a substantial number

of people are unemployed or underemployed because they lack the. skills

demanded in the job market.

The purpose of the study which is being reviewed was to examine the

selection criteria and mechanisms by which applicants were accepted or

rejected for training.

According to the study findings, 70% of those persons rejected by HDTA

were black. This finding should be considered in conjunction with the scores

obtained on ability tests administered by the Employment Service. These show

that in respect to most of the component elements of the General Aptitude Test

Battery (GATB) the scores of those rejected for training fell substantially

below comparable scores of persons accepted for training. The majority of

persons rejected for the programs, when interviewed, expressed a continuing

interest in training. The tests were found to be the most important criterion, in soma, cases the sole criterion, of selection; thus, screening out those

applicants who demonstrated the desire to receive, as well as the need for,

training.

Apprenticeship System

The Center for the Study of Human Resources at the University of Texas,

conducted research in the area of apprenticeship. In general, apprenticeship

can be defined as a method of learning a manual or technical skill trade

through on-the-job training and related classroom instruction. Four major

industries utilize apprenticeship training: manufacturing, construction,

utilities, and service (maintenance.

The administration of and responsibility for the apprenticeship training

system rests with Joint Apprenticeship Committees (JAC), which are local

bodies comprised of representatives from management and labor.
JACs develop their own entry and training requirements for respective

trades under their jurisdictions; however, entry prerequisities are fairly

universal for the selection of trainees. JACs call for the following

requirements -nd have point systems to select trainees:

Successful passing of an aptitude exam. These exams vary by

crafts and by locals. Some locals use standardized tests such

as the General Aptitude Test Battery (GATE) or the

Differential Aptitude Test (DAT). Others have tailor-made

tests designed to meet their specifications.

Submission of personal documents. Documents include birth

certificates, high school transcripts, and proof of physical

fitness.

An oral interview conducted by JAC representatives. The

purpose of this interview is to determine such factors as the

candidate's attitude toward work, his willingness to take

supervision, and his full understanding of mutual

expectations.

In theory, the number of points a candidate earns, his rank score, and

the number of available craft openings determine entry into a program. There

are numerous variations, however, on this general theme.

The findings of the study revealed that apprenticeship graduates

generally were more steadily employed and earned greater salaries than other

journeymen. Also, apprenticeship graduates tended to advance to supervisory

positions more rapidly and more often than journeymen who enter industry by

other routes.

The limitation' of this study is that one cannot conclude that those

individuals who were rejected for training based on the inability to pass an

aptitude exam would not have reaped the same benefits if they had been given

the-opportunity to participate in the apprenticeship program.

Career Intern Program

6

The CIP is an OIC venture geared to service the high-risk youth.

Participants for this program are assessed; however, the test scores in no way

influence acceptance or rejection to the program. The CIP utilizes the SAT

508 564
math and reading tests, Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices (test of

non-verbal reasoning), Rotter's Internal-External Scale, Coopersmith's

Self-Esteem Inventory, and Super's Career Development Inventory. The tests

and inventories provided a baseline for assessing later intern achievement and

attitude change in comparison with a control group.

The assessment technique in the CIP is a clear example of test

utilization for the purpose of meeting the individual needs of the trainee,

continual program update, and monitoring of student progress as opposed to

screening out needy clients.

Testing and Fair Employment: Fairness and Validity of Personnel Tests for

Different Ethnic Groups: A Study7

This study examines the issue of testing for employment selection. The

validity of tests for different ethnic and racial groups is discussed. Summirized below are the major findings and recommendations of this study.

Major Findings

1. Selection procedures, especially tests, must be examined for their

equitability.

2. General studies of the mental abilities of racial and ethnic groups

have indicated that some minority groups typically perform worse on

many tests than does the general population; therefore, using test

scores as sole criterion for acceptance is inequitable.

3. The degree of validity of tests was found to differ between ethnic

groups.

4. The test may be valid for all ethnic groups, but may discriminate

unfairly among them.

5. The test may be valid in one ethnic group but not another.

509

565
6. The test may be valid in no ethnic group.

Non-Verbal tests may not necessarily be more accurate for use with

minority ethnic groups.

8. Job training may improve scores on tests which might be used for

selection.

The major recommendation reported in this study is that tests proposed

for personnel selection should be studied separately in the specific ethnic

groups and job settings for which they are to be used.

Even though the major thrust of this study was on personnel selection,

the major findings regarding testing are generic in nature; therefore, the

findings offer much to the study of tests with high risk youth whether the

testing is for program selection, job placement or school entrance.

Testing, Counseling, and Supportie Services: Breakthrough for Disadvantaged

Youth3

The reviewed report seeks to describe the major features of assessment,

counseling, and supportive services as reported in documents produced during

the period 1962-65 by the Experimental and Demonstration (E&D) projects for

disadvantaged youth funded under the Manpower Development and Training Act

(MDTA).

Th+t findings in the report, regarding testing, uncovered many

inconsistencies with respect to the individual projects (25). The Wechsler

Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) was administered selectively by several projects, making it second only to the General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB) of

the tests used by the projects. However, within each project, the WAIS seldom

was administered except for special problems requiring extensive diagnostic

exploration, while the GATE was given to as many youth as would take it.

The findings also indicate that the selection of tests and testing

programs seemed more determined by factors of expediency than by a careful and
comprehensive evaluation of the merit and worth of available and relevant

tests.

As a result of the haphazardness of the testing programs, a large number

of youth dropped out of the projects during-, the intake phase, which included

extensive psychological evaluation and a pv.,.',iatric interview. In a later

follow-up study, some trainees described the nth interviews as insulting,

silly, irrelevant, or offensive and intrusive W the Citizens Committee on

Youth (CCYO), Cincinnati, Ohio.

Reported

admission to

were rejected.

at well below

workshop.

in this study, .-biroe projects used tesz -3 es in determining

their training ft, -ices. Applicants t41 intelligence

Philadelphia's J.r.T?, however, found tb--c. iIEF 1..tirlees testing

average intelligencv. --a-formed at accf., 4,4e. scan6rds in its

The major conclusion in the report was that where projects .1re organized

to provide a multiplicity of services, depending ou client needs, there is

little need for selection testing.

Pitfalls of Testing

Throughout the literature, there runs a consistent thread of evidence

that assessment always int.oIves cost. Backer points out that, "Effort is

expended in the process itgelf, e.g., time for testing, time fur scoring, ti-%A

for interpretag, time for feedoack of results, -ost of materials used, et,::

There may b.: some more subtle side effects or hidden costs as well." In

addition to the most obvious limitations, briefly summarized below are the

pitfalls and in some cases dange... of testing:

1. Measurement does not always provide inforwtion the ; helr;:f.

(a) A client to understand himself bettvr

(b) His counselor to find him a better job

567
(c) A program manager with information to identify ways of

improving services.9

2. Shortcomings of traditional paper-and-pencil tests:

......... (a) Most traditional paper-and-pencil tests are similar to

classro examinations with which many disadvantaged

persons have a history of failure, and which therefore,

may make -hem feel anxious and uncomfortable.

(b) Many of these tests have written directions at a rather

high reading level which must be understood by the testee

if measurementa are to be valid.

(c) Individual test items also may be at a relatively high

reading level and may reflect cultural content o! which

the disadvantaged have little knowledge.

(d) Item content of tests designed for children but

administered to diaadvantaged adults may be simple enough

in reading level but uninteresting or insulting. This

can seriously damage motivation to perform.

(e) Many disadvantaged persons have inadequate experience

with tests of aty kind, and so do not have the "test

wiseness" important va yielding test results that fairly

estimate characterisl:ics/ capabilities.

(f) Many tests do 1 .4 seem to bear any significant

relationship to the Individual characteristics 2ertinent

to job success for most of the jobs the disadvantaged

will be seeking.10

3. Tests are often used mot, fot expediency than for their merit,

4. Tests often discriminate L.gelst ainorities. 12

5. Many tests are reasonably good measures of the threshold ability to

perform a particular task, Int scores beyond this have little

capacity to predict work or training performance. 13

Alternatives to Testing

What's new in manpower program assessment is certainly a matter of

interpretation. Some of the techniques have been under oevelopment for

512
several years. What is really new about them as compared to traditional

devices is that all have been specially designed to measure a disadvantaged

population. Some of these less formal and nontest assessment measures are as

14

follows:

- -the work sample technique as a meaningful alternative to

paper-and-pencil tests

- -the behavior sample as a means of assessing job-required

behavioral skills

- -the JEVS-Philadelphia training and technical assistance

program for disseminating and implementing the work sample

- -the TOWER system of work samples as an example of both

developmental research and dissemination from the

rehabilitation field

- -the Educational Testing Service battery of assessment devices

for disadvantaged youth, as an example of how the

paper-and-pencil test format can be extended to assessment of

the disadvantaged

- -ETS's systematic development of criteria for validating

assessment tools to be used in a particular manpower program

- -the Biographical Information Blank (BIB), a useful assessment

tool that relies on information that can be collected and

verified easily

- -the Colorado Manpower Laboratory Research Manual as an example

of how newly-developed instruments can be presented in final

research reports to facilitate wider use

- -development of the Tolerance for Bureaucratic Structure (TBS)

scale as an example of how both theory and practical

experience can contribute. to the creation of a measurement

device

- -USES and Psychological Corporation pretesting orientation

materials for increasing test wiseness and motivation, and

decreasing test anxiety, among disadvantaged examinees

- -the NATB as a viable alternative to the traditional manpower

assessment tool, the GATB

- -decentering as a promising technique for constructing

assessment tools that "speak the language" of the

disadvantaged.

513
The most promising assessment tools developed seem to be: (1) the work

sample technique as developed by the Jewish Employment and Vocational Service

in Philadelphia and the Experimental lanpower Laboratory at Mobilization for

Youth in New York, and (2) the parer-and-pqacil test battery for disadvantaged

youth developed by the Educati^nal Testing Service. Aside from their very

real application potential, these two ,:esearch efforts at three institutions

seem outstanding because they have done more than merely create new assessment

techniques. JEVS-Philadelphia has greatly increased the implementation of the

work sample by its large scale dissemination and technical assistance program.

ETS has creatively tackled the problem of developing supportable criteria for

measuring the success of its own creation, as part of an overall research

strategy that provides an excellent model for test construction.15

Recommendations for Policy

1. Tests should not be used as the sole criteria for admission to or

exclusion from a program.

2. Aggressive measures should be taken to seek alternatives to

paper-and-pencil tests.

3. Assessment techniques should include performance evaluations.

4. Participants/trainees should be given orientation sessions prior to

testing.

5. Physical plants should be cor'ucive to testing; therefore testing

environment should be catzfully evaluated.

6. Test monitors/administraors should receive inservice training,

e.g., "How to relax the test taker."

7. Assessment instruments should be continually updated.

8. Tests should be directly correlated with goals and objectives of the

traini g program.

570

514
9. Alternative methods of assessment should be sought particularly with

minorities or in cases of language barrier problems with clients.

10. Tests should not be used to limit options available to youth.

Suggested Areas for Further Research

1. The evidence in this chapter is consistent and convincing that

testing can be used as a mechanism for precluding individuals from

assessing programs and services; however, it should also be oted

that a quality assessment program could in fact encourage access to

service. The available research is quite limited in this area and

should be the foremost consideration for further research.

2. Studies designed to examine ways of promoting better linkages

between agencies such as DOL and Social and Rehabilitation Services

in the testing area.

3. Continual development of assessment tools for the disadvantaged

population.

4. Research conducted to study the correlation between test scores and

actual performance level.

5. Methods of decreasing the time and cost of effective assessment.

6. Validity studies for new assessment techniques.

7. Development of flexible standardized assessment techniques that can

be adapted to the local conditions or needs.

515
References and Notes

1. McClelland, David C. "Testing for Competence Rather Than for

Intellegence," American Psychologist, Januar; 1973, p. 7.

2. Walther, Regis H. Analysis and Synthesis of DOL Experience. Washington,

D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration,

Office of Research and Development, 1976, p. 109.

3. Backer, Thomas E. Methods of Assessing the Disadvantaged in Manpower

Programs: A Review and Analysis. Research and Development Findings

No. 14. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor, Manpower

Administration, 1973, p. 34.

4. Chernick, J., B.P. Indik, and R. Craig, The Selection of Trainees Under

MDTA, New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University, Institute of

Management and Labor Relations, 1966, p. 124.

5. Green, Ernest A. "Apprenticeship: A Potential Weapon Against Minority

Youth Unemployment," From School to Work: Improving the Transition, A

Collection of Policy Papers Prepared for the National Commission for Manpower Policy, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976,

pp. 201-227.

6. Gibboney,- Richard A. Associates. The Career Intern Program Final Report:

An Experiment in Career Education that Worked, Vol. 1, No. 7, Washington,

D.C.: U.S. National Institute of Education, May 1977, p. 147.

7. Kirkpatrick, J.G., R.B. Ewen, R.S. Barett, and R.A. Katzell, Testing and

Fair Employment: Fairness and Validity of Personnel Tests for Different

Ethnic Groups, New York: University Press, 1968, p. 145.

8. Gordon, Jesse E. "Testing, Counseling, and Supportive Services,"

Breakthrough for Disadvantaged Youth, ed. William Mirengoff, Washington,

D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor, 1969, pp. 61-116.

9. Backer, T.E., op. cit., pp. 38-39.

10. Ibid. p. 61.

11. Ibid. p. 62-64.

12. Gordon, Jesse E., op. cit., pp. 111-115.

13. Chernick, Indik, and Craig, op. cit., pp. 73-79.

14. Walther, Regis R., op. cit., pp. 101-102.

15. Backer, T.E., op. cit., pp. 140-144.

16. Ibid. p. 144.

5"q

516
CHAPTER FIVE

Programs Structured to Mirror Real World Choices

What do we know about how programs can be structured to mirror real world

choices? How can we insure that participants appreciate the long-run

consequences of their program participation?

The questions in this policy area are practical in meaning yet

philosophical in essence. Why wouldn't researchers, educators and other human

resource workers want to know more about those immeasurable, unpredictable,

elusive, affective elements which would insure a more intensely successful

program for high-risk youth participants?

The phrase to be mindful of is "immeasurable, unpredictable, elusive,

affective elements." When we start conceptualizing "real world choices" we

slip in and out of personal perspectives. For what is a "real world choice"

for one youth, one staff member, one researcher, one reviewer is not so for

another individual. Also when we try to enumerate or put parameters around a list of long-run consequences "to be appreciated" again we encounter personal

bias. Who is to say, who is to predict that which "will be appreciated by a person's involvement in a program," except the person involved?

At this point, we might lean toward longitudinal studies or personal

interviews or a daily observation mechanism to help ferret out an appreciation

factor, yet even then we cannot be sure.

If a review of programs that "mirror real world choices" is to go

forward, it will be absolutely paramount to start with a definition, a definition of a real world choice. After the delineation is made, an historical

perspective will be given, followed by a study of youth programs to see if in

fact they have component activities to aid youth in making choices.
Definition

A program which could be considered structured to mirror real world

choices, so that participants will understand the consequences of their

involvement, is one which has at least three (3) out of the six (6) following

components, units, characteristics, goals or objectives:

1. A Making Career-Decision Unit in which students gain self-perception

of their abilities, know the characteristics and requirements of

different occupations and are able to link their interests and

abilities to jobs.

2. A part-time or summer job experience, including lessons, training

and courses taken outside of classroom.

3. Communication and computation units connected with decision-making,

information processing and employment seeking skills.

4. Objectives in practicing positive and effective work habits, using

initiative, taking-risks and assuming and accepting responsibility.

5. Hands-on experiences in a variety of skill areas and/or actual

employment with a knowledgeable and skilled craftsman or professional.

6. Units and/-3r objectives which train, encourage and enhance

entrepreneurships.

Historical Perspective

In 1963 the Manpower Development and Training Act (MDTA) was amended to

Ellow youth to participate in on-the-job (OJT) training programs as well as

classroom training programs. 1

The Economic Cpportunities Act (EOA) put stress on improving the

employability of high risk youth. EOA established the Neighborhood Youth

518 574
Corps (NYC) a work experience program and the Job Corps, a training and

remedial education program.

With the advent of Comprehensive Employment and Training Act in 1973

(CETA) consolidated training and employment activities were placed under one authority to be administered by state and local prime sponsors.

In 1977, the Youth Employment and Demonstration Projects Act (YEDPA)2

expanded the level and range of services available to youth. Activities under

this act were to yield new data, new insight into the needs and types of

services that youth require in various areas among which three are job

creation, training and job development.

Work Experience (WE) authorized under the Economic Opportunity Act of

1964 (EOA) is intended to provide economically disadvantaged youth with some income and actual experience with a public or nonprofit employer. The three

major components of the work experience are: (1) In-School Work Experience

that was meant to provide disadvantaged high risk youth with exposure to work

and to influence potential dropouts to stay in school until graduation by

giving them part-time jobs during the school term. One of the assumptions

implicated in the design of the Neighborhood Youth Corps (NYC) is that work is

an inherently valuable activity and that job training and related activities

will reduce involvement in socially undesirable activities. (2) Out-of-School

Work Experience, that was intended to give youth over 16 years old and who

were out of school, employment opportunities and some training to enhance

their future employability. The program was viewed as having positive benefits to be gained from being in the work place and actually performing on the

job. (3) Summer Work Experience, intended to give youth summer jobs thereby

making it more likely that they return to school.

The summer youth program has two major criticisms: Failure to provide

adequate supervision, materials and instruction, and lack of success in

emphasizing employability development.3

575

519
Young Adult Conservation Corps (YACC) is authorized by Title VIII of

CETA. YACC is designed to give employment for 12 months as well as other

benefits to 12 to 23 year olds in conservation work.

Youth Community Conservation and Improvemenc Projects (YCCIP) was intended to be a work experience program designed to serve out-of-school youth

in projects to benefit the local community.

'Youth Incentive Entitlement Pilot Projects (YIEPP)

4

- Economically

disadvantaged youth between the ages 16-29 years are eligible for 'Las program

which provides part-time employment during the school term and full-time

during the summer. The youth participating in this program must attend

school, achieve minimim standards, and perform on the job.

Stated objectives of each of the above mentioned youth programs as well

as the concomitant and assumed goals are in keeping with the definition of

programs mirrored to reflect real-world choices, especially the employment

component, hands on activities, and practical applications of the in-school

work to the on-the-job experiences.

PROGRAMS STRUCTURED TO MIRROR REAL-WORLD CHOICES

Youth Enterprise Development Corporation

"The strategy developed here is one of stimulating opportunities for

youth to gain experience in youth-run enterprises and to be instructed and

coached in the skills of running a business. There is throughout an emphasis

on youth participation and responsibility. At the same time, however, there

is a need for adult sponsorship and assistance if these ventures are to be

successful enough to be beneficial."5 These youth operated enterprises provide outlets for youth leadership abilities as well as training in management

and entrepreneurship. Involved in this program structure are decision-making

skills using initiative and risk-taking, building on interests and abilities,

and numerous other objectives which mirror real world choices. Youth

Enterprise Development Corporations are still in their pilot stage.

520 0 /6
Regularizing Odd Jobs is a pilot program strategy to help urban youth

achieve the goals of seeking, obtaining and retaining employment. "To achieve

this goal it is recommended to regularize odd jobs."6 The idea is to employ

youth on a full-time, year-round basis to provide specified services under

contract. Examples of services to be provided would be maintenance and

repair, carpet, window and attic cleaning, painting, snow removal, lawn mowing, and addressing and mailing. The evidence of real-world choices mirrored

in the structure of this pilot program is clear: opportunities for motivation, upgrading through training, participation and teamwork, hands-on

employment with knowledgeable supervision as well as decision-making

opportunities.

Jobs for Youth - Vocational Foundation, Inc., Models 7

"A great many more strong, employer-centered job placement services must

be established to open the door for youths to the real world of work and to

help them negotiate the private sector work system. These services emphasize

the value of initial, full-time jobs in the development of work habits, work

skills, and career opportunities -- rekindle the youth's motivation to learn

relevant skills, (and) to gain independence."8

In reviewing this program's objectives and structure, real-world choice

opportunities are certainly involved. The emphasis is on entry-level jobs in

which the youthful participants can succeed with small- and medium-sized

employers. The young person has opportunity to make decisions and show his

reliability and capability, thereby gaining raises through increased responsibility. Orientation is the key word in this program. It includes

descriptions on how to hunt for jobs, prepare for interviews, and fill out

applications. Also stressed are aptitudes, interests, abilities and qualifications. A strong education component is indicated for this model youth

program.

Young Ex-Offender Transition Service (Safer Foundation Model) 9

This specialized transition for youthful ex-offenders, aged 14-to 21,

would incorporate the following elements: a youth program to raise skills to

521 577
those competitive in the job market; a job development and employer service

unit; a remedial and individualized program; peer group interaction and an

orientation to the world of work. "Satisfactory performance and punctuality

should be rewarded by bonuses and poor performance and lateness by docking, in

accordance with most work place rules of conduct. Clients should be dropped

from the program for failing to adhere to work rules which govern absences,

tardiness, comportment and dress." 10

This program has many facets grounded in the real-world choice mechanism,

because its basic concepts puts education before employment and uses remedial

education as a screening device. There is also preparation for work and

social transition. More time is needed to gain further insight into this

model's effectiveness in reflecting real-world choice. However, the

possibilities are many and challenging.

The Career Intern Program (CIP)11 is structured to acquaint students with

the world of work. This program replicated in five cities is an outgrowth of

the national manpower training program entitled Opportunities

Industrialization Centers, Inc., (OIC). Interns in the CIP take part in a

Career Counseling Seminar which "assists students to understand career information, develop selfawareness, explore career possibilities, and cope more

successfully with diverse social situations." 12 Illustrative topics covered

are: identifying present career interests; deciding on career information

needed; rational decision-making; predicting consequences; keeping the options

open; and what kind of decider are you.

"Neither CIP nor, probably, any other program can guarantee

students success in life. The school of the intern's choice may

not admit them, scholarship money may stretch far enough.

Labor market conditions may mean unemployment, long periods of

employment in youth jobs, a slower rise to more rewarding

positions, and being unable to move from job to job or from

occupation to occupation. More broadly, success in life may be

limited by personal losses and disappointments. Accepting the

limitations may require adjustment. Broader socio-political

conditions affecting recreation, housing; health, transportation

and educational opportunities may limit success in life.

What, tLen, can CIP responsibly promise it preparing a young person

for success in life? Perhaps most -z.z.ntral are the

522 573
characteristics--both attitudinal and cognitive--that help people

to plan ahead, to be ready to act on opportunities, and to have the

ability to keep trying rather than wilt at an early

disappointment."13

This program strives from inception to completion to mirror the real

world.

The Career Exploration Program (CEP)14 is designed to expand a youth's

knowledge of career alternatives enabling him to select, and plan for a suitable career based on individual interests and abilities. "To succeed, the

program must entail a variety of employers and a surplus of jobs in a variety

of categories." 15

In keeping with the definition of programs structured to reflect real

world choices, CEP fits very well. Communication and computation academic

units, career decision-making opportunities, and employment seeking skills are the emphasis.

"The Neighborhood Youth Corps (NYC) In-School Program, places emphasis on objectives such as greater knowledge of the world about the individual youth

and what that world has to offer, as well as whether the enrollee is capable

of taking advantage of .new opportunities. This can be transferred in three

categories: Knowledge of Career Alternatives, Knowledge of Work Standards and

Habits, and Knowledge of the Systems." 16

Mirrored in this program are definite structures to help high-risk youth

gain in ability to make real world choices. Of particular interest is the

Suggested Outline of a School/Work Plan. 17 One major point that is in keeping

with our original definition of making real world choices is that enrollees in

this program are guided to make commitments as they initially plan for

short-term periods with the option to reassess the plan based on their

changing needs.

A review of Worksite Activity Under the Youth Employment and

Demonstration Projects Act 18 reveals that the intent of this project was to

gain a first hand observation of what was transpiring at the work sites. The

523 579
main objectives were to find out wages being paid the youth, kind of supervision, ,,ndanc and punctuality, level of enthusiasm or boredom and the

quali'. 'oducts coming from their work. It is clear that, in part, at

least It could be gained concerning the youth's decision-making abilities as their oral or written appreciation or non-appreciation of

long-rut a fences of their past program involvement.

In 1978, the Genesee Intermediate School District 19 examined over 500

youth betwetLa 14 and 21 years of age involved in the program. Significant

gains were reported for their skills in exploring careers, making decisions

and plannin. .o reach chosen career goals. In addition, a 75% increase in the

level of coping skills for school and work settings were found as a result of

a systematic delivery of twelve one-hour modules. These modules are reflective of skills, strategies and abilities needed in the real world.

Work experience provided youth with income to help keep them in school

and job experiences which helped prepare them for future employment. The

emphasis was on making decisions and planning to reach chosen career goals.

The Vocational Exploration Program (VEP)

20

is designed to expose

disadvantaged youth to the world of work providing opportunities for them to

be exposed to principles of business operations, labor management relations,

collective bargaining and the free enterprise system. An interesting part of

the VEP is that each subcontractor "must design a program that involves youth

in many of the occupations existing today and include an orientation to many

of the forces active in the world of work."21

In short, a major thrust of

this program is to strengthen the ability of high-risk youth in making real

world choices.

A detailed manual for manpower training programs dealing with youth can

be found in In-School Youth Manpower: A Guide to Local Strategies and

Methods. 22

The information for the manual was gathered through a survey and

analysis of innovative In-School Neighborhood Youth Corps (NYC) programs which

have helped high-risk disadvantaged youth complete high school and improve

their employability.

524 530
The areas of emphasis in these programs are: Self-Image Development;

Vocational Skills; Enrollee Involvement; Income Maintenance; Community

Responsibility; Academic Skills; Career Exploration; and Workmanship Training.

It is evident from these areas mentioned that the dominant factors and objectives to be instituted into these programs are those which will aid

participants in making real-world choices.

"Under the supervision of professional staff members, the enrollees

participate actively in program decision-making and implementation. By

involving the enrollee in the decision-making process, it may be expected that

their personal commitment to have the program succeed will increase.

"23

The program's emphasis on the enrollee making his own decisions reinforce

the enrollee's ability to solve his own problems, be more responsible for his

class work, his job, and to take greater initiative in his planning for

successful future employability.

Pursuant to d review of the literature of this policy area, the

researcher followed a definite plan of action. That is, first, a definition

was given as to the characteristics of criteria that programs would have to

meet in order to be considered "programs structured to mirror real world

choices." Second, more than forty (40) programs dealing with the high-risk

youth population were reviewed. It was decided that unless a program met at

least three (3) out of the six (6) criteria, it would not be useful for

citation in this particular review.

Eleven (11) youth programs spanning a variety of models are the subject

of this present analyzation. It is to be noted again, that these programs are

considered exemplary for developing and expanding our knowledge about the

policy area or viewing in a telescopic manner, long-range benefits to youth

participants vis-a-vis program involvement, skill and ability in making real

world choices and general appreciation of all factors involved.

Drawing upon this perspective, then, there are several knowledge or

information gaps. Generally speaking, the following questions are raised:

What are other characteristics, criteria or components that would render a

525
program one which is so structured in reflecting real world choices, that

program participants gain in this ability? What other pertinent data

influence participants' success, i.e., the region (rural-urban; West Coast;

East Coast), population, year, economic conditions, and sociological factors?

How much should we attempt to gauge the influence of parental interest and

involvement on decision-making? Do curriculum materials and equipment,

teaching methods and techniques make signifcant differences in leading

high-risk youth to success in making real world commitments and choices? Are

there enough quality jobs and opportunities available for youth selection and

exploration from concerned and knowledgeable employers?

These are but a few of the many inquiries involved in this area of

research that almost takes on a gossamer quality, yet this is research we must

pursue to bridge the extended knowledge gap.

Recommendation for Policy

The following recommendations are offered to extend and more adequately

confirm our knowledge about how programs should be structured to aid

participants in making real world choices.

Recommendations numbered one (1), two (2), and three (3), were indicated

by the National Manpower Institute. 24

(1) Youth need continuing opportunities to develop skills and

abilities that enable them to learn responsible behavior by

experiencing the consequences and costs of their choices.

(2) "The use of a three party agreement that spells out the

expectations and responsibilities of each party; student,

staff, employer -- procedures to assess and update student's

interests and abilities."25

(3) "Parents and taxpayers should be involved in designing the

program and the evaluation procedures so that they understand

program goals, methods, and expected outcomes. Finally, the

526 582
programs can benefit by incorporating a community service

dimension that enables young people to contribute directly to

the welfare of the community as a whole."

26

(4) Labor market practices must be seen from the perspective of

the employers to insnre the success of programs designed to

meet the goals of the educational and employment worlds.

These ideas are recommended rather succinctly by Paul E.

Barton.

27

He also recommends a study of the legal

ramifications involving hiring of youth.

(5) Schmais relates, "When the office of Educational Opportunity

convened a conference on The Crisis in Human Services,

training was identified as the most crucial and neglected

variable in this crisis."28

In general, then, it is

recommended that training should be given in risk-taking,

decision-making and responsibility-taking, so that

participants can acquire and refine skills anu knowledge,

gaining insight and self-understanding.

(6) Techniques of role-playing and job simulation are especially

important. Learning by doing are the key words. Schmais

states, "...value and attitude change can occur more rapidly

when it is a function of purposeful activity."

29

527 583
Suggested Areas for Further Research

I. Longitudinal studies to provide data to make more rigorous assessments of

the long-run impact of program involvement upon high-risk youth

participants.

2. Studies typically labelled "Survey" to get first-hand information from

the youthful population as to their perception of benefits and/or their

"appreciation" level.

3. Studies which examine program staff-members and their perceptions,

knowledge, skill, ability, commitment, and inclination vis-a-vis working

with high-risk youth.

4. Replication of studies which included non-traditional techniques of

education and preparation for work viewed as pertinent for use with

unemployed disadvantaged youth.

5. Studies which have as their main objective to analyze and further

delineate what it means to make a real-world choice.

6. Research projects which examine on a case study basis; -the younger

siblings of the older high-risk youth in order to gain insight'-into the

socioeconomic factors which continue to produce the growing population

labelled "High-Risk."

584

528
References and Notes

1. Fifth Annual Report to the President and the Congress of the National

Commission for Employment Policy. Expanding Employment Opportunities

for Disadvantaged Youth. 1979, p. 166.

2. The Youth Employment and Demonstration Projects Act of 1977, P.L. 75-73,

Section 321.

3. U.S. General Accounting Office. "More Effective Management Is Needed to

Improve the Quality of the Summer Youth Employment Program." (Washington, D.C.: U.S. General Accounting Office, 1979).

4. Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation, The Youth Entitlement

Demonstration: A Summary on the Start-Up Period of the Youth Incentive

Entitlement Pilot Projects; New York: January, 1979.

5. Pilot Program #4, Youth Enterprise. Job Strategies for Urban Youth.

Work in America Institute, Inc., Scarsdale, New York: 1979, p. 26.

6. Pilot Program #5, Regularizing Odd Jobs, Job Strategies for Urban Youth.

Work in :America Institute, Inc., Scarsdale, New York: 1979, p. 31.

7. Pilot Program #7, Jobs for Youths - Vocational Foundation, Inc., Models.

Job Strategies for Urban Youth. Work in America Institute, Inc.,

Scarsdale, New York: 1979.

8. Ibid. p. 41.

9 Young Ex-Offender Transition Service (Safer Foundation Model), Job

Strategies for Urban Youth. Work in America Institute, Inc., Scarsdale,

New York: 1979.

10. Ibid. p. 53.

11. Gibboney, Richard A. Associates. The Career Intern Program Final Report:

An Experiment in Career Education That Worked, Vol. 1, No. 7, Washington,

D.C.: U.S. National Institute of Education, May 1977.

12. Ibid. p. 31.

13. Ibid. p. 143

14. Systems Research, Inc. In School Youth Manpower: A Guide to Local

Strategies and Methods. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor,

Manpower Administration, Office of Research and Development, 1973.

15. Ibid. p.. 74.

16. Ibid. p. 7.

17. Ibid. p. 16.

529 585
18. MDC, Inc., Worksite. Activity Under the Youth Employment and Demonstration Projects Act. An Interim Report. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of

Labor, Employment and Training Administration, Office of Youth Programs, 1978.

19. Genesse Intermediate School District Vocational Education Career Development Services. A Comprehensive Career Development Employability, Vocational and Coping Skills Training Program for YETP/SPEDY Youth in

the Genessee Intermediate School District. Michigan: 1978.

20. National Manpower Institute. Work and Service Experience For Youth. Washington, D.C.: March 1978.

21. Ibid. p. 78.

22. Systems Research Inc., op. cit.

23. Ibid. p. 58.

24. National Manpower Institute, op. cit.

25. Ibid. p. 16.

26. Ibid. p. 21.

27. Barton, Paul E., Labor Market Information for Youth: Youth Employment

and Career Entry. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Temple University School

of Business Administration, 1975. p. 96 and 97.

28. Schmais, Aaron. Implementating Non-Professional Programs in Human Services. New York: Center for the Study of Unemployed Youth, Graduate

School of Social Work, New York University. 1967.

29. Ibid. p. 51.

530 586
CHAPTER SIX

Individualized Planning and Assessment Plans

The Constitution guarantees each individual a broad range of freedom in

which to express his thoughts and choose a meaningful lifestyle. Thus, institutions of education have a significant role and a major responsibility in

providing flexible programs that are varied to meet determined individual

student needs and abilities. The needs of an individual at any specified

point in time may be similar, but certainly not the same, as those of any

other individual. Each person is unique. In order to maintain our democratic

form of government with its strong support of individual freedom, we must not

only accept individual differences in our society, but pursue courses of

action that develop and enhance each individual's abilities, skills, knowledge

and talents. 1

Public education is a major contributor to the perpetuation of this

democratic way of life, and along with parents, has been charged with a primary responsibility for transmitting values, attitudes, skills and knowledge

from one generation to the next. As world technology,information and communication systems continue their expansion, it becomes even more imperative that

each student gain relevant skills and knowledge as efficiently and effectively

as possible. 2

The individualization of instruction in public schools has emerged as a

way of more effectively meeting the unique academic, social, emotional and

physical needs of individual students. Although individualized instruction

encompasses a variety of methods, materials and, organizational patterns, the

basic elements can be identified. 3 This chapter examines the basic elements

of individualized instruction, the Individualized Education Plan, programs

utilizing the I.E.P. and provides recommendations for utilizing the

Individualized Education Plan with high risk youth.

531 587
Individualized Instruction

Duke points out that although the idea of individualization has been with

us for some time, it was from the 1960s that attempts to individualize the

educational experience for millions of students became most noticeable.6

Today, educators are becoming increasingly aware of the rationale and necessity for individualized instruction, and seemingly, more and more schools are implementing individualized programs.?

An analysis of American Education by DeYoung and Wynn4 indicates that

there are five basic elements that all individualized instruction programs

should contain:

1. Curriculum area to be studied

2. Objectives to be mastered in curriculum area

3. Methods and materials to be used to master Objectives

4. Learning pace

5. Criteria by which progress will be evaluated.

The essential element in all individualized instructional programs is

that each individual learns at this own pace. The student is the decision

maker about how rapidly he learns. In fact, the degree to which the student

is responsible for his learning may be used as a means of classifying individualized programs. At one end of the continuum the student exercises

control over 'his rate of progress; however, the other elements are determined

by the instructor. At the other end of the continuum the student decides

(1) what subject he wishes to pursue, (2) what specific knowledge and/or

skills he wishes to master, (3) what materials or strategies he wishes to use,

and (4) what behavior would indicate he had accomplished his objective. Thus,

the degree of flexibility in the individualized instructional program is

characterized by the degree to which the student meets his needs through his

own choices.5

532 588
Individualized Education Program Plan

The Individualized Education Program originated as a requirement of

P.L. 94-142 which is a comprehensive revision of Part B of the Education of

the Handicapped Act, 1975. P.L. 94-142 reflects a movement to develop programs designed to meet each handicapped child's unique educational needs in

order to help each handicapped child become all he or she is capable of becoming, rather than placing the child on the basis of disability grouping. The

law defines an individualized education program as a written statement that

specifies instructional objectives and indicates what special education and/or

related services will be prOiTided to the child.

8

The IEP plan must include:9

1. A written statement of the student's present levels of

educational performance.

2. A statement of annual goals reflecting the student's present

levels of educational performance and specifying the behavior

to be achieved through the individualized education program.

3. A list of short-term objectives which serve as the steps in

achieving each annual goal.

4. A statement of appropriate objective criteria, evaluation

procedures and schedules 'for determining, on at least an

annual basis, whether the instructional objectives are being

achieved.

5. A statement of the extent to which the student will be able to

participate in a regular education program.

6. A description of all special education and related services

that will be provided to meet the student's needs, any special

instructional media and materials to be provided and the type

of physical education program in which the student will

participate.

7. The projected date for beginning the program and the

anticipated duration of these services.

Writing an IEP plan is a three-step process: (1) establishing where the

student is (determining present levels of educational performance), (2) identifying how much and what one can reasonably expect him/her to learn by the

533
end of a year (writing annual goals) and (3) determining the steps to be taken

in achieving annual goals and the means to measure the student's progress

(specifying short-term objectie, and determining the means for evaluating

progress). 10

The IEP has its roots in the law; however, much effort has been made, by

using similar strategies, to reach the heart of the problem regarding

individualization which is identification, arrangement and design of curriculum content. In reviewing the literature, we are inundated with a flood of

acronyms such as-UNIPAC, LAP, EPP, TLU, and I:E.P. If one wades through the

jargon, he discovers that most of these "new" approaches deal with curriculum

content in similar ways. Their common goal is to sequentially arrange the

curriculum in small segments which clearly relate to performance levels or

objectives that meet students' needs. The instructional program should be

built around the following concerns: (1) What are the learner's interests?

(2) What is the readiness

. - of the learner? (3) What is the learner's rate of

learning? (4) What are the opportunities for the learner's success? (5) How . will the learner know he has succeeded? These concerns have fostered a fairly

standard format for instructional packages that encompass the following items:

(1) Main idea or concept. (2) Purpose or rationale. (3) Learning objectives.

(4) Pre-test. (5) Learning activities. (6) Self-evaluation or assessment.

(7) Post-tilst.11

It should be kept in mind that the description of the student's present

educational levels in appropriate curricular areas may include, but are not

limited to, academic achievement;, vocational skills; self-help skills; social

adaptations; emotional maturity; motor skills; hearing functioning; visual

functioning (orientation and mobility); and speech/language skills. 12

Based on the evidence discussed above, it would be reasonable to ask

would not every student benefit from an individualized education plan,

particularly the high risk youth?

534
Programs Utilizing Individualized Educational Plan Approaches

Presented in this section is a sampling of individualized planning

approaches to education and training utilized by various programs. The primary objective of the reviewer is to give the reader several examples of ways

to individualize; however, the descriptions provided do not necessarily contain all the elements previously recommended in the section entitled

"Individualized Instruction." Each approach can be adapted to incorporate

the suggested components.

Systems Approach13

The systems approach is not a magical panacea that provides instant

solutions to our educational problems. However, its application in planning

can maximize the probability of designing the most effective and efficient

teaching and learning activities. There are numerous instructional systems

models available that can be useful in designing mediated individualized

instruction; however, because of their complexity, some systems models appear

to be more difficult to adapt than others. The systems model presented in

Figure 1 is an adaptation of a systems approach originally presented by

Lehman (1968).

14

535

591
Benchmark Education Program15

Benchmark utilized a reduced class size model operating in a self-contained classroom with para-professional support. The student/teacher

ratio was approximately 20-1. The instructional program was diagnostic-prescriptive; each student had an individual prescribed program.

This was an experimental program and after one year, the results of the

treatment indicated that the youngsters receiving the Benchmark program had a higher mean score on the California Achievement Test. The experiment was

conducted in the Philadelphia Public"Ahool System.

Employability Development Plan16

1. The EDP is a systematic process of making a plan that

describes an individual's employment history and goals and the

services the Prime Sponsor can provide to help the individual

achieve those goals.

2. The EDP is a planning document that provides a means of

developing a strategy. It includes the participant's

occupational goals, which are developed with a counselor.

Using the document, the counselor continually monitors the

progress of the plan.

3. The EDP, which is similar to a contract, identified_ the steps in the process and eliminates misunderstandings about the

obligations of the participant and of CETA. The plan is a

strategy -- that is, a map for the participant to move among

the employment and training activities, as well as a management tool for monitoring and evaluating the counseling process

and for teaching the participant.

Career Development Plan

The Career Intern Program, operated by the Opportunities

Industrialization Centers of America (OIC/A) includes a Career Development

Plan (CDP) for each participant.

Career Development Plans are written records of the interns'

career plans which profile their aptitudes and include the

strengths and weaknesses.that have emerged from the testing.

The CDP also records their hands-on experience and reactions;

indicates the kinds of academic credit they had gained and

536 592
what's still needed to reach their career goals; and listed

post-CIP options they might be interested in pursuing.17

The Career Development Plan provides for the individualization of the

curriculum for each intern by stating the interests and abilities of the

interns to be matched to the instructional program. It. also serves as the

mechanism around which teachers and counselors can meet to adopt the program

so it will best address the needs of the interns. The coordination of the

plan is the responsibility of the general counselor who monitors its

implementation.

Each intern chooses two potential career interests and the CDP becomes a

guidebook on how to attain the chosen goal. The plan includes objectives for

academic achievement as well as other areas. Continuous monitoring is

required both to determine if objectives are achieved and to review earlier

decisions so that changes can be made if desired by the intern.

Formal assessment procedures are used periodically to track progress.

The first assessment which takes place is diagnostic testing which occurs

within the first two weeks of each intern's enrollment in CIP. Mid-term and

final assessments are also given. Periodic disposition conferences are held

to discuss progress and problems in each individual case and to devise strategies required to meet objectives. Grades are recorded at the end of each

semester for academic courses. While instructors have primary responsibility

for assigning grades, counselors do have some input, especially when there are

mitigating circumstances. l8

Georgia Public Schools Individualized Programs

Individually diagnosed and prescribed programs set objectives for each

student and then allow the student to move through those objectives at his own

pace. Periodic assessments are made to diagnose whether the objectives have

been reached and what new methods might be used to reach those objectives.

These individualized programs are one approach to establishing. student

responsibility for learning. 19
Self directed programs are used in the Georgia Public Schools to allow

students to .choose from a variety of learning materials in order to achieve

objectives set by the instructor. The student is allowed to proceed at his

own pace along curriculum lines laid out by the instructor. Evaluation of

learning is also determined by the instructor. 20

Under the personalized program approach, the student has a choice of

curriculum areas which match his own personal interests. Once an area of

interest has been selected, learning objectives which have previously been set

must be achieved by using the prescribed materials. As in all individualized

programs, the student may move at his own pace. The instructor establishes

ovaluation criteria in this model. 21

The most flexible of the individualized instructional programs used by

the Georgia Public Schools is independent study. In this method the student

establishes his own learning objectives and chooses the methods-and materials

to meet them. While working at his own pace, he may establish his own evaluation criteria and perform a self-evaluation. In some cases, the student is

also free to choose his curriculum area. 22

Open Entry/Open Exit

The Open Entry/Open Exit system is the vocational training program plan

used in over 140 local Opportunities Industrialization Centers (OICs)

throughout the United States.

The Open Entry/Open Exit concept evolved from the need for immediate response to trainees' varied experiences, skill levels, and labor market demands. It is an approach to training which provides flexibility around the individual trainee's needs. Provisions are made for completion of training at some level of

specialized readiness (determined by assessment) or attainment of.a

level reflecting the trainee's occupational objective.

This method enables a person to enter and participate in a program

designed to overcome individual deficiencies.

Open entry open exit allows the trainee to enter at various times, progress at individual rate and exit at employability. Therefore, the curriculum should be trainee-centered. Intake should depend on

occupational objective and OIC's capabilities.

538 594
Employability plans should be developed for the trainee upon entry

into the program. Each trainee's employability needs will be

carefully identified, assessed, and acted upon. This becomes the

trainee's individualized program.

Careful analysis of the occupation and method of implementation is

mandatory if the program is to address the trainee's need.23

Hudson Valley OIC Skills Discovery Center

According to the OICs of America, Key News,

24 the Hudson Valley OIC has

an effective client-centered employment and training program for the handicapped known as the Skills Discovery Center.

Included in the Center are Diagnostic Vocational Evaluation and Personal

Adjustment Training, which will be discussed below.

Diagnostic Vocational Evaluation is a three to five wee:: process which

enrollees are engaged in as part of their first experiences at the Hudson

Valley OIC. This effort attempts to discover enrollees' interests and determine their aptitudes. It includes trips to work sites, video taping of role

plays, discussions and testing. The tests measure academic ability,

vocational skills, physical dexterity, personality types, and life skills.

At the end of the evaluation period the client, an evaluator,

an OIC vocational rehabilitation counselor and a counselor

from the New York State Office of Vocational Rehabilitation

(OVR) together discuss the recommendations to be made.

Outcomes can include immediate job placement, enrollment in

regular OIC skill training, academic remediation, or other

choices.25

Personal Adjustment Training (PAT) is specifically designed for the

handicapped and includes Adult Basic Education, Clerical and Industrial. The

Clerical and Industrial PAT offer the same Open Entry/Open Exit individualized

learning approaches as other OIC programs; however, PAT clients must remain in

the program for 13 weeks.

539 595
The Oakland Youth Work Experience Program

The U.S. Department of Labor Conference Report on Youth Unemployment:

Its Measurement and Meaning26

describes the Oakland Youth Work Experience

Program based upon a model developed by the Office of Youth Development, HEW.

It set as its goals:

1. To increase youth's access to socially acceptable and

meaningful roles both at school and in relation to future work

roles.

2. To reduce negative labeling of youth at home, school and work.

3. To reduce feelings of alienation and rejection and, as a consequence

4. To reduce involvement in delinquent behavior.27

The program provided work experience and basic educational skills. Each

participant was assessed to determine mathematics, English and reading

ability. An individualized educational plan was then developed for each

participant. The plans included participation in accredited programs offered

by a variety of local educational agencies. The plans were also designed to

provide youth with an opportunity to pursue educational objectives related to

their career interests and possibilities.

596

540
Recommendations for Policy

A comprehensive assessment of the evidence presented in this policy area

suggests the inclusion of the following elements in an individualized

education plan to serve high-risk youth:

1. Statement of the problem - A clear statement of the

applicant's problem including remarks concerning the

circumstances which caused the need for education, training,

or supported services offered by the program;

2. An outline of the enrollee's qualifications and his

occupational, educational and personal needs;

3. A clear statement of the enrollee's vocational, educational,

and training objectives;

4. Statement of the plan - A statement of the goals set for the

enrollee and the steps that will be taken to attain the

objectives. The statement should include the steps that will

be taken to provide the required services, education, training

and employment;

5. Assessment Plan - A statement of the program's or agency's

strategy for measuring the extent to which the objectives have

been achieved;

6. Changes - If changes become necessary, the changes and the

reasons for making them should be recorded as part of the

plan.

In light of the above findings, the following recommendations are suggested for programs and agencies serving high-risk youth:

1. All staff members should be knowledgeable of the

individualized education plan process. (Perhaps, in-service

training in this area should be required.)

2. Each participant/trainee receiving services should have an

I.E:P.

3. The formulation of the I.E.P. should include all persons

responsible for rendering service as well as the

participant/trainee himself.

4. I.E.P.'s should be monitored carefully for the purpose of

assessing services and updating plans.

597

541
5. Each I.E.P. vhould be clearly unique, reflecting the goals, objectives and particular needs of the individual.

6. In addition to a file copy, each participant/trainee should have a copy of his I.E.P.

7. The I.E.P. should serve as a contract between the agency and the participant/trainee.

8. Where appropriate, parents should be involved in the development of the I.E.P. so that they understand the goals,

methods and expected outcomes of the program.

Suggested Areas for Further Research

1. Comparative studies which assess the impact of programs utilizing the

I.E.P. in a vocational model in contrast with more traditional programs.

2. Quality assessment designed to elicit the attitudes, perceptions and

degree of satisfaction of youths participating in programs incorporating

the I,E.P. model.

3. Quality assessment designed to elicit the attitudes and perceptions of

staff participating in programs incorporating the I.E.P. model.

4. Research conducted to gather concrete examples of actual I.E.P.

vocational models. (Would be extremely valuable with in-service

training.)

542

598
References and Notes

1. Georgia Department of Education. Research Findings on Individualized

Instruction. Atlanta, Georgia: Technical Information Center, 1974, p.

3.

2. Ibid. p. 4.

3. Ibid. p. 5.

4. Ibid. p. 12.

5. Ibid. p. 11.

6. Duke, Charles R. "Learning Activity Packages: Construction and

Implementation," High School Journal, Vol. 58:7. April 1975,

pp. 312-321.

7. Flynne, John M. and Edward R. Simco. "Individualizing Evaluations in

Individualized Learning," Educational Technology. November 1974, pp.

36-38.

8. Pennsylvania Department of Education: Bureau of Special Education. An

Introduction to Individualized Education Program Plans in Pennsylvania:

Pennsylvania: 1978, pp. 1-3.

9. Ibid. pp. 1-3.

10. Ibid. pp. 1-3.

11. Duke, op. cit. pp. 312-321.

12. Pennsylvania Department of Education, op. cit. pp. 1-3.

13. Atkinson, Francis D. "A Systems Approach to the Design and

Implementation of Mediated Individualized Instruction," High School

Journal, Vol. 60:3, Dec., 1976, pp. 125-132.

14. Ibid. pp. 125-132.

15. Blackwell, William R. An Ex-Post Facto Investigation of Achievement

Among Children Formerly Enrolled in the Benchmark Educational Program,

Unpublished Dissertaion, Temple University, 1979, 106 pages.

16. Nellum, A.L. and Associates. A Systems Approach for EDP: Counseling

Development in CETA, Pennsylvania: U.S. Department of Labor, Employment

and Training Administration, Region 3. Regional Training Center, 1976.

17. Gibboney, Richard A. Associates. The Career Intern Program Final Report:

An Experiment in Career Education that Worked. Vol. 1, No. 7. Washington, D.C.: U.S. National Institute of Education, May 1977, 147 pages.

18. Ibid. pp. 18-20.

543

599
19. Georgia Department of Education. op. cit. pp. 4-8.

20. Ibid. p. 7.

21. Ibid. p. 8.

22. Ibid. p. 7.

23. Opportunities Academy of Management Training. Open Entry/ Open Exit, Manpower Training Curriculum, Philadelphia, Pa., pp. 4-6.

24. OIC's of America, Inc. "The Handicapped Get a Hand Up," Key News, Winter, 1980, pp. 2-3.

25. Ibid. p. 3.

26. U.S. Department of Labor: Office of the Secretary for Policy Evaluation and Research, Employment and Training Administration. Conference Report on Youth Unemployment: Its Measurements and Meaning. Washington, D.C.: 1978, pp. 290-291.

27. Ibid. p. 296.
CHAPTER SEVEN

Motivation, Job Seeking and Work Relevant Attitudes

The review of this particular portion of the literature concerns several

concepts: attitudes, job-seeking skills, motivation, and work-relevant

characteristics. Of these, the c ')ncept attitude is the most troublesome to

define.

Early writings on the concept attitude by Allport 1 list three approaches:

(1) the experimental psychology of the late nineteenth century which used the

laboratory method to investigate reaction time, perception, memory, judgment,

thought, and volition and employed such terms as muscular set, task-attitude,

mental and motor attitudes, and determining tendencies to conceptual development; (2) psychoanalysis, which emphasized the dynamic and unconscious bases

of attitude; and (3) sociology, where psychological representation of cultural

and societal influence developed as an attitude in the understanding of

personality and behavior became widely recognized in the discipline of social

psychology. It was next incumbent upon social psychology practitioners to

develop a working definition of the social concept of attitude. Shaw and

Wright2 defined the concept attituue as a relatively enduring system of

affective evaluative reactions based upon and reflecting beliefs which have

been learning about the characteristics of a social object or class. Rokeach3

describes attitudes as relatively enduring beliefs around an object or situation predisposing one to respond in some preferential manner. Asch3 writes

that "attitudes are particularly enduring sets formed by past experiences."

Osgood, Suci, and Tannenbaum4 were convinced that there is general agreement

that attitudes are both learned and implicit. They further state that attitudes are inferred states and are acquired in much the same manner as other

learned activity is acquired.

Not all social psychologists agree that "attitude" is a legitimate

concept. Doob5 and Blumer6 assert that attitude is not a legitimate concept.

They suggest that the concept be discarded because it lacks empirical reference and is ineffective as a unit of analysis in either personality

organization or the study of social organization. Rokeach, 7 however, sums up

601
the concept of attitude by stating that attitudes are prejudgments that may be

selective and biased. They may at any given point cause individuals to

respond to social objects in some preferential manner. If the formation of

attitudes is important in the determination of predisposition toward or away

from social objects, then those attitudes expressed by individuals belonging

to special sub-groups should have particular significance for policy makers

and programs that provide employment and training services. Mangum and Walsh8

conclude that "employability is first and foremost a function of attitudes,

habits, deportment, and general intellectual manipulative skills, much more

than specific occupational skills."

Research efforts have been designed to measure the affective latitudinal

changes of participants in programs targeted to the high-ri;k youth population. Program evaluations have yielded information from which program impact

his been studied. New data-collection instruments, methods and procedures

have emerged. These tools have been employed to provide full analysis and

synthesis of the relationship between program features and the participant

outcomes Qt....specialized groups. According to Backer (1973), 9

attempts have

been made to "overcome some of the generally acknowledged shortcomings of

standard paper-and-pencil tests for assessing individuals whose reading

skills, test wiseness, and mainstream cultural experiences are limited."

The first section of this chapter will list several tests designed to

measure the interests, attitudes and values of "disadvantaged" respondents.

Although the description "disadvantaged" identifies only a segment of the

high-risk youth population, similarities in the groups exist. No examples of

quantitative instruments designed specifically for the high-risk youth

population were found in the literature. Perspectives related to the features

of both qualitative-and quantitative analyses, will. be provided next, to

establish a philosophical base from which the reader may view selected program

evaluations. Opinions of researchers in the areas of attitude assessment and

career employment programs will be included in the recommendations for policy

and suggested areas for future study.
Several tests have been developed to measure interests, attitudes and

values. Tests that measure affective development and career knowledge include

but are not limited to the following:10

The Employment Services NATB

Biographical Information Blank (BIB)

Educational Testing Service Assessment Battery

Rotter Internality-Externality Scale

Social Vocabulary Index

Revised Interaction Scale

Career Development Inventory (Super)

Self-Esteem Inventory (Coopersmith)

Standard Progressive Matrices (Raven)

Work-Relevant Attitudes Inventory (WRAI)

Career Maturity Inventory (CTB/McGraw-Hill)

Kuder General Interest Surveys; Occupational Interest Survey;

Personal Preference Record (SRA)

Pictorial Study of Values-Psychometric Affiliates

Strong-Cambell Interest Inventory - Stanford U.

Survey of School Attitudes - Psy. Corp.

Work Values Inventory - Houghton Mifflin

Special assessment techniques for seriously disadvantaged clients include

the following: 11

Bolt

Bib

Colorado Battery

GATB/NATB Screening Device

Indik Work Motivation Scales

Jorgenson et. al. Scales

Mandell et. al. Forms

NATB

SATBs

SICL

TBS Scale

Tseng Rating Scales

Walther Inventory

Wolf Scales

COATS

Hester Evaluation System

JEVS

Job Trials

McCarran - Dial Work Evaluation System

Micro - TOWER

SAVE

Singer Vocational Evaluation System (VES)

TAP System

TOWER

547

603
Valpar

VIEWS

VITAS

Work Behavior Samples

Psychological Corp. Pretesting Orientation

USES Pretesting Orientationl2

Perspectives related to the utility of quantitative analysis will be

presented here. Backer, citing some of the shortcomings of traditional

paper-and-pencil tests, states the following:

Most traditional paper-and-pencil tests are similar to

classroom examinations with which many disadvantaged persons have a history of failure, and which therefore may make them

feel anxious and uncomfortable.

Many of these tests have written directions at a rather high reading level which must be understood by the testee if

measurements are to be valid.

Individual test items also may be at a relatively high reading

level and may reflect cultural content of which the disadvantaged have little knowledge.

Item content of tests designed for children but administered to disadvantaged adults may be simple enough in reading level but uninteresting or insulting. This can seriously damage

motivation to perform.

Many disadvantaged persons have inadequate experience with tests of any kind; and so do not have the "test' wiseness"

important to yielding test results that fairly estimate

characteristics/capabilities.

Many tests do not seem to bear any significant relationship to the individual characteristics pertinent to job success, for

most of the jobs the disadvantaged will be seeking.

Tests designed to measure psychopathOlogy (e.g., MMPI; Rorschach or other projective tests) are unlikely to produce results that can be used in an employment and training

setting, even if clients can take'the tests validly.13

Other problems related to the use of quantitative analysis, in the

measurement of affective change, were cited by Tallmadge (1979).14 In an

evaluation report on an alternative career education program, the Career

Intern Program, Tallmadge reported:
There was no consistent pattern of gains on the Career Development

Inventory Information scale or on any of the affective findings

came as somewhat of a surprise since attitude change is central to

the CIP, and since on-site observations and ethnographic analyses

suggested that such change had occurred (Fetterman, 1979). It

appears more likely that the instruments were insensitive to

changes that did occur than that there were no changes. This

inference led the authors to recommend that more appropriate

instruments be sought out or developed for future CIP evaluations.

In addition, Tallmadge discussed factors related to the use of control

group experimental designs which are often associated with quantitative

analysis.

Lack of control over the control group causes educational research

in field settings to differ from laboratory experiments in very

important ways. Rather than providing a no-treatment expectation,

members of the control group may find their way into a typical

educational setting that can seriously bias findings of

treatment-control comparisons. If, for example, applicants to the

CIP who were randomly assigned to the control groUp decide to

abandon education pursuits completely, their post-test performance

would tend to make the program appear more effective than it really

was. Conversely, if the control students gained admission to

another particularly effective program, they would tend to make the

CIP appear ineffective. Such biases are eliminated through the use

of norm-referenced comparisons.15

Travers (1978)

16 offers a more optimistic picture of standardized

instruments. He states that "in recent years a very large number of studies

have used well-known instruments such as the Strong Vocational Interest inventory, the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, the Edward's

Personality Reference Schedule for measuring needs, a Rokeach's deVice for the

assessment of values."17 He adds that many 'other instruments, all of which

have had long histories of producing interesting findings, could also be

included. Travers suggests the utility of instruments that have survived the

years of trial and use and have proven their reliability. In addition, he

states that data previously collected indicates the kinds of situations in

which an instrument's use is recommended and the general theory of behavior

that the instrument supports. He concludes by offering the use of published

reviews of instruments that are noted for their highly critical analyses of

published tests. He stated that the writers of instrument review journals
"have tended to be overcautious rather than overenthusiastic, which is an

error in the right direction." 18

As early as 1973, federal sponsors of educational research were seeking

alternative methods to provide "a qualitative complement to the quantitative

product of traditional survey methodology. "19

Fetterman and Simon (1980)20

state that the traditional approach, based largely as an experimental research

paradigm, could indicate general trends, patterns or correlation; however,

naturalistic field methods might be able to achieve what survey methods could

not - a detailing of what happens in the setting to produce the observed

results. According to Fitzsimmon (1977),

21

qualitative or ethnographic

methods are not seen as a replacement for traditional methods, but as "adding

a new dimension."

Several issues raised by the experience of anthropologists and

qualitative researchers, in federally sponsored research, have centered around

"the role of ethnography in interdisciplinaY7 research, communication with,

non-anthropologists about proof and generalizations, and the novel exigencies

of field methods and the usefulness of the products of field research. "22

Fetterman and Simon postulate that the greatest strengths of any study

are its validity and its replicability." One of anthropology's greatest

strengths is in its validity; however, one of its greatest weaknesses is its

lack of replicability. "23

Pelto (1970) 24

explains:

A principal weakness in much anthropological work is that

investigation is not recycled. Most frequently the social

scientist who has finished a neat piece of work publishes his

conclusions and then moves on to another somewhat related area of

research - to expand on. the supposedly successful model of

explanation, rather than submitting it to critical retesting. It

is not difficult to see that there are important ieatures in the

general culture of the social sciences that encourage poor

methodology. Pressures, to publish and to produce new and novel

conceptualizations - encourage premature closure of investigation.

And our social-science culture provides too few rewards for patient

hesitation, recycling, and< replication of research instead of

having applause for a replication of observations, the anthropologist more often hears a scornful "That's already been done by

, ten years ago."

550 606
A description of ethnographic data-collection instruments, methods and

procedures used to qualitatively analyze "the functional inter-relationships

among program components and student outcomes" (including affective

attitudinal) is provided by Fetterman (1979). 25

(The study) has employed primarily ethnographic data-collection

instruments, methods, procedures, and perspectives. (The study)

also relied heavily on information gathered through nomothetic

methods and perspectives. Traditional techniques such as participant-observation, non-participant observation, use of key

informants, triangulation, structured, semi-structured, and

informal interviews, and so on were used to elicit data from the

emic or "insider's" perspective. The study attempted to use a

non-judgmental, holistic, contextual perspective to properly inform

the use of these methods. A tape recorder and camera proved

invaluable in collecting and documenting the data elicited from the

sites.

Features of both quantitative and qualitative analyses have been provided

to establish a basis from which the reader may view selected program evaluations. Programs selected for inclusion here possess the following

characteristics:

the client groups generally fit within the high-risk youth

population descriptors

affective/attitudinal student outcomes are stated as program

goals or objectives

program components/features are designed to produce affective

outcomes

program outcomes have been analyzed in a formal evaluation

process

Two independent studies, a longitudinal study of out-of-school

Neighborhood Youth Corps enrollees in four (4) cities involving 502 subjects

and a longitudinal study of students in an, experimental education program in

five manpower programs involving 526 subjects have been made. According to

Walther (1975), 26 a purpose, of these studies was to ascertain the effectiveness of the Work-Relevant Attitude Inventory in predicting criteria of program

effectiveness.

551 607
Results indicated that the WRAI was able to differentiate between

subjects making a "good" and a "poor" adjustment to work and that the change

in WRAI scores of NYC program participants were in a positive direction for

subjects making a "good" adjustment to work, and a negative for subjects

making a "poor" adjustment. Test-retest correlations with two administrations

over a year apart were in the 60's for total WRAI scores. Walther27 further

states:

The research reported here is the final phase of a long term effort

to develop a Work-Relevant Attitudes Inventory (WRAI) for use in

diagnosing the needs of individuals and evaluating the

effectiveness of manpower programs. In early studies, items were

identified which differentiated between criterion groups. From the

initial 72 items, 26 were selected for use in the current studies,

and arranged into three scales, Optimism, Self-confidence, and

Unsocialized Attitudes.28.

The NYC study demonstrated that there was a snigificant association

between WRAI scores and employment outcomes and that on the basis

of WRAI scores, relatively few mistakes would be made in predicting

a subject would fall into the high group when he belonged in the

low or vice versa.

It was also found that the WRAI scores of subjects making a "good"

employment adjustment changed in a positive direction while they

were in the program; while the scores of subjects making a "poor"

adjustment tended to change in a negative direction.29

Mathematica Policy Research, et al (1977) 30 performed an analysis of

nine-month interviews of Supported Work. The National Demonstration of

Supported Work was established to test the effects of the supported work

experience on those with long histories of unemployment and resistance to

traditional manpower efforts. 31

The program's goals related to the

improvement of individual employment potentials.

The development. of better work habits, attitudes, self-confidence and

self-esteem appeared to rank high among the participants interviewd (see

following chart). 32

Question: As a result of working at Supported Work, what would you

say is the most important thing that happened to you?
Response

Number

Responding

Percentage

of All

Experimentals

Learned job skills, trade 66 18.6

Better work habits and

attitudes 47 13.2

Steady job, income 51 14.4

Self-confidence, selfesteem 40 11.3

Stayed out of trouble,

off drugs 30 8.5

Nothing 81 22.8

Other 93 a/

A pilot study in observational measurement of behavioral factors

associated with increased employability of Out-of-School Neighborhood Youth

Corps enrollees was performed by Sykes (1969). 33 The study of three (3) NYC

Programs included observations of ninety-five (95) youth at actual job sites

and was primarily concerned with whether out-of-school NYC enrollees became

more employable as a result of their work experience.34

Findings of the pilot study included but are not limited to the

following:

1. As a group, enrollees improved in their performance of

necessary work habits very little as a result of work

experience in NYC (habits included arriving on time, and

regularly following orders, dressing appropriately,

notification in case of absence, etc).

2. Work group and supervisory factors which are associated with

an enrollee remaining a long time in NYC and those which are

associated with improvement of his work habits are not only

different, but may be antithetical."35 Long tenure in NYC and

improvement in work habits tend to be negatively correlated.

3. The enrollee's work habits and' skills cannot be considered in

isolation as an individual psychological problem of adjustment

or maladjustment or of simple learning. The problem is not so

much one of learning as of performance. (ex. enrollees know

they should be on time, but are they on time). Performance is

related to social context in which it occurs, and to

communication.
4. Programs must assume role as agent of structural change and of

transition beweeen structures. Programs must change role

expectations and performance of enrollees.

5. The kinds of interaction which are normally and legitimately

exercised by role within the work group are likely to be

associated with greatest improvement on part of enrollee.

Therefore, supervisors should be supervisors, not primarily

father-substitutes, teachers or friends.

6. Enrollees improve most who are in groups which contain both

regular adult non-supervisory employees and other enrollees.

Work groups should be "business-like" with work-related

communication occurring.

7. Role models are important, especially adult non-supervisory

co-workers who are performing tasks similar to the enrollees.

Peers needed for friendship.

8. The structure of the work group and its activities are important in the transition from adolescent to adult

perception and performance of work roles. It is likely that

no types of formalized instruction can be a. substitute for

work experience.36

Rist (1979) 37 provides a study of Exemplary In-School Demonstration

Projects to be reviewed here. Rist found, after interviewing 451 youth, that

three factors contributed to youths' perceptions of the quality of their

experiences in a program:

1. Adequate adult supervision of activities.

2. Close fit between education activities and work activities.

3. Work activities matched with career interests.38

Positive effects for the majority of youth enrolled included greater

self-confidence, more positive attitude toward education, plans for more

education or training and improved planning for future careers. 39 Rist also

identified four program models - Alternative School, Employment Training,

In-School Career Awareness and Work Experience. The range of treatments found

included:

Job-seeking skills training

Personal awareness counseling sessions

Career information

554

610
Training in group dynamics

On-the-job work experience

Personal counseling40

Findings indicated that staff roles, student choice and student

activities in the program are the three critical dimensions to describe quality of program from the student's point of view. The role of ,teacher/

counselor was described as vital to the process. Another finding related to

student development in the area of coping skills - increased self-confidence,

social interaction skills, planning skills. Development was obtained in the

aforementioned areas in the Alternative School; Employment Training and Work

Experience models. Development did not occur in the In-School Career

Awareness Projects41

Two studies which sought to provide an assessment of the Job Corps

performance and impacts were conducted by Abt Associates and Kerachsky et al.

The study conducted by Abt Associates (1979) 42 was an assessment of behavioral, attitudinal and health changes of corps members. A survey made of 489

applicants and enrollees revealed that three months or more in Job Corps led

to improvement

Job Seeking Skills

Job Satisfaction

Attitude Toward Authority

Self-Esteem

Criminal Justice System Involvement

Nutrition Behavior

Family Relations

Leisure Time43

Additional findings stated that being in the labor market led to more

improvement in respondent's knowledge of work; attitudes toward work did not

change significantly from pre-test to post7test leading to the conclusion that

attitudes about the value of work are not easily improved; remaining in Job

Crops led to a relatively more optimistic perception of the future; and

employment status correlated with length of time in program and sex (more

positive impact for women). Youth who dropped out of Job Corps had declining

44 scores in all areas.
The Kerachsky et a145 study of the Job Corps stated that because Job

Corps youth are extremely disadvantaged by almost every measure, the importance of counseling and other ancillary services at the Centers cannot be

understated. It was felt that counseling services and residential advisors

are needed to help Corpmembers to plan their educational and vocational cur- ricula, to motivate Corpmembers and to create a supportive environment. The

residential living component of the program was seen to provide supportive

environment to disadvantaged youth. Corpmembers are motivated to adopt constructive attitudes and lifestyles and to be prepared to function effectively

in the outside world. Relationships among racial and ethnic groups, adaption

to unfamiliar group living situations, adult-youth cooperation and roles in

peer groups influenced conduct and attitudes. 46

Among the other important findings of the Study of the Career Intern

Program, Fetterman (1979), 47

the evidence showed direct relationships among

the CIP philosophy, CIP practices and student outcomes. The ideological

components of the CIP are detailed in Figure 1. 48 The philosophy of the

parent organization' is based in part, according to Anderson (1976), 49 on the

theory that "a positive self-concept is a sine qua non for successful training, development and later work performance," This philosophy translated into

the ideological orientation of the CIP - the philosophy translated into

program practices and the practices produce specific effective outcomes in

students. In Figure 2, 50

examples of effective student outcomes are provided.

Two studies of Experimental and Demonstration Programs will complete the

survey of programs. Seiler (1969), 51 in a study of E&D Projects for Youth

under MDTA found that the programs primarily served "disadvantaged" youth - i.e., out of work, undereducated, lacking literacy, and job skills, feeling

alienated toward society, having criminal records, etc. In brief, he found

pre-vocational training for work-adjustment skills generally directed at

developing positive interest in, attitudes toward and motivation for work.

Most often, such training was provided' through counseling techniques including

group, peer group and role play and work-experience formats such as work

crews, sheltered workshops and vestibule training.52

612
IDEOLOGICAL COMPONENTS OF THE CIP

Extension of OIC/A Philosophy

and Ideological Orientation

CIP PHILOSOPHY

Caring about interns

Providing a supportive context

for interns

Providing a realistic

perspective

Dealing with the

whole intern

Maintaining high expectations

of interns--personally and

academically

Treating interns as (young)

adults

Examples of how philosophy translates

into program practices

CIP PRACTICE (Examples)

Individualized instruction

Extensive counseling

Commenting on new shoes

High expectations

Listen to what interns say

Provide almost as many counselors as

instructors

Disposition conferences

Recruit qualified staff

CDP

Intern formalized assessment

Maintenance System

Fused curriculum

Hands-on

Responsible for one's own actions

Disposition conference

Academic and personal life

Daily interaction

Attention to apparel, language, walk

and hygiene

Home visits, phone calls

Instructors demand completed assignments (on time)

Counselor insists stick with CDP

(unless inappropriate)

Politeness and courtesy emphasized

Group counseling assemblies

Maintenance system, field trips

Responsibility for own actions

emphasized, e.g., attendance

Major ree in planning future

Respect intern experience and

social responsibilities

Instructor-intern relationship used as

model 'for future employment roles

CDP foster responsibility

Maintenance system reinforce behavior

patterns
CIP PHILOSOPHY CIP PRACTICE (Examples)

Treat interns as individuals Intracultural diversity emphasized

Individual personalities, leaders

recognized and respected

Recognize some do not want "wrong

crowd" (z.voiding negative peer

pressure)

Recognition of racial and academic

discrimination of past (usually

thought of as a homogeneous group)

Individualized instruction

Personal counseling

Career developer secures Hands-on

regarding intern interest

Staff displays individual personal

concern
Adaptive Relationships Intrinsic to Program Operation

Dedication to the whole-person concept in intensive counseling

(including getting involved with intern's personal life when

it affects his/her participation in the program) contributes

to better attendance, enhancement of coping strategies (e.g.,

better control of temper), intern perception of the program as

"a lot better" than their former school, and better intern

understanding of their problems and the steps necessary to

remedy them.

Enforcement of maintenance system, e.g., school rules and

regulations regarding promptness, appropriate apparel, etc.,

contributes to interns internalizing "world-of-work" norms and

provides them with desired attention.

Maintaining high expectations of interns"personally and

academically--contributes to an- improved attendance pattern,

higher grades, and increased self-esteem for many interns.

The fact that all staff members including the janitor

understand the philosophy and function of the program and

serve as role models, contributes to increased intern

motivation to attend regularly and pursue studies.

The use of contracts and various teaching devices contributes

to a greater understanding and sense of responsibility on the

part of the intern.

Providing a supportive context for interns contributes

directly to increased attendance, higher grades, selection of

a career, and graduation according to many interns and staff

members.

The small size of the program produces a community-like

atomphere that "forces" many interns to exercise common

courtesy not required at their former high school.
, Gordon (1969)53 provides another study of fifty-five (55) Experimental

and Demonstration Programs for our review. These programs, Gordon states,

operate within a psychological frame of reference in which efforts are focused

on producing change in youth through direct intervention in their behavior and

experiences. The objective is to change the youth rather than changing the

econclaic or social strtcture.54 According to Gordon, the E&D projects

demonstrated that counseling should be included in a comprehensive program.

Counseling, however, must supplement training and placement, not supplant

them, he cautions. He found that the provision of supportive services such as health care, cultural enrichment and transportation by the program was not

empirically demonstrated to have enhanced the employability of clients. He

adds, however, that these services are valid as social goods and therefore

should be maintained.

The review of the literature on the impact, assessment and facilitation

of affective growth in the high-risk youth population revealed several interesting findings and spot-lighted gaps in the literature. Most of the measurement instruments and methodologies reviewed are of relatively recent origin

and have not been designed to measure attitudinal changes in the high-risk

youth population.

Blackwell (1979)55

n describing the orientation of the disadvantaged

youth states:

Life in a disadvantaged environment was not the most conducive

setting for producing learning. Once the child was convinced that

school was irrelevant to his immediate needs and future goals,

educating him became almost impossible. New approaches to teaching

the inner-city child had to be developed. These strategies must be

realistic and based on the lile conditions faced by students whose

values and attitudes were formulated primarily from their

perceptions of the conflicts, tension and frustrations of

day -to- My life in the inner city.

Clark (1979) 56

concurs with Blackwell by adding:

Normal quest for positive self-esteem and a socially acceptable

self-perception is blocked and frustrated early in the lives of

these rejected young people. All too soon they learn that the

society as a whole--the schools, other social and governmental

560 616
institutions and indeed, even the churches--does not expect them to

achieve. They learn from their experiences that these

institutions, reflecting as they do negative public expectations,

do not respect them as human beings. Their struggle for positive

self-perceptions now comes in conflict with the realities of

inferior education, poor housing, inadequate sanitation and a pervasive human and community degradation. The conflict is deep

and inescapable. It is sometimes conscious; but, for the most

part, it remains unconscious.

In recognition of the difficulties involved in development and

utilization of instruments and methodologies designed to measure impact on the

attitudes of such a diverse, complex population, attempts to develop sensitive

approaches have been documented. A limitation on the scope of this review is

attributable to relatively recent interest in this sub-group of the youth population. Among the more significant limitations are the lack of coordination,

integration and replication of research efforts; the previously described

limitations of instruments including the inflexibility of many standardized

assessment techniques; and a lack of literature on formative evaluations which

might have supplied additional information on the relationship between program

practices and student/client effective outcomes.

561 6/ 7
Recommendations for Policy

The following recommendations are forwarded to increase our knowledge of

issues related to the attitudes of high-risk youth affecting learning and

ultimately employment.

1. Increased coordination and integration of research projects

might produce a larger body of comparable information from

which to judge the success of both program outcomes and

evaluation designs.

2. Replication of evaluation designs that have been proven to

capture, in a more sensitive way, the specialized variables of

the high-risk youth population.

3. Program designs that prove exemplary should be replicated but

under conditions that reflect an increased awareness of the

impact of levels of funding, time and timing, and evaluation_

design constraints.

4. Program designers/implementors/disseminators should be

involved in the development of evaluation designs.

Students/clients, parents and other community sources should

be utilized in the process. If warranted, training of these

groups should occur to insure more knowledgeable input.

5. Ethnographic evaluation methodologies should be incorporated

in quantitative evaluation designs or used independently in

the assessment of programs designed for this specialized

group. The detailing of what occurs in a particular setting

to produce the observed results is vital in the understanding

of what specific program treatments actually produce in

clients.

6. Conferences of researchers and program operators and

disseminators could be a part of larger information gathering

and information dissemination efforts, to increase general

knowledge on the high-risk youth population.

7. Program designs that provide comprehensive supportive services

including intensive, on-going counseling and a supportive

program atmosphere, appear to be successful with the high-risk

youth population.

562

618
Suggested Areas for Further Study

Although much research has been done, greater investigation of the

attitudes of the high-risk youth population is recommended to respond to the

following questions:

What causal relations exist between program components and student

outcomes?

Do many elements of the treatment interact to produce sets of

conditions under which certain changes are more likely to occur?

Can standardized tests measure with validity and reliability the

attitudinal changes of high-risk youth?

If validity studies using the high-risk population and

"appropriate" criteria are conducted with negative or modest

results, should the abandonment of assessment legitimately follow?

How extensively should ethnography be used as a way of providing a

complement to quantitative analyses?

In what ways can assessments of effective client outcomes be

utilized by program practitioners?

The ensuing suggested areas for further study may, over time and careful

analysis, provide information from which policy-makers and practitioners may

be better able to provide the most effective services to the high-risk youth

population.

(1) Formative and summative evaluations of youth programs to assess adaptations in treatments over time and the effect

these changes made in the effective development of program

participants.

(2) Longitudinal studies of quantitative and qualitative

evaluations to ascertain changes over time.

(3) Comparative studies of programs targeted to specific

sub-groups within the high-risk youth population to ascertain

how program treatments should differ according to the

sub-group.

(4) Replication of successful studies, particularly ethnographic,

to demonstrate validity.

563 61.9
According to Clark (1979)57 a serious youth development, youth training

program "must understand the extent to which past rejection and dehumanization

have damaged the human beings who are to be helped." He adds that "these

harsh facts cannot be masked by euphenisms and double-talk. Nor can the

victims be blamed for the negative symptoms of their victimization."

As stated early in the review, there are no simple or clearcut answers to

the problems of the high-risk youth population. The continued search for

answers is a step in the right direction.

620

564
References and Notes

1. Allport, Gordon D. "Attitudes," A Handbook of Social Psychology, C.

Murcheson (Ed.), Worcester, Massachusetts: Clark University Press, 1935.

2. Shaw, Marvin E. and Jack M. Wright. Scales for the Measurement of

Attitudes, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1967, p. 3.

3. Asch, Solomon E. Social Psychology, New York: Prentice-Hall, 1952, p.

585.

4. Osgood, Charles E., George J. Suci, and Percy H. Tannenbaum. The

Measurement of Meaning, Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press,

1957, p. 189.

5. Doob, Leonard W. "The Behavior of Attitudes," Psychological Review,

1947, Vol. 54, pp. 135-156.

6. Blumer, H. "Attitudes and the Social Act," Social Problems, 1953, Vol.

3, pp. 59-64.

7. Rokeach, Milton. Beliefs, Attitudes, and Values, San Francisco,

California: Jassey-Bass, Inc., 1968, p. 112.

8. Mangum, Garth and John Walsh. Employment and Training Programs foi

Youth: What Works Best for Whom? Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of

Labor, Employment and Training Administration, 1978, p. 177.

9. Backer, Tb nas E. Methods of Assessing the Disadvantaged in Manpower

Programs: A Review and Analysis, Research and Development Findings,

No. 14, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor, Manpower Administration,' 1973, p. Fll.

10. The list of effective and career development instruments provided here is

not meant to be exhaustive, nor is it meant to identify instruments

designed for the high-risk youth population. Some instruments may be

more sensitive to recording affective changes in the high-risk youth

population than others.

11. Not all of the instruments listed here measure effective growth or career

knowledge. They have been included however, to show the variety of

instruments developed for the seriously disadvantaged.

12. Backer, op. cit., p. 27.

13. Ibid. p. 23.

14. Tallmadge, G. Kasten. Study of the Career Intern Program Interim

Non-Technical Report - Task B: Assessment of Intern Outcomes, Mountain

View, California: RMC Research Corp., 1979, p. 25.

15. Ibid. p. 26.

565 621
16. Travers, Robert M.W. An Introduction to Educational Research, New York:

Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1978. 446 pages. footnotes p. 313.

17. Ibid. p. 313.

18. Ibid. p. 314.

19. Clinton, C.A. "On Bargaining With the Devil: Contract Ethnography and

Accountability in Field-Work." Council on Anthropology and Education

Quarterly, 8, pp. 25-29.

20. Fetterman, David M. and Elaine L. Simon. The Career Intern Program

Revisited: A Case for the Centrality of Ethnography in Education Evaluation, paper presented at the First Annual Ethnography in Education

Research Forum, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1980.

21. Fitzsimmons, S.J. The Anthropologist in a Strange Land, Human

Organization, 34:2.

22. Fetterman and Simon. op. cit., p. 4.

23. Ibid. p. 1.

24. Pelto, P.J. Anthropological Research: The Structure of Inquiry. New

York: Harper and Row.

25. Fetterman, D. Study of the Career Intern Program. Interim Non-Technical

Report - Task C: Functional Interrelationships Among Program Components

and Intern Outcomes. Mountain View, California: RMC Research Corporation, 1979, p. 3.

26. Walther, Regis H. The Measurement of Work - Relevant Attitudes,

Virginia: National Technical Information Service, 1975, p. 3.

27. Ibid. p. 3.

28. Ibid. p. 3.

29. Ibid. p. 9.

30. Mathematics Policy Research and the Institute for Research on Poverty,

University of Wisconsin. Analysis of Nine-Month Interviews for Supported

Work: Results of an Early Sample, New York: Manpower Demonstration

Research Corporation, 1977, p. vii.

31. Ibid. p. vii.

32. Ibid. p. 79.

33. Sykes, Richard E. A Pilot Study in Observational Measurement of

Behavioral Factors Associated with Increased Employability of Out-ofSchool Neighborhood Youth Corps Enrollees, Minnesota: University of

Minnesota, 1969, p. 1.
34. Ibid. p. 2.

35. Ibid. p. 3.

36. Ibid. p. 5-9.

37. Rist, Ray C. Education and Employment Training: The Views of Youth

Interim Report #2. New York: Youthwork National Policy Study, Cornell

University, 1979, p. xviii.

38. Ibid. p. xviii.

39. Ibid. p. xxi.

40. Ibid. pp. 92-93.

41. Ibid. pp. 127-128.

42. Abt Associates, "The Noneconomic Impacts of the Job Corps," OYP Report #9

Assessments of the Job Corps Performances and Impacts. Vol. I. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, 1979.

43. Ibid. p. xi.

44. Ibid. p. 9.

45. Kerachusky, Stuart, Patricia Lapczynski, and Charles Mailer. "An

Examination of Job Corps Participation: OYP Report #8, Assessments of

the Job Corps Performance and Impacts. Vol. I, Washington, D.C.: U.S.

Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, 1979.

'ob. Ibid. p. 16.

47. Fetterman and Simon, op. cit., p. 32.

14. Ibid. p. 32.

J Anderson, Bernard E. The Opportunities Industrializatioe Centers:

A Decade of Community-Based Manpower Services. Pennsylvania: University

of Pennsylvania, 1979, p. 37, 156 pages.

50. Fetterman, D. op. cit., pp. 4-5 and 66.

51. Seiler, Joseph. "Pre-Vocational and Vocational Training Programs."

Breakthrough for Disadvantaged Youth, ed. William Mirengoff. Washington,

D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1969, pp. 137.

52. Ibid. p. 143.

53. Gordon, Jesse E. "Testing Counseling and Supportive Services,"

Breakthrough for Disadvantaged Youth, ed. William Mirengoff. Washington,

D.C.: Government Printing Office 1969, pp. 59-116, p. 61.

567 623
54. Ibid. p. 61.

55. Blackwell, William R. "An Ex Post Facto Investigation of Achievement

Among Children Formerly Enrolled in the Benchmark Educational Program."

Unpublished Dissertation, Temple University, 1979, p. 34.

56. Clark, Kenneth B. "Job Training for Minority Youth: The Gap Between

Self-Perception and Public Expectations," Adherent, A Journal of Comprehensive Employment Training and Human Resource Development. Vol. 6,

No. 3, December 1979, p. 27.

57. Ibid. p. 29.
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHIES

Note: Chapter and Policy Area Numbers are synonomous

569 625
POLICY AREA #1

Adams, Arvil V. and Garth L. Mangum, The Lingering Crisis of Youth

Unemployment. Michigan: W.E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research, 1978,

152 pgs.

This study is a reassegsment of the youth unemployment problem. It is based

on an analysis of recent trends in youth unemployment from published sources

and on an additional analysis of a national sample of young men and women

16-19 years of age who were followed longitudinally over a seven-year period

in the late 1960's and early 1970's.

Among the most significant findings are: (1) joblessness among out-of-school

teenage youth carries with it a "hangover" effect, (2) education and training

have significant positive effect upon the employment and earnings of youth by

race and sex, and (3) there is a need for better counseling and job

orientation in career education.

Altachuld, James W. and Terese Terry, Youth Training Programs in Ohio's

Community Action Agencies. Ohio: The Center for Vocational Education. Ohio

State University, 1977, 43 pgs.

This is a case study of six programs that provide either formal or informal

training for youth from 14-21 years of age. Generally, these programs encompass facets of education/work experience, on-the-job training, counseling,

vocational training and the upgrading of basic skills. The intent of the

study was to describe the state of the art in youth oriented training programs

based upon inputs from six agencies.

Some of the recommendations from the study were: (1) a need for varied job

sites with better training possibilities and long-term job openings, (2) a

need to improve participant's motivation, and (3) a strengthening of the

counseling functions is necessary.

Barton, Paul E. and Bryna Shore Fraser. Between Two Worlds: Youth Transition

from School to Work. Vol. 1, 2, 3, and an Executive Summary. Washington,

D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration,

Office of Research and Development I 1978, 582 pgs.
In its entirety, the report seeks to synthesize existing knoWledge and develop

a research and experimentation strategy for youth transition from school. to

work. The Executive Summary provides a strategy for research and

experimentation, drawing on the three volumes in the series. Volume 1 deals

with the problems, conditions and issues relating to the transition from

school to work. Volume 2 deals with program. efforts, including the results of

evaluations of existing programs, an evaluation agenda, and new programmatic

experiments. Volume 3 deals with survey research and measurement.

Center of Education and Work, National Manpower Institute. A Charter for

Improved Rural Youth, Transition. Washington, D.C.: 1978, 74 pgs.

This charter was developed to direct attention to and shed light on the

transition from education to work for rural youth. It examines the special

problems encountered by rural youth as they negotiate the passage from education to employment and the particular difficulties faced by rural communities

as they endeavor to improve the prospects for youth transition.

The charter *tself is the product of the National Manpower Institute's

involvement with eight rural work-education councils participating in the U.S.

Department of Labor funded Work-Education Consortium. Each of the communities

represented by the councils have developed a collaborative mechanism to

address the school-to-work transition issue, using different sources of

community council leadership and different approaches.

Federal Interagency Committee on Education, Sub-Committee on Education and

Work. Education Service and Work: The Multi-Funded Approach. Washington,

D.C.: 1976, 99 pgs.

The programs summarized in this project represent a wide variety of funding

combinations. Their target populations range from Ph.D. candidates with

technological backgrounds to handicapped and disadvantaged high school

571 627
dropouts. The use to which funs are put include counseling, occupational

education, stipends, child care, supportive services, intern positions, ethnic

heritage studies, and a host of other services. The programs are sponsored by

high schools, community colleges, four-year colleges and universities, state

and local government, and non-profit organizations. The projects ranged from

comprehensive programs involving many federal and non-federal funding sources

to relatively small projects which draw resources from only two or three

agencies or organizations.

Ferman, Louis A. "Job Placement Creation and Development," Breakthrough for

Disadvantaged Youth, ed., William Mirengoff, Washington,' D.C.: U.S.

Department of Labbr, 1969, pp. 181-215.

This report reviews and assesses the impact of selected strategies in job

placement, job creation, and job development in the experimental and demonstration programs for disadvantaged youth organized under the Manpower

Development and Training Act.

Conclusions from the investigation indicated:

(1) Supportive services are needed for both employee and employer in

facilitating job adjustment;

(2) Total community resources must be mobilized and coordinated to produce

tile employable individual and jobs;

(3) Employability programs must have built into them guarantees of employment

to insure the motivation needed to make training a success. From School to Work: Improving the Transition. A Collection of Policy Papers

Prepared for the National Commission for Manpower Policy. Washington, D.C.:

U.S. Government Printing Office, 1978.

This volume is a direct outgrowth of the early planning of the Youth Task

Force. It is an attempt to strengthen the knowledge base on youth

school-to-work transition through the use of selected specialists who were

asked to prepare a working paper on dimensions of the problem that fell within

572 628
his or her expertise. Eleven papers in all were produced for this work. The

topic areas were:

(1) Youth Transition to Work. The problem and Federal Policy Setting

(2) The Youth Labor Market

(3) Corporate Hiring Practices

(4) Labor Market Experience of Non-College Youth: A Longitudinal Analysis

(5) The Competencies of Youth

(6) Employment and Training Programs for Youth

(7) Community Efforts to Link Education and Work

(8) Informational and Counselor Needs in the Transition Process

(9) Apprenticeship: A Potential Weapon Against Minority Youth Unemployment

(10) Problems of Rural Youth

(11) Foreign and American Experience With the Youth Transition

Mangum, Garth and John Walsh, Employment and Training Programt, for Youth:

What Works Best for Whom? .Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor,

Employment and Training Administration, 1978, 207 pgs.

The purposes of this project are to assess (1) what is known about the

relative effectiveness of various employment and training services for youth,

(2) the relative effectiveness of the various techniques which have been used

in providing employment and training services to youth,- (3) administrative

practices which have either enhanced or vitiated employment and training ser- vices for youth, and (4) which services have proven most and least effective

for specific target groups. The material is organized into ten chapters:

(1) Criteria for Program Evaluation, (2) Youth Unemployment in Perspective,
(3) Outreach and Assessment, (4) Subsidized Employment, (5) Institutional

Training, (6) On- the -Job Training, (7) Counseling and Supportive Services, (8)

Placement Services, (9) The "For Whom" Factor, and (10) Policy Considerations.

National Council on Employment Policy, The Local Focus on Youth, A Review of

Prime Sponsor Experience in Implementing the Youth Employment and Demonstration Projects Act. Washington, D.C.: 1979, 391 pgs.

This is an evaluation report by the National Council on Employment Policy on

how CETA sponsors are conducting two programs under the new Youth Act, specifically the Youth Community Conservation and Improyement Projects (YCCIP) and

the Youth Employment and Training Program (YETP).

The report is based on studies by 10 local analysts of 35 CETA sponsors'

operation of these programs from late spring to late fall 1978, the latter

part of the first fiscal year in which these programs were initiated.

National Manpower Institute, Job Placement Services for Youth. Washington,

D.C.: March 1978, 44 pgs.

This report discusses the forms of placement service considered best for

facilitating the school-to-work transition for youth. Among the various

specialized arrangements discussed are (1) school-based placement programs,

(2) local office operations of the Public Employment Service/Job Service,

(3) cooperative saool-ED/Job Service Programs, (4) placement programs operated by CETA prime sponsors, (5) services provided by community-based

organizations, and by commercially-oriented enterprises such as private

fee-charging employment agencies and temporary help employment contractors.

Rist, Ray C. et A. Education . loyment and Trainin : The Views of Youth

Interim Report #2. New York: Youtbwork National Policy Study, Cornell

University, 1979, 181 pgs.

This report provides an assessment of the views of youth enrolled in Exemplary

In-School Demonstration Projects, funded by Youthwork, Inc. on issues such as

career expectations, reflections on the training and education received, the

skills acquired due to participation and changes in their self-image. Four
hundred fifty-one interviews were conducted with youth participants. The

report covers the period of September 1978 through August 1979.

Findings:

1. Close supervision of enrollees in work placements is crucial to success.

2. Individualized and extensive contact between enrollees and staff is ve-.:y

important.

3. Youth who have difficulty in traditional school environments du better in

alternative schools.

4. Enrollee interests should be matched with job placements.

. 5. The Exemplary In-School Demonstration Projects are positively evaluated

by the youth themselves.

Seiler, Joseph. "Prevocational and Vocational Training Programs,"

Breakthrough for Disadvantaged Youth, ed., William Mirengoff, Washington,

D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor, 1969, pp. 139-181.

The main purpose of this paper is to identify and examine the potential or

actual effectiveness and impact of innovative prevocational and vocational

training practices implemented by experimental and demonstration projects

authorized under the Manpower Development and Training Act (MDTA) of 1962.

Some of which are:

Prevocational training as precondition for effective skill training and

employment

- - Work crews and work stations in public agencies as mechanisms for

orienting youth to work demands and behaviors required in work settings

.Implementation of manpower development programming through a coordinated

multi-occupational and multi-service single-management framework

631

575
-- Fusion of curriculums for basic education and job skills institutional

training, and coupling of basic education with on-the-job training.

Sockol, Richard A. .and Thomas W. McClain, School/Business Partnership: A

Practitioner's Guide. Massachusetts: Institute for Governmental Services,

University of Massachusetts, 1978, 42 pgs.

This publication discusses in detail some of the projects that were initiated

iin Boston, Massachusetts as a result of school/business partnerships which

were concerned with school to work transition for young people. Some of which

are: (1) Job Hunting Techniques of the Tri-lateral Council, New England Merchants National Bank, business partner of West Roxbury High, (2) Writing

Skills and Technique Course conducted by the New England Life Insurance

Company with the School Volunteers of Boston, (3) The Quincy Market Project

operated as student-run business. A cooperative effort between the Federal

Reserve Bank and the South Boston High School.

Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Catalog of

Federal Youth Programs. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,

456 pgs.

This catalog was developed and designed to communicate to state and local

government and to community-based agencies programs. The catalog also serves

as a reference for planning and policy-making groups, attempting to devise

better methods of resolving problems which impact on young people. The descriptive, programmatic and budgetary information contained in the publication

covers a wide spectrum of activities affecting the health, education and general welfare of America's youth and also includes material on specific topics,

such as youth employment, community Iction program and projects which focus on

particular environmental, recreational and cultural concerns. U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, Inquiries

Unit. Youth Serving the Community: Realistic Public Service Roles for Young

Workers. Washington, D.C.: 1979, 149 pgs.

This monograph presents information on public service jobs projects which are particularly suitable or can be adapted for youth. It is based on an extensive review of pertinent literature and on consultations with appropriate

576 632
agencies, organizations, local officials and other knowledgeable individuals.

It reflects the recent efforts of public and private agencies. The information presented can be used as a guide by prime sponsors in conceiving,

planning, developing and implementing their own projects. A part of the monograph identifies and discusses some of the key elements, problems, and

considerations involved in undertaking public service job projects suitable

for youth. It includes topics such as identifying community needs, recognizing the needs of youth, staffing projects, and project goals, objectives and

components.

U.S. Department of Labor, Office of the Secretary for Policy, Evaluation and

Research, Employment and Training Administration. Conference Report on Youth

Unemployment: Its Measurement and Meaning. Washington, D.C.: 1978, 396 pgs.

The analyses included in this volume cover a number of interrelated and

dynamic aspects underlying our stctic measures. These papers document the

very wide margin in determining whether youth are really inside or outside the

labor force. There is an examination of the labor market and institutional

and societal factors which affect the measured rates of employment and

unemployment. Also there is a discussion of direct and indirect impacts of

government activities. The final two papers focus on the use of employment

and unemployment statistics in addressing questions about the scale of needed

government initiatives and the distribution of resources.

Overall, this set of papers presents a panoramic review of the problems of

gathering, interpreting and applying employment and unemployment data related

to youth.

U.S. Department of Labor, Office of the Secretary, Women's Bureau. Young

Women and Employment: What We Know and Need to Know About the School To-Work

Transition. Washington, D.C.: 1978, 91 pgs.

This document focnses on the particular problems faced by young women in the

school-to-work transition. These problems include transition problems faced

by all youth as well as employment problems faced by all women. Although some

differences were observed between male and female youth moving into the labor

567 631
market, the data do not suggest that programs be restructured on the basis of

sex. Walther, Regis H. Analysis and Synthesis of DOL Experience in Youth Transition to Work Experience. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor,

Employment and Training Administration, Office of Research and Development,

1976, 109 pgs.

This report reviews the experience with federal programs concerned with the

transition from school-to-work. It extracts lessons and guiding principles

which might prove useful for planning and administering training and employment programs. The current labor force situation of youth (persons 16-24

years of age) is reviewed, impediments to the employment of youth are examined, the demographic and attitudinal characteristics of hard-to-employ youth

are analyzed, guiding principles developed, and program implications

described. Recommendations are made relating to skill training, remediar

education, work experience, assessment, counseling, job development and

placement, and program coordination.

Work in America Institute, Inc. Job Strategies for Urban Youth. Scarsdale, New York: 1979, 102 pgs.

Sixteen pilot programs are presented in this volume, including a survey of job

development approaches, many of which have not been tried before. A few may

have been previously proposed. However, several have been modeled on actual

programs now in operation, which, after considerable investigation and study,

are judged to be worth trying in other places. Some of which are:

- - Jobs for Youth -- Vocational Foundation

- - Young Ex-Offender Transition Service

Youthwork National Policy Study. Forging New Relationships: The CETA/School

Nexus. New York: Cornell University. 1979, 142 pgs.

This report pays. particular attention to the matter of relations between CETA

and various educational organizations, most particularly Local Educational

Agencies (LEAs) and poat.7seCondary institutions. Both the form and content of

6634
these relations are thought to be particularly important in enabling the goals

of the Youth Employment and Demonstration Projects Act (YEDPA) to be achieved.

Most important this report isolates and analyzes those mechanisms of

cooperation and communication which will enable both CETA and the schools to

overcome the barriers between school and work by more closely linking education, employment, and training institutions. The focus of the assessment on

CETA/School relations is on programmatic areas such as private sector involvement, youth initiated activities, academic credit for work experience, and

career information.

579
POLICY AREA #2

Adams, Arvil V. and Garth L. Mangum. The Lingering Crisis of Youth

Unemployment. Michigan: Upjohn Institute for Employment Research, 1978, 152 pgs.

This book is a reassessment of the youth unemployment problem. It is based on

recent trends in youth unemployment from published sources and an additional

analysis of a national sample of men and women, followed longitudinally over a

seven-year period, late 1960's to early 1970's, beginning with youth aged

16-19.

Among the findings of this study is that early unfavorable labor market

experience is related to subsequent labor market problems, and is manifested

in relatively lower earnings, and more irregular employment patterns.

Anderson, Bernard E. Private Sector Efforts to Employ the Disadvantaged: The

Second Round. Washington, D.C.: 1978.

The government is once again asking the business community to help contribute

to reducing urban unemployment among minority youth and the disadvantaged.

Economic and institutional changes in the American economy have created unemployment especially in the larger cities in the Northeast dad the Mid-West.

Persistent unemployment among racial minorities and the poor has affected

youth to the point where many have withdrawn from actively participating in

labor market activities. It seems that the private sector could absorb the

urban unemployed; the cost of their support is a threat to the stable competitive system. Possible elements of an approach to solve the problem are:

1. Government incentives to the private sector to hire and train the

disadvantaged,

2. Reexamination of hiring standards,

3. Greater commitment by the private sector.

636

580
Many firms are currently involved in improving the quality of the labor supply

rather than on providing regular, full-time jobs. Firms cooperating with the

Carter Administration can receive the employment tax credit. It is speculated

that the business community will use its resources effectively to reduce

structural unemployment among the economically disadvantaged.

Corporation for Public/Private Ventures, Issues and Options for PSIP

Implementation: The Experience of Twelve PIC's. Pennsylvania: Fall 1979,

35 pgs.

A status report of the efforts of twelve Private Industry Councils. This

report provides information on the variety of organizational, membership,

operational, program and resource issues that are being undertaken by these

PIC's. No programs of high-risk youth are discussed.

Corporation for Public/Private Ventures, Public-Private Partnerships for

Dealing with the Employment Problems of Youth. Pennsylvania: September 1977,

33 pgs.

This paper was prepared au part of the Ford Foundation's investigation of

youth employment problems begun in February 1977. It explores the prospects

for the Youth Employmen snd Demonstration Projects Act (YEDPA) of 1977, and

discusses the role of the intermediary corporations being established to

oversee certain programs. It provides a rationale for use of intermediary

corporations by the Office of Youth Programs, Department of Labor.

It outlines plans for the intermediary corporations implementing four

programs, authorized under YEDPA. In the program seeking to involve the private sector in establishing more employment opportunities for youth, there is

little previous experience. This new corporation will test a variety oi" models aimed at increasing private sector employment for youth.

de Lone, Richard H. Youth Employment and the Private Sector. Pennsylvania:

Corporation for Public/Private Ventures, 1978, 28 pgs.

This report was a paper prepared for the National Commission on Manpower

Policy Conference, "Creating Job Opportunities in the Private Sector," October

19-20, 1978.

637

581
The report discusses the extent of youth unemployment and targeting and

training services to those youth most in need of such services.

It discusses present and past private sector experience with employment and

training programs for youth, and attitudes of employers about government

supported training programs. The basic problem of how to make the youngest,

most disadvantaged and least educated members of the labor force more attractive to private sector employers is covered with many views being presented.

The report describes one demonstration project being carried out by the

Corporation for Public/Private Ventures, for DOL's Office of Youth Programs,

incorporating several initiatives while involving private sector

organizations.

Dockson, Robert R. "Solving the Hard-Core Unemployment Problem. Los Angeles Business and Economics, Vol. 4, No. 3, Spring 1979, pp. 12-13.

In spite of impressive overall gains in employment, hard-core structural

unemployment remains a major problem in the U.S., especially with respect to

certain groups such as minority teen-agers. The private sector can help

eradicate this. unemployment problem by shouldering some responsibility for

developing programs to help these people. An examination of one such program,

Youth Opportunities Unlimited (YOU), sponsored by a savings and loan association, indicates the factors necessary for success: (1) interaction with other

employees in a normal work environment situation can aid in developing responsible personal habits. (2) There must be recognition that an adjustment

period is needed by both the new employee and the regular employee. (3) The

program must be viewed as the first step toward permanent employment. (4) The

job itself must be productive and not just a mere shuffling of work from other

employees. (5) The wholehearted support of top level management is needed.

MDC Inc., Worksite Activity Under the Youth Employment and Demonstration

Projects Act: An Interim Report. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration Office of Youth Programs, August 1978, 27 pgs.

582
This report highlights YEDPA worksites in eight prime sponsor areas around the

U.S. It covers type of work activity, attendance, attitude of the participants, supervision and products of the work.

Findings include a great diversity both in terms of the range of objectives,

quality of performance and types of programs and activities.

aft Because YEDPA is an experimental program, many alternatives are being

conducted and the diversity of projects is an expected result.

Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation, 1978 Annual Report. New York,

1978, 25 pgs.

This annual report describes the work of the Manpower Demonstration Research

Corporation. Highlighted are the National Supported Work Demonstration, the

WIN Research Laboratory Project, and the Youth Incentive Entitlement Pilot

Projects.

National Child Labor Committee,

Youth Serving the Community: Realistic Public

Service Roles for Young Workers. Final Report. New York: March 1978,

106 pgs.

This is a survey of work experience projects which can be utilized as guides

by program operators to initiate their own projects. The introductory chapter

focuses on identifying some of the key elements, problems and considerations

for initiating projects. Chapter II contains project descriptions organized

by major areas of concern (e.g., housing, health,, environment). A

bibliography is included.

National Commission for Manpower Policy, Fourth Annual Report to the President

and the Congress: An Enlarged Role for the Private Sector in Federal Employment and Training Programs. Washington, D.C.: 1978, 134 pgs.

This report is related to two earlier reports of the National Commission for

Employment Policy, Job Creation Through Public Service Employment (March 1978)

and An Assessment of CETA (May 1978).

583

639
This report recommends that policies which encourage more active participation p

of the private sector in federal job creation programs be strengthened.

This report includes chapters on the potential of the private sector, focusing

on the structurally unemployed, the need for new institutional linkages and

job creation in the public and private sectors.

Also included are conference summaries on "Improving Private Sector Job

Opportunities for Selected Target Groups" and "The Role of Private Sector

Employers in Nationdl Employment Policies."

National Commission fort lanpower Policy. Public Service Employment and Other Responses to Continuing Unemployment: An Interim Report to the Congress of The National Commission for Manpower Policy. ,Washington, D.C.: 1975, 25 pgs.

This report presents the Commission's findings and recommendations based on

its initial analyses of governmental responses to growing unemployment.

Findings and recommendations are made with respect to public service employment; summer jobs for youth; unemployment insurance; and other special assistance to the unemployed. Additional recommendations are made regarding energy

and its manpower implications, and the coordination of manpower and related

programs. Preliminary comments are made concerning the Commission's initial

steps toward the formulation of a national manpower policy.

Newberg, Adina. A Directory of Training and Employment Programs in the Private Sector; Emphasis: Disadvantaged Youth. The Corporation for Public/ Private Ventures, Pennsylvania: 1979, 8j pgs.

A directory of 117 programs sponsored by the private sector for the training

and employment of disadvantaged youth. Programs are grouped in three broad

categories: Pre-employment, Skills Training, Career Pathways. Among the

Pre-employment programs, youth involved were as young as 14, within the career

exploration section, most provided services to youth over 16, while in the

skills training section, most programs required participants to be over 18

years of age. No evaluation of programs is provided, and limited information

is available on numbers actually served.

584

640
Saunders, David N. The Company Youth Keep: An Evirical Analysis of Job

Finding Among Young Men 14-24. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor,

Manpower Administration, Office of Manpower Research and Development,

December 1974, 450 pgs.

This study examines the pervtnal, social and economic correlates of

job-finding of young men. The data base was Cle National Longitudinal Survey

from 1966-1969. Younger, less mducated youth relied more heavily on informal

channels. Increasing age and edn,;ation led to slight shift from informal to

formal channels, although infolmal still dominated. As white youth matured,

they relied less on friends, relatives and schools, and more on formal methods

other than schools. For both races, increased education lad to a rise in the

use of formal techniques, particularly schools. While blacks relied more

heavily on friends and relatives than did whites, race was less important than

social class with higher social class youth showing a greater use of formal

channels. Youth using formal channels tended to locate white-collar jobs,

particularly professional and clerical; those relying on informal, had a

greater chance of locating blue-collar jobs. Whites found the highest "quality" jobs through private agencies, newspapers and the "other" channel. Among

both races, friends and relatives generally led to loWer quality jobs. An

extensive review of the literature on job-finding is included.

U.S. Department of Labor, Assessments of the Job Co s Performance and

Impacts. Washington, D.C.: Employment and Training Administration, Office of

Youth Programs. February 1979, 170 pgs.

This comprehensive report discusses Job Corps' performance in 1978, its impact

on individuals served and its prospects for the future. Conclusions reached

are that the Job Corps is a very successful program serving an extremely

disadvantaged clientele.

Most successful training component of Job Corps in terms of percentage placed

and amount of wages is training for construction industry at Civilian Conservation Centers. This can be ascribed to union construction programs at

CCC's.

U.S. Department of Labor, Youth, Washington, D.C.: Employment and Training

Administration, 1979, 25 pgs.

585 641.
This booklet describes seven programs which are aimed at reducing youth

unemployment. It includes entitlement projects which encourage young people

to stay in school while providing part-time work. Other programs mentioned

include Career Intern Program (CIP), Job Corps, Young Adult Conservation Corps

(YACC), Summer Youth Employment Program (SYEP), Apprenticeship Programs under

the Youth Employment and Demonstration Projects Act (YEDPA).

Vogel, Anita S. A Retrospective Survey of Programs for Youth Employment in

the Private Sector Sponsored by the United States Department of Labor. Pennsylvania: Corporation for Public/Private Ventures, March 1978, 39 pgs.

This paper discusses the history of youth-focused employment and training

programs. It cites a variety of programs, giving information on their overall

effect. Programs mentioned include:

Pre-Employment Programs such as Experimental and Demonstration Youth

Projects of MDTA, Neighborhood Youth Corps, Institutional MDTA, Job Corps,

Opportunities Industrialization Centers (OIC), Training and Technology (TAT)

and Apprenticeship Outreach Program.

Placement without Formal On-the-Job Training such as Jobs Now.

Employment Service Programs such as Youth Opportunity Centers and

Rent-A-Kid.

Also discussed are barriers to youth employment and suggestions for incentives

to employers hiring youth.

Conclusions are offered on the success of various initiatives and suggestions

made for directing policy toward improving the employment prospects of

high-risk youth.

586 642
POLICY AREA #3

Anderson, Bernard E. The Opportunities Industrialization Centers: A Decade

of Community Based Manpower Services. Pennsylvania: University of

Pennsylvania, 1976, 156 pgs.

The Opportunities Industrialization Center (OIC) is the nation's major

community-based organization providing manpower development services to the

disadvantaged. Chapter 1. of this report introduces the topic and outlines the

major issues to be considered. Chapter 2 describes the nature of the urban

job crisis and the social and economic conditions to which OIC was a response.

Chapter 3 discusses tbe administrative structure and program organization of

OIC. Chapter 4 traces the development and growth of private sector support of

OIC. Chapters 5 and 6 track the development of OIC's partnership with

government in the delivery of manpower services to the disadvantaged. Chapter 7 presents a summary and conclusion and draws implications from the past

decade of OIC experience for the future of the organization.

de Lone, Richard H. Youth and the Private Sector. Pennsylvania: Corporation

for Public/Private Ventures, 1978, 28 pgs.

In this paper de Lone addresses the problems of targeting. While attempts are

made to target education and training programs for young people for whom labor

market difficulties are precursors of adult labor market difficulties, it is

hard to predict who those youth are. We use categories such as out-of-school,

low income, and minority, but these definitions are not precise. Using

duration of unemployment as a criteria is no good because it excludes

first-time labor market entrants.

Income criteria are not always feasible because youth cannot adequately report

family income.

Herrnstadt, Irwin L. The Implementation of CETA in Boston. Mass: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1977, 101 pgs.

A case study of the introduction of the CETA servizes in Boston, Mass., was

conducted (1) to chronicle and analyze the changes in employment and training
planning and programs as the federal policy changes from a centralized and

categorical policy to a decentralized one. (2) To examine the impact of those

changes on employment and training programs and institutions, the internal

structure and staffing of these institutions, program participants, and the

community, and (3) to study how the CETA prime sponsor monitors and evaluates

its programs.

Findings included the following: (1) Aside from public service employment,

the introduction of CETA has not changed Boston's manpower system much, (2) a restructuring of the administrative system did permit incorporation of several

New York programs, and did not permit special attention to the needs of

ex-offenders, drug addicts, older workers, and women, and (3) due to the

weakness of the local economy and administrative defects in the program there

was a substantial cutback of on-the-job training. (This report concluded with

twenty-two recommendations.)

Klein, Josephine. Training for the New Helping Professions-Community and

Work. London, England: London University, 1973, 16 pgs.

This report describes how to manage and administer community and youth

services, how to improve simple human relations, how to work with people in

community and youth groups, creating new connections among people and how to

introduce stimuli and new ideas into the helping professions.

It describes the need of the helping professions in community and youth work

to change as the world changes.

Levenson, Bernard. Employment Opportunities of Negro and White Youth. New

York: Columbia University, 1973, 182 pgs.

To assess employment opportunities of minority vocational high school

graduates, this study analyzed the dissimilar rates at which whites, blacks

and Puerto Ricans are placed in various curricula in vocational schools, and

then attempted to determine whether ethnicity affected job opportunity and

earnings. High school records were collated with social security work history

records of 1100, 1956-63 New. York City .graduates of the High School for

Fashion Industries.

588.

644
Mangum, Garth and John Walsh. Employment and Training Programs for Youth:

What Works Best for Whom? Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor,

Employment and Training Administration, 1978.

This publication gives a breakdown of unemployment rates for teenagers in

poverty and non-poverty areas, by race as well as vocational education

completions and placements.

While unemployment rates are highest for the 16 to 17 year old groups, the

severity of the problem is attenuated somewhat by the fact that about 85% are

looking for part-time employment. The young teenagers having the greatest

problem are those who are out of school. The 16 to 17 year nonwhite, achcol

dropouts have the diost severe unemployment problems of any other group, a

startling 68.8 percent in October 1975.

MDC, Inc. Worksite Activity Under the Youth Employment and Demonstration

Projects Act: An Interim Report. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor

Employment and Training Administration, Office of Youth Programs, August 1978,

27 pgs.

In this publication, reference is made to three areas where YEDPA funds are

making a difference. Prior to YEDPA funding, these three prime sponsors had

relatively few programs for youth.

In Colorado Springs, Colorado one of the prime sponsors mentioned above, a

strong "Preventive" program has been mounted with YEDPA funds, concentrating

on in=46hooryouths'and-potential dropouts-.--In Stamford,--Conn.-, a plan exists

to involve youths in jobs, keyed specifically to their school vocational

tracks. In Escambia County, Florida, CBOs have identified areas where youth

programs should exist and YEDPA funds have been put into community centers for

youth employment and training.

Rist, Ray C. Education and Employment Training: The Views of Youth.

Interi) Report #2. New York: Youthwork National Policy Study, Cornell

University, 1979, 181 pgs.

This report lists a variety of recruitment sources:

589

645
School Personnel

superintendents)

Peers

Relatives

Mass Media

Community Agencies

(teachers, guidance counselors, assistant

School system personnel have access to in-school youth, but other means such

as mass media announcements are needed for out-of-school youth.

Incentives to program participation - income most important to youth aged

14-17. Secondly, career and work-experience goals.

Programs should be designed narrowly enough to meet the needs of a particular

target population, similar in age and situation.

Thu.ras, Gail E. Black Youth and the Labor Market: The Unemployment Dilemma. Washington, D.C.: Cisa Corp. 1979, 56 pgs.

The paper examines the current .problen of black youth unemployment from a

theoretical perspective. Traditional sociological and economic theories

applicable tothe--problems---of-unemplaiiiient and occupational and status

achievement are initially reviewed. Sext, the concept of 'sponsorship mobility' is utilized and elaborated as a policy approach to dealing with the

. problem of black and disadvantaged .minority'youthUnemploYmentThe major

hypothesis advanced and what forms the basis'of the ,policy approach suggested

that an improvement in employment opportunity for black' and other disadvantaged youth can 1% facilitated thxough the establishment of functional

support systems and sponsorship groups that effectively mediate the relationship between disadvantaged youth and the employmez,:' structure. Various

strategies for formulating support systems and sponsorship groups are offered.
U.S. Congress. House Committee on Education and Labor. Oversight Hearing on

Youth Employment and Demonstration Projects Act. Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Employment Opportunities of the Committee on Education and Labor,

House of Representatives, Ninety-Fifth Congress, First Session. Washington,

D.C.: Government Printing Office, November 10, 1977.

Reported here is the oversight hearing on the Youth Employment and

Demonstration Projects Act to examine the problem of youth employment and the

extent to which existing federal programs are addressing the problem. Major

content is the testimony of four witnesses: Leon Anderson, Division of Human

Resources, U.S. Forest Service, Department of Agriculture; Maudine R. Cooper,

Deputy Director, Washington Bureau, National Urban League, Inc.; Maurice

Dawkins, Opportunities Industrialization Centers; and Robert McConnon, Deputy

Assistant Secretary for Employment and Training, Department of Labor. Statements, letters and supplemental materials relevant to the hearings are also

included.

U.S. Department of Labor. A...1&CZledge Development Plan for Youth Initiatives,

Fiscal 1979. Washington, D.C.: Employment and Training Administration, 1979.

In this publication's section on Juvenile Delinquency Treatment and Prevention

Demonstration, reference is made to literature indicating a statistical

relationship between joblessrAss and juvenile delinquency. Likewise, employment is accepted as a matter of faith as an important component of any treatment strategy. There has, however, been no large-scale, systematic experiment

to determine the effectiveness of the employment approach in reducing crime

and recidivism.

U.S. Department of Labor, Summer Program for Economically Disadvantaged

Youth (SPEDY). Washington, D.C.: Employment and Training Administration,

1978.

In this publication's section on eligibility and selection, p recruitment

process is outlined for economically disadvantaged youth for a rural Minnesota

community. Rural Minnesota CEP uses regional selection committees to make

final determinations of SPEDY participants. A CEP Subgrantee,

Ottertail-Wadena Community Action Council, groups enrollees with the

minorities being those currently enrolled in the in-school YEPs, those who are.

591

64 7
economically disadvantaged, and those who are between the ages of 16-19. The

selection committees consist of a school contact person (such as a school

counselor), a rural Minnesota CEP person, State Job Service representative,

local social service department and also two agency staff people. This local

input into the selection process has generated positive community support.

United States General Accounting Office. Information on the Summer Youth Employment Program (DOL) HRD-77-121, June 1977, 6 pgs.

In this report on social targeting it was found that in operating the summer

youth employment program, prime sponsors took applications and selected participants from those who met the age and family income eligibility criteria as DOL has not yet established special goals for the prime sponsor. Of the

racial groups served in 1975, 52% were white with 48% from other races,,

including 43% black. In 1976, 40% white with 60% from other races, including

51% black. Unemployment rates published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics for

ages 16 through 19 are shown in the following table:

September 1975

September 1976

May 1977

Unemployment Rates

Black & Other

Races White

37.2 17.4

38.5 16.5

38.7 15.7

Estimates of inner city unemployment of black youth exceeded 50%.

Vocational Foundation, Inc. Our Turn to Listen (Video

York, N.Y. Tape Presentation), New

This documentary examines the jobless rate of disadvantaged youth inside a large metropolitan area. It specifies the day-to-day frustrations minority

youth face in their endless efforts to secure employment. It also looks at

how public ofV,cials view the jobless rate of youth within this city. These

public officials: represent experts in the areas of employment, education, and

crime.

648

592
According to one source in this documentary one out of two teens in large

cities are unemployed. The Bureau of Labor Statistics is quoted as saying

that 38% of all minority inner city youth are unemployed. The 44% average

that these two figures make up demonstrates that the jobless rate of youth

unemployment has reached epidemic proportions and will continue to get worse

unless those who decide policy take issue and begin targeting services to

those reflecting the need.

Weissman, Harold H. Employment and Educational Services (In the Mobilization

for Youth Experiences). New York:' Association Press, 1969.

In this book, Weissman discusses a policy conflict developed within the

Division of Employment Opportunities over what was to be demonstrated and who

was to be beneficiary of the agency's services. Initially, the division was

unable to provide enoagh training positions for all applicants, therefore,

choices had to be made. The director argued that delinquents were the chief

target of change efforts and that delinquent youth should receive priority in

service.

Wijting, Jan P. "Employing the Recovered Drug Abuser-Viable," Personnel.

Vol. 56N3, May/June 1979, pp. 56-63.

According to information gathered by the National Association on Drug Abuse

Problems, Inc. (NADAP), most rehabilitated drug abusers are capable of securing and retaining employment and are generally regarded by their employers as

satisfactory employees. Most rehabilitated drug abusers who find successful

employment have some qualities, such as youth, education, marketable skills,

etc. that offset the stigma of having been involved with drugs. Those former

abusers who do not have successful work experiences usually had been more

deeply involved with the drug subculture.

More placement programs, such as NADAP's are needed in order to design and

implement effective employment programs for the recovered drug abuser.

Wurzburg, Gregory. Improving Job Opportunities for Youth (A Review of Prime

Sponsor Experience in Implementing the Youth Employment and Demonstration

Projects Act). August, 1978.

593
YEDPA targets efforts specifically at young adults. Sub-targets are identified by Congressional sponsors and the DOL. YCCIP aims its services at

16-19 year old youths who are out of work. YEPT is for unemployed and underemployed youths from families whose current gross family income is less than

85% of the BLS lower living standard. Prime sponsors are concentrating on serving economically disadvantaged youths. (Youths from families whose income

is 70% of the BLS lower living standard, or less.)

Youth Services Commission. Youth: Comprehensive Juvenile Delinquency Prevention Plan. Richmond, Virginir: June 1978, 58 pgs.

This article captions youth unemployment in the city of Richmond, Virginia, as

one of the major contributors to crime within that city. Based upon the youth

unemployment statistics from the 1970 census and the current jobless rate for

workers of all ages, the Office on Youth estimates that the unemployment rate

for youth in the city of Richmond, who are not in school, stands at between 25

and 30%. This estimate indicates that there are between 2,600 and 3,000

Richmond young people in the 16 to 21 age range who are now seeking regular,

full time jobs without success. Zuckerman, Alan. "Targez S4rvices," AdhereW.: A Journal of Comprehensive Employment Trainia..a.4 Human Resource Develo m:at, Vol. 6, No. 1, May 1979, pp. 37-42.

The article presented in tilis cau.n. was adapted from a presentation at the

spring session of the Unit Sratd Conference of Man rs April 25-27, 1979.

While the contents of the a-.4.1e support the effo.,, of targeting, there is

very little agreement on where the 7)riorities fc3? litvice should be placed.

In order to target those youth most in need, CETa snalyze yroficiency,

skills which are needed in the labor market, 1ttitudes toward work, physical

and mental handicaps and other real barriers .,oployment. These characteristics both determine real need and also require specific services to overcome

barriers or to compensate for past deficiencies.

594

650
POLICY AREA #4

Community Action for Youth, Job Opportunity for Youth-Final Report.

Ohio: November 1965, 82 pages,

This report describes an emplwx,ent program conducted over 20 months for youth

of the Rough area of Cleveloai, who were seriously disadvantaged in the job

market. Approximately 42 of emery 100 youths served were tested for aptitude

and intelligence. The repo:: describes the characteristics of the youths

served and the program that served them and makes recommendations for future

programs based on the project experience.

Freeberg, Norman E. and 3enlamin Shimberg. Validating of Assessment Measures

for Use With Disadvantavd .f..nrollees in Work-Training Programs. Final Report.

New Jersey: Educationa.:, Testing Servi-7e, May 1977, 95 pgs.

This report attempts v:-41:dat,:,. the battery of tests dealing with

attitudinal, reasoning and job-o:vzsaration skills against trainee performance,

and criterion information. obtained at the completion of the OIC training program and at approximately six tx., eight months following that training.

Gordon, Jesse E. "Tevitlsts, Counseling agd Supportive Services," Breakthrough

for Disadvantaged Ywn, ed., William Mirengoff, Washington, D.C.: U.S.

Department of Labor, Pp, 61-116.

This report seeks to describe the major features of assessment, counseling,

and supportive services as repotted in the documents produced during the

period 1962-65 4 the experimental and demonstration (E&D) projects for disadvantaged youth funded under the Manpower Development and Training Act

(MDTA). It also attempts to identify new knowledge and techniques which

represent innovations in working with these youth, and focuses on implications

for future policies, programs, and strategies.

Kirkpatrick, J.J., R,B. Ewen, R.S. Barett and R.A. Katzell. Testing and Fair

Employment: Fairness and Validity of Personnel Tests for Different Ethnic

Groups. New York: New York University Press, 1968, 145 pgs.

595

651
Examines the issues in testing for employment selection. Discusses validity

of testing for different ethnic and racial groups. Reporting results of five

studies conducted to examine differential validities of selections tests are

provided.

Mangum, Garth and John Walsh. Employment and Training Programs for Youth: What Works Best for Whom?

Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, May 1978, 207 pgs.

This report assesses what is known about the relative effectiveness of various

employment and training services for youth; the relative effectiveness of

various techniques used in providing employment and training services to

youth; the administrative practiCes which have either enhanced or vitiated

employment and training services; and which services have proven most and

least effective for specific target groups.

Chapter Three identifies the social services assessment model for employment

and training, whereby attempts are made to determine the strengths and needs

of the participant.

Nation League of Cities & United States Conference of Mayors. Public Employment Program and the Cities, Volume II - Special Report. Washington, D.C.: June 19, 1973, 300 pgs.

This volume of the report focuses on three principle areas: (1) Hiring of

significant population segments, (2) transition to Unsubsidized Employment,

(3) public service impact of POP. The report reflects the perspective of the

city program agents and presents PEP as viewed and administered by them. It

does not deal with the implementation and operation of PEP by state or county

program agents.

In the transition to unsubsidized employment a substantial number of cities

used existing civil service tests in the selection of PEP participants.

Almost all of the cities used some type of selection device.

Nellum, A.L. and Associates. A Systems Approach for EDP/Counseling

Development in CETA. Pennsylvania: U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, Region III, Regional Training Center, 1976.

596 652
Described in this book is a systems approach to counseling, with employability

development as its theme. It defines counseling within CETA and describes how

to achieve a systems approach in an on-going counseling program.

Under the caption of TA Resources, methods of assessing the disadvantaged in

manpower programs are reviewed and analyzed.

Tyler, Ralph Winfred. "The Competencies of Youth," From School to Work:

Improving the Transition, A Collection of Policy Papers Prepared for the

National Commission for Manpower Policy, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government

Printing Office, 1976, pp. 89-116.

This paper explores the competencies of youth to locate, obtain and perform

adult-type employment. Since few comprehensive studies have been made on the

competencies required for locating, obtaining and performing the adult-type

jobs that are available for initial employment and no comprehensive study

exists that assesses all the prerequisite competencies for that transition,

this paper pieced together partial data and makes inferential leaps where the

data is incomplete and points to possible interprretations.

Walther, Regis H. Analysis and Synthesis of DOL Experience in Youth

Transition to Work Experience. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor,

Employment and Training Administration, Office of Research and Development,

December 1976, 109 pgs.

This report reviews the experience with federal programs concerned with the

transition from school to work and extracts lessons and guiding principles

which might prove useful for planning and administering training and employment programs. The current labor force situation of youth is reviewed and

impediments to the employment of youth are examined. Recommendations are made

relating to assessment and testing of youth, skill training, remedial

education, work experience, counseling, job development and placement.

653

597
POLICY AREA #5

Campbell. Overview of Youth Employment Programming. Texas: Texas Department of Community Affairs Youth Services Division, 1977, 51 pgs.

This study examines prime sponsors of the Comprehensive Employment and

Training Act (CETA) in Texas during late 1976, to determine in what areas of

youth programming they would like training and/or technical assistance. Four

program areas were examined: job training, job placement, summer employment

and career education.

Genessee Intermediate School District Vocational Education and Career Development Se/vices. A Comprehensive Career Development Employability, Vocational and Coping Skills Training Program for YETP/SPEDY Youth in the Genessee Intermediate School District. Michigan: 1978, 84 pgs.

This program examined over 500 youths between 14 and 21 years of age involved

in the program. Significant gains are reported for their skills in exploring

careers, making decisions and planning to reach chosen career goals. In

addition, a 75% increase in the level of coping skills for school and work

settings were found as a result of a systematic delivery of twelve one hour

modules. Work experience provided youth with income to help keep them in

school and job experiences which will help prepare them for future employment,

enhanced the program.

Manpower Demonstration Research Corp. The Youth Entitlement Demonstration (An Interim-Report on Program-Implementation)-,--- Washington, D.C.: 1979, 261 pgs.

This research rrport covers the planning, start-up and early site operations

of one of four demonstration projects, through September 1978.

It seeks to document and analyze the institutional and programmatic role of

schools and the prime sponsors. Also, to analyze the adaptability of CETA to

the requirements of operating a job entitlement program, to study the process

of recruitment, enrollment and job creation.

654

598
HDC Inc. Worksite Activity Under the Youth Employment and Demonstration

Projects Act: An Interim Report. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of

Labor, Employment and Training Administration, Office of Youth Programs,

August, 1978, 27 pgs.

The intent of this project was to gain a first-hand observaton for what was

going on at these work sites. Information collected focused on what the

youths were being paid for how many hours of what sort of effort; what kind of

supervision they were getting; how much and what kind of discipline they were

receiving (or resisting); what their attendance records were like, whether

they were enthusiastic or bored; and what products were issuing from their

work.

National Manpower Institute. Work and Service Experience for Youth.

Washington, D.C.: 1978, 147 pgs.

This study indicates that the percentage of young people who both go to school

and work increased from 28.6% in 1965 to 33.8% in 1975. With this in mind,

work service programs should provide young people with exposure to career

positions; provide opportunities to learn about adult work attitudes and

habits; provide for a meaningful interaction and communication with adults

(socialization skills); afford youth the opportunity to develop skills and

abilities that will enable them to learn in settings outside the classroom;

and offer youth an opportunity to learn responsible behavior by experiencing

the consequences and costs of their behavior in an adult work related setting.

Systems Research Inc. In School Youth Manpower: A Guide to Local Strategies

and Methods. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor, Manpower Administration, Office of Research and Development, 1973, 83 pgs.

In terms of Matching and Alignment this document refers to thcze job

assignment activities which encompass matching and assignment of the most

suitable and mutually satisfactory job for each enrollee and employer, and

Training for enrollees in the arts, skills and behaviors necessary to carry

4t their job responsibilities. These activities must be performed wisely,

stIce a successful job assignment is based on a careful match of enrollee

abiLlties, personal circumstances and vocational interest and the employer's

job requirements.

599

655
Workmanship Training - An Area of Emphasis. This report indicates that the

workmanship training strategy is designed to increase the disadvantaged

youth's knowledge of desired work habits and norms. It presumes that good

work habits, an ability to get along with the supervisor and co-workers, as

well as adherence to work norms, are necessary conditions of employability.

Actual job assignments are not so important as the transfer of knowledge

concerning proper work habits.

U.S. Department of Labor Manpower Administration, Preparing Disadvantaged Youth for Work. Reprints from the Employment Service Review. Washington, D.C.: 20 pgs.

Work Adjustment Training - This study concluded that traditional techniques of

education and preparation for work which are useful with the average

unemployed, fail with disadvantaged youth. Evaluation, work adjustment training and other remedial procedures must be tailored to the particular needs of

disadvantaged youth. Tasks and procedures must be culturally accepted and

acceptable to the youth's value system.

Jobseeking Patterns of Disadvantaged Youth - This program focused on 450

youths, all having in common a lack of direction and commitment to finding and

holding a steady job. Some findings indicated occupational titles of jobs

meant little to youths in the program. Their exposure to persons with real

work experience was almost exclusively limited to those in unskilled,

semi-skilled, service and domestic occupations.

U.S. Department of Labor, Assessments of the Job Corps Performance and

Impacts. Washington, D.C.: Employment and Training Administration, Office of

Youth Programs, February, 1979, 170 pgs.

An evaluation of the Job Corps Programs indicated, in order to maintain their

level of achievement, continued assessments of training programs must be made

to insure participants receive salable skills. New training programs such as solar energy technology, ship building trade-; and computer technology, are

being developed as a result of the current shift in today's labor market

demand. The upgrading of training techniques to keep :ace with changes in

occupations and elimination of training in occupations for which there is low

demand is essential.

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600
POLICY AREA #6

Boylan, Hunter R. Problems and Potentials of Individualized Instruction for

Disadvantaged Students, Washington, D.C.:' 1976, 23 pgs.

This paper describes the operation and results of an individualized center

funded under an Office of .Education grant for the provision of special services to disadvantaged students. There are remedial, developmental, and

general education courses for disadvantaged students enrolled at Bowling Green

State University. An outline of program operations is provided, including

descriptions of courses, instructional methods used, and services offered in

support of instructional activities. The outcomes of program operation are

described and student achievement data is provided to document these outcomes.

Problems encountered in program development and course implementation are

discussed and attempted solutions are described. On the basis of experience

and research, it is concluded that individualized instructional techniques

tend to result in higher grades and better mastery of subject matter for disadvantaged students. It is suggested that these techniques have considerable

potential for application in remedial and developmental instructional

settings.

Brown, Barbara, Horovitz and Others, Alternative Responses to the Problems of

Delinguent Behavior Patterns of Youth, Providence Mental Health Center, Rhode

Island: i977.

The document reports the suggestions offered by workshop participants

regarding alternative responses to the problems of delinquent behavior patterns in youth. Recommendations offered include the following: priority must

be given to services to children in need, with the goal of preventing entrance

into the traditional justice system; programs should be encouraged with priority going to high risk locals where parents could attend parent education

seminars; and helping professionals should be specifically trained for intensive work with troubled families and for involvement with resistant adolescents. Several models (including the job prep model of Hartford, Connecticut;

the National Youth Project using minibikes, which offers community based

services; and the Youth Diversionary Program of the Rhode Island Opportunities

Industrialization Center) are considered.
Enright, William J. and Gary S. Graham. The Development of a Comprehensive

Basic Education System for Alternative Education Programs. California:

Graham Associates, Inc., 1975, 69 pgs.

This report details work done in seven demonstration sites in the adaptation

of the Job Corps Programmed Learning System for use in a variety of alternative education piograms. This oyster:, as adapted by Graham Associates, came to be known as the New Education Program (NEP). The report discusses characteristics of the NEP system, the specific way it was utilized to meet the

needs of different student populations, and the current status of the NEP

curriculum as a model basic education system for manpc.. raining programs.

Miles, H. Guy. Final Report on Developing Model NYC Pro, AJS for Rural Youth.

Minnesota: North Star Research and Development Institute, 1971.

This report pinpointed the following suggestions: The counselor working with

the new enrollee should develop a set of goals to be attained by the youth

during the program enrollmamt. The report further emphasizes that in developing the employability plan, one should take into consideration the goals that

have been set. The enrollee will be categorized according to needs. Skill

training should be relevant to the enrollee's training plan and should be

related realistically to the job market, either rural or urban.

National Commission on Resources for Youth, New Roles for Youth in the School

and the Community, Citation Press, 1974.

This report indicates that sometimes out of school employment coupled with its

money earning opportunities seems more stimulating and more worthwhile than

the harder to conceive long range possibilities of a planned educational

program. This is particularly true for students who are attending schools

that are not making their school program stimulating. In addition, the student is not being helped to recognize the present and future satisfactions and

values of education. Entrepreneurial programs of many types hnve originated

in schools as a result. Students benefit from participating in learning

programs that relate to their personal hopes and plans.
The National Urban Coalition. Youth Perspectives: Employability Development

Programs and the World of Work. WIshington, D.C.: .1978, 24 pgs.

The document reports the suggestions offered by workshop participants at

regional youth employment seminars conducted by the National Urban Coalition.

Recommendations offered include the following:

1. In-school programs should provide more occupational information and

counseling to smooth the transition from school to work. The Continuous

Longitudinal Manpower Survey (CLMS) of the Census Bureau should be used to

identify factors that may be associated with a successful transition.

2. An analysis should be made of the merits of work experience programs

compared with those of in-school programs. Such an analysis would assist in

determining which type of training is suitable for an individual young person,

as opposed to the current practice of haphazard assignments of young people in

both programs.

Taylor, Marie. "How to Play Games for Fun and Profit," Adherent, A Journal

of Comprehensive Employment Training and Human Resource Development, Vol. 4,

August 1977, pp. 35-38.

Opportunities Industrialization Centers, Inc.(OIC) instructors, orientation

specialists, counselors, and other group facilitators are playing games

-didactics - with an increasing degree of success. OIC staffs have demonstrated an ability to provide structured activities that are both relevant and

enjoyable. These activities have been designed to increase self-awareness,

facilitate the individualized learning process, and enhance curriculum related

to both the affective and cognitive areas of ,education. Structured

experiences emphasize an experimental or reality-based learning approach in

which the learners are directly involved in the process. Example of didactics

that can be adapted for use in the cognitive area are found in many of the

games we have known and loved for years - password, concentration, twenty

thousand dollar pyramid, and beat the clock. An example of an affective

didactic is the 'I am becoming a person who...' exercise.

659

603
Youthwork, Inc. Public Forum on the Education and Employment of High Risk

Youth. Washington, D.C.: February 2, 1979, 93 pgs.

This document reports on the suggestions offered by the forum's participants

regarding alternative responses to the problems of education and employment of

high-risk youth.

The report suggests that all contracts over $500,000 must contain a teenage

employment and training component. This would ensure that youth would receive

on-the-job training as well as facilitate the entry of such persons into the

economy.

6E0
POLICY AREA #7

Bell, T.H. "Learning to Work -- or Working to Learn." Paper presented at the

Annual Convocation of Opportunities Industrialization Centers of America,

Atlanta, Georgia: February 4, 1976.

This speech discusses several of the exemplary dropout prevention programs

sponsored by the Office of Education. The basis of all the programs, whether

they be for dropouts from school or for dropouts from life, is that once

people find out that there is work to be done in the world, and that they will

be welcomed and rewarded for doing it, they apply themselves to learning what

must be mastered. The hardest task these programs face is to convince

untrained people who have experienced nothing but failure that there is a

place for themselves in the world. Special recognition is given to the OIC,

which received a grant from the Office of Education to provide work-study

opportunities for future black businessmen.

Mathematica Policy Research and the Institute for Research on Poverty,

University of Wisconsin. Analysis of Nine-Month Interviews for Supported

Work: Results of an Early Sample, New York: Manpower Demonstration Research

Corporation, 1977, 80 pgs.

The report covers a sample of 691 ex-addicts, ex-offenders and youth at seven

program sites, 356 program participants (or experimental) and 335 "controls"

(persons equally eligible for the program but assigned by lot to non-participant status) -- and is based on the results of an interview administered to

the entire sample nine months after the experimentals enrolled in the program.

Findings show positive effect of supported work.

Miller, Patricia and William Simon. Do Youth Really Want to Work? A

Comparison of the Work Values and Job' Perceptions of Younger and Older Men.

Paper presented at Conference on Employment Statistics and Youth, held at

Institute of Industrial Relations, UCLA, on February 11-12, 1978.

This paper examines the work values of youth using data from a national random

sample of 1992 men between the ages of 18 and 49. A varimax factor analysis

of 27 items 'concerning work values produces six factors: Intrinsic work

rewards, economic records, security rewards, social rewards, interpersonal

rewards, and zati-work ethic. Examination of a comparable set of items

661

605
concerning workers' perceptions of access to these rewards indicates that

older men consistently and sometimes substantially, report a greater

satisfaction in their present jobs in terms of these factors. Unemployment is

not associated with work values. Ethnic minorities appear to under-value

intrinsic work rewards and over-value economic rewards, security rewards, and

the anti-work ethic. Tha analysis concludes that substantial continuity

characterize the work valLg.r of both younger and older men.

National Commission on Resources for Youth. New Roles for Youth in the School

and the Community. New York: Citation Press, 1974, 245 pgs.

The projects reported in this book have been studied, and they are judged to

be examples that do provide opportunities for youth to take initiative and to

carry on activities that are socially constructive and productive and for

which young people can take major responsibilities. The seven types of programs described have been developed in varying forms in a number of

communities, thus indiv.ting their potential for wider use.

The seven types of youth programs described here are not believed to be an inclusive list of all kinds now in existence, but they do represent a variety

of the kinds of personal roles and forms of expression through which young

people may make significant social contributions. The projects presented

cited youth participating in the following roles: Curriculum Builders,

Teachers, Community Manpower Entrepreneurs, Community Problem-Solvers, Communicators and Resources for Youth. The description of the projects include

how they began, how they are organized, how they are integrated into the

curriculum, how they are financed, how participants are trained, and many

other operational details.

National Council on Employment Policy, Youth Perspectives: Case Study

Comments on Qualitative Research Methodologies, Washington, D.C.: 1979, 27 pgs.

The Youth Perspectives Study is designed to explore and analyze youth

employment and training needs and CETA program experiences from a participant's view. The research is focused directly on the attitudes,

characteristics, and experience of young people enrolled in CETA programs.
Material was collected through a series of intensive interviews with selected

YEDPA participants in four geographic localities.

National Office for Social Responsibility. Linking Youth Services Systems:

An Approach to Integrated Programming, Maryland: 1977, 102 pgs.

This handbook details an integrated ay. -Iach to youth service programming

employed in the Oakland, California Commal. ty Services Project. The goal of

the project was to provide 45 minority youth an opportunity for full-time

community service. This was to be accomplishei, t. .ugh intensive training and

worksite development i community service org.i.lions in Alameda County.

Implemented as a demons: _ project of the nffice for Social Responsibility from September 7, 1975 to September: 76, till objective was to

create an environment where people gain :4.6S to a7.cially desirable

roles, develop positive labn?:. s -.:ad reduce alienation from the larger social

order. Program and envirotol linkages were established, and the youth

underwent training in the following areas: Peer Counseling, Value Clarification and Problem-Solving, Community Organization, Group Processes, Program

Planning, Recreational Skills, Casework, Interviewing and Data Collection

Skills, Preplacement and Post-placement Follow-up Skills, and Team Building

and Supervisory Techniques.

Schneider, Debra, Paul R. Stuhmer, R,iger E. Hamlin and Robert C. Muth. Youth

Employment Money: I)..signing Your Local Program, Michigan: hichigan State

University, 1977, 108 Mgr.

This tm:W000k contains two parts: Part rh.e is a brief explanation of the

Youth Employment A.ct's major provisions. Part Two offers some suggestioL2 for

prograr; structure, some innovative program examples and several model program

proposals. Appendices include the nationzi funding breakdowu under the Act,

anticipated proposal and program deadlines and ti),: text of the Youth

Employment and Demonstration Projects Act of 1977.

U.S. Department of Labor. Assessments of the Job ComsLrformances and

Impacts. Washington, D.C.: Employment and Training Administration, Office of

Youth Programs, February, 1979, 170 pgs.

607
The section on Non-Economic Impacts of the Job Corps Report Number Nine,

indicates that Job Corps had a positive impact on five different areas of

non-economic outcomes. Three months or more in Job Corps led to improvement

in the following areas:

1. job seeking skills

2. job satiffaction

3. attitude toward authority

4., self-esteem and

5. criminal justice system involvement.

U.S. Department of Labor, 'Employment and Training Administration. Knowledge

Development Under the Youth Initiatives: Proceedings of an Overview Conference, October 5 -6.; Washington, D.C.: 1978, 235 pgs.

Brandeis University Center for Public Service, organized a Conference of 1978

Youth Knowledge Development. Activities which brought together the researchers

on the major projects and man,' of the key players who translated the findings

into policy. The major purpose ,,as to lay the conceptual groundwork for a

continuing assessment and modification proces.

The results are important it. several waja: First, there is presented basic

information about the projects and the related reRztrch. Seccnd, the discussions suggest ways in which the p..ojects are interrelated. Third, the nel'es

for greater coordination and more Lareful time-sequencing of results are made

apparent. Fourth, the complexity of demonstration, evaluation and research in

this area becomes clear, 7ifth, ;.be v:,ryiag perspectives with the research

community are suggested as well AS the different way of appi...aching.problems.

Sixth, a realistic sense of the limitations on research and evaluation activity is demonstrated. Seventa, areas where more work is needed are identified.

Eighth, the interrelationship between information, knolgafdge and policy is

highlighted.

Wallace, Phyllis Ann. Pathways to Work, Ma. ;acht'setts: D.C. Heath and

Company, 1974, 117 ggs.

608

664
The central finding of this report is that peer groups' support and

reinforcement operate in strong and positive ways to counteract some of the

negative influences from the community and the home.

The exploratory study by the Metropolitan Applied Research Center (MARC) of

unemployment among black female teenagers in two urban poverty neighborhoods

in New York City demonstrated that it is possible to provide resources to

enable these young women to enter and to take continuous steps to remain in

the labor market.

The interactive mechanism was a peer group network. Its central activity was

the strengthening of the youth themselves in developing job orientation for

themselves and others.

It appears that black teenage families are among the least preferred workers

in urban labor markets; they experience major difficulties in finding jobs.

The MARC exploratory project on unemployment among black teenage females was

concerned with how these young women perceived the characteristics and availability of work, the desirability of work, and their job expectations and

opportunities.

Some of the findings from the study are:

1. The teenage peer group (16 to 19) played a powerful role in

influencing work attitudes and changing work behavior of this teenage

out-of-school/out-of-work population.

2. Black teenage females who developed positive work orientation lacked

both the information and knowledge of how to get a job.

Walther, Regis H. The Measurement of Work-Relevant Attitudes. Virg Alia:

National Technical Information Service, 1975, 18 pgs.

This final report is on the development of a Work-Relevant Attitudes Inventory

(WRAI) for use in diagnosing the needs of individuals and evaluating the

effectiveness of manpower programs. The WRAI was able to differentiate

665
between subjects making a "good" and a "poor" adjustment to work. In

addition, positive changes in WRAI scores were associated with a "good"

adjustment. The WRAI also correlated with counselor ratings and with

achievement test scores in .l.nding and mathematics. It was concluded that the

WRAI had demonstrated its , ;efulness as a measure of program effectiveness and

as a help in diagnosing the needs of new program participants.

A factor analysis of the items supported the conclusion that optimism,

self-confidence and unsocialized attitudes were three important underlying

dimensions.

The WRAI proved in the reported studies to be an instrument with considerable

promise both for program evaluation and for diagnosis of individuals.

Young, Mary E. Work Attitudes in the Civilian Sector, Virginia: National

Technical Information Service, 1975, 183 pgs.

Reports on work attitudes are covered including studies on the attitudes of

youth, hardcore unemployed, and minority groups.

610 666
COMPREHENSIVE BIBLIOGRAPHIES

Note: Chapter and Policy Area Numbers are synonomous
COMPREHENSIVE BIBLIOGRAPHIES

Note: Chapter and Policy Area Numbers are synonomous
POLICY AREA #1

Adams, Arvil V. and Garth L. Mangum. The Lingering Crisis of Youth

Unemployment. Michigan: Upjohn Institute for Employment Research, 1978,

152 pgs.

Altschuld, James W. and Terese Terry. Youth Training Programs in Ohio's

Community Action Agencies. Ohio: The Center for Vocational Education, Ohio

State University, 1977, 43 pgs.

American Council on Education. "Education and Work: Report of a Seminar."

Policy Analysis Service Reports, Vol. 2, No. 1, June 1976, 53 pgs.

American Public Welfare Association. The Youth-Community Coordination

Project. Final Report. Washington, D.C.: 1978, 115 pgs.

Bachman, Jerald G. "Dropping Out - Problem or Symptom?" Youth in Transition,

Vol. III, 1971, 255 pgs.

Barton, Paul E. Community Councils and the Transitions Between Education and

Work. Washington, D.C.: October, 1976, 49 pgs.

Barton, Paul E. and Bryna Shore Fraser. Between Two Worlds: Youth Transition

from School to Work: Volume 1, 2, 3 and an Executive Summary. Washington,

D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration,

Office of Research and Development, 1978, 582 pgs.

Bell, Carolyn Shaw, Charles C. Killingsworth, Eli Ginzberg, Andrew Young and

Bernard Anderson. Directions for a National Manpower Policy: A Collection of

Police Pa ers Pre ared for Three Re ional Conferences Final Resort. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration,

1976, 258 pgs.

Burdetsky, Ben. "Troubled Transition: From School to Work." Worklife,

Vol. I & II. November 1976, 6 pgs.

Carnegie Council on Policy Studies in Higher Education. Giving Youth

Employment Policy: Mapping the Route from Problems to Programs. California:

Rand Corp., 1971, 16 pgs.

Center for Education and Work, National Manpower Institute, A Charter for

Improved Rural Youth Transition. Washington, D.C.: 1978, 74 pgs.

Colgne, Ewan and Leo Kramer. Manpower Policies and Programs; A Review,

1935-1975. Michigan: Upjohn Institute for Employment Research, January 1976,

102 pgs.

Conroy, William Q., Jr. An Introduction to the Transition to Work Simulator.

Iowa: Kirkwood Community College, October 1977, 85 pgs.

Darcy, Robert L. "Helping Youth Bridge the Gap from School to Work Through

Manpower and Economic Education." American Vocational Journal,, V. 44, N3,

1969, pp. 57-60.
Delayney, William. The Transition from School to Work: A Study of Laws,

Regulations, and Practices Restricting Work Experience and Employment Opportunities for Youth. Final Report. Washington, D.C.: National Committee on

Employment of Youth, 1975, 147 pgs.

Federal Interagency Committee on Education, Sub-Committee on Education and

Work. Education Service and Work: The Multi-Funded Approach. Washington,

D.C.: 1976, 99 pgs.

Ferman, Louis A., "Job Placement, Creation and Development." Breakthrough for

Disadvantaged Youth, ed. William Mirengoff, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department

of Labor, 1969, pp. 181-215.

Foat C. and N. Stromquist, Study of the Career Intern Pro rams. Interim

Non-Technical Report. Task D: Comparison of the CIP with other Youth

Programs. California: RMC Research Corp., 1979.

Forthman, Robert Crooks. Hardcore Youth Unemployment. California:

University of California, 1970, 334 pgs.

From School to Work: Improving the Transition. A Collection of Policy Papers

Prepared for the National Commission for Manpower Policy, Washington, D.C.:

U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976.

Gibboney, Richard A. Associates. The Career Intern Program Final Report: An

Experiment in Career Education that Worked. Vol. 1, No. 7, Washington, D.C.:

U.S. National Institute of Education, May 1977.

Gold, Gerard G. Towards Work-Education Collaboration: Revitalizing an

American Tradition. Washington, D.C.: National Manpower Institute, 1979,

16 pgs.

Hylton, V. Wendell. Career Education: The Role of School-Related Youth

Groups and Voluntary Organizations. Ohio: Ohio State University, 1977,

39 pgs.

League of Cities - Conference of Mayors, Inc. CETA and Youth: Program for

Cities, Washin,-.zon, D.C.: 1976, 73 pgs.

Manguka, Garth and John Walsh. Employment and Training Programs for Youth:

What Works Best for Whom? Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor,

Employment and Training Administration, 1978, 207 pgs.

Mapp, Janice O. The Current Role of Community -Based Organizations in

Employment and Training Programs .for Youth. The Vice President's Task Force

on Youth Employment (Paper given at conference on Involving CBO's in Youth

Employments Arkausas, 1979).

National Advisory Council on Vocational Education. Youth Unemployment: The

Need for a Comprehensive Approach. Washington, D.C.: 1977, 19 pgs.

National Child Labor Committee. Rite of Passage: The Crisis of Youth's

Transition from school to Work. New York: 1976, 46 pgs.

614
National Council on Employment Policy. Initial Youth Employment and

Demonstration Projects Act (YEDPA) Experience at the Local Level. Washington,

D.C.: 1978, 417 pgs.

National Council on Employment Policy. The Local Focus on Youth, A Review of

Prime Sponsor Experience is Implementing the Youth Employment and Dem_oastration Projects Act (YEDPA). Washington, D.C.: 1979, 477 pgs.

National Council on Employment Policy. The Unfolding Youth Initiatives - Prime Sponsor Experience in Implementing the Youth Employment and Demonstration Projects Act. Washington, D.C.: 1978, 421 pgs.

National Manpower Institute. Job Placement Services for Youth. Washington,

D.C.: March 1978, 44 pgs.

Office of Youth Development. Design for Youth Development Policy. A Summary

Report of Some Technical Products of the Office of Youth Development's Youth

_Services System Program. Washington, D.C.: Center for Action Research, Inc.,

1976, 407 pgs.

President's Science Advisory Committee. Youth: Transition to Adulthood.

Resort of the Panel on Youth of the President's Science Adviso Committee.

Washington, D.C.: June 1973, 209 pgs.

Princeton University, Industrial Relations Section. The Transition from

School to Work: A Report Based on the Princeton Manpower Symposium May 9-10,

1968. Research Report Series, No. 111. New Jersey: 1968, 290 pgs.

Reubens, Beatrice G. Bridges to Work: International Comparison of Transition

Services. New York: Columbia University, July 1977, 330 pgs.

Rist, Ray C. et al. Education En.lo eat and Training: The Views of Youth

Interim Report #2. New York:- Youthwork National Policy Study, Cornell

University, 1979, 181 pgs.

RMC Research Corp. Study of the Career Intern Program, Final Report Task A:

The Process of Implementation by Peter G. Treadway and others, Washington,

D.C.: U.S. National Institute of Education, 1979.

Roberts, K. and B. Davies. "From School to Work-Study of Youth-Employment

Services." New Society, 1972, pp. 251-257.

San Diego Department of Human Resources, California Research and Evaluation

Section. Evaluation of Human Care Services Programs. California, 1975,

292 pgs.

Seiler, Joseph. "Prevocational and Vocational Training Programs,"

Breakthrough for Disadvantaged Youth, ed. William Mirengoff, Washington, D.C.:

U.S. Department of Labor, 1969, pp. 139-181.

Sockol, Richard A. and Thomas W. McClain. School/Business Partnerships:

A Practitioner's Guide. Massachusetts: Institute for Governmental Services,

University of Massachusetts, 1978, 42 pgs.

6 71

615
Somers, Gerald G. and Ernst W. Stromsdarfer. A Cost-Effectiveness Study of

the In-School altd Summer Neighborhood Youth Corps., Wisconsin University,

1970, 450 pgs.

Superintendent of Documents. Catalog of Federal Youth Programs, Washington,

D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1977, 456 pgs.

Timpane, Michael et al. Youth Policy in Transition. California: Rand Corp.,

1976, 192 pgs.

U.S. Congress. Comprehensive Employment and Training Act Amendments of 1978.

Conference Report. Ninety-Fifth Congress. Second Session, Washington, D.C.:

Government Printing Office, 1978.

U.S. Congress. Senate Committee on Human Resources. Youth Ewpi,;yment and

Training Act of 1977. Hearings before the Subcommittee on Employment, Poverty

and Migratory Labor of the Committee on Human Resources. Washington, D.C.:

Government Printing Office, 1978.

U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Impacts of YEDPA on

Education/CETA Relationships at the Local Level. Five Case Studies.

Washington, D.C.: 1978, 42 pgs.

U.S. Department of Labor. Bridging the Gap from School to Work. Washington,

D.C.: 1968, 14 pgs.

U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration,

Unit, Youth Serving the Community: Realistic Public Service Roles

Workers. Washington, D.C.: 1979, 149 pgs.

Inquiries

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POLICY AREA #6

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694

638
Public Forum

On the

Education and Employment

of High-Risk Youth

February 2,1979

Washington, D. C.

Youthvvork, Inc.

639
INTRODUCTION

Youthwork, Inc., is an, intermediary corporation formed in January 1978 by a consortium of private foundations to help the Office of Youth Programs of the U.S. Department of Labor implement the Youth Employment and Demonstration Projects Act of 1977. An intermediary corporation is a private non-profit organization that assists government agencies to program public funds. Youthwork is an inter- mediary between the private and public sectors; it is a private/public partnership.

As part of this partnership, Youthwork conducted a public forum on the education and employment of high-risk youth on February 2, 1979. The term "high-risk" emconpasses long-term unemployed youth, teenage parents, ex-juvenile justice offenders, youth with a history of drug or alcohol abuse, and high school dropouts.

The forum's purpose was to solicit advice and informa- tion from privatt citizens and government officials on the design of a $5 million national grants competition that Youthwork will conduct in spring 1979 for exemplary in-school projects serving high-risk youth. In other words, Youthwork through the forum actively sought out, the assist ance of concerned persons familiar with the problems of young people before it started telling local schools, agencies, and community organizations what they could and could not do to obtain a federal grant. The forum thus served a major purpose of an intermediary corporation: to enable private citizens to participate in the allocation of public monies.

The present volume reproduces a partial transcript of the forum. Readers of the transcript may learn for plemselves what a valuable quantity of expert advice and information was obtained. Some editorial deletions from the testimony have been made in the interests of clarity and continuity.

On behalf of the Youthwork Board of Directors and the staff, I can say that the information gained at the, forum has proved exceptionally useful. Much. of this information was translated into the text of the application guidelines for the grants, and all of the recommendations of forum witnesses and panelists will bear on the actual selection of grantees.
Special thanks are due Rep. Parren J. Mitchell (D.-Md.),

who kindly obtained authorization for Youthwork to use a

hearing room of the Congressional Annex Building in Washington,

and to the many witnesst_s who took time from busy schedules

to assist not just Youthwork but also the nation's

young people.

Finally, I want to offer my personal thanks to Youthwork

staff members Rudi Boone and Robert Eckert for all their

efforts in developing and coordinating the forum. Special

thanks, too, to Youthwork associates Regina Carmel, Barbara

Hampson, and LaVonne Manley for their invaluable assistance.

641.

Corinne H. Rieder

Executive Director

Youthwork, Inc.

697
YOUTHWORK PANEL MEMBERS

PUBLIC FORUM ON THE EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENT

OF HIGH-RISK YOUTH

FEBRUARY 2, 1979

CHARLES D. BANNERMAN, Co- chairman, Youthwork Board of

Directors, Chairman of the Board, The, Delta

Foundation; and Executive Director, Mississippi

Action for Community Education, Greenville,

Mississippi

WILLIAM B. CANNON, Co-chairman, Youthwork Board of

Directors, and Vice President for Business and

Finance, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois

ELRIDGE MCMILLIAN, Executive Director, The Southern

Education Foundation, Atlanta, Georgia

RICHARD W. BOONE, member, Youthwork' Board of Directors, and

Acting Executive Director, The Field Foundation,

New York, New York

ALEX DELGADO, member, Youthwork Board of Directors, and

Professor of Sociology, Metropolitan State College, Denver, Colorado

CORINNE H. RIEDER, Executive Director Youthwork,

Washington, D.C.

JOAN WILLS, member, Youthwork Board of Directors, and

Director for Employment and Training Programs, The

National Governors Association, Washington, D.C.

DOROTHY SHIELDS, member, Youthwork Board of Directors,

and Assistant Director of Education, AFL-CIO,

Washington, D.C.

JOSE SANTANA, member, Youthwork Board of Directors, and

National Coordinator for Puerto Rican Youth, Public

Policy Institute, Washington, D.C.

NANCY FRANCO, member, Youthwork Baord of Directors, and

Executive Director, Citizens Policy Centei/Open Road

Programe Santa Barbarak California

HAROLD FLEMING, President, The Potomac Institute,

Washington, D.C.

RUBY MARTIN, member, Youthwork Board of Directors,

Attorney, Richmond, Virginia

HARRIET MICHEL, Office of Youth Programs, U.S. Department

of Labor,, Washington D.C.

and
CONTENTS

Morning Session

Introductory Remarks:

CHARLES BANNERMAN, Co-Chairman,Youthwork,

Inc., Chair for the Forum

REPRESENTATIVE PARREN J. MITCHELL (D.-Md.),

Chairman, House Banking Committee

Subcommittee on Domestic Monetary Policy

Presentations:

ERNEST GREEN, Assistant Secretary of Labor

for Employment and Training, Washington, D.C.

DAPHNE BUSBY, Director, Sisterhood-of

Black Single Mothers, Brooklyn, New York

FRANK FURSTENBURG, Professor of Sociology,

University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia,

Pennsylvania

JOSEPH COOPER, Research Economist, National

Bureau of. Economic Research, Cambridge,

Massachusetts

ANTONIA PANTOJA, President, Graduate School

for Urban Resources and Social Policy,

San Diego, California

PAUL OSTERMAN, Professor of Economics,

Boston UniverSity,:Boston, Massachusetts

- , JAMES WCONNELL,:MinOrity Counsel, Senate

Subcommittee on Employment, PpVerty, and

Migratory Labor,Washington,:p4..,:.

BARBARA BECNEL,f,Economist and Houting

Specialist, AFI-CIO

SUSAN GRAYSONI-ADirector, House SUbcommittee

on EmployMent Opportunity,

KUJAATELBKWELI,Director, Youth Development,

National UrbanLeaguei Washington.C.

TED WATKINS, Administrator," Watts:Labor

toMmUnity:Action Committee, Los Angeles,

California

646

648

653

647

663

665

669

673

680

683

685

688

693
Afternoon Session

Presentations:

LEWIS H. SMITH, Center for Manpower Studies,

University of Mississippi c GENE LOCKHART, Counselor, Greater Mt. Cavalry

Baptist Church Youth Program, Jackson,

Mississippi

701

703

PETER EDELMAN, Former Director, New York

State Executive Department, Division of

Youth 706

MIRIAM THOMPSON, Director, Advocates for

Children, New York City, New York 712

LEONARD COLLINS, Advocates for Children, DOME

Project, New York City, New York 715

DOMINGO GARCIA, Executive Director, IberoAmerican Action League, Inc., Rochester,

New York 716

RICHARD LEVY, Assistant Superintendent,

Detroit Public Schools, Detroit, Michigan 718

ROGER SEMERAD, Chief Executive Officer,

70001 Limited, Washington, D.C. 721

RICHARD DRABANT, Marketing Manager, Chrysler

Institute, Detroit, Michigan 724

MIKE ARNOLD, Assistant Director, Human

Resources Development Institute, AFL-CIO 730

GERALD WILKINSON, Executive Director, 735

National Indian Youth Council, Albuquerque, New Mexico

'00

644
Morning Session
CHAIRMAN BANNERMAN: Good morning. I'd like to

welcome you all here to this forum on education and employment of hard-to-reach youth on behalf of Youthwork. I

would also like to thank you for taking time from your busy

schedules to come to this hearing.

The purpose of today's forum is to discern the

various problems and issues of serving the needs of the

hard-to-reach youth: youth out of work who face prolonged

unemployment, teenage parents, juvenile-justice offenders, high school dropouts.

As you ,May know/ Yduthwork is a nonprofit organization incorporated just a year ago, on January 30, 1978, in an effort to create a public/private partnership

between a consortium of five foundations and the Office of , Youth Programs of the U.S. Department of Labor. Yontbworkis mission is to promote the eroployabi" ty" of young people, especially through our institutions of education and learn

ing and other community service organizations. Our priMary

task during this past year 'has been to administer about 60

exemplary in-sdhool demonstration projects under :'the Youth

Employment Demonstration Projects Act of 19771 YEDPA. Other

Youthwork activities under YEDPA -include the preparation of grant application guidelines, identifying and recommending

funding of exemplary'programs, Providing technical assistance to projects, developing knowledge base., about education- work transition programs, and participating in the develop- ment of a national youth policy.

Under Youthwork's first national competition held in the spring of 1978, the Department of Labor, acting on

Youthwork's recommendations, made grants totaling $15 million to 46 projects selected from 522 proposals. The projects, which feature interrelated components of study and work 'in conjunction with special support services to aid youth in

the transition from school to work, seek to foster closer

cooperation between locgl education institutions, community- based organizations and the CETA system.

In the spring of 1979, Youthwork will conduct another national grants competition, which will seek to identify exemplary programs for young, people not normally

served: the handicapped, long-term unemployed teenagers, teenage parents, dropouts, and offenders. We are holding
these forums to increase our understanding of the relevant

issues and problems, particularly now as the Department of

Labor and Youthwork begin to formulate goals, priorities

and grant application guidelines. Today's forum will provide you and Youthwork with an opportunity to hear from

young people who have experienced employment problems,

operators of programs designed for youth with special needs,

and public officials.

As many of you know, my own special interests and

concerns lie with the rural youth of this country, a population officially estimated at more than 4.5 million youth, 14

to 18years old, living in 14,000 small towns and countryside

communities that make up rural America. Some of us believe

the figure is much greater, but we are going to use the

official estimate today.

These youth have been trapped between the

proverbial rock and hard place for decades, or as we say in

the country, between the sap and the bark. The choice for

most rural young people has been both simple and

disheartening--stay in the rural community and face a future

of underemployment or migrate to a metropolitan area and

become part of a larger, low-echelon, surplus labor pool.

Rural youth have, particular problems, some of us

feel with lack of exposure in the ways of work, lack of

education, and in the case of my own home state, coming from

an educational system that' yet, doesn't hSve compulsory

education as a value or law in the state.

The adverse effects of this dilemma have spared

neither urban nor rural communities. Rural migrants with

their still unrecognized special problems have swelled the

ranks of the urban ghetto popUlation and have thus increased

the difficulties faced by all reformist attempts to eradicate

poverty and improve the quality of life in America.

Our agenda today reflects the interest shown by

a wide variety of *people in both the public and private

sectors in aiding unemployed, hard-to-reach youth loOated

in both our major nletropolitan areas and rural communities

that must make the transition from 'school to the world ofwork and self-reliance.

'Today we will hear from experts and, government

officials on the national, State and'local.levels .whoYilX

share their icnowledge Of'hard-to7reaCh youth in the:arends

of education and work. In addition, operators of local,

exemplary programs will testify about their experiences.

We are fotunate to have with us some young people

who are participants

r

in programs designed to aid the hard-toreach youth of this country.
Without further delay, I would like to move into

the program by calling on Parren J. Mitchell, Chariman of

the House Banking Subcommittee on Domestic Monetary Policies.

THE HONORABLE PARREN J. MITCHELL

U.S. HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

MR. MITCHELL: Thank you very much, Mr. Chairman.

It seems to me that the problem of youth unemployment is this country--and I'm going to focus on primarily on

black youth with occasional references to Hispanic youth--is

a manifestation, really, of two flaws in our system. There is a basic flaw in the economic foundation of America, and

a flaw in the moral foundation of America. They combine to create what Jcall a fatal flaw. Now, to look at that flaw

we have to look at the structure of capitalism in this

country. The theory is that under the capitalistic system, we operate on the premise of supply and demand, and under

that premise, it's assumed that the quantity of goods as

well as the price of goods is determined by those who consume the goods. The theory also states if there is an excessive

demand for goods and services, new capitalists will surface;

new businesses will get started; there will be expansion of

capitalistic efforts to reap the benefit of the additional

demands for goods and services. It is at this point that

the fatal flaw reflects itself in terms of American blacks

and Hispanic people. We are led astray. We are not and have

not been actively engaged in the capitalist class of America.

We simply are not. There is an ongoing exclusionary pattern in the American economy that has relegated black people and

Hispanic people and women to the role of producers and consumers. We are not in the role of supplying capitalism with

capital for expansion and growth.

Obviously when you create a class of producers and

consumers, then, in effect, you have created a substratum in the American society. To put it another way--the economy of

America_ has created a caste system, and that caste system

structurally and operationally relegates the burden of the

dysfunctioning of the American economic system on blacks, Hispanics and the disadvantaged.

I won't take the time to recite the long history

of this unfortunate condition. Nor will I get into my own

political ideologies today, but I would suggest to you that

we all should have an interest in reading, catalystic interest; and I have read Marx, and something struck me in the writings

of Marx that I think is very important, at least for our con- sideration. Marx wrote that in order for capitalism to

survive--in order for it to survive--there must be a

permanent reserve of unemployed. I am not a Marxist..
merely advance that little bit of data for you to cogitate

on and perhaps relate the reserve of unemployed to it.

The federal government has made some futile

efforts to rectify the fatal flaw but the private sector

has done absolutely nothing. As a result, we have this

distinct long-term trend of unemployment for teenagers.

Now, I'm certain that there are some exceptions to that

general statement about the private sector, but in the

overall, if we start listing the exceptions, I think we

could do it on two or three pages of 8-by-11 paper.

As a result of this ignoring, or cursory treatment,

of the problem, we have now a series of very frightening

things that have emerged since the 1950s. As you well know,

the gap between teenage unemployment and adult unemployment

in the lack community has only slightly widened. However,

the gap between the black and white rates of adult unemployment has widened steadily. Even more frightening is the

gap between black and white teenage unemployment. Even

during a high point in the cycles, we have not at all

diminished black, Hispanic, disadvantaged teenage employment. We should also know, as I think we do, that the rate

that is frequently quoted, 36.4 percent unemployment, is

grossly understated. When we, talk about an unemployed

person, we talk abOut a person who is 16 years old, without

a job and available and looking for work. I think that's

the Labor Department definition. Taking into account all

of the undercounting that's done by the Department of Labor

and by the Census Bureau, we could say that there are at

least a million teenagers who fit into that category.

Youth unemployment accounts for 20 percent of the

total number, of unemployed but only 10-percent of the total

labor force. Now, if You would broaden the definition of

youth to include 16_ through 24 years of aget,, youth account

for more than 50 percent of the total unemployment, while

measuring only 25 percent of the labor force.

The basic causes of teenage unemployment are well

knot-in to you: inadequate schools and training, the entire

sYstem that encourages the use of capital ss,a,substitution

for employment snd growth'Potential, discrimination in the

labor market--but no-one wants, to-talk about-that-, The

assumption" is that America has solved its :'racial pr°14ems and really there is no more diScrimination.- ,That assumption

is a fallacious one. I submit to You that, without discrimination, it > is 'impossible for AMerica to have ,created a

million new jobs laSt Yesk in the 'Private sector \-and. not

have dented black Unen1PlOYment; The 15roblem arises not so

much in terms of iriadequate training, not' so Much in terms

of inadequate experience, but it arises at that hiring gate

where racism and-discrimination dominate, and this is
especially true if the job seeker has a record. This

becomes another justification added on to racism for the

exclusion of that person.

I will share with you that the first full-time

job after leaving school is especially critical. If that

job is not obtained within a reasonable period of time,

you begin to establish the basis for the permanently discouraged worker. I do not fear so much the armament of the

Soviet Union, or Cuba, or China. This government is not

going to be overthrown by any external force. If it is

overthrown at all, if it falls, if it decays, if it withers,

if it dies, it's going to be because of forces within this

nation, the forces of frustration, the forces of alienation,

and the forces that create despair, in human beings.

The first full-time job after leaving school is

so critical, and to some extent the summer youth program

took up a part of that slack, giving experience on a first

full-time job. That's why I cannot understand the temerity

of President Carter in cutting summer youth jobs. I worked

very hard as a member of the Budget Committee. My amendment passed to move the number up so that we had a million

summer youth jobs, and our President, in his august wisdom,

has decided that in the name of approaching a balanced

budget we are going to once again sacrifice youths by

cutting out a quarter of a million summer youth jobs. That

is arrogant nonsense, and I am prepared this morning to go

to war with all means possible to rectify that situation.

To address the problem of inadequate training, I

would suggest that we again look to the private sector. I

think we have the power to make it mandatory that the private

sector, which received enormous job contracts, be given some kind of incentive, or be required-by law, to emplo? some or

the hard-core disadvantaged youth. I find.it incomprehehsible

for example, that Boeing, and Lockheed, and General Electric

received a combined $11 billion in government contracts last

year, but were under no mandate at all to employ the disadvantaged. I think the President has the authority to issue

a procurement directive stating that all contracts over

$500,000 must contain a teenage employment and training

component. This would ensure that the teenager or the youth

would receive on-the-job training and it would facilitate

the entry of such persons into the economy.

Along with this, obviously there has got to be an

increase in comprehensive vocational educational efforts.

Even in our public schools, despite the Brown decision in

1954, there is still a great disparity in vocational training. I cite by way of illustration my own city of Baltimore,

where we have the Carver Vocational School, and the

Merganthol Vocational School, both of which teach

706
electricity. Carver is primarily black Merganthol is

primarily white, At Carver the electricity courses

consist of house wiring. At Merganthol, the primarily

white school, the courses consist of high-tension wiring.

There's a market for high-tension wiring. There.is no

market for house wiring. We have our own do-it-yourself

kits to accomplish that.

We also need to look at the tax policies. They

have not been used to facilitate the employment of blacks

and other youth. It's no secret that our large corporations,

write off billions of dollars every year. I would suggest

that we have some kind of federal effort to encourage

employment tax credits. That would have to be looked at

very carefully because I don't want to see the government

subsidizing, in effect, a form of slave labor or exploitation of people, but it is something that we should concern

ourselves with.

The most difficult thing that we have to deal with

in our problem of youth unemployment, it seems to me, is a

constellation of attitudes that come together and create

what is essentially apathy. I don't blame young people for

being apathetic. I don't blame them for saying, "There is

no way that I can win in this system," becuase they look at

their fathers who have been unemployed for the past five

years if they are black or Hispanic, and they tay, "If Dad

can't win, I can't win." Not blaming them is one thing.

Doing something about it is another.

I would urge that each training program for young

people contain a vital component on political education. I

know that speaks of harassing and -I know that someone is

going to suggest that that is. political empire-buildin4 on

the part of those, who want programs. It certainly could be,

but it should not be. What I,; am suggesting is the kind of

Political education, that lets young people.:know thaiblack

youth unemployment and Hispanic-Youth unemployment arergoing

to remain unaddressed until they become a political force in

this country, and that is by using the ballot:

Finally--and this statement always gets me'in

trouble--everYthing that lives has a tolerance level for

frustration. What that level is, I don't know, but every- thing that lives and breathes has a tolerance leyel for,

frustration. and I think black youth and Hispanic youth,

and their adults who are unemployed, have a tolerance level,

for frustration. My argument is, are we going to move before

that tolerance level for frustration breaks and we have a

series of untoward incidents, occurring in America? Are,we

going to wait until that happens and then comein with a

whole state of Band-Aid programs, or are we going to seize

this moment to address the, dysfunctions in the American
economic system and make life a little better for these

neglected people?

CHAIRMAN BANNERMAN: Thank you, Congressman

Mitchell.

It's not often that a panel of private citizens

gets to play a reverse role here, and since we have Congressman Mitchell with us, I would like for him to take

some time and respond, if he will, to questions that panel

members might like to ask him.

MR. DELGADO: Congressman Mitchell, for the

record, where would you place the degree of accountability

for the things that are happening with the nation's youth

today?

MR. MITCHELL: I would divide it up over three

categories of forces. Obviously I think the federal govern- ment, as a result of the Nixon-Ford years, developed an

indifference, a lack of sensitivity, indeed a callousness

toward blacks and minorities, and as a result of that, we

have this very, high rate of liack youth and Hispanic youth

unemployment. It is hard to trace when this began, but

it seems to me it began with an, Irish gentleman who mouthed

the phrase "benign neglect." And then there were a whole

series of steps that developed around.that, culminating with the re-election of Mr. Nixon on the basis of a cue

kind of campaign in which he implicitly suggested that most

of America's problems were traceable to minorities,

particularly blacks.

A second component has been the unwillingness of

youth: and the minorities to use the political clout that we

have. Almost every senior-citizen bill that gets into the

House gets passed. The Gray Panthers have organized. They

vote. Suppose 80 percent of all minority youth at age 18

voted? That is an impact that could not be ignored.

The ,third area of responsibility, it seems to

me, is with the private sector, and I recognize the importance of the private sector. I recognize the importance

of the free-enterprise system, but 'I submit that there has

been no social consciousness in the private sector since

the time our cities burned in America. When they stopped

burning, then the social consciousness evaporated. That

lack,of social consciousness is tied to certainly the matter

of the ledger psychosis--profits. Why should I--Mr. Private

Sector Man--concern myself about youth unemployment when last

year I was able to pass on to my stockholders the largest

profits ever in history?

MR. BOONE: A number of labor economists are

suggesting that we may have some excruciating skilled-labor
shortages in the '80s, which suggests the tremendous need

to help train young people to meet the job requirements

and to take advantage of the projected job opportunities

of the '80s.

Yet there is a very serious problem of a bottleneck around apprenticeships system, particularly for black

and brown young people. If work/education combinations are

important (particularly in vocational education), and if

vocational education becomes a vital step toward apprenticeships, and if there is an extremely serious bottleneck in

providing apprenticeship opportunities for a number of our

highly disadvantaged young people, what might be the opportunities and responsibilities for the Congress to address

that issue?

MR. MITCHELL: The responsibilities are there and

they are enormous. It is no great secret that we have not

broken into the building trades. Most of the skilled crafts

are not black and Hispanic: What I would like to do, if I

had the power, is to mandate that the private sector employ,

as 10 percent of its work force, hard-core unemployed youth

if it wants to qualify for any government contracts. Now,

that's tough, but I think the situation demands toughness.

I do want to comment just briefly on the matter

of career building by saying that I would hope that in our

vocational work training we are looking way off into the

future. There is going to be a market for trained people

in solar energy, for trained people as we attempt to extract

energy from the ocean's depths, and all the subsidiary products that go along with solar experimentation. I think

that needs to be incorporated into our vocational training

programs. Having said that, I want to close out my answer

to your questions by saying don't put all your marbles on

that. I remember that during World War II we needed skilled

workers, didn't we? We got them overnight--people from the

hills of North Carolina, from the swamps of Louisiana,

people with manure still on their flesh because they didn't

have shoes, but we needed them and we brought them in overnight and made them into skilled workers, because there was

a national emergency. I think this is a national emergency

in terms of a time bomb.

Mitchell

Green has

CHAIRMAN BANNERMAN: We thausk Congressman

for his powerful, moving and right-on remarks.

We understand that Assistant Secretary Ernest

a tight schedule, so we will hear from him next.

ERNEST GREEN, ASSISTANT SECRETARY OF

LABOR FOR EMPLOYMENT AND TRAINING

653 709
MR. GREEN: Thank you, Mr. Chairman. As you are

well aware, the Youth Employment and Demonstrations Act made

available some $1 billion to be spent for youth employment

and training programs. It is anticipated that in 1980 under

the new budget proposal slightly under $1 billion will be

expended under YEDPA.

Congressman Mitchell has indicated the unemployment figures, particularly for black teenagers, are still

dismally high, but if we look at the figures from the end

of 1976 to now, there has been nearly, a 6 percentage point

decrease, 38.4 down to 32.7. Clearly, the 2-for-1

differential that exists between blacks and whites has been

a problem that our government has been unable to wrestle

with over the last 20 years. Youth participation, though,

among blacks and among youta in general, has increased, and

we attribute a great deal of this increase to the drawing'

of the programs.

The youth programs administered by the Labor

Department have, I think,accounted for the bulk of the

increase into the work force of black youth. Over half

of all employment for black teenagers was due to this

effort. The new programs have also resulted in some

qualitative achievements. Many of you are aware that in

the inception Of CETA, the dysfunctional connection between

employment and training was rampant in most communities.

We are able topoint out that under the legislative initiatives of the Youth Employment and Demonstration Projects Act, over half of those funds go now between the local

prime sponsors' employment efforts and the local educational

authorities. Thisi, growing partnership has succeeded in bringing more economically disadvantaged students into the

mainstream of ongoing programs. In fact, one of the, policy issues that in your deliberations today7-as you are well

aware, the Youth-Employment and Demonstration Projects Act

was passed by Congress with a two-year life. We will very

shortly, within the Administration and the Congress, debate

the issue of further youth activity, youth employment

activity. I am particularly interested' in your efforts

today to look at the hard-to-employ youth.

The policy questions that we have in front of us

are who to serve, how well to serve them, what mix of program aspects young people need, why yovng people tend, not to be where the jobs are.

Another issue is the Summer Program for Economically

Disadvantaged Youth, SPEDY. It has been around with us for

over ten years. There is, great concern in many local areas

about part-time summer employment. I think that Youthwork

and the other intermediary organizations have to look very

carefully at it. We have had many complaints from
participants as well as local officials as to whether this

best serves the young people. In fact, last year under

SPEDY, of the allocation that went out, it was undersubscribed. We budgeted roughtly a million participants

and had somewhere around 900,000. You have, I think, an

excellent opportunity to assist this Administration and

the Congress in attempting to make sense of the next round

of youth program activity. I am convinced that the initiatives that we began to strike on our :ETA program in general

have an impact on this. As you are well aware, under the

tax law last year, an amendment targeted jobs through a tax

credit. One of the populations to receive the targeted jobs

tax credit is disadvantaged young people between the ages of

18 and 24.

Part of the problem we have is how well we can

draw the private sector into participation in our youth

programs. We have to have a greater private-sector

connection. If you look at the list of witnesses that are

testifying today, I think you will find few, if any, are

representing the private sector and corporate America. We

do have, I think, an opportunity to have an impact on this.

I will now answer questions.

CHAIRMAN BANNERMAN: I would like for you to

briefly comment on what sort of initiatives are being taken

by the Department of Labor to deal with the specialized

problems of rural youth in this country.

MR. GREEN: As you are well aware, the youth

employment funds are distributed by formula. I think that

in analyzing the formula, though, one of the things that

happened under the new CETA legislation is that a significant

amount of money was shifted to nonurban areas, went from

north to South.

Now, the question that we have is how well does

that money, work? In one Projerft, for example, in. Greene

County, Alabama, ,there was a linkage involving the Board of

Education for the county and Providing employment opportuni

ties for some 600 y6una people, but the jobs didn't get

developed. The oz.ner thing that we are. encountering in this

change of allocation from urban to'nonurban areas is a lack

of infrastructure to operate either projects or the expansion.

But if you look at solely the allodation of funds, and if you

look at the prime sponsor'arrangemant, we have a significant

amount of money at this time in nonurban areas, and our problems I think, on a collective basis is to put into plAcer

operational infrastructures that allow rural kids to benefit

from program activity as well as urban youngsters.
MS. MICHEL: In addition to that, Mr. Chairman,

we have one of the largest pots of discretionary money under

the YEDPA legislation, some $95 million, and we have tried

to ensure with those research and demonstration projects

that there have been specific projects for rural youth.

For example, we have strengthened our agency agreement with

HUD that will place some $8 million into housing projects

t'lat rural young people will work on. We are developing a

rural project in upstate New York that deals with volunteerism. I must admit that we do not have as many dollars,

obviously, in rural projects as in urban projects, but we

do have some and I would be happy to provide that list to

you.

MR. GREEN: I might add that one of the issues of

policy is where the problem is and who should be served and

rural versus urban. One of the issues that we have had

continually, at least in my two years here in the Department,

was CETA in general, and we were able to get the Congress to

come down hard on the question of who should be served this

time, but the substitution has been as much of a problem in

rural areas as it has been in urban areas. Who should be

served is a fact of need and that's one of the things that

as we wrestle with the legislation will be an important

item.

MS. FRANCO: Mr. Green, you make reference to the

fact that there is a trend toward service job creation as

opposed to manufacturing job creation. Yet, so many of the

tax incentives we have used to date seem more appropriate

for a larger manufacturing industry. What kinds of initiatives is the Labor Department considering to affect the

small businesses in the service sector where jobs are growing so that we get hard-to-employ young people into those

jobs?

MR. GREEN: Historically, large manufacturing

firms don't participate very much, or have not, in on-thejob training and assistance activities. One of the things

we are trying to effect through the Title VII private sector

initiative is to look more at small-sized firms. The same

thing with the targeted job tax credit. What we believe, if

the expansion of the assistance activity, either targeted

tax credit or improved OJT institutional training, activity

will occur with the small-sized firms, and that's part of

our effort to direct that. We are working with a series of

small-business representatives. Part of the effort is a

combination of program linkages through the Small Business

Administration, which has been mainly an assist to the smalland medium -sized firms and to involve them. Of the other

initiatives that we've gotten--and we do have some privatesector initiatives going under the Youth and Demonstration

Projects Act, both through the discretionary money as well

656

'112
as the formula money--the bulk are directed at service

entities.

MR. DELGADO: This concerns the people that are

in migrant streams throughout the country who can't even

begin to reach the first rung of the career ladder and whose

life conditions are deplorable. What, if anything, is being

done by the Department of Labor to address this issue?

MR. GREEN: There is an entitlement program built

into the specified level of funding for migrant seasonal

farm workers that the Department runs as program initiatives. On special youth efforts we do have undiscretionary

activity, and the Health Camp program is one of the things

we're doing in the area of the migrant stream. I suppose

the biggest problem that we have is one of improving opportunities for young people who want to leave migrant activity

and move into the permanent work force outside of that we

are making that bridge, but we have not done it very well.

CHAIRMAN BANNERMAN: Thank you, Assistant

Secretary Green. We will now hear from Daphne Busby for

another perspective on youth unemployment.

DAPHNE BUSBY, DIRECTOR, SISTERHOOD OF BLACK

SINGLE MOTHERS, BROOKLYNI NEW YORK, ACCOMPANIED

BY RENEE GRAVES AND VERONICA GIBBS

MS. BUSBY: I think it is important to have youth

represented at this forum. So, with me I have brought two

of the young teenage participants in our teenage mothers

program and I am going to share my time with them so that

they can express from their own perspective and their own

points of view what their feelings are about not only the

issue of education and employment but also their lifestyle

as teoaage parents and what their concerns are.

I want to emphasize one point while we are talking

about employment and education: the importance of family.

If you're going to try to initiate programs that are going

to be helpful, that are going to be an incentive for our

young people to motivate themselves towards higher goals,

then we are going to have to start at the beginning, which

is in the family home life. Single parents and black single

mothers at this point are at the bottom of our economic

scale, and very often the need for their children to be

involved in gainful and positive employment is not only good

for the child's own development but also very often serves

as a significant part of that household's functioning and

survival.

713

657
What we have seen too often is young people who

have become discouraged, not only from their frustration at

not being able to find employment, but also from what that

household is struggling with and seeing their inability to

help that situation.

I would like to briefly give you some information

about the Sisterhood so that you can better understand where

my feelings are coming from. Five years ago the organization

started as a result of many of my friends and I knowing that

there was a strength, there was a lot of creativity, and

there were a lot of positive energies in women who are raising their families alone to do positive things and make some

changes themselves. For so long the single mother had been

looked upon as a pathological individual who had no real

control over her own lifestyle or what would happen with her

and her children, and we knew that to be not true. Unfortunately, media have assisted in this distorted impression

by picturing her only in the negative context as the welfare

mother who has no heat and whose son goes around mugging

people. These are the images that have been created for

our children. So, when talking about employment and education, we have to really get back and ask what kind of

attitudes our children are feeling about themselves. Are

they going to be motivated to deal with the disappointments

when they venture out to look for those jobs that may not

be there? And what kind of situation are they going to find

when they come back into the home and say, "Ma, 1-went to

this job and it wasn't there; I didn't have the right skills?"

How is she, with her own struggle, going to be able to relate

to that? Can she understand the significance of encouraging

that kid even though she may be discouraged in her own

struggle? What our organization does is try to call to our

members' attention the need for not only getting ourselves

together, as the term goes, but also to isolate our own

struggle from what wehave to be for our children. That is

crucial.

Since June, we have been engaged in a program,

which we developed ourselves, for teenage mothers. It is

called Sister-to-Sister. We know that if you don't have a

kind of respect and good feeling about yourself, if you don't

have enough self-esteem to say, "I know I can do it," it is

impossible to go out and take advantage of that job that is

waiting there for you. This is the kind of motivating thing

that we serve for each other. We wanted to share that with

teenage mothers who may not have the kind of family support

that. is going to instill those kinds of feelings in than.

What this program does is to match a teenage

mother with an older, single mother whose lifestyle exemplifies the positive things we are talking about, and someone

whom( she can communicate with, ask questions of, talk to

658 714
when things are bad, and even though she may have family, if

she's living at home with her family, sometimes it's not

always easy to talk to your family about some of the things

that you need to talk about. So, we try to help that

communication with the family situation also.

One of the significant aspects of this program is

its mandatory educational component. We emphasize that

because we know that if you're not able to show some kind of

skills for that job, you won't get it. We are trying to

instill in the girls the fact that learning job skills is

extremely, extremely important.

The biggest problem that teenage mothers have is

day care. Very often you may be very ambitious but you have

a baby and everyone tells you that you are responsible for

your baby, and you know that's true. However, you also have

to prepare yourself to be able to take care of the child in

years to come, and therefore you have to acquire some kind

of skill. So, here you are in a dilemma. You have. no money

to pay a babysitter so that you can go out and go to school

or go out and get a job, and yet everyone is enforcing those

two things as mandatory situations, and you become very

frustrated. What we did in this program was to build in a

day-care feature. This program, incidentally, is funded by

the Ford Foundation. There is a $25-a-week stipend for the

babysitter, which we help the girls in selecting so that they

understand the criteria for a good babysitter. If they are

going to school when they come to us, that's fine. Many of these girls have been out of school for a few years because

of their situation, and we help them find a school, be it

their regular school or a special GED program. On whatever

level they come to us, we help them get into some kind of

meaningful education or employment component.

What we have accomplished within this program is

actually see the girls who are able to go back to school

and be assured that there is someone definite to take care

of the baby, knowing that this is quality care. They can go

to school confident there will be no question of coming back

tomorrow and learning that they have no one to care for the

baby. It is a consistent kindof thing. We are proud that

several of our girls will be graduating in June because of

our program.

I think it important to mention young fathers.

When you have reached so many areas of frustration in looking for a job when you're a young man, and you are trying to

get your identity as that--a young man--and continuously

being told that you don't quite make it in terms of what

your skills are, or maybe some small criteria that you don't

quite fit, then you have to reassert yourself in other ways. Very often we have heard young men say that they feel very"

715
good now--they have a baby. They have proven something

positive, and unfortunately, once that happens, other people

begin to say, "Okay, now get a job and take care of it." So,

once again, there is the reality. You have a baby now but

you can't even support it. The young man's family puts

pressure on him, and the girl's family puts pressure on him,

and it just mounts up. I think we dbn't have to be surprised at seeing our jails overflowing with some of the

repercussions of that.

Teenage parents should be encouraged to complete

their education--but being encouraged is not enough. Once

the inspiration is there, we have to have something practical

to show them that they can really get into it. It's ironic.

We're telling them to go to school, take care of their baby

and be independent and not to depend on welfare, but we're

not making it at all practical in terms of how to go about

doing that. We're playing games with the only few possibilities that they have to actually make a change in their . lives.

I think it's a priority to have an increase in

schools for pregnant students. Something has to meet that

need; otherwise we're paying lip service to all the rest

of this.

Many of the kids say they have to go to a program

to apply for a job they hear about and the job may be earmarked for kids who have had altercations with the law.

They have never had an altercation with the law. Very often

they will create something. One young lady told us that she

went to apply for a job and they had a job there but she

would have to have been an abuser of some type of drug in

her history to qualify for the program. So she said she had

smoked pot a lot, when, in fact, she had never smoked pot.

But she needed it. She had a baby at home. These are real

things we're talking about. This is not fantasy.

We are trying to do the part of encouraging the

parents to encourage their young people. This is the

Sisterhood's responsibility. Instead of saying, "We are

struggling," we are saying, We are struggling but we also

are going to instill in our kids some positive qualities."

In the meantime, though, once we've done that, once we've

prepared them to venture out for the job, there has to be

something there for them to venture out to, and that's

where other people--policymakers, and proposal writers, and

other people who are in position to make things happen-- that's where they fit in.

I'm going to just briefly turn it over to some of

the girls, Renee Graves and Veronica Gibbs, who are going to

speak to you very briefly.

660
MS. GIBBS: My name is Veronica Gibbs. I'm from

the Sister-to-Sister project, and I have a press release

here I would like to read. Its telling about the problems

us teenage mothers go through.

"On the morning of January 24, 1974, a teenage

high school student who delivered her baby in early December

was arrested on her way to school in the IRT Subway. The

charge: stealing a transportation pass. According to the

arresting officer, he did not believe the young mother was

going to school with her baby. Because earlier attempts to

find and pay for a babysitter through the New York City

Department of Social Service had failed, the student mother

was told by the project staff to bring her baby to school

while she took her citywide exams. A later review' of the

state regulations by the State Commission of Social Service

revealedthat indeed a high school student could receive

public funds for babysitting while going to class. The

local welfare center had told her she must drop out of

school and register in a vocational training program to

receive a child-care stipend. The arrest on January 24,

1979, is not the first time a teenage student has been

detained for traveling on a school pass with her baby.

Teachers who have worked at the school for years stated,

'Even whiemP;Agrint4 girls are left at bus stops because

driversido10400064aeses are issued to pregnant students.'

FortuanielethlW4itiadent was able to contact her lawyer, who

expedited er release from central booking, but the emotional

trauma and stress to a motivated young woman cannot be overlooked, ignored or forgotten.

"Today an alarming number of young people are

conceiving and bearing children'. It is recognized at federal

and state levels that thegrowing incidence of adolescent

parenthood requires comprehensive and supportive approaches

to motivate, educate and employ young parents. A. lot of

these stated concerns by government agenciesl.the staff at

Project Teenage, and.teenage high schools is impelled by

the, insensitivity of some civil servants who repeatedly

thwart attempts to develop positive and progressive

lifestyles for,two generations,of.young people. Today's

infants and their adolescent parents' are here and they are

the future. Schools for pregnant stUdents'should not be

phased out as; suggested by Mayor Koch in a recent New York

Times article. Instead, the concept should be extended

Maas special eduCation, training and job placement for

young parents as well as for pregnant students."

This article I did not write, Oven though it is

a press release from one of the Sisterhood Sister-to-Sister

projects, but this is referring to the problems that some

young teenage mothers have, and I really think we should

have 'a child-care center. There are some mothers out here

717
who want to do something and try to make things better.

They should open up a day-care center and keep the kids for

the young mothers while they go to school and work. They

should have jobs for young mothers also. That's all I can

express.

CHAIRMAN BANNERMAN: Thank you.

MS. GRAVES: Good afternoon. My name is Renee

Graves, and I am from the Sister-to-Sister Project. I

want to speak on the topic about education and employment,

and a few things that I have experienced in my own day-today life. One of the topics that I would like to talk about

is the after-school occupational skills for teenagers who

want to continue their-education and for teenage mothers

who want to continue their education and learn different

occupational skills so that they can learn different things

tc5 get out into the world to find a job and at the same time

maybe have a day-care center so that they would have someone

to take care of their child reliably.

MS. MARTIN: What kind of job do you have and how

did you get it?

MS. GRAVES: Right now I am not working, but I am

attending high school and will graduate in June, but right

now I do not have a job.

I would also like to talk about more schools for

pregnant teenagers, which I attended when I was pregnant.

I really think that there should be more high schools for

teenage pregnant mothers who want to continue their education.

CHAIRMAN BANNERMAN: Are you currently enrolled

in a program?

MS. GRAVES: No, I'm not, but I was when I was

pregnant. Right. now I have my baby and he's nine months

now.

MS. BUSBY: As Renee stated previously, she is

graduating from high school. I just have to share this

with you. By Renee being in a program that Sisterhood is

sponsoring, she broght her report card to the office, which

is part of us keeping track of how things are going with the

girls and giving them whatever assistance they need, and she

had gotten a commendation, in addition to very good grades,

for being the best in her class with a 95 percent average in

that particular class. It's ironic, knowing Renee's background, that the class was teenage problems that she got

the 95 percent in. That is sort of an indication, because

she is an example of the kind of strength that many of the

young girls do have in terms of having not necessarily the

662 718
kind of family ,situation that would be supportive of that,

but her own determination and her own inspiration and what

she's already made as her goals are consistent, and I think

that's important. If there weren't some possibility of her

going to school and having someone to take care of her baby,

all of that would have been a dream instead of a reality.

So, when you asked if she was in a program, she

wasn't in a special program because now she is in regular

high school and will graduate in June.

CHAIRMAN BANNERMAN: We are going to hold questions until we have heard all of the panelists. I would

like to thank you for your presentation. At this time we

would like to hear from Dr. Frank Furstenberg.

FRANK FURSTENBERG, PROFESSOR OF SOCIOLOGY,

UNIVERISTY OF PENNSYLVANIA

DR. FURSTENBERG: We would not be too far wrong

if we were to guess, that as many as half of all economically

disadvantaged black women have a pregnancy before their 20th

birthday. Most of these women, by, choice or by necessity,

will bring these pregnancies to term and also all who have

child will elect, to raise the baby themselves, usually with

the assistance of other family members. There is much

evidence that teenagers who have children are socially and

economically handicapped in later life, over and'above the

disadvantage that accrues from their social backqkound or

personal characteristics.

From 1967 to 1972 I followed a group of some 400

adolescent mothers from the time of their pregnancy to the

period when their children were entering the school system.

The young women I studied were from inner-city neighborhoods

in Baltimore. Almost all were black and the great majority

were poor. During the same period, I traced the careers of

a sample of the former classmates of the young mothers, who

for the most part came, from similar backgrounds and grew up

in identical neighborhoods.

The verdict is all too clear. Adolescent mothers

have a much lower chance of completing high schocl, finding

stable employment, getting a job that pays well than do tilear

classmates. At the five-year follow-up, 56 percent of the

young mothers were working or in school full-time as compared with 71,percent of their classmatei. Thirty-five

percent of the early childbearers were receiving a substantial

amount of economic support from public assistance, as compared

with only 4 percent of their classmates 'who did not become

pregnant during adolescence. I think it is important to

reflect on these figures because they do show marked

719
differences between those life changes and the situation of

early childbearers and later childbearers, but they also

suggest that many early childbearers are returning to school

and are finding employment, as the testimony indicated so

far. They also indicate that the popular stereotype that

all adolescents have children to get on welfare is certainly

not true, though the chances of getting on public assistance

are much greater if an early birth occurs.

Two other long-term follow-ups show a similar

pattern of detriment to the careers of men who fathered

children early in life. Contrasted to more mature fathers,

they have a much lower chance of holding a high-paying or

skilled job and are at greater risk of being unemployed.

The direct effects of economic disadvantage are severe

enough, but we must also reckon the indirect costs for

family functioning as well as the personal well-being of

the parents and children. My data from Baltimore shows a

strong relationship between the employment situation of

young parents and the likelihood of their decision to marry

and to maintain a stable relationship. Stable employment

was virtually a prerequisite for a stable marriage.

But instability and marital break-up are not

isolated effects. They in turn have ramifications to the

development of the offspring. For example, the economically

successful women in my study had more successful children.

On a standard test of cognitive achievement, the offspring

of employed women scored significantly higher than the

children of women who did not work.

The problems of early parenthood cannot be solved

merely by providing employment opportunities for premature

parents, but there is little doubt that an effective program

of job creation and job placement would mitigate some of the

most injurious effects of unplanned parenthood.

Let us consider a few of the dilemmas in creating

such a program of employment. First, should we lend assistance to the young mother, who must bear the economic brunt

of the pregnancy, or to the young father, who might be

prepared to lend a hand if he were in a position to do so?

We should not be forced to make this choice. We must be

prepared to provide job assistance to both parents if we

want them to corroborate in raising the child.

A second problem is that most adolescent parents-- and we have heard some already about this this morning--do

not possess the qualifications to settle into a stable position.

Combined educational and vocational assistance is the desired

route for most teenage parents, particularly if they have not

completed high school. Many, of course, have not. The women

in my study for the most part were unequivocal about their

664
desire to graduate from high school. Thus a program that

dovetails employment with schooling is likely to be favored

by the teenage parents. We have already heard some support

for that.

No employment program will have great success

unless it is coordinated with day-care services.

Employment situations may have to be clustered

so that day-care facilities are provided at the work site.

Otherwise, allowances should be available to pay friends

or relatives for child care, as in the program described.

Alternatively, part-time positions may be required to meet

the special needs of the adolescent mother.

Finally, a program of job assistance must take

into account the situation of the adolescent parents'

extended family. Frequently, the young mother remains in

her home and relies on her parents, siblings, or other

close relatives for assistance. Jobs must be situated to

permit this pattern to continue or many women will withdraw

from the labor market.

In the final chapter of my book on planned parenthood, I wrote that no measure would be more potent in altering

the future prospects of the teenage parent than job placement.

At the same time I could not feel very sanguine about our

current commitment providing productive positions for these

disadvantaged youths. I endorse Youthwork for determination

to reverse a policy that is morally and socially retrogressive

as well as economincally wasteful.

CHAIRMAN BANNERMAN: thank you, Dr. Furstenberg.

At this time we will hear-from Joseph Cooper.

JOSEPH COOPER, RESEARCH ECONOMIST,

NATIONAL BUREAU OF ECONOMIC RESEARCH

CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS

MR. COOPER: Good morning. My name is Joseph

Cooper. I am a research economist at the National Bureau

of Economic Research in Cambridge, Massachusetts. I am

also a student at the Harvard Law School.

Our researchers are currently trying to quantify

with precision the real economic consequences of joblessness.

We have little information concerning programs and policies

that might serve to reduce the unemployment rate among these

youngsters. Although work experience while in high school

seems to be correlated with post-employment earnings, further

research needs to be conducted to determine the types of work

665 721
experience most successful in decreasing the amount of

joblessness.

To get a further grasp on some of the issues,

Richard B. Freeman, Professor of Labor Economics at Harvard,

and I tried to devise a method to collect some rather detailed

information on four crucial issues.

First, what black teenagers do during the day if

they are not working. How do they allocate their time among

the various activities?

Second, how do youths finance this spell of unemployment? Do they have jobs that they are not really telling

us about? Do they get their money from crime or do they rely

primarily upon their parents?

Third, what are their previous work experiences?

What type of jobs were they taking? Have they been satisfied with these jobs?

Fourth, what are their career aspirations?

During the month of August, I conducted formal

interviews with roughly two dozen black teenagers aged 16

through 19. In addition I chatted informally with 50 blacks

from the age of 16 through 24 to gain a quick, and what I

believe to be an accurate picture of the unemployment probblems confronting these youngsters.

Since the study was too small to draw meaningful

essence from the data collected, and since any means of

standard deviations reducing the data cannot be generalized

in the entire population of black teenagers because a randomsampling technique was not used, our report had very rough

percentages and subjective impressions rather than higher

statistics.

My interviews revealed, however,that a rather consistent set of characteristics described the problems of

these youngsters. Typically they had only received an

eighth-grade education or less (80 percent) and they did not

plan to return to school in the fall (half).

Most respondents cited a strong need for improvements in their grade school and high school English programs,

and about an equal percentage of youths, 60 percent, reported

some difficulty comprehending any instruction on their job

application forms.

This difficulty seemed limited, however, to written communications only. Most of the respondents

722

666
reported that getting high on marijuana and hanging out were

the two activities that occupied most of their time during

the day. The general remainder said they did such activities

as staying home and watching television, talking with friends,

standing on the street corner watching the traffic, or simply sitting outside on the porch.

More than half of the youngsters interviewed said

that they had engaged in illegal activity during the course

of the survey week. These youths sold marijuana frequently

and some reported robbery, pickpocketing, burglary, and

breaking and entering took up most of their time the week

prior to the survey week.

All of the teenagers wanted a full-time permanent

job. Almost all said that they had searched for a job within

the last four weeks and had been unable to secure one. The

lowest wage paid was $40 per week for a full-time job, the

highest $150.

Now, by reservation wage, I mean the minimum wage

that a person would need to have in order for him to take

that job; the reservation wages reported by most of these

youngsters may not reflect the true minimum rock-bottom

asking wage.

I asked most of the youngsters if they would

refuse a job that fell below this rock-bottom wage, and a

substantial number said no.

Most of the respondents said they had worked at

least one job for wages during last year. Although they

preferred full-time permanent work, most had to settle for

part-time jobs that lasted less than four weeks. Of the

respondents who said that they had worked during last year,

it would be fair to characterize their jobs as unskilled

and low paying. Most found their job by themselves.

Part-time work in crime constituted the main

source of income for these youngsters. Of the 55 percent

who said they had engaged in some sort of illegal activity

during the course of the survey week, the average income

exceeded $100. Yet many of these lawbreakers said that

they would give up their criminal activities if they had a

job that paid at least the reservation wage.

The career plans for most of these youngsters

were sketchy. Most of the men said that they would probably enlist in the armed services during the next five

years, while the women for the most part were uncertain.

This summer we at the National Bureau of Economics

Research plan to conduct a more comprehensive and random
survey of youth. We also plan to interview employers to see

what their attitude is. LI also are going to analyze

detailed census fact information and classify an inventory

of programs for the Boston metropolitan statistical area and

for the city itself. Such a detailed analysis of the youth

employment situation in Boston should be of great concern

to those interested in the problems of teenage unemployment.

First, the survey data will provide information

on the skills, aspirations, and activities of the disadvantaged youth who are hardest hit by joblessness. Such

knowledge of the affected group is needed to devise policies

to aid youth.

If--take one possibility--we find that nonemployed

youths are able to make reasonable earnings from "street

activity" or crime and are uninterested in various programs

designed to provide legitimate work, then standard jobs programs are unlikely to resolve the problem.

If we find, on the other hand, that: many

nonemployed youths are basically illiterate or lacking in

work skills, attention will be focused on those policies

to alleviate those problems.

One part or our work will involve comparisons of

youth with some successful employment experiences with those

with less successful experience. By identifying the characteristics of the young who escape the joblessness, we hope

to determine what has worked for some and what may be used

to help others.

Seconds our survey of youths will determine

whether those suffering from joblessness have been affected

by any assistance programs, and if so in what ways. If it

turns out that few hard-core youths not employed have not

heard of, much less been aided by, any assistance programs,

the need for new approaches will be identified._

If alternatively we find that youths going through

some of the program have benefited greatly or that any

particular jobs were acceptable for this package, those

mechanisms deserve expansion.

Third, our discussions with employers on the

inventory of programs will provide an important input into

evaluation of policies and of means in which employers can

aid in remedying the youth unemployment problem.

We will seek to discover from employers what

characteristics led them to choose to employ or not to

employ the young persons, which should help identify the

668 724
problem areas for specific groups. As an analysis of youth

we will seek to determine which programs or employer policies

have been relatively successful in alleviating youth joblessness and which can be expended or exported.

CHAIRMAN BANNERMAN: At this time, we would like

to hear from Antonia Pantoja.

ANTONIA PANTOJA, PRESIDENT,

GRADUATE SCHOOL FOR URBAN RESOURCES AND SOCIAL

POLICY,

SAN DIEGO, CALIFORNIA.

DR. PANTOJA: Good morning. Listening to the

presentations that have been delivered so far, I decided

to switch the manner in which I will deliver my remarks

to you. What I am going to present to you is completely

out of the traditional picture and the way of looking at

this situation of unemployment of young people.

In San Diego, where I live, there are what you

keep on calling "Hispanics" or "Latinos" (I would say

"Chicanos," "Puerto Ricans") and other people of Hispanic

background--the poor, I mean. The other groups that would

concern us here are blacks, and the third largest minority

population in San Diego, Filipinos. In addition, there are

native Americans and the group that has taken the coast-tocoast trip and has ended on the beaches of San Diego. Those

are the social drop-outs.

Now, with that as a background, I will tell you

some things about my model. I am saying that if Youthwork

has the opportunity of doing some things that are different,

significantly different, then God-speed in doing them.

find that the same things I was saying about the problems

of Puerto Rican youth in New York back in 1957 are just as

true today.

So I decided I would use my knowledge of model- gating, and I will present to you what is the matter with

what we are doing. What is wrong with what we are doing is

that the model, to analyze the problem, has a number of

flaws.

I have passed out to each of you as aid called

"Prevailing Traditional Analysis." If we take this model

and we analyze what the problem is as defined, we find that

we are saying that the problem is the unemployment of youth.

Once you define the problem then everything follows from

there. You will find that the data subsequently collected
will be defined by the fact that we defined the problem as

youth unemployment.

In the traditional model, the educational system

and manpower training institution can and want to educate

and train youths for work in the nation's needs. Jobs

exist and are produced by the economy where the unemployed

youth can be trained and employed. The knowledge gathered

is based on the values and assumptions selected.

Requirements for the use of funds are tied to

youths staying or returning to school. Plus the schools

are devoted to training and educating youth. High schools

and community colleges are seduced with money to become

training grounds. Community-based institutions and neighborhood groups lose control of their youth because the service

that they are receiving are standardized and centralized to

serve large numbers of people.

You have got to come packaged in a certain way to

receive the service. The nation has tried, remember the old

Youth Board Against Juvenile Delinquency and Gangs, the

President's Committee Against Juvenile Delinquency, the War

on Poverty, the Peace Corps, the Great Society, Mother Cities,

manpower programs that created a neighborhood corps, Job

Corps, and now we are with CETA.

Now,CETA happened to have some of the worst

characteristics of all of the other things that we had done

before. There were words used in 1971 at the White House

Conference on Youth for describing what the people thought

should not be the kind of jobs produced. They were saying

that the jobs must not be menial, dead-end- or dehumanizing.

Those words can be used to describe exactly the kinds of

CETA jobs in which the youths are engaged.

Now, in talking about the policies and the programs

that come out of such a definition of the problem, we only end

with offering training; we forget about the education part of

the equation. What are the results? Well, the nation's

values are changed. Minorities, poor, women, different youth

are not considered deserving. They are designated emotionally

disturbed, incorrigible, ineducable, and delinquent.

In a world that is impossible to face I do not

blame people who smoke marijuana or those who drink. And

then stealing money, you know, let me tell you something.

I am 56, so I can tell you this here. When I was in high

school I went into a program that used to give you money so

that you could go back and forth to high school. I used to

use the money for us to eat at home. I worked in a cafeteria.

Whenever somebody gave me the exact change, 1 did not gc to

the cash register; I put it in my sock. Nobody caught me,

726

,670
so I was not called a delinquent. I needed to do that to

survive.

Now commerce, business and industry claim not to

be able to afford to cooperate. Youths, once trained, are

not employed. Our training and educational programs train

in obsolete skills.

Many CETA jobs are like that. They offer no skills.

You sit next to the school custodian and shoot the breeze.

Of course, then youths reject schools, training, work. I

do not blame them. It is too much to take ',:so have your

hopes raised, and then when you finish you find the terrible

reality hitting you in the face.

The nation's leadership equates 4.5 unemployment

with full employment. Now, 4.5 percent unemployment represents, when broken down into actual numbers and categories,

predominantly minorities and women, the handicapped and the

young. The economy cannot produce enough jobs to employ all

the people in the labor force. Only in times of war were we

able to have real employment.

That is my little model. Now I am going to use

the same model and I am going to present to you a new framework for analysis. I start by saying the following: The

problem was wrongly defined. Youth employment is not the

problem. It is a symptom of the problem. Now, if you do

not identify the, problem correctly, you are not going to find

any solution.

I say that the problem is the structural arrangements in a society established to the language sources,

services and relationships of power to certain populations.

Those populations are identified by sex, by race, by culture,

by lifestyle. An exmaple of that is youth.

Now, when you do that you find that there are other

values that you can pull out to be able to then start formulating policy and then assigning monies to implement those

policies into programs.

Youths are really adults over a certain age. They

should be awarded all requirements and responsibilities that

all other adults receive. They are part of society and not

in a holding position outside of society. If you do that to

them they are going to behave the way they are behaving, and

they will continue to do so.

Society has a responsibility to help each young

person reach her or his potential. This is synonymous with

education. But the educational system is in a crisis. It

does not teach. It is obsolete.

en

727
I am going to keep on repeating that you must

educate to train. But you do not train people in skills

that are sp obsolete that the demand for them does not

exist anymore. For example, I have seen people being

trainee in high school for the merchant marine. Do you

know who gets that training? In New York it is blacks

and Puerto Ricans. But there is no longer any demand for

merchant mariners.

In my model, economic self-reliance becomes the

important consideration, whether it be through existing jobs,

self-employment, cooperatives, partnerships, or whatever, to

fulfill community-needed services or programs and problems.

Businessmen are encouraged to participate as

teachers and employers, but the availability of the program

is not tied to their participation. Some do not want to--or

cannot--participate. I am telling you they cannot participate because of the nature of the economic system that we

have, which is incapaLle of producing enough jobs, and so

somebody must be left out.

A variety of the learning opportunities are made

available to youth, which they can select for their education.

They are placed in a variety of settings and processes not

necessarily in school, not necessarily in community colleges,

not necessarily in training programs. Susinesses and industry are offered monetary incentives to participate in the

educational training of youth. This incentive is realistic

in consideration of their services to those busineses who

are interested in doing that. I am not claiming that this

kind of thing will solve the entire problem, because I think

that the problem has deeper roots and cannot be solved by

the Department of Labor or by Youthwork, but it will have

at least some positive effect. It will reintegrate youth

into the communities.

Young people become adults who have lived a

number of years, adults who belong in their respective

communitites and.are participating members who contribute

to the community needs and are accepted by the community.

These are communities that most businesses have refused to

service and so they develop their own services.

Do you remember when taxi cabs did not go into

Harlem? Do you know what people did? They resorted to

what used to be called gypsy cabs. They were illegal, but

they had to be accepted as legal because they fulfilled a

need. So when businesses fail us we have to create other

ways of servicing our own needs--an alternative economy.

Our young people can do that.

-672

728
I say to you that the use of federal and private

dollars for the establishment of new creative models to

resolve problems that are both chronic and dangerous to our

society is a legitimate expenditure that we had better try.

I am posing to you an invitation: Will you help the people

in those groups that you call minorities, that we call

culturally different, create a new alternative economic

system? It is possible.

CHAIRMAN BANNERMAN: Thank you,Antonia Pantoja.

On this panel we have one last presentation,

from Dr. Paul Osterman.

DR. PAUL OSTERMAN, PROFESSOR OF ECONOMICS,

BOSTON UNIVERSITY

DR. OSTERMAN: What I am going to do is address

this question: If I were Youthwork and I had some $10

million to spend, how would I spend it?

Addressing a question like this is a fairly

unpleasant task because it implies establishing priorities.

It implies eliminating funding or not emphasizing funding

for some groups that are clearly in need of such funding.

Nevertheless, my understanding of what you wanted to get at

least out of me are some preliminary ways of thinking about

that.

What I had to tell you, I guess, is based on

research that I have been doing for the past couple of

years on youth employment and unemployment. That research

consists of both the standard things that economists do --

running regression equations and playing with large scales

of data--but also the larger number of interviews that I

have conducted in the Boston area with kids An both Roxbury,

the black community in Boston, and East Boston, the white

working class section, and also with firms, about 50 firms

that hired these kids in Boston. Finally, I have done

research on the basis of a year-long evaluation that I have

been conducting of the CETA youth programs in cities and

towns of Massachusetts.

The basic facts that I want to get across about

youth unemployment are, first, that neither Youthwork nor

CETA is going to make a dent in youth unemployment. If we

really want to deal with the problem of youth unemployment

and employment, the first and obvious thing to do is lower

the unemployment rate nationally to boost the economy.

Second, in terms of minority youth, you need a

much stronger commitment of affirmative action than anything

we see now.

.673 729
And third, in terms of youth in general, there

need to be a number of structural changes in how firms use

you, how firms hire you, what the attitudes of firms are

toward youth employment.

The only thing that either CETA or Youthwork can

accomplish is to reshuffle the shoe. That is to say the

macroeconomy will determine how many youth jobs there are

in the economy, and what manpower training programs and

employment programs can do is simply reshuffle the shoe.

Instead of it being primarily white and middleclass kids who get the available pool of youth jobs, we

can try and ensure that kids from other backgrounds can

get those jobs. That is one point.

The second point I want to make is that in terms

of white youth unemployment, the trend over time is not

particularly adverse. White youth unemployment is high now

because the overall unemployment rate is high now. When the

unemployment rate goes down white youth unemployment goes

down.

All of this talk about declining entry jobs,

disappearing youth jobs, switches from this sector to that

sector do not show up. Over time, white youth have gotten

the same share of jobs that they have always gotten, given

the national unemployment rate. The trend is adverse for

minority youth.. What that says to me is that in the large,

part the problem of minority youth is not a problem of

minority youth but of how the economy and the society treat

minorities in general.

The third basic point I want to make is that in

terms of the aggregate number of youths who are unemployed,

a lot of them are. in need at best of income maintenance. A

lot of them are in school looking for part -time work. A

lot of them are unemployed because they are just putting off

looking for a job.

When I say that I do not mean to imply that the

problem of youth unemployment is not overwhelming. There

is a very large number of kids who do need real help.

The problem that both CETA faces and the problem

of an organization like Youthwork with a limited budget is

to try to identify the groups that really need it and funnel

the resources there, giving it to work with a limited amount

of financing.

The first step in doing that is to understand

that there are some youths that, while it would be nice

to help them, do not really need it. For many youths,

6T4 730
unemployment in early teens does not have long-term adverse

consequences in terms of their experience in the labor

market later on. Again, for large numbers of youths it

does.

What yOu really want to do is aim for the

reshuffling of the shoe for a limited number of days to do

the research. To do that in the most economic way I realize

that you want to focus on the "A" group versus the "B"

groups. One of the things you will have to do is interview an older group--that is to say those aged 18 through

19 or 20 who have high unemployment rates.

There are two reasons I would argue for this focus

on older kids. If you pick a group of 100 high school dropouts who are 18, 19 and 20, for example, you are putting

your resources into kids who really need help. Simply as a

matter of targeting your money most effectively, I would argue

for amining toward that group.

The second reason is that my experience with

employment training programs is that we have been more

successful with older kids. Older kids are more than ready

to work with those programs.

The second group I would emphasize is kids who

are about to drop out of school for clearly employmentrelated reasons, and kids whose life circumstances, such

as having single parents, clearly put them at much higher

risks than the population of that age group as a whole.

Given that you do focus your efforts on those

two groups, what would the program look like? You can

think of programs as being oriented either toward skill

training (teaching kids how to weld), or toward job creation-- simply creating a slot. Then you can think of programs aimed

at bringing about behavioral change or imparting basic education and basic skills.

I do not claim to be an expert in choosing among

these categories of programs, but my sense, from talking to

a lot of kids and a lot of program operators, is that more

effort should be put into behavioral change, basic education,

and basic skills and less effort into the skill training,

teaching-a-kid-how-to-weld programs.

A firm will hire a youth who is bright, who knows

how to show up for work on time, and teach him or her how to

do the job, regardless of their prior skill level. The

trick is getting the firm to be willing to hire that person,

when it is not willing to hire minority youth, and teaching

the kid the basic skills necessary to survive.

731

675
Such a program would be long, much longer than most

CETA programs. It would be intensive, more intensive than the

CETA program. It would be expensive, more expensive per kid

than the current CETA program. And it would emphasize at the

end placement and follow-up for the kind on the job.

Now, current CETA youth programs do not have

these characteristics. Current CETA programs are almost

overwhelmingly in-school work experience programs. They

are modern versions of Neighborhood Youth Corps.

Now, there are reasons why that is true. First,

if CETA programs are administered by prime sponsors, prime

sponsors under political pressure at the local level serve

a lot of kids, they serve a lot of kids by kind of setting

up these relatively cheaper kid programs. If you already

know how to operate you have had a long experience in doing

it.

Second, prime sponsors are under a lot of

political pressure at the local level to fund their money

into organizations who have been historically involved with

the system. The organizations who have been involved in

the system are the ones who have run those kind of in-school

work experience programs.

Third, the prime sponsors receive absolutely no

kind of daily pressure from the federal government either

from the regional offices of the Department of Labor or from

Washington. The Department. of Labor really does not have

any idea what goes on in the field, nor does it have any

capacity nor has it demonstrated any capacity to nudge prime

sponsors in directions that one might like to see them

move in.

For these reasons of politics, economy, and

experience, prime sponsors overwhelmingly put their money

into these in-school work experience programs, which I

would argue is not what you want.

What does this imply for the Youthwork agenda?

I would say the following: Rather than simply focus on

exemplary programs, Youthwork should try to find a way to

leverage its money to change the behavior of prime sponsors.

There is simply no way that $10 million of Youthwork money

is going.to make a difference in the problem. The real

problem is at the prime sponsor level. We have had a lot

of experience with federal programs trying to leverage

behavior through national funds, through incentives, through

whatever. I think you should not simply aim for exemplary

programs, but you should aim for exemplary prime sponsors.

Think seriously about how you change the behavior of the

prime sponsor at the local.level.

676 732
The direction in which you should try to change

the behavior of the prime sponsor is the one I have described- -

namely, older kids out of school and so forth.

Given that you have to make some kind of choice

about where you are coming from, I think you need to think

very seriously about encouraging institutional change at

the local level.

CHAIRMAN BANNERMAN: Thank you, Dr. Osterman.

Joan?

MS. WILLS: While I am not disagreeing with you,

Mr. Osterman, I have serious doubt that yours is the correct

identification of the problem. We must be very careful about

pointing the finger at the prime sponsor being the culprit.

I think it goes to a much more fundamental question of how

we begin to develop a legitimate kind of behavioral change.

How will we help skill training for the jobs we are going

to need?

I am not personally convinced that the CETA system

can do that, but let us not assume that CETA prime sponsors

are at fault.

CHAIRMAN BL4NERMAN: Are there any other questions?

MS. FRANCO: I just wondered if you had any

suggestions for mA,r:hanisms we might employ to attempt to

change prime spok lr behavior in a sense that matching

programs in the past have not always been terribly successful, but what ideas might you suggest to us?

MR. OSTERMAN: I think the advantage of national

programs in target groups is that you can say to a private

sponsor: If you identify the target group and you maintain

your current effort and increase it to a certain level, we

will match that. That is something to think about.

I think fairly to the fact we should issue target

groups, but in terms of kind of embedding that in the system

so that it lasts after Youthwork as well.

That is a much harder question. The one thing

that I can think about is that my experience with prime

sponsors, and it is limited to only a dozen, suggests that

they pretty much understand or agree with what I have to say.

They would like to spend their money on a different

group of kids and spend it in the way that I have described,

but they are unable to do so for the reasons I have described.

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677
So one thing we can try and do is to institutionalize, within

the prime sponsor operation itself, a youth division in some

sense--a youth office, a youth director who operates with

some independence from the Elementary Secondary Education Act

and Title I and so forth.

I think that is a way of doing that so that those

people will have something. The other thing is not something

I think Youthwork can do, and that is to really make a

regional office, the Department of Labor, or something other

than a paper-shuffling operation. If the prime sponsor now has current low countervailing power, countervailing pressure

to do anything other than what it has always done, and the

reason is the Labor Department's regional office, and at

some level be able to know policy, programs when they saw it, and to inquire and to encourage the expansion of quality

programs. I think that would include that.

MS. MICHEL: Since I am the sole representative

of the Department of Labor within the CETA system, let me

say first off that I feel no need to attempt to defend the

CETA system this morning, nor am I denying it. I think that, given the nature of this hearing, it would be wrong for me to get into a one-on-one with you about the CETA system. However, I think you have pointed out what I have observed

in a year of working at the Department as far as the delivery mechanism--the prime sponsor mechanism--is concerned, and

that is, while the federal government supports it, pays for

it, we do not own it. It is owned by local chief elected

officials.

I would say that neither the primes nor the Department of Labor are culprits. As long as you have a prevailing

notion of revenue sharing money and local determination--wherein local elected officials are able to,in the final analysis, determine the shape of their programs and identify their own

local needs that do take priority over the national needs-- as long as that notion prevails we are going to have a

continuing problem of how we at the federal level exert our

role in the local level. We too know that our regional

structure has not been as strong because of the oversight

monitoring influences there might have been, and that there

are major plans within the Department now to reorganize and

reshuffle to make them more responsive to national needs and

less malleable as far as prime sponsors' requests are

concerned.

Those are comments and not questions. Now, I

would like, Mr. Osterman, to sit with you at some point

to listen to your further observations about youth programs. That is all I have to say.

MS. MARTIN: Dr. Pantoja, you have stressed

training and education as distinctive aspects of your model.

'734
Would you expand upon the distinguishing features of the

relationship between training and education that differentiates your approach to youth unemployment?

DR. PANTOJA: You see, if we abandon the idea of

offering to minority youth the opportunity to learn the

basic knowledge that the world has accumulated and be able

then to use that for further knowledge development, we are

eliminating that group from a fantastic need the nation

has to continue to find the knowledge necessary to find a

solution for these types of problems. It is amazing that

we continue to think that the only ones who can do research

are the majority.

So you have to have some of the minority people

start getting the knowledge to study these problems. They

cannot continue to be the sufferers and the victims only

because they lack the knowledge that is essential to that

research.

Those of us who have gone into new research know

that there will be other ways to study a problem. So I am

saying that we cannot say that minority young people who

refuse to stay in school and who are out there in need of

training and education should be given only training. We

need programs where these young people can come in to learn

in a different way, in an alternative way.

In the project we have, the model contains a

series of sessions in which the young people are going to

be engaging in the creation of jobs in corporate arrangements

of their own making where they learn a skill but they also

learn the knowledge of how you conduct such things, knowledge of organizational knowledge, a theory of business

alongside the skills, so that they can function not only as

the manager of a business but also the worker. The model

itself shows that you need not only training with hard-core

skills but also knowledge, theory and concepts--but imparted

not through books but by doing, by talking about it, by

coming in contact with a theory, by then finding out what

are the skills that emanate from that theory, and by actually

practicing those skills.

MS. WILLS: Mrs. Busby, you have said you feel it

necessary to have separate schools for teenage parents. I

was struck by that argument and was reminded that one of

the grand debates in Yorthwork is whether or not we want to

fund a program that would indeed keep young women separated.

Our board was concerned about the public policy

of not allowing.young women to return into the main school

system. I would like for you to say a little bit more about
that because I think it is going to be a tough alternative

for us.

MS. BUSBY: I think what I said was that the few

schools that did deal with the specific needs of teenage

parents were few and far between. Instead of closing them

there should be more of them, because it is clear that many

young Women do not return to their regular schools even

though they have that option now in most places. When you

are a teenage mother, you are not just a student. Our

school system is already in trouble, and here you have the additional factor of the young mother's parenthood when

the public school system is not even meeting their educatiohal needs.

We are thus asking the public school system to take on an additional responsibility thats,it is not pre- pared to deal with. One aspect of this is that the_school

does not want the responsibility of the possibility that a

girl may fall down when class is changing. There is also

the girl's peer pressure. Our young people, for whatever

reasons of frustration, can often be very difficult with

each other in terms of tolerance and understanding.

So the schools for teenage mothers not only help

them deal with academics but also teach them childbearing, nutrition, and other things that they are not going to learn

in the regular school system.

This is why I did not say necessarily in place of

public schools but in addition to public schools. Some girls will not go to public if that is their only alternative. They will not go at all. So at least have the special

schools there as a possible alternative.

CHAIRMAN BANNERMAN: We are going to thank the witnesses and ask that we move from urban perspective to

national perspective.

I am going to ask the witness members to come

forward in this order: Mr. O'Connell, Miss Becnel, Miss

Grayson, and Mr. Kweli.

JAMES O'CONNELL

MINORITY COUNSEL

SENATE LABOR AND HUMAN RESOURCES SUBCOMMITTEE ON

EMPLOYMENT, POVERTY, AND MIGRATORY LABOR

MR. O'CONNELL: I would like to be brief if I may and just elaborate upon what, from my perspective as a

736

680
minority staff member, struck me as two of the major

principles that were at the foundation of the Youth

Employment Demonstration Projects Act, which was extended

in the CETA amendment in 1978.

The first deals with the question of targeting.

The problem faced by tetaff members was that we knew we would

have a very limited amalm4t of dollars to deal with the

problem of youth unemplc:Iment. Our assessment was that some

200,000 to 250,000 youths could be served with $100 million.

We recognized ;::t that particular time there were

some 3 million unemplopid young people aged 16 to 24, and

that $1 billion would give us the wherewithal to reach about

7 percent of that population. For that reason Congress

decided to try to target those funds on a relatively small

segment of that population. It came up with the 85 percent

standard, the 85 percent of the lower living standard budget,

which amounts for a family of our to some $8,000 or $9,000

per year as the eligibility criteria.

Now, many people have commented that Congress is

unfair in doing this, that is excluded a large population

of people who should have been served--those from upper

and middle classes. I think it is important to underscore

the fact that Congress intended for that relatively small

amount of funds to be targeted at those most in need.

I think we would like to know as the year goes on

what to consider in the appropriations for the Youth Employment Demonstration Act for next year. I mean, what has been

the effect of that project? Has it led to a lack of employment for a general part of the youth population?

The second principle that I want to spend a.

coupld of minutes on is the whole question of linkage

between the manpower establishment, the CETA program, and

other service deliveries. At the very heart of YEDPA, was

an assumption by members of Congress that considerable

redundancy characterized the delivery of services to the

youth population.

Congress took a look at what I felt to be a real

multiplicity of uncoordinated programs. If you look at that

population and who serves it, you can enumerate CETA, the

education establishment, local and post-secondary educational

institutions, the work incentive programs, the employment

service, Title XX, social services, vocational education,

vocational rehabilitation, and .community based organizations

just to name a few. Congress perceived that collaboration

needed to be established between those service deliveries,

that we could not continue to justify to the Appropriations

Committee so much overlap and so much duplication in reaching

a particular population.
What we did in the Youth Employment Demonstration

Projects Act, and you see it equate throughout Title II of

the new CETA, is to foster greater cooperation between those

various service deliveries.

My own experience in assisting. Senator Jacob

Javits was with Title II, which I just want to mention now. The first deals with the 22 percent set-aside that is in the

youth employment and training programs. That is a set-aside

of money from the amounts allocated to the prime sponsors

that must be used for in-school youth. It must be carried

out on the basis of joint decrees between CETA prime sponsors

and local educational agencies.

The reason that we wrote that particular provision into the statute was that Senator Javits feels that in many

instances the world of education and the world of work act

as if one doesn't know the other even exists. That

parallelism seems to be a serious problem in moving poor

youths, especially from the classroom to the work place. We wanted to design a set-aside that would not tie the hands

of prime sponsors and local education agencies as to specific types of programs they would operate, put at least say, "This

particular money must be spent in cooperation."

What comes across again and again for members of Congress is the criticism on the part of educational

officials that manpower programs are too work oriented, that

the programs lead to dead-end jobs. We hear criticism from

manpower officials that education programs are irrelevant, that they are not really preparing young people for the

world of work.

If that istrue, then we feel that there is a

natural opportunity for those two systems to work together

to develop joint programs.

The second type of linkage I would like to refer

to is one that really is not in the Comprehensive Employment Training Act but which we think holds great potential. It

deals with the Community Services Administration reauthorization bill, in which Senator Javits wrote a provision to

establish a new special emphasis program for youth employment

opportunities in community development cooperation.

The whole question of moving the private sector

into youth employment opportunity and youth employability

development is an untapped resource in the view of many

members of Congress. We got at this a little bit in Title

VII of CETA with the Private Industry Council, and we have

also gotten at it now with the Community Services Act, the

Economic Opportunity Act reauthorization to try to get

682 738
community development corporations a leg up in volt=

themselves in CETA youth employment programs. We think

that has tremendous potential for helping not only to

establish an improved working relationship between those

institutions but also, ultimately, to improve the opportunity of the young people themselves.

CHAIRMAN BANNERMAN: Miss Becnel?

BARBARA BECNEL

ECONOMIST AND HOUSING SPECIALIST

AFL-CIO

MS. BECNEL: Good afternoon. I am pleased to have

this opportunity to present the views of the AFL-CIO ON

issues related to the education and employment of hard-toreach youth.

The AFL-CIO recognizes that there is a segment

of the U.S. society that lives on the edges of the economy

and for whom economic opportunities practically do not

exist. This fringe society is found, for the most part, in

the nation's urban areas and is composed primarily of young

people who are handicapped by educational inadequacies and

are also experiencing both prolonged and high unemployment.

The employment position of black teenagers in

the U.S. economy has been relatively unaffected by both the

progress of ,black people in general and by conditions among

other young people.. Unemployment rates for young blacks

during the '70s have hovered at depressing levels, reaching

an all-time recorded high of 45.4 percent in July of 1977.

The most recent figures available show that the level of

teenage unemployment continues to be a problem of great

magnitude. The overall, unemployment rate for teenagers was

16.5 percent in December 1978, while for blacks the rate

was a sobering 36.9 percent.

To the extent that a job can keep young people

in high school and college, high unemployment rates

seriously affect school and education. High unemployment

can lead to high crime rates and an _increased incidence

of burglary, drug addition, and rape.

However, providing a job in and of itself is not

enough. Closer attention must be paid to the Ina of job

for which training is being provided. In fact, the sucless

of the employment and training programs designed tc help

these hard-to-reach youths may very well hinge on the

availability of such jobs and on the qtality of jobs made

available.
Study after study has concluded that the hard-toreach youth, young people who have trouble getting jobs

even in good times, are motivated by the promise of obtaining

jobs that can support a modest standard of living and that

offer the potential for advancement to jobs of some quality.

Thus, these young, unemployed, and low or unskilled urban

dwellers must be able to find meaningful economic opportunities if there is to be any hope of averting the human

tragedy that is otherwise certain to follow.

The AFL-CIO recognizes that a high priority must

be given to training and employment programs that are

targeted to youth. We would like to see increased attention

and emphasis given to on-the-job training. On-the-job has

proved itself as an effective method of getting people into

permanent private-sector jobs.

Upgrading programs likewise serves a useful

purpose in moving lower level, lower paid workers up into

permanent private-sector high skilled, high paying jobs.

At the same time it opens up entry-level jobs, which can

be filled by low-skilled, economically disadvantaged workers.

Also, the AFL-CIO is in favor of federally

assisted economic development, programs that have as a

prerequisite for assistance a definite commitment by an

employer for a specific number of jobs requiring specified

skills.

Jobs that reduce unemployment and increase

purchasing power are essential to a national environment of

sustained and balanced economic growth in which people and

communities thrive and prosper. Providing economic opportunities for all Americans is in fact the basic prerequisite for an effective and comprehensive national manpower policy.

I would like to make one additional comment.

It is going to be impossible to bring down structural

unemployment if the nation is experiencing high statistical

unemployment. That is the reality, the bottom line.

It is unrealistic to think that, if regular

skilled workers are looking for work in the private sector,

the private sector will be seeking the economically disadvantaged workers with limited skills and work experience.

We ought to think about the recent GAO estimates that we

will probably be in a recession by the end of this year, that we are looking at a gross national product real growth

rate of something like 2 percent this year, and we know

through past experience that we need at least a 4 percent

real growth rate in the GNP yearly just to stand still.

With that I have to leave, and I am sorry.

684

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MR. MCMILLAN: Miss Becnel, could you tell us

briefly what the AFL-CIO's efforts are in regard to doing

something about its track record in opening up apprenticeships?

MS. BECNEL: Well, the building and construction

trades, industry, and members of the AFL-CIO recognize

historically we have indeed--our track record has not been

great. We have not been perfect in that area, but, indeed,

we are working to open up and to make opportunities available for minority youths.

CHAIRMAN BANNERMAN: Miss Grayson?

SUSAN GRAYSON, DIRECTOR, HOUSE SUBCOMMITTEE

ON EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES

MS. GRAYSON: I would first like to say that I

will aid your schedule problem by being extremely brief.

For one thing, what we are in the process of doing on the

Subcommittee of Employment Opportunities is drawing up what

you are doing today. That is, taking a look at what is

happening, what works, what look to be the most promising

approaches and evaluating, even trying to find the right

questions to ask before we can evaluate the programs out

there.

Just to describe briefly what the subcommittee

will be doing, we intend to begin this spring with some

intensive hearings in cooperation with the Committe on

Elementary and Secondary Education, looking at the tie

between vocational education and youth unemployment. I

hope this will give us some of the answers to the linkage

issues that Jim O'Connell raised and that are a priority

concern of this committee.

We view the authorization of the youth employment

programs last year as a demonstration effort. Youth

unemployment was of the highest priority last year, and it

seems to be a catch issue just as private-sector involvement

was the catch issue this year.

I hope we are not working with fads. I hope we

are trying to reach some long-range solutions. In

reauthorizing the legislation next year, in viewing it this

year, we are not going to be trying to find some quickie

landate solutions. We hope to really be able to isolate

the effective programs, provided there is adequate support

for these programs, to fund them at a level that will

actually have some impact.

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74i
In addition to the broad overview of the kinds of programs that are being authorized under the youth titles of CETA right now, we will also want to look at how youth employment fits into the whole question of full employment. While macroeconomic policies alone cannot solve our unemploy- ment problems, we cannot really effectively provide the

resources and expect to have the results that we need with- out some very major macroefforts to bring unemployment down.

Second, we will be looking at youth unemployment

as it relates to welfare reform. Along these lines testimony this morning on pregnant teenagers made me wonder about priorities that may be established under legislation being proposed by the Administration.

As I understand it, it is still in the discussion stage, but one recommendation is that the jobs would go to the primary wage earners and families with children. The primary wage earner would be required to work--that is, the children would be over seven years old.

What I am wondering is: How effective is it to not provide employment for those young mothers who are the most vulnerable and the most receptive to the kind of training and services that we can provide through the youth programs, through welfare or through whatever mechanism we can so that they do not become dependent and do not reinforce the cycle of dependency through their own children? I reise the question whether our targeting in that instance

is the correct approach.

Then, of course, we are going to be looking

extensively at the linkages with other institutions, not only the school system, the vocational education, but the full concept of community development--community development corporations come to mind immediately as one likely linkage. How can we bring youth employment more effectively into our whole strategy for increasing job opportunities through

economic development:

Finally, we will be trying to see how private industry can be more effectively utilized.

One real concern that we have is the inability to

truly respond to what works in the legislative process. Youth employment is especially difficult to evaluate in the traditional terms of placement, '!or example, or short-term

outcomes. Are we really seeing to provide welders through this system? Is the whole point to create skilled workers now who can go into jobs in tt,a next six months and hope to have a career in that field in the next 20 years? I think that is unlikely. What we really want to do is create the kinds of work attitudes, work experience, exposure to the

6E6

742
work world, attainment of basic skills that enable people

to become ecnomically self-sufficient whatever their final

career choice.

It might be more effective for us to look at

such measurements as basic skill improvements, whether they

return to school, whether they go into military service,

whether their criminal behavior is reduced.

But the Appropriations Committee will be looking

at placements, and the public in general will say, yes, how

many have you put to work, are they continuing to work, what

are the salary levels after they have left the program? It

is a serious problem.

Finally, I would like to speak briefly about the

cuts that are proposed in the Administration's budget for

1980.

First I suppose I should say at the outset that

Congressman Hawkins has come on the record as opposing these

cuts. He will be making strong efforts to see that the

amounts cut are restored and, in fact, that there is an

enhancement of funding for youth employment.

I think the assumption that the cuts were made

to further target programs is fallacious. To take one

example, in the summer youth program there is a 20 percent

cut. That program serves 100 percent disadvantaged, 37

percent public assistance recipients, and 57 percent

minorities. It would seem that if the real intention is to

target more, then the summer youth program should have been

increased.

There is no question that the political view and

the public sentiment right now are toward targeting more,

but I think we need to be concerned about the long-range

effects of such targeting. For one thing, there has always

been the concern that when a program is highly targeted,

the stigmatization will have a negative affect on the outcome.

Then there is a real concern about the level of

public support and of the funding levels that will be

maintained when it affects a limited portion of the population. When talking about appropriation levels this is a

concern we all need to address. In the best of all worlds

we might ba able to find funds for the programs we need at the

level we seek, but this is not the best of all worlds.

CHAIRMAN BANNERMAN: Thank you. Mr. Kweli?

687
KUJAATELE KWELI, DIRECTOR, YOUTH DEVELOPMENT,

NATIONAL URBAN LEAGUE

MR. KWELI: I would like to address this from the

larger context of youth development rather than youth

employment. Growing up has never been easy. However, our nation's present approach to youth development is making

it progressively more difficult. We began this century

fighting for compulsory education and against the exploitation of youth as cheap labor. We may end this century

fighting for their rights for alternate educational processes and guaranteed work-experience opportunities.

If you do not know where you are going any road will take you there, but if we cannot agree on where we

should be going with our young people in providing them

with the opportunity, the environment, and the resources

to learn, to work and to develop to their maximum potential, then we must admit that we are on the wrong road.

Our search for the right road is partially

impaired by our lack of imagination. Let us examine some

of our role models. One I would define as television.

Another I would define as tunnel vision. A third I would

define as a lack of vision.

Television has done us a disservice in comedies,

dramas, in news. In the memorable ABC special "The Last

Fall," the message was clear. It was brutally clear, if unbalanced, that youths are becoming increasingly hostile

and antisocial, that ,black youths are bizarre, homicidal,

and suicidal, and th-at crime might be eliminated simply by

throwing jobs at youth. Tunnelvision tells us that parents,

churches, and schools are the primary responsible parties in youth development, that the criminal-justice system is

our tool for rehabilitating young people, and that the

state of youth can be altered or can even be examined by

reviewing crime statistics and unemployment statistics. Lack of vision results in the ultimate destructive practices and philosophies of concentrating our resources on direction

more frequently than prevention, on looking at our secondary

schools and accusing them of not being responsible and thus excusing them from the reform that is necessary.

In modern America, parents, schools, and churches

can no longer be expe'ted to carry the total burden of

equipping young people to cope with our society. The load

has grown too large, the resources too small. Our educational irultitutions are out of tune with the evolving

requiremets of the world of work. For our young people, television has often become a primary conveyor of values,

attitudes, and behavior models.

688

744
Youths are confused. They know they will live

a world vastly different from that of their parents, but they

are unaware of how to cope with their own future. Our

schools are not helping them by only concentrating on

academic or vocational preparation. They have forgotten

to teach employability skills, punctuality and effective

verbal skills.

Jobs stop crimes. Unless youths gain a positive

self-image and sense of social and civic responsibilities

from their employment, the crime statistics will not improve.

It can be forcibly argued that pseudo-jobs do nothing and

have a negative affect encouraging irresponsibility, disrespect, and contempt for the society that created them.

The numbers game: We cannot allow ourselves to

fall into the trap of solving only the thing for which we

have numbers to support. We must admit that we do not now

have the adequate tools for determining the scope of youth

problems. If we are to make a difference, then we must be

concerned with more than the quantity of people served and

the cost per client.

About the criminal-justice system: The American

experience with that system has demonstrated conclusively

that institutional contact is more likely to result in

recidivism than rehabilitation. Incarceration must be a

tool of last resort.

As for education, abandoning or replacing the

existing school system is not realistically achievable in this

century. The simple truth is that with all its faults the

public school system remains the only mechanism for educating

the majority of our youth. Consequently, our challenge is to

reform it so that it better prepares our youth to successfully

compete in today's world. This will require reordering priorities,

restructuring processes, reallocating resources; it will

also require linkages between the criminal justice system,

the employment system, and the educational system.

My final point is that the problem of youth is not

a youth problem. It is a national problem. Our limited

commitment and resources to deal with that problem is a

national tragedy. We should be concerned about youth not

because it creates a problem with them because ultimately

it creates a problem for all of us. It robs us of our

future.

America can and must take the time, find the money,

move the obstacles that presently inhibit the development of

its youth. it is time for a national policy on youth

development that manifests a faith in our young people.

689 745
Later this month the National Urban League will be releasing a statement of national policy points. There are 10 recommendations in all, but there are three in particular I would like to end my presentation with:

First, a presidential commission on youth needs to be created. The commission would develop legislation to achieve greater interagency coordination at all levels in educational and youth services programs and to ensure

greater adherence to national objectives for youth.

Second, youth development offices should be created within all governmenc agencies. Their function would be to incorporate into all Jajor government contract grants and programs, resources for youth including work experience, leadership development, recreational or career guidance and youth service opportunities.

Finally, a reform of our educational system is needed to reflect a greater understanding of the needs of learning with different environments, behaviors, resources, and goals. New approaches should include greater involve- ment of the student in his career planning; wider use of out-of-school, nonformal learning; extensive community education; and a greater emphasis on teaching employability skills.

CHAIRMAN BANNERMAN: The panel has questions.

MS. MICHEL

said: in reference to something you Within the CET.0 rys!.L., we L.I.ve had to do scale re- education because trad!.tioriAlly--you are absolutely right-- the measure of succ,ms14 has job placement, F.Id of course when you are dealims with 1'.-year-olds and they are out of school or about to c ure ouL of schoo? that is 'ot necessarily the best course for teem.

However, 1 ,1.!3 il..erested because one of the things that we tried to get lake.T. care of for you' -) in the legisla- tion was a stipulatic.A ::out there would trl, -o problems for adults about limited k.4rticipation in CET1N.. But we could not get any exemption for youth from the thcLsar.d-hours-and-30- month participation limit.. It just doe not :.alte a he Y. a lot of sense if a kid comes into the CVD1. p).ocfram at ,:ae age of 15, that over a five-year period ne she is limited to 30-month participation.

MS. GRAYSON: I would n1/41- &*gree. When we put the limitations on CETA, we tried to serve the largest population we possibly could with the system. Thnre has to be a trade- off between serving one person for an indefinite period of time and providing services to a greater number. That is always the problem you have to clnsider.

690 74 6
Also you cannot assume that CETA is, the only

alternative out there for that individual. There are other

resources that can be btought to bear on their particular

problems.

MS. MICHELz It is true, except, a lot of the

people who testified tiis morning suggest that unless you

can do some multiyeay programing for very young persons

then you have prob1e in taking them from point A to point

B. When there is saxe artificial limitation to participation that does not flecessarily fit with their readiness to

exit the system, that has at least programmatic problems.

The other thing is that the philanthropic

community is not mt.u...11 more committed to solving these problems than any othe sector of this society, and the resources

in that community have dried up. The ability of communitybased organizations to raise fmds from other sources has

become increasingl difficult. So, I'm not as enthusiastic

or as encouragc5 as some othars may be about the ability of

people who are giving those services to raise significant

funds from other sectors,

MR. In about five presentations this

morning, different fol.,;.s referred to vocational education

in one aspect or anoth Vocational education has a massive

amount of. money, obviously, which could have some impact on

the whole question weze dealing with. Yet, it seems to

me--and this is an indictment, I suppose, of sorts--that the

track record that vor.;ational education has borders on

criminality. Yt'a a basket of racism and they keep getting

money, year :,tfte..r. year, and they do nothing. I'm just

wondering w;lo this establishment watches over vocational

education.

MS. GRAYSON: This is one of the issues that we

want to get into, Mr. McMillan, when we hold our Oversight

hearings this year. If I can cop out in one way, I would say

that it is not an area over which our committee has jurisdiction. That is Congressman Hawkins'

can't answer your specific question about the kinds of

evaluations that are being done or the monitoring, but I

think that one of the concerns that was raised when we

re-authorized CETA this time around was the necessity to

tie in much closer and not have two separate systems that

didn't speak to one another--that often worked at cross

purposes--and to try to establish a much more coordinated,

complimentary relationship. We don't know how well that's

going to work. We do know that we've provided ipcentives

for it to work.

MR. BOONE: There is one thing thus far in Youthwork's experience that I think bears a great deal of

691

747
scrutiny, and so I will simply make a comment rather than

ask a question, but hope in the process that there is a great deal of thought given to it by all concerned,

including Youthwork, Labor Department and the Congress. Complexity is proving to be a monumental enemy of the poor. To be able to understand exactly what you're supposed to submit, and how you're supposed to submit. it, for any kind of grant consideration often requires the assistance of an army of paid technical assitance experts. In many cases, information about programs without a great deal of special

alternative effort never reaches local organizations in

closest contact with communities. One of the problems that

Youthwork has discovered is that there has to be an enormous amount of special information passed out. There have to be

alternative routes for getting information out because in

many cases the interests of prime sponsors is the contain- ment, not the distribution, of information. Even when such information gets out to community-based organizations, the very format of application turns them off. It's just too complex and too complicated. So, in many cases what we found is that the very process of attempting through our rhetoric to reach poor people is severely compromised by the process all of us seem to be locked into.

I don't know what it would take to change that. Historically the answer has been not to change it but to add more technical assistance personnel so that we have an enormous army of middle-management people who are supposed to be the bridges between the complexity of the federal

system and the needs of poor people. I say this because several of you have talked about the importance of linkages, coordination, the more judicious use of funds, the avoidance of waste, but what we see, I think, even when we push for linkages, the linkages themselves become so complex and the methodology for securing the linkages becomes so complex that in many cases once again we're greeted with form rather than content in terms of trying to reach and work with poor people. Now, this is an enormous task that Youthwork is

involved in, and it's a task Youthwork by no means will

answer by itself, and it's a task I hope the Congress itself will consider in relation to the more judicious use of funds and the ability to get those funds down to camamity-based organizations.

CHAIRMAN BANNERMAN: I'd like to again thank the witnesses for taking the time from their busy schedules to appear before the panel.

At this time, we are going to return to the

original agenda and let Mr. Watkins make his presentation.

692

74 8
TED WATKINS, ADMINISTRATOR, WATTS LABOR

COMMUNITY ACTION COMMITTEE, LOS ANGELES,

CALIFORNIA, ACCOMPANIED BY FANNY MEYERS

AND PAUL SMITH

MR. WATKINS: Thank you, Mr. Bannerman. You have

put a little water on my fire. I have been listening all the

morning to a number of propositions about how to deal with

the problems of youth. In nine out of ten of the presentations, it appears that the presentors are more tied into the

status quo than of making any real basic changes in the

approaches to getting black youth involved in the mainstream

of American society, and I have to address that issue,

because my feeling today is that American blacks are in worse

shape than they were right after the Reconstruction period.

It is amazing to me that in the early days when I

first met Dick Boone over across the way in a big hotel that

we had a 90 percent black participatica in the war on poverty,

and 10 percent others. Today in every meeting that I go to

I find that there is a 90 percent other participation and a

10 percent black participation in the war on poverty.

I heard someone this morning say that summer

youth job slots went begging last year. In Los Angeles,

that was because the city bureaucracy would not allow the

slots to go out to areas of greatest need.

What we have tried to do is appraoch Watts as the

pioneers who approached California, when they were on the

plains of Kansas and thought there was something better in

California and crossed those mountains and that desert, and

they began to go against all odds in order to get to that

valley and began to try to build an empire. We have tried

to do the same thin Watts.--

One of the problems we find lies in the educational system in this country. I have never heard any

educator advocate that teachers be subjected to the same

process of screening and evaluation and testing that the

poor people they teach have to go through. A person'can

enter kindergarten at the age of 5 and by the age 50 never

have received a test to see' if they could i:each. Once they

go through four years of college and get a degree--and they

don't care if the degree says they made a D or whatever in__

those subjects-7they need no other credential to be able to

stay in that system once they've put one year in and gotten

their year of whatever they call it From that point on

you've got good teachers and bad teachers, and most of the

bad teachers are in the black community.
After 12 years of schooling give the seniors

a test and find out that they're now at :le level of the

sixth and seventh grade. If those kids who finally get through high school decide to go on to a college or univer- sity, they have to spend two years in junior college just

to pass the test to get into the university. At no place

in all this is there anyone who tests to see if that teacher

who gets that sal'Aitcan produce a student that can read, write, spell, do math, or any of those subjects, and some- thing is wrong with that because it's the only system that I know of that you are not required to produce a product at the

end of whatever your journey is. There's something wrong when all of the legislation and all'of our programs seem to constantly be giving our kids to thmt fatal institution. I don't understand it, and it's one of the things that we in

the Watts Labor Community Action Committee have tried to do something about.

[There followed a slide presentation in which Mr. Watkins showed how WLCAC is involving youths in community

projects to revitalize Watts. Among the projects: a bus system, housing developments, a grocery store, landscaping

services, a farm, a shopping center. All operations but one (a house.-moving company) are owned and operated by WLCAC.]

Incidentally, some of the best craftsmen that we have been developing are in certain skills that we find in

our women. One 19-year-old is going to be receiving her

journeyman's classification in April. We don't have an

apprenticeship program. We name who is going to be a

journeyman and who is not going to be a journeyman. That is because of some special arrangements that we made in 1968 with the Building Trades Union after Walter Rufus said that if we couldn't make an arrangement with the Building Trades Union that he would give WLCAC a charter to organize skilled tradesmen in Watts, and that was kind of a little hammer that

we were able to hold over the heads of some of these people

who didn't want us to be in the labor movement at that time.

This week we started negotiating to purchase our own house - moving equipment. There will probably in the next five years over 800 homes moved in South Central Los Angeles, and we have created what we feel is the beginnings of a rehab and renovation industry. Most general contractors do not want to get involved in rehab because of the unknowns. We

are trying to get involved in all the areas of greatest needs--from the mill to the finished product.

None of these things have happened without a lot of obstacles and a lot of problems. We have had trouble

getting programs off the ground, because of the bureaucracy. For example, when they decentralized for more efficiency, we had 25 people working in the Department of Labor's district

694' 759
office in southern California, covering Nevada, Arizona, and

our Watts. Today we have more than 350 doing the same job

for the City of Los. Angeles alone. It began to be a question

of how much paper you can generate, and then when you deal

with the county, you find a duplicate effect. Now, this was

all done to make things more "efficient."

Paper becomes the main thing, not what you do.

They don't care about your problems; they don't care about

whether you do what the President says, that he wants to see

visible, physical things. They don't care about that

Another is that most of the people who come to us

are people who basically have not found out where the problems are. Most of the people who run programs do not live

where the problems are. More and more affluent people are

getting into the social services field and fewer and fewer

poor people. When you begin to get new jobs that pay $40,000

and $50,000 a year, you don't find what we found in working

with those problems. I think that this is one of our major

problems.

QUESTIONS FROM THE PANEL

Q. We attempt to be innovative and effective in

using Department of Labor money, and in the use of unemployed

people doing the kind of visible, physical projects that

you've shown us today. Can you elaborate on your paperwork

problems with'your prime sponsor?

MR. WATKINS: We find the prime sponsor more of a

hindrance than a help in what we are trying to ask them.

What we recongized is that in 1970, legislation was passed

to prevent Community-based organizations from doing any

politicking, any lobbying, any legislative work, but prime

sponsors have formed one of the biggest lobbying groups in this

nation, and they are extensions of city governments, county

governments, and everything else. I can't understand how that

is possible when we who really need a voice in Washington can't

come to Washington and lobby for our own survival.

Q. Do you see community-based organization as a more

effective way to use Department of Labor funds that are

attacking the problems of teenage unemployment?

MR. WATKINS: Oh, definitely so.

Q. Have you ever had a chance to use the Office of

the Secretary of Labor?

MR. WATKINS: No, I haven't, other groups, but

not the Secretary of Labor.

695

7
Q. This Administration has a new term, the "partnership"--meaning partnership between the pbulic and the private

sector. .What has been your experience in watts in gaining

support and assistance from relationships with private industry and business in the area, and what do you think the

outcome is ?.

MR. WATKINS: In the '60s there were a lot of

approaches to trying to do something with the urban problem

as it related to the black community. A lot of new industrial projects were started. In the '70s we began to see a

withdrawal from all sectors, including the industrial sector.

What has happened in Los Angeles is that even those things

that were built with federal money, including the Watts

Industrial Park, are using the cheapest labor that they can find to man those plants. Nine times out of ten, those

plants are manned by illegal aliens.

When you begin to talk about a relationship that brings

private industry and us together, they come together in a

meeting place, at a dinner where they buy a table and all of

them get their picture taken as being part of a cooperative

effort. But when it comes to action--getting blacks involved

in their process--it doesn't happen. I see it in California

and I see it everyplace I go: We are in worse shape now than

we were in the '60s and in the '50s.

Q. Mr. Watkins, how do you see the education system

in the Los Angeles area? Do you see young people going on

to college or maybe some of the other areas? What is the

future, if any, for our youth throughout the nation?

MR. WATKINS: Our community has witnessed a decline

in its educational situation, but there are solutions to

the problem. My feeling is that if we have youth who want

to be doctors, that those youth ought to be able to go into

a junior high school that teaches nothing but medical arts.

There is no reason for a youth to go into a junior high school

learning about the revolution in 1492 if he wants to learn

about what kind of medicine was used in 1492 on the Niia,

the Pinta and the Santa Max ia There is no reason why a

curriculum can't be put together with that kind of input. Why does a kid have to go 12 years before he can even begin

to get into a career? The cost makes it almost impossible

for a kid in Watts today to get advanced education. In 15

years there has been only one example of a success coming

out of Watts, and that was a lawyer who was a Rhodes scholar

back in 1964. Ninety percent of our kids come out of high

school as a failures and come out of Watts as failures.

There's something wrong.

CHAIRMAN BANNERMAN: We will now hear from the two

young people who are accompanying Mr. Watkins.

*96 752
MS, MYERS; My name is Fannie Myers, and tqlm the

payroll supervisor for the Watts Labor Community Action

Committee, I started working for the committee 11 years

ago as a trainee in the Neighborhood Youth Program. The

job consisted of paying expenses at the rate of $1.27 per

hour. The knowledge and training that I have acquired

through this agency could never have been learned in the

school system.

Some characteristics of hard-core unemployed

youth are they are poor, live in overcrowded homes, their

parents are on welfare, no one in the home is employed,

and they are constantly in trouble with the police.

Community agencies are a greater help to these

youth than the school system because the people in the

agency really care, and the agency is in the center of

the community and open to all the people in the community,

Our agency provides a service to everyone in the

community from youth to senior citizens. We provide housing,

transportation, hot meals, home repairs and recreation. I

think that the kind of youth programs that are most likely

to succeed are the ones in the construction field because

the youth can look back at what they have done and be proud.

They can beat out their anxieties and frustrations and know

that theytve done a job that's done well. I think that the

kinds of programs that are least likely to succeed are those

without pay because the youth must have some incentive to do

a job well.

Our agency employs about 900 youth, and I am sure

that each one feels the same as I do, that without the

community agency, who knows where our community would be

today?

CHAIRMAN HANNERMAN: Thank you.

MR. SMITH: My name is Paul Smith. I came into

the program accidentally. A friend and I went to the

unemployment office to check on his unemployment check,

not really looking for a job, when a worker came up tO us

and inquired if we were interested in work. Naturally we

said yes. He asked us if we had ever done construction

work before. We said no. So, he then asked us to fill

out some forms. From there we were, taken to a construction

site which was to become our work site. The job consisted

of helping on-the-job craftsmen lay foundations on roofs,

lay tile, and assist in the framing of houses. After months

of rigorous training, I was placed with a carpenter, -whose

name was Hanson Wells. We then were stationed at Manpower,

which is a training area for unemployed youths to teach and

to train and to do jobs, such as banking, accounting and

697
bank tellers, Our job was to remodel the building, which

consisted of painting, hanging doors, putting side and

corner molding on doors and walls, repairing floors and

adding office space for youths that would be attending

classes there.

After our work was completed, we were commended

on our work. From there we have remodeled offices and

doctors' buildings.

Now that I look back, I see how much I have

benefited from the training program and how the community

has grown in such a short period of time, and this gives

me an incentive to encourage other youths to try and become

involved in some type of on-the-job training ,-oqram, which

could not have been possible without the go, nc-funded

program sponsored by Mr. Ted Watkins at MCI,.

Watts?

MR. BOONE: Mr. Smith, did you go to school in

MIL, SMITH: Yes.

MR. BOONE: Did you go to Freemont?

MR, SMITH: Yes,

MR. BOONE: What, if any, opportunity did you

have at Freemont for any kind'of what we call here work/

education combination?

MR. SMITH:, None, really.

MR. BOONE: One of the things that Youthwork will

be dealing with in the year ahead is grants to organizations

to work with what are probably dramatically mislabled hardto-reach youth. Most of the young people that 'I know are

not hard to reach. It's the agencies that are hard to reach,

but one of our responsibilities as a board will be to

identify projects that are prepared to reach long-term

unemployed, out of school, inner-city young people in some

form of work and education

I am assuming that in terms of reaching those

kinds of young people we are talking about on the education

side, basic education, English skills, math skills, and some

not sophisticated job training. Now, do you think, on the

basis of your experience and your experience with the Watts

Labor Action group that there is any possibility of that

kind of education for those young people being offered by a

place like Freemont?

MR. SMITH: I would say no.
MR, BOONE: If Freemont can't provide it in terms

cf basic education now, rho is going to provide it?

MR. SMITH: Well, in my case I had to go out of

the area to get the skills an on-the-job training.

MR. BOONE: Now, I am not familiar, Ted, with the

current program that you are running, but are you currently

offering the kind of basic education catch-up for young

people?

MR.. WATKINS: Yes, we do have basic education

classes. Actually, we cover everything from the cradle

to the grave. We have a child-care center where kids

2 years old are now learning three languages. We are

finding that we can do more in six months--people are more

able to do typing in a ninermonth period than they have

been able to do in four years of high school. Our placement rate in our clerical field has been 92 percent.

MR. BOONE: The reason I'm asking that question

is that you were seated here earlier when there was a diF1-

cussion of the need for linkages, linkages between

educational institutions, and the CETA prime sponsors, and

so on. At this moment, I am not convinced that the traditional institutions of formal education at the secondary

level are prepared to make a concrete move in the direction

of offering kinds of basic education that.are desperately

needed, and I don't know any alter-lative but to go to

alternative systems.

MR. WATKINS: In 1975 a friend of mine by the

name of Walt Parker, who was an administrator in Los Angeles

city schools, was faced with the question of taking $800,000

away from the Watts Labor Community Action Committee and

putting it in Loi Angeles city schools. Walt Parker

testified before the Los Angeles City Council and said the

Los Angeles city schools could not fill the needs of the

poor and the hard-core unemployed because they were not

committed.

MR. BOONE: And then they dumped it?

MR. WATKINS: That's right. You know that, don't

you?

Let me se.. one other thing, too, because I speak

from where I come. X have a son that graduated from Freemont High School, Today he can't read and write.
Afternoon Session
11%

CHAIRMAN BANNERMAN: We have with us to testify

on rural aspects of this problem some distinguished Mississipians. We are going to start with Lewis Smith, from the Center

for Manpower Studies at the University of Mississippi.

LEWIS H. SMITH, CENTER FOR MANPOWER STUDIES,

UNIVERSITY OF MISSISSIPPI

MR. SMITH: I would like to spend a short time,

not to repeat most of the problems that are similar in rural

areas, but rather than tell you what you should do and what

I hope you won't do when you consider funding projects in

rural areas. There are some major problems that face rural

youth in their efforts to prepare for and secure employment

that I think you should keep in mind when you look at your

projects for funding.

One is that the poor quality of education that

rural youth receive places them at a disadvantage and helps

to keep a rural labor force constantly at a very low skilled

level. The political jurisdiction in the rural areas, particularly in the South, have the lowest per pupil expenditure

for education that you'll find anywhere; you should keep that

in mind when considering programs that talk about spending a

considerable amount of money and effort placing dropouts

back into school.

You should look not only at what the schools can

offer them, because it'didn't offer them that before, but

whether that school has the capacity to offer them anything

different. I would be particularly suspicious of a rural school

that offered a very innovative program as to whether it had

the capacity to carry on' such a program in a rural area.

Also, bear in mind that there is heavy pressure on

rural youth to drop out of school. The jobs they can obtain

with a high school education are exactly the same jobs that

they would obtain with eight years of education.

Another problem is one of isolation. It hinders

development of youth in their effort to prepare for the labor

force and in their efforts to secure employment in the local

labor market.

In this context I should like to underscore something, and that is, the programs that are needed for rural

youths are not necessarily the high-skilled training. Rather

they need basic education to prepare themselves for jobs, for

701
going to work, for being in a work situation eight hours a

day and to meet the requirements of the job. This is particularly true when you consider that to find work they are

probably going to have to move into an urban area, where

they will be in an entirely different work environment.

Now, although it may seem like there is a great

deal of similarity between rural youth and urban youth, I

hope Youthwork progrAms will not repeat the mistakes that

other human-resoure ?rograms have made in the past, and

that is to simply make rural youth programs carbon copies

or adaptations of urban youth programs.

Job information programs, for example, are a

total waste of money to rural youth. Rural people, whether

youth or otherwise, ara very much aware of what job opportunities exist: none--let's face it. You waste your money when

you spend it on job information programs. There are a few

skilled jobs that exist in rural labor markets and the

biggest waste 1 can imagine is to spend money in the local

area to train 30 or 40 or 50 people to be mechanics, barbers,

and knowing full well that there are no jobs available for

them.

You should also be aware that transportation is

a major barrier to program success, transportation between

schools and the job.

11 majority of rural youth also will have to

migrate to find employment because there is no alternative.

In this context, one would have to say that minority youth in

rural areas face the biggest problem, because if you look at

migration patterns, you will find that white youth with

better education tend to migrate. They go to college; they

go to fobs elsewhere. The less educated stay in the rural

areas and have the highest probability of finding what jobs

there are in the rural areas. Blacks migrate across the

educational spectrum, so that white youth who migrate are

much better prepared, more likely to find jobs than blacks

who migrate.

I believe you should look very carefully at

projects or proposals that you can help, not necessarily

totally fund, because we know you don't have that kind of

money, but a cooperative arrangement that you can help get

started that will employ youth. There is very little that

you are going to be able to do in rural areas until the

Government decides to have a national rural policy--not just

a rural youth policy. The problem of developing jobs is not

one which a rural youth program by itself can attack.

CHAIRMAN BANNERMAN: The next witness is a gentleman who has been there himself as an ex-offender, and has

702'
worked his way out and up. He has proven that you can take

a negative experience and make it into a real asset.

Mr. Lockhart?

EUGENE R: LOCKHART, COUNSELOR, GREATER MOUNT

CALVARY BAPTIST r7URCH YOUTH PROGRAM,

JACKSON, MISSISSI

MR. LOCKHART: I we ' like to talk about the youth problem in Jackson and the surri-iing rural areas of Mississippi. This area of Mississippi, as well ,1 the entire Bible Belt-- rural southeastern United States--L.,R lit of the youth problems that the rest of our country has, 1311 h a triple dose of

racial prejudice thrown in.

The yu service project am employed with designated goals L ,aek out the yout 3A:0 burdened with

the myriad number o r 'oblems that out:: ecc has heaped upon

them. I have clients :,- -m all over gAtIte wo come to me

or are referred to me. I have interviewed people with problems

that you can hardly and I say this le;.th no reservations:

After having stayed in .(:-rai Mississippi all of my life, the

bottom line or the culminntion of our efforts is trying to

serve the youth of our et: entry with gainful employment.

Well, I'm sure you can imagine how tough it is trying to sell the potential worker that I consult, what with

his unique background and the prospective employer's general

racial prejudice. It is getting much worse in my area, ladies

and gentlemen. We, the agency, are doing good work in combating

the youth problems in the inner city of Jackson, even though

there are szivere misgivings and problems in working under the CETA guideAnes, its bureaucracy and traditional institutions.

The problem, it seems, is

acute because CETA is about to become

I'm nrt mistaken. Also, it seems the

of I am a part, are supposed to

hay, real problems with that.

I would just like to say if the needy people are

not being served through these agencies and you cut out the

program, what is the replacement for these needed services? More jails? More capital punishment? Well, you are going to

need plenty of both if this present trend ir allowed.

I urge that a youth service program be se2ured tn.

our young people of Mississippi. Let's make sure that the

money flows to the groups who really reach the yout-E, make

about to become more

severell, curtailed if

social service pro rams,

be the first to go. I
sure of that when you secure the program. We have a high

crime rate in Mississippi--rural, city, whatever. I was

an offender, so to speak, but I have traveled a lot and I

say the problem is more acute down there now than it is anywhere.

I truly believe the problem with high crime rates,

school dropouts, domestic problems in the homes, and the

many other social and real problems with our youth would

subside if we had an effective youth services policy. For

humanity's sa.,e, our present Administration's policies in

dealing with our youth must change.

CHARIMAN BANNERMAN: Thank you, Mr. Lockhart.

Does the panel have any questions?

MS. FRANCO: Mr. Lockhart made references to something that was discussed earlier by the gentleman from the

Urban League, which was a call for a broad redetinition and

the development of a national youth policy that goes beyond

the employment problem. I don't want to pick on Harriett

Michel, but she is a member of the Administration, and I

would like to ask her if there is any serious consideration

in this Administration of such a broad redefinition of youth

policy.

MS. MICTIEL: In some ways, that suggestion has

begun. There is now something called the Vice President's

Youth Task Force, which had a false start, unfortunately.

In its original design it was quite grandiose in terms of

what it was supposed o acc.mplish. Its main objective was

to bring together the various age,cies that ran programs

that someway, somehow affected the lives of young people.

Because other things were happening tharP, the task force

was relegated to primarily a public-relaons effort.

Now that CFmk hz..4 been passed and the youth dollars

have stayed pretty much intact in the President's new budget

the task force is beginning to receive some attention again.

As for any other body focusing iateragency attention on youth,

that will probably be he' 4 in abeyance until the D,,,partment

of Labor and the rest of !he Adminstration begin to draft

future legislation for these programs. That could possibly

be one of the things that come out of the future legislation,

but there is nothing beyond th..1 Vice President's Task Force

on the books now.

760

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MR. BOONE: The testimony that both of you have given suggests a great deal of pessimism, and I see

nothing in the current Administration that would suggest

a major initiative in the interest of rural people, and

specifically in the interest of rural youth.

Where does that leave Youthwork? Where does it place

us in terms of spending what amounts of relatively few dollars?

What kind, if any, impact do you think those dollars might

make, given what at least I, for one, take to be an unstated

policy of benign neglect in relation to rural areas?

MR. SMITH: Obviously, those dollars can't do very

much to change rural areas. I think you are going to have to

look at two things: One, can you do anything with your money

to change the educational system as it exists? Because that's

where you have to fight the problem, in the educational system

in the rural areas of the South, and you have got to change it

entirely. You have got to change its attitude; you've got to

change its direction. You are not going to build large numbers

of alternative educational centers. You have no political base

for it. You don't have the money for it. I don't mean for

Youthwork; I mean the whole country.

The jobs that are going to be available for rural

youth are not in rural areas, and probably the best thing you

could do is to prepare youth for the fact that they are going

to have to move out of the rural areas and make it feasible

for them to do so in the least painful possible manner. I

don't see any other way you can spend your funds very well.

Now, to the extent that you can influence jobs in the rural areas, I think work experience is extremely important

in rural areas, but I don't think it ought to have anything at all to do with whether the individual is skilled for the future

jobs. There aren't that many jobs that you are going to have fora future job at all. If he gets benefits from being at

work at a certain time, or giving him that kind of access or

that sort of thing, that's a plus, but the major benefit of

work experience is simply income, because that is what rural

youth need more than anything else right now.

MR. LOCKHART: As I stated, I am employed in a youth

service project. Number one, the youth service project is

essential--not an extra ingredient on top of whatever else we

are doing, on top of having welfare.

You have youth in Mississippi who'don't go to school.

There's no present law that I know of that can make them go

to school. But we also have youth, we have babies who have

protruded stomachs. Their breath stinks like-they are giving

off gas. I'm not talking about something isolated; I'm

talking about going from house to house. It's a problem
there that you could not imagine.

If you've got any money you could use in Mississippi

doing anything with the youth, we can use it.

CHAIRMAN BA.,'.IERMAN: You said there are no jobs in

rural areas. Woulc' you agree that from our present definition

of "commercial jobs' they' are no jobs in rural areas? Would

you also agree that if t:-are is an additional economic development activity in rural areas, there could be additional jobs

in rural areas, skilled jobs? And would you also agree or

disagree that if we were to redefine jobs in what we call

public-service employment to include such things as water

and sewage, nutrition, fixing dilapidated housing (of which

we have 74 percent in Mississippi), and if we would think

of it in terms of adult literacy where we have 600,000

illiterates out of a population of less than 3 million in

Mississippi--if we could do things to alleviate some of those

conditions and make those things into jobs and couple that

with some economic development dollars, would you then agree

that you might be able to make a different sort of statement

about the potential of rural areas and the creation of jobs

for young people?

MR. SMITH: I would agree totally. The list of things

that could be done in rural areas is almost limitless.

_ So, my resonse to you would be, yes, you are absolutely

correct--if you can tell me where the money is coming from to

do it. At present, the public sector can't fund such projects,

and even if the government put the money in there, I don't

think there is the expertise to take rural youth and train

them to do it and to oversee them to make them do it. I don't

think the rural areas have the capacity right now for the kind

of program that you're talking about.

MS. MARTIN: I would like to thank Mr. Smith for

reminding the Youthwork board and staff that the public school

system is not what i, should be and we should take a very

close look at it as we exa-line some of these programs. I

think we have pretty reach accepted the school system on faith

up to this point.

CHAIRMAN BANNTRMAN: Thi next speaker, Peter Edelman,

will address the subject of coordinated state and local perspectives.

PETER EDELMAN, FORMER DIRECTOR, NEW YORK

STATE EXECUTIVE DEPARMENT, DIVISION OF YOUTH

MR. EDELMAN: I am delighted to be here and to tell

you about some of the things that we are doing in New York

State, There are three areas that I want to stress, and

706 61'2
in all of them I think the question of small-scale private

enterprise as an outlet or a placement situation for young

people is important.

The first area is the activities of the Division for

Youth of the State Juvenile Corrections Agency. We have

taken in New York the federal concept of revenue-sharing

money and CETA discretionary money, which was 5 percent

and 4 percent money given to the state Department of Labor. We are spending some of that now at a total of about $5

million annually on work experience, educational training for the delinquent, and status offenders who are placed with

the state agency.

I don't think very many state juvenile corxLctional

agencies are doing this. It is obvious that it ought to be

done, and I would hope that people around the country, as

well as the Youthwork itself, will look at what is being done

in the State of New York on this subject. The effort encompasses both institutions and community-based programs,

residential placements and non-residential placements. It

tries to build a continuum to do a sophisticated assessment of

the aptitudes and motivations and skills and interests of the

clients of the agency to move on through a specially designed

job-readiness curriculum that's been developed and then on

into various combinations of vocational training and/or work

experience, both simulated and real.

I stress that because I think that something that's

as obvious as it is has not been part of the rhetoric or the

reality of the rehabilitation or habilitation-.or service is

perhaps the best word--that is delivered by state agencies to kids who come into their clutches as a result of court action.

The fact is that thousands and thousands of children

and young people are committed to state agencies, and I think

it's terribly important that resources be made avilable and

leverage be provided in any way that can be done to get those

agencies directly into the business of dealing with the vocational development, work experience-i-training and other needs

of the kids.

The financial structures as provided by the Federal

Government--and of course the Federal Government is the major

funder in the jobs area--are lousy. The fact that we used

countercyclical revenue-sharing money is an indication of

that. There is not enough money in the 5 percent and 4

percent pots(and this is something that really needs to be

looked at).

The second area is that of the program in which we put

the money (again, countercyclical revenue - sharing, money) unto

707 763
probation agencies. In New York State, those are county agencies,

and again, we can all agree that the county or state agencies

that have probationers under their supervision are in general very

disappointing in their performances. Nonetheless, they are there.

They have millions of clients.

One of the reasons they are lousy is that they found it very

hard to get ahold of money beyond the money that pays the probation officer. We found, by putting some money in the hands of

the probation offices locally, and insisting that certain connections be built to the school systems and employers and others,

that there was a payoff. These programs are using a heavy

emphasis on small-scale enterprise. They have produced impressive

retention rates and I think also, although the time frame has been

very short, some indications of the structural change in the performance of the probation agencies.

As you look at targets for your funding, don't be as put off

by our mistrust of the official agencies, although you do have

to be extremely careful. It can make a difference to deliver ways

for those agencies to do a better job. Obviously, it's a challenge

to figure out how you discern those that could do a better job,

if funded, and those that would not.

The third area is a small program we started that has funded

community-based organizations. The program uses the penalty and

interest fund of the unemployment insurance program at the state

level--which got us into a lot of political trouble for it. Two

of those organizations are represented with me today and I'm

sure they will be talking about it. What we have found is that if

you put money into the hands of a community-based organization and

you free it up to find private-enterprise placements in smallscale enterprises, and you rely heavily on using job developers

to find those jobs, and you put on a wage subsidy and you combine

it with education and training and the like, and you have the

supportive services which are basically delivered by the communitybased organizations, it works. I would just add two or three

things. One is that as Youthwork looks at ways in which it can

use its funds to develop models, to encourage things locally,

please be humble about the distance. I have seen first-hand

dozens of examples where smart, intelligent, determined young

federal bureaucrats went to the street and found somebody who

looked terrific and never asked anybody else in that community or

in that state or in that county about whether that person was

really terrific and ended up wasting money, ended up pouring

money into somebody who locally was a joke.

The second point is, please look for connections. Look for

multiple payoffs locally. Look for folk who either are plugged

in or who can get plugged in to other folk at the local level

when you put out money. In the connection-building, be skeptical

of school systems, but at the same time be willing to use school

708 7644
systems. They are not all bad. For that matter, don't leave

any established public agency out of it merely because the

history has not been edified.

MS. WILLS: Where did you find the penalty and

interest money? Is it because there was flexibility in the

state law?

MR. EDELMAN: The Governor's public opponent suggested

there wasn't flexibility in the state law, and all I can say is,

when the Comptroller of the State examined the matter last summer,

he ultimately concluded that there was flexibility in the state

law.

MS. WILLS: What were the relationships between the

state and the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration?

MR. EDELMAN: In terms of utilization in this area?

MS. WILLS: Yes.

MR. EDELMAN: Well, basically, in New York State LEAA

and Juvenile Justice funds are not used for projects that employ

people--that is, they didn't have any stipend associated with them.

There have been efforts to suggest to grantees at the local level

and to suggest to prime sponsors in relation to such grantees that

they talk to each other, and in some cases those efforts have

indeed produced multiple funding.

Now, a second sort of connection is that at the state

level, the State Division for. Youth receives annually about

$2 million, which is combined with LEAA and OJJDP funds; and we

have certainly been very conscious within the State Division for

Youth of putting these funds together,' in some cases contracting

with the same agency that we contract for for services. We then

go to and work with the employment people.

Chronologically, the building up of the community-based

service came first and the emphasis on employment within the state

agencies came second. So I think the coordination of funds has

been imposed from within rather than from without.

MR. BOONE: What, in your experience, might be the

framework of an appeals process by which local groups that

have very good programs and find themselves turned down by local

primes, have some access to an alternative review?

I ask that simply because in the last round of grants,

in addition to what we assume to be quite legitimate dec.qsions.

by local primes to count some applicants out, we also, I think,

found quite arbitrary political decisions based on favoritism or,

in some cases, a history of animosity between the local organization and the local prime sponsor.
I know that the U.S. Department of Labor has some sort

of a process by which this sort of review can take place, but in

most cases, such reviews operate as a major wait, and in fact the

notion of an aggrieved party going through the process is scarey.

MR. EDELMAN: I would suggest some kind of appellate

process that goes directly to Youthwork, if it can be done, rather

than through the normal chains of appeal that exist for other

employment-related funds. I don't want to sound flip, because

there are obviously strong reasons to be working with the primes- -

but whatever the reasons for involving the primes in the grant

process, I think it's a little different in terms of the appellate

process.

MS. MARTIN: I have two questions I hope you can answer

quickly. This morning we heard testimony about the value of skills

training and we have also heard about the values of attitudinal

training, and I expect that Youthwork will be getting project

applications and zero in on one or the other. In your experience,

I just wondered if you have considered that, and, if so, on which

would you put your emphasis?

The second thing is, you talked about the small business

and your experience with them; why is there a payoff?

MR. EDELMAN: On the first, Ruby, I hate to be forced

to make a choice. I think that both are necessary, and like so

much in the manpower area, what we have had is the mistake of

concentrating on one or the other. In the classic 1960 you trained

people and then there were no jobs, and the mistake we tend to fall

into today is giving people work experience but no training. Somehow, we never can get the whole thing together.

In general, it seems to me that we have tended to do

too much on the hard skills. We forgot that young people coming

along, particularly those who had stopped functioning at the thirdor fourth-grAde level and had been in the street and the rest of

it, were go.1.1g to have some rather serious problems of capacity

to function in the labor market--you know, take off their hat when

they come to work and stuff like that.

But I hope we don't now go too far the other way and say,

"Hey, get them all straightened out so they know if they show up

on time and get out of bed in the morning and be'polite to the man,

it's all going to be all right."

So I hope you will look at a combination.

Now, on your other point about private enterprise, all

I can tell you is that it works. We know in general that largescale private enterprise is not very interested in teenagers.

710 766
It's not the age of entry into large-scale private enterprise.

Their job-market behavior is such that they move from job to

job and so on and so on.

We also know from experience that public-sector or

non-profit employment is nOt out of the question, but privatesector employment is the major area of employment in this country,

and what we have found programmatically in New York State is that

placement of 17-year-olds with the bike shops of this world and

TV-repair and small manufacturers--quasi apprenticeship kinds of

things where you are clear that the relationship can be

individualized, where the young person can relate to somebody,

where a relationship of trust can develop--we have found that

this works very nicely. The employer can see firsthand that this

person can be a good worker. These have multiple payoffs of much

more coherently developing the skills and the working capacity of

the person and resulting in rather high rates of retention.

MS. FRANCO: I wonder if you could say a little bit

about current CETA methodology for funding the private-sector

work experience for especially hard-to-reach young people.

MR. EDELMAN: I don't really know enough about it except

to say that on the whole it's not there. You have a certain

number of demonstration projects that have come up over the last

couple of years, but in general, when you go to the prime sponsor

and you talk about the kinds of things that I have been talking

about, the prime sponsor is not in a position to do that. That's

what it comes down to.

We have a couple of added problems. Number one is the

state has trouble getting money out of the county. So, anything

you want to do on a statewide basis, it's very hard to get money

from the prime sponsor.

Second, at the local level, certain folks who ought to

be working with hard-to-reach kids--well, just in general, hardto-reach kids are at the end of the line. On the whole, the

primes are going tc look at projects that reach kids with whom

they're going to have a high success rate. So, if you have touched

the current system, you've got an added stigma on top of everything else of being poor, a minority, and all the rest of it.

Whatever the nature of the employment, they tend not to be funded.

Then when you add this element of the private sector

on whoever the clientele, it's basically not possible, as I

understand it, to get the money out of the regular CETA system.

MS. MICHEL: May I just add, Charles, the bias, by the

way, is not in the CETA system. They would love to be able to

utilize the private sector in a different way and, hopefully, the

Private Industry Councils now being developed in each prime
sponsorship will come up with more creative ways. Traditionally,

it has been OJT. Under the YEDPA legislation we were limited to

how we might involve the private sector. We had the waiver of

100 percent, the ability to do 100 percent wage subsidy under the

entitlement program, and we are trying to walk very carefully

through the other legislation doing some specific demonstration

programs for subsides, but as you well know, the AFL-CIO and

organized labor in general has a very strong opinion about

subsidies in the private sector. Scme of their fears are very

real.

MR. EDELMAN: The Private Industry Council--well, there

has been a certain effort to involve small business by insistance

of the Federal Government. Nonetheless, the PICs are going to

tend to be the business establishment in town. It's not easA, to

aggregate the TV repairs. By definition, they are a bunch cl

little guys, but, nonetheless, the kind of stuff that works best

is the hardest to get at.

MR. CANNON: On your theory of small private enterprises, excluding the large ones, aren't you worried that that

is going to be using public monies to encourage a subtle but new

form of segregation--putting people into special kinds of jobs?

MR. EDELMAN: No, because I am talking about youth

employment; I'm not talking about the general manpower policy

of the country, and I don't view it as an education issue. I

view it as a way of bringing people along to the point where they

can function on an unsubsidized basis in the labor market.

I'm having trouble seeing the segregation argument- - unless that's an application of a broader argument that there

ought not to be totally homogeneous inner-city communities, and

there we are on a philosophical level that I assume we can't

resolve today.

CHAIRMAN BANNERMAN: The next witness is Miriam Thompson.

MIRIAM THOMPSON, DIRECTOR, ADVOCATES FOR CHILDREN,

NEW YORK, NEW YORK

MS. THOMPSON: I want to focus my remarks on the

essential connection that Peter spoke of that must be institutionalized if any education and employment program is to have a chance

of success, and also focus on our experiences and support in

forging these connections.

I will make available to the panel literature on

Advocates for Children and the citywide youth network it has helped

organize and is now coordinating with a core leadership group of

712

768
community-based organizations located in the economically

distressed areas of South Bronx, East Harlem, Upper West Side,

Lower East Side, South Brooklyn, and the low-income working-poor

sections of Queens.

Leonard Collins, who joins me today, is a youth

representative from the "DOME" Project. He will describe it and

the work of our citywide youth organization, which was born less

than a year ago and has already sponsored a five-month demonstration youth employment program and a youth-run advocacy program,

both supported by the State Division for Youth.

I think these two programs and the way they are structured

attempt to -realize the factors Dr. Pantoja described earlier today.

AFC itself is a ten-year old community organization devoted to

representing young people and empowering them and their parents

to secure their rights to education and employment, and to determine and control the realization of those rights.

We often feel we are banging our heads against an

economic system incapable of producing or unwilling to produce

jobs, thus ensuring an unemployed class; an education system that

is failing and alienating numbers of young people--black, brown,

white, poor, and working poor; and a bureaucracy that requires a

lifetime to understand and learn how to negotiate with.

But we must keep fighting and creatively formulate alternative strategies to redress the inequities and injustices that

are bound in our system. Our program has begun to explore some

of the possible connections through which the grievances and

inequities and injusticies, particularly those experienced by

youth, may be redressed.

In New York, a promising connection is Outreach Two and

the emphasis DFY has placed on advocacy programs and youth leadership and employment programs as alternatives and deterrents to

youths dropping out of our system and dropping into the criminal

justice system.

Another program supported by DFY and the state Department

of Labor, not the prime sponsor, began a few short months ago and

provides an automotive training program for youths leaving DFY

institutions. These youths are rarely, if ever, picked up....b

prime sponsors or traditional contract agencies. The births get

actual hands-on experience in auto repair- a mar0- le skillsetting up their own shop committee, participating in the project's

advisory council. The program is sponsored by the socially conscious UAW, specifically through its Local 259, by auto dealers,

who not only will place DFY graduates in real jobs, but also seek

to setp up a co-op.

Advocates for Children has participated in this effort

by identifying and training and supporting and connecting the

program to the community in which it is located. These two

713

769
programs in which AFC has been involved demonstrate the potential

of the positive connections I will now describe.

The first is community-based advocacy organizations,

which we believe should be the focal point of private and public

efforts in support, because it is these organization that reach

and hold on to youth, and to which youth reach out and hold on to.

It is these organization that can provide the political leadership training and experience that Congressman Mitchell so wisely

stated .hould be a part of every employment training program, and,

I would add, every education program as well.

It is these organization that can help us all end the

myth about maintaining hard-to-reach youth in traditional schools.

It is these community-based advocacy organizations that know

their community and can identify and recruit another connection:

cooperating public and private employers. It is these organizations that will help and hold accountable Labor and other

departments, Congress, state and local agencies, prime sponsols,

political structures, etc., as to how huge sums of money are

being spent or mis-spent.

Everything I have said so far refers, I hope, to wellgrounded concrete promises. Their significance, the models they

project, the modest committed suport they have received from a

state agency like DFY are obviously not enough. Our program in

New York City, the program in Mississippi, programs all over the

country with which we are familiar suffer the same agony--and that

is, access. We have got the youth. Young people have reached

out to us. Young people are reaching out to one another, but

we all need help in getting the big dollars for our youth leadership and employment mission, and the big commitment from the

agencies that control those dollars, from the local agencies and

prime sponsors to the Feds.

One last point: Prime sponsors under present regulations,

it is my understanding, can fully subsidize only public or private

not-for-profit employment. But we did what everyone said we

should do under our Demonstration Youth Employment Program which

ended by the end of January; we reached the dropouts, 14-, 15-, 16-,

17-, and 18-year-olds.

We made the creative connections with the union employers,

community-based private employers and so on, but.the prime sponsor

can't pick this up except for jobs partially subsidized by private

employers. Few emplyers will partically subsidize the 14-year-old

dropout and then keep him on after the job subsidy. We need

ways to jawbone more employers, like those with federal contracts,

to open up jobs specifically to our poor and working poor youth

population.

My last comment is really an attempt to answer Dick

Boone's question: Can Youthwork have any impact? I think you

714
can if you have the political courage to do so. I think you

can publicize and support the community-based organizations

and the youth they represent, who are fighting to survive. I

think you can help all of them ensure that the big guns support

our youth in the manner they deserve.

CHAIRMAN BANNERMAN: Thank you, Miss Thompson. At

this time we will hear from Leonard Collins.

LEONARD COLLINS, ADVOCATES FOR CHILDREN,

NEW YORK, NEW YORK, DOME PROJECT

MR.. COLLINS: I'm from DOME Project,which is a program

that has an alternate class of junior high school students and

after-school programs for junior high school and high school

students, and a work program. Our work program consisted of 18

students from 14 to 16 years of age who worked on a five-day

basis. Three of their five days of work was at our center. The

other two days they volunteered their services to stores, companies,

offices, hospitals and any other thing that they felt they wanted

to get into.

This program was funded by the New York State Division

for Children. After five months, the work program was cut off.

Many students benefited from this program. They learned how to

apply for jobs in the real world. They learned how to be responsible, how to get to work on time, how to act. It kept a lot of

those students off the streets, which kept them out of trouble.

In New York the streets are full of trouble.

The way the program helped some students was that

during their two working days they worked at stores, hospitals,

and companies and when their employersafound out the program was

being cut off, instead of having the kids leave, they would hire

them, placing them on their payroll. We have six students who

were placed on, and another 12 were just left out and just stayed

at the center. They didn't like that, so they just volunteered

to work for nothing where they worked during those two days.

In my neighborhood it even changed the employers'

minds about the youth, because in my neighborhood mostly all the

crime was done by the youth.

One way the program had helped me was, I was learning

about photography and I had applied for a job at the Daily News

and I was learning all. about developing and everything,-Eut-FEU

program was cut off, so I never finished, but I did learn enough

to apply for a scholarship at the International School of

Photography. Even though I didn't get a job, the scholarship will

help me out in the future.

715
I feel our program deserves to get another chance.

Also, DOME Project has seven other programs. It has formed a

youth advocacy, a leadership group with young representatives

from each , cup.

advocac

truanci

approix.

for emplo.

newspapers

main goal is to empower New York City youths to act

Ahalf of the youth, addressing issues such as

ing out, suspensions, exclusion, and securing

--Jation and support services, increasing opportunities

too. We have started a hot-line,a newsletter,

adio program, informing youths of problems around

the city. . also planning a youth conference where community

leaders and 1-:slators and unions and employers and the Board of

Education to develop better education and more employment opportunities for the youths.

CHV'RMAN BANNERMAN: Now I would like to call on Mr.

Domingo Garc:.:1.

DOMINGO GARCIA, EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR,

IBERO-AMERICAN ACTION LEAGUE, INC.,

ROCHESTER, NEW YORK

MR. GARCIA: Puerto Ricans on the Mainland are a young

community. The national median age for Puerto Ricans is 19.6.

The Rochester community is four years younger than that. Puerto

Ricans have younger, larger families than the average. American.

More than three-fourths of the families have children under 18

years of age, compared with more than half of all families in

this country. The average Puerto Rican family size in the

Rochester area is 5.59 persons. There is a tendency for our Mainland population to stay young, because many of the older people

have a tendency to return to the Island. In 1975 the proportion

of the Puerto Rican children in preschool years was nearly double

that of the national average.

We must also review the economic conditions in which

Puerto Ricans find themselves on the Mainland. Puerto Ricans

occupy the lower rungs of the ladder, a condition that grows

progressively worse for us while it gradually improves for most

Americans.

In 1959, for example, Puerto Rican families earned 71

percent of the national average; in 1974 earnings dropped to 59

percent of the national average; as of March of 1975 the median

income for Puerto Rican families was $7,629, compared with a

national median income of $12,836.

The proportion of poverty among Hispanics the same year

was twice that of the national average. Almost one-quarter of

our population on the Mainland received some kind of public

assistance.

'716 772
Unemployment among adults ranges from 16 to 27 percent, while

youth unemployment for the most part is at 60 percent. In

Rochester city schools and in other urban schools in the Northeast, Puerto Ricans have the highest dropout rates, the highest

absenteeism, higher suspension rates, are most in need of compensatory education and are not likely to receive it. Federal

programs have had very little impact on Puerto Ricans.

Enrollment in such programs is traditionally very low, simply

because the government fails to recognize the uniqueness of the

Spanish-speaking communities.

There are some major problems affecting employment of youth

in the Puerto Rican community that must be recognized. One is

the lack of education. Having-dropped out of school, many of

our youth lack even the most basic reading and writing skills.

The numbers of Puerto Rican youths enrolled in vocational programs

is negligible. Most lack the work experience that is often

required by employers. Most are unable to enter apprenticeship

programs simply because the requirements for those programs

are too high, even for those who complete high school. Having

been rejected by the system, many youth fear that opportunity

for them does not exist.

There are inadequate support service systems. Most programs

directed to the young population fail to deal with the needs and

problems and aspirations of the Puerto Rican youth. Most employers

refuse to hire youth below the age of 18, claiming that labor

regulations limit their working conditions. Rather than be

placed in a position whereby they may be violating the law without being aware of it, employers take the easy way out and simply

don't hire kids under 18. Nor can Puerto Rican kids compete

with their suburban counterparts for even the lowest entry-level

jobs or dead-end jobs.

If you were to walk through a few of our inner-city chainstore supermarkets, you would most likely notice the absence

.of black and Puerto Rican cashiers, busboys, baggers, etc.

The same applies for franchise fast-food enterprises such as

Burger King and McDonalds's, except for those that are owned

by minorities, and, in that case, you will find 100 percent of

those employees are minorities.

Federal and state programs lack the flexibility needed for

the design of innovative approaches to deal with youth unemployment and youth problems in general. Two youths who may live

in the same apartment building, attend the same school, share

the same friends, when they go to apply for a federal program,

they may find that one of them qualifies for the program and the

other one may not, not because one's family income is greater

but because their family size may differ.

717
I also question the inflexibility that exists in terms

of not accepting into programs youths whose family income may

be slightly above the maximum allowable, but who share basically

the same problems as other youths.

Requirements for youth programs, if they are to be fair,

should provide a great deal of flexibility. On-the-iob training

requirements should allow for 100 Percent reimbursement to

private employers who are willing to retain at least 50 Percent

of the participants who successfully complete an OJT program.

Fast-food franchises or supermarkets, grocery stores,

and neighborhood shops are placed where this work experience

can be developed. These employers are also likely to employ

other youth, who may play a peer model.

We are presently operating a program like this funded by

the New York State Division for Youth and have had tremendous

success in developing these kinds of jobs.

To deal adequately with the needs of the Puerto Rican

youth, we must deal with the lack of education, so there must

be remedial education programs. Any remedial education program,

of course, must be supplemented with career counseling and other

kinds of support services, as needed.

Puerto Rican participants in federal and state programs

suffer the consequences of having to participate in programs

that were designed for others and by others, with no sensitivity

or knowledge of their unique needs, cultural differences and

life styles.

[Ruby Martin assumed the chair of the forum.]

CHAIRPERSON MARTIN: The next witness is Richard Levy.

RICHARD LEVY, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT, DETROIT

PUBLIC SCHOOLS

MR. LEVY: I have come today to talk about our New Directions

program. New Directions is a series of partnership options

that were developed by the Detroit public schools in 1977, at

the behest of Detroit's Economic Growth Council. That council

asked the school system, what could business and industry and

labor organizations in the city do? In other words, what would

the school system want those organizationsto do to begin to

improve education and begin to tap the problem of youth unemployment?

Essentially, we developed three generic types of programs.

One type would help students bridge the gap between education

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and work through on-the-job training, co-op experiences,'

counseling, field trips--you name it, it was there.

The second need was to familiarize our professional staff- -

teachers, counselor, administrators --with the world of work,

what it's really like out there in the world of work.

The third program was that industry and labor have

developed tremendous community development programs. They

know about consumerism; they know about parenting; they know

about a whole slew of activities, and we'd like, as a school

system to provide opportunities for business to come in and

provide some of those services for the community.

I feel compelled to respond to some of the comments

I've heard today, specifically on what role the public school

system can be and what Youthwork can do. First of all, as a

school system we are asking private industry in New Directions

for help. We need to know what kinds of factors stimulate

private industry to begin to employ youth. We've given very

little attention to the kinds of factors that motivate an

organization like Chrysler or General Motors to begin to reach

down and serve youth.

One of the real factors that we're finding in Detroit is

the lack of information about programs that have been tried in

other areas of the country. I'm going to suggest to Youthwork

that if you have over 500 projects that were unfunded, we would

appreciate a one-paragraph description of what those projects

sought to do, the same kind of simple paragraph that's in the

Youthwork overview. There are good ideas out there that for one

reason or another you simply chose not to fund. That doesn't

mean that those ideas perhaps could not be replicable in Detroit

or elsewhere. There are many other large urban school districts,

and I'm saying that we need that information and I hope you will

supply it.

One thing that we learned in New Directions is the problems

of perception and accountability. One of those problems is

very subtle, and that's that many of our teachers, our counselors,

and our administrators don't believe that youth can cut it out

there in the real world. They don't want to take the risk of

setting up a program to train youth in ter .s of either basic

skills, exit competencies, or meaningful work experience. It

may be related to the fact that they don't have meaningful work

experience. It may be related to the fact that they don't have

meaningful work experience themselves. I guess what I'm saying

ties also into the need for more teacher and administrator accountability. When you're saying to yourself that these kids can't

make it you're doing them a tremendous disservice.

Last, I'd like to raise an issue that I believe that

the public school systems can get into the service industry
business. Besides CETA regulations, rules about state

certification, rules that you may maintain school only

eight months out of the year, and a whole slew of state

requirements, there is no reason at all that school systems

cannot provide a sheltered experience in dry cleaners,

clothing stores, food coops, small applicance repair", auto,

graphics, copy centers, home modernization, the very sort

of projects that we saw in the slides from Watts. I'm

suggesting that if school systems begin to do this and are

allowed to do this and receiving funding for doing it, it

will significantly reduce youth alienation. In that process, within those small service centers, they will

acquire the basic skills, they will acquire the employability skills, they will acquire pride in themselves and

they're going to be able to make it in the world.

I will be happy to answer any questions.

MR. BOONE: This question is addressed not

spedifically to the Detroit school system but to your

experience in the school business. Two things, number

one is, on the basis of what I've heard thus far and what

I've seen, counseling and guidance for low-income young

people in the inner city schools is an unmitigated disaster.

Not only are counselors low status among their peers in the

educational establishment, but also they are often used by

principals for other than counseling and guidance functions.

The ratio, as we well know, of counselor to student is

abnormally high. The problem obviously is aggravated

because of the tremendous needs of young people in the

inner city for better understanding, better knowledge,

better understanding of themselves, better understanding

of the labor market, better understanding of options beyond

secondary education.

Number one, in your experience, what is the

educational establishment doing to in any way change that

and what might Youthwork do to reinforce creative change

in that direction?

Number two, I think that in most cases, schools

take youth as the consumer. The notion of young people

being involved creatively as participant in_their own

education is generally foreign to the educational institutions. To what extent and under what conditions do you

believe that it is possible to better utilize young people

in a discovery process that affects them and their peers,

and how might Youthwork reinforce that effort?

MR. LEVY: One, in terms of how we can make better

counselings, in Detroit, thanks to the General Motors

response to New Directions, we will have all of our middle

school and high school counselors spending at least one
week as interns in an industrial setting. To gain, if you

will, hands-on, first-hand experience about the world of

work. This is a tremendous step forward. They will not

only be learning about employment practices, but they will

also be able to talk to workers, etc., out there. Unfortunately, we have not been able to expand the project yet

to other areas. We would like to put our counselors, for

instance, into banks, into service industries, into a

whole slew of other areas. It takes time, energy, effort,

to develop that.

Second, we have begun, through Chrysler, to

train our counselors in new techniques. We're giving

them that kind of training so that they can begin to use

the support of the peer group--pressures of the peer

group--to help them along in terms of this effort.

I am suggesting that by fundamentally

restructuring the kinds of things that a school does so

that everybody isn't channeled toward a liberal-arts

education, and everybody then doesait have a skilled

trade job expectation--the example of welders has been

used repeatedly today -- we will begin to eliminate the kids°

alientation, or at least cut into it, and we will be able

to make community development, community conversation,

a meaningful job.

Your second question has to do how we can use

youth. I think that the answer is obvious. If we began

to use youth as meaningful models in conservation activities

as opposed to CETA jobs, let them continue to show their

survival skills and give them some legitimacy as recreation

workers, as youth gang workers, etc., we will begin to make

tremendous ihroadd: The youth who has an in-school job

and is only an office worker, a message runner, a paper

shuffler, that is not a constructive peer model for the

youth below him and for the youth out of school. The youth

who is in a training program, whether it be acquiring

skills or in building attitudes, is not as effective a role

model as the youth who becomes involved in community

development kinds of activities, providing services to that

community, bettering the quality of community life.

CHAIRPERSON MARTIN: Thank you, Mr. Levy.

Mr. Roger SeLerad, thank you for speaking with

us. We apologize for the time, but we wanted to hear what

you had to say.

ROGER SEMERAD, CHIEF EXECUTIVE OFFICER,

70001 LTD., WASHINGTON, D.C.

MR. SEMERAD: We are hopeful today that in

sharing our experiences and observations regarding youth

721
employment and that transition between the world of

education and the world of work, the role of the private

sector, what role it can play in that transition, will

prove helpful to you.

Conceived through a joint partnership of private

industry and education, 70001 began in 1969. It is currently

completing its third-year contract with the U.S. Department

of Labor, and the network extends now to 46 communities in

21 states. Our program of services focuses on providing a

bridge to unsubsidized employment for unemployed high

school dropouts from ages 16 through 22. 70001 has continued to retain a strong business orientation and fully

believes in a hands-up as opposed to a hands-out philosophy.

No stipends are paid to the young people, nor are there

subsidies to the employers. Since 1976 we have placed over

5,000 young people into unsubsidized jobs with earnings

reaching over $7 million, and, of course, thousands of

dollars in local and federal taxes have been returned.

Despite our rapid growth, we have maintained a consistent'

record of achievement in helping young people, as evidenced

in their overall job retention rate of 70 percent.

One of 70001's primary beliefs is that a job

alone will do very little to move the hard-to-employ young

person beyond the poverty line. Without appropriate jobseeking and job-related social skills, training, motivation,

basic education and access, many of these young people will

never be able to compete for career-oriented jobs. Thus

70001 seeks to have a long-term effect on the youth it

serves through preparing him or her for the world of work

and removing these employment barriers.

We as a nation have not found the full solution

to facilitate the transition of the hard-to-employ from

government income support to unsubsidized employment within

the private sector. 70001 believesthat the problem will

fester until a stronger private - public partnership is

created to generate realistic and flexible programs. Our

experience in a diversity of operating environments has

brought us to the following conclusion: Such public-private

partnerships should be encouraged and developed on the basis

of real, measurable and mutually benefiting outcomes.

There is a vital role between both the large and

small business that can be played and utilized in the problem solving in any community, and it should be included in

programing considerations.

The private sector must be given an appropriate

forum whereby it can become actively involved in the planning,

implementation and ongoing development of the program. We

believe that this formula provides for a more.tailored program relative to industry's needs, but also creates a greater

investment by the private sector in the final product.

722 778
Whether on a national, state or local level, it

is essential to acquire a full understanding of the resources

and operating limits of each agent in this partnership. The

structure for cooperation should minimize red tape, define

roles, utilize all available resources, and maintain a proper balance between the public and private sectors. An

essential element in getting maximum benefit out of a

public-private partnership on any program initiative appears

to be in the selection of a facilitating agency that understands the complexity and the mission of the program, has

experience in working with a targeted population, has the

administrative capability, and offers the resource of knowledge to create effective, efficient, and tailored programs.

The Detroit Pre-Employment Training Center

clearly demonstrates the impact of a completely balanced

public-private partnership can have on program initiatived.

Opening this past Monday, the center is specifically

designed to assist over 1,600 high school seniors and recent

graduates each year in realizing a successful transition to

the world of work. The program represents a joint effort

between General Motors, Ford Motor Company, the Detroit public

schools and the Michigan Department of Labor. The General

Motors Foundation provided the original planning for the

Center, partly as a means to diminish the high turnover of

GM new hires in entry-level positions. Funding of the program operation will be equally shared between the public

and private sector, with the Detroit public schools being

the sole referral source for participants. A board of

advisers has been formed, which includes leaders from

industry, the community, school system and all the various

funding sources. That board reflects the actual partnership, which is an integral part of the program and is

responsible to 70001's board of directors.

Several general objectives that guide the

program design: to provide thy participants with the

requirements for the world of work and the skills to

negotiate within that system, with particular emphasis on

the industrial plant environment; to support the development of appropriate attitudes and behavior in the industrial

work place; to provide participants with simulated experience

in the industrial world with emphasis on entry-level jobs;

to provide participants with specific information that will enable

them to become informed consumers; and to build a stronger

chronological and qualitative link between learning and

earning.

Forty young people enter the program each week.

The learning cycle is four weeks in length, five days a

week, eight hours a day, of which the third week simulates

the second plant shift by operating from 4 p.m. to midnight.

Industrial plant rules are followed as closely as possible,

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'779
including the use of time clock, rigid rules on absenteeism

and tardiness, an emphasis on safety procedures and the

maintenance of equipment throughout the program.

Those young people who are ready to enter the

labor market upon completion of the four weeks will participate in actual job-search activities with the assistance

of our center staff. Once an in-school participant graduates from high school, he will return to the center for a

review session on the essential elements of the program

before he begins to search for a job. Post-placement

support services will be provided to all participants as

part of a 12-month tracking process.

We believe that the center's focus and activities

fully incorporate the many essential elements of effective

manpower programing. Because of the established linkage

system, structure of the private-public partnership and the

thrust of the program, we have already indications that the

center is going to serve as a prototype for other interested

communities and corporations.

I would go back to some of the earlier comments

and suggest that I don't believe big business versus small

business are mutually exclusive; I would urge the panel to

not get too cornered into one or the other. There are an

awful lot of small businesses out there, and there is an

awful lot of awareness on the part of big business today

that they need to take an active role in this.

MS. MARTIN: Thank you.

Mr. Richard Drabant.

RICHARD DRABANT, MARKETING MANAGER, CHRYSLER

INSTITUTE, DETROIT, MICHIGAN

MR. DRABANT: Chrsyler Institute has been in

human resource development activities within Chrsyler

Corporation4for almost 50 years, but it's only been within

the last ten years or so that Chrsyler Institute has in

fact done contracted training under an organization within

our construct known as an Entry Level Training Department

and accepted outside funding for that. Initially we

operated strictly in the provision of clients for entrylevel employment under some of the "hire first" concepts,

and with CETA we were able to spread some of our capabilities

and expertise broader than that.

We have also for the last five years or so been

much involved in youth programs. There is an exhibit that

is being provided that speaks to essentially about a dozen

724 760
or so models of programs that we have delivered for youth,

funded by LEAA, HEW, Department of Social Services, Department of Labor, local systems, and so on.

There is some frustration that goes along with

delivering such programs, and I'm hoping that from this

frustration we can get some messages that will be available

to you as you decide what to do with your organization.

The biggest frustration is that lessons learned

have not been shared, models that should have been built

and disseminated have not been done, and, most important

from our perspective, very little of the good has been

institutionalized, while a lot of the problems of manpower

programs and so,'have been institutionalized. On balance,

especially as it relates to service to client populations,

very little has changed.

I think that sometimes when we get together as

a staff and squeeze a bottle of Scotch and talk about just

how much lasting and disseminated and replicated impact

we've really made over ten years, it's the proverbial drop

in the bucke. It's a little bit frustrating. Yet organizations like yours can probably have some impact on that

process. It really, I guess, gets to the point of being

able to identify which fights to fight, and that's why we're

here and we're glad to have that kind of an opportunity.

In a partial response to Mr. Boone's question

from before and a partial attack on Dick Levy's answer,

one of the more hybrid models we've been working with is

in fact a goal-directed group counseling career development program for in-school youth. In-school youth

because that's the only chance we've had thus far, and that

leads into my first recommendation, and that is that Youthwork concentrate on dropouts and push-outs, the former

student population that is not going to bq recruited, as

I'm sure Dick Levy and his boss, Art Jefferson, would agree

are not going to be recruited by the school system. Other

alternative methods are necessary.

Most of these dropouts and push-outs don't even

qualify for some of the GED preparation because of reading

levels, math levels, and so on. What I'm talking about is

still utilizing things like goal-directed group counseling,

but in this case deal with a series of full- and part-time

employment with emphasis on the full, getting involved with

private-sector job development and attempting to get the

private-sector involved as much as possible, because we

feel that the meaningful jobs exist there, and continue with

the important elements of supplemental individual counseling,

parental counseling, and so on. But put heavy emphasis on

skills improvement so that meaningful jobs can be secured.

Jobs are the bottom line.

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Recommendation number two concerns private

sector inclusion and suggests that perhaps it would be

appropriate for Youthwork to piggyback on programs that

are now getting all the private-sector emphasis. Harriet

mentioned earlier that in fact there are private-sector

initiatives coming down. But there are areas that the

business sector has been reluctant to be involved in. We

need to find out why.

I suggest that they feel threatened because

they don't know exactly what's going to happen to them

legally when they hire kids; they don't really know

what's goijg to happen in terms of share times, in terms

of precedent setting with unions that they deal with, and

so forth.

Another reason is that they have a very strong

nose for business and unless we can demonstrate what

kind of vested self-interest is served by their involvement,

you're not going to get them anyway.

Moreover, the private business sector is

relatively bigoted, especially as it relates to publicsector programs, and that has to be overcome, and I

submit that there are creative programs that can perhaps

deal with some of that stuff. Similarly, the private

business sector is intolerant of any red tape except

their own.

All of those are impressions of why the private

business sector is not involved. There're probably dozens

of other reasons, as well. Programs that are going to

piggyback the private-sector emphasis need to deal with that.

Why? The answer is simple. If the goal is, in fact, youth

employment and we're talking about meaningful full-time

employment and career opportunities eventually, and if the

statistics are the way even Jerry Ford said they were of

85 percent of the jobs being in the private sector, then I

would submit that it's important to deal with that private

sector.

My third recommendation for Youthwork in its

spending next year is to really begin to work on the point

with which I started, and that is to get involved in the

distillation and dissemination process of what's already

gone out, what's already been good, maybe beginning with a

clearinghouse, an accumulation, a can of ideas, of things

that have already worked, and then by utilizing some kind

of a cadre of experts, begin to go out and provide, first

of all, 'a needs analysis for the various prime sponsors,

school districts, whoever is going to be working with youth

in these types of things and, second, getting involved in

almost a prescriptive set of suggestions from the clearinghouse back home, and then enough technical assistance to

provide institutionalization.

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726
Now, Youthwork in its efforts to get out there

and begin this distillation of what good went on, should

use only the more technically practiced and competent

experts. We've got a situation at Chrsyler Corporation

where we have some very, very naive, fresh-out-of-college

district managers (because that's all we're hiring for

district managers), going out with maybe one business

manageMent course under their belt and advising a dealer

who's been in the auto business for 80 years on how to set

up his inventory of stock and that immediately loses something in the translation, even if the person is a

crackerjack.

CHAIRPERSON MARTIN: Before you ask your question,

Dick, Cory, would you take just a moment to explain to Mr.

Levy what you were explaining to me how we plan to share

information about the projects that were turned down and

refunded or what?

MS. REIDER: Several of us at Youthwork are in

the process of having some meetings with field associates.

These are people with full-time jobs who are willing to

work to. 20 days with Youthwork. We are in the-process of

developing a strategy, and one part of that strategy may be

identifying exemplary programs that may not necessarily be

Youthwork projects and probably won't be for the most part,

but are in operation across the country, get those written

up in readable descriptions and get them disseminated.

MR. BOONE: There has been, particularly from the

last speakers and this is really addressed to the last two

speakers, an argument about where the need of private

industry is currently considered and with the problems

associated,'bureaucratic and. otherwise, of hiring young

people, and I mean under 21, that the best interests of

business and industry are served by not hiring under 21.

As a result of that sort of feeling, there is a notion around

that if businesses and industries cannot pick up these young

people in any substantial nuMbers, and if war is not going

to be used as a recruitment ground, then there is some value

in a national service program. I am wondering what you two

feel about, one, the comment that I just made about choosing

the older worker rather than the younger, and your notions

about the national service program?

MR. SEMERAD: I think that our experience in

70001 may be different. For the last nine years we've

placed an inordinate number of young people in the retail

and the distribution, which would be, probably, I think you'd

agree, an exception to the general rule. There are lots of

entry-level jobs. I think the retention of our young people

on the job over those years has been a credit to our local

program staffs becuase we do a lot of post-placement service

and the Department of Labor has caused to happen an
interpretation of the CETA regulations that makes it more

acceptable under their scoring and credit regulations to

have that post-placement legitimate and the funding

would flow because mostly CETA money does fund our programs

at the local level, our local offices.

As for a national service program, I would say

this: I think probably in the next ten years we're going

to have to see this intermediate step between school and

work institutionalized into some sort of training,

orientation, or attitudinal correction organization, in

this partnership, because local community resources and

federal resources are frankly just not going to be able

to deal with this, I don't believe. I don't know how long

it will be or what it will look like, but it's some place that a young person who is not sure what the wants to do

or what the opportunities are, can participate in without

being counted as unemployed or being disgraced because he's

on the street. My hunch is that if it's developed properly

that some industries, especially industries that do a

great deal of entry-level training, may be persuaded to give

up part of that that they do in their plant specifically

and make that part of whatever this step is.

MR. DRAWmT: I agree with some of the things

that Mr. Semerad said, but would like to make a piggback

on a couple of points that I think are critical. First of

all, regarding the first question of the general bias about

hiring youngsters, I think it's definite, it's real, and

it's there, but it can be overcome, and it's overcome in a

number of ways. In our job development for youth, we use

a great number of initial entry tactics, including just

interacting with adult programs first, getting the confidence

built up in the employment office, and then moving into a

series of other kinds of efforts. Another thing that works

well for the initial entry is taking advantage of the oldboy network. Third, I would like to make the point that

preparation of the youth toward the maturity angle makes a

big step toward the kind of experiences that promote rather

than discourage employers from dealing with youngsters in

jobs. For example, we're telling that person that he's

working on that job and even if it's a bad fit for him,

we're going to place somebody else in that slot, so he

mustn't blow it for whoever is going down the pike behind

you. It's part of the responsibility that comes from group

counseling.

Relative to the second question on the national

service program, I'm not categorically opposed to national

service programs, but such programs are really just a

preparatory or a stop-gap piece for something that has to

follow after, and that something is by definition and goal

nonsubsidized, meaningful employment. If it can be

728 784
structured in such a way as to prepare young people for

eventual movement into a career pattern, then I think it's

doable and I'd be for it.

MS. WILLS: Mr. Garcia, I was fascinated. You

are the first person this entire day who has mentioned

what people tell me is a terrible problem and that is

income targeting. You mentioned that under CETA eligibility

criteria, of two people living in the same apartment house

and under otherwise identical conditions, one can't

participate in a program because his family's income is

slightly--only marginally--higher.

How do you target? If Congress had not income

targeted, who is eligible for CETA? The CETA system would

have been charged, rightfully or wrongly, one more time,

with creaming, with not servicing the ones who need it the

most, the poor. if you don't income target, recognizing

that it's arbitrary, what do we do?

MR. GARCIA: Do the same thing that community

development programs do. They take the target and service

everybody in that areas without consideration of income.

MS. WILLS: But there's little difference.

CETA is out by formula. There's a fundamental difference

between a grant mechanism identity and making application

and then funds that flow by formula.

CHAIRPERSON MARTIN: I'm going to exercise my

prerogative sitting here in the chair and ask Mr. Semerad

if he would provide for us, if it's possible, some indication

of how you're going to evaluate the Detroit program, how

you are going to determine whether it was successful, where

it was successful and where the shortcomings were.

MR. SEMERAD: We have right now three principal

areas of research going on. The U.S. Department of Labor

has funded an extensive research program this year to

discover what we do that seems to work as measured by

retention and by positive determinations of young people

into the society and workplace.

We also are just beginning to undertake research

of a major project determining what it is that's going to be

of interest to prime sponsors for developing the kinds of

linkages. They want to know how we sell the thing basically

and have over these years, and of course we get our funding

at the local level from various CETA titles, governor's

office, balance of state money, vocational money, private

money. So, we have a mix, but predominately in most of

the cities, the big money has come from CETA.

The Detroit program has an evaluation built in

all the way. One of the purposes of our advisory council

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and the consultants who will come into that is to constantly

evaluate. We were not satisfied that anybody had the blueprint, and we are not bold enough to say that we've got it

right now either, but we thing we're making a gain in the

whole system that's structured to provide for constant

evaluation and changing that's involving both the employers,

the school system, the young people in the process.

MR. SANTANA: I'm trying to get the whole thing

in perspective. I haven't heard too much talk about prime

sponsors and their relationships with local programs.

Could someone on the panel just answer what the experience

has been in terms of the prime sponsors and in terms of

the hard-to-reach youth?

MS. THOMPSON: I mentioned two examples. One

is the auto mechanic training program and the coop garage

that we were setting up with UAW for deinstitutionalized

"division for youth and got no support from the prime

sponsors, the first place we went to. That was one

example. We got big support, obviously, from the Division

for Youth and some discretionary money from the state

Department of Labor. We are now trying to reach out to the

prime sponsor in New York on our demonstration and employment program. However, there is a major problem, as I

mentioned in my testimony. They will not fully subsidize

the kind of private employment opportunities that we have

opened up.

MS. WILLS: It's illegal.

MS. THOMPSON: But that's still a policy

question that ought to be examined and there ought to be

other resources to do that since we're told that's the

place that we should go. Again, we're talking about hardto-reach youth and we're talking about the young people who

are dropping out like flies. So, I know it's illegal, but

I think that it really ought to be examined.

MR. GARCIA: In areas such as ours, you have to

realize that"prime sponsors are very political and they

tend to respond to groups and organizations that have

political clout. Traditionally, the Hispanic communities

in some areas haven't had that clout. Therefore, the

response from the prime sponsor to their problems has been

minimal.

CHAIRPERSON MARTIN: Mr. Arnold, you may proceed.

MIKE ARNOLD, ASSISTANT DIRECTOR, HUMAN

RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT INSTITUTE, AFL-CIO

MR. ARNOLD: I want to thank Youthwork for

inviting me here today to discuss the very serious problems

730'86
of rural youth unemployment. For far too long when people

think about youth unemployment, a picture of urban life

comes to mind. The urban bias is one from which many of

us suffer.

Nowhere are the problems of unemployment and

economic disadvantage more prevalent than among native

Americans. Today I hope to offer examples of how we at

HRDI have tried to deal with the overwhelming problems of

unemployment among native American youth. I will talk

about our program with the Navajo:nation, and our newest

effort to bring apprenticeship opportunities to native

Americans across the country.

First I think it would be helpful if I took a

few moments to explain about HRDI and the concerns of the

labor movement about youth employment and training programs

in general. One of the major messages that I'd like to

make today is that labor can be a very constructive,

positive force in training and employing young people.

All of HRDI's 59 mobile offices around the

country perform a variety of different functions, including

job development and placement, program development, advice

to labor organizations, unions and employers, concerning

the potential hiring of special groups with particular

interest, such as veterans, native Americans and other

minorities.

The labor movement has always been committed

to full employment and equal opportunity for all Americans

for decent jobs and a real chance for security. HRDI

exists to make that commitment real and viable. We serve

both organized labor and the general community.

In a job development placement context we were

able to place over 10,000 people in jobs last year and were

able to develop over 26,000 jobs. Job development placement is just one of our functions. From a local level,

last year we developed over $28 million worth of programs,

primarily through the CETA system. At.the national level,

we have programs for the handicapped, veterans, youth, and

most important for our purposes here today, for native

Americans.

The problems of native Americans are unique and

require unique solutions. But in our view there are basic

principles that must be adhered to for all youth programs,

regardless of who they benefit. We can help American youth

by preparing them for skilled, good paying jobs, by offering them career options, by encouraging them to continue

their education to their fullest potential, and by ensuring

that when they do enter the work force, they do start at a

living wage.

731

787
There is a system in existence today that

fulfills all of these requirements, and this is of course

the apprenticeship system. Obviously apprenticeship is

not the single answer for the crisis in youth employment,

but equally obvious is the fact that there are many lessons

to be learned from a system that has worked so well for so

long.

The two programs that I was specifically asked

to discuss today draw directly on the apprenticeship for

their success. The principles that underline these programs can be applied to other types of programs.

In 1V74 the Building Trades Department of the

AFL-CIO and the Navajo Indian tribe entered into an agreement covering construction on or near the Navajo reservation.

It was in response to the fact that past attempts of the

Navajo nation and U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs to develop

training programs:had been a disappointment. It was feltthat what was needed was a better link between training and

job placement and a much closer correlation between training

and actual job demand on or near the reservation. The problem was a critical one because the Navajo reservation sits

atop 25,000 square miles of energy-rich land. For years the

coal, oil and timber on Navajo lands were exploited without

any lasting benefit to the Navajo themselves. With. a 45

percent unemployment rate on the reservation, this was

intolerable.

Out of all of this came the Navajo Construction

Industry Manpower Program, or NCIPM. It's a cooperative

project between the Navajo nation and the building trades

unions of the AFL-CIO. It is this cooperation that we

believe makes this program one of the most successful

programs for training native Americans in the country.

NCIMP is a comprehensive program through which

young Navajos receive from 12 to 16 weeks pre-apprenticeship

training in a wide range of crafts in the building construction trade. Thus far, over 500 young Navajo young men

and women have received training in 16 occupations with the

cooperation of 13 international unions. Of these, approximately 300 have successfully completed their training, have

been indentured into apprenticeship and are placed directly

on jobs. It's noteworthy that in 1978 over 90 percent of

those receiving jobs through the program received a starting

wage of over $4 an hour, and the overall average starting

wage was around $7 an hour. The operation of the NCIMP

residential training facility, located in Utah, is similar

in many respects to a Job Corps center. However, NCIMP has

maintained an unusual degree of flexibility in meeting the

local needs that has resulted in the development of several

innovative training programs. For example, a program to

train mining construction workers was developed in cooperation

732 788
ti with the laborers and the International Union of Operating

Engineers to prepare Navajos for jobs in the rapidly

expanding mine-development industry.

The key aspect of this training is the level of

union participation before, during, and after training. The

local unions provide instructors from their ranks and assist

in the development of curriculums and class schedules.

During training, trainers from the crafts remain available

to give advice and often visit the center to see how training is progressing. This ongoin4 involvement of the

representatives of the apprenticeship sponsors ensures that

the training being provided is consistent with the requirements of the respective trades. Finally, upon completion

of training, trainees are indentured into apprenticeship

programs and placed in jobs. From this point, the Navajo

apprentices are treated just like any other apprentices

in that particular trade.

It is this concentration and cooperation that

is the most important factor in the success of the program.

Because the training is preparing Navajo men and women for

jobs on or near the reservation, it is not draining the

reservation ,of its young people. This is important because

many programs train rural youth for jobs available only in

the city. Also, by remaining close to tribal services and

family support, the odds are increased that young people

will be successful in their transition into the labor

force.

Obviously, not every group of native Americans

is as lucky as the Navajos. Not everyone is sitting on

top of energy-rich land. The Navajo experience cannot be

transplanted lock, stock,and barrel anywhere else, but the

principles that are the fbrces behind it can be. One of

the main reasons the Navajo tribe has been successful is

that, one, it got the early support of the labor movement

and the building and construction trades unions

particularly. Second, and the unions, knowing exactly what

jobs were available, were able to train people specifically

for those jobs. Third, supportive services were provided

by the tribe, and, fourth, the young participants were

prepared for their actual long-term apprenticeship by a

pre-apprentice program that enabled them to learn the basics

of their trade in a supportive atmosphere before committing

themselves to their lifetime careers.

The Apprenticeship Outreach program, which

operates in about 100 cities across the country, is another

example of preparing youth for job opportunities. 'ERDI

operates 22 of these programs, which are designed to help

minorities and women prepare themselves for entry into

apprenticeships. The Outreach programs are just another

733
example of the recognition that special help is required to address the special needs of certain individuals.

Going back to our experience with the Navajo

tribe, HRDI came to recognize that a great need exists

among any reservation of Indians for information on

apprenticeship and assistance in applying for apprentice- ship positions. As a result, HRDI requested and has

received funding for the implementation of a national Native American Apprenticeship Outreach Program. This

program, utilizing funds made available by the economic

stimulus program of 1977, while national in scope, will focus on three target areas with high concentration of

unemployed native American youth in Alaska, Oklahoma, and the four-corner-states areas of the Southwest. The pro- gram represents the first attempt to reach out to nonurban

Indian groups to develop effective ways and means to

increase Indian participation in apprenticeships. The Native American Apprenticeship Outreach Program will attempt to alleviate the problem of unemployment of

Indian reservations by demonstrating effective means of making young native Americans aware of opportunities in

apprenticeships. In addition, HRDI is designing and

implementing ways of assisting native Americans in applying

for and obtaining these positions. Because of its close

ties to the labor movement at the national and local levels,

HRDI can offer an important linkage between outreach, training and job placement.

Another element of the Navajo program has been

a course on money management. Since the median income on

the Navajo reservation is approximately one-half that of the nation as a whole, the average starting wage of $7 per hour for these graduates represents a great deal of money

for the average Navajo. We found that the basic information

we provide on personal budgeting, banking services, credit and borrowing has become an important part of our curriculum.

Another important consideration in programs for native Americans and rural youth is to ensure wherever

possible that training is keyed to potential or existing

job opportunities in the area. Consideration should be

given to projected major construction projects or new

industries moving into the area. Where the local economic

base is lacking, it may be necessary to implement training

for jobs that require relocation. In this case, serious

problems can result in the areas of housing, transportation

and cultural conflict unless proper consideration is given to these areas in the planning stages and counseling and

supportive services offered. Particular sensitivity is needed when native Americans are involved because of the

special cultural differences. Program planners for rural

youth must be prepared to provide special services if

734

7O0
relocation is seen as a legitimate sollation to rural

unemployment problems.

Let me once again emphasize the important role

that organized labor can play in the development and

operation of employment and training programs. The Navajo

experience is a perfect example of how cooperation between

unions and the community, in this case the Navajo tribe,

can produce a highly successful program. Unions are capable

of offering top-level training and facilities. They offer

the highest wages, best benefits and the greatest degree of

job security.

In closing, let me say that HRDI would be pleased

to offer its support to Youthwork in any sound program proposals that might result from this forum.

CHAIRPERSON MARTIN: Thank you for your

generous offer.

Mr. Wilkinson.

GERALD WILKINSON, EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR,

NATIONAL INDIAN YOUTH COUNCIL,

ALBUQUERQUE, NEW MEXICO

MR. WILKINSON: Indian youth, I am told, fall

into the hard-to-reach. category. This is probably why

Indian young people have remained reasonably sane to this

point. This does not mean that Indian youth. do not have

serious problems that could be eased by being reached by

the right kind of projects and programs. Most youth programs in the Indian community have failed. The reason is

that Indian youth do not conceive of themselves as a

category apart from others. Because an Indian is 16, he

does not necessarily identify with someone else just

because he is 16 also. He will more than likely identify

with his family, or his clan, or his tribe, above people

his own age. So, in a sense, there is no-such thing as

Indian youth. There are only Indians of different ages.

We do not want to change this, because we feel that it is

a positive and healthy thing. However, it does mean that

anything done for, with,or to Indian youth must be community

related.

The problems of Indian youth are not unique,

but the emphasis is different. The Indian population is

booming on a par with the population explosions of Guatemala

and Bangladesh. This means that each year a larger and

larger group of Indians are. entering adult life. The

implications of this fact on Indian cultural life and

economic life are enormous."

735
Second, alcoholism among Indian youth is .a critical problem. The reasons for this inordinate and excessive drinking are many and complex, but basically it does no good to preach to Indian youth to stop drinking when the pain of being an Indian is so much greater than the pain alcohol can inflict on him. Every act from the outside contrary to the interests of the community is taken very personally by Indian youth. Out of weakness to do anything about it, his reaction is often alcoholism.

Third, the dropout rate from grade school is often 60 to 80 percent. The same rate is true for many Indian college students. Not only is education not relevant to him, but also non-Indian society is nonrelevant. At.this point in Indian history, I believe that programs must be designed that stress not cooperation with non-Indian society but independence of it, not coping with society in general but coping with his own community. A great unhealthy dependence has been built np between Indian young people and outside federal programs to the extent that it is very difficult for an Indian youth to mature. Long after he is no longer a ward of his parents, he remains a ward of the government.

With this base, a second stage of planning might be to reach the Indian young person to cope with society in general,but

must come first. coping with the Indian community

Now, there are a few directions I believe that one could go in trying to discuss how your organization

could contribute t. this problem. I think, one, there are programs that could be developed under native religious

leaders where youths are taught to perform some traditional

process in the community. For example, I think it's not unreasonable to support Indian young people who wish to become medicine men. Second are recreation programs that could bring the youth into contact with addlt activities.

Third, programs that teach traditional Indian efforts like

communal agricultural could be very important. Fourth, programs that teach construction of solar energy projects

and relate this notion of appropriate technology to

traditional Indian values could be very important. In addition, I think apprenticeship training programs with adults for jobs geared to employment needs on the reserva- tion could be very helpful.

One kind of training program that Indian youth would be very responsive to is in the area of range manage- ment. For example, if you have a lot of tribal cattle herds, then programs to gear Indian youth into being able to manage those cattle herds and other kinds of lifestock operations

would be very helpful. Also, I believe that counseling for Indian young people is very important, and I think the

736. 792
counseling should utilize older Indian people in the community who traditionally perform that kind of function, because I think that basically the problem of Indian youth is

not one of jobs. The problem is, one of education and a feeling of self-worth.

The situation of Indian youth is not likely to

change until the pressures and assaults on the Indian community cease. This is due to the closely knit relationships

in our tribal community, but constructive programs can assist

Indian youth in assisting the community towards self-determination and dignity. Basically Indian youth employment programs should emphasize more strengthening an Indian's tie

with his community and emphasize less strengthening his tie

with people his own age. By being allowed to become a part

of the community struggle to survive as a community, Indian

young people will get a sense of wholeness and worth that

will benefit themselves and others and lay the foundation for

better things in the future.

MS. FRANCO: Mr. Arnold, I have a question for you,

sir. The program that you described on the Navajo reservation sounds like a very good one, and it seems to involve a

lot more than just cooperation, and it sounds more like a

partnership between HRDI and the tribe. Can you point to

any other apprenticeship programs that HRDI has entered

into in partnership with other minority groups or women's

groups to achieve the same kind of end?

MR. ARNOLD: The best example is the apprenticeship

outreach programs that I mentioned. It's not through a

direct partnership withany minority group, but certainly they're

targeted at minority groups and women, and they do, much the

same as the Navajo program, in that they are pre-apprenticetype programs to prepare individuals to bring themselves up

to where they can compete in the testing that is required

for apprenticeship systems and getting the documents ready

for apprenticeship, to give them counseling and orientation

about the world of construction work. We have tutoring to

prepare them for interviews that might be required by

apprenticeship sponsors, and general support to help them to

compete for apprenticeships.

MS. FRANCO: I'm sure it will not be news to you to

hear that there has been a great deal of criticism of those

outreach programs to the extent that some say the unions have

not gone much beyond the pre-apprenticeship programs and

that very few graduates of the pre-apprenticeship programs

from minority communities actually ever enter the full

apprenticeship programs. The program you've described about

the Navajos, which is much more of a partnership, seems to

be successful.

Is there any reason why you couldn't experiment

with broader partnerships with other minority organizations

that might be more successful than the outreach program?

Vb.
MR. ARNOLD: As I pointed out, the Navajo situation

is unique, in that primarily energy resources on the reserva- tion and the development of those resources has generated a

tremendous amount of construction activity, and the Navajo tribe in the past had attempted to develop training programs

themselves or have others develop training programs, but they

didn't go anywhere. So, this program is successful because

of the partnership that you're talking about and direct linkage to the apprenticeship programs in that four-state area

out there. The training is directly keyed to what it takes

to enter into apprenticeship and be successful once they get

into apprenticeship.

Getting to your first point, certainly we have

heard the criticism that minorities who are recruited and prepared, who might receive some institutional pre - apprenticeship

training never get into apprenticeship. We don't agree that

it's been as bad as it's been projected. Back in the early

1960s, less than 2 percent of the apprenticeships in the

country were members of minority groups. In the building

and construction trades today, it's 20 percent, and we don't think there's any other industry that can say there's been

that kind of progress, and it's directly indicative of the

kind of commitment that the labor unions have made through

affirmative action, through the apprenticeship outreach

program, through pre-apprenticeship training, and the fact

of the matter is that there are only a limited number of

apprenticeship openings. So, we don't agree with the critism.

That doesn't mean that the job has been totally done. We're

still working at it.

CHAIRPERSON MARTIN: I don't want to prolong this,

but I would like to ask Mr. Wilkinson his reaction to the

Navajo program based on Mr. Arnold's testimony. Is that

something Youthwork should be involved in? Are there elements

of things in there that we should be involved in? That may

be an unfair question and if you don't want to answer it, that's

all right.

MR. WILKINSON: I'm not that familiar with the program generally. The only criticism I might have-is that the

apprenticeship program, and there are many of them going on

the Navajo reservation, might be training people in skills for

which there might not be any jobs. Generally, on Indian land

there's about one-third of the nation's low-sulfur stripable

coal and about 65 percent of the nation's known uranium

supplies, and these may or may not be developed, depending on the sort of struggle that's going on within the tribes about

how this will affect the future of Indian people. Even if

they are developed, a lot of the mining operations will be

very short-lived, will be anywhere from five to 25 years, and

so, if you have people trained in these sort of things and

then when the mining and those kinds of activities disappear

and you have no other economic base, then the people who are

making seven dollars an hour will all of a sudden be back to

welfare and making nothing. So you have to review these

738 794
programs in some kind of context and you have to view as to

where the tribe is going economically. Also, there's the

question whether the tribes really want to haves -the unions

on the reservation as a political force, because if the

unions were there, they would be the most powerful force on

the reservation.

I might say generally about Indian young people

that I think the stress ought to be put on a lot of conservation activities and jobs created along that line, and jobs

created with renewable resources, such as agriculture, some

involvement in appropriate technology, and the building up of

small entrepreneurships. I think that on most reservations,

particularly the Navajo, that will be the basis for any sort

of economy in the future.

MS. FRANCO: This isn't a question. It's .a request

to Mr. Wilkinson. One of the most disappointing things for

me personally as a member of this board was the small number

of native American applicants that we received in the last

year. I would like to ask you to make every effort that you

can to let Indian groups know that this competition is coming

up and we very much want to do a better job of reaching Indian

groups, and I know the other members of the board agree with

me. So, any help that you or others can give would be very

much appreciated.

MR. WILKINSON: Right

CHAIRPERSON MARTIN:. I'd like to thank you gentlemen and say that we appreciate your staying. On the board of

Youthwork we do have some tough discussions because we are

trying to sort out some, issues and you have been very helpful to us.

I Thank you.

*** *** ***
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE:

HANDICAPPED YOUTH

796
CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

The Task

The Methods Used

Abbreviations

746

746

746

749

CHAPTER I LEGISLATIVE BACKGROUND

750

Preschool, Elementary and Secondary Education

750

Vocational Education

752

Post-Secondary and Higher Education 755

Vocational Rehabilitation 758

Employment and Training 759

Related Programs 761

State Legislation 762

Summary and Conclusions 763

References 765

CHAPTER II THE ISSUES

CHAPTER III COORDINATION AND COLLABORATION

767

770

Need for Coordination 770

Legislative Mandates for Coordination -770

Levels of Coordination 771

Studies on Coordination Relating to Vocational Education 773

Mechanisms for Coordination 775

Cooperative Agreements 775

The OE /RSA Task Force on Cooperative Agreements 778

Other Examples of Cooperative Agreements 779

Barriers and Facilities to Cooperative Action 780

Linkage Mechanisms

782

CoOrdination of CETA and Vocational Rehabilitation Services . . . 783

Status of Coordination of CETA Programs for the Handicapped 784

Lack of Focus on Youthwork For Handicapped 785
Summary and Conclusions

786

References

788

CHAPTER IV INDIVIDUALIZED PLANS 789

Legislating Individualized Planning 789

Vocational Educational Planning 792

The Individualized Written Rehabilitation Plan (IWRP) 792

The Office of Education/Rehabilitation Services Administration

On Cooperative Planning 793

The Developmental Disabilities Individual Habilitation Plan (IEP) 793

Other Individual Plans

794

Issues Relating to Coordinated Individualized Planning 795

Assessment for Planning 796

Summary and Conclusions 797

References

798

CHAPTER V ASSESSMENT 799

The Development of the Life Span Approach 799

The Prevocational Phase

800

The Vocational Education Phase 801

The Job or Production Readiness Phase 803

The Career Enhancement Phase 803

Definition 804

Standards

804

Components of Vocational Assessment 806

1. Personal Information 806

2. Interviews 807

3. Standardized Tests 807

4. Work Sample 808

5. Observations of Personal Management Skills 810

6. On-the-Job Evaluation 810

Summary and Conclusions

'811

References

815

7 89,

742
CHAPTER VI SUPPORT SERVICES

The Support Service Concept

Legislative Definitions of "Related" or "Support" Services

Parental Involvement

817

817

819

820

Issues Related to the Support Service Concept 822

Summary and Conclusions 824

References 826

CHAPTER VII JOB PLACEMENT AND THE PRIVATE SECTOR 827

Job Placement Before 1960 827

Job-Placement Models of the 60's 828

Research Reports 829

1. Nationwide Survey of Occupational Programs 829

2. Assessment of Vocational Education Programs 832

3. Research on Relationship of Vocational Rehabilitation

and Manpower 835

Youth Programs 837

Negative Employer Attitudes 839

Client Independence in Job-Seeking 840

The Role of the Employment Service Agency 840

Affirmative Action 841

Summary and Conclusions 843

References 845

CHAPTER VIII JOB RESTRUCTURING 847

Adaptations of the Working Environment to the Handicapped 847

Adapting the Individual To the Working Environment 849

Research in Job Modification 851

Modifications in Other Areas Which Promote Independence 855

Summary and Conclusions 855

References 858

CHAPTER IX INCENTIVES FOR THE PRIVATE SECTOR 859

The Need 859

Prevalence of Negative Attitudes 859

743
Public Awareness Campaigns

Demonstrations and Exemplary Project

860

861

Tax Incentives 861

1. Business Deduction 861

2. Targeted Jobs Tax Credit 862

Employer Involvement 863

Responsibility of Educational, Rehabilitation and Job-Training

Personnel 864

Summary and Conclusions 864

References 868

CHAPTER X ADVOCACY AND CONSUMER PARTICIPATION 869

The Concept of Advocacy 869

Legal Advocacy and Court Decrees 870

Child Advocacy 871

Comsumer Advocacy 873

A Systematic Approach to Advocacy 873

Susisart'and Conclusions 874

References 876

CHAPTER XI NEXT STEPS 877

Next Steps 877

CETA ACTION STEPS 882

Coordination 882

OccUpational Training 885

Support Services .887

Involvement of Employers 880

Resources' 889

Personnel Training 890

Public Awareness 891

Evaluation 893

800
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY 895

COMPREHENSIVE BIBLIOGRAPHY

COMPILATIONS OF BIBLIOGRAPHIES

APPENDICES

Research

Work Evaluation Systems

..

932

942

944

945

951
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE:

HANDICAPPED YOUTH
INTRODUCTION

The Task

This literature search and analysis has been prepared in response to the

task assigned to the contractor by Youthwork Incorporated of Washington, D.C.

to assess and review material related to vocational education, training and

employment for handicapped youth. The focus of this report centers around

barriers which disabled youth must overcome in the transition from school to

gainful unsubsidized employment. A set of policy issues prepared by Youthwork, Inc. setting forth what its staff and advisors consider the most salient

and current concerns in the focal area has been addressed. These issues

center around 1) interagency and intersystem coordination and collaboration;

2) the effects of the workskills acquired during training on the long term

employability of the student, and potential for unsubsidized employment La the

private as against public sector; 3) the relationship of family support

services to the participation of the student in an education and training

program; 4) incentives for private sector employees which might increase their

participation in training and employment of the disabled young people, thus

increasing the entry of handicapped youth into the labor market; 5) a

discussion of the various types of individualized program plans for handicapped youth currently in vogue with emphasis on those with vocational

objectives; 6) efforts in personal, group or client advocacy for the handicapped; 7) needs and strategies'for modifications, environmental accessability

of programs and facilities, and job restructuring in education, training and

employment; 8) assessment of the disabled as related to career development.

The Methods Used

This report is based on a literature search in which several hundred

items were searched, with over 100 read and analyzed--all relating to the

educational, vocational and occupational training, rehabilitation, placement,

and employment of handicapped individuals. The focus of the search and review

was on transition of handicapped youth from school to work.

803
The content of the report is specifically directed at administrators or

representatives who are implementing the programs of the Comprehensive

Training and Employment Act and similar programs that relate to handicapped

youth. Its purpose is to help them gain knowledge and insights into the

efforts to help the handicapped become participants in the mainstream of

society. The report describes some of the early voluntary efforts of the

social and educational agencies; it gives indepth analysis of the Congressional legislation which provides the basis for the present thrust to help the

handicapped become more independent contributing members of society; it

highlights the various administrative agencies and presents their preceived

responsibilities in administering the various aspects of the programs for

which they are responsible. It describes some of the innovations as well as

exemplary programs and identified flagrant gaps and deficiencies in the

service delivery systems. It also describes some of the current research in

process. The report attempts to address the major issues which CETA

administrators presently face in planning and administering its programs.

The materials were collected from a variety of sources--from libraries,

computerized information systems, as well as personal interviews with dozens

of persons. Some of the sources are the CEC ERIC for the Handicapped, the

Ohio State University ERIC for Vocational Education, the NARIC (National

Rehabilitation Information Center): The Department of Labor ETA Resource

Clearing House; the Library of Congress Research and Information Center; the

U.S. office of Education Library; The D.C. Public Library; the George

Washington University Regional Resource Center. Research material was collected from the Bureau of Education for the Handicapped, the Vocation

Rehabilitation Administration; the National Institute of Education, the

Department of Labor Manpower and Training Administration. Over fifty personal

interviews or contacts were made with persons in key agencies and organizations, to mention a few--the National Association of State Directors of

Special Education, the Council for Exceptional Children, the National

Information Center for Handicapped Children, the Bureau of Education for the

Handicapped, the Bureau of Occupational and Adult Education, the Rehabilitation Services Administration, The President's Committee on Mental

Retardation, the National Alliance of Business, the C. & P. Telephone Company;

the Xerox Corporation, and others.

6464
After reading and analyzing the materials, salient information has been

presented, analyzed and summarized: issues addressed and recommeL;ations made

as to action steps that CETA administrators or representatives could make as

their new programs are implemented. A heavy emphasis has been placed upon

various legislative programs related to vocational education, job-training,

rehabilitation, job-placement and employment of handicapped youth. These

programs have been legislated in response to society's perception of needs and

constitutional rights for all mankind. It is hoped that the compilation of

legislative information will assist program implementors to find mechanisms

for interprogram collaboration which will help handicapped youth succeed in

developing employable skills for meaningful jobs.

We must admit that today's thrust of accommodating students with mental

and physical disabilities to the mainstream society is a challenge. The

problems are multifaceted, when, for example with so many agencies and

disciplines involved we try to help such individuals make a reasonable

transition from school to the world of work. In addition to career and

vocational education, counseling, occupational training, rehabilitation,

family and supportive services, matching individuals to available jobs, coping

with accessibility and transportation difficulties, we must deal with the

greatest barrier of all-namely negative attitudes toward disabled persons.

These attitudes are even manifested at times by the very people who must be

directly involved in their training--regular teachers and vocational educators

who are not used to working with handicapped and above all potential employers.

This report has tried to shed some positive light on dealing with each of

these issues so that CETA program implementors can go forth with determination

and commitment in finding innovative ways of successfully carrying out the

legislative mandates for developing programs which insure qualified handicapped acceptance in the mainstream of employment where they can serve in

meaningful jobs.

805

748
ABBREVIATIONS

ANSI American National Standards Institute

BEH Bureau of Education for the Handicapped

BOAC Bureau of Occupational and Adult Education

CETA Comprehensive Employment and Training Administration

CSAVR Council of State Administrators of Vocational Rehabilitation

DDA Developmental Disabilities Act

DD Developmental Disabilities

DOL Department of Labor

EHA Education of all Handicapped Act

ES Employment Service

ERIC Educational Resource and Information Center

ETA Employment and Training Administration

HEW Department of Health, Education and Welfare

IEP Individualized Education Program

IRS Internal Revenue Service

IVP Individualized Vocational Plan

IWRP Individualized Written Rehabilitation Plan

MTA Manpower and Training Administration

MTI Manpower Training Institute

NASDE National Association of State Directors of Special Education

NASDVE National Association of State Directors of Vocational Education

NIMH National Institute of Mental health

OE Office of Education

OFCCP Office of Federal Contract Compliance Programs

PARC Pennsylvania Association for. Retarded Citizens

PCEH President's Committee on Employ the Handicapped

RA Rahabilitation Administration

RRRI Regional Rehabilitation Research Institute

RSA Rehabilitation Services Administration

SSSI Social Security: Supplimentary Income

TJTC Targeted Jobs Tax Credit

VA Veterans Administration

VE Vocational Education

VR Vocational Rehabilitation
CHAPTER I

LEGISLATIVE BACKGROUND

A national concern for helping handicapped individuals develop to their

maximum potential and participate in mainstream society has resulted in the

passage of a number of federal laws relating to education including vocational

education, occupational training, vocational rehabilitation and employment of

the handicapped. This has been an effort on the part of, the various Congresses to provide incentive to the States and, local communities` to place a

higher priority on expanding and improving programs for the handicapped

persons. These programs ale aimed at helping disabled persons develop

capabilities and skills which will give them opportunities for productive

lives. The laws are, based on the premise that if given adequate services with

appropriate adaptations many handicapped can be given equal opportunity to

function in the mainstream of life as non-handicapped. Some of these laws and

regulations relating to vocational education, training, rehabilitation, and

employment are highlighted below.

Preschool, Elementary and Secondary Education

The Education of the Handicapped Act, Part B, as amended by the Education

of All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 (EHA), P.L. 94-142 applies to children

and youth from birth through age 21. The term "handicapped children" is

defined in this Act as those children who are evaluated as being "mentally

retarded; hard-of-hearing; deaf; speech impaired; visually, handicapped;

seriously emotionally disturbed; orthopedically impaired; or other health

impaired children or children with specific learning disabilities who because

of those impairments need special education or related services." Exact legal

definitions of each disability are contained in the Aces Regulations.

As a zesult o years of interest in problems of the handicapped, State

agencies as well as local public and private agencies developed a variety of

programs and facilities to serve this group. In the early part of the century

services to handicapped were motivated by compassion. The efforts have now

been transformed to social obligations in which the handicapped are entitled
to the same rights to participate in activities of mainstream society as

non-handicapped. Court decrees and legislative enactments are now mandating

that handicapped be assured educational opportunity in the least restrictive

environments, that facilities and programs be made accessible through

reasonable modifications to them, that the handicapped have vocational

opportunity and that discrimination against qualified handicapped solely on

the basis of the handicapped be prohibited in areas of employment, admission

to higher education and other programs and activities.

The EHA contains the following principles:

1) a free and appropriate public education should be available

for all handicapped children and youth between the ages of 3

and 21. (If there are inconsistencies, State law prevails).

2) the rights of the handicapped children and their parents

should be protected;

3) education should be provided to all handicapped children

through federal assistance to states, local or other public

agencies;

4) there should be assurances of effectiveness of programs in the

least restrictive environment and due process for parents and

children.

Under the full educational opportunity goal, the legislation specifically

states that "State and Local educational agencies shall take steps to insure

that handicapped children have available to them the variety of programs and

services available to non-handicapped children. . .industrial arts, home

economics, and vocational education."

The law provides that for each child an individualized education

plan (IEP) be carefully designed, implemented aad reviewed annually. In

developing the IEP, cooperative planning must take place by the teacher, the

psychologist, other educational and supportive staff from public and private

agencies who work with the child, and the parents.

The I.E.P.'s must also "include a statement of educational performance

including academic achievement. .prevocational and vocational skills."

'b8
Among the procedural safeguards included in the Act is the use of

nondiscriminatory testing and evaluation procedures and confidentiality of

information.

Each State in its annual State Plan for EHA must insure that funds

received under the Vocational Education Act Amendments of 1976 are consistent

with the goal of providing a free and appropriate public education the "least

restrictive" environment. Handicapped students enrolled in regular as well as

in special vocational schools or classes are also required to have an IEP.

Thus it is clear although there are two Acts, one for preschool, elementary

and secondary education and the other for vocational education which are

administered under different administrators that Congress intended for close

integration at the operational level with individual handicapped students.

Vocational Education

The Vocational Education Act of 1963, which was amended by Title II of

the Education Amendments of 1976, (P.L. 94-482), made a major change to

vocational education by focusing on preparing all students for employment

rather than training a few selected students for specific vocational training

areas as had been the pattern up to that time. The concept contained in the

new legislation was that all students including handicapped should have an

opportunity for being prepared for employment before completing secondary

education. The Education Amendments also introduced the idea of career

education which is a broad term meaning education for life, with vocational

education being but one component of career education. Donn Brolin has

defined career education in his book, Life Centered Carreer Education:

A Competency Based Approach as "the process of systematically coordinating all

school, family and community components together to facilitate each

individual's potentials for economic, social and personal fulfillment."

Vocational education has been defined in the Vocational Education Act

Amendments as well as in the EHA as: "an organized educational program

directly related to preparing individuals for paid or unpaid employment, or

for additional training for a career requiring other than a baccalaureat or
advanced degree." It includes industrial arts, consumer and homemaking

education.

To be eligible for funds under the Vocational Education Act each State

must develop and submit a five year "State. Plan" in accordance with procedures

set forth in the regulations. A number of sections of the plan must include

programs, services and activities for the handicapped and must be developed in

concert with individuals representing the needs of the handicapped.

The law was passed to strengthen the ability of States to provide

vocational education to groups for whom the need was deemed most acute such as

the handicapped and disadvantaged. In the Act Congress mandates a relationship between the vocational education program and the implementation of the

activities provided for under EHA, P.L. 94-142.

The State plan must show how each program will prepare students for

employment and more specifically how the vocational program will fit into a

student's individualized education program. The state plan must show how

vocational education and special education under ERA will be coordinated.

Since the passage of 1963 Vocational Education Act the States have been

required to spend at least ten percent of their basic State grant for

vocational education and training programs for the handicapped. The 1976

Amendments continue the ten percent set aside but require fifty percent

matching by State and local funds thereby earmarking a minimum of fifteen

percent of the vocational funds for the handicapped. Because all students are

now entitled to vocational education the fifteen percent may only be applied

to the excess vocational costs of education for the handicapped students. The

law states:

"The State shall expend at least ten percent of the allotment under

section 102(a) of the act for vocational education for handicapped

persons . . . and shall use these funds to the maximum extent

possible to assist handicapped persons to participate in regular

educational programs."

"Placement in a special education program is only to be considered

if the handicapped condition adversely affects the student's

chances for success in a regular vocational industrial arts,

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1-0
consumer, or homemaking education program, thus necessitating

special educational assistance or a modified program."

"Advisory councils must be established on both State and local

levels. State Councils must include one or more

individuals . . . who have special knowledge, experience or qualifications with respect to the specialized education needs of

physically or mentally handicapped persons."

Vocational State plans should also meet the requirements of EHA and

Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 which prohibits discrimination

on the basis of physical or mental handicaps in every federally assisted

program or activity of the country.

The legislative history of vocational education indicates that federal

assistance should serve as a catalyst to induce State education agencies and

local education agencies to align priorities, programs and expenditures more

closely to community and individual needs. In 1917 Congress passed the

Smith-Hughs Act which encouraged the nation's schools to include preparing

students for earning a living as an integral part of the education system. It

focused on two important areas of the times--namely, vocational agriculture

and home economics. Three decades later it encouraged the number of occupational categories adding distributive education, health occupations, consumer

and homemaking, office occupations, technical education, trend and industrial

occupations and industrial arts. In 1968 Amendments stressed the need for

adapting training to the changing needs of the labor market and earmarked

funds to guarantee that certain groups--postsecondary, disadvantaged and

. handicapped--would receive opportunities for training. Again in 1976, the Act

reemphasized programs for the handicapped.

The Congress has now declared that VEA's purpose is to insure:

. . that persons of all ages in all communities . . . will have ready

access to vocational training or retraining which is of high quality, which is

'realistic in the light of actual anticipated opportunities for gainful

employment, and which is suited to their needs, interests, and ability to

benefit from such training." Specific groups for whom vocational education is

intended under VEA are those in high school, in post secondary schools, or who

have completed or discontinued their formal education and are preparing to

754$11
enter the labor market, or who have already entered the labor market and need

to upgrade their skills or learn new ones. It includes handicapped

individuals in special or regular education.

Post Secondary and Higher Education

The legislation which is bringing about the greatest reform among

postsecondary education and higher education institutions is undoubtedly

Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act which requires that qualified

handicapped applicants are not denied admission or subjected to discrimination

in admission or recruitment because of a handicap. Under the Federal

Regulations for Section 504 a qualified handicapped student is one who meets

academic and technical standards required for admission to the institution.

There must be no preadmission inquiry that requires a prospective student to

reveal a handicapped condition. An institution's recruitment activities must

be accessible to the handicapped and if special services are needed during

recruitment such as interpreters it is the responsibility of the institution

to provide these services. Another major reform relates to testing

requirements which prohibits the use of any test as a criteria for admission

if it will have disproportionate adverse effect on a handicapped person or any

class of handicapped persons, unless previously validated as a predictor of

success. These education institutions must assure accessibility of programs and

activities to the handicapped. Architectural barriers must be removed where

the program is not made accessible by other means such as rescheduling classes

to accessible buildings. Students with communication disabilities must be

provided interpreters, if needed. _Institutions must also make reasonable

modifications in academic requirements, where necessary, to ensure full

educational opportunity for handicapped students such as use of tape recorders

or other aids, extension of time to complete course requirements.

Thus, as we enter the 80's an ever increasing number and percentage of

handicapped students should be able to enroll and make satisfactory progress

at these institutions. Other laws and legislative programs which have

dramatically effected the increase of handicapped students on campus have been

7,55

8-U
the Architectural Barriers Act requiring public facilities constructed with

federal assistance to comply with the American National Standards Institute

specifications which accommodate the handicapped, the Vocational Education Act

which provides assistance to post secondary shcools; and the Higher Education

Act, Title IV Student Special Services Program. In addition, the Vocational

Rehabilitation Program has developed cooperative agreements with some of the

post secondary vocational schools as well as provided their clients with

special services.

Before the 1960's no post secondary education programs existed for the

handicapped except Gallaudet College in Washington, D.C., a federally

supported liberal arts college for the deaf which was created over 100 years

ago. While this institution produced some very fine graduates, it did not

offer deaf students many career opportunities. To offset this gap; Congress

in 1965 enacted legislation for a National Technical Institute for th Deaf

which has been granted to Rochester Institute of Technology in Rochester,

New York.

With the implementation of the Architectural Barriers Act, many college

facilities constructed during the college building boom of the 60's and 70's

became accessible. to the mobility impaired physically handicapped enabling

such students who met entrance requirements to attend classes. Most notable

among the early campus programs for the physically handicapped operated by the

State University systems were the ones at the University of Illinois at

Carbondale and the University of Kansas. Students in wheelchairs become a

common site on their campuses.

During the early 70's the Bureau of Higher Education of the U.S. Office

of Education under its authority from the Student Special Services Program was

able to make grants to higher education and post secondary institutions

including junior, community vocational and technical colleges for exemplary

projects to assist physically handicapped students participate in post

secondary education. This Program allowed expenditures for remedial programs,

counseling and other special services on campus which could assist handicapped

students to function at these institutions. Once the system was established

it tended to become an on-going service of a college or university.

756

813
The Vocational Rehabilitation Program also supported some additional

exemplary technical programs on various campuses to increase the vocational

potential of deaf students. These exemplary projects which became prototypes

for other regular post secondary schools were at California State University

at Northridge; Delgado Vocational Technical Junior College in New Orleans,

Louisiana; Seattle Central Community College, Seattle, Washington; and

St. Paul Technical Vocational Institute, St. Paul, Minnesota.

The concept of post secondary education for the handicapped has now

spread across the country. The College Guide for Students with Disabilities,

a detailed directory of higher education services, programs, and facilities

accessible to handicapped students in the United States, (Gollay and Bennett)

based on a 1975-76 survey, lists over 500 higher educational institutions with

some type of special services for the handicapped. In addition to

architectural and program accessibility special services include interpreters,

tutoring, note taking, electronic aids, video tapes, mobility orientation,

braille libraries, braille typewriters, large type books, opticons, captioned

films, personal counseling, vocational counseling, job-placement and follow

up, vocational development services, job preparation seminars, and others.

Needless to say, many of the graduates have been placed in meaningful

jobs in the private corporate sector, in various types of electronics,

computer programming and photography. Some have entered professional jobs in

counseling, teaching, law, laboratores, and the like.

The opportunity presents itself for additional cooperation among the

related program administrators of Vocational Education, Vocational Rehabilitation, Comprehensive Employment and Training Programs, and to coordinate

their efforts in providing career counseling and job placement to disabled

students attending their schools. The work experiences gained through these

programs if coordinated could be invaluable to the student. These program

administrators can also play a joint role in encouraging handicapped high

school students to qualify for admission to post secondary schools.

A new trend is for community colleges to offer continuing education to

mentally retarded. A number of exemplary programs are appearing at post

757

8 I A
secondary institutions which prepare retarded individuals in skills they can

use in their daily living activities and for jobs. The CETA Program could

cooperate in this endeavor in a multi-funded project.

Vocational Rehabilitation

The Rehabilitation Act of 1973 which had been started in 1920 made some

major revisions in the program. In 1973 Congress amended the law with a set

of civil rights provisions which prohibited discrimination against a qualified

handicapped person solely because of his handicap. The term handicapped

individual is defined to mean "any individual who (A) has a physical or mental

disability which for such individual constitutes or results in a substantial

handicap to employment and (B) can reasonably be expected to benefit in terms

of employability from vocational rehabilitation services. . ." These

non-discriminatory provisions are contained in Section 501, 502, 503 and 504

of the Act. Under these provisions, handicapped individuals must have the

same opportunity as non-handicapped for programs and services under federally

assisted programs. It prohibits discrimination in employment, provides

qualified handicapped with opportunities for career advancement, requires

reasonable accommodations to barrier free facilities, to restructured job

elements, to modified equipment, and for readers for the blind or interpreters

,-or the deaf. It also provides for program accessibility and contains

rIquirements relating to providing the handicapped children and youth with a

i.ee appropriate public education including vocational education.

In an omnibus bill in 1978, the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 along with the

DeNelopment Disabilities Act (P.L. 94-143) was again amended. It extended the

ver',3us vocational rehabilitation programs including the basic grant-in-aid to

*.e States, research and training and special projects grant authorities, all

programs previously authorized. It also included new programs designed to

open up more employment opportunities for the disabled. The program entitled

Community Service Employment Program provides full or part-time community

employment to handicapped persons. Pilot projects will be funded which

included training and subsistence payments during the training period, payment

for reasonable work related experiences such as transportation, interpreter

services and the like, placement services in unsubsidized jobs when federal

8 - Si , t- 75,
assistance for the project terminates. The legislation also provides for a

"Projects with Industry Program" for training and employment of handicapped in

a realistic work setting, and establishes a new business opportunities program

for handicapped persons.

The Vocational Rehabilitation Program is an outgrowth of the success of

the rehabilitation of disabled veterans following World War I. In 1920

Congress passed the Vocational Rehabilitation Act-the Smith-Fess Act-which was

a matching State grant program to provide vocational training, counseling and

guidance, prosthetic appliances and job placement to physically disabled

persons. This program proved to be a good start for civilian disabled but was

limited in scope of services and did not apply to the mentally retarded.

Prompted by the manpower needs of World War II in 1943 Congress passed

P.L. 113, the Barden-Lafollette Act, which expanded those eligible for

vocational rehabilitation to the mentally ill and mentally retarded, provided

assistance to State agencies serving the blind, expanded the scope of.services

and liberalized the cost-sharing formula with the States. The 1954 Amendments

radically altered the method of providing basic support to the States

adjusting the cost-sharing formula to the per capita income and size of

population in each State. In 1954 amendments provided funds to expand and

improve workshops, facilities, program administration, research and training

of professional personnel.

Employment and Training

The Comprehensive Employment and Training Act Amendments (P.L. 95-44, and

P.L. 95-524) (CETA) contains legislation relating to the unemployed and

underemployed. The handicapped population is recognized as a major portion of

the unemployed and underemployed. CETA is e direct federal grant program to

all States and cities, counties and combinations of local units with

populations of 100,000 or more. There are over 400 State and local units,

called "prime sponsors" which operate projects or contract with other groups

to provide services.

CETA authorizes a range of services to assist unemployed or underemployed

persons develop job skills and work potential; it provides public service job

759

816
opportunities. Examples of services might include classroom and on-the-job

training, work experience, subsidized jobs with public and private non-profit

agencies, basic education, and support services like child care or health

aids.

The 1978 CETA amendments included a series of provisions specific to the

employment and training of handicapped. Section 306 of Title III of the Act

authorizes the establishment of programs to train personnel to work with and

assist the handicapped, and the establishment of administrative procedures to

meet the special needs of handicapped persons receiving CETA services.

Under the CETA amendments of 1978, the term "handicapped individual" is

defined to mean "any individual who has a physical or mental disability which

for such individual constitutes or results in a substantial handicap to

employment."

As a result of this legislation, more emphasis of the entire program is

on the needs of the handicapped:

1. CETA prime sponsors are required to include in their master

and annual plans descriptions of employment and training

services to handicapped persons.

2. Prime sponsors must describe in the plans affirmative action

steps for outreach, training, placement and advancement of

handicapped persons in CETA, and provide statistical and

descriptive information about its methodology for services to

the handicapped.

3. The planning council and State employment and training

councils are required to include a representative of the

handicapped in their membership.

4. Discrimination on the basis of handicap is prohibited.

5. Prime sponsors are required to take steps to remove

architectural barriers to employment of the handicapped.

The Youth Employment program authorized under CETA also gives more

emphasis to the handicapped category which is a focal area of the

demonstration projects. The Youth Community Conservation and Improvement

Projects and the Youth Employment and Training Program include in their scope

760

81 7
of community improvement activities the removal of architectural barriers in

public facilities. The Job Corps Program which serves 'youth aged 14-22

provides a waiver of the maximum age for the handicapped persons. Summer

Program for Economically Disadvantaged Youth (SPEDY) is also encouraged to

include handicapped youth in its program. In addition, CETA funds are being

used to hire disabled veterans to work in State Employment Service offices to

assist disabled veterans in education, job training, and employment.

Related Programs

In addition to education, vocational rehabilitation, and employment,

Congress in enacting a variety of pieces of legislation has singled out the

special needs of the handicapped. There are now numerous programs benefitting

the handicapped, including many social service and health related programs;

programs specific to disability groups such as the blind, deaf or developmentally disabled; income maintenance programs; programs for disabled

veterans; programs relating to barrier free environments for buildings,

sidewalks, recreation areas, and parks. Special mention should be made of the

provisions in the Housing and Community Development Act which specifies a

number of housing provisions to benefit handicapped persons and the Social

Security Act with its supplemental income provision for disabled persons, and

above all the Elimination of Architectural Barriers Act of 1968 which set

standards for accessibility to buildings and facilities that receive federal

funds. Provision in the Transportation Act have been very important to the

handicapped. The provision of all of these Acts assist the handicapped to

gain more independence in participating in mainstream society and compliment

the efforts of their education, training and employment programs.

Taken together all of the legislative programs are aimed at providing

facilities and services as well as income, which will increase. the

independence of the handicapped in daily living and enhance their opportunity

for participation in activities with the non-handicapped.
State Legislation

In the process of training young handicapped people and overcoming

barriers in the transition of school to work, each of these programs must be

in place and appropriately functioning at the State and community level. The

Federal programs serve as incentives to State and local bodies to restructure

the traditional programs, to blend State and local resources, to redefine

goals and priorities, to accommodate the needs of handicapped youth, even

though they might be severely disabled and give them their rightful place

along with the non-handicapped members of their communities. The operation

and implementation of major programs rests with State and local communities

which must create a partnership with the federal administrations in assisting

handicapped persons within their jurisdiction benefit to the maximum from

federally assisted programs. Because each State along with its local

government bodies has the major responsibility for programs and services

provided to its residents, it will be well to examine examples of local

practices in laws relating to the education and job preparation of handicapped

youth.

Each State has passed its own set of laws relating to the education of

its preschool, elementary, secondary, post-secondary, adult, college,

university and has its own set of compulsory school attendance laws and higher

education programs. While the operation of most of the education programs for

children and youth is the responsibility of local boards of education, each

State provides a proportion of its financing to the local school district for

all children. In relation to the education of its handicapped children, it

has been the custom of States to provide for much of the excess costs. These

financial formulas vary from State to State. Each State has its own

definitions of handicapped children and its own administrative system for

special education as enacted in its statutes. Some States now specify

vocational education and training for the handicapped students. The Michigan

Law is an example of how vocational education for the handicapped is mandated

by State Law. Under Michigan law handicapped persons are eligible for special

education programs and services until age 25. Excerpts from the law follow:

;)

762
"Special education programs and services as used in the act mean

education and training programs designed for handicapped persons

operated by local school districts, the Michigan school for the

blind, the Michigan school for the deaf, department of mental

health, department of social services or any combination thereof,

and ancillary professional services for handicapped persons

rendered by agencies approved by the State board of education."

(Section 10, Act 198, Public Acts of 1971)

"The programs provided shall include vocational training but do not

have to include college or university legal academic programs."

(Section 10, Act 198, Public Acts of 1971)

Summary and Conclusions

-r, Vocational education and the preparation for employment for handicapped

youth is influenced by a variety of recently enacted laws, at both federal and

State levels. The Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 as

amended guarantees a free, appropriate education in the least restrictive

environment to each handicapped child, ages 3 to 21. For those 3 to 5 or

18 to 21 the State must offer educational opportunities equal to those they

offer to non-handicapped students of the same age. The law contains

safeguards to protect the rights of the students and their families and

provisions for due process if they feel their rights are violated. The Act

specifically includes provision for vocational education for handicapped

students. The Vocational Education Act of_1963 as amended defines vocational

education as the preparation of individuals for paid or unpaid employment; and

grants to the states to extend, improve, develop and maintain cacational

education programs, ten percent of which must pay for the excess costs needed

to includeithe handicapped in its vocational education programs. Five percent

of the State's matching funds must also be used for the excess costs for

serving the handicapped. The Rehabilitation Act of 1973 as amended also

provides basic grants to the States for providing counseling and special

services to handicapped individuals to prepare them for employment. Other

legislative provisions benefitting the handicapped which related to vocational

training, job preparation, employment, job placement, and independent living

are the Comprehensive Employment and Training Act, the Higher Education Act,

the Wagner Peyser Act relating to, the Employment Service Programs, the

Architectural Barriers Act, the Transportation Act, the Social Security Act

and the Internal Revenue Act..
States are rapidly enacting legislation to implement or supplement the

provisions of the federal laws.

82

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1
References

Davis, D.; Guzman, J.; Jones, J.; Federal Assistance Guide For Vocational and

Career Education for the Handicapped; U.S. Department of Health, Education and

Welfare; Bureau of Education For the Handicapped; January 1979.

Closer Look; Vocational Education-An End to Dependency; COMMON SENSE FROM

CLOSER LOOK; Summer 1978, Washington, D.C.

Comptroller General of the United States. Report to thv Congress: What is

the Role of Federal Assistance for Vocational Education? U.S. General

Accounting Office, December 31, 1974.

Dodge, Paul E. et Guide to Federal Resources for the Developmentally

Disabled; Federal Program Information and Assistant Project, 1522 K Streets,

N.W. Washington, D.C., 1978.

EMC Institute: An Analytical Review of the Changes in the Rehabilitation Act

of 1973: (PL 93-112, PL 93-516, and PL 94-230) By the Rehabilitation,

Comprehensive Services and Development"Disabilities Amendments of 1978

(PL 95.602); December 1978; Philadelphia, Pa.

Gallaudet College: The Deaf Student in College; 1979, Washington, D.C.

Gollay, Elinor and Bennett, Alwina: The College Guide for Students with

Disabilities; Abt Publications; Cambridge, Mass. 1976.

Goodman, Leroy: A Bill of Rights for the Handicapped; AMERICAN EDUCATION,

June 1976.

Holleran, W.; Foley II, T; Razeghi, J; Hull, M: Vocational Education for the

Handicapped: Resource Guide to Federal Regulations; Texas Regional Resource

Center, 1978.

O'Donnell, Tom: Sources of Law: Right to an Equal Educational Opportunity;

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Rawlings, Brenda, Trybus, Raymond and Biser, James: A Guide to College/Career

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American Association of Collegiate Registrars and Admissions Officers and the

American Council on Education, April 1978, Washington D.C.

Trudeau, Elaine: Digest of State and Federal Laws: Education of Handicapped

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Virginia, 1972.

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U.S. Congress, (94th): Public Law 94-142, Education For All Handicapped Act

of 1975, November 29, 1946.

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Training_Act Amendments of 1978, October 27, 1978.

U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare: Key Federal Regulations

Affecting the Handicapped, 1975-76; May 1977, Washington, D.C.

U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare: Section 504 of .he

Rehabilitation Act of 1973, Handicapped Persons Rights Under Federal Law;

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of Occupational and Adult Education,

Classifying and Servin: the Disadvanta ed

and Welfare: A Summ &ry of Selected

1977-78, May 1979; Washington, D.C.

Welfare, Office of Education, Bureau

RESURGE '79, Manual for Identifying,

and Handica ed Under the Vocational

Educational Amendments of 1976 (P.L. 94-482); September 1979.

U.S. Department of Labor; Employment and Training Administration: Employment

and Training Program Highlights, Facts for the Consumer; 1978, Washington, D.C.

U.S. Senate: Comprehensive Employment and Training Act Amendments of 1978,

Conference Report (To accompany S 2576), October 11, 1978, 95th Congress,

2nd Session Report No. 95-1325.

U.S. Senate: Rehabilitation, Comprehensive Services and Development

Disabilities Act of 1978, Report (To accompany S. 2600), May 15, 1978,

95th Congress, 2nd Session, Report No. 95-890.

U.S. Senate,

Handicapped:

Disabilities

1st Session,

Committee on Labor and Human Resources, Subcommittee on the

Rehabilitation, Comprehensive Services and Developmental

Legislation. A Compilation; August 1979, 96th Congress,

U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 1979.

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CHAPTER II

THE ISSUES

As one reviews and attempts to implement these pieces of legislation in

the best interests of the handicapped and addresses the effort of transition

of youth from school to employment, a number of policy issues come to mind:

1. What are the most effective forms of collaboration among employment,

training, education and rehabilitation institutions in facilitating the

school to work transition sequence?

a) Are there any special collaborative efforts needed for vocational

training and placement of handicapped youth at the post-secondary,

college or university levels?

b) What forms of collaboration and structural arrangements best serve

handicapped young people in terms of placing them in unsubsidized

jobs in the private sector after program completion?

2. How are the disabled person's various individual planning and assessment

plans interrelated so that the in-school individualized plan will

incorporate specific vocational planning objectives?

a) How do these plans determine the special services the student

receives?

b) How do these plans help determine the type of progress the student

is making?

3. What is the state of the art with reference to assessment and measurement

of people with disabilities, particularly as it relates to vocational

interests, aptitudes, work relevant attitudes, self-esteem and social

efficacy?

824

767
4. What kinds of family support services for disabled young people seem to

be most effective in facilitating the student's program objectives and

strengthening the transition process into the employment?

5. What types of work training or job placement experiences seem to effect

these long-term employability?

a) Is there any difference between the relative long-term effects of

skills acquired in the public sector as against the private sector

job placement experience?

b) Is student age a factor in terms of the skill-training and type of

job placement experience and long-term employability?

6. Under what conditions is job restructuring a feasible procedure for

disabled youth?

a) What are some strategies and successful designs that can be

incorporated is the education, training and employment programs to

successfully restructure jobs for individuals with disabilittes?

7. What incentives for private sector employers work best in inducing those

employers to increase their involvement in the training and employment of

disabled young people?

8. What form of participation by disabled individuals or by members of

client or advocacy groups make effective components for projects designed

to serve the needs of disabled young people?

In the pages that follow, the reader will find an indepth analysis of the

state of the art at various levels of policy making which deals with these

issues. The references at the conclusion of each section, the annotated

bibliography, the comprehensive bibliography and other materials have been

compiled in an effort to help the reader gain additional knowledge and

insights. In some cases the writer has provided some discussion and offered

suggestions. However, the area of education, and preparing handicapped youth

825

768
for successful placement within the world of work is so complex, so multi-faceted, so fragmented as well as overlapping, has so many gaps and

problems that easy solutions are not readily conceivable. A committment to

finding and investing in solutions will be a major step forward as we enter

the eighties; and perhaps within the decade society will have classified and

initiated a viable system which assures gainful employment to qualified

handicapped individuals. This paper is dedicated to a forward movement.
CHAPTER III

COORDINATION AND COLLABORATION

Need for Coordination

With so many pieces of legislation at the federal, State and local level

requiring education, training, rehabilitation and support services, all

directed at a disabled person's employability and productivity, there is

indeed need for a viable system of interagency, interdisciplinary coordination

and collaboration. Coordination is needed at each administrative level at

which the program operates at the federal level which provides financial

assistance and mandates certain criteria if the funding is to be given; at the

State level which not only has funding responsibilities and State level

criteria, but also a major responsibility for meeting quality standards; and

finally at the project level where all segments must be brought together and

the day by day activity put into operation. -Coordination and collaboration in

this field is not new in and of themselves; the bringing together of

many-faceted efforts with mutually agreed upon goals and objectives is the

present challenge.

Recognizing the need for a collaborative effort, Congress has written

requiremedts for interagency coordination into the federal legislation. In

order to effectively implement the coordinated effort in relation to

CETA programs for handicapped youth, it would be well to review some of the

recent efforts among federal program administrators in coordinating the

efforts at education and training handicapped youth for productive employment.

Legislative Mandates for Coordination

The goal of the CETA youth employment program is the ultimate placement

of young handicapped people in unsubsidized jobs of the labor market hopefully

in the private sector. The legislation has been written with this objective

in mind. CETA legislation recognizes that among the important steps to be

taken to implement this objective is coordination with other programs. The

CETA law requires any State seeking financial assistance under this Act to
submit a Governor's coordination and special services plan to the Secretary of

Labor. The Act calls for the plan to include

coordination of employment, training, education, and related

services by providers of such services;

coordination of programs financed under the Wayne Peyser Act

relating to employment security avoiding duplication of services;

facilitating and fostering activities of the State Occupational

Information Coordinating Committee established under the Vocational

Act.

The Act further recognizes the need to relate the CETA program and the

Education for Handicapped Act provisions, and Section 504 of the

Rehabilitation Act of 1973, stating in Section 306 of Title II ". . .there is

need for people to provide the special supportive services and removal of

architectural barriers required by these Acts."

Similarly in the regulations for the Vocational Education Amendments

of 1968, there are specific requirements for cooperative arrangements with the

public employment services, with state agencies responsible for the education

of the handicapped, with other appropriate agencies and organizations, and

institutions, and with other states. The guidelines for the implementation of

these Amendments list more than thirty agencies and categories of

organizations that would be appropriate subjects for cooperative agreements

serving the handicapped.

Levels of Coordination

It must be emphasized that coordination takes place at many levels and

within-different functions of service. The literature reveals wealth and

variety of efforts at coordination. The effectiveness of outcomes of these

efforts seems to be directly proportional to the committment of the

individuals and groups involved. Where bureaucracy becomes too inflexible or

indifferent to the goals of the collaboration, the coordination effort tends
to break down. Changes in key personnel or department administrative

structure also tend to effect the success of the cooperative efforts.

Listed below are a few of the examples of coordinated efforts at various

levels that relate to the vocational, education, training, and employment

area. Federal interagency committee and task forces in behalf of special

education, vocational education and training, and rehabilitation of

the handicapped;

Interdepartmental committees in behalf of children and youth;

National and regional conferences

Cooperative efforts among representatives of National organizations

concerned with special education, vocational education,

rehabilitation, employment

Federal, State and local advisory councils

State committees and task forces on interagency and

interdiscipli ry coordination

Local governmental task forces and coordination committees

Local public 'nd private agency committees aimed at coordination

Interdepartmental committees within the school department,

vocational rehabilitation department, or employment agency

Meetings of concerned personnel and citizens to develop a specific

project

Meetings of concerned staff and parents to discuss the total

planning needs of a vocational education student

772 82
Studies on Coordination Relating to Vocational Education

Examples of the effectiveness of some of the above typesif coordination

relating to vocational education for the handicapped is found in the

1974 report of a comprehensive study by the Olympus Research Corporation.

This study was an assessment of vocational education fpr the handicapped in

which the investigators researched programs in twenty-five States through

administrators of State level programs, studying 100 local projects within the

sample States, and making case studies by interviewing students, their parents

and employers. The overfill findings in regard to the State level coordination

efforts were not too encouraging. In its section on "Relationships with other

agencies" the report states:

The state level assessment indicated that although cooperative

relationships existed between divisions of vocational education and

divisions of special education- -and in'a few states, departments of

vocational rehabilitation--in most states even these were

relatively nonproductive, and for all practical purposes,

relationships with other agencies were nonexistent.

In Minnesota, a coordinator was jointly funded by vocational

education and special education. The sole responsibility of the

person occupying this position was to coordinate the activities of

the two agencies in vocational programming for the handicapped. In

eight other states, persons occupying other positions (either in

vocational education or special education) were assigned the

coordinating responsibility. In still another twelve states, the

only relationship that existed between the two agencies was that

special education was given the opportunity to review all proposals

for vocational education projects for handicapped. In the

remaining four states, there were no formal relationships between

the two agencies.

Formal relationships existed with departments of vocational

rehabilitation in fourteen states. However, only seven of these

agreements actually resulted in provision of services by vocational

rehabilitation to students enrolled in Part V set-aside program.

Among the services provided by vocational rehabilitation in the

seven states were: placement, counseling, student evaluation,

planning assistance, purchase of services not otherwise available,

and occasional joint funding of projects. Agreements with

vocational rehabilitation were nonexistent in eleven states.

There appeared to be a lack of agreement among state programs

officers as to whether vocational rehabilitation can legitimately

provide supportive and additional services to secondary level

handicapped vocational educational students. The most common
explanation for the lack of direct involvenment by vocational

rehabilitation was that its client population is of an older age

group. However, the fact that in at least seven states vocational

rehabilitation did provide services to students in the set-aside

program indicates that similar agreement could be reached in other

states.

Only four states reported agreements with the employment service, and of

these only two produced a significant amount of activity. Agreements with

other agencies were so few as to be insignificant.

According to the many articles and reports on coordination, it appears

that the most effective effort takes place at the local agency operational

level where committed agency personnel get together to arrange a program for a

handicapped individual or group of handicapped persons. These are cases where

the anticipated outcomes are clearly defined and there is group participation

in the cooperative strategies to be followed in achieving pre-agreed upon

objectives. The'literature review reveals a number of examples of these

efforts. For example, the Olympus study reports that based on interviews with

local special education administrators in 25 states, where 100 vocational

education projects were studied, that in

several states special education administrators made the point

that, while special education input into vocational education

programming was minimal or merely pro forma at the state level, a real working relationship was evolving at the local level. In its

project visits (the investigators) found that working relationships

did, indeed, usually exist at the local level. In fact, in several

instances the two agencies were so closely intermingled in projects

that it was nearly impossible to separate them for analytical

purposes. Rarely was special education's presence not felt in

local projects. This development was spurred in several states by

legislation that requires the participation of special education

personnel (among others) in the identification and classification

of handicapped individuals, and in program planning. One

vocational education program officer noted that such requirements

of local levels of operation made closer relationships at state

level inevitable.*

*Olympus Final Report, Page 36

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83
Mechanisms for Coordination

Although there is much wishful thinking for collaboration as described

above, it is apparant that local operators can coordinate and collaborate only

to the extent that administrative policy within which they operate has

designed mechanisms for coordination. This not only includes mechanisms for

joint funding, but for policy making and accountability. In an effort where

several independent individuals, groups or agencies combine for a larger

expanded program in which each segment provides his area of expertise to

achieve a large objective in behalf of a client, an overall administrative

mechanism must be designed to determine the total effect of the joint effort

and the next steps to be taken. This process often takes the form of a joint

committee or planning council.

Much of the effort in coordination in relation to vocational training for

the handicapped has been in the form of cooperative agreement among the

respective agencies. This process has been tried in the past at various

administrative levels with varying degrees of success. At the present time

due in good part to the legislative mandates, there is again a strong trend

toward implementation of inter-agency cooperative agreements. The next

section will describe some of these efforts.

Cooperative Agreements

The literature review contains a number of efforts at cooperative

agreements beginning in the 1960's. There seems to be evidence that where

cooperative agreements were in effect between vocational rehabilitation and

special education many students were trained in vocational competancies and

successfully placed in jobs. However, the practice was not very widespread in

school systems because vocational rehabilitation agencies usually worked with

older clients or waited until young people had left school. It was basically

through the initiative of a vocational rehabilitation agency that the early

cooperative agreements with special education came into being. Consciencious

vocational rehabilitation counselors responding to the pleas of dedicated

special education teachers who wanted to help their students be trained for

jobs worked together under formal agreedeAts. The Vocational Rehabilitation

775

832
Act P.L. 93-112 required that the annual Vocational Rehabilitation State Plan

contain a cooperative arrangen,nt with certain named agencit=, including

Veterans Administration, public welfare and public employment offices and

"other Federal, State and local public agencies providing services related to

the rehabilitation of handicapped individuals. . ." The benefits of

cooperative agreements between special education and vocational rehabilitation

began to appear in policy documents. In 1960 a publication of the President's

Panel on Mental Retardation entitled A Proposed Program For National Action To

Combat Mental Retardation recommended and provided guidelines for action to

implement cooperative programs is rehabilitation and special education for the

mentally retarded. In 1965 the State of Illinois issued Guidelines for

Cooperative Vocational Services stating. . ."to secure meaningful service

programs throughout the State, it is necessary to have both a well planned

community special education program at the secondary level and a statewide

structures approach with formal agreemen ..s between State departments and local

school districts . . ." Recognizing the need for cooperation in vocational services to the

handicapped between rehabilitation, special education and vocational

education, a joint circular was issued in 1967 and sent to the respective

state directors by the Commissioner of the U.S. Office of Education and the

administrator of the U.S. Social and Rehabilitation Service setting forth the

need for cooperative planning between the three agencies at the state level

responsible for administrating these programs. This began to sharpen the

issue at the state and local level as the pressure was on for providing

secondary education for handicapped students or keeping handicapped students

in school beyond the age of 16.

The early efforts were in effect before the Education for All Handicapped

Act was enacted during which time most handicapped students within the

educational systems were in special classes. Few educational systems were

required to keep handicapped beyond the age of 16 or 18, thus comparatively

few secondary special education programs existed. During the 1960's and early

1970's secondary vocational training courses specific to the educable mentally

retarded or physically handicapped came into being in many communities. Some

of these were triggered by the efforts of local voluntary organizations such

776 833
as affiliates of the Association for Retarded Citizens or United Cerebral

Palsy Association or Society for Crippled Children and Adults. Some centers

were developed by public schools. The State vocational rehabilitation agency

usually cooperated in the work evaluation and training of these young people.

Placement in ultimate employment usually depended upon the ingenuity of the

staff who made arrangements with the business or industrial community to

employ their trainees. A large number of graduates of these programs were

placed in sheltered workshops. Many communities still follow these models

today, although there is some evidence of changing patterns and vocational

educational opportunities in less restrictive settings.

Major efforts are taking place at the federal level to implement

cooperative agreements. In 1977 in order to assist the State in complying

with the intent of the education and rehabilitation legislation, a joint

memorandum from the Commissioner of Education and the Commissioner of the

Rehabilitation Services was sent to State directors of the Vocational

Rehabilitation Agencies and Chief State School officers on collaboration

between education and vocational rehabilitation agencies. In this memorandum

they recognized passed effOrts for the agencies to cooperate, but emphasized

the expanding responsibilities which have been given to states for serving

handicapped persons under the EHA, VE amendments and Section 504 of the RA.

The Commissioners suggested the pursuance of new approaches to collaboration

through which it is neccessary to assure:

a) that handicapped persons eligible for services under the

respective Acts receive all appropriate services for which

they are eligible;

b) That all agencies administrating these Laws understand that

eligibility under one Law should not in and of itself result

in a denial of complimentary services under another of these

c) that Federal agencies involved are fully committed to aiding

the State and local agencies engage in coordinated services

delivery for handicapped persons.

The memorandum contained a series of examples and appropriate activities

under each law for integrating education and vocational rehabilitation. It

encouraged cooperative approaches for implementing the student's

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834
individualized education plan (IEP) along with the individualized written

rehabilitation plan (IWRP). It also specified cooperative efforts relating to

state plans, personnel preparation and joint programming.

In December of 1978 a second joint letter from the same Commissioners was

sent to the State agencies requesting the States to initiate new interagency

agreements among the respective agencies. Principal legislative references

were cited which needed the attention of the States in developing cooperative

agreements. The memorandum attempted to highlight and clarify concerns and

controversial sections of these pieces of legislation so that cooperative

arrangement could be more easily developed. The memorandum indicated the

national collaborative effort which had been developing interagency

collaborative efforts from the U.S. Office of Education, the Rehabilitation

Services Administration, and representatives from three major national

organizations--namely the Council of State Administrators of

Rehabilitation (CSAVR), the National Association of State Directors of Special

Education (NASDE) and the National Association of State Directors of Vocation

Education (NASDE).

Office of Education (CE)/Rehabilitation Services Administration (RSA)

As a result of the formation of an OE /RSA Task Force including

representatives from CSAVR, NASDE, and NASDVE a national workshop was held in

February 1979 in Washington, D.C. for the development of comprehensive

secondary programming and rehabilitation for the handicapped. The goal of

this conference was to facilitate the delivery of appropriate comprehensive

career, vocational, special education and rehabilitation services to the

secondary and post-secondary handicapped individuals. The focus of the

workshop was on state level coordination. A workshop document was prepared

which stated, "The development and implementation of cooperative service

agreements at the state level is the first step in facilitating interagency

cooperation."

A position statement on Comprehensive Vocational Education for

Handicapped Persons by the Commissioner of Education, Dr. Ernest L. Boyer, was included in the conference document. Dr. Boyer states

778835
We find them (young handicapped adults) ill prepared for a productive life outside the school environment. We are responsible

for that because a large number of handicapped students leave the

educational system without basic occupational skills. This lack of

preparation contributes to the problem of unemployed handicapped

adults,"

Dr. Boyer made a strong plea for formal cooperative agreements and committment

by the agencies involved.

The workshop document also contains a description.of technical assistance

and resources available from the Bureau of Occupational and Adult

Education (BOAE), the Bureau of Education for the Handicapped (BEH), and the

Rehabilitation Service Administration (RSA).

Other Examples of Cooperative Agreements

Other types of formal agreements being arranged which demonstrate viable

mechanisms for meaningful interagency collaboration aimed at education,

training, rehabilitation, and ultimate employment of handicapped persons.

These activities are efforts not only to cooperate efforts at the service

delivery, but include research and development endeavors and the preparation

of interdisciplinary personnel. Although these programs may not necessarily

be specific to the needs of youth, the outcomes of these activities would

benefit persons of all ages, including youth. A few significant examples of

these efforts are described below.

1. An interagency agreement between the National Institute of mental

Health (NIMH) and the Rehabilitation Services Administration was

issued on May 31, 1978. The agreement was prepared in conjunction

and endorsed by the National Association of State Mental Health

Program Directors, the National Council of Community Mental Health

Centers and the Council of State Administrators of Vocational

Rehabilitation. The purpose of this agreement is to set forth

principles in guiding agencies to establish relationships and

operational plans "on an effectively coordinated and integrated

basis without duplication of effort."

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836
2. On August 4, 1978 the NIMH and the RSA signed another joint

agreement jointly funding the first RSA Research and Training Center

for the rehabilitation of mentally handicapped individuals. In

September 1979 Boston University, Sargent College of Allied Health

Professions received the award to establish the Boston University

Mental Health Research and Training Center. National problems in

identifying and rehabilitating severely disabled persons who are

handicapped as a result of mental health problems "will be

identified collaboratively" by national, state and community mental

health support programs. Emphasis will be placed in coordinated

research :And training activities "designed to develop the most

effective personnel in programs for evaluating, counseling,

vocational training, work placement, follow-along and community

retention services for the mentally ill population."

3. HEW has made cm award in October 1979 to the University of

Wisconsin, Wisconsin Vocational Studies Center on vocational

education models for linking agencies serving the handicapped. This

project will concentrate on state agency linkages.

4. The Regional Rehabilitation Research Institute (RRRI) at the

University of Denver's Center for Social Research and Development is

concentrating on continual research in interagency linkages. The

RRRI plans to conduct site visits to collect data Ln innovative

linkage mechanisms, develop a conceptual framework/matrix for

developing linkage strategies; establish a repository of information

and training materials on inter-agency linkages and coordination.

It also plans to provide technical assistance on coordination.

Barriers and Facilitators to Cooperative Action

The multifaceted aspects of coordination in the process of an integrated

service delivery system for providing rehabilitation and training to the

handicapped is succinctly described and discussed in a paper prepared by

Edward C. Baumheier, Director of the RRRC in July 1979. The paper is

entitled, Interagency Cooperation and Utilization of Similar Benefits In

780 83 7
the Delivery of Vocational Rehabilitation Services. He discusses coordination

from the focal point of the rehabilitation counselor, with "similar benefits"

meaning services provided through a variety of different agencies. The paper

offers mechanisms for coordination and alternative types of interagency

linkages and cooperative arrangements in providing multi-agency services to

handicapped. He identifies barriers as well as facilitators to cooperative

actions. He lists some of the barriers as:

"Inadequate understandings of other agencies services roles,

operational procedures, organizational channels and proper points

of staff contact in regard to client services;

"insufficient communication among service delivery personnel and

supervisors at the client level;

"lack of interagency case planning, management or follow up;

"inadequate interagency training in multiagency (plans) with

multiproblem clients;

"lack of administrative leadership and orientation toward

cooperation at substate supervisory levels whose support and

resource development are necessary;

"1Pck of clearly defined interagency procedures, for example, in

such areas as referral and information exchange;

"d!.fferencEs in agency policies and philosophies;

"different expectations of progress or success for clients;

"perceived threats to agency autonomy."

Some of the facilitators listed include:

"development of state agency capacity for comprehensive services

planning;

"top-level administrative commitment to the principles and practices

of interagency cooperation, with such commitment clearly visible

and credible to staff members thrwaghout both agencies;

"opportunities for professional workers to express their doubts and

concerns about the cooperative orogram;

"good experience in the actual implementation of joint programs and

successful service deli ;ery (.o cl.ents;

781

838
"legitimation of the interagency planning and programs by general

purpose government;

"frequent communication among participants in joint programs,

especially at the supervisory and direct service providor levels;

"continuous monitoring and evaluation, with appropriate mechanisms

or solving problems as they arise;

"allocation of sufficient staff time and other resources to the

development and implementation of the joint program."

Linkage Mechanisms

Baumheier discusses some of the taxonomies of linkages applicable to

interagency cooperation and coordination and presents a list of forty linkage.

mechanisms in the areas of policy management, administrative and service

delivery linkage mechanisms. Based on research of linkage mechanisms, which

includes case studies at sites in six states, a set of twenty conclusions are

reached which impact on the development of cooperative relationships in the

provision of services to the handicapped. He summarizes as follows:

"In summary, the provision of a unified, comprehensive program of

services for the handicapped, requires the development of a network

delivery system based on interagency linkages established to assure

access to the full array of services necessary for the clients

under the purview of the VR system. Strong leadership and advocacy

are essential to the establishment of an effective inter-agency

system. Skillful negotiation and development of effeaiveinteragency agreements, including committment to specified levels

of service activity are necessary for the acquisition of essential

services within the context of scarce community resources. Effective case management, which is necessary to make the system

operate optimally at the service delivery level, requires

assurances, support, and incentives from higher organizational

levels. In addition to skilled case management there exists a wide

variety of interagency linkage mechanisms which may be applicable

to the development of a cooperative system of services for the

handicapped. In the final analysis the critical test of an

effective multiagency service delivery system is whether the range

of services necessary to service the client group under

consideration is readily available and whether the application of

these services achieve the client-oriented objectives effectively,

efficiently, and economically. The goal must focus on achieving

the maximum degree of independence of the agencies and services

comprising the delivery system."

7828

9
Coordination of CETA and Vocational Rehabilitation Services

During 1975 a training course (Course 305, Category III) was prepared and

conducted by the Department of Labor's Manpower Training Institute (MTI),

Region I in Boston, Massachusetts, on coordination of manpower training and

vocational rehabilitation services. Recognizing the need to become

knowledgeable of services available to the handicapped and avoid duplication,

the major goal of the workshop wes to inform both CETA prime sponsors and

vocational rehabilitation agencies of their respective roles and

responsbilities regarding the handicapped. Another goal was for CETA and VR

to jointly determine what is required to effectively coordinate services on a

local level so that the new result is an increase in services to eligible

handicapped clients.

As a result of the workshop, its sponsors in cooperation with A.L. Nullum

and Associates, a consulting firm which cooperated in conducting the workshop,

prepared a comprehensive packet of the various materials used in the workshop

for dissemination to participants and others. It contained summaries of the

key presentations and discussions as well as 'reasons for implementation of

activities. Some of the issues raised at the workshop included:

problems associated with communication, coordination and cooperation

implementing the 100% federal funding authority to VR under the

Social Security Act amendments to rehabilitate persons on social

security disability insurance who could become reemployed and no

longer need social security payments

expanding VR services

providing VR services only if there is a reasonable expectation that

this effort would result in a handicapped person's becoming

employed.

84P0
the requirement that the annual VR state plan contain cooperative

agreements with other agencies serving the handicapped, thus

creating a clear mandate for VR to cooperate with CETA;

overcoming the optimism of the 1960's with its commitment to

providing human services as against the realities of the 197114 with

economic and energy problems which caused inflition and unemployment

and in turn difficulties and constraints in effectively conducting

human service programs.

Status of CETA

Before concluding this section on coordination, it might be well to take

a look specifically at the current state of the art relating to employment by

the Comprehensive Employment and Training program, rehabilitation, and special

education. The coordination efforts of CETA with vocational rehabilitation

and other agencies to promote jobs for the handicapped appear to be in its

infancy. During the first fifteen months of CETA the enrollment rate of

handicapped persons was four percent of all persons enrolled in Title

s

programs, less than three percent of those in public service jobs in Title II

and IV, and for disabled vererans under Title I only one half of one percent.

This low incidence is attributed to major problems prime sponsors face in

identifying persons defined as handicapped and their lack of knowledge and

experiences as to how to set up appropriate programs. Conditions vary in

different geographic regions as to the extent to which handicapped persons

have been served--i.e., rural vs. urban, or west vs. east.

Ron Jones' article entitled

CETA's Problems with Hiring the Handicapped in WORKLIFE, May 1977, recommends

that ftr purposes of identifying potential handicapped recipients that prime

sponsors "work with welfare vocational rehabilitation, and other social

service persons." In helping prime sponsors to deal with the many variations

of employability problems of the handicapped the author proposes "assembling

classes of similarly handicapped" or earmarking CETA slots specifically for

handicapped, and undertaking "outreach efforts" to inform potential recipients

of CETA services. The article emphasizes that expenses may be reduced through

784 84
joint efforts with vocational rehabilitation and other social service agencies

that can "provide supportive services needed to move handicapped workers into

jobs." Other recommendations proposed by the author include a) using CETA

public service employment slots "to hire workers who help promote interagency

linkages for employment of the handicapped; b) developing cooperative programs

between prime sponsors and other agencies to study CETA employment problems

such as CETA dropouts."

Lack of Focus On YouthwoLk for Handicapped

The literature search revealed few articles outside of the special

education field devoted to the con2erative efforts in the facilitation of

school to work transition. Writings i-a the fields of rehabilitation and

employment for the handicapped do not 'focus on youth needs but rather deal

with general aspects of training and employing handicapped persons, including

youth. The emphasis on preparing and training handicapped individuals for the

general world of work and of non-discriminatory treatment is gaining access to

training and employment programs is relatively new.

Numerous articles describe special education programs in cooperation with

vocational rehabilitation counselors developing good models in school to work

transition, but only in ;.td.i.':t14 cases. The work experience vocational

component of these training -,1.:tivitics has been usually coneined to developing

secondary or occupati'rzl proams within the schc;l system for the

handicapped with simul:,,:ed 4or;k;hops in such areas as food preparation,

laundry, clerical skil!s, and retailing. Another, more common practice,

however, was for the st..ze:',1-1 ':school or teacher to arrange through the

vocational rehabilitatiot. .camilor for the student to receive job training in

the community sheltered -,:kshop. Most of th!0_ .r.orkshops are sponsored by

voluntary organizations such as Go)dwill Industfec, Associations for Retarded

Citizens, Cerebr41 Palsy Asmociations, and arrem-:1.51 are mae, student

training under purchase of service contract: by ti .J4cational Ethabilitation

agency.

In regard to ultimate placement, many of these models provided for a

placement specialist on the staff of the school or sheltered workshop who

785

842
works with employers in both public and private sectors such as restaurant

chains, laundry establishments, or business firms for ultimate placement of

trainees in unsubsidized jobs. Many placement officers developed linkages

with the community chambers of commerce, business and manufacturing

associations, labor unions oad civic organizations such as Kiwanis Clubs to

enlist their cooperation in the placement efforts.

Summary and Conclusions

It is obvious that there is a tremendous amount of concern, attention,

discussion, thought, effos, and attempts at coordination and collaboration

in servicing the needs of the handicapped. Coordination and collaboration is

needed at many levels with a flexible horizontal flow of collaboration, up and

down the administrative and policy makirlg ladders, as well as a horizontal

flow across different deD,ttments, agencies and disciplines. It is a complex,

often puzzling and t-- ,:r. frustrati process to blend goals, ideas, funds,

staff programs in behalf ol impcc,ring services and avoiding duplication of

effort and resources.

Many successful efforts h.va been tried and there is evidence to indicate

that up to now the most successful activities have been accomplished at the

local operational level. However, it is noted that accompanying successful

coordinated program tvgh been commitment from higher administrative levels.

The consensus of feeaog is that coordination and collaborative efforts are needed for vocat.k;%al training and placement of handicapped youth at all

levels of training, secondary, post-secondary, college or university. Up

until recently the focal point for coordination of services for education,

training and rehabilitation of youth has been with the rehabilitation agency,

although there ha.e been evidence of efforts by the education and employment

training policy makers. Most of these formal efforts to date

clients have been at the secondary level, as the college and

clients appear to fall into the general adult category of persons

vocational rehabilitation counselors and are not singled out as

coordinated interagency cooperative agreement.

786 843

for young

university

served by

such for
A number of forms of collaboration and structural arrangements which have

effectively served the interests of handicapped young people have been

described, such as special in-school workshop training facilities and

sheltered workshops. However, it is obvious that with the present emphasis on

equal opportunity for the handicapped trainees to participate in programs with

the non-handicapped and the creations of barrier free environments that we are

beginning to see new models of interagency cooperative arrangements involving

the private sector in the planning and implementation of these arrangements.

Some of these newer trends will be discussed in the next sections of this

report.

787

844
References

Baumheier, Edward C.: Interagency Cooperation and Utilization of Similar

Benefits in the Delivery of Vocational Rehabilitation Services; Paper

prepared for the National Training Workshop on Similar Benefits; Improving

Services for the Handicapped through Coordination of Rehabilitation Programs,

July, 1979, Denver, Colorado; Regional Rehabilitation Research Institute.

Boyer, Ernest L. and Humphreys, Robert E.: Collaboration Between Education

and Vocational Rehabilitation Agencies, Memorandum, October 17, 1977;

Department of Health, Education and Welfare.

Boyer, Ernest L. and Humphreys, Robert E.: Development of Formal Cooperative

Agreements Between Special Education, Vocational Rehabilitation, and Vocational

Education Programs to Maximize Services to Handicapped Individuals; Memorandum,

November 21, 1979, Department of Health, Education and Welfare; Office of

the Secretary.

Goodman, Elizabeth M.: Vocational Education for the Handicapped, A

Cooperative Approach; REHABILITATION LITERATURE July, 1969, Vol. 30, No. 7.

Goodman, Elizabeth M.: Implementating Effective Coordination of Programs

For the Handicapped; EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN, March 1968.

Guzman, J; Wahrman, M.; Holloran, W.: Interagency Cooperation, A Process

Model for Establishing Interagency Cooperative Services Agreements to Serve

Secondary School Students; January 1979; National Workshop for the Development

of Comprehensive Secondary Programming and Rehabilitation Services for the

Handicapped, February 1979, Washington, D.C.

Hensley, Gene and Buck, Dorothy: Cooperative Agreements Between Special

Education and Rehabilitation Services in the West; Western Interstate Commission

for Higher Education, June 1969, Boulder, Colorado.

Humphreys, Robert E.: Mental Health Coordination, INFORMATION MEMORANDUM

RSA-IM-78-69, August 4, 1978, Department of Health, Education and Welfare,

Office of Human Development Services, Washington, D.C.

Jones, Ron: CETA's Problem with Hiring the Handicapped; WORKLIFE, May 1977,

U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration.

Olympus Research Corporation: An Assessment of Vocational Education Programs

for the Handicapped Under Part B of the

1968 Amendments to the Vocational Education Act, Final Report, October 1974;

Salt Lake City, Utah and San Francisco, California.

U.S. Department of Labor, Manpower Administration: Coordinating CETA and

Vocational Rehabilitation Services, FY '75 Course 305, Category III, Course

Packet No. 530, Boston Massachusetts.

U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration: Placing

Handicapped Applicants; An Employment Service Hag book; Washington, D.C.

ocio

788
CHAPTER IV

INDIVIDUALIZED PLANS

Legislating Individualized Planning

The concept of individualized planning for developing a course of action

for a handicapped individual by professional personnel is not new. Teachers,

therapists, and others have in the past developed prescriptive methods to meet

what appeared to be the needs of their students or clients. This provided

them with a basis for accountability to determine if the methods that they

used were effective. For example, diagnostic-prescriptive methods have been

used by special education teachers for the last several years. What is new at

the present time is the fact that this type of approach to meeting the needs

of the handicapped has been incorporated in various pieces of legislation, and

the provision of this approach in the implementation of the law is a condition

for receiving the funds. The laws for each program also tend to require that

the individualized plan under one program be formulated in consulation with

other programs, the purpose of which is to encourage joint planning in behalf

of an individual handicapped person by recipients of various funding sources.

Let us examine some of these various legislative provisions for

individualized plans. School administrations which are recipients of funds

from the Education For. All Handicapped Act (EHA) must _arrange for the

development of an individualized education plan (IEP) for' each identified

handicapped child, even if the child is placed in a class wittnan-handicapped

children. The special education staff is responsible for the development of

this plan. When the student enters the secondary level, he/she is entitled

under the Vocational Education Act Amendments to an opportunity to be trained

for an occupation. Thus the IEP at this level for a handicapped student must

include plans for his/her career or vocation. The vocational education plan

is referred to as the "IVP." The Vocational Rehabilitation Act Amendments

require for each client served under the Act that there be developed an

individualized written rehabilitation plan, (IWRP). In addition, under the

provisions of Title VI, Section 903 of the 1978 Rehabilitation, Comprehensive
Services and Developmental Disabilities Act relating to "severely handicapped"

individuals benefiting from this Title, 'that there be developed an individualized written program (IWP).

With this array of individualized plans, it behooves service delivery

systems involved with the same students or clients to work as a team in the

preparation of these plans. There must be a sharing of assessment materials,

of involvement of the client and his or her parents or guardian when dealing

with young people, and input from representatives of the discipline involved

in the medical treatment or supportive service areas.

Several manuals have been prepared detailing the processes for preparing

each of the plans. An analysis of the suggestions and explanations contained

in some of these plans are expected to be formulated and to operate. Under

the requireinent for an IEP the law states that each local agency shall insure

that an IEP is provided for each handicapped student receiving special

education. It must be reviewed and if approved revised annually. The special

education administrator is responsible for contacting parents about the

necessity of an IEP, arranging for meetings of appropriate participants,

planning the contents of the IEP, insuring the inclusion of a vocational

education component in the plan when student is ready for vocational

education, insuring input in the IEP from persons from various agencies

providing supportive services. As a result of the IEP approach placement of

the student is determined and signatures of parents are obtained.

The flexibility of the IEP process makes it possible for advanced

planning to take place prior to the final IEP meeting and obtaining pertinent

information from the various disciplines and agencies working with the

student. The local educational agency needs to develop policies which assure

the maximum participation of these groups. The law (P.L. 94-142) requires the

following persons to participate in the; meeting for developing,

reviewing or revising a student's IEP.

1) A qualified representative of the local education agency's special

education department other than the student's teacher;

790

847
2) The student's teacher; (One or more teachers may be designated when

a student has more than one teacher)

3) One or both of the student's parents (A meeting may be held without

a parent if attempts to involve one has been unsuccessful and

records maintained for arranging-the meetings at a mutually agreed

upon time and place)

4) The student, when appropriate;

5) Other individuals at the discretion of the parent or agency.

The content of the IEP should indicate the degree to which the student

can participate in regular vocational education and the special or modified

vocational education program he/she requires. Some of the major IEP

components required by P.L. 94-142 are:

1) Present level of student's education performance

2) Annual goals and short term instructional objectives

3) Special education and related services to be provided and the extent

to which student will be able to participate in regular educational

programs;

4) An annual evaluation indicating the extent to which instructional

objectives are achieved.

Several models have been developed for the writing of IEP's. For

example, the model proposed by the National Association of State Directors of

Special Education suggests that there be at least two distinct levels of IEP

development, 1) a total service plan, and 2) the individual implementation

plan. The total service plan includes area:, of educatioual need and present

level of performance, long range goals and annual goals, recommended

placement, support services, and personnel responsible for IEP implementation.

The implementation plan includes instructional objectives, methods and
materials to be used, lesson plans and student evaluations, instruction tasks

and other designs and devices used by the teacher.

Vocational Education Planning

The Vocational Education Act requires the State Education Agency to

insure that funds for vocational programs for the handicapped parallel the

State Plan submitted under EHA and that each handicapped student's vocational

education program be planned and coordinated as part of his/her IEP developed

under the EHA. Thus means that the vocational education teacher has the

responsibility to define those activities the handicapped student will be

participating in and identify the support services needed to carry out those

activities in the student's regular vocational education program. The

vocational education component should include modifications adaptations or instruction and equipment and supportive or related services that are necessary for the student's participation in vocational education. Key

personnel who have information concerning the student's vocational education

interests, aptitudes and potential career capabilities could be contacted for

the vocational planning. This could include the vocational education

supervisor, the vocational evaluator, specialists involved in vocational

assessment as well as any vocational teacher to whom the student would be

assigned.

The National Center for Research in Vocational Education at Ohio State

University has prepared a manual describing the processes through which

vocational educators have input into the IEP development and implementation.

The individualized Written Rehabilitation Plan ( WRP)

The individualized written rehabilitation plan (IWRP) is a plan requirLd

under the vocational rehabilitation services and requires parent or guardian

involvement and agreement to the plan. Under the Vocational Rehabilitational

Act as amended a handicapped individual is defined as "any individual who has

a physical or mental disability which for such individual constitutes or

results in a substantial handicap to employment and can reasonably be expected

to benefit in terms of employability from vocational rehabilitation provided

449
pursuant to Titles I and III of the Act." This definition provides the basis

for eligibility for vocational rehabilitation

specific services which

rehabilitation potential,

can be provided

services.

such as There is a list ofan evaluation of

counseling and guidance including follow-up after

placement, vocational and training services necessary for adjustment to

training, certain types of physical and mental restorative systems, some maintenance, interpreter services for deaf and reader services for blind,

occupational licenses, tools and initial supplies, transportation for

vocational rehabilitation telecommunications and other technical aids.

The IWP must include a time table and a schedul- n2rvices to be

provided. Beyond the evaluation process, services car re provided when

there is a reasonable expectation that these service:. result in a

handicapped individual becoming suitably employed based on an agreed upon

judgement by the handicapped individual and rehabilitation counselor. When

this agreement is reached the kinds of services to be provided with time

tables are developed for the IWRP.

Some of the services are provided directly by the rehabilitation agency,

some are purchased and some secured by entering into cooperative agreements

with other agencies. Under a financial needs test, the extent to which the

State vocational agency provides full or partial payment for purchased

services is related to the financial need of the client.

The Office of Education/Rehabilitation Services Administration On Cooperative

Planning

With the development of the OE /RSA Task Force on cooperative planning in

the area of special education, vocational education and vocational rehabilitation services, a close examination is being made of the individualized

planning processes required by federal laws and regulations. Based on this

activity we can expect that there will soon be clarification and refinement of

this practice: It is anticipated that cooperative monitoring of IEP's, IVPs

and IWRP's and possibly IHP's (individual habilitation plans) will be

developed. The mechanisms for cooperative monitoring of these plans also

would be developed. The Task Force has already suggested that where there is

793

8.50.
a duplication or overlapping of services, that the State through its

agreements will be responsible for indicating which agency will have primary

responsibility for service delivery and under which specific circumstances.

The Developmental Disabilities Individual Habilitation Plan (IHP)

Another related program which requires an individualized plan is the

Developmental Disabilities Act Program (DDA). Under this Act the term

"developmental disability" means "a severe, chronic disability which is

attributable to a mental or physical impairment or combination of mental and

physical impairments which is manifested before age 22; which is likely to

continue indefinitely; which results in substantial functional limitations in

certain specified areas; which reflects the need for 7:felong, individually

planned services." The definition of " services for the developmentally

disabled" includes four priority services: case management services, child

development services, alternative community living arrangement services, and

nonvocational social-development services. The law requires that for each

person receiving services funded under the DD program, that there be an

individualized habilitat plan (IHP), This is a written agreement between a

disabled person and a service provided in which the plan sets forth a

prescription for a program which is tailored to an individual's need. It

defines mutual goals and objectives of the service program and the strategies

for attaining these goals. It states how multiple services are expected to be

coordinated and who will be responsible for implementing and coordinating the

service plan.

Other Individual Plans

This concept of requiring service agencies to specify in writing how

programs will be tailored to meet individual needs is included in several

other major Federal programs which serve the handicapped including Title XX

Social Service Program and Title XVI of the Supplemental Security Income Child

Referral Program of the Social Security Act.

851

794
Issues Relating To Coordinating Individualized Planning

In each of these plans there are mechanisms for interrelationships when a

student is benefiting from more than one program. The exact administrative

procedures for

providing the

coordinating these plans

services.

are best left to the agencies

However, as stated earlier in this report,

administrative planning needs to take place at higher administrative levels

where appropriate guidelines can be provided to the agencies

from the funding sources.

which benefit

During the period when the student is enrolled in school, the special

education department has been delegated the responsibility for including

vocational education as part of the IEP. It would seem logical that under

these conditions the focal point for coordination of the vocational, training

and employment planning rest with the educational agency. This arrangement

could even apply to a CETA sponsored education and training program that needs

an agreement with the school system to provide academic credit for work

completed under the CETA project. The special education agency could still be

responsible for coordinating the student's IEP including the vocational

program being offered by the CETA funding agency. There may be cases,

however, when the school system is not involved with the youth's vocational

program, especially in those instances where a student has finished secondary

school. In such instances the CETA sponsor could work out the individualized

plan (IWRP) in concert with the vocational rehabilitation agency.

Once the educational, vocational education, and the employment training

programs are developed with the supportive services specified both on a long

range and short term plans within a time frame, then it is possible to

evaluate at regular intervals whether or not the various education and

supportive services programs are sufficiently effective. Just as the team

approach is needed to develop the plan, so the team approach is needed again

to evaluate at specific intervals the effectiveness of the various segments of

the various segments of the plan.

795

852
Assessment for Planning

Several of the references and bibliographic materials contain specific

guidelines for developing individualized plans. The planning must be based on

assessment. Since the advent of phychological testing in the beginning of

this century, many tests have been developed to test student competencies and

state of readiness, including individual and group intelligence tests,

achievement tests, differential aptitude tests, vocational interest tests and

others. Most school systems maintain cumulative records on students progress

and achievement and record the results of many of these tests. Teacher

observation has also been a major factor in student assessment and

determination of need at any given time.

During the present period, testing is undergoing close scrutiny. Misuse

of tests by some professional persons and what appears to be inappropriateness

of tests based on cultural differences have brought about distrust of tests.

Biases against handicapped persons cause them to be inappropriately labeled.

As a result there are new approaches to needs assessment. One of the

alternatives being advocated is direct observation of student performance on

relevant tasks in a systematic standardized manner. Through a competency

based curriculum, a student is compared with himself instead of being measured

against others. On a compentency based rating scale a student's performance

is measured against a given set of tasks, and his need is determined at.. -the

point where he will benefit from further training. It is this type of needs

assessment which can be the basis for IEP. In addition, a handicapped student

can be measured for the level of physical competency in performing certain

tasks as well as for emotional maturity. The vocational planning determines

which additional supportive services as well as modifications to programming

is needed to assist the student in achieving vocational performance

objectives. Through this type of assessment, planning and periodic

evaluation, a student can be expected to progress toward vocational

objectives.

796'

853
Summary and Conclusions

Legislative programs enacted by Congress have included the concept of

requiring written individualized plans as a basis for providing service under

these programs to handicapped individuals. Because of the multiservice

approach of providing for the needs of a handicapped individual, whereby he

may benefit from more then one of these programs, it is essential that state

anal local communities diejsp a means of working as a team in developing and

implementing these plans. Parents are invited to be part of the planning

process for these plans and are required to agree to.the plan. The vocational

plans should be based on appropriate assessment of the pupil's interest and

current level of competencies. The newer approaches for developing vocational

skills advocate a competency based curriculum in which the program

incorporates a sequential net of expected tasks to be mastered. The plans

include the supportive services and program modifications needed to make it

possible for the handicapped student to function adequately in relation to the

expected tasks. In uvaluLting performance, the current trend is for student's

progress to be measured against his own accomplishments rather than against a

set cf standarC set requirements.

If handicapped youth are to be trained for employment and hopefully

appropriately placed in unsubsidized jobs in the private sector, prime

sponsors must be very alert to the individualized planning process. They or

their program representatives must be intimately involved in the development

of these plans with the special education personnel or vocational

rehabilitction counselors. Prime sponsor agencies need to sponsor training

programs through which job placement and employment specialists receive

training in the individualized planning process for handicapped clients and

develop their roles in the integrated planning process.

"' 854
References

Bureau of Education for the Handicapped, U.S. Office of Education: Progress

Toward A Free Appropriate Public Education, A Report to Congress on the

Implementation of Public Law 94-142: The Education for All Handicapped

Children Act U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare; January 1979

HEW Publication No. (OE) 79-05003.

Bureau of Occupatilnal and ti .;"t Education, U.S. Office of Education:

RESURGE '79 Manual for Tdentifyirt, . Classifying and Serving the Disadvantaged and Handicapped Under the Vo- 'anal Education Amendments of 1976

(P.L. 94-482); U.S. Department of saillth, Education, and Welfare; September

1979.

BAApproach;lr oi Donna CoE.:cil Lf io fr e ExtCeepnttieorneadl

Davis, Sharon Ward, Michael:

Students-A Guide fo. .olicy Development; I.

Reston, Virginia, 194,..

Education: A Competency Based

Reston, Virginia, 1978.

.Education Handicapped

- ;i1 for Exceptional Children;

Hammer, Paula and Richirt. Cary: D2171122atal Disalilities, The Orientation

Handbook, Frank Porter _LID) Child Development Center, The University of

North Carolina, Chapel Ri',. 1977.

Kjerland, Linda and Fkyua, Aura: Hand in Hand; U.S. Department of Health,

Education and Welfare, 1979.

Phelps, L. Allen and Batchelor, Laurie J: Individualized Education Frosrams

(IEPS: A Handbook For Vocational Educators); National Center for Research in

Vocational Education, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, 1979.

Safer, N.; Morrissey, P.; Kaufman, M.; and Lewis, L.; Implementation of

IEPS: New Teacher Roles and Rtallisite Smart Systems; FOCUS ON EXCEPTIONAL

CHILDREN, Volume 10, No. 1, March 1978; Love Publishing Company.
CHAPTER V

VOCATIONAL ASSESSMEM

The Developmental Life-span Approach

With today's trend directed at a life span approach to career

development, vocational assessment can not be isolated from the total

developmental process of a student. The vocational assessment system contalms

measurements which relate to the individual's life span which begins in

childhood and continues into an individual's productive years. Thus any

assessment material should relate to the level of development of a person at

various stages of his/her vocational readiness. In order to excmine the field

of vocational assessment and measurement, one must first conceptualize a set

of growth or development phases related to career development.

For purposes of education and training there are four major phases. in

career development, namely the prevocational phase, the vocational education

and training phase, the job or production realization phase and the csreex

enhancement phase. Although there is some overlapping, the proranents of the

developmental approach belieNa in a sequential growth process as an individual

progresses from phase to pt.,. gee req4i1:ing that certain competencies be acquired

before he/she moves to readiness for the next step. Vocational

assessment/measurement cuts across each of thes eiaves.

In order to disucss _ is:Ales of vocational interests, vocational

aptitudes, work relevant attitudes, self esteem and social efficacy it is

important to understand the imrartance of viewing career education (including

vocational education) as area.; related to growth and deelopment. These

characteristics as manifested in older students. have been inflvenced by the

combination of experiences and environments to which an individual has been

exposed during formative years. Thus ate; assessment (es;,:nially if it yields

a low rating) not only determines the level of Atturity in these behavioral

areas but should attempt to ideatify the environmental or experiential

condition which led to these behaviors.
The Prevocational Phase

During the prevocational phase the student is finding out what kinds of

tasks .he/she can perform, learning about the interdependence of occupations

within society, developing a career identity, learning to use tools, learning

about rewards for tasks accomplished including the relationship of money to

certain tasks, learning to take directions, understanding the relationship of

the task to the authority figure, developing attitudes in relation to the

world of work, to mention a few. During the younger years there will be a lot

of fantasizing and pretending relating to these areas, but as the child

develops he/she will gain deeper insights and during the secondary school

level will begin to acquire knowledge and understandings about the meaning of

work. Several curriculum models of prevocational development are presented in

the literature which can be obtained from the Center for Vocational Education,

Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.

The importance of the school curriculum in addressing these matters

during the elementary level should not be underestimated. It is especially

important for handicapped children, whether mainstreamed or not, to be exposed

to prevocational training as many of these children are lacking in both

experience and environmental stimulation which assures their maximum level of

growth during the prevocational phase. A characteristic of handicapped young

persons is that they will have had few of the work-related and social

experiences that nondisabled children and adolescents have had. There is a

tendency for their families and even some school personnel to have

overprotected and sheltered them. Thus they are immature, lacking in

self confidence, and fantasize about career goals.

With the help of the guidance counselor, the school curriculum needs to

be adapted for these deficiencies by assessing the child's level of

development, widening his experiential base, increasing his competencies in

prevocational skills and counseling the families. This, in turn, will help

the child build up his repertoire of successful work related )ctivities,

strengthen his/her self-confidence and self-esteem.

goo 85 7
During the secondary ltvel, the prevocational area should be thoroughly

assessed before plunging into fozmal vocational education, and remedial steps

should be taken to address majcr deficiencies.

Several performance scales have been developed including Life Centered

Career Education: A Compet,acy Based Approach, (Brolin-78) Missouri,

Columbia, Missouri; aud Illinois State University Informal Vocational

Learner-Behavior-Task Rating Scale, (Hemingway-75) Illinois Division of

Vocational and Technical Education, Springfield, Illinois.

The Vocational Education and Training Phase

This is the phase when the student is exploring various occupations and

developing skills necessary to fit him/her for a gainful occupation. Training

may be short term or may stretch over several years. It should usually begin

in the second or third year of secondary school (for all students including

the disabled) and may progress into post-secondary and higher education. It

is desirable to develop a systematic approach to vocational assessment based

on the sequential development of the individual in the major growth

areas--intellectual, physical, emotional, personal and social and vocational;

or in Brolin's terms: based on the levels of competency in academic skills,

daily living skills, personal and social skills and occupational skills.

The counseling and guidance program becomes crucial in assessing the

student's level of competency, aptitudes, interest and in steering him/her

into appropriate courses and training that will be compatible with future

capabilities and goals. For handicapped persons, this phase becomes vitally

important. Foster, however, warun that while generally the intellectual,

physical, and emotional charateribtics of a student should be considered in

selecting occupations, it Lo equally important for the counselor to be

with and consider the specific occupational placement possibilities

for individual special needs students in the community in which the student

expects to work (P. 245) Foster also warns that physically disabled persons

display as wide a variety of aptitudes, interests and life-style preferences

as 'do nond:sabled persons. She also cautions against the use of prepared

lists of occupations which seem appropriate for the handicapped but may
engender stereotyping. In some cases where youngsters display unrealistic

goals a combination of individualized counseling and reality testing in

vocational laboratory or work site can broaden the horizon of the more

severely disabled student who underestimates his/her potential. Even limited

success can be a powerful motivating factor (Foster, P. 248) "The

reality-testing approach, however, is not always effective. Attitudes do not

change easily, and reality experiences may even create resistance to change,

rather than effect change (Patterson, 1963). Unrealistic high or low goals

may be symptomatic of other personal adjustmen.c. problems." Thus personal

adjustment counseling becomes a necessary adjunct to the career guidance

process. (Foster, p. 249)

In guiding handicapped students toward career goals based on assessment,

it is always important to remember that the right of self-determination by the

student cannot be overlooked. The guidance process can point out the pros and

cons of pursuing a certin career in which the student has the potential to

succeed, however, he/she has the right to accept or reject the advice.

(Foster P. 250).

Both the prevocational training and the vocational training can be

implemented in a variety of ways-in the regular classroom, in a prevocational

laboratory, through exploratory on-the-job observation, in a vocational

training center, through a cooperative work program in a sheltered workshop,

through a competitive employment, volunteer work experience, intern program,

to mention a few.

Vandergoot has referred to the training period as the "productivity

enrichment phase where the primary emphasis is on career preparation." A

person's productivity mediates the level of success which can be achieved in

both the job search and employment. Therefore, it is important to invest in

activities, such as obtaining education and training, that will yield the

greatest return over the course of one's life. The earlier the initial

investments occur, the greater the possibility of adequate returns." (P 15)

85O

.002
The Job or Production Readiness Phase

During this phase the individual begins to specifically prepare for

placement in the world of work. A placement which has the potential for

career development involves certain decisions based on realistic assessments

of the clients characteristics and abilities and the environment in which

he/she will be living and working. Vandergoot recommends that the client and

counselor get together information based on an evaluation of the client's

educational, social, and psychological development, independent living

abilities, and worldof-work knowledge. (P. 21). Planning can then proceed

and be implemented with the client playing a major role in decision making.

It is during this phase that rehabilitation strategies may be implemented

concentrating on psychological factors as well as modifications needed for

career, success. Specialized training adapted to the labor market and to the

specific disability needs of the handicapped person can be provided or refined'

at this point. Developing job seeking skills, and acquiring labor market

information become important. Post-employment evaluation services are also

needed to follow-up and assess the adjustment to the job, whereby the

counselor can arrange fcr additional training intensive counseling services,

modifications, or removal of architectural or transportation barriers.

The Career Enrichment Phase

Persons connected with manpower needs should of course be sensitive to

the need for upward mobility, continuing education and leadership training to

constantly assure the handicapped as well as the nonhandicapped of opportunity

to advance. A system must be in place to provide counseling services to the

handicapped in upward mobility. They must have knowledge of opportunities for

promotion. Personnel departments in large agencies and corporations should be

on the lookout for promising handicapped employees along with nonhandicapped

to be included in training courses which prepare their more promising

employees for advancement. The vocational rehabilitation counselor should

systematically evaluate the job proficiency of "closed" cases to assure upward

mobility of the handicapped.

803
Definition

Vocational assessment has been defined as the process whereby students

gain insight into their vocational potential--their abilities and the work

environments best suited for them. Vocational potential refers to those

characteristics of an individual that have direct or indirect bearing on

vocational behavior, that is, the individual's aptitudes, abilities,

interests, personality traits, motivations, and concepts of self as shaped by

one's experiences up to the time of the appraisal. (Davis, Ward, Foster).

The Council on State Administrators of Vocationalliehabilitation offered

the following legal/administrative definition in their Guidelines of 1972 as follows: "the measurement of the handicapped individual's ability to do

productive work and a determination of his work potential. It involves

assessment of all aspects of an individual's ability to function in a work

situation."

Other definitions include: "the process of assessing an individual's

physical, mental, and emotional abilities, limitations and tolerances in order

predict predict his future employment potential and adjustment. It is

interdisciplinary and involves data from within and outside the total

rehabilitation team." (Roberts 1970)

Standards

Vocational assessment should not be conducted in a vacuum. It must have

a rationale. No part of any vocational test should be given to a student

without a specific reason. It may be used as a diagnostic tool for

determining an appropirate new strategy or treatment plan, or it may be used

to determine the progress and readiness for the next step in the job training

and placement process.

Agencies administering tests should establish procedures that insure

confidentiality of information and guarantee the student's right to privacy.

Careful consideration should be given to the selection of standardized

vocational instruments for use with handicapped students. They must be valid
for the purposes intended and reliable for use with students with particular

handicaps (Davis and Ward). There are many controversial aspects to testing

in that results can be overly biased or subjective. Because of the

multiplicity of tests it is important to be selective and that they be

administered at all times by qualified personnel knowledgeable about problems

unique to the handicapped.

It is important to again emphasize the practice of a systematic approach

to vocational assessment. It should not be used haphazardly or in a trial and

error manner. The system has certain well defined components which cut across

the various leve].s of development of the student. In addition, the testing

procedure has clear goals and objectives. The vocational assessment process

has two principle phases: one is an ongoing evaluation process which should

occur throughout the student's schooling and training, and the other is a

formal evaluation procedure to be conducted at specific times and under

specific conditions. There is a wide variety of informal testing and

observation procedures described in the literature to ascertain the student's

characteristics and interests as he/she develops career or vocational

competencies. The on-going process requires maintenance of cumulative records

by the school or training personnel relating to vocational development based

on performance in class, or from laboratory or work experience, on-the-job

training or intern programs. It is based primarily on grades and staff

comments. The formal assessment is data related to personal interviews,

psychometric testing, personal management skills testing, behavioral

observations, work sample testing, testing of vocational aptitudes and

interests, and others. There is a wealth of formalized testing material some

of which can be used for standard measurement purposes and some of which can

be adapted to individual needs. Foster describes and analyzes a comprehensive

list of testa, in relation to various disability groups. (P. 339-352). These

include intelligence tests, developmental scales, achievement tests, general

and vocational aptitude tests, mechanical aptitude tests, manual dexterity

tests, vocational interest inventories, diagnostic tests, and personality and

social functioning tests.

805

862
Components of Vocational Assessments

The vocational assessment procedures have been classified into six major

components as follows:

1. The review and/or updating of medical, psychological,

educational and social assessment data

2. Individual interviews to determine the student's interests and

career goals

3. Administration of selected standardized or locally developed

diagnostic instruments to assess vocational aptitudes and

interests

4. Use of work samples to evaluate potential for developing

vocational skills

5. Observation and assessment of personal management skills and

work behavior

6. Situational assessment that provide simulation of real work

situations or on-the-job evaluation

Personal Information

The medical data should be used to assess the student's general health

and physical limitations that could effect occupational choices. It can also

be used in exploring whether or not additional types of treatment or physical

rehabilitation would be beneficial to the student's career potential.

The psychological data will help determine the student's personality

development, the level of emotional and social maturity, the intellectual,

cognitive and perceptual functioning. It may also reveal some clues to the

individual's social functioning attitudes and self image, as well as eye-hand

coordination, dexterity, and manipulative skills. Psychological assessment

should be used with great care, especially with handicapped as measures may be

lower than normal due to the disabled child's limited developmental

experiences. These tests can be used to advantage clinically if used several

times to measur! the disabled individual's ability to overcome certain

limitations. It is important to have the psychological data interpreted by a

psychologist. 863
Review of the educational data will reveal what the child's past

strengths and weaknesses have been his level of educational attainment and

where remedial instruction related to the vocational preparation might be

needed.

The review of the social assessment data should be reviewed objectively.

Professional help should be used in interpreting and determining future

planning for a child who has a history of inappropriate social behavior either

by excessive acting out or extremely shy and withdrawn. Insights may be

gained from a review of the family background and life style.

Interviews

A skilled interviewer such as a counselor or social worker can gain a

variety of clues to the student's levels of interests, career identity,

whether or not he/she has realistic career goals. These interviews can be

most helpful in obtaining biographical data relevant to career planning and

determining the student's readiness for an assessment. The interview can

assist the student in selfevaluation and help him/her gain insights into his

own behavior pattern. It cah help him/her become aware of his own strengths

and weaknesses and play a role in planning any further action relating to

education and rehabilitation.

Standardized Tests

The literature contains information on the adaptation of formalized tests

to handicapped populations. These tests can be used to determine the extent

to which a student measures up to the so called norm or to determine the

student's compatability in increasing his own competencies. In many instances

the use of the test is dependent upon the skill of the examiner. The tests

should be selected with great care. They must be valid for the purpose

intended and reliable for use with students with particular handicaps. Davis

and Ward have offered the following criteria for selection of standardized

instruments for vocational testing: (P. 28)

88764
Student's probable motivation and ability to achieve on the

particular test

Relevance of the task to actual employment situations

Likelihood of obtaining reliable measurements from a single

performance

Usefulness of comparison of scores with general population

norms Adaptability for use with handicapped students

Validity for students with particular handicapping conditions

Value of criterion referenced rather than norm references

instrument

As an alternative to standardized tests with norms and percentiles, a variety of competency based rating scales are being marketed. These scales

assist the evaluator in determining the level of competency the student has in

areas where expected skills are considered necessary in performing certain

tasks. They give a profile of the degree of independence an individual has

attained in various function areas related to work.

There are a number of resource centers which provide information on tests

and their use for the handicapped. (See appendix) Most State Vocational

Education Departments contain information centers as do universities which

train personnel in special educational vocational education of vocational

rehabilitation.

Work Samples

Work sample is an approach in which a set of tasks are developed to

simulate as much as possible the tasks to be performed in a real work

situation. They are used to assess skills, aptitudes, and abilities similar

to those required in competitive employment situations. This approach is used

to assess actual performance of a task such as speed, accuracy, or approach,

etc. If the task is given several times its use involves noting changes in

these areas. It can be used to measure a general type of ability common to

many jobs such as use of tools, finger dexterity, hand-eye coordination. It

Ems 865
can deal with observation of behavior while performing the task, thus giving

clues as to work habits, such as ability to follow directions, creativeness,

persistence, or reaction to stress. At times it is used for reality testing

whereby an individual is given a work sample to show whether he/she can or

cannot do the set of tasks. It may also alleviate an evaluators doubts about

the ability of the individual in completing certain tasks.

When work samples are used properly, many or all of the above purposes

are accomplished by the evaluator. However, there is controversy as to

whether the samples yield positive information in the assessment process or

whether they yield little beyond what is obtainable from psychological

assessments. The advantages include the idea that they are more related to

the actual job than are most standardized tests, that they may be more

meaningful to a person since they are actual tasks of some type, that the

person does not have to be "test-wise" to perform well, that they create less

tenseness and anxiety than standardized tests, that they provide an opportunity for good observation, and that the reading ability is often

deemphasized. The disadvantages include questions as to the validity of the

work sample with the question arising as to whether the tasks are critical and

crucial ones for the actual job. They lack standardization. Tasks are often

so simple, but on the other hand have acquired prior learning to perform well.

The scoring is based on subjective evaluation thus questioning reliability.

Lastly, the work samples may be useless because they are irrelevant to the

local job market.

Davis and Ward have suggested that guidelines for administering work

samples should be based on the individual needs of handicapped students. They

should include but not be limited to provision of individualized work sample

battery for each student, the use of instructions that minimize reliance on reading skills or do not require reading to complete the task, consideration

of student's performance on work samples in relation to local criteria, and

opportunity for the student to train for the work samples and to retake them

as necessary to increase success. (P. 29)

A number of commercial evaluation systems have been developed and are in

widespread use in training laboratories. These coterials have been analyzed

@v6
by the Material Development Center of the Stout Vocational Rehabilitation

Institute at the University of Wisconsin, Menomonie, Wisconsin. Many other

publications, manuals and sound monographs and research reports slide

presentations are available from Stout relating to work evaluation. (See the

Appendices for more listing of work evaluation samples.)

Observation of Personal Management Skills and Work Behavior

The staff should identify specific behaviors to be observed relating to

the student's independence in personal management skills and work behaviors.

Factors to be assessed could include ability to function independently in the

work environment, get to and from work without undue stress, attend to

personal care and hygiene needs, use of prostheses and special aids and

devices, communication skills, attention span and work tolerance, punctuality,

need for supervision, self-confidence, emotional stability. A number of

rating scales have been devised to assist the examiner in recording his

observations in a systematic manner. The Stout Center has described all

widely used rating instruments in a brochure entitled

Client Rating Scales for Use in Vocational Rehabilitation Facilities. The

results of these observations can be most useful in developing individualized

training programs for the student.

On The Job Evaluation

Another method for work evaluation is the job try-out approach in which

the indivival is placed directly into an actual job situation. In these

situations the evaluatory works with the student on the job site. This method

has appeal but has limitations due to time constraints and observation of

extraneous aspects of the job which may or may not relate to ultimate career

success or failure of the student. There are instances when trainees can be

placed in actual jobs within the training institutions in the office,.

lunchroom, or other areas and evaluated in terms of competencies and career

potential, thus providing an opportunity for evaluation at the training site.

As CETA becomes more involved in job-placement training for handicapped

persons, they can probably develop appropriate strategies for effective

on-the-job evaluation. Vocational rehabilitation counselors have gained some

eio 867
.knowledge in this area but tend to close cases after placement so there is

little data rele

evaluation mat(

which have dev

actual jobs. G...

-,nluation in terms of career potential. There is some

c,:m the agencies working in the area of bioengineering

lb-modification techniques for placing handicapped in

Summary and ConclusioVocational assestAlent is interrelated with the developmental process of

an individual. Befork. determining appropriate assessment practices it is

necessary to develcr .n understanding of the life-span approach to career

development, especially as applied to handicapped individuals whose

developmental process may fluctuate in different areas of growth. The career

development process of which vocational education is but one component may be

classified into four general phases--namely, the prevocational phase, the

vocational education and training phase, the job or production readiness phase

and the career enhancement phase.

Vocational assessment which cuts across all phases has been defined as a

process of measuring an individuals's abilities and evaluating characteristics

in terms of his/her vocational potential. It contains various components

which include review and updating of medical, psychological, education, and

social data; interviews to determine interests and aptitudes; standardized

diagnostic and achievement tests; vocational aptitude and interest

inventories; work samples; and observations of work behavior in simulated or on-the-job evaluations. Tests should only be given when a specific purpose of

rationale has been established. They should be selected and administered with

great care by qualified personnel. Because of cultural and other biases their

reliability is questioned. Many of the tests tend to be discriminatory

against handicapped persons who have lacked developmental experiences upon

which the tests are based. In order to offset these biases, new assessment

procedures are being adopted and proving successful with the handicapped.

These assessment procedures have sought to focus on competencies of disabled

children rather than on the deficits. They form the basis for the diagnostic

and prescriptive teaching methods employed in developing their individualized

education and training programs. These tests deal in more concrete terms, are

8168
less dependent upon reading and language and give handicapped persons a

clearer view of his/her abilities and build his/her self-image.

The assessment program for handicapped persons is

interdisciplinary relationships from a variety of sources psychologists, social workers, teachers, therapists,

professionals, parents and the students themselves.

dependent upon

- counselors,

other health

Most authorities agree that the testing program is only as good as the

tester. If they are used as a tool for future career planning of the student,

then the interpretation of the test in concert with the student is the key to

future success. The areas of vocational interests and vocational aptitudes

are directly related to the experiential background of the student. If the

interests are narrow, unrealistic and the aptitudes extremely limited, then it

may be necessary to plan a program in cooperation with the student and his/her

family in widening horizons. Field trips to offices, industry and farms, as well as exploratory activities in work laboratories and simulated work

stations, may be in order. Concentrated use of media showing a variety of

occupations and how some handicapped have achieved employment in these areas

may be helpful. It may be expedient to administer these tests two or three

times following these prescriptive efforts to deal with deficiencies in order

to determine if any changes occur before planning a vocational program.

The development of relevant work attitudes relates in part to the

motivation of the student to succeed in a career as well as to the level of

emotional maturity and respect for authority. These are the behavioral

aspects of the individual and require intensive attention over a period of

time. The assessment program as described in the text, especially the

competency based assessment along with work samples, observations and

interviews should help to give the student insights into the need to develop

appropriate behavior in relation to work. The training staff should be

extremely vigilant in attending to the behavioral area as deficiencies of

relevant work attitudes can be the greatest cause of failure'. Giving the

student a major role in the decision making relating to his career choice can

help motivate him to appropriate work behaviors. During the training program

some clinical approaches may be necessary to help him/her overcome short

812

869
attention span, lack of respect for authority figures, unrealistic

expectations and other behavioral disorders.

The area of self-esteem relates to the understanding an individual has of

his own behavior. A person with a low self-image feels inadequate and often

expresses this in the form of immature behavior. In general these behaviors

can be alleviated by developing a program for the individual based on success

activities so that he/she can gradually feel his abilities. Accompanying this

effort clinical approaches may be necessary to help the student verbalize and

gain insights into his feelings and the reasons for his feelings. The total

special educational process must be geared to helping the individual gain

confidence for participating in mainstream society in spite of a handicap.

The student has to develop attitudes which will help him/her make the best of

the powers he/she has, and develop his/her strengths and learn to live as best

he/she can in his/her environment. Painful as it may be, handicapped persons

need help in living with the realities rather than having it devastate their

lives. This is sometimes more difficult for the mildly than severely

handicapped.

In order to help a student gain social acceptance, particKlarly as

applied to the world of work where his interpersonal relationships and ability

to get along with others becomes important, the vocational curriculum must

include an opportunity for social growth. The student must be able, to see

himself as others see him. This may require group counseling sessions using

therapeutic group encounter techniques. In general, however, the curriculum

should include a recreational program including use of leisure time so that

the student develops competencies in relating to other people.

In planning work training programs for handicapped youth, CETA prime

sponsors should develop guidelines for insuring that appropriate techniques

are employed in vocational assessment and that following diagnostic and

testing activities are follow-up with well designed programming. A counseling

component should be available to each program, so that the student and his/her

family can benefit from a valid interpretation of any test results as well as

be directly involved in the plans for the next steps. The implementation

program which is designed should take into account the total needs of an

813

870
individual. The student must be viewed as a whole person, with a personality

of his very own.

814

871
References

Albright, L. and others: A System for Identification, Assessment and

Evaluation of the Special Needs Learner in Vocational Education; University

of Illinois, Bureau of Educational Research, Urbana, Illinois, 1978

Alley, Gordon and Foster, Carol: Nondiscriminatory Testing of Minority

Exceptional Childreal FOCUS ON EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN, Vol. 9, No. 8,

January, 1978

Atkins, Richard, et. al, Continuation of a Project to Develop a Vocational

Classroom Teacher's 'Hands. On' Instrument to Measure Entry and Exit Skills of

the Special Education Student for Specific Occupations-Final Report;

Pittsburgh University School of Education, Pittsburgh, Pa., December '77

Brolin, Donn E. and Kolstoe, Oliver P., The Career and Vocational Development

of Handicapped Learners, Information Series No. 135, ERIC Clearinghouse on

Adult, Career and Vocational Education, Ohio State University, Columbus,

Ohio, 1978

Brolin, Donn E.,: Life Centered Career Education-A Competency Based Approach;

Council for Exceptional Children, Reston, Virginia, 1978

Botterbusch, Karl F.; A Comparison of Seven Vocational Evaluation Systems;

Stout Vocational Rehabilitation Institute, U. of Wisconsin, Menomie,

Wisconsin, 1976

Botterbusch Karl F.: Tests and Measurements for Vocational Evaluators,

University of Wisconsin - Stout, Materials Development Center, 1973, Menomie,

Wisconsin, 1973

Davis, Sharon and Ward, Michael: Vocational Education of Handicapped

Students: A Guide for Policy Development; Council for Exceptional Children

Reston, Virginia, 1978

District of Columbia Association for Retarded Citizens: Standardardized Tests

Currently Used at DCARC; Washington, D.C. 1980

Foster, R. W.: Range of Motion Checklist; Unpublished assessment instrument,

1977; Project LGARN, Kansas Neurological Institute, Topeka, Kansas

Hopkins, Mary A., and Brook, R.: TWR Program: A Vocational Life Function

Performance Based Criterion Reference Curriculum; University of WisconsinStout Menomonie, Wisconsin, 1977

Hughes, James H. and Rice Eric: Needs Assessment Procedure - Mainstreaming

Handicapped; Systems Sciences, Inc., Chapel Hill, North Carolina, May 1978

Nadolsky, J.: Vocational Evaluation Theory In Perspective; REHABILITATION

LITERATURE, Vol. No. 8, August 1971
Pitt, Roger and others: A Review of Related Literature Concerning Components of Systems and Studies that Impact on Identification and Selection of BMR's

and Slow Learners for Vocational Programs; Mississippi State College and

Mississippi State Department of Vocational and Technical Education, Jackson,

Mississippi, May 1977

Sankovsky, R.: Toward a Common Understanding of Vocational Evaluation;

JOURNAL OF REHABILITATION, Vol. 36, No. 1, January, 1970

Sailor: W. and Mix, F.: The TARC Assessment System; H & H Enterprises; Lawrence, Kansas, 1975

Scelfo, Joseph and Henry, Wm.; A Handicapped Student Needs Assessment;

Partners in Career Education; Arlington, Texas; 1977

University of Wisconsin - Stout; Work Evaluation and Adjustment - An

Annotated Bibliography, 1947 - 1977; University of Wiiconsin - Stout,

Menomonie, Wisconsin, 1978

Vandergoot, David and others; A Compendium of Placement Related Literature;

A Project PREP Publication, Research and Utilization Institute, Human

Resources Center, Albertson, New York, 1979

Stout, R. R.: Work Measurement in Rehabilitation Workshops; Regional

Rehabilitation Research institute of Maryland, 1970

Wentling, Tim L. and Albright L.: Administrator's Manual for the

Identification and Assessment System; University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, 1978

873

81(v.
CHAPTER VI

SUPPORT SERVICES

The Support Service Concept

Supportive services to the handicapped individual and the family are considered necessary to the program development for vocational training. Not

only does the student need the general psychological support and encouragement

from parents and key family members, but needs their understanding as to the

total program which will prepare him or her for the working worlds. In

addition to participating in regularly scheduled special health and therapy

programs aimed at gaining independence in activities of daily living Viand an improved self-image the students must be trained in appropriate work attitudes

such as finishing assigned tasks and accepting responsibility. Members of the

family may need guidance and counseling in helping the student mature and

venture forth into more difficult, more complex and perhaps unknown

environments. Overprotection of handicapped children is a well known tendency

among parents.-

When a handicapped student reaches the vocational level in the

educational ladder, the concept of family support services should not be a new

one, either to the child and his family or the school or vocational program

personnel. Actually, support services to the family as well', as to the

handicapped child are a necessary component of any program from the-time the

handicap is first identified, at birth if need be and throughout the growth

and development of the individual. The first Chance. Program sponsored by itbe

U.S. Office of Education's Bureau of Education for the Handicapped under the

EHA which has supported infant and preschool projects throughout the nation

has placed a high priority on parental and family involvement. In most

special education programs the school, the paients and the support service

personnel usually work together in interdisciplinary interagency

relationships. Thus when a child is placed in a vocational training program,

family Support services continue to be needed until the student can function

independently. Ideally it is a continuation process which varies only in

terms of the special service needs of the vocational training program.
Until recently the supportive service concept was not necessarily

considered the responsibility of the schools. Arranging for special services

was considered a family responsibility and usually arranged for through

private or public health agencies. Some special education programs

incorporated these services within their programs, but they were not mandatory

gnd applied only to selected students. It was not unusual for voluntary

agencies such as Easter Seal Societies, Kiwanis Clubs or Cerebral Palsy

Associations to provide or subsidize physical or occupational thereapy

services to the schools.

Public and private health and social agencies have assumed the responsibilities of providing support services to families for handicapped

individuals. The types of supportive services they have provided to parents

have included social work, piychological service, counseling, guidance,

marriage counseling and mobility training for the blind, or communication

training for the deaf. They have helped parents in the management of the

child and provided therapies and medical treatment in their clinics. However,

the availability of these services was limited to selected patients or clients

and the services were voluntary. Families paid for part or all of the

services. Few were free. Many handicapped children and their families

remained unserved or underserved. It is now recognized that the educational

supportive or related services are necessary if the handicapped child is to

grow and develop to the maximum. It is also recognized that special

supportive services are necessary to the vocational training of a disabled

youth to enable him or her to be employable. Thus the support service concept

is being written into legislative programs as a requirement for funding.

Education for all handicapped children is now mandatory, in some States

up to age 21, if necessary. Vocational education is a required component of

the program and includes supportive or related services. The educational

agencies are now rethinking their responsibilities in the light of the recent

legislation which includes services to handicapped at no cost to the parents.

875

818
Legislative Definitions of "Related" or "Support" Services

Under the EHA Regulations, special education is defined as "specifically

designed instruction, at no cost to the parent to meet the unique needs of .a

handicapped child including classroom instruction. .The term includes speech

pathology, or related service, if the service consists of specially designed

instruction at no cost to the parents, to meet the needs of a handicapped

child, and is considered "special education" rather than a "related service"

under State standards. The term also includes vocational education if it

consists of specially designed instruction, at no cost to the parent, to meet

the unique needs of a handicapped child."

The term "related services" is defined to mean "transportation and such

developmental, corrective, and other supportive services as are required to

assist a handicapped child to benefit from special education, and includes

speech pathology and audiology, psychological services, physical and occupational therapy, recreation, early---identification and assessment of

disabilities in children, counseling services, and medical services for

diagnostic of evaluation purposes. The term also includes school health

services, social work services in schools, and parent counseling and

training."

The Vocational Education Program uses the term "supportive (or support)

services" and has approximately the same meaning as "related" services. The

supportive services provided under the vocational education program usually

include those services considered necessary to its instructional program such

as individualized assistance in a classroom or laboratory, remedial

instruction in basic academic skills which are needed in a particular course,

vocational guidance and counseling related to the handicap, provision for

special needs such as interpreter, note-taker, reader, tutorial aide, or attendent for physically handicapped.

In each State, under the Vocational Education Amendments, there is a

fifteen percent "set-aside" of funds to be directed to the special needs of a

handicapped student in a vocational education program. The student is

entitled to benefits from a regular vocational education program along with

819

876
the non-handicapped as well as from the additional fifteen percent which is

designed to take care of his or her special needs. This gives the vocational

program developers the opportunity to arrange for students and their families

to receive supportive services. Each student's IEP is required to contain a

list of the special support services which have been recommended for him or her with a plan for receiving the services.

It is important to note that these services prescribed by the local

educational agencies in States which benefit from funds under EHA or the

Vocational Education amendments must provide the support services at no cost

to the parents.

The Vocational Rehabilitation Act (in Section 103) likewise provides for

an array of support services. Under this program the services include "any

goods or services necessary to render a handicapped individual employable."

The rehabilitation and training services, including books and training

materials, and services to the families; physical and mental restoration

services; maintenance during rehabilitation; interpreter services for the

deaf, and reader services for the blind; transportation; and others.

Under CETA sponsored programs there is also provision for supporting

special services related to the training and job placement of the client.

Counseling and other services can be made available to the family to help them

give support to their children. The trainees can also be provided with

transportation, interpreters, readers, and the like to assist them in their

training program.

Parental Involvement

In the secondary school setting, a major function of a school guidance

counselor is to involve and work with the family. With the mandate under EHA

related services, which must be provided at no cost to the parent, include

parent counseling and training, providing parents with information about child

development, and assisting parents in understanding special needs of their

child. The parent is also required to be involved in the educational

programming including vocational education. This of course means that anyone

820 877
involved with educational and vocational counseling to parents of handicapped

children must have received training and be quffllified in providing such

service. Counselors must have positive attitudes in working with the parents,

be responsive to family needs, parental z.ttitudes and perceptions, counseling

skills for presenting alternatives to parents as well as to help them increase

their understanding as to the needs of their disabled child.

A number of counseling issues have been discussed by Foster (1977) who

describes adolescent relationships. Some of the important aspects discussed

include the independence/dependence struggle with parents that sometimes

occurs with the slower progress of a disabled child as compared with the peer

group, sibling rivalry, overprotection by parents as against need for privacy

in personal care by disabled, the issue of sexuality. The report presents

goals to work toward in counseling parents of physically disabled youngsters

such as helping parents to:

Have realistic expectations of their child and to set goals for the

child that are clear, possible to attain, and in keeping with the

child's interests and needs.

Recognize that all young persons have imperfections.

Confront any real disability-related limitation that will affect

future educational or vocational achievement.

Foster as much independence as possible in terms of freedom to

investigate the world. To do this, it may be necessary for parents

to create opportunities for different kinds of experience (Fuller,

1965, p. 113).

Understand that non-acceptance of any young person can create a

greater handicap than their disability itself.

Counselors also have a key responsibility in encouraging parental

involvement in the education process. Foster (1977; p. 389-394) presents a

number of ways for involving parents in educational and career decision making

such as informing parents of evaluation and diagnostic procedures, informing

them of results prior to placement in an academic or vocational course,

advising parents and students at a joint meeting of educational program plans,

similarly plan a joint student/parent/counselor session for future post

secondary or higher education planning is involved. Parents cafe also serve as

821 878
volunteers in the educational or vocational process or have input as advocates

relative to the school and/or community programs and services for the

disabled.

Issues Related to the Support Services Concept

One of the dilemas facing the program administrators under the present

system for support services is the question as to how to determine which

agency has the responsibility for funding the different support services

needed by the individual. Where agencies cooperate in the development of the

IEP, they discover that one or more agencies has the authority to provide a needed service. Together they can decide which agency underwrites the

service.

Even though there are federal funds supporting many of these programs,

the amount of financial support tends to be limited and the bulk of the

funding for these services must come from the lcoal authorities. Vocational

education and vocational rehabilitation programs require matching funds, and

even the total amount of funds available are often insufficient to meet the

needs.

Under the cooperative agreements many local educational agencies have

worked out a reasonable system with the vocational rehabilitation agency for

the family support system providing special counseling, readers, interpreters,

and specialized training equipment for certain vocations. However, as can be

seen from the recent articles the "similar benefits" issue is coming under

close scrutiny in which vocational rehabilitation questions whether or not its

agency or one of the other agencies should provide a service.

Another issue relates to the responsibility of a family which has

sufficient resources to provide for the support services. In some cases their

insurance programs cover the costs. With the limited available funancial

resources in many local communities, there is the feeling by many officials

that families have a responsibility to share in the costs. Parents often have

the capability to assist in the transportation needs. Even if a school or

program arranges transportation, alternative transportation arrangements are

822 879
often necessary and parents can be most helful. Parents and other family

members can be key in helping a student gain independent skills in use of

public transportation to special services or to job stations. Parental

consent is needed for driver education training and on occasion for purchase

of a specially equipped vehicle. The issue of the extent of public versus

private or family financing for a number of the needed support services will

continue to be under discussion for some time, especially during periods of

inflation and recession when there is a scarity of dollars. The attitude of

the family in cooperating with the student training effort is important.

In developing the support services to be included in the various

individualized programs, care must be taken not to confuse the family with

conflicting recommendations. There must be great sensitivity to the personal

dynamics of the family which should not be overwhelmed with more participation

in the handicapped members training program than it can comfortable manage.

An important aspect of the provision for special services which must not

be overlooked is the utilization of services by the individual and the family.

Even though a set of services is considered necessary to an individual or

group of handicapped persons the quality and amount they receive is dependent

upon a number of factors such as:

Commitment of the community to provide such services either through

public or private agencies, or both;

The availability and accessibility of the services;

The utilization of the services by the family and student,

especially when they have resistance, anxieties or have negative

feelings relative to the responsiveness of the service providers.

The sophistication of the efforts at interdisciplinary and

interagency coordination by the staff of the agencies involved.

The cost of the services to the family including costs of

transportation to get the services, of home aids and equipment

823

8(30
needed to assist the student, of child care for other members of the

family if the parent leaves the home.

Summary and Conclusions

Thus, when a handicapped student enters the vocational education program

in a secondary, or post secondary school, or in a special program, the amount

and type of supportive services he needs is dependent on the previous program,

the present needs and any special services required for entry into the world

of work. The special services prescription will vary from student to student.

The vocation education teacher and/or counselor as well as the vocational

rehabilitation counselor should all cooperate in the needs assessment and

prescription of the supportive service program. If the training program is a CETA sponsored program, one or more members of its staff should participate in

the support service plan.

With support services included in various pieces of legislation which

provide for vocational education, training and job placement of handicapped

youth, an appropriate coordination mechanism must be developed for the

operation and administration levels. It must be flexible, be dependent upon

resources available to the community, and even include some parental

participation where possible. The resources within other public and private

agencies, from insurance coverage should be considered in developing plans for

supportive services. Cooperative planning should be initiated in determining

which agency should serve as the focal point for coordinating the needed

services. Sometimes a vocational rehabilitation couiselor would be the

logical person as this agency might be less threatening to the family than the

educational agency.

In prescribing the supportive services, care must be taken not to confuse

the family with conflicting recommendations. The ultimate objective of

enabling the handicapped young person to become employable and satisfactorily

placed in gainful employment must be the key issue around which all

prescriptive services take place.

824

881
Parent counseling by the school or agency which is providing the

vocational or job preparation training is a key component of providing family

and student supportive or related services. There are many ways for parental

involvement whereby parents are provided with guidance and referral services,

or can become directly involved with the education and training processes.

Because the field of vocational education for the handicapped is a relatively recent priority in school systems, there is little in the

literature about the relation between the extent of the family support

services and outcome on employability of the student. Where the special

education programs and vocational rehabilitation programs have worked together

in the past, involving the family, there is some evidence that the students

have fared better in employment. With parental support the students have

gained more maturity for adjustment to employment, have acquired employable

skills and accepted responsibility needed for work.

825 882
References

Davis, Sharon & Ward, Michael:

A Guide For Policy Development;

Virginia, 1978.

Dunlop, William R: Services

Vocational Education of Handicapped Students,

The Council for Exceptional Children, Reston,

For Families of The Developmentally Disabled;

SOCIAL WORK, Vol. 21, No. 3, May 1976.

Foster, June C. and others: Guidance, Counseling, and Support Services for High School Students with Physical Disabilities: Visual, Hearing,

Orthopedic, Neuromuscular, Epilepsy, Chronic Health Conditions; Technical Education Research Centers, Jac., Cambridge, 1977.

Holleran, William; Foley Theodore; Razeghi, Jane; and Hull, Marc: Vocational Education for the Handicapped: Resource Guide to Federal Regulations, Texas Regional Resource Center, April 1978

Horejsi, Charles R.: Developmental Disabilities: Opportunities for Social

Workers; SOCIAL WORK, Vol. 24, No. 1, January 1979

Olympus Research Corporation: An Assessment Of Vocational Education Programs

for the Handicapped Under Part B of the 1968 Amendments to the Vocational Education Act, Final Report; 1974, Salt Lake City, Utah and San Francisco, California.

Panzer, Barry; Wiesner Leslie; and Dockson, William: Program for Developmentally Disabled Children; SOCIAL WORK, Vol. 23, No. 5, September 1978

President's Committee on Mental Retardation: MR 78 Mental Retardation:

The Leading Edge, Service Programs That Work, Section One: The Family; ULSL Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Office of Human Development

Services, 1979

The White House Conference on Handi6apped Individuals: Implementation Plan, Volume Three. June 1978.

883

826
CHAPTER VII

JOB PLACEMENT AND THE PRIVATE SECTOR

Job Placement Before 1960

The efforts for agencies to be concerned with job-placement for

handicapped school aged youth is a relatively new phenomena. Before the

1960's except for students who could attend regular classes, few public

schools provided education for the handicapped beyond the 8th grade or age 16

(the usual compulsory school attendance age). Secondary aged students with

severe handicaps were enrolled in residential schools for the blind, deaf, or

orthopedically handicapped. The mentally retarded and psychotic could be

found in institutions without educational service. Local school districts

provided home and hospital instruction for only about two or three hours each

week per student. All of the aforementioned programs were limited and tended

to build up waiting lists. Thus, as we entered the 1960's in this country, it

was the exception rather than the rule for a handicapped student to be

enrolled in a high school or vocational school.

Schools with good counseling programs referred handicapped students to

the vocational rehabilitation service for vocational training and counseling.

The vocational rehabilitation program cooperated to a limited degree with a

few schools by providing vocational evaluation while students were*.itill in

school; however, most rehabilitation services were conducted outside the

school system. This program accepted for rehabilitation only those applicants

who were expected to be employed after two years of rehabilitation services so

that clients tended to be those with the greatest potential. Common practice

was to purchase evaluation and training services through sheltered workshops

or training institutions which specialized in specific occupational skills.

Popular trades were watch-repair 'or dental laboratory work for the

orthopedically handicapped, printing for the deaf or chair caning or upholstery work for the blind. The clients selected tended to be among the

more intelligent individuals. In a few cases a college education was

subsidized by the voational rehabilitation agency. Mentally retarded who were

accepted were usually found in the sheltered workshops like Goodwill

827

884
Industries which accepted contracts from business and industry but were paid

substandard wages. In a few States with well developed departments of Special

Education like Wisconsin, Minnesota and in some parts of Ohio, the vocational

rehabilitation agency was able to work out cooperative vocational, special

education cooperative agreements for job training and placement of handicapped

students. However, although it has been proven that many physically disabled

and most mentally retarded can work either in competitive settings or in

sheltered workshops according to the best available evidence, only 42 of all

noninstitutionalized disabled adults aged 16 to 64 are employed. "An

astounding three-fifths of disabled adults of working age are at or near

poverty level, according to the U.S. Census Bureau". (Bowe 1977)

When vocational education was introduced in the schools, it became a

rather specialized program in eight occupational areas; namely agriculture,

distributive education, health occupations, home economics, consumer

education, office occupations, technical education, industrial arts, and trade

and industrial occupations. Under these educational programs there was no

effort to accommodate the handicapped. Only those handicapped who could

independently accommodate to an existing vocational education program were

allowed to enroll and hopefully ultimately enter the job market.

Job-Placement Models of the '60's

During the late 1960's the enactment of legislation specifically

including the handicapped as a category to be served under vocational

education began to change the vocational outlook for the handicapped. With

the availability of "set-aside" funds, a number of States and school districts

began to establish pilot programs in occupational and vocational education for

the handicapped. The accounts and descriptions of these projects contain

little information from which one can generalize relative to the ultimate

placement of these students in the private sector. However, the accounts do

contain a wealth of information about the types of vocational training tried,

the methods used, the staffing patterns and the interagency cooperative

efforts. The job placement components tended to fall within three models

1) work-study programs established within a special class program where

occupational experiences were found within the class, school or community;

828

88
2) special education occupational centers where simulated occupational

experiences were designed for them such as laundry rooms, cafeterias, retail

stores, and the like through which the students could gain vocational skills

and perhaps receive token payment for their work and 3) cooperative education

programs where students spent part time in school and part time in a work

setting either in sheltered workshops or on regular jobs. Sometimes sheltered

workshops were used as work-evaluation and training centers. Some of these

projects provided placement and follow -up services, but there is little data

available as to the ultimate career and upward mobility of these trainees.

What this program did achieve was an administrative system within each State

with responsibility for planning, supervising, or monitoring in cooperation

with local educational agencies vocation programs for the handicapped.

Research Reports

Studies of the outcomes of special education, vocational education and

vocational rehabilitation during the early 70's reveal that handicapped youth

are untrained, undertrained in employment skills, have high drop-out rates

from school and are basically not fit for employment. They also revealed many

flaws in the systems which were supposed to serve them. For example, a high

proportion of the students aged 17-21 who had been in special education

classes did not continue school after age 16 to pursue career or vocational

development. Vocational education teachers reflected negative attitudes

toward enrolling handicapped students in their classes and lacked competencies

for teaching handicapped students. The 10 percent "set-aside" funds for

handicapped under the Vocational Education Program were not fully utilized in

some States and not distributed in accordance with need in many States

(Comptroller General Report to Congress, 1976; and Olympus Study). For those

handicapped vocational achievers who did find jobs, barriers to promotions

from entry-level jobs seemed insurmountable. (Bowe 1977)

(1) Nationwide Survey of Occupational Programs

In 1972 the Bureau of Education for the Handicapped supported a nationwide survey of vocational education projects conducted by Management

Analysis Center, Inc. (MAC) Through the State administrative units MAC had a

829 886
viable system through which information could be obtained. Out of a universe

of 450 programs nominated by educational agencies and concerned organizations

as worthy of special study, descriptive information was obtained from 330

respondents (or 73%) to questionnaires about these programs. Of these 30 were

selected by the researchers for site visits. The basic questions the

investigators attempted to answer were:

1. How effective is the program in reducing the level of its

handicapped students in comparison with other programs of the same

type?

2. How comprehensive is the range of services and education offered by

the program in comparison with other programs of the same type?

3. How replicable is the program for other geographic areas of other

handicapping conditions in comparison to other programs of the same

type?

The overall finding indicate that while good programs do exist, the

vocational services are "generally weak". Overall weaknesses listed the

handicapped as consigned to training for menial occupations, with the sexual

stereotyping in occupational categories,, lack of funds, of good facilities, of

equipment and of suitable teaching materials, and too few instructions serving

this population. Interagency cooperation was found to be poor. Unsuccessful

projects fell into three major categories, namely those that:

fail to prepare the environment for the student as well as prepare

the student for the environment;

fail to take advantage of or solicit assistance from services or groups outside the immediate administration of the program;

do not insure the relevance of the program content to the job market

and environment in which students will live when they graduate.

830 887
MAC presents some of the effective practices of the projects which were

studied and presents ideas for successful programming. In the area of the

criteria for job-placement and follow-up MAC presents the following

guidelines: (p. 28)

Job development is involved in setting up the transition of the

student from the work-study environment to the world of actual

employment. The next phase--job-placement--effects that transition

for student and program staff alike. The ultimate test for any

occupational program for the handicapped is what happens after a

job is found for the student. . .Placement and assistance to the

student at the crucial point is AS essential as classroom

instruction. Effective programs provide adequate staff time for

the job or effectively utilize other community agencies or both.

The person who makes the placement must have familiarity with the

student in order to anticipate problems in making the transition

and sufficient time available to take swift remedial action if

problems arise. As with job development this requires a relationship of trust and confidence with the employer.

In discussing transition to the world of work, MAC stresses the need for

preparing the student for the society and preparing the society for the

student. He presents the following guidelines: (p. 72, 73)

the first and most obvious step is to make the curriculum relevant

to the local job market;

relevance of training to the particular job market is vitally

important;

handicapped have more difficulty than non-handicapped transferring

from one job to another;

communications with prnspective employers should be established

early and maintained diligently;

potential employers should have a hand in planning the vocational

portions of the program;

831 888
orientation programs can be held for employers, and work-study

programs can provide a tie with employers in themselves

job development which is the search for and development of

employment opportunities for handicapped students includes already

defined jobs and jobs that require working with the employer to

adapt them slightly or modify them so that they may be performed by

the handicapped;

the student's programming should include increasing the

compatability of the student to employment environments.

the construction of an inventory of potictial employers and jobs is

part of the establishment and management of the external relations

phase of a school program, whereby programs that are willing to

commit staff time to these activities are usually more effective in

meeting the needs of students and in bringing them to a higher level

of independence than those that do not make such use of staff.

(2) Assessment of Vocational Education Program

The Olympus Research Corporation provides some data in its 1974 FINAL

REPORT of An Assessment of Vocational Education Programs for the Handicapped

Under Part B of the 1968 Amendments to the Vocational Education Act. This

study investigated programs and projects in 25 States involving (1) an

assessment of program administration at the state level, (2) a project level

assessment of vocational education for the handicapped; and (3) case study

interviews with students, parents (or heads of households), and employers.

While the 25 states were involved in the state study sample and project level

sample, only five states were included on the case study interviews. However,

these five states were considered representative oZ all the states and

contained 45 percent of all projects studied and 41 percent of the total

enrollment in the 25 states. Programs studied in the five states included

those in four major classroom environments: regular classroom (integration

with regular students), special classroom, sheltered workshop (Off campus

889

832
setting), and jobs (supervised work environment most frequent in a campus

vocatilnal laboratory).

Special classroom 48%

Integrated classroom 25%

Sheltered workshop 20%

Job setting 7%

The study contains a section related to a job experience (p. 167-187) in

which the investigators attempt to determine if the job training had an impact

on student's employability, hours worked, and wages received and expectations

for future jobs. At the time of the interview there were those who were still

enrolled in a program, program completers who were still in school, and

completers who were not in school. At the time of the interview, one out of

three held a job outside of school as follows: 2 out of 10 of the currently

enrolled, 4 out of. 10 of the completer still in school and 6 out of 10 of the

completer out of school. The factors associated with the number of jobs held

included geographic differences in different states, urban vs. rural and a

lower age of participants in one, state. Points of interests mentioned are

that 1) age was positively associated with the proportion holding a current

job--in favor of the older student; 2) whites are more likely to hold jobs out

of school than blacks and 3) no difference was found between those without

work experience components in their training.

The investigator studied the type of jobs, type of business or industry,

hours and wages. Findings indicated that job entry centered on job-seeking

talents of individual participants and helpfulness of family and friends (45).

Next most frequently mentioned help in getting a job came from teachers and

program coordinators within the school system. (P. 169) As to wages, the

physically or sensory handicapped made slightly more than mentally handicapped

students; men more than women; whites and blacks more than Spanish surnamed;

older enrollees more than younger; and enrollees with work experience

components as part of their training made more than those whose training did

not include a work experience component. (P. 173) As part of this study,

94 employers were interviewed and the investigators caution against making

strong inferential leaps from these data due to the small sample size. They
state "From the participating employer's view, handicapped students were eager

employees who were anxious to learn their jobs. . .In general, their expressed

attitudes toward the job and work setting were good. Most importantly,

handicapped student workers compare favorably with regular workers." (P. 179)

In response to questions regarding employee-related problems, only eight

employers encountered problems. One in five cited problems with discipline as a problem with handicapped student workers.

The referral process and initial involvement in the work education

program was attributed by employers to the school contacts who approached

them. In only 14 percent of the cases did the company initiate the contact.

(P. 184) In regard to hiring procedures nearly two-thErds of the

participating companies hire participants as permanent employees and select

employees mainly on the basis of their demonstrated ability. Sixty-two

percent of those employers responding felt there was room for advancement,

while 38 percent believed there was no real opportunity for advancement mainly

because of placement in "dead-end jobs." (P. 185) When compared to

participating employers, responses from non-varticipating employers felt that

hiring the handicapped would require significant changes in their business

environment. (P. 158)

The summary reports the following: (P. 225-226)

Because of the absence of a control group, it was impossible to

determine whether the project participants were more successful in

finding jobs than their handicapped counterparts who did not

participate in the program. Nevertheless, the outcome information

appears to be favorable:

1. Five out of ten completers who were still enrolled in school

were employed.

2. Six out of ten completers who were no longer in school were

employed.

3. The average wage received by completers out of school was

$2.17 an hour; the corresponding figures for completers in

school was $2.07 an hour.

4. Of the employed completers, 70 percent were in service

occupations (41 percent), miscellaneous occupations (18%), and

clerical and sales (1%).

891

834
5. Eighty-four percent of the completers were employed in the

following industries: Miscellaneous service (36 percent),

trade (20 percent) government (14 percent), and manufacturing

(14 percent).

6. Work experience students earn more than those not enrolled in

this type of program, although the placement rates for the

groups are about the same.

Participating employers expressed favorable attitudes toward the

program. Three out of four participating employers rated the

performance of handicapped students and/or completers "as good" or

"better than" regular workers in each of eight performance scales.

Nonparticipating employers were not quite so disposed to be in

favor of the program as their participating counterparts:

1. Of the nonparticipating employers, 52 percent had negative

feelings about participating in the program

2. When compared to participating employers, nonparticipating

employers were more likely to believe that hiring handicapped

individuals would require significant changes in their

business environments.

3. Sixty-one percent of the nonparticipating employers had heard

of the program and 14 percent had previously participated in

it.

4. Only sixteen out of a total of 71 nonparticipating employers

had been directly approached and refused to participate.

(3) Research on Relationship of Vocational Rehabilitation and Manpower

One of the most comprehensive studies relating to the employment of the

disabled was done by Sar Levaton and Robert Taggart in which the investigators

analyzed from voluminous data the relationship between vocational

rehabilitation and manpower. The findings of the study have been published in

a book by the John Ropkihs Press entitled Jobs for the Disabled (1977). The

survey was based on 1972 data. They report that in 1972 under the Social

Security Act definition of disabled, there were 7.7 million severely disabled

persons aged 20 to 64. The extent of work limitations ranges from complete to

marginal. Only one seventh were employed at the time of the survey and

only 6% held full time jobs. (P. 2) They reported many employment problems,

such as frequent work interruptions, a poor attendance record, concentration

on the worst jobs (one tenth of the work force as service workers, laborers,

835

89
farm laborers, and household workers. At the time of the survey three out of

ten persons were not in the labor force--without jobs and not looking for

work. (P. 5)

As for employers, their findings reveal that "employer" surveys evidence

a general reluctance to hire the disabled when nondisabled workers are

availabe. Many employers believe that there are higher costs, such as

increased workers' compensation expenses or inflated medical and life

insurance premiums. Although most believe that the disabled will be more

reliable, they fear involuntary absenteeism and turnover. Another

consideration is the lack of flexibility in job assignments and difficulty of

promotion. (P. 8) The author states, ". . . the existence of a few

productive employment opportunities for disabled workers does not prove that

there is a large number of additional jobs they could fill. Whether based on

reasonable best guesses by employers or on an unreasoned bias against the

mentally and physically handicapped, the attitudes are facts of life that will

be difficult to change. Publicity campaigns to encourage the hiring of the

disabled have not met with much success."

The authors of this book did an indepth analysis of the rehabilitation

and employment system of the disabled of working age and on the whold found

the situation rather grim. The study revealed that during 1973 half of the

rehabilitants received some kind of training; yet only one-fifth of a sample

of rehabilitants felt that training had directly helped them in getting a job

or that they used training very much in their current job. The author

discusses the kinds of training from college or university to personal and

vocational adjustment. They 'describe evolutionary changes in the vocational

rehabilitation program with increased reliance on sheltered workshops among

their clients, with more emphasis on the mentally ill and mentally retarded.

"Reflecting the expansion of income support, the proportion receiving public

assistance rose from 11-19 percent over the six years between 1968 and 1972

while the proportion whose primary source of support was earning

20-16 percent." (P. 42) They also describe the effects of slack labor

markets on successful "closure" cases and other factors which are resulting in

a lower success rate from 80 percent in 1963 to 62 percent during the first

quarter of 1976. Other aspects of the rehabilitation program discussed in the

836
report center around the disabled Veterans Program, sheltered workshops with

their substandard wage remuneration for work. The authors discuss a number of

issues pointing to the decline in overall job opportunities including the

rapid growth of the social insurance systems for the disabled and the welfare

and food stamp benefits which in some ways provide disincentives for the

handicapped to work. The authors conclude that employment is not a realizable

objective for more than a small minority. Even after training it is difficult

to find jobs. "Public employment was not the answer because the public sector

was just as leery of aid recipients as the private sector." (P. 109) After

analyzing various options, the authors state "Patience and compassion may be

better policy than an aggressive effort to reform the disability system, to

expand rehabilitation efforts, or to get tough with applicants. (P. 110) The

authors conclude, "The purpose of this analysis is not to redirect policy, but

to suggest different perspectives for decision makers. Labor market

conditions must be a primary consideration in assessing efforts on behalf of

the disabled. There must be a greater understanding of the overlap between

disability and other obstacles that prevent workers from functioning

effectively in the work force. The role of vocational rehabilitation in the

galaxy of human resource development efforts must be recognized, policies

coordinated, and experience cross-fertilized. There is no doubt about the

importance of vocational rehabilitation in combating the consequences of

disability. But there is room for improvement- -and it will best be realized

by taking a new look at old problems." (Page 119)

The messages to be found in this study are that unless the job market

accelerates, unless attitudes of the employers improve, unless there are

economic incentives for disabled to work and attain earnings well beyond the

income maintenance level, that the training and rehabilitation programs being

offered to the youth will not achieve the objectives with long-term subsidized

employment either in the public or private sector.

Youth Programs

A little ray of sunshine comes through from the exemplary youth programs

which indicate that when young people received training relevant to the job

markets in their home communities, when both their families and potential

837

894
employers were actively involved in the training programs, thus reducing their

anxieties about employing handicapped, the young people had a better chance

for successful job-placement and upward mobility. The older students achieved

better employment success than the younger ones, which indicates that younger

students should be encouraged to remain in the school setting.

Based on reports and studies there is little available data relation to

the transition from school to work, nor is there any readily available

significant information related to youth employment in the private or public

sectors. What is available are numerous accounts of success stories of

handicapped persons who have found suitable employment in the private sector.

Because the Disabled Veteran's Program and the Vocational Rehabilitation

Program which have long histories of training the handicapped for employment,

there are many individuals who have had successful outcomes from their

training. However, this information usually pertains to handicapped within

the "employable" ages, and to those eligible for rehabilitation in that they

are expected to be employable within two years after training, thus there is

little we can learn from these reports about youth employment practices.

However, there is no reason we cannot benefit from the procedures that

resulted in successful employment outcomes which could be applied to youth

programs Major factors for success in addition to the skill development

included good counseling, motivation of the client, training for relevant

jobs, dedication of staff in gaining cooperation of employers, and family

support.

The literature contains several examples of cooperative school programs

involving the special education class and the rehabilitation agency. When

these projects included a job placement specialist in the project, there was

usually a liasion between the school program and the private sector. Students

were able to benefit from supervised job placement on an actual wOrksite,

which in reality provided reassurances for the employer as well as for the

student. Several models provided work evaluation, skill training and actual

work experience in a sheltered workshop setting before being placed in an

unsubsidized job in the private sector. Relationships were also established

with public agencies to hire qualified handicapped-students, especially in

public agencies. Those who resided in communities with federal agencies were

838 895
able to place some in federal employment under the Selective Placement Program

for the handicapped administered by the U.S. Civil Service Commission. The

positions included various types of clerical jobs such as supply clerk,

inventory analyst, duplicating machine operator, clerk typist and the like.

Thus, when given a chance, there appears to be little reason why handicapped

students who acquire employable skills relevant to the job market, who gain

appropriate work attitudes, who have access to the job market, who can provide

for all their personal daily needs, cannot enjoy the same opportunities for

employment either in the public or private sectors as the non-handicapped.

Negative Employer Attitudes

The major barrier to employment of handicapped, especially youth, appears

to be the negative attitudes found among employers in general. Employers cite

cost-related factors as a main reason for not feeling comfortable in hiring

handicapped workers. According to Bowe they perceive the disabled as more

expensive to "hire, train, place and provide with supportive services,

including accommodation, than other categories of workers. Other factors

involve a perceived lack of flexibility and ability to adapt to new conditions

and new responsibilities on the part of disabled persons. Productivity and

faithful attendance on the job--the strengths of the disable work force,

according to many studies--appears less important to many employers than cost

and flexibility."

While attitudinal barriers to employment displayed by many employers

continue to exist, representatives from the private sector are now taking an

active part within the community with the handicapped and their advocates to

promote public awareness on the need to hire the handicapped. The annualactivities of the President's Committee on Employ the Handicapped along with

those of the Governor's Committees and the local counterparts have been a

focal point for their participations. The private sector representatives have

participated in job fairs in which qualified handicapped youth can be

interviewed by prospective employers, have held workshops for business men and

other employers on tax incentives relating to the handicapped', and have

arranged media and other promotional coverage promotiong jobs for the handicapped. Undoubtedly these kind of activities have led to the creation of many

839896
job opportunities for handicapped youth. Now, with the affirmative action

requirements of the Rehabilitation Act, more employers will be receptive to

these overtures in behalf of providing on-the-job training and employment for

disabled youth.

Client Independence In Job-seeking

One aspect of the rehabilitation job placement research merits attention.

An article by Robert T. Fraser entitled,

"Rehabilitation Job Placement Research, A Trend Perspective" provides an overview of the rehabilitation job placement research that has been performed

in this country over the last several years. He points out that "many jobs

are routinely being secured by clients without counselor intervention." He

points out the research in developing programs which strengthen the

job-seeking skills of the client. He discusses research which points out the

positive effects of the value of the client's independent job search activity.

He discusses a number of successful techniques in developing job-seeking

skills among clients but at the same time warns against hastily developed

training in 'this area as employers who have become aware of this new type of

training, especially as it relates to the job interview, develop counter

techniques with rehabilitated clients.

Role of the Employment Service Agency

Although many of the reports of programs indicate that rehabilitated

clients found their own jobs, the role of the Employment Service must not be

overlooked. Their data reveals that they are actively involved in job

placement and follow up for the handicapped. Their statistics for FY 1979

service to handicapped applicants of all ages in the United States tells that

there were 782,376 handicapped applicants in 1979 and that 212,488 were placed

with 168,854 of those placed in over 150 day jobs. The Employment and

Training Service Manual entitled

Placing Handicapped Applicants: An Employment Service Handbook discusses job

development and job placement techniques to be used by Employment Service

staff. They encourage the ingenuity of the employment representative in

working with employers, finding and developing jobs for the handicapped. The

840 897
report states, ". . . specific job openings for severely handicapped will have

to be developed by contact with employers." The following excerpt from the

Manual shows a commitment to the handicapped and the encouragement being given

to their staff:

"Those who have succeeded over the years in the ES offices across

the United States--generally attribute their effectiveness to plain

hard work. They believe in their applicants, they left the office and banged on employers' doors, they refused to quit until a

placement had been arranged. They got to know employers

personally, were candid with them, and used their imagination to

see opportunities where others would not have.

Many--perhaps most--local ES offices have such people. They have

their own contacts, and employers know and trust them. In good

labor markets and bad they somehow manage to produce placements,

and sometimes they score with an "impossible applicant." (P. 57)

Affirmative Action

Probably the greatest incentive for promoting employment of the

handicapped results from the affirmative action provisions of the

Rehabilitation Act Amendments, an effort to protect the employment rights of

handicapped. As a result of these provisions which give handicapped persons

the right to be recruited, considered and employed in the same manner as

non-handicapped in firms and establishments doing business with the federal

government means that employers are now receptive to ways in which to comply

with the affirmative action requirements. Section 503 requires all

contractors and subcontractors with federal contracts: of $2,500 or more to

take affirmative action to employ and promote qualified handicapped

individuals. Section 503 covers about half of all business in the United

States. In addition to hiring handicapped individuals, these employers must

also take affirmative action in job assignment, promotions, training,

transfers and terminations. The Department of Labor's Office of "federal

Contract Compliance Program (OFCCP) which is charged with enforcement of

Section 503 has been assisting employers in establishing affirmative action

programs and in settling discrimination complaints.

Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act prohibits discrimination against

disabled persons in federally funded programs. Under this section an employer

841 898
receiving federal assistance may not discriminate against a handicapped person

solely on the basis of the disability in recruitment, advertising, hiring,

promotion of demotion practices, transfer, layoff, in job assignments or

career ladders; or other fringe benefits. Once hired, the employer is

required to take reasonable steps to accommodate the disability unless it

would cause the employer hardship. Reasonable accommodations and

accessibility where necessary, must be provided, to the extent governed by the

size and type of employing agency involved.

Affirmative action relating to employment of the handicapped is opening

the doors of major private sector establishments. At the District of Columbia

Association for Retarded Citizens Annual Employer of the Year luncheon, in

addition to representatives from major government agencies, eighteen private

business or institutions were represented including department stores,

restaurant chains, hospitals, professional organizations, printers, photo

service and others. Other States are reporting similar interest.

The civil rights legislation gives the vocational educators of the

handicapped, the rehabilitation agencies and other personnel who prepare for

employment a golden opportunity to offer training programs to assist employers

in accommodating to this legislation. Through post-secondary school, colleges

and universities which have developed various types of expertise in vocational

education for the handicapped, in rehabilitation, or in architecture for the

handicapped, workshops, and training programs could be established for

potential employers of the handicapped, for business executives, or for

business and trade organizations concerned with productivity. Community based

colleges can offer various types of continuing education offerings in this

area to local businessmen.

By potential employees becoming involved with projects, by their serving

on advisory committess or cooperating with projects themselves, employers can

help to develop jobs for handicapped youth. Linking the potential employers

to the secondary and post-secondary vocational training programs for

handicapped youth could be an opportune time not only for giving youth a

chance for post school unsubsidized employment, but for assisting employers

who must demonstrate compliance with the affirmative action provision of the

law.
Summary and Conclusions

The emphasis on training and placement of handicapped in gainful

employment is a relatively new phenomena. In the past few special education

programs that went beyond the eight grade, vocational rehabilitation agencies

either found them too young to be eligible or found the majority ineligible on

the basis of the severity of their handicap. Vocational rehabilitation

services was only provided to candidates who had the potential for employment

within two years. During the 1960's schools and vocational rehabilitacion

agencies began to develop cooperative agreements. Where projects were developed for relevant occupational training and job-placement of handicapped

youths, there are many success stories. Much of the success of these efforts

is based on the staffing patterns with job-placement specialists who worked in

the community to develop and place the handicapped in supervised worksite

experiences.

Reasons for lack of success in many cases appear due to lack of

environmental preparation, failure to utilize or provide appropriate

supportive services, irrelevancy of program content to local job-market

conditional. the decline of job opportunities during recessions, difficulty in

finding jobs, lack of incentives to handicapped due to welfare and social

insurance programs, negative employer attitudes, and transportation and

accessibility barriers.

There is little significant information pertaining to transition from

school to gainful employment in the private sector for handicapped youth. A

few accounts of exemplary youth programs indicate that many of the negative

disincentives could be overcome with concentrated effort, dedication, public

awareness and involvement of families and employers in the training and

job-placement process.

We are now in a period when Congress and State legislative bodies have

strengthened the legislative programs, requiring equal opportunity to the

handicapped for education, training, employment, accessibility to mainstream

activities--schools, colleges, recreation area, public buildings, shopping

centers, employment facilities--and the like. They have legislated
transportation accommodations, modifications to training and work-sites,

special services- -such as interpreters and readers--to accommodate the

functional needs of special disability groups. They have increased the

resources to integrate the handicapped into society so that they can achieve

and participate to their maximum in society's life style.

With the implementation of the affirmative action legislation, it is

anticipated that the coming decade will see many positive steps in providing

relevant training and placement of qualified handicapped youth in both private

and public sector jobs on the same level as placement for the so called

non-handicapped. The exemplary successful models show that overcoming many of

the barriers to employment of handicapped youth is possible and that these

methods could be applied on a larger scale to the handicapped youth as a

whole. To achieve success, however, a concerted effort at all policy making

levels would be necessary.

901

844
References

Abt Associates: The Program Services and Support System of the Rehabilitation

Services Administration; Final Report; Abt Associates, Inc., Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1974.

Bernstein, Gail and Karan, Orv: Obstacles to Vocational Normalization for the Developmentally Disabled, REHABILITATION LITERATURE, March 1979, Vol. 40, No. 3.

Boone, Annie: Employment Service Assistance to Handicapped Applicants; WORKLIFE, May 1977, U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration.

National Center for the Handicapped. Brighter Job Futures for Young Adults with Epilepsy; CLOSER LOOK, Winter-Spring 1977, Washington, D.C.

Conley, Ronald: The Economics of Vocational Rehabilitation; John Hopkins Press, Baltimore, Maryland, 1965.

Cooper, Bruce S.: Occupational Help for the Severely Disabled; a Public School Model; REHABILITATION LITERATURE, March 1977, Vol. 38, No. 3.

Fraser, Robert T. Rehabilitation Job Place and Research: A Trend Perspective; REHABILITATION LITERATURE; September 1978, Vol. 39, No. 9.

Greenblum, Joseph: Effect of Rehabilitation on Employment and Earnings of the Disabled: Sociodemographic Factors; SOCIAL SECURITY BULLETIN, August 1969, Vol. 42, No. 8.

Greenblum, Joseph: Effect of Vocational Rehabilitation on Employment and Earnings of the Disabled: State Variations; SOCIAL SECURITY BULLETIN, December 1977, Vol 40, No. 12.

Lattin, Diane: Prospects for Chan; PERFORMANCE, May 1976, Vol. 26.

Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration: PlacinE Handicapped alicants: An Employment Service Handbook; Department of Labor 1978.

Maynard, Rebecca and others: The Supported Work Demonstration: Effects During the First 18 months After EnrollomtliMsspower Demonstration Research Corporation; Mathematica Policy Research, Inc., April 1979, Princeton, New Jersey.

Olympic Research Corporation: An Assessment of Vocational Education Programs for the Handicapped Under Part B of the 1968 Amendments To the Vocational

Education Act; Final Report; 1974, Salt Lake City, Utah and San Francisco, California.

O'Toole, Richard and Mather, Robert: Work Experience: Transition From School to Employment for Mentally Retarded.

845
Youth; Vocational Guidance and

Parker, Scott, and others:

Handicapped; Management Analysis

Education and Welfare, 1975.

Rehabilitation Services, Cleveland, Ohio.

I.. roving Occu ational Pro rams for the

Center, Inc. U.S. Department of Health,

Rehabilitation International U.S.A.: Jobs for Disabled Workers, A Report

on the Corporate Handicapped Worker Program in Puerto Rico; November 1977

Rubin, Stanfird and Roessler, Richard: Guidelines for Successful Vocational

Rehabilitation of the Psychiatrically Disabled: REHABILITATION LITERATURE,

March 1978, Vol. 39, No. 3.

Schroedel, John G.: Attitudes Toward Persons With Disabilities; Research

and Utilization Institute, National Center on Employment of the Handicapped,

Human Resources Center, Albertson, New York, 1979.

Taggart, Robert and Brack, Roland: Youth Employment and Training Initiatives:

CHILDREN TODAY, November-December 1979, U.S. Department of Health, Education

and Welfare, Children's Bureau, Vol. 8, No. 6.

Vandergoot, David and others: A Compendium of Placement and Related

Literature; Research and Utilization Institute, National Center on Employment

of the Handicapped, Human Resources Center, Albertson, New York 1979.

Wilson, Thurlos and Richards, John: Jobs for Veterans with Disabilities;

U.S. Department of Labor, Manpower Administration, 1975.

White House Conference on Handicapped Individuals: Economic Coicern; State

White House Conference Workbook; U.S. Department of Health, Education and

Welfare; Office of Human Development, 1976.

903

846
CHAPTER VIII

JOB RESTRUCTURING

Job restructuring or job modification is the process of adapting the

working environmtnt to a handicapped individual or class of handicapped

Persons. It may also include devising specific appliances or prothesei.to

accommodate the needs of handicapped individuals so they can function in.jobs.

tations of the Workin Environment to the Handica e This phase` rehabilitation has two parts ...the first being the obvious

need for accessibility to the work premises, and the second being the

procedures for rehabilitation engineering whereby specific jobs or tasks are

restructured to accommodate particular handicapped persons or in some cases a

group of persons.

A barrier free environment includes building accessibility which conforms

with the American National Standards Institutes (ANSI) specifications for

making buildings and facilities accessible to and usable by the physically

handicapped. These specifications were developed in cooperation with the

President's Committee on Employment of the Physically Handicapped and the

National Society for Crippled Children and Adults, and were approved by ANSI

in 1961. They were used as a basis for the Architectural Barriers Act of 1968

(P.L. 90-480) which had as its purpose insuring that certain buildings

financed with federal funds are designed and constructed to conform with the

specifications. The standards were reaffirmed in 1971, but have recently been

revised and are in the final stages of being approved by the American National

Standards Institute.

A major requirement for adapting the working environment to the

handicapped is making sure that it is agreeable to the physically disabled.

This implies removing architectural barriers which hinder or exclude persons

with severe mobility problems and those in wheelchairs from getting into the

work area--such as steps, curbs, lack of convenient parking spaces, narrow

walkways, small or hard to open doors, inaccessible toilet facilities,
drinking fountains and telephones that are too high. It implies installing

ramps and elevators, colored lights to replace bells and buzzers to

accommodate the deaf, and braille symbols or other raised sensory devices for

the blind. It may mean signs in color codes or pictures to accommodate the

mentally retarded. In addition to general accessability to the facility there

are needs relating to, work area accessibility including access to the

restaurant and snackbars if provided to non-handicapped; and access to the

administrative areas and telephones.

There are a number of inexpensive ways of overcoming architectural

barriers for both renovating existing and designing new facilities. In fact

for new construction, there is often no additional cost involved. A wealth of

information on barrier free designs for all types of facilities can be

obtained from the Architectural and Transportation Barriers Compliance Board,

HEW, Washington, D.C. 20201; the National Center for a Barrier Free

Environment, 7th and Florida Ave., N.E., Washington, D.C. 20002; the National

Easter Seal Society for Crippled Children and Adults Information Center,

2023 Ogden Avenue, Chicago, Illinois 60612; the U.S. Department of Housing and

Urban Development, Washington, D.C. 20410, and the Department of

Transportation, Washingtont

1.7 In addition to the general accessibility to the facility and working

areas, there are modifications that reasonably can be made to a job itself to

accommodate an individual. It could mean a modification to the equipment or

to a procedure. The de'isions as to appropriate modifications can be made

with the vocational rehabilitation counselor or other experts who specialize

in bioengineering and job restructuring. These specialists are usually

associated with= hospitals or physical medicine centers. Equipment could be

modified by raising or lowering the height of a chair or installing a

knee-lever instead of a hand-lever on a particular piece of machinery; a

procedure could be changed by adjusting the working hours for the individual

or developing a buddy system with another employee for performing a two or

more step task if there is part of a task the handicapped person cannot

accomplish.

905

848
Adapting the Individual to the Working Environment . The process of adapting the individual to the working environment often

requires a coordinated aproach among medical or dental staff, bio-engineers,

technicians, educators, physical and occupational therapists and others in

which disabled persons are equipped with prosthesis which increase body

function. With the growth of plastics and electronics a wealth of devices

have been designed to assist persons with physical deficiencies. The securing

and design of these devices along with the training of the handicapped person

in the Use of an appliance aid is a cooperative effort among disciplines and

agencies. There are many aspects to this effort. Firstly, the disabled youth

with his or her sensitivities must be motivated to receive the device. Young

people, especially adolescents, due to peer pressure and the like are

sensitive to attitudes of their peer group and are often resistant to

artificial devices which call attention to their differences. It has been

observed in cerebral palsied classes for the orthopedically handicapped that

adolescent students often have the desire to abandon their braces and head

helmets which they used regularly during their younger years. For the hearing

impaired, designers of hearing aids are developing less and less conspicuous

ear fittings. Artificial limbs are more cosmetically designed. Most

impOrtant, however, are the months and sometimes years that take place for

training the handicapped person in the best use of the prosthesis. Plastic

fittings modeled to the contour of the body are now designed to help

individuals gain more power in sitting and sometimes standing positions to

strengthen the function of other muscles. An apparatus once designed may

reouire intensive training from an occupational or physical therapist, or

other specialist until the movements become natural. A handicapped person

with a deformed palate who has been provided with an oral prosthesis may need

extensive speech therapy. A student who has been disfigured due to severe

burns or other facial injuries may need plastic surgery as well as training in

application of cosmetics to appropriately minimize the disfigurement.

The importance of rehabilitation counseling to the student and the family

during this crucial period cannot be underestimated. The opportunity for

benefitting from restorative devices and treatment must be made known to them;

individual evaluation by the specialists must be arranged; the resources for

906

849
paying for the plan must be worked out with the family; even arranging for the

transportation to a center where a device is to be made can be a problem which

requires special counseling; and assisting an individual to psychologically

and physically adjust to the device or procedure may be a delicate task.

If the student is in a vocational or even prevocational program much of

the psychological counseling and training in using a prosthetic or other

device or appliance can take place during this period. In many communities,

the special education in cooperation with the vocational education program can

provide this supportive service.

Davis and Ward in their report on vocational education of handicapped

students emphasize the policy of providing modifications in the training

environment, classrooms or work-training site to accommodate the handicapped

(P. 54-55). They propose that "local education agency policies should include

making modifications as needed in scheduling, curriculum, equipment, and

facilities to enable handicapped students to participate successfully in

vocational education programs." They recommend: scheduling modifications

such as flexible scheduling of students to permit program entrance/ exit

appropriate with progress; curriculum modifications including task analysis of

occupations to identify possible modification in instruction, equipment, or methods; equipment/facilities modifications such as signals that are sound

rather than sight, or special safety devices such as guardrails around moving

parts of a machine, or simplified instructions for the mentally retarded. The

report stresses that any physical modifications made within the classroom

should be transferable and feasible in the normal and usual employment

setting. Another section of the report (P. 64) recommends that provisions be

made to adapt vocational education shop equipment to meet the needs of

individual handicapped students, and again stresses that vocational programs

should "always attempt to create a physical environment resembling as closely

as possible that found in industry, thus allowing the development of skills as

they are used in industry." They warn that when accommodating students in

vocational programs, "training programs should not be so special that their

duplication would impose undue hardship on employers," thus lowering the

student's chances for finding employment.

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850
Research in Job Modification

An article by N.E. Cooper in the International Labor Review (1977)

presents the desirability of an interdisciplinary system under the leadership

of the vocational rehabilitation counselor for the reintegration of

handicapped workers with assistive devices. The author describes a total care cqscept in which the vocational rehabilitation counselor is included as a

member of the prosthetic team alongside the surgeon, the prosthesist, the

psychotherapist, the psychologist and the social worker. Through this concept

Cooper states that "not only can the handicapped person be prepared for

re-entry into active life and trained in the use of the technical aid in daily

living, he (the counselor) can also be consulted at each stage of the

rehabilitation process.

The next phase in the effort for employment of the individual is the

"selective placement" process. Cooper describes this as matching the worker

and his residual abilities (including the benefit he derives from a suitable

prosthetic appliance or technical aid) with the physical and mental

requirements of prospe:tive jobs. It. . .stresses what the worker is capable

of doing rather than his limitations.

The field of job engineering, technically known as the ergonomic

approach, involves according to Cooper the analysis of work posture, movement,

effort and stress as well as suggestions for modifications in design that

reduce wear and tear on the human organism." which gives severely handicapped

a wider range of employment opportunities, from which many persons would

otherwise be excluded. Cooper sets forth the following principles in planning

adaptations:

(a) Where a worker finds it difficult to perform a task because of

a physical (but non-sensory) handicap, the task should either

be redesigned so as to be less demanding or be adapted to

allow the worker to use a different limb (or part of his

body).

(b) Where the impairment is sensory, steps should be taken to

convey signals in such a way that the worker can use those of

his senses that are still intact.

851 908
(c) Where a mental or emotional handicap prevents a worker from

taking necessary decisions, it may be possible to simplify the

work or to organize it in such a way that another worker takes

the more important decisions.

The following paragraph in Cooper's article describes some of the simple

adaptations which can be made.

"Numerous simple adaptations have been devised for those with limb

limitations. Among the common examples are pedals, manual levers,

power-assisted controls, access ramps, pulleys and lifts. For

those with impaired vision or hearing the importance of utilizing

residual abilities cannot be overemphasized. Magnifying devices

and instructions in large print are particularly useful to those:

with defective vision but who are not blind. The same can be said

of the elimination of random noise for the hard of hearing. If for

any reason these remedies are not practicable, it will be necessary

to address the signal to a sense which the worker possesses. Among

the adaptations that can be carried out for those with mental or

emotional handicaps are breaking down complex jobs into simple

component tasks and introducing choice-restricting devices always

supported by intensive, patient training."

Cooper describes many specific types of devices for the orthopedically

handicapped including devices from the commercial field such as a knee-action

typewriter shift-key mechs Ism for a'one-armed typist or a special telephone

for persons without arms. He also includes a variety of new technological

devices which can enable blind persons to function in complex jobs.

Several research centers have been developed to provide bioengineering

services for the didabled. One of the laboratories in job development and

productivity for the disabled in under the direction of Kalisankar Mallik of

the Job Development Laboratory Rehabilitation Research and Training Center,

George Washington University Medical Center, Washington, D.C. During the past

decade Mallik has had amazing success in placing handicapped youth in jobs

through his research and demonstration projects in bioengineering.

One project involved a training model in which cost-effective

bio-engineering techniques with the concept of vocational possibilites were

applied to 24 severely disabled adolescent students at the Sharpe Health

School in Washington, D.C.

so 852
Specific aims included: (Final Report, Page 2)

1) To provide a basis for enhanced educational and vocational

possibilities through the application of bioengineering

techniques in redevelopment or orthotic devices for adolescent

developmentally disabled students who have severe physical

limitations;

2) To demonstrate that through modification of the environment

with adaptive devices, developmentally disabled students can

be trained to function in a productive manner, thereby

enhancing the quality of their lives;

3) To eliminate years of inactivity, unemployment, and dependence

on family care for these students through early evaluation of work potential and by developing productive skills during the

prevocational years;

4) To promote better parental understanding of the disabled

adolescent student's potential and to redirect the family's

thinking about immediate, future, and long-range goals for

these students.

The Final Report of this project describes and depicts some of the

adaptive devices developed for these students. He reports that eight of the

project participants were placed in clerical positions under the summer youth

employment program.

Another report of Mallick's research on job development and enhanced

productivity describes a model for placing severely disabled persons in

competitive employment. It was tested with 116 clients who were considered by

the state vocational. rehabilitation agencies to be too severely disabled for

employment. Disabilities included spinal cord injury, cerebral palsy,

multiple sclerosis, muscular dystrophy, cerebral vascual accidents and

arthritis. A project team consisted of a vocational counselor/job placement

specialist, an occupational therapist/evaluator, and a rehabilitation

engineer. .The procedures involved client evaluation, job development, job

analysis, job-client matching, client's vocational skill training, equipment

and job site adaptations, placement and follow along services as well as

developing homebound job placement models for some of the clients. In regard

to "Equipment and Job Site Adaptions" and "Placement and Follow Along

Services" Mallik writes: (P. 7)

853
Every job requires some physical activity, however minimal. If the

severely physically disabled client is to perform job tasks at the

same level of productivity as his able-bodied counterpart,

modification of the environment to accommodate the client's

physical limitations is often necessary. Adaptations range from

very minimal (such as adjusting the height of a desk so that a wheelchair can slide under) to adapting equipment and customizing

the work space with many adaptations. Unfortunately, there is a

lack of commercially designed, low cost adaptations. Consequently,

it is often necessary to custom design low cost adaptations which

have immediate and practical usage in the work setting."

Once a client begins working on the job, many adjustments must

occur. The client must integrate the worker role into his

repertoire of behavior. He/she must learn to interact with

co-workers and supervisors and overcome attitudinal barriers. This

entails making a self-adjustment and helping others to accept

him/her as a productive worker despite physical limitations.

Finally, the client must learn to use the adaptive equipment and to

function in a physical environment that is new. The project

vocational counselor/ coordinator can help the client 'by closely

following the progress that is made from the client's and

employers' perspectives. Immediate intervention when problems

occur can alleviate major crises.

From 1974-1977, the project accepted 116 severely disabled persons. With

the results that it successfully placed 79 clients- 39 in competitive

employment and 40 in homebound positions. Since initial placement, 20 of the

40 homebound have joined the regular work force. With the aid of low cost

modifications, the clients are reported to be working at a productivity rate

equal to non-disabled employees performing the same jobs. Mallick further

reports tb,t the type of jobs for which these clients were equipped and

trained were at an employment entry level well above the minimum wage. The

positions im7Auded such occupations as computer programming, microfilming,

insurance ..:.dims adjustment, proofreading, editing. Employers included

info mat',. centers, federal libraries, insurance companies, universities,

data p'ocessing companies, printing firms and others. While this project was

geared to the adult population many of whom had been unemployed for some

years, the types of positions in which these individuals were placed in and

the job entry level described is applicable to post secondary students, and

some secondary students.

Other centers where engineering aids are being developed include the

Rehabilitation Engineering Center at Texas Institute for Rehabilitation

854 911
Research in Houston and the Cerebral Palsy Research Foundation in Wichita,

Kansas.

Modifications in Other Areas Which Promote Independence

At this point mention should be made that advances are rapidly being made

in other related areas of independent functioning for the handicapped. It is

not the purpose of this report to go into these areas but to only mention them

and refer to the bibliography for materials in these areas. This includes

modifications that promote independent living for the handicapped, for sports

and recreation, as well as for driving automobiles. In the process of

providing training for the whole individual, these areas should not be

neglected. Some rehabilitation counselors for youth have noted the

correlation between independent liVing and job productivity.

Another area of development which should not be overlooked is that of use

of leisure time for a handicapped person. Some researchers have noted a high

correlation between availability of leisure time activities and productivity.

During the training period it is important to sponsor appropriate recreation

and leisure time activities for handicapped students so that they can acquire

skills in hobbies, recreation, sports, cultural and social activities. With

emphasis on accessability, there are many parks, museums, recreation areas and

sports activities that have made adaptations to accommodate the physically and

mentally, disalled. The National Endowment for the Arts is emphasizing

accessibility to the arts for handicapped persons both is the area of art

appreciation; or art participation in painting, music, drama; dancing, and the

like. In addition to promoting art as a career goal for many handicapped,

field of the arts is advocated as areas in which all handicapped persons

should participate as a lifetime pal.

Summary and Conclusions

With modifications and adjustments at the training sites and work sites,

adaptations can be made which enhance the potential for handicapped

individuals or group of individuals for employment. There are also numerous

assistive devices tailored to a handicapped individual's personal needs which

855 912
compensate for deficiencies. Modifications or adaptations for employment can

be made without sacrificing performance demanded by an employer. They can me

made reasonably.

There are bioengineers, technicians, and researchers who are constantly

designing assistive devices. These include prostheses for amputees, body

fittings to help posture, orthotoc appliances for holding and manipulation,

optorators for palate deformities, braille calculator machines and opticons

for the blind, to name a few. Psychological and other counseling is needed in

assisting handicapped to adjust to and use these devices.

Experts are available for job modifications, whereby through task

analyses, job adaptations can be made to accommodate the capability of

individual handicapped persons or classes of handicapped. It may mean

modification to a piece of equipment, such as adjusting the height of a seat

or attaching a lever to a machine. It may mean relocating the place where the

person sits or works in a job setting. It may mean recommending a procedural

modification which does not interfere with productivity such as adjusting work

time of a handicapped individual, allowing for rest time, or initiating a

buddy system between a handicapped and non-handicapped in performing a set of

tasks.

As institutions, business and industry are becoming sensitized to the

need for accessibility for handicapped workers, more and more architectural

barriers to facilities are being overcome. The American National Standaids

Institute is about to release a revised set of specifications relating to

accessibility for handicapped persons. Many resources are available to

provide technical assistance in planning for building as well as program

accessibility.

In planning employment and job modifications, the concept of the need for

counselors and planners to think of the total lifestyle of an individual

becomes increasing important. Independent living for handicapped persons and

their leisure time activities appear to be closely related to job efficiency.

Communities are making modifications to recreation areas and housing

313

856
facilities to increase handicapped persons' ability to participate in the

mainstream of society. This should be encouraged.

CETA programmers for handicapped youth should take advantage of all areas

of expertise, particularly through the rehabilitation counselors, in arranging

for job areas. Staff development for CETA prime sponsored projects employees

should be included in in-service seminars and workshops.

914

857
References

The American Society of Landscape Architects Foundation: Barrier Free Site

Design; The U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Office of

Policy Development and Research, 1975.

Architectural and Transportation Barriers Compliance Board: Architectural

Barriers Removal: Resources Guide; Handicapped Individuals and Architectural

and Transportation Barriers Compliance Board, May 1979.

Cotler, Stephen, and DeGraff, Alfred; Architectural Accessibility for the

Disabled of College Campuses; The Architectural and Transportation Compliance

Board, October 1976.

Cooper, N.E.: Vocational Reintegration of Handicapped Workers With Assistive

Devices; INTERNATIONAL LABOR REVIEW, Vol. 115, No. 3, May-June 1977.

Davis, Sharon & Ward, Michael: Vocational Education of Handicapped Students,

A Guide for Policy Development; The Council for Exceptional Children, 1978.

Dickman, Irving R: No Place Like Home -Alternate Living Arrangements For

Teenagers and Adults With Cerebral Palsy; United Cerebral Palsy Association,

New York, N.W. 1975

Educational Facilities Laboratories and the National Endowment for the Arts:

Arts and the Handicapped-An Issue of Access; Educational Facilities

Laboratories, 850 Third Avenue, New York, Yew York 10022.

Foster, June and others: Guidance, Counseling, and Support Services for

High School Students with Physical Disabilities; Technical Education

Research Centers, Inc., Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1977.

Mallik, Kalisankar, and Yuseph, Sheldon: Job Development and Enhanced

Productivity For Severely Disabled Persons; Job Development Laboratory, Rehabilitation Research and Training Center, The George Washington

University, Washington, D.C.

Mallik, Kalisankar and Yuseph, Sheldon: Bio-Engineering Services to the

Developmentally Disabled Adolescent; Job Development Laboratory, The

George Washington University Medical Center.

Rehabilitation Service Administration: Engineering Aids Reduce Barriers

to Employment for Severely Handicapped Clients; REHAB BRIEF, Vol. 1,

No. 8, August 1, 1978; U.S. Department of Health Education and Welfare,

Office of Human Development.

Thomas, Stanley B. Jr.: Report to the President and to the Congress On

Housing Needs of Handicapped Individuals; Architectural and Transportation

Barriers Compliance Board, Washington, D.C. 1975, Reprinted 1976.

U.S. Department of Transportation: Travel Barriers; U.S. Department of

Transportation, Office of the Secretary, 1970.

915

858
CHAPTER IX

INCENTIVES FOR THE PRIVATE SECTOR

The Need

At the present time there is a pressing need to involve the private

employment sector in giving job opportunities to the handicapped, especially

handicapped youth. Providing disabled youth with occupational training within

the private sector and giving them an opportunity to compete for regular jobs

during their formative years can have an enormous impact on influencing their

career development. The public sector because it has been more influenced by

laws and regulations which govern their employment practices has made

noticeable advances in employment for the handicapped in mainstream

occupational areas, however, there is still a long way to go. Only marginal

efforts within the private sector are noticeable. In order to implement the

concept of the rights to qualified handicapped to job opportunities equal to

the nonbandicapped steps must be taken to gain greater participation among the

private sector. Priority must be now placed on increasing participation among

the corporate, business, and industrial world.

Employment statistics reinforce the need for greater job opportunity for

handicapped which reveal that according to estimates from the.Social Security

data, the Department of Labor and Census data, "25 percent of all individuals

not in the labor force and one-quarter of all unemployed are disabled, as are

13 percent of all welfare recipients. (Bowe, 1977). Past experience has

shown that for the most part, handicapped workers have been relegated to

sheltered workshops, menial low-paying jobs or are unemployed resulting in the

majority of handicapped persona living at the poverty level.

Prevalence of Negative Attitudes

The greatest difficulty which job-placement specialists have found in

their efforts to place handicapped persons in jobs is the preVailing negative

attitudes of prospective employers, especially- in the private sector.

Employer fears and anxieties mount when confronted with a handicapped
applicant. With their prime emphasis on productivity and profit, invariably,

qualified non-handicapped individuals are selected over qualified handicapped

persona. Moat frequently cited reasons for rejecting handicapped applicants

are cost related factors--with the feeling that insurance and workman's

compensation costs would rise, that absenteeism would be high, that accident

rates would increase, that productivity would be slowed down. Other reasons

for rejecting handicapped applicants though not always verbalized, are

feelings that handicapped persons, especially those with abnormal physical

appearances would cause distractions and irritations among other employees and

thus lower productivity.

Public Awareness Campaigns

To offset discriminatory practices advocates for the handicapped have

launched public awareness campaigns. These efforts over a period of years

have involved business and industrial organizations and employers in the

problems and process of employing the handicapped, have involved many

potential employers in cooperative work-study and on-the-job training

activities relating to the handicapped, have developed exemplary projects for

employing the disabled and eventually promoted laws which provide incentives

to hire qualified handicapped.

One of the major public awareness programs for combating negative

attitudes toward employment of the handicapped has been carried on by the

President's Committee on Employ the Handicapped (PCEH). The activities of

this Committee, initiated during the 1930's are directed at employers

throughout the nation. Its slogans "It's good ability not disability.thtt

counts" and "Hire the Handicapped, it's good business" have become popular

phrases in all parts of the country. Through the activities of the PCEH, in

conjunction with its network of Governors' Committees for Employment of the

Handicapped many employers and business organizations have joined in

partnerships with the disabled and their advocate groups in promoting

employment opportunities. Through the annual national and state conferences,

poster contests, high school essay contests and the like, the message

regarding the employment capabilities of qualified handicapped is presented in

positive terms to the general public. Based on attendance and performance

917

860
records employers are told that qualified handicapped employers tend to be

rather stable employees, therefore it's good business to hire the handicapped.

Emphasis is on the cost effectiveness as an incentive to their employability.

Demonstration and Exemplary Projects

Many articles and descriptions of successful demonstrator and exemplary

vocational training and rehabilitation projects carry a common theme. Where

employers are actually involved in the conduct of the project, good results

seemed to be attained with many trainees ultimately securing unsubsidized

employment. Thus it appears that a major incentive for increasing the number

of employed handicapped is by involving potential employers and their representatives organizations in developing occupational training programs.

Employers as a group, in addition to being concerned for business costs, are

also public minded citizens and if approached on a personal level will respond

to reasonable civic demands that do not significantly interfere with their

business interests. Some employers through their own advertising are even

able to capitalize on their fairmainded employment practices.

Tax Incentives

However, in spite of public awareness and the occasional involvement by

some employers in vocational training programs, unemployment among qualified

handicapped still persists as a major problem. In a new effort to encourage

employers to hire more handicapped, legislators are now designing tax

incentives. Two types of tax incentives have been enacted by'Congress as part

of the Internal Revenue Act amendments--a business deduction for accessibility

and a tax credit relating to the employment of handicapped persons.

(1) Business Deduction

The purpose of the tax deduction for removal of architectural barriers,

is to make facilities and public transportation vehicles more accessible for

use by the handicapped. Through this program a tax incentive is provided to

owners of facilities or vehicles for removal of architectural barriers. Up to

$25,000 may be deducted from income for costs incurred in removing

861 918
architectural barriers or for a public transit vehicle. Expenses for which

deductions may be made include parking lots, ramps, walks, toilets, stairs,

doors, water fountains, public telephones and elevators providing these

installations or construction conform to prescribed standards. Unless renewed

by Congress under pending legislation, this provision of the Tax Reform Act of

1976 expires on December 31, 1979.

(2) Targeted Jobs Tax Credit

The second tax incentive is a targeted jobs credit (TJTC) for hiring

certain categories of handicapped or others from groups with a high unemployment rate. Members of this targeted group include vocational rehabilitation

.,:eferrals, supplemental social security income (SSI) recipients, general

assistance recipients, and youths participating in cooperative education

programs. Definitions of each of these groups are contained in the tax

instructions as well as procedures for certifying that an employee is a member

of a targeted group. Deductions are based on qualified wages earned during

the years 1979 and 1980. They are equal to fifty percent of the first year

wages and twenty-five percent of the second year wages up to $6000.

All schools with vocational and cooperative education programs serving

handicapped need to be reminded of the tax credit for employers of students.

It is necessary for schools to complete a Certificate of Youth Participation

for each student (IRS Form 6199). For persons eligible under vocational

rehabilitation, the State employment agencies will be responsible for

certification of eligible employees.

In order to make the credit as appealing as possible to a wide range of

employers, the legislation establishes certification procedures which relieve

the employers of unnecessary paper work and the burden of providing to the

Internal Revenue Service (IRS) that the individual is a member of a targeted

group. Therefore the State Employment Security Agency has been designated as

the certifying agency. . The Targeted Jobs Tax Credit Program was designed as an additional tool

that can be used by CETA prime sponsor, to help eligible participants move

919

862
from subsidized employment and training programs into the private sector

employment. TJTC is also intended to assist the State Employment Security

Agency and other state and local agencies to place clients in private sector

jobs.

Uhether or not this program is an effective incentive depends on the

extent of cooperation in implementing the legislation among the related

agencies. Public education is needed for employers and the staff of

government local and state agencies as its implementation is so dependent upon

the commitments and team approach in utilizing the benefits. Already we have

heard rumblings that employers fear that the time spent on the paper work and

hiring procedures would be more costly than the wage factor, thus increasing

costs of productivity. With proper education amidst the business world, we

hope that this incentive will be given a chance to prove itself and be

extended beyond 1980.

Employer Involvement

Other incentives for employment of handicapped have been discussed in

previous sections of this report. They include such activities as work-study

or cooperative programs were employers join educators and rehabilitators in

placing handicapped in supervised jobs on worksites in which the wages are

subsidized by the sponsoring agency. These types of joint programs in which

the employer or their representatives play a major role in policy making

induce many employers to become involved in employment training programs for

handicapped persons, and to learn which types of joint programs in which the

employer or their representatives play a major role in policy making induce

many employers to become involved in employment training programs for

handicapped persons, and to learn which types of jobs are suitable or can be

modified for handicapped individuals. The participation process can help them

overcome their initial negative attitudes in relation to handicapped persons

and to determine in some cases certain jobs which might possible be better

handled by handicapped rather than non-handicapped persons. It also can help

them get to know a handicapped person as an individual with his or her own

personality where.the presence of a disability fades away. Other ways to

involve the private sector is to place civic minded bus:..uess and industry

863 P
representatives on advisory committees of agencies and advocacy groups

relating to the handicapped. An increasing number of state and local

volunteer committees are being set up to implement programs for the

handicapped. Private sector representatives can also be given an increasing

role in making decisions in local and regional planning for vocational

opportunities for the handicapped. An important consideraion in training

handicapped for jobs relates to the job market within a region or locality

where private sector representatives can be most helpful in setting goals. At

the actual job placement level, a potential employer can assist the vocational

counselor in the careful matching of a person to a job. The private sector

employment community can play a major role in insuring that the handicapped

are qualified for the job opportunities.

Responsibility of Educational, Rehabilitation and Job-Training Personnel

In order to interest employers in handicapped students and clients, the

professional interagency staff of the educational, vocational, rehabilitation,

and job-training agencies who are preparing these students for employment must

work with the employment community with great care. It requires that they are

careful in promoting qualified applicants for the jobs, that they work with

the employer for careful matching of a job to a handicapped individual, that

the applicant they sponsor meet-the employer's productivity needs, that they

are ever more alert to where a handicapped worker's competencies can help to

reduce employer overhead and costs. An essential component for any training

and job placement program for the handicapped is the follow-up activities

which take place to insure compatibility between the employee and his

employer. In some cases additional counseling or a minor adjustment can

overcome a difficulty. In other instances an employee may need to be recalled

or retrained. Good relations between the world of training and the world of

work can help overcome barriers to employment for handicapped youth.

Summary and Conclusions

Exemplary programs have shown that handicapped, if given proper training

can be as qualified for meaningful jobs within the private sector as are

non-handicapped. Statistics, however, show that the handicapped as a group

864 921
are among the persons living at the poverty level. the greatest difficulty

the handicapped have faced in being placed into jobs has been the negative

attitudes of employers. Public awareness campaigns have helped to open

employment opportunities to the handicapped. Tax incentives giving business

deductions to employers who have modified their facilities to employ handicapped as well as providing tax credits for hiring certain categories of

handicapped youth and adults are also promoting employment within the private

sectoz.

Involving employers of their representatives in decision making bodies,

advisory councils, training activities and overall community efforts in behalf

of the handicapped can help overcome their fears and reluctance about hiring

handicapped. Overt employer interest in the handicapped can be an incentive

to handicapped youth to remain in school as long as possible to acquire

employable skills and attitudes. With their rights to employment being

protected under affirmative action laws; students must be assured quality

training in job skills and attitudes which enable them to compete along with

the non-handicapped for the job openings. Within each, community employers and

job-training institutions must cooperate to implement these objectives.

Public education to overcome negative attitudes toward handicapped persons by

employers and the general public must be an on-going effort. Providing

incentives to employers can only partially solve the problem of increasing

employment for the handicapped in the private sector.

CETA prime sponsors in conjunction with the Employment Service staff can

become a major force for promoting jobs for handicapped youth in the private

sector. Their personnel are much closer to the daily needs of the business

and industry job market than are rehabilitation or educational staff. Prime

sponsor agencies can develop competencies among their staffs to bridge the gap

between school and jobs for handicapped youth. They can focus on the types of

training needed, the vacancy gaps, and can more easily monitor and follow-up

the handicapped youth who are placed in jobs. They can arrange job

readjustment or retraining when needed. Local communities should encourage

CETA programs to develop model programs to job-training, placement and

follow-up of handicapped youth in the private sector. With careful

coordination with local educational agencie:;, with community colleges and

865 922
others, CETA programs can serve as change agents in directing established

institutions to more relevant and quality programs for handicapped students.

CETA can indeed be a powerful force in improving job-training for the

handicapped and in serving the private sector within needed qualified

manpower.

The participation process could encourage employers to increase their

efforts at job-placement for handicapped, especially the youth. Affirmative

action is expected to be a major incentive inducing employers to recruit and

employ handicapped individuals. Vocational education and rehabilitation

counselors along with the job-training and placement personnel have major

responsibilities for helping employers to overcome their fears, to work

carefully with them in the overall training and placement process, matching

students and job applicants appropriately with the job openings. Good

relations between professional staff who are preparing youth for job

opportunities and the potential employers are essential.

CETA prime sponsors have a golden opportunity in becoming involved in

employer training efforts related to affirmative action by increasing employer

s. knowledge and participation in youthwork opportunities for handicapped

individuals. They should realize every opportunity to work closely with the

private sector in developing an awareness as to the potential of qualified

handicapped applicants. Prime sponsors or their representatives should

sponsor conferences, meetings, and job fairs or the like with employers to

develop positive attitudes and to gain insight and knowledge about the

handicapped.

The extent to which handicapped youth are given employment will

undoubtedly be related to the extent to which youth in general are employed.

As employment opportunities for the larger youth universe increase, so will

employment opportunities for handicapped youth. Handicapped must be

encouraged to remain in school as long as possible to acquire employable

skills and attitudes. With their rights to employment being protected under

law the community effort by employers and training institutions together must

make every effort to assure quality training to handicapped so that they

become sufficiently qualified to compete along with the non-handicapped for

866 923
the job openings. Public education to overcome negative attitudes toward

handicapped persons by employers and the general public must be an on-going

effort. Providing incentives to employers can only partially solve the

problem of increasing employment opportunities for the handicapped in the

private sector.

867924
References

Bernstein, Gail and Karen, Orv: Obstacles to Vocational Normalization for the Developmental) Disabled; REHABILITATION LITERATURE, March 1979, Vol. 40, No. 3.

Buzzell, Charles: Funding of Section 122, Cooperative Vocational Education l'agasi,MLSii-482; POLICY MEMORANDUM-BOAVPO-FY 79-3, September 19, 1979; Department of Health Education and Welfare, Office of Education, Bureau of Occupational and Adult Education.

Buzzell, Charles: Policy Interpretation Concerning the Distribution of Funds to Postsecondary Institutions under the Vocational Education Act; MEMORANDUM, September 21, 1978; Department of Health Education and Welfare, Office of Education.

Bowe, Frank: Looking Beyond the Disabilities; WORKLIFE, May, 1977: U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration.

Conley, Robert: The Economics of Vocational Rehabilitation, The John Hopkins Press, Baltimore, Maryland, 1965.

Cooper, N.E.: Vocational Reinte ration of Handicassed Workers with Assistive

Devices; INTERNATIONAL LABOUR REVIEW, Vol. 115, No. 3, May-June 1977.

Humphreys, Robert: Employment Tax Credits Under the Revenue Act of 1978 (P.L. 95-6001; PROGRAM INSTRUCTION ME'i)RANDUM, RSA-PI-79-16; May 16, 1979, U.S. Department of Health Education and Welfare, Office of Human Development Services.

National Center for Law and th' Handicapped; Affirmative Action: Opening Doors To Employment; AMICUS, Sept oer 1976, Pages 16-35.

National Center for Law and the Handicapped: Section 504 and the New Civil Rights Mandates; AMICUS, September 1977, Vol. 2, No. 5.

Ochoa, Vincent: Sections503and504:Nev Employment Rights for Individuals with Handicaps; AMICUS, September 1977, Vol. 2, No. 5; National Center for Law and the Handicapped, South Bend, Indiana.

Department of Treasury, Internal Revenue Service: Targeted Jobs Tax Credit with Win Credit; Publication 906, 1979 Edition.

Department of the Treasury, Internal Revenue Service, Public Affairs Division;

IljziZ112(Tageted-Jobs Tax Credit) NEWS RELEASE; March 21, 1979; Washington, D.C.

White House Conference on Handicapped Individuals: Implementation Plan: U.S. Department of Health Education and Welfare, June 1978.

9 2 5

868
CHAPTER X

ADVOCACY AND CONSUMER PARTICIPATION

The Concept of Advocacy

The concept of advocacy in behalf of the handicapped has become extremely

popular. In general advocacy is an effort whereby a cause is pleaded in

behalf of an individual or group of individuals or whereby a person or group

of persons interact with a system in order to promote a system change.

Advocating for better conditions for the handicapped has become a priority

among current social reforms as demonstrated by the many federal and state

programs being initiated. A common thread among all these programs is for

handicapped individuals to have the opportunity to participate in so far as

possible in the mainstream of society. Community programs and group homes are

replacing residential institutions; regular class placement with supportive

services are replacing segregated special classes, training for jobs in

regular vocational education programs is replacing training in sheltered

workshops for school aged students, and now job placement in regular jobs is

being made available to the handicapped rather than being unemployed'or in

subsidized jobs. Through increased accessibility to buildings and transportation, the world of the non-handicapped is gradually becoming available to

the disabled.

These social innovations of the last two decades came about largely as a

result of various types of advocacy--presures from organized groups that

vocalized the needs of the handicapped--which has had in and of themselves an

evolutionary history. In the early days, the handicapped were helped through

charitable groups and agencies such as Kiwanis Clubs who pleaded the cause of

their charges for additional services. As the demands for more and better

quality services grew, as waiting lists developed causing exclusions and

rejects from programs, the parents and friends of the handicapped began to

organize. The Associations for Retarded Citizens and United Cerebral Palsy

Association affiliates which organized during the 50's and 60's were composed

primarily of parents. In addition to providing direct services to meet

primary needs, these groups soon took on the role of advocating for expanded

869

926
services and better quality within the regular systems--education, health,

welfare, housing, recreation and others. With denial and exclusion of service

still persisting parents began to seek recourse through the courts--a process

which resulted in astounding success. Legal Advocacy and Court Decrees

We are now familiar with numerous class action and other suits that have

mandated inclusion of handicapped in our social systems, have brought about

legislative reforms and have literally revolutionalized the service delivery

systems by forcing open doors to the handicapped. Among the famous law suits

pursued by parents, organizations and legal agencies are the Pennsylvania

Association for Retarded Children (PARC) v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania; and

Hills v. Board of Education (D.C.) The decisions handed down in these cases

defined the rights of children as follows: (Bilkin 1974)

Children with special needs have a right to an edtication. Parents must be informed when a child is to be placed in A special class or if the child is to be excluded.

The State has the responsibility to inform parents of their rights.

The State has the responsibility to identify and serve (educationally) all children with special needs. Lack of funds

shall not be a sufficient excuse to deny educational programs for

children with special needs.

The State may not postpone the time of a child's entry to public

school for reason of a "handicap".

Any change in a child's educational program shall be subject to a

fair hearing.

The Wyatt v. Stickney (Partlow case) defined the following rights:

Residents shall have the right to habilitation, including medical

treatment, education, and care, suited to their needs, regardless

of age, degree of retardation or handicapping condition.

Each resident has a right to an habilitation program which

maximizes the person's human abilities and enhances his or her

abilities to cope with the environme t. J27

870
No person shall be admitted to the institution unless a prior

determination shall have been made that residence in the

institution is the least restrictive habilitation setting for that

person.

Child Advocacy

About the same time as the early court cases were being.heard, the child

welfare professionals, also alarmed by the increasing problems among children

and youth, began promoting child advocacy as a means of resolving some of

these issues.

The concept of child advocacy was given a push in the early 1970's by the

HEW Joint Planning Committee for Children created by the Bureau of Education

for the Handicapped (Office of Education), the National Institute of Mental

Health, the Rehabilitation Administration and Children's Bureau. Of primary

importance in stimulating this interest was the Report of the Joint Commission

on Mental Health of Children, Crisis in Child Mental Health which described in

glaring terms the plight of children throughout the country with serious

emotional, mental, physical, and social problems; it further ,described the

quantitative and qualitative inadequacies of the resources available to them,

fragmentation and unresponsiveness of services and lack of information about

needed services. A major recommendation of the Commission was for the

creation of a child advocacy system. The Ad Hoc Interagency Child Advocacy

Committee of HEW, an outgrowth of the Joint Planning Committee mentioned

above, studied the child advocacy concept and attempted to influence its

development by arranging for the agencies represented on the Committee to fund

a group of model projects relating primarily to handicapped children and

youth.

In 1972 the Columbia University School of Social Work under a grant from

HEW undertook a baseline study of a child advocacy and attempted to develop

some conceptualization of the process. Its report defined child advocacy as

"an intervention on behalf of children in relation to those services and

institutions that impinge on their lives." It described two major advocacy

functions--namely, case advocacy which focuses on assuring help or service to

families or individuals who need it, and class advocacy which focuses on

S71

928
changing policies procedures, ,personnel, rules, laws, and so forth. The

repott itself contains a review of a number of advocacy projects and ar.

in-depth discussion of the role of various groups including the professionals

in the advocacy effort. The report set forth some specific recommendationi

for the promotion of advocacy at various levels of program activity. Child

advocacy can improve services and provision 4.f." it is better conceputalized, is

given supportive structures, and is allowed to focus more systematically on

its unique methods and processes. . .It should be promoted as a planned

function, yet permitted to flourish as a spf)ptaneous cause." (P. 123)

Some of the more effective prevailing advocacy groups include the ones

conducted by the special interest organizations such as the National

Association for Retarded Citizens, the United Cerebral Palsy Association, the

Epilepsy Foundation, the National Easter Seal Society for Crippled Children

and Adults. Many legal groups are tow providing legal advocacy with legal

advice and assistance in relation to implementing and defending legal rights

of the handicapped; agencies such as National Center for Law and the

Handicapped, the National Legal Aide and Defender Association, the American

Civil Liberties Union, State or local legal services programs, and of course

private lawyers. Of particular interest is the Disability Rights Center in

Washington, D.C. which has as its main goal the enforcement of civil rights

legislation passed by Congress to protect the handicapped against

discrimination. It has taken on the task of concentrating on employment of

handicapped persons by federal departments and agencies. The Center is also

concerned about the safety and quality special equipment such as wheelchairs,

hearing aids, prostheses and other products that are essential to the

well-being of the disabled in his work or daily life.

Other important advocacy systems are the State Developmental Disabilities

Protection and Advocacy Centers which operate under the Developmental

Disabilities Program. These'centers provide administrative as well as legal

recourse to grievance and complaints.

92j

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Consumer Advocacy

Of special interest is the consumer or self-advocacy movement which has

gained strength during recent years in which the handicapped themselves or their parents voice their own opinions and seek redress for themselves. Many

blind and deaf individuals have become extremely skilled in self-advocacy and

have promoted more interpreter and reader services in public activities.

Self-advocacy for the disabled received its greatest boost when the

Rehabilitation Act of 1972 which contained expansions of programs for the

severely disabled and sections prohibiting discrimination in programs was

vetoed by the President. New similar legislation the following year was again

defeated. These defeats gave rise to a number of action and coalition groups

'among the disabled themselves. This consumer movement took its mode from the

civil rights movement so that marches and demonstrations took place in

Washington and in other population centers in which the disabled were seeking

services, legislation and also calling public attention to their needs. The

ensuing result was passage of several pieces of legislation expanding

services, insuring civil rights and prohibiting discrimination. Now it is

also becoming common practice for policy making committees and advisory boards

to include in their memberships disabled persons who can discuss pressing

issues relating to the handicapped from personal experience.

A Systematic Approach To Advocacy

Several models of advocacy have been described in the literature. It

appears that the process can be reasonably successful if approached in a

logical systematic manner. Marie Moore describes one such system in AMICUS,

May 1977 entitled Systems Change Advocacy. She defines advocacy "as insuring

disabled persons their rights to appropriate services. The process of

advocacy includes finding, accessing, and developing such services at the time

and in the place they are needed. . .Intervention means bringing about changes

that remedy the problems of not just one person, but all persons in the

present and future who may have similar problems." The author provides the

reader with a number of approaches for both class and case advocacy. In

case advocacy she includes the citizen advocate, ombudsman, legal advocate,

873

930
case manager advocate .and protective services; in class advocacy she includes

legislative advocacy, community organization advocacy, tyrogram brokerage,

protective services, and consumer action advocacy.

The advocacy movement has reached the attention of legislative bodies

which have responded with legislative programs for vocational and occupational

training for handicapped youth. The CETA prime sponsors need to be

knowledgeable about the advocacy groups within their states and local

communities. If handicapped youth or their parents feel they are being denied

access to job training opportunities, they will be seeking redress through the

due process procedures. CETA prime sponsors can be part of the efforts to

insure the rights of the handicapped for job opportunity.

Summary and Conclusions

Advocacy has developed as a system that interacts with service delivery

systems to bring about changes or helps individuals to secure appropriate

services. This process, which has been used in behalf of the needs of the

handicapped in recent years, has achieved some dramatic results. Legal

advocacy has resulted in many decisions favoring the handicapped and resulting

in syitems changes. Class advocacy has resulted in many legislative reforms.

New community programs, and the inclusion of handicapped in community

activities enjoyed by the non-handicapped. Numerous activities relating to

case advocacy have resulted in individuals benefiting from services which

families were unable to achieve through their own efforts. The current trend

is for handicapped to participate in decision making bodies by serving on

policy making boards and committees to voice their needs based on their own

experience.

CETA prime sponsors in developing any employment programs should follow

the policy of including handicapped persons and their parents on the advisory

committees as they develop training and job placement programs for their

clients. They should hire qualified disabled people in administrative

positions. The disabled community should have a major role in policy matters

and decision making. CETA agencies should also work with advocacy groups and

help establish priorities in improving employment opportunities for

931

874
handicapped youth. The most successful advocacy programs seem to be based on

a system approach to advocacy activities. CETA representatives should join

forces with the disabled coalitions in promoting jobs for the handicapped in

their local communities.

932

875
References

Addison, Max R: Citizen Advocacy; AMICUS, Vol 1, No. 4, May 1976; Center for Law and National the.Handicapped; South Bend, Indiana.

Biklen, Douglas: Let Our Children Go, An

and Parents; Human Organizing Manual For Advocates Policy Press, Syracuse, New York

Haggerty,

National Center for

Dennis E.: Legal Advocacy; AMICUS, Vol. 1, No. 4, May 1976; Law and the Handicapped South Bend, Indian:.

Hull, Kent: Advocates as Amicus Curia:

Change; AMICUS, Vol. Friends of the Court Effecting 3, No. 1, Jan/F.lb. 1978; National Center for Law and the Handicapped; South Bend, Indiana.

Jones, Ron: CETA's Problems With Hiring "the Handicapped"; WORKLIFE May 1977, U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration.

Kahnm Alfred;

to a National Baseline

Kamerman, Sheila; McGowan, Brenda: Child Advocacy, Report Study; Columbia University

York, 1972. School of Social Work, New

Maloney, Jr., Edward: Advocacy Under The of Rights; AMICUS, Developmentally Disabled Bill Vol. 3, No. 1, Jan/Feb 1978; National Center for Law and the Handicapped; South Bend, Indiana.

Moore, Marie L: Systems Change Advocacy; AMICUS, Vol. 1, No. 4, Muy 1976 NationaleCenter for Law and the Handicapped; South Bend, Indiana.

National Information Center for the Handicapped: Coalitions Offer New Local Closer Look Service and Disabled Adults

Winter-Spring 1977. Make Things Happen; CLOSER LCJK,

DD Councils;

Paul James; Wiegerink, Ronald; Neufeid, G. Ronald; Advocacy, A Role F,-r Developmental

1974; Frank Disabilities /Technical Assistance System;

North Carolina, Chapel

Porter Graham Child Development Center; University of Hill.

Postewaite, Jean: NCLH: In the Forefront of Advocacy For the Disabled; AMICUS, Vol. 3, No. 1, Jan/Feb. 1978, National Center for Law and the Handicapped, Southbend, Indiana.

Varela, Rita: Self Help Groups In

of Citizens with Rehabilitation; American Coalition Disabilities, Inc. 1979.

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CHAPTER XI

NEXT STEPS

This report contains a compendium, of information relating to the

edu .tion, rehabilitation and job training for handicapped youth. It traces

the programmatic history from a voluntary, charitable anddo-gooder approach

on the part of society for a selected few individuals to one of entitlement

for all. In spite of the mandates and efforts of recent years based on

legislative authorizations and court decrees, we are entering the eighties

without having viable implementation systems whereby each handicapped youth

will have received appropriate education in accordance with his or her

capabilities and interest, or will have acquired a marketable, skill on a high

enough level to assure the individual upon completion of school employment

opportunities with potential for advancement. At this point in time, a handicapped youth who is adequately trained is prepared to enter the

employment world, and has successfully acquired a meaningful job is tbe

exception rather than the rule.

According to studies conducted during the early 1970's it had been

ravealed that only two-fifths of the mentally, and physically disabled of

employable age were employed during a typical year, compared with

three-fourths of all nondisabled. Wages of employed handicapped have been

about one-fifth lower than non-disabled counterpa:ts, the figures increase

during periods of economic crises such as high unemployment or high inflation.

(Levitar and Taggard 1977). The impact of the recent programs in influencing

significant improvement for the handicapped has been slow, but the effort has

fostered a set of exemplary and innovative programs proving that there are

viable methods whicl. can result in productive lives for the majority of

handicapped individuals.

Now we are faced with the question: To whist extent can we achieve the

goal of helping the majority of handicapped youth develop adequate skills that

will enable them to become employable? Tr what extent can we gain the

cooperation of the employers to give qualified handicapped youth opportunities

for employment in meaningful occupat_ons and advancement equal to the so

877 934
called non-handicapped? What are the next steps CETA program administrators

must take?

The literature analysis has revealed that our social system has input

from many directions, from many agencies, from many points of view, from many

sources. If the CETA program is to serve as a change agent, it must first

decide whether it can achieve its results from cooperating within the existing

structure or from taking independent action outside of the existing programs.

I am recommending that the CETA agencies follow an evolutional approach

starting at the present stage of development and building from this base

rather than trying to reinvent the wheel. With the limited resources

available to communities, it would be better for the CETA program to

concentrate on the gaps which create barriers from school to work especially

in the job training and placement area, rather than attempt to administer a

comprehensive education, training and employment program. By developing

functional coordination systems among the various agents of service delivery

to assess needs, estimate resources, jointly develop goals, plan

implementation gtrategies with optional choices and alternatives, and also

arrange on-going evaluation, then the problems of training handicapped youth

for gainful employment and assisting employers in the acceptance and

advancement of qualified youth would. not be an insurmountable task.

The Department of Labor's Manpowc and Training Administration has been

given a major responsibility for joining forces with education and rehabilitation systems in assisting handicapped youth to be adequately trained and

prepared for employment, in working with employers in giving qualified

handicapped youth an equal opportunity to be placed in jobs, to assist

employers in non-discriminatory practices in recuitment, placement and

advancement for handicapped, to help develop public awareness for accepting

the handicapped in mainstream society, to help overcome' negative attitudes,

and to help handicapped youth overcome the barriers from school to work. The

Department has been assigned the task of implementing programs aimed at

reducing the unemployment and underemployment of the nations's handicapned.

This means developing firm and definitive policies in cooperation with state

and local governments.

878 935
A program of transition from school to work implies strong linkages with

the educational system. The Commissioner of the U.S. Office of Education has

announced a commitment for vocational education for the handicapped in which

he calls for appropriate comprehensive vocational education for handicapped

youth. The statement promotes the following criteria:

1. "The provision of appropriate comprehensive vocation education

for handicapped is dependent upon all segments of the

educational system. Elementary, secondary and adult-education

must provide programs and services necessary for students to

develop basic skills and make career choices. Vocational

education must provide the education and training to develop

occupational competancies.

"Appropriate comprehensive vocational education for the

handicapped must include cooperative relationships between the

educational sector and the employment sector to facilitate the

transition from school to work.

3. "Appropriate comprehensive vocational education for

handicapped persons will provide sequential educational

instruction and training appropriate to the needs and progress

of each handicapped individual.

4. "Appropriate comprehensive vocational education will, to the

maximum extent possible, identify and eliminate factors such

as attitudinal and environmental barriers, which determine to

a large degree the impact that specific handicaps have oh

individuals."

A most important step would be for the Manpower and Training

Administration to issue a complimentary commitment and criteria for accepting

its challenge for insuring that the handicapped develop occupational

competancies and subsequent placement in appropriate jobs. In cooperation

with State and local agencies, both public and private as well as from

national organizations it should develop a long range goal for the year 1990

at which time the number of unemployed handicapped youth will be reduced to

the same ratio as that for all youth. A set of major objectives and

milestones should be developed accompanied by plans for coordinated approaches

for achieving the objectives.

be:

Some of the important activities to be pursued during the decade would

879 936
1. A national needs assessment should be sponsored by MTA in

conjunction with CETA relating to identifying the occupational and

job-training opportunities for the total handicapped youth

population, determining the extent to which these opportunities are available and being utilized, the appropriateness of these

opportunities, their overall quality; it should determine the flaws

within the system and assess the extent to which the needs are met

or unmet, rate them in order of importance. The results of this

assessment should be used as a tool by the MTA and CETA

administratots in redefining objectives and assessing progress.

2. A similar assessment should be made concerning the employer

capabilities fur complying with affirmative action regulations,

identifying the strengths and weaknesses in overcoming attitudinal

as well as environmental barriers to employment for handicapped

youth; it should assess the extent to which handicapped youth are

finding unsubsidized jobs in both the public and private sectors,

the rate and causes of successful or unsuccessful job adjustment,

and the extent of career or occupational advancement; it should

identify follow-up methods which encourage employers and handicapped

.to maintain their employment.

3. Representatives, from the field of employment and labor should

actively and visibly participate and interact at all

levels--federal, state and local--in planning, developing, and

implementing practices relating to the transition of handicapped

'oath from school to work.

4. An impact study should be made of the Social Security Supplementary

Income program benefits to the handicapped to determine if under its

recent liberalization policies it has resulted in a higher

employment rate for handicapped youth.

5. Universities with competancies for training personnel for special

education, vocational education for the handicapped and vocational

880 937
rehabilitation should be enlisted to provide both preservice and

in-service training for manpower and job placement specialists.

6. CETA administrators and prime sponsors should take immediate steps

for staff development workshops, seminars, in-service training

programs to prepare their counseling and training

staff--professional and paraprofessional persons--to be

knowledgeable about the special unique needs of mentally and

physically disabled individuAls. Similarly the Employment Service

Administration should provide special training for its employees to

insure appropriate referral and placement service.

7. Training programs geared to employment practices for the handicapped

should be established in cooperation with business and trade

organizations, labor unions and continuing education schools to

provide employers as well as union representatives in this area.

8. A viable set of policies for follow-up and placement of disabled

school aged students should be established and implemented to insure

work adjustment, job advancement, or job retraining when needed.

9. The Manpower and Training Admiriltfnti.m sLould include a datr, base

and information system containing nijor components of progrlas and

statistics relating to th occupe7:.onal training of mentally and

physically disabled youth.

Based on this literature search .,1, 17,t1v1y, specific action ,-reps for CETA

administrators to use in promoting t.:ansition from echo c to work for

handicapped young people are presented in the fallowing chae:I. 'Zhese contain

a suggested but not all-inclueive list of recommendations, fall unde

eight mnjQr categorical areas, namely, interagency ccordination, ,ccupatione,d

training, client and family support services, employer 5.:74o1vement, resources,

personnel training, public awareness and evaluation.

881

938
ISSUE

CETA ACTION STEPS

1.0 Coordination It is recoupended that CETA representatives participate in interdepartmental committees

at all levels 0 government to promote viable linkages among agencies concerned with

preparing had gapped youth for employment.

1.1 CETA reosentatives should participate on the Federal OE/RSA Task Force which

is concerned with developing cooperative agreements between vocational education,

special ducation and vocational rehabilitation for preparing handicapped for

meaningfui jobs.

1.2 CETA tlyasentatiyea should work with the above federal task force to include the

CETA poom in ttle cooperative agreements being proposed.

1.3 CETA 1.4:elitto/':ves should participate on policy making committees at the State

level which ;;;1111.de education, rehabilitation, employment departments, and others

concerned vitt& handicapped youth training and employment to identify handicapped

youth in need of vocational training, assess needs, identify resources within

the gate, determine the job market and manpower problems of the State, and jointly

sec pttorities.

990
ISSUE CETA ACTION STEPS

1.0 Coordination 1.4 With the knowledge and insights gained from the implementation of the activities

(Continued) of 1.3, CETA representatives should participate in policy decisions and preparation

of cooperative agreements relative to the allocation of available State funds

relating to vocational education and job training for handicapped youth.

1.5 CETA prime sponsors should participate in promoting and developing cooperative

agreements at the local operational level for providing handicapped youth with

a sequential education and vocational training program that will qualify the

handicapped students with employable skills that will lead to paid jobs with

potential for advancement.

1.6 CETA prime sponsors and representatives should actively develop mechanisms that

All involve representatives from business and industry in decision making bodies

relative to occupational and job placement of handicapped youth.

1.7 CETA representatives should actively cooperate with the Governors' and local

committees on employment of the handicapped.

1.8 CETA should enlist cooperation from the private sector such as business, industry

and trade associations to provide job training and employment for qualified

handicapped persons.
CETA

CETA ACTION STEPS

1.0 Coordination 1.9 CETA should enlist cooperation of trade unions in accepting

handicapped in union

(Continued) shops at entry levels commensurate with their training and qualifications,

1.10 CETA should work with management and labor in developing union contracts that

would be

non-discriminatory toward recruitment and employment of handicapped.

1.11 CETA representatives working with a handicapped trainee shIld become an active

participant with the local school department of special education in the

development of the student's IEP with emphasis on hisiher job expectations and

matching of the student to the job market, CETA should play a role in arranging

job modifications and support services.

943

1.12 CETA representative should work closely with the local rehabilitation counselor

in planning the job training program for each of its handicapped trainees,

1.13 Work with the loyment Service to develop a viable system which can be enforced

in each employment office for follow-up services for each handicapped student

placed to insure job adjustment or provision for retraining when the need is

apparent.

944
ISSUE CETA ACTION STEPS

1.0 Coordination 1.14 The Youth Service Division of the Manpower and Training Administration should

(continued) link with CLOSER LOOK A Project of the Parents' Campaign for Handicapped Children

and Youth to inform parents of handicapped youth throughout the nation of information

and job or training opportunities through CETA and other job training programs.

2.0 Occupational It is reco ended that CETA representatives develop guidelines 'for program operators

Training containing a comprehensive approach to occupati- 11 training for handicapped youth which

discusses prevocational training, vocational t.. *tit, node's for skill development,

job modification and job restructuring, suppoet, ,ems, and architectural and

transportation accessibility.

945

2.1 CETA program representatives should work with local school agencies in establishing

prevocational training classes for outof-school handicapped youth.

2.2 Vocational assessment tests should be administered by qualified personnel.

2.3 Prime sponsors should concentrate on activities which build good relations with

the private sector.

946
ISSUE

CETA ACTION STEPS

2.0 Occupational 2.4 Prime sponsors should try to analyze exemplary projects relating to occupational

Training training and placement of handicapped youth and try to replicate and improve

(Continued) on successful components of these projects which seem applicable to their own

Communities.

2.5 In sponsoring exemplary projects, prime sponsors should take care that certain

safeguards are built into each project such as matching the skills of an employee

with a job; insuring that occupational training offered to the handicapped is

compatible with the local job market; that follow-up services after job placement

are provided.

:,6 Prime sponsors should develop a cooperative mechanism with the local school

administration which insures appropriate high school credits for occupational

training programs completed under training agencies sponsored by CETA. At the same time CETA sponsors should be aware of school board requirements for accreditation

and diplomas and assume responsibility for co,Anicating this information to the

training agencies.
ISSUE CETA ACTION STEPS

2.0 Occupational 2.7 Training agencies should enlist the help of the experts when arranging job

Training modifications, job restructuring, or training handicapped persons in the Use

(Continued) of 888iFale devices.

3.0 Support It is recommended that for CITA funded projects client and family support services

Services already available within the community be utilized and that CETA monies be used for

support services only after It is determined that necessary support can not be prided

from existing agencies.

949

3.1 CETA program representatives must be knowledgeable about resources available in

local agencies and the process of providing an interagency, interdisciplinary

0

coordinated approach to service delivery.

3.2 CETA prime sponsors must insure that program representatives have competencies in

family and client counseling related to the needs of the mentally and physically

disabled.
ISSUE

CETA ACTION STEPS

3.0 Support 3.3 In cooperation pith other related community agencies, prime sponsors should

Services conduct a needs assessment of support services in the local area which can assist'

(Continued) disabled youth and their families in the transition from school to work,

i.entify the gaps in service so that CETA monies can focus on providing needed

services.

3.4 Care should be taken in all CETA sponsored programs that disability related

support services are provided only after diagnostic appraisal has been completed

and recamended by qualified professional staff,

4,0 Involvement Of It is recommended that CETA prime sponsors and their, representatives foster positive

Employers working relationships with employari particularly those in the private sector and

together plan and develop meaningful training programs which prepare disabled youth

for work,

4.1 In cooperation with employers, develop and implement straegies to increase the

number of [Adicape4 youth successfully placed in private sector jobs at the

rate of 100 parent each year for the nest five years.

952
ISSUE

CETA ACTION STEPS

4.0 Involvement Of 4.2 In cooperation with representatives from business, trade and industry develop

Emgoyers an on-goLj public awareness campaign promoting employment for handicapped

(Continued)

persons.

5.0 Resources

953

4.3 CETA sponsors should arrange conferences for potential employers about employment

practices for disabled persons including facility and job modification,

interpersonal relationships between handicapped and non-handicapped, community

resources; conferences interpreting affirmative action and tax incentives

would also be helpful.

4.4 CETA agencies should involve employers in the evaluation of exemplary projects

and plan replication of successful components.

4.5 Within each metropolis, CETA prime sponsors should coicentrate on involving

representatives from large corporations and industrial facilities in the effort

to appropriately prepare the mentally and physically disabled youth for jobs.

CETA Prime sponsors should be thoroughly informed on all programs and resources relating

to preparing handicapped youth for work and insure full utilization of these programs

and services within their respective communities;

954
ISSUE

CETA ACTION STEPS

5.0 Resources 5.1 A community information brochure of available resources and support systems for

(Continued) preparing and providing transition services from school to work should be

available in each prime sponsor office.

6.0 Personnel

Training

955

5.2 An up-to-date resource book on federal assistance programs, state and local

assistance programs as well as private foundation

assistance programs should be

available in each prime sponsor office.

5.3 Prime sponsor agencies should arrange technical assistance workshops to interested

agencies on designated projects and evaluation systems.

In cooperation with State agencies, CETA should determine the adequacy of qualified

professionals and paraprofessionals personnel for job training, placement and transition

services from school to work for disabled persons and arrange with institutions of

higher education to provide appropriate training in this field to serve all localities,

rural and urban, within the state.

6.1 The estimated man-power needs for each locality within the state for training

disabled youth should be determined.

956
ISSUE

CETA ACTION STEPS

6.0 Personnel 6.2 In accordance with the best estimates as to types and numbers of personnel needed

Training to increase the number of mentally and physically disabled youth at the rate

(Continued) of 100 percent a year for the next five years, CETA should arrange with

institutions of higher education for in-service workshops, seminars, courses as well as preservice training

for persons already in the field as well as persons who might be attracted to this field.

7.0 Public

Awareness

951

6,3 Simulate similar continuing education courses or workshops for personnel

officers and supervisors of corporations, businesses and industries to sensitize

them 'to the problems, and needs of the disabled in employment.

6.4 Provide or stimulate transdisciplinary training for staff from various agencies

including, special education, vocational education, school guidance and counseling,

vocational rehabilitation and personnel from CETA agencies.

It is recommended that CETA prime sponsors and their representatives work closely with

community and State level groups in developing public awareness for promoting

employment for handicapped youth.

958
ISSUE

CETA ACTION STEPS

1.0 Public 7.1 The prime sponsor should establish a public relations office which sponsors

Awareness a speaker's bureau, works with the television, radio, newspapers and other media

(Continued) in informing the community about the advantages of job training and employment

for the handicapped youth.

7.2 CETA administrators, especially at the national and state levels should

interrelate with the various professional organizAions which are concerned

with vocational and occupational training for the handicapped organizations such

as the Council for Exceptional Children, the National Rehabilitation Association,

the National Council on Vocational Education, the National Asso6;tion of State

Boards of Education.

7.3 CETA prime sponsors should be aware of the various advocacy groups within the

community which promote improved services for the handicapped.

LA CETA prime sponsors should be involved with consumer groups composed of the

disabled and their parents; they should include representatives from the advocacy

groups on policy making boards.

960
ISSUE CETA ACTION STEPS

1.0 Public 7.5 CETA prime sponsors should focus public awareness on the positive aspects and

Awareness abilities of the handicapped so that the public can build positive rather than

(Continued) negative attitudes toward handicapped individuals,

8.0 Evaluation

1.6 CETA agencies should place a major focus of public awareness effort over the

next five years on the private sector employer.

CETA agencies should maintain on-going evaluation of all efforts to annually determine

the extent to which major goals and objectives for the employment of handicapped

youth are being achieved.

8.1 The Manpower and Training Administration should encourage CETA agencies to try

to meet national priorities.

8.2 Each CETA sponsored project should have a well designed evaluation component

which can indicate a project's strengths and weaknesses, and the extent to

which it will acLeve its objectives.

961 962
ISSUE

CETA ACTION STEPS

8.0 Evaluation .3 The Manpower and Training Administration should initiate and maintain a (Continued) computerized information system on evaluation outcomes of CETA funded youthwork

demonstration projects relating to the handicapped. Included in the system

should be information on the project focus, job training activities, support

services, types of handicapped served, occupational placements, nature of job

modifications, types of employers, employer participation, interagency

coordination, staffing pattern; follow-up on client's work adjustment.

963

964
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Albright, Lea and Clark, Gary, Preparing Vocational and Special Education

Personnel to Work with Special Needs Students: A Teacher Education

Resource Guide, Bureau of Education Research, University of IllinoisUrbana, 1977, Urbana, IL.

This monograph is designed to serve as a continuing resource for teacher

education programs and as a stimulus for others who are ready to make

commitments in the direction of teacher training programs which address

special/vocational education of the disabled.

American Institutes for Research in the Behavioral Sciences, Proceedings

of the National Advisory Panel: Vocational Training and Placement

of the Severely Handicapped, American Inst. for Res. in the Behay. Sci.,

Dec. 76, 37 p. Palo Alto, CA.

Summarized are proceedings of a 1976 meeting of the National Advisory

Panel of VOTAP, the Vocational Training and Placement of the Severely

Handicapped. It is explained that the advisory panel was formed to

consider policy matters and technical direction of the project.

Summarized are conference proceedings (including discussions of VOTAP

project objectives and objectives of the Bureau of Education for the

Handicapped); group discussions (attitude barriers, improving the nature

of employment, and obstacles to employment); and recommendations for

research and development in the three areas covered by group discussion.

American Vocational Association. Manpower, human assessment, and the

disadvantaged: A consumer report on the use and misuse of standardized

testing. American Vocational Journal, 1973, 48(1), 85-100.

A discussion of the shortcomings of standardized psychological tests

for use with the disadvantaged and a description of a number of

alternative assessment techniques. Listed as assessment tools for the

disadvantaged: Jewish Employment Vocational Service Work Sample

System; The Social Vocabulary Index (Jorgenson); Revised Interaction

Scale (Jorgenson); NYC Enrollee Interview Forms I & II (Mandell);

NATB or Non-Verbal Aptitude Test; Multimedia Orientation (Psychological

Corporation); Self-Concept Profiling Technique (01Mahoney); Self Interview Bureaucratic Structure Scale; TOWER Evaluation System; Tseng Rating

Scales, USES Pretesting Orientation Scales; Work Relevant Attitude

Scales (Walther); Attraction to Work Scale; Barrier to Work Scale; Loss

Scale (Wolfe, etc. al).

Andrew, Jason D. and Dickerson, Larry D., Vocational Evaluation: A Resource

Manual, U. of Wisconsin-Stout, Department of Rehabilitation and Manpower

Services, Research and Training Center, Menomonie, WI, no date,

300 p (with 116 p. supplement).

The first step in the developing of packaged learning units for topics in

vocational education, this manual serves both as a manual for trainees

and as a general resource document for the field of vocational

rehabilitation.

965

895
Anderson, A., Real Work. Vocational Evaluation and Work Adjustment Bulletin,

1968,'1(2), 2.5.

Discussion of the merits of the real work evaluation technique as performed within the confines of the facility.. Limitations of work

samples (which the author defines as simulated tasks) are also discussed.

Case studies to illustrate points are included.

Atkins, Richard, et. al., "Continuation of a Project to

Classroom Teacher's 'Hands On' Instrument to Measure

Skills of the Special Education Student for Specific

Final Report, Pittsburgh University, Pa. School of

56 pp., Pittsburgh, PA.

Develop a Vocational

Entry and Exit

Occupations"

Education, Dec. '77,

To investigate the feasibility of developing hands-on instruments to aid

classroom teachers in assessing both entering and exiting skills of the

special needs students in vocational education, a continuing project

at the University of Pittsburgh was conducted to meet two major

objectives: develop a definitive rationale for the design of a hands-on

instrument by which the vocational classroom teacher could diagnose

entry skills and measure exit skills of special education students and

design a hands-on instrument based on the above rationale for several

occupational areas. The project resulted in the following outcomes:

the development of a rationale and procedures for the design of the

instruments, an entering instrument to diagnose auto mechanics skills,

and an exiting instrument to assess competance in food services skills.

A large appendix accompanies this final report and includes the following

materials: an example of synthesis procedures (auto mechanics); the

auto mechanics entering skills instrument; the food services, exiting

skills instrument; and the rationale paper supporting the hands-on

instrument project.

Bitter, James A. "Guidelines for Inter-Agency Collaboration by Rehabilitation

Counselors. In Program Planning and Evaluation, edited by Isabel P.

Robinault, pp. 68-76. New York: ICD-RRC, 1975.

Discusses the role of the rehabilitation counselor in promoting

interagency collaboration as a means toward effective service and

efficiency in serving the handicapped. Describes how counselors can

help in integrating client services through a variety of approaches to

outreach and referral, client planning, case coordination, the use of community resources, and by encouraging administrative and fiscal

coordination.

Bolton, William W. Cooperative Efforts of Schools and Rehabilitation Services

for the Mentally Retarded. SRS project grant no. RD-1285. Paris,

Ky.: Bourbon County Schools, 1966. Taken from the SRS Abstracts,

DHEW, SRS-RIS.

The purpose of this project was to demonstrate the potential

effectiveness of a school-work program as a cooperative-school-community

project in a predominantly rural area. Sixty students were placed in

the work-study program. Demonstrates that there can be productive

cooperation between DVR and special education and other state and

896 966
local agencies toward the goal of vocationally rehabilitating the

mentally retarded.

Baker, R., & Sawyer, H., Adjustment services in rehabilitation: Emphasis

on human changes (inside title: Guidelines for the development of

adjustment services in rehabilitation) Auburn, Alabama: Auburn

University, Rehabilitation Services Education, 1971.

The purpose of this publication is to examine concepts of adjustment

presently being used in rehabilitation facilities and to recommend

guidelines to help facility personnel develop adequate adjustment

programs based upon the clientele and resources avilable. Defines and

differentiates between the concepts of personal adjustment and

adjustment training.

Bumheier, Edward C: Interagency Cooperation And Utilization of Similar

Benefits in the Delivery of Vocational Rehabilitation Services: Pap-r

presented at the National Training Workshop on Similar Benefits:

Improving Services for the Handicapped through Coordination of

Rehabilitation Programs, July 9, 1979; Regional Rehabilitation Research

Institute; University of Denver, Colorado.

This paper describes linkage mechanisms for vocational rehabilitation

agencies in providing services to handicapped clients which similar

services might also be provided by other agencies.

Baxter, Jan., Development and Implementation of Secondary Special Education

Programs, Michigan Dept. of Education, Special Ed. and Voc. Rehab.,

no date, Lansing, MI.

An excellent resource for administrators and teachers involved in

curriculum development. Contains information on content, criteria,

objectives, program models, and vocational rehabilitation services.

Based on programs in the State of Michigan.

Baxter, Jan Morrow., Comparison of Vocational Education and On-The-Job

Training as Methods of Improving Post-School Employability of the

Educable Mentally Retarded, Michigan State University, 1977, 164 pp.

Data from survey sent to 25 school districts with voc. ed. special

needs projects and 25 schools dists. with work study programs but no

voc. ed. programs.

Beard, J., Utilizing competitive industry for vocational evaluation and work

adjustment. In P. Afflect, F. De-Capot, & J. Szufnarowski (Eds.),

Proceedings of short term trainin: institute on work ad'ustment-vocational

evaluation services. Hyannis, Massachusetts: Massachusetts and

Connecticut Association of Sheltered Workshops and Homebound Programs,

1969.

Report of the activities provided by Fountain House in New York which

is a transitional employment program of evaluation in actual on-the-job

experiences. Vocationally disabled persons, primarily psychiatrically

handicapped, are placed in positions in private enterprise under

897

967
supervision of an employee of Fountain House. Placements are individual

and group in a variety of types of business. Discusses the growth of the

program since its origin in 1958 and the special considerations of

such a type of facility. (Rehabilitation Services Administration

Grant 768-T-69)

Bernstein, Gail S. and Karen, Ory C.: Obstacles to Vocational Normalization

for the Developmentally Disabled REHABILITATION LITERATURE, Vol. 40,

No. 3, March 1979.

A discussion of expanding vocational rehabilitation to individuals with

severe handicaps who have not traditionally fit the usual rehabilitation

services.

Bilkin, Douglas: Let Our Children Go-An Organizing Manual For Advocates

and Parents, Human Policy Press, Syracuse 1974.

A manual to help parents become advocates and serve as a change agent

for gaining more community acceptance of handicapped children.

Blauch, Floyd E. Federal Cooperation in Agriculture Extension Work,

Vocational Education, and Vocational

Discusses the Voc. Rehab. Act of 1920 (P.L. 66-236) expanding the

pattern of federal-state cooperation, which evolved in agricultural

extension work tad vocational education under the Smith-Lever And

Smith-Hughes acts, to the rehabilitation of civilians.

Blum, Lawrence P. and Kujoth, Richard K. (compilers), Job Placement of the

Emotionally Disturbed, Scarecrow Press, 1972, 453 p. tabs. Metuchen,

New Jersey

Experts from such fields as psychiatry, clinical and counseling

psychology, vocational rehabilitation and employment counseling,

sociology, and social work, are represented in this volume of 43 readings

on the topic of job placement for former psychiatric hospital patients.

Botterbusch, Karl F., A Comparison of Seven Vocational Evaluation Systems,

Stout Vocational Rehabilitation Institute, U. of Wisconsin, 1976,

Menomonie, WI.

Describes evaluation instruments such as McCarron-Dial, JEUS, Singer,

. Tower, Valpar, etc.

Botterbusch, Karl F., Tests and Measurements for Vocational Evaluators

University of Wisconsin-Stout, Materials Development Center, 1973,

Menomonie, WI.

The psychometric tests included in this booklet were selected on the

basis of a survey of test use among cooperative centers of the MDC.

Braun, Kurt, et. al., Improving Education and Employment Opportunities

for the Handicapped: Expanding the Commitment of Vocational and

898

968
Special Education. Final Report., Illinois U.-Urbana, Bureau of

Educational Research, June 1977, 142 p. 142 p., Urbana, IL.

Results are presented in a national workshop designed to improve education and employment opportunities for handicapped and disadvantaged

persons by providing a setting for fifteen university teams (one from

each of the ten U.S. Office of Education regions and five at large)

to develop specific plans of action for the creation or expansion of

programs to improve the preparation of vocational education teachers

serving the special needs learner. Pre-workshop planning activities

are described.. Including a brief analysis of the 1976 workshop on

vocational education for the special needs student. Workshop activities

are described; these focused on seven individual presentations relative

to special needs programs from three perspectivps (vocational education,

special education, and a local education agency), legislation affecting

vocational education, and the preparation of professional educators.

A report of team action planning and strategy sessions is also

presented. An evaluation of the workshop follows, along with a report

on post-workshop activities which occurred during the seven-month

interim between the workshop and the final report. A forty-four page

appendix contains a variety of forms used for the workshop: planning,

review, and evaluation instruments; and a team report questionnaire.

Bregman, M., The use and misuse of vocational evaluation in the counseling

process. In University of Pittsburgh, Research and Training Center

in Vocational Rehabilitation, Some recent advances and research in

vocational evaluation. Johnstown, Pennsylvania: Author, 1967.

Discusses the necessity for the counselor to have a clear understanding

of the proper use of the evaluation process. Emphasizes that without

proper understanding, the evaluation process will be misused by the

counselor with results being irrelevant and inaccurate. Includes

some background history of evaluation.

Brock, Robert J., Preparing Vocational and Special Education Personnel to

Work with Special Needs Students: State of the Art 1977., U. of

Wisconsin-Stout, 1977, 53 p., Menomonie, WI.

Presented is information gathered by questionnaire and direct telephone

interviews on programs preparing vocational and special education

personnel to work with special needs students. Outlined are data

gathering procedures (sample questionnaire and interview forms are

included); resulting data on operational programs, projected programs,

programs with a mainstreaming emphasis, and programs which are judged

not to be designed to prepare vocational/special education personnel;

and observations and recommendations on program development, state

teacher certification and university training program articulation,

program dissemination, mandated requirements, and responses of

interested persons. Listed among finding, is that program information

and information about adapted or developed materials in vocational/

special education are practically nonexistent. Appended are a teacher

certification directory, abstracts on 20 operational programs, a listing of projected programs, and a listing of programs offering one

or two mainstreaming or inservice courses.

899
Brock, Robert J., Vocational Education for the Handicapped: The University

of Wisconsin-Stout Special Education Program includes Final Report,

Wisconsin University-Stout, June 1978, 123 p., Menomonie, WI.

The University of Wisconsin-Stout Special Education Program prepares

secondary teachers to teach vocational and life function skills.

Incorporating vocational education, vocational rehabilitation, and

special education into a single degree program, graduates facilitate

the transition of handicapped individuals from school to the world

of work. Followup studies of graduates suggest that teachers trained

in this manner are more able to serve the needs of handicapped

persons than teachers trained in the more traditional academic and

elementary oriented programs,

Brolin, Donn E. and Kolstoe, Oliver P., The Career and Vocational

Development of Handicapped Learners, Information Series no. 135,

ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult Center and Vocational Education, Columbus,

OH, 1978, 80 p.

The state of the art of career education for handicapped persons was

reviewed beginning with the events and developments which have aided

in the growth of career education for the handicapped since 1971.

Specific career education needs of the handicapped were identified, and

the concept of career education was clarified. The study examined

relevant research on the roles of occupation, citizen, -family and

avocation associated with persons who are deaf, hard-of-hearing, blind,

partially sighted, cripped, health impaired, mentally retarded,

emotionally disturbed, learning disabled, or multi-handicapped.

Research conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of various curricular

approaches in this field was also studied. Finally, research in the

areas of teaching counseling methods and career assessment, exploration

and preparation for the handicapped was reviewed. The research

indicated that only now are school systems beginning to retool and

initiate a comprehensive array of services: infusion of total school

resources, community participation, and family involvement. Based

on past research and reviews of research in progress, ten generalizations were drawn. Three are as follows: (1) The majority of

handicapped students who leave school are in danger of becoming either

unemployed or underemployed in later life; (2) Currently there is

considerable curricula variability in scope and sequence for career

education program implementation. But more definitive guidelines and

procedures are necessary upon which to build curricula; and (3) Parents

appear to have a significant influence on the handicapped person's

career development.

Brolin, Donn E., Ed., Life Centered Career Education-A Competency Based

Approach, Council for Exceptional Children, 1978, Reston, Va.

A practical curriculum and materials guide to be used with both

handicapped and non-handicapped students in upper elementary and

secondary levels.

900 070
Brolin, Donn E., McKay, Donald J.; and West, Lynda, Trainer's Guide to

Life Centered Career Education, Council for Exceptional Children, 1978,

272 p., Reston, Virginia

A training manual for Local school administrators planning to implement

the Life Centered Career Education Program. Discusses orientation

sessions, handicapping conditions, appropriate educational programming,

and Career Education.

Brolin, Donn E., Vocational Preparation of Retarded Citizens, Charles E.

Merrill Publishing Co., 1976, 312 p., Columbus, OH.

Reviewed in the text are techniques and program models for vocational

preparation of mentally retarded persons. Part I presents basic

background information about mental retardation, the development of a

work personality, vocational adjustment of the retarded, and available

vocational services (such as educational and rehabilitation programs).

The bulk of the document is contained in Part II which presents the basic

techniques of vocational preparation. Individual chapters deal with the

following strategies (with sample subtopics in parentheses): vocational

counseling (theories and counseling techniques with the retarded),

clinical assessment (medical, social, educational, and psychological

assessment), work evaluation (intake interviews, situational assessment,

and standardized vocational testing), work adjustment (behavior

modification and precision teaching), job tryouts (advantages and

limitations, and guidelines for program implementation), vocational

training (vocational programs and research, and training in business and

industry), and job placement and followup. Part III suggests approaches

for conducting and evaluating secondary and postsecondary vocational

preparation programs. Iucluded in three appendixes is a description of a procedure for conducting a job analysis.

Bureau of Education For the Handicapped: Progress Toward A Free Appropriate

Public Education-A Report to Congress on the Implementation of Public

Law-94-142, The Education for All Handicapped, U.S. Department of Health,

Education and Welfare; Washington, D.C. 1979.

Caci, William P., A Work Experience Video Tape Satellite Project for EMR

Students Final Report, Pennsylvania Research Coordinating Unit for

Vocational Education, Harrisburg, PA, Dec. '77, 43 p.

A project produced and field tested a selected set of video tapes and

instructional material illustrating actual student performances and job

requirements while on a high school work experience program. Objectives

were (1) to enhance on-the-job student performances via immediate audio

and visual feedback, (2) to establish a library of realistic videotapes

of students performing in local occupations and business, (3) to supply

prevocational instructors with career awareness tools, (4) to illustrate

to all interested parties the performance and degree of involvement of

students in the work program, (5) both to provide prospective employers

an overview of work program students and to compliment the involvement of

employers now involved with the program, and (6) to bolster confidence

and self-esteem of students in the work program, especially educable

mentally retarded (EMR) students. Portable videotape equipment was used

901

971
to tape performances of students actually working on their respective

jobs. Unedited tapes were shown to' students for work evaluation

purposes. Then tapes were edited into ten-to-fifteen-minute

presentations, and teacher packets of lesson plan material wereldeveloped

for each. Packets and tapes were field tested at-Siinior and senior high

and college levels. The overall conclusion is that all objectives were

met, with most success in objectives 3 and 6. A list of the tapes by

occupation and three sample teacher packets are appended.

California Advisory Council on Vocational Education and Technical Training,

Barriers and Bridges: An Overview of Vocational Services Available

for Handicapped Californians, California Advisory Council on Vocational

Education and Technical Training, 1977.

-Results are examined of an indepth analysis of three million disabled

Californians. This publication describes both the positive and negative

aspects of vocational services.

Campbell, J., Work evaluation in a community evaluation center. In University

of Pittsburgh, Research and Training Center in Vocational Rehabilitation,

Some recent advances and research in vocational education. Johnstown,

Pennsylvania: Author, 1967.

Contains a brief description of the historical background of evaluation.

Discusses four approaches to assessment: mental testing, job analysis,

work sample, the situational approach, and their advantages and

disadvantages. Also includes script from question and answer period

following the presentation.

Campbell, L. Wayne. Education-Rehabilitation: A Joint Effort. In

Cooperative Agreements between Special Education and Rehabilitation

Services in the West, edited by G. Hensley and D. Buck, pp. 19-24.

Boulder, Colo: Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education, 1968.

States that concern for the mentally retarded was originally expressed in

programs within the school systems of the stated funded on an excess cost

basis at the state level. The 1963 Federal Mental Retardation Bill and

1965 California Commission report provided broad base support from

federal and state sources to services for the mentally retarded.

Testimony before the state legislature indicated necessity for special

education during high school years as a prerequisite for successful VR

placement. Cities need for work-study programs. States that the state

department of VR and education should initiate cooperative agreements

formalized in contracts for services with local school districts.

Cawood, Liz Tilton (ed.), Work Oriented Rehabilitation Dictionary and

Synonyms, Northwest Association of Rehabilitation Industries, 1975,

72 p., Seattle, WA.

Developed by representatives of work-oriented rehabilitation facilities

in Alaska, Idaho, Oregon, and Washington. WORDS is designed to provide

uniform communication base for those involved with work-oriented

rehabilitation facilities. Over 250 terms commonly used in sheltered

972

902
workshops and work activity centers are defined in clear, precise

language.

Cegelka, Patricia Thomas, et al., Career Education Programming for the

Handicapped: Cooperative Personnel Preparation. Final Report,

Kentucky Univ.-Lexington, Div. of Vocational Ed., 1978, 225 pp.

Lexington, KY.

-contains 11 presentations; reviews implications of career education

for special ed, voc. ed., and teacher ed.; overview of federal

commitments to voc. ed. and employment, legal implications for State

Departments of Ed.; reviews mandate for EIP's; discusses voc. preparation

services for adolescents with severe multiple handicaps; includes

reports from conference on special ed./voc. ed.; discusses project to

develop competencies for special voc. needs teachers.

Chouinard, Edward L. "Cooperative Agreements between Special Education and

Vocational Rehabilitation." In Cooperative Agreements between Special

Education and Rehabilitation Services in the West, edited by G. Hensley

and D. Buck, pp. 1-7. Boulder, Colo.: Western Interstate Commission

for Higher Education, 1968.

Describes Region IX's jointly funded programs between VR and many other

agencies such as special education, mental health, corrections, mental

retardation, and alchoholism. Agreements are based on national level

agreement between Commissioner of Education and Commissioner of VR.

Discusses "third-part" agreements.

The Comtroller General of the United States: Report to the Congress:

Training_ Educators for the Handicapped: A Need To Redirect Federal

Programs, Washington, D.C., Sep. 1976, (HRD-76-77).

The Office reviewed the capacity of special education teacher-training

nationwide, the public school demand for special education teachers,

the use of special educators within school districts; the relationship

between current utilization of classroom teachers, paraprofessions and

vocational educators; the process for developing new methods of

training teachers of the handicapped. Chapter three deals with

vocational education. Concudes that handicapped receive little in the

way of vocational education and that vocational educators need training

to teach the handicapped. Recommends a major drive to train vocational

educators with skills and abilities needed to effectively deal with the

handicapped.

Cooper, Bruce S.: Occupational Help for the Severely Disabled A Public School

Model, REHABILITATION LITERATURE, Vol. 38, No. 3, March 1977.

Describes Project H.E.L.P. in Atlantic County, N.J. on occupational

training program for severely handicapped which was able to train and

help a number of young adults ages 15-35. Offers recommendations and

policies.

Cull, J. & Hardy, R. (Eds.), Adjustment to work. Springfield, Illinois:

Charles C. Thomas, Publisher, 1973.

903 973
A collection of readings contributed by a number of authors from the

field of work assessment. Chapter topics include: A description of

the VEWAA Association, the future of vocational evaluation and work

adjustment, theory or work adjustment, description of the Materials

Development Center, contribution of group work to work adjustment,

contribution of psychological evaluation to work adjustment, work

adjustment and the Dictionary of Occupational Titles, work adjustment

and the mentally ill, work adjustment and the disadvantaged, and

vocational potential and work adjustment of the mentally retarded. Also

includes examples of vocational evaluation unit forms, social

habilitation unit forms, industrial therapy unit forms, and

rehabilitation counseling unit forms.

Cull, J. & Hardy, R. (Eds.), Vocational evaluation for rehabilitation

serivces. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, Publisher, 1973.

A collection of readings contributed by a number of authors from the

field of vocational education. Chapter topics include an overview of

work evaluation, role of evaluation in the rehabilitation process,

counseling impact of evaluation, a description of the VEWAA Association,

evaluating the evaluator, a description of the Materials Development

Center, the work sample approach to evaluation, the MODAPTS approach to

evaluation, the work evaluation report, utilization of the Dictionary

of Occupational Titles, prevocational education, scientific observation

in work evaluation, psychological testing in work evaluation, vocational

evaluation of the culturally disadvantaged, and the rehabilitation

facilities role in evaluating the welfare client.

Dahl, Peter R. and Lipe, Dewer. Overcoming Barriers to Mainstreaming: A

Problem-Solving Approach, Final Report. American Institutes for

Research in the Behavioral Sciences, Jul 1978, 93 p. Palo Alto, CA.

The overall objective of this project was to produce a guidebook to

help vocational educators gain skills in working with handicapped students

in regular classrooms. The first step in the project was to assess

barriers and identify ways to overcome them. Barriers were classified

into the following categories: attitudinal, architectural, work

environment, placement, and barriers to curriculum modification.

Difficulties within categories were identified by a literature review,

an advisory panel, vocational and special educators, and others

concerned with handicapped training and placement. The second step with

of the project was to prepare a guidebook acceptable to the vocational

education community. The guidebook which identified and described

practical ways to overcome barriers was reviewed and critiqued by an

advisory panel and special and vocational educators not previously

involved in the project. The guidebook was revised accordingly.

Step 3 involved the dissemination of the guidebook through a commercial

publishing company. (Appendixes include project abstract, meeting

topics, synopsis of current information, forms to list problem areas

and resources, sample completed survey form, telephone guide and

recording form, prospectus and list of publishers, flyer describing

the guidebook, list of interested publishers, and publication contact.)

(Author/CCS)

904 974
Davidson, Jon Alan, "A model for Vocational Programming for Handicapped

Students Under the Michigan Mandatory Special Education Law for the

Downriver Catchment Area of Wayne Co. Intermediate School District",

Wayne State University, 1976, 82 pp., Wayne, MI.

Questionnaire responses of local district superintendenants, high school

principals, special e. and voc. directors, parents of handicapped

children; indicates vocational centers are desirable.

Davis, Debra; Guzman, Juan; Jones, Joseph: Federal Assistance Guide For

Vocational and Career Education For The Handicapped; Bureau of Education

For the Handicapped/OE/U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare,

Washington, D.C., 1979, 38 p.

Explains extent of federal assistance available to support vocational

and career education of activities involving handicapped persons.

Contains descriptive abstracts of 28 programs.

Davis, Sharon and Ward, Michael, Vocational Education of Handicapped Students:

A Guide for Policy Development, Council for Exceptional Children, 1978,

95 p. Reston, Virginia.

Designed to assist state and local educational agencies and intermediate

educational units in developing administrative policies for the

vocational education of handicapped students, the manual addresses

present policy areas and administrative concerns. Guidelines are presented for policy development in the following nine areas (examples

of subtopics in parentheses): planning and administration (cooperation

with vocational rehabilitation and other agencies); identification

of students. (referrals); vocational ,assessment (vocationar counseling

and observation of work' behavior); individualized education programs;

program placement (least restrictive environment and periodic review);

service delivery (coordination of services and vocational education

modifications); facilities and equipment (accessibility of new

construction and adaptive' services); personnel (student/staff ratio

and inservice training); and fiscal management.

Dunn, D., Comparison of the JEVS, Singer/Graflec, and TOWER work evaluation

systems. Menomonie, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin-Stout,

Department of Rehabilitation and Manpower Services, Materials Development

Center, 1971.

Compares the three work evaluation systems now available on the market

in the areas of development, organization, process, administration,

scoring and norms, observation reporting, utility, training in use

of, and current status.

Drain, T., Hand in Hand: Parents, Educators Planning Special Education for

for the Child., U.S Dept. of Health, Ed., and Welfare, 1979.

A quick reference on the rights and responsibilities of parents and

educators no-applied to the edudation-of-exceptional children. Describes

steps for educational planning and the development of the IEP.
Educational Facilities Laboratories and the National Endowment for the Arts:

Arts and the Handicapped; An Issue of Access; EFL, 850 Third Ave.,

New York 10022, Nov. 1975.

Author makes a case for including handicapped in art training, and

assuring access of handicapped to museums including programming as well

as thee physical plant. Provides descriptions of successful facilities

now operating and new interagency service delivery systems.

Fenn, Carl E., Task Analysis: A Tool for Teaching_Job Skills to the Mildly

Handicapped, Journal For Special Educators of Mentally Retarded,

v.13, N.3, pp. 154-161, spring 1977.

Outlined are elements of task analysis for designing a vocational

training program for mildly retarded students. Among task analysis

factors described are name of the job, personal characteristics needed,

and tasks to be taught by the employer. (CL)

Foster, June and others: Guidanr^ Counseling, and Support Services for

High School Students With Physical Disabilities; Technical Education

Research Centers; Cambridge, Mass., 1977, 457 pp.

An excellent treatment of issues relating to counseling and preparing

physically handicapped for employment. Contains discussions on coordinating the delivery of services, personal adjustment, educational

planning, career development and guidance, vocational assessment,

psychometric testing, job placement, parent involvement. Contains a comprehensive compilation of resources.

Fraser, Robert T.: Rehabilitation Job Placement Research: A Trend

Perspective; REHABILITATION LITERATURE; Vol. 39, No. 9, September 1978.

Author presents job placement research, comments on various aspects of

these efforts, and offers some recommendations related to future

efforts. Disscusses new placement techniques and clarification of job

placement or job search process as it now occurs.

Gallagher, James J., Cooperation for Services. Journal of Rehabilitation 35

(1969): 29-30.

Cites legislative authorizations and cooperative activities of the Federal

Bureau of Education for the Handicapped with rehabilitation on behalf

of the disabled.

Gardner, David C. and Warren, Sue Allen, Careers and Disabilities: A Career

Education Approach, Greylock Publishers, 1978, 176 pp., Stamford, CT.

An interdisciplinary text in the fields of special education and career

education, the book presents recommendations for narrowing the gap between

what is being taught handicapped persons and what they need to know to

make an appropriate life adjustment. Chapter 1 introduces the major

concepts of the career education movement and explores its implications

for programing for handicapped persons. An overview of disabilities

is provided in Chapter 2 (injuries, impairments, differences, handicaps).

900 976
Chapter 3 discusses the barriers to employment of such handicapped

persons as the visually and aurally disabled, learning disabled, mentally

and pysically handicapped, emotionally and behaviorally disturbed,

and the epileptic. Chapter 4 focuses on such problems and techniques

of vocational assessment as measures of intellectual functioning,

adaptive behavior measures adademic achievement, interest tests, and

personality measures. In Chapter 5, principles and data from

psychological and learning theory research studies are selected to

illustrate the potential that emerging educational technology offers for

the vocational training of the handicapped. Chapter 6 proposes a process

for identifying critical area(s) for instructional intervention in

career education and for developing instructional programs for these

areas (sample lesson plans are provided). Chapter 7 focuses on some

examples of how learning principles have been applied successfully in

the world of work. The eighth chapter outlines the career education

curriculum development and infusion process, emphasizing special

consideration for disabled populations and uses examples from recent

studies and current programs. The final chapter discusses changes in

American vocational education.

Gellman, W., The future development of vocational adjustment programs and

workshops. Rehabilitation Literature. 1971, 32(4), 108-113.

Review of the history of work evaluation and work adjustment, the

history of the workshop movement, and the three major themes of work

as an introduction to the direction of the future of evaluation and

work adjustment services. The future of workshops is presented in

three areas: theoretical and technical innovations and the target

population to which these innovations will be applied.

Gillet, Pamela, Career Ed. for Children With Learning Disabilities, Academic

Therapy Publications, 1978, 196 pp., San Rafael, CA.

Intended for teachers, administrators, and parents, the manual covers

elements of a career education program for learning disabled (LD)

students at the elementary, junior high, and high school levels. The

first section traces stages of career development, with emphasis on developing the individualized education program for special education.

The continuum of services in career education is noted to range from

mainstreamed settings without support services to self contained

programs. Separate chapters on career education for elementary, junior

high, and high school LD students include a discussion on concepts and

activities. Considered are career education evaluation measures and

tests of attitude, interests, and academic ability. A section

on the work study phase provides suggestions to help the LD adolescent

gain job success and discusses community agencies which may be of

help. A materials section lists aids, kits, programs, games, audiovisual

materials, and charts for such subject areas as family living, language

arts, mathematics, science, social studies, and vocations. Addresses

of approximately 150 publishers are also included.

Gortner, R., IE's help handicapped workers raise productivity. Industrial

Engineering, 1973, 5(4), 10-15.

907
A discussion of the use of a particular pre-determined time standard

system, MODAPTS (Modular Arrangement of Predetermined Time Standards) as a means for setting realistic production standards for the handicapped

in a sheltered workshop, and developing efficient work place layouts and

methods.

Gourley, Theodore Joseph, Jr., Factors Influencing New Jersey County Voc.

Tech. School Districts to Establish Programs for Handicapped Students:

A Study of Educational Change Agents, Temple University (Xerox

University, Microfilms catalogue #76-22.042), 1976, 106 p., Philadelphia,

Pennsylvania.

Results of the analysis of 20 school districts indicated: significant

differences (such as the provision of special education teachers) were

found between the program characteristics for schools with planned

programs and schools without planned programs for the handicapped; three

change agents (the superintendent, the president of the board of

education, and program funds) were found to be significant factors in

establishing a vocational educational program for the handicapped; and

the superintendent and program fund were factors which influenced the

development of a program's characteristics.

Gollay, Elinor and Bennett, Alwina: The College Guide For Students With

Disabilities; Abt Publications, 55 Wheeler St., Cambridge, Mass.,

02138; Westview Press, 1898 Flatiron Court, Boulder, Col., 80301, 1976,

545 p.

A detailed directory of higher education services, programs and

facilities accessible to handicapped students in the United States.

Explains legal rights in higher education, handbooks and directories

for choosing a college or graduate school, admissions testing programs,

sources of financial aid, sources of learning aids and materials,

information and referral agencies, non-traditional approaches to

obraining a higher education (learning at a distance, etc.), federal

agencies, state agencies, publications, descriptions of colleges and

college accessibility tables.

Greenblum, Joseph: Effect of Vocational Rehabilitation on Employment and

Earnings of the Disabled: State Variations; Social Security Bulletin;

Vol. 40, p. 3-16), Dec. 1977.

The author analyzes linked records of the Social Security Administration

and the Rehabilitation Services Administration showing wide variation

by State in 1972 employment and earnings compared with other disabled

persons whose cases were closed in 1971. Author shows the patterns

which emerge from employment percentage differences between rehabilitated

and non-rehabilitated clients.

Greenblum, Joseph: Effect of Rehabilitation on Employment and Earnings of

the Disabled: Sociodemographic Factors; SOCIAL SECURITY BULLETIN,

August 1979, Vol. 42, No. 8.

The report analyzes the importance of sociodemographic factors in the

effect of rehabilitation services on the employment and earnings of

908

D78
disabled persons after their cases were closed by State vocational

agencies in fiscal year 1971. It identifies sociodemographic factors

that facilitate or hamper the effects of rehabilitation as measured

primarily by employment differences between clients who completed and

failed to complete a program of rehabilitation services.

Guzman, Juan; Wahrman, Mona; Holloran, Bill: Interagency Cooperation: A

Process Model for Establishing Cooperation Services Agreements to Serve

Secondary School Students; Mideast Regional Resource Center, George

Washington University, Washington, D.C., February 1979.

Contains material presented at the National Workshop for the Development

of Comprehensive Secondary Programming and Rehabilitation Services for

the Handicapped on cooperative planning for the handicapped.

Halpern, Andrew S., Principles and Practices of Measurement in Career

Education for the Handicapped, April 1977, 32 pp.

Discussed is testing in the field of career education for the handicapped

with emphasis on four major topics: applied performance testing,

criterion validity, studies, product versus process measurement, and

criterion versus norm referenced measurement. The author reviews some

political considerations relevant to this area of testing.

Hardy, Richard E., and Cull, John G., Vocational Evaluation for Rehabilitation

Services, (American Lecture Series in Social and Rehabilitation

Psychology), Charles C. Thomas, Publisher.

This book contains studies on work evaluation, adjustment, counseling,

and testing.

Hensley, Gene, and Buck, Dorothy: Cooperative Agreements Between Special

Education and Rehabilitation Services in the West; Western Interstate

Commission for Higher Education, Boulder, Colorado, June 1968.

Contains selected papers from a conference on cooperative agreements

held in Las Vagas, Nevada, February 1968. One of the early efforts to

stimulate cooperation between special education and vocational

rehabilitation in preparing the handicapped for employment.

Hoffman, P.,

1970, 36(1),

In W. Pruitt,

Washington, D

pp. 111-118.,

An Overview of Work Evaluation. Journal of Rehabilitation,

16-18. Also appears as Work Evaluation: An Overview.

and R. Pacinelli (Eds.), Work Evaluation in Rehabilitation.

.C.: Association of Rehabilitation Centers, 1969,

Definitions of prevocational evaluation, vocational evaluation, work

evaluation, and work adjustment. Discusses historical background

and development of work evaluation from World War I to present,

including some of the early facilities and leaders in the field.

Discusses present trends and future of wo:k evaluation and lists some

of the federal agencies involved in the work evaluation field.
Holden, Edward; Ferriman, James; Green, Alfred: Rehabilitation: The Road;

JOURNAL OF INSURANCE, May/June 1975.

A look at what is happening today in rehabilitation, and at the

insurance industry's involvement.

Halloran, William, et.al., Vocational Education for the Handicapped:

Resource Guide to Federal Regulations, Texas A and M Research

Foundation, College Station; Texas Education Agency, Austin; and

Texas Regional Resource Center, Austin, Apr. 1978, 267 p.

The report analyzes regulations and considers implications for special and vocational educators of Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of

1973, the Education for All Handicapped,Children Act, and the Vocational Education Act of 1963, amended in 1976. Initial sections focus on

the content of the laws, while a separate chapter compares the

regulations and considers implications for such aspects as definitions,

educational placement, individualized education programs, personnel development, funding, and vocational guidance and counseling. Nearly one-half of the document is composed of appended. Federal Regulations.

Hopkins. Mary A. and Brook- Robert J TMR Programs: A Vocational Life

function Performance wised' Criterion Reference. Curriculum, University of Wisconsin at Stout, Menomonie, Wisconsin, 54751 Menomonie Public

Schools and Wisconsin University, Stout, November 1977, 300 p.

Described in the discussion draft is a performance based criterion

referenced curriculum for teaching vocational skills to trainable

mentally retarded (TMR) students which was developed jointly by the University of Wisconsin at Stout and the Menomonie Public School

Administration. Explained in the introduction are three evaluation

inventories in the areas of adjustment, behavior and skills. A section

on needs analysis lists questions on the student population, parental

reaction, teaching staff and operational plan, facilities and materials,

community resources, and the evaluation procedure. The following

section, on facilities and materials, includes ratings of current

program items and a suggested procedure for purchase proposal. Parental

contacts, meetings, tours, presentations, and the advisory committee are

discussed in the section on public relations. Reported in the section

on community occupational survey, the TMR program introductory letter

and survey, personal contact with employers, and job analysis. Considered in the section on evaluation are the evaluation format, the

the evaluation process, work evaluation, the design of "work skills"

evaluation forms, sample work evaluation, work adjustment, and the

complete evaluation form (for adjustment, behavior, and skills). The

final section of the TMR curriculum in vocational education examines

instruction goals, scheduling for individualized instruction, instruction

content, and a sample curriculum. Appended are brief descriptions of

various work batteries and an evaluation of their suitability for use

with TRM students.

Hughes, James. H. and Rice, Eric: Needs Assessment Procedure: Mainstreaming

Handicapped; Systems Sciences, Inc., Chapel Hill, N.C. May 1978,

18 p.

9 S 0

910
Manual for local vocational education administrators planning a mainstreaming approach for handicapped students in vocational education.

Discusses a program planning and evaluation model developed following a

review of the literature and interviews with s-pool administrators.

Huh, Marc E.: Vocational Education for the Handicapped: A Review,"

INFORMATION SERIES #19; Ohio State U.-Columbus, ERIC Clearinghouse on

Career Education, Columbus, Ohio, 1977, 67 p.

A review and synthesis of programming and techniques useful in providing

vocational education to handicapped secondary and postsecondary school

students is presented in this information analysis paper. Information

and insights are given so that vocational administrators and supervisors

can assess their efforts to provide equal opportunities for the

handicapped to participate fully in all facets of vocational education

including youth organizations, cooperative vocational education,

vocational guidance services, and consumer education. Also, practical

suggestions are included for effectively accommodating handicapped

students through both regular and special instructional arrangements.

Specific topics discussed include the following: rationale for the

participation of the, handicapped in vocational education, barriers to

participation, impact of legislation, identifying the handicapped,

developing appropriate program alternatives for serving the handicapped,

provocational education, role of vocational education in comprehensive

secondary programming for the academidally handicapped, need for

interagency cooperation, curriculum and instructional materials to

assist in vocational training, personnel preparation, evaluation of

students and programs, and professional organizations. The conclusion

is made that emphasis of the future must be one of equal access and

maximum accommodation. The appendix contains descriptions of information

systems on the Handicapped.

Institute for the Crippled and Disabled: TOWER: Testing, orientation and

work evaluation in rehabilitation; New York, 1959.

Book review of TOWER. Describes the TOWER Work Sample Battery and

some of the advantages and disadvantages of the system.

Jaques, Marceline E.: The School and the Community: Coordinated

Rehabilitation Services, REHABILITATION COUNSELING: SCOPE AND SERVICES,

pp. 37-51, Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1970.

This chapter reviews models of collaboration between rehabilitation

and education. Patterns of collaboration involve four models of

services for the rehabilitation counselor.

Jones, Michael & Stevens, Marsha: People. . .Just Like You; President's

Committee on Employment of the Handicapped, Washington, D.C., undated.

Activities and workshop ideas for teaching nondisabled students'

misconceptions concerning the handicapped and for initiating

attitudinal change among school aged children are presented.

911

98/
Katz, David & Flugman, Bert: College and Industry: Partners in the

Handicapped Employment Role (CIPER II); City U of N.Y., Center for

Advanced Study in Education, N.Y.C., N.Y., August 1977, 124 p.

Discusses methods and techniques used in developing a project to meet

occupational and employment needs of handicapped community college

students.

Kessick, K.: The Wells Concrete Directions Test: Its applicability to

vocational evaluation. VOATIONAL EVALUATION AND WORK ADJUSTMENT

BULLETIN, Vol. 6, #4, pp. 15-18, 1973."

The purpose of this study was to investigate the appropriateness of the

Wells Concrete Directions Test when used with individuals of average

intelligence by comparing their overall performance on the instrument

with that of the original nonnative sample. Includes description of a

research project in which the test was administered to normal adults

and presents need for a modified test to measure ability to follow

directions, especially with other than mentally retarded populations.

Klinkhamer, George E.: "Mutuality of Planning for Joint Programs," in a Joint Partnership--Education and Rehabilitation, a report of a planning

conference of vocational education and vocational rehabilitation

executives at Afton Mountain, Va., Feb. 23-25, 1972, sponsored by

CSAVR and the National Assn. of State Directors of Vocational Education,

published in REHABILITATION INTERAGENCY FOCUS 5, Vol. 2, #6, May 1972.

Stresses the need for joint planning to meet the needs of the handicapped

at federal, state, and local levels. Participants should include special

education, vocational education, and vocational rehabilitation, as well as other public and private agencies serving the handicapped.

Kelstee, Oliver P.: Implications of Research Findings on Vocational and

Career Education for the Mentally Handicapped; Vocational Education,

Columbus, Ohio, Dec. 1977, 17 p.

Professionals in the education field have recognized the special problems

of the mentally retarded and since the early part of the 1950s have

attempted to find out just how to invervene between the limitations of

the retarded and the demands in the world of competitive work. Since

some retarded individuals become competent employees while others do

not, studies have examined differences between these persons. Studies

have also examined problems which caused retarded individuals trouble on their jobs--poor personal and social skills, poor work habits, and fault

of employers, coordinators, or parents. Professionals have attempted

to take into account these conditions. For example, attempts are being

made to broaden the range of training opportunities through cooperative

efforts with other disciplines--notably vocational rehabilitation and

vocational education. This occurred in the 1960s..at about the same

time change began to make itself felt in many social institutions

influenced by humanism, resulting in the concept called mainstreaming--the

integration of handicapped into regular classrooms. But is integration

the best policy? Studies show that there appears to be a real danger

that handicapped students will become lost in regular classes, or they

912 982
will not receive the special support they need from instructors and

students of regular classes. Research 'suggests what educators should be

doing with the mildly retarded: (1) Label the students, but not refer

to them as "mildly retarded"; (2) give them a highly structured program

which recognizes their delayed readiness and their slower than average

academic progress; (3) present material in a competency-based,

individualized format, and (4) plan tnrichment experiences.

Lattin, Diane: Prospects for Change: PERFORMANCE, Vol. 26, May 1976.

Author presents alternatives to sheltered workshops and some recommendations for change relating to rehabilitation and employment of

handicapped people.

Lamborn, Emily M. The State-Federal Partnerhsip; JOURNAL OF REHABILITATION,

#36, pp. 10-15, 1970, 6 p.

Presents a concise history of the joint state-federal vocational

rehabilitation programs from 1920 to 1970. Emphasizes not only the

state-federal partnership, but also the history of cooperative arrangements with other agencies and the expansion of those relationships in

more recent legislative mandates.

Lemonds, Cherry & Moss, Pam: Choosing a Job. . .Information About Deaf

People and Their Jobs; Mt. Florio (Ohio State U.) National Center on

Educational Media and Materials for the Handicapped, Columbus, Ohio,

1974, 70 p.

The authors have attempted to introduce deaf high school students to

"new and unique jobs that deaf people are entering," in the hope that

they will be motivated to "branch out" from traditional deaf job

stereotypes.

Levitan, Sar A. and Taggart, Robert: Jobs for the Disabled; (Policy Studies

in Employment and Welfare, No. 28) John Hopkins U. Press, Baltimore, Md.

1977, 127 p.

An indepth study of manpower and rehabilitation data as related to

employment of the disabled. Considers four areas: disablement and

employment possibilities, vocational rehabilitation systems, return on the vocational rehabilitational investment, and the adequacy of present

rehabilitation services.

McFarland, C. rev. of Houston, W.: The separation of rehabilitation from

production costs in the vocational rehabilitation workshop. (Occupational

Papers in Rehabilitative Administration, Vol. 3, pp. 16-20), 1973.

A review of a research study to develop a means of separating a vocational rehabilitation workshop's joint costs of production and

rehabilitation. Studied the question of whether separated costs are

relevant information for decision making in the areas of performance

judgment, resource allocations, pricing contracts and setting of

rehabilitation fees.

913

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Mahena, P., Jr.,: Active or reactive: Two practical approaches to work

adjustment. LOUISIANA VOCATIONAL EVALUATION AND WORK ADJUSTMENT

ASSOCIATION NEWS, Vol. 3, #2, pp. 19-21, 1972.

Presents two approaches to work adjustment: (1) active - where the

work adjustment program is planned, prior to a client's entry based upon

background information, and (2) reactive - in which the work adjustment

process and planning depends on the client's actions while undergoing

work adjustment treatment.

Mallik, Kalisanker & Yuspeh, Sheldon: Bio-Engineering Service to the

Developmentally Disabled Adolescent; Job Development Laboratory, George

Washington U. Medical Center, Washington, D.C., 1075, 75 p.

Environmental modifications and supportive devices are discussed as methods of improving the educational and vocational possibilities of

handicapped.

Mallik, Kalisanker and Yuspeh, Sheldon: Comprehensive Vocational

Rehabilitation for Severely Disabled Persons; Job Development

Laborarory, George Washington U. Medical Center-, Washington, D.C.,

undated.

Major topic areas of a conference including: medical considerations,

evaluation and vocational preparation, barriers to employment,

rehabilitation engineering, job development and the placement process,

and de-institutionalization/community alternative. Papers and

presentation accounts are given in full.

Mallik, K. & Yuspeh, S.: Job Development and Enhanced Productivity for

Severely Disabled Persons (Federal Report); Job Development Laboratory,

George Washington U. Medical Center, Washington; D.C., 1979, 146 p.

Using low cost bioengineering technology, equips severely handicapped

clients to become adapted to jobs usually denied them. Describes

processes of studying the job environment,' making adaptations of the

work environment, of necessary work tools and work materials, and

providing clients with orthotic devices which enhance the functional

capacity of the client in overcoming barriers to employment and

upward mobility.

Mallik, Kalisanker & Sprinkle, Judy: System Approach in Vocational

Rehabilitation Agencies with a New Look; REHABILITATION LITERATURE,

Vol. 38, #5, May 1977.

An approach to help counselors in job placement for severely handicapped.

Suggests alternatives for saving counselors' time, organizing a jot

finding club among clients for job ready clients, orientation sessions

for employers, circulating a list of job ready clients to employers.

Mangum, Garth & Glen,

Policy; jointly

Relations, U. of

Force, Ann Arbor,

Lowell: Vocational Rehabilitation and Federal Manpower

published by the Institute of Labor and Industrial

Mich., Ann Arbor and the National Manpower Policy Task

Michigan and Washington, D.C., 1967.

914

984
Marshall, James E.: "Special Education and Cooperative Agreement," In

Ooperative Agreements between Special Education and Rehabilitation

Services in the West, edited by G. Hensley and D. Buck, pp. 9-17,

Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education, Boulder, Colo., 1968.

Discusses the long recognized need for cooperating between special

education and vocational rehabilitation. Notes the oppostion in general

circles; vocational rehabilitation tended to overshadow special education

at the national level. Cites summation of cooperative agreements at

state level between vocation rehabilitation and special education.

Materials and Information Center: Toward a system approach to evaluation and

adjustment services; Alabama Rehabilitation Media Service, Auburn U.,

Auburn, Ala., 1971

A booklet distributed to supplement a panel presentation on a systems

approach to evaluation and adjustment services (NRS National Conference,

Chicago, 1971). Discusses and includes flow charts on the evaluation

and adjustment processes.

Mithaug, Dennis E., et al.: The Relationship Between Training Activities and

Job Placement in Vocational Education of the Severely and Profoundly

Handicapped; AAESPH Review, Vol. 2, #2, pp. 25-45, June 1977, 21 p.

Discusses the problem of relating vocational training activities to the

rehabilitation goal of job placement. Includes questionnaire designed

to assess behavior and skill requirments of rehabilitation centers of

five northwestern states.

Munn, C.: A human factors checklist for'vocational evaluators; U. of

Wisconsin-Stout, Department of Rehabilitation and Manpower Services,

Research and Training Center, Menomonie, Wis., 1972.

Presents a 20 item checklist to be used by vocational evaluators in

assessing the, design of work samples and work stations in vocational

evaluation. The items were developed from factors identified by methods

engineers as being important to optimal levels of productivity. Use

of the checklist as a procedure for identifying design or environmental

impedimenta to optimal performance is illustrated, (Social and

Rehabilitation Service:Grant RT-22).

Nadolsky, Julian M.: Guidelines for the Classification and Utilization of

Vocational Evaluation Personnel: REHABILITATION LITERATURE, Vol. S5,

#46, June 1974.

Author presents a competency based approach for staffing patterns in

large and small agencies for vocational evaluation, including vocational

evaluators, vocational evaluation technicians, vocational evaluation

aides.

Nadolsky, J.: Vocational evaluation theory in perspective: REHABILITATION

LITERATURE, Vol. 32, #8, pp. 226-231, 1971.
Presents three basic points of view that provide the current theoretical

basis for vocational evaluation: individual trait orientation,

environmental setting orientation, and individual-environmental

relationship orientation. Seven basic assumptions are provided for

each of the three points of view and their advantages and limitations

noted.

National Association of State Boards of Education: Vocational Education

of Handicapped Youth: State of the Art, a NASBE Report to the Dept. of

H.E.W., 1979, 57 p.

This is a four state study (Arizona, Maine, South Dakota, and Montana

on the state of the art in vocational education of handicapped youth. It provided a needs assessment analysis and recommendations targeted

to policy issues for consideration by State Boards of Education:

National Center for Law and the Handicapped: AMICUS - a bi-monthly

magazine, vols. 1-4, 1976-1979.

Each issue gives in-depth presentations of various legal aspects relating

to the legislation and civil rights for the handicapped.

Nazzaro, Jean: Preparing for the IEP Meeting: A Workship for Parents;

Council for Exceptional Children, Reston, Va., April 1979, 64p.

A two-hour training package provides opportunities for parents, teachers,

and administrators to actively participate in problem-solving

situations related to a student's educational program.

Neff, W.: Problems of work evaluation; PERSONNEL AND GUIDANCE JOURNAL,

Vol. 44, #7, pp. 682-688, 1966. Also appears in: R. Sankovsky,

G. Arthur, & J. Mann (Comps.), Vocational evaluation and work adjustment:

A book of readings, Auburn U., Alabama Rehabilitation Media Service,

Auburn, Ala., 1969.

A review of the advantages and disadvantages of four approaches to work

evaluation: (1) the mental testing approach (psychometrics); (2) job

analysis approach, (3) work sample approach, (4) situational assessment.

Neubauer, G.W.: Vocational Education and Issues, Problems, Resources, and

Services Needed, and Joint Agency Planning and Programming for the

Disabled and Mentally and/or Physically Handicapped Persons,

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION.

Discusses functional, activities in the nine general rehabilitation

programs grouped on the basis of client referral and client flow-pattern

and objectives which were developed for each program, sub-program,

and functional activity. Concludes that the

Newman, E.: Vocational Evaluation and work adjustment, a future thrust of

the rehabilitation movement; REHABILITATION RECORD, Vol. 12, 01,

pp. 13-15, 1971.

916 986
Discusses the Vocational Evaluation and Work Adjustment Amendment

(Section 15) to the Vocational Rehabilitation Act which authorizes the

following for disadvantaged individuals: (a) preliminary diagnostic

study of work evaluation; (b) diagnostic study of medical, psychological,

vocational, social, and environmental areas; (c) services to appraise

work attitudes and behavioral patterns; (d) other services to determine

nature of handicap; and (e) outreach and referral. Aspects of funding

and interagency cooperation are discussed with relation to both pilot

programs and future work evaluation. Emphasis is placed on the need for

closer cooperation of individuals and agencies in evaluation and

adjustment.

Obermann, C. Esco: Coordinating Services for Handicapped Children; Final

report, project no. RD-1181, National Rehabilitation Research and

Scholarship Fund, Washington, D.C. 1964. Also, Kurren, Oscar:

"Interagency Joint Planning and Collaboration--Fact and Fiction,"

EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN #29, pp. 143-148, Nov. 1962.

Discusses findings of a series of interagency workshops held in four

U.S. cities in 1962, conducted by National Institute on Services for

Handicapped Children and Youth, and sponsored by NRA, Council for

Exceptional Children, and National Society for Crippled Children and

Adults. Workshops focused on: identification of cooperative plans and

agreements in effect, review of problems in implementation, and suggested

new approaches for more effective interagency relationships.

Olympus Research Corporation: An Assessment of Vocational Education Programs

the Handicapped Under Part B of the 1968 Amendments to the Vocational

Education Act; Final Report. Salt Lake City, Utah and San Francisco,

Cal., Oct. 30, 1974.

An indepth study of the vocational education program at the state level,

project level and interviews with participants and parents. Assessment

covered 25 states, administration, financial profile of the states,

issues and policies, the instructional program, selection and referral,

educational plans, guidance and counseling, program costs and outcomes,

participant and parent characteristics, job experience, and an employer

sample. Contains summary of findings and recommendations.

O'Toole, Richard & Mather, Robert J.: Work Experience: Transition from

School to Employment for Mentally Retarded Youth; Vocational Guidance

and Rehabilitation Services, 2239 E. 55th St., Cleveland, Ohio, 44103.

Report is based on a follow-up study of job placement of students who

were in a program beginnning in 1965. Author describes a project which

demonstrated an interagency approach to the problems which retarded

students experience in making effective transition from school to

employment. The program is the result of coordinated efforts of the

Cleveland Public School System, the Ohio Bureau of Vocational

Rehabilitation and Vocational Guidance and Rehabilitation Service. The

program has now been incorporated into the regular curriculum of the

Cleveland Public School.
Owens, D.: Enhancing Job Placement of Epileptic Rehabilitation Clients: A

Research Demonstration Project; Bureau of Vocational Rehabilitation,

Pa., 1976, 199 p.

Two separate studies, one comparing three models of job placement for

epileptic clients and the other investigating the issue of disclosure

of epilepsy in job interviews were conducted.

Overs, R. & Trotter, A. (Eds.): The theory of job sample Tasks; Milwaukee Media for Rehabilitation Research Reports, No. 2, Curative Workshop

of Milwaukee, Milwaukee, 1968.

A basic orientation to the theory, develoment and current status of

work samples. Discusses the following: the difference between actual

job sample tasks and simulated job sample tasks, job tasks construction,

assessment with paper and pencil tests, norming job samples, reliability

of job samples, validity of job samples.

Parker, Scott L. et al.: Improving Occupational Programs for the Handicapped;

Management Analysis Center, Inc., 1225 Conn. Ave., NW, Wash. D.C. 20036,

U.S. Dept. of H.E.W., Office of Education, undated.

Authors have presented a comprehensive manual for setting up occupational training programs for handicapped youth. Includes planning and designing a program focus on the student, meeting the student's

needs, preparation for specific skill training, vocational training

related academic training, supportive and social services, transition to

the work world, job placement and follow up and cooperation. Manual was based on an indepth study of exemplary programs around the country chosen for site visits to thirty programs chosen from 350 returned

questionnaires from 450 programs nominated as worthy of special study.

Perry, Harold W.: Coordinated Program of Vocational Rehabilitation and

Special Education Services for the Mentally Retarded; SRS project

grant no. RD-1682, Board of Education, Memphis City Schools, Memphis,

Tenn., 1968. Taken from SRS Abstracts, DREW, SRS-RIS.

Attempts to study and demonstrate special occupational evaluation and

trainin ctivities which could lead to realistic vocational goals for

high school age educable mentally handicapped youth. Among the

objectives of the project were to effect a comprehensive and coordinated

program between special education and rehabilitation and to effect

subsequential and coordinated prevocational curriculum. Project led to

extensive cooperative programming between special education and

vocational rehabilitation.

Phelps, Lewis Allen: Competency-Based Inservice Education for Secondary

School Personnel Serving Special Needs Students in Vocational Education:

A Formative Field Test Evaluation, U. of Illinois-Urbana, University

Microfilms International, 1976, 371 p.

Among modification suggestions resulting from a field test designed to

evaluate a series of competency based inservice teacher education modules

for vocational educators and special educators were the addition of case

918 X88
studies depicting special needs students, relocation of the self

evaluation checklists in the module format, and further specification of

the relationships between the instructional development processes in

different modules. Recommendations included development and field testing

of component actions of a multiple unit instructional product and review

of the products by technical and subject matter experts.

Phelps, Lewis Allen & Batchelor, Laurie J.:

Individualized Education Programs (IEP's): A

Educators; National Center for Research in

State U., 1979.

A guide book for planning, developing and

included vocational education.

Phelps, Lewis Allen: Leadership

for Handicapped Individuals

Judy: A Consumer Guide

Thirty Projects/ A Conspectus;

Handbook for Vocational

Vocational Education, Ohio

implementing the IEP which

Training Institute on Vocational Education

Pennsylvania State U., a report by Smith,

to Personnel Preparation Progress, Vol. V.

Alburquerque, N.M., 1979.

A description of a one year project conducted by Penn. State Div. of

Occupational and Vocational Studies. Provides short term inservice

training to leadership personnel in vocational education, vocational

rehabilitation, and special education representing state and local

administrators, professional and advocacy groups, state advisory councils,

institution of higher education, business industry, & labor, including

about 400 persons.

Phelps, Lewis Allen: Providing Full Vocational Education Opportunity for

Special Populations; UCLA EDUCATOR, Vol. 20, #2, pp. 13-18, Spr/Sum 1978.

Discusses vocational education opportunities for the handicapped; examines

four sections of P.L. 94-142 (Education for All Handicapped Children Act)

that have a direct effect on the delivery of vocational programming:

full vocational education opportunity, individualized programs and plans,

least restrictive environment, and nondiscriminatory evaluation; describes

three related federal initiatives: the Vocational Amendments of 1976,

Section 503 (affirmative action in employment practices) and 594

(prohibition of discrimination on the basis of handicap in any federally

assisted program) of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. Stresses the

importance of advocacy involvement in providing appropriate vocational

education opportunites. Describes four major emerging research needs

in the field of vocational programming for the handicapped.

Phelps, Lewis Allen: A Review and Analysis of Vocational Education

Programming for Handicapped Individuals in the U.S. paper presented

at the World Congress on Future Special Education (First, Stirling,

Scotland, June 25-July 1, 1978), June 1978, 15 p.

The paper provides an overview of the current national state-of-the-art

in vocational education programming for handicapped individuals. Past

and present practices are reviewed. Emerging trends are noted, and

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future problems and challenges that need to be addressed are

examined. (Author/SBH).

Phelps, Lewis Allen: Vocational Education for Special Needs Learners: Past,

Present, and Future; School Psychology Digest, Vol. 7, #1, pp. 18-34,

Winter 1977, 17 p.

The article presents the "state of the art" of vocational education

programs for handicapped students. The author cites recent legislation such as P.L. 94-142 (Education for All Handicapped Children Act) and

describes existing barriers that impede the now-required-by-law / mainstreaming of handicapped students. The elements of exemplary

programs are listed, including the setting of a full educational

opportunity goal, complete staff cooperation and communication, identification and assessment, an individualized educational program, and

provision of the least restrictive environment. The need for inservice

and preservice teacher education is discussed. Challenges, issues and

future directions are outlined.

Phelps, Lewis Allen, et. al.: Vocational Education for Special Needs

Students: Competencies and Models for Personnel Preparation, Final

Report; Illinois U.-Urbana, Bureau of Educatibnal Research, Urbana, Ill.,

June 1976, 265 p.

The report describes a workshop designed for personnel prepiration in

vocational education for handicapped students. Workshop presentations

and activities are covered in part I, while critical professional tasks

are identified in part II; Part III presents personnel preparation

models prepared by 10 university-state department teams attending

the workshops.

Phelps, Lewis Allen & Clark, G.M.: Personnel Preparation for Vocational

. Programming of Special Needs Students; JOURNAL OF CAREER EDUCATION,

Vol. 3, #3, pp. 35-51, Winter 1977, 17 p.

Outlines some general considerations and guidelines for educators

developing preservice and inservice programs which address the vocational

programming needs of handicapped students. Topics cover: need

identification, program design, program content, and methods, practicum

experiences, certification, evaluation and staff selection and

development.

Phillips, Linda et al.: Barriers and Bridges: An Overview of Vocational

Services Available for Handicapped Californians; California Advisory

Council on Vocational Education, Sacramento, CA, 1976, 149 p.

Provides an overview of vocational services available to disabled

Californians and reports on some of the problems of including the

disabled in the mainstream of the educational delivery system. Chapter 1

presents some working definitions of terms, a profile of handicapped

Californians, and a description of the system designed to meet thier

career and vocational needs. In Chapter 2 barriers that exist in

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the system are considered in three categories: barriers within society

(such as lack of knowledge, attitudinal barriers, and architectural

barriers), barriers within the helping system (such as definitions/

labeling, inadequate planning and personnel), and barriers within

handicapped persons, their families, and other advoates (including

physical/mental/emotional problems and behavioral barriers).

Chapters 3 and 4 outline some of the major trends that are occurring both

nationally and within California and some recommendations for change

aimed at such groups as elected officials, the California State Board

of Education, and advocates of the handicapped. Appendixes include: a list of Calif. Advisory Council on Vocational Education steering committee

members; information on suggested resources for information services,

educational activities, guidance related activities, preservice and

inservice education, rehabiliaton technology, handicapped consumer run

activities, leisure time activities, studies and assessments, and

publication, and a list of organizations expressing interest in working

with handicapped individuals.

Pitt, Roger, Comp. & Thomas, Edward, Comp.: A P.:view of Related Literature

Concerning Components of Systems and Studies that Impact on Identification

and Selection of EMR's and Slow Learners for Vocational Programs; Miss.

Research and Curriculum Unit for Vocational and Technical Education,

State College and Miss. State Dept. of Education, Jackson Div. of

Vocational and Technical Education, Jackson, MS, May 1977, 94 p.

A resource document for vocational educators and special education

personnel. Discusses the components of 11 major work samples for EMR's

and includes annotated references related to vocational education

methodologies and in general to education of mentally handicapped students

and slow learners.

President's Committee on Employment of the Handicapped: Getting Through

College with a Disability; President's Committee, etc., Wash. D.C.,

undated.

A summary of services available to disabled students at 500 college

campuses in the U.S. A listing of handbooks and organizations relevant

to the handicapped student is also provided.

President's Committee on Employment of the Handicapped: Pathways to

Employment; President's Committee, etc., Wash. D.C., undated.

A listing of barriers to the handicapped in job preparation and placement

with subsequent recommendations to alleviating those problems.

President's Committee on Mental Retardation: MR 78; Mental Retardation:

The Leading Edge - Service Programs that Work; U.S. Dept of H.E.W.,

Wash. D.C.

Excellent sections on the family, work and self assertion.

Pruitt, W.: Basic assumptions underlying work sample theory; JOURNAL OF

REHABILITATION, Vol. 35, #1, pp. 24-26, 1970.

921

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Defines categories of work samples and cites research on work sampling.

Gives brief definition of terms - work sample (including different kinds of work samples), vocational evaluation, work sample evaluation, work potential and work personality. Presents nine basic assumptions regarding work samples with a discussion of each assumption citing

validating research for the assumptions.

Pruitt, W. & Pacinelli, R. (Eds.): Work evaluation in rehabilitation; Assn.

of Rehabilitation Centers, Wash. D.C., 1969.

A compilation of several papers reflecting the current situation in work evaluation, prepared by participants in an institute held in

Denver, August 1969. Articles and authors included are: Hoffman (Work Evaluation: An Overview), Roberts (Definitions, Objectives and

Goals in Work Evaluation), Sankovsky (Patterns of Services in Vocational Evaluation), Sink (Evaluation - A Reason for Concern), Bregman (Organization and Administration of the Vocational Rehabilitation Center Work Evaluation Program), Lee (Structure and Administration of a Work

Evaluation Program). Spergel (The Organization and Administration of a

Comprehensive Work Evaluation Unite in a Multifunctioning Vocational

Rehabilitation Program), Rosenberg (Organization and Administration of

Work Evaluation), Church & Barnes (Funding for Work Evaluation Units and

Purchase Work Evaluation Services). (Education Grant 418-T-69).

Reardon, Robert: A Self-Directed Career Planning Program for the Visually

Disabled; Fla. State U., Counseling and Health and Rehabilitation,

215 Stone Bldg., Tallahasse, Fla., 32306.

A self-help oriented, multimedia-based career exploration program. Uses John Holland's Self Directed Search with a tactile score board

and cassette tapes for each module, and also includes a taped occupational

information library describing at least 600 jobs.

Rice, B. & Thornton, C.: Utilization of a prescriptive vocational evaluation

to increase counselor effectiveness; REHABILITATION RESEARCH AND PRACTICE

REVIEW, Vol. 4, # 1, pp. 59-63, 1972.

Presents a description and merits of a "prescription" vocational

evaluation process which emphasizes specifically prescribed short and

long term services, and setting of goals for the client (in addition to

traditional observations).

Roessler, Richard & Mack, Greta: Strategies for Inter-Agency Linkages:

A Literature Review; U. of Ark., Ark. Rehabilitation Research and

Training Center, Fayetteville, Ark., 1975.

Presents a description and merits of a "prescriptive" vocational

evaluation process which emphasizes specifically prescribed short and

long term services, and setting of goals for the client (in addition to

traditional observations).

Roessler, Richard & Mack, Greta: Strategies for Inter-Agency Linkages: A

Literature Review; U. of Ark., Ark. Rehabilitation Research and Training

Center, Fayetteville, Ark., 1975.

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Emphasis on interagency linkages stems from the need to (a) minimize

service duplication, (b) serve the severely disabled, and (c) meet the

needs of families. Suggests that domain consensus can be increased by

establishing a common goal for and by specifying the nature of linkages.

Ideological consensus can be increased by providing evidence of the

benefits of linkages and by identifying needed actions by each agency

to implement coordination.

Rubin, Stanford & Roessler, Richard: Diagnostic and Planning Guidelines for

the Vocational Rehabilitation Process; REHABILITATION LITERATURE, Vol. 40,

#2, Feb. 1979.

Offers interesting viewpoints regarding vocational rehabilitation.

Outlines a concrete sequential procedure for using evaluation data to

generate appropriate vocational hypotheses and for subsequently involving

the client in consideration of these hypotheses during the rehabilitation

planning process.

Rusalem, Herbert & Malikin, David: Contemporary Vocational Rehabilitation,

New York U. Press, New York, NY, 1976, 250 p.

This text addresses controversial topics and ideas currently surrounding

the field of vocational rehabilitation. Contributing authors examine

the changing role of federal-state government agencies, the emergence

of career development theory, the rise of the consumer, new approaches to

vocational evaluation, counseling the mentally xetarded, assessment

training, placement and changing client populations.

Sankovsky, R.: Toward a common understanding of vocational evaluation;

JOURNAL OF REHABILITATION, Vol. 36, #1, pp. 10-12, 1970.

Discusses the lack of common meaning for vocational evaluation terminology

and necessity for having common definitions. Lists some of the terms

used interchangeably that cause communication breakdown. Describes

essential structure and characteristics of a vocational evaluation model

which includes establishing criteria and vocational goals, collecting

information regarding vocational potential, analyzing information

regarding vocational potential, decision making on vocational objectives

and predicting outcome, and determining the effectiveness of the

vocational evaluation process through follow-up.

Scolfo, Joseph L. & Henry, William C.: Guidelines for Establishing a

Vocational Assessment System for the Special Needs Student, Rutgers U.-

New Brunswick, Curriculum Lab., New Brunswick, N.J., April 1978.

This manual presents guidelines for vocational education administrators

and evaluators on how vocational evaluation can be integrated into

career education and how it lies in with the mandates of federal

legislation concerning the handicapped. Beginning the manual a philosophy of vocational assessment is offered followed by a discussion

of the relevancy of vocational assessment to a career development.

Next the major methods of Vocational assessment and the criteria for

selecting a vocational evaluation system are examined. A comparison

for selecting five evaluation systems using educational variables is

923

993
then presented in chart form from both the administrator's and

evaluator's perspective. Following this information are sections

on setting up, staffing and operating the vocational assessment unit.

Also included is a section on writing the vocational evaluation report.

The future of vocational assessment is analyzed in the final section.

A bibliography and a glossary of terms conclude the manual.

Shay, Harold F.: A decade of Development; REHABILITATION RECORD 11, pp. 23-26

(1970).

Discusses the advantages for handicapped youth of cooperative programs of special education, vocational education, and vocational rehabilitation,

using the Dallas (Texas) Vocational School program as an example.

Sherwood, David M. & Bitter, James A.: Contract Packages in Rehabilitation,

University of No. Colorado, School of Special Education and

Rehabilitation, Regional Rehabilitation Research Institute, Greeley,

Colo. An article based on this report appears in the JOURNAL OF

REHABILITATION, Vol. 38, pp. 31-33 (1972).

Smith, David W., et al.: The Community Resources Institute: A Process

for Attitude Change. NOMOGRAPH SERIES #2, U. of Ariz., College of

Education, Rehabilitation Center, 1971.

Describes an "institute" approach to developing community decision-making

capabilities. Service providers and community leaders are brought together and small-group processes are used to identify and prioritize

problems and to deal with the allocation of resources. The objective is attitude change on the part of participants rather than concrete

behavioral outcomes.

State U. of New York-Albany: Vocational Education: A Manual of Program

Accessiblity for the Physically Disabled Two-Year College Applicant;

State U. of N.Y.-Albany, Coordinating Area #4, Albany, N.Y., 1977, 224 p.

This manual was designed as a resource guide for handicapped individuals

interested in two-year occupational training at various institutions

within the State U. of NY (SUNY) of City University of N.Y. (CUNY)

systems. It provides an overview of 50 vocational degree programs,

indicates which educational institutions offer such programs, and

assesses the following characteristics of each: (1) course requirements

(number of papers per course, intership and field trip requirements);

(2) classroom procedures (utilization of audio-visual aids, interpreters

for deaf persons, oral exams); (3) classroom setting (space for

wheelchairs, entry ramps, elevators); (4) course environment (location,

temperature, space); and (5) physical and personality demands of

coursework (lifting manual dexterity, kneeling, or oral communication

requirements, work under stress, staple work routine). It also

indicates characteristics of the jobs which each program leads to, including worker personality characteristics, physical demands, work

setting, and requirements for vision, speech, hearing, and eye-hand

coordination. The manual also provides brief narrative job descriptions,

and lists professional associations in the field.

924

994
Stout Vocational Rehabilitation Institute: Suggested publications for

developing an agency library in work evaluation and work adjustment;

U. of Wisconsin-Stout, Stout Vocational Rehabilitation Institute,

Materials Development Center, Menomonie, WI, 1977.

Stout State U.: Vocational evaluation curriculum development workshop;

Menomonie, WI, 1967.

Proceedings of a workshop conducted at Stout State U. in 1967 to plan

a graduate program in vocational evaluation. Included are papers

presented by Campbell (Problems in Defining Work Evaluation and Work

Adjustment), Rosenberg (Role of the Evaluator in a Rehabilitation

Center), Speiser (The Role of the Evaluator in a Sheltered Workshop).

Gellman (The Principles of Vocational Evaluation), Hoffman (As an

Educator Sees the Need to. Train Work Evaluators), and Whitten

(Activities of VRA that have Meaning for Vocational Evaluators).

Tarrier, Randolph B.: Mainstreamed Handicapped Students in Occupational

Education: Exemplary Administrative Practices; City U. of N.Y.,

Institute for Research and Development in Occupational Education,

Mar. 1978, 103 p.

A study was conducted in New York State to identify the administrative

factors and/or practices that contribute to successful high school

programs of mainstreaming the handicapped and to develop a working report

that identifies these factors and/or practices to aid occupational

education administrators and supervisors in planning and evaluating

programs. Twelve representative school districts were visited and interviewed by teams of advisory consultants. Nine administrative

components were rated for their effectiveness and the features of each

were outlined. Then a hierarcy or priority listing was established of

the significance of each component of the administrative practices.

In order of their apparent importance they are as follows:

(1) organization and structure of the program, (2) professional

training activities, (3) personnel, (4) design of mainstreaming program,

(5) support services, and (6) community and state relations. Components

found to be unrelated to effectiveness were preparation for acceptance

of program, evaluation, and facilities/costs. Other factors found to

be relevant included the basic philosophy of staff and administrators, the

size of the program,, student assignment, curriculum and cooperative

education. (Among appended materials are lists of staff members and

sites visited, site visit interview and summary guides, a bibliography,

and features of an effective mainstreaming program.)

Tarrier, Randolph B.: Mainstreamed Handicapped Students in Occupational

Education: Exemplary Administrative Practices; City U. of N.Y.,

Center for Advanced Study in Education, N.Y.C. N.Y. Mar. 1978 87 p.

A study was designed to provide the occupational education administrator

and supervisor with a source book of effective "how to do it" practices

for mainstreaming handicapped students. The objectives of the project

were to determine administrative factors and/or practices that appear to

be significant in terms of effectiveness of the program, and to

develop a working report for use by those desiring information about

ememplary factors and/or practices or by those developing and reviewing
proposals for occupational education of handicapped high school students. Thirteen exemplary programs have been identified and the administrative components of such programs have been analyzed.

achieve the objectives Nine procedures to were used by the research

identified the degree team. Data-analysis of effectiveness among the program and a priority listing of established significance of each component of the administrative practices. The following nine components were considered:

and structure of the organization

program, professional training design of mainstreaming activities, personnel, program, support services,

relations, community and state

facilities cost.

preparation for acceptance of program evaluation, and (Appendix includes site visit guides, a bibliography, copies of form letters and correspondence,

an effective mainstreaming and a list of the features of

program.)

Tarr, Rodney F. & Lewis, James P.: 1974-76 Follow-Up of the Physically Handicapped in Pennsylvania;

for Research

Pa. State U.-University Park Institute

Technical School, Oil

on Human Resources, and Venango Co. Area Vocational City, PA, 1977, 84 p.

Conducted

handicapped students,

to assist vocational educators in planning programs for the project examined

vocational education selective aspects of the

program, adjustments, and physically present status of the

employers and parents

handicapped vocational graduates and the views of the

was designed to describe

towards the training of the graduates. The project

the following conditions:

status the current vocational of the employed and unemployed

from 1974-1976 physically handicapped in Pa.

satisfaction;

in terms of their vocational adjustment and job the vocational education programs at the area vocational-technical schools and vocational

physically handicapped rehabilitation centers for the

beneficial to employability

graduate; vocational programs that would be for the physically special services handicapped; and types of the physically

the regular vocational handicapped might need to succeed in

programs in public shcools.

were Three major outcomes

students were placed

reported: About three-fourths of the vocational handicapped in regular occupational classes with nonhandicapped students; in most cases, occupational training was not related to the first job; and about 93% of the employers of the physically reported that they handicapped would consider hiring

worker. another physically handicapped Data collection instruments are included in the report.

Texas Educational Agency, Partners in Career Education:

Needs Assessment, A Handicapped Student

Austin, Texas, 1977, 35 p.

Presented

career education performance

are findings from a 1977 statewide assessment of the of 1078 handicapped

a 45-item secondary students on 5 handicapping

screening device. Statistical data are presented for

handicapped,

conditions (visually handicapped, orthopedically auditorially handicapped, educable mentally retarded and language learning disabled) relative to the performance of nonhandicapped students on 26 subcategories, including

career information, job goal setting, decision making,

and worker interdependence.

interview skills, use of money and resources, Other findings presented and lowest performance includes highest

by sub-category. Specific aspects (answer sheet, instructions, and test items) are discussed in terms of their

926 996
appropriateness for use with special populations. The descriptions of

the 9 categories and 26 subcategories in the study are appended.

Thomas, S.: Development and use of a statewide vocational training services

chart; VOCATIONAL EVALUATION AND WORK ADJUSTMENT BULLETIN, Vol. 5,

#2, pp. 21-27, 1972.

Discusses the need for evaluators to have up-to-date information on job

training opportunities avilable for clients. Presents models of two

training service charts and step-by-step procedures for developing these

charts.

Timmerman, W.: Let's look at SSDI work evaluators; JOURNAL OF REHABILITATION,

Vol. 38, #2, pp. 36-37, 1972.

A discussion of the special problems and considerations in the evaluation

of SSDI (Social Security Disability Insurance) clients. Emphasizes clear

and purposeful evaluation, lucid reporting, and an individual evaluation

program approach for each client.

Tindall, Lloyd W.: Program Evaluation and Plannin: for the Vocational

Education of Handicapped Students: Secondary, Post Secondary Articulation,

U. of Wisconsin-Madison, Wis. Vocational Studies Center, Madison, WI,

1977, 46 p.

Project PEP (Program Evaluation and Planning: Evaluating Current

Programs and Identifying Handicapped Students and Their Vocational

Needs for 1977-82) was designed to help handicapped students ages 14-21

make the transition from secondary to vocational, technical, and adult

education school (VIAE) in Wisconsin. Information was gathered to

identify handicapped students and their vocational needs for 1977-82; the

barriers which keep handicapped students from enrolling in and completing

vocational courses; and successful techniques which work in teaching

handicapped students. The results were used to provide a data base for

special and vocational educators froM the secondary schools and

vocational administratrators from Wis.'s 16` VIAE districts to plan

jointly for educating the handicapped in each VIAE district. This core

group of educators and administrators from each district continued to

meet in order to articulate the development and improvement of vocational

education for the handicapped and to develop a strategy to help secondary

students enroll in VIAE schools. In addition to providing a data base

for program improvement and development, project PEP helped establish

many new liasions between vocational and special educators and between

secondary and VIM personnel which can. be valuable in helping to

increase the number of handicapped students who obtain employable.skills

through VIAE classes.

Trudeau, Elaine: Digest of State and Federal Laws: Education of Handicapped

Children, second edition, Nov. 1972; The Council for Exceptional

Children, Reston, VA., 1972.

U. of Pittsburgh, Research and Training Center in Vocational Rehabilitation:

Some recent advances and research in vocational evaluation

Johnstown, PA, 1967.

927 99'7
Contains papers presented at a seminar conducted to train rehabilitation personnel in procedures, theories, and aims of work evaluation. Included are papers presented by Bregman (The Use and Misues of Vocational Evaluation in the Counseling Process), Cobb (Predicting Vocational Adjustment in the Mentally Retarded), Campbell (Work Evaluation in a Community Evaluation Center), Hill (The Description of a Sheltered Workshop in Vermont Which Performs Unusual and Progressive Contract Services), and Steiner (Determining the Levels of Vocational Capability and Evaluating Job Potential); also included is a description of tests used at the Rehabilitation Center at Johnstown.

U.S. Dept. of H.E.W., Office of Education, Bureau of Occupational and Adult Education, Div. of Vocational and Technical Education: RESURGE '79: Manual for Identifying, Classifying and Serving the Disadvantaged and

Handicapped Under the Vocational Education Amendments.of 1976

(P.L. 94-482); U.S. H.E.W., 0.E., BOAE, D.V.T.E., Wash. D.C., Sept. 1979, 48 p.

Part I explains developing vocational education programs and services for youths and adults with academic or economic handicaps which prevent

them from succeeding in regular vocational education programs. Part II contains a guide for policy making for vocational education for handicapped youth. Legislation. Coordination. Support Services. IEP. Coordination.

U.S. Dept. of Labor, Employment and Training Administration: All Have Abilities and Skills; WORKLIFE, Washington, D.C., May 1977.

This issue of the magazine is devoted to the needs of employment and training for the handicapped. Contains five articles: How DOL Helps Handicapped Workers; Looking Beyond the Disabilities; Says Radio

Dispatcher Wells "10-4"; Yesteryear's Job Risks Led to Union Aid Today; CETA's Problems With Hiring "the Handicapped".

U.S. Dept. of Labor, Manpower Administration: Coordinating CETA and

Vocational Rehabilitation Services; FY 75 Course 305, Category III, Manpower Training Institute, Boston, Mass., Course Packet No. 530.

Contains keynote! speeches and training material for CETA employees.

Contains practical information about working with handicapped.

U.S. Dept. of Labor: Imploment and Training Highlights-Facts for the

Consumer; Employment and Trairing Administration, 1978.

A compilation of 21 consumer fact sheets on ETA programs. Explains how the program works, who is service, which Act authorizes the program,

how to apply and where to get information.

4.1. Dept. of Labor, Manpower Administration: Handbook for analyzing jobs.

Washington, D.C. 1972.

A completely revised and updated 1972 Dept. of Labor publication which supersedes the Training and Reference Manual for Job Analysis published

in 1965. Presents a new approach and structured procedure for

928 998
conducting a job analysis. Through the concepts and techniques presented,

current and comprehensive information about job and worker requirements

for occupations can be obtained. Especially useful for evaluators who

wish to have a guideline for obtaining detailed, specific information

about jobs in order to develop evaluation procedures.

U.S. Dept. of Labor, Employment and Training Administration: Placing

HandicapesdAppliclatalALSERIoyment Service Handbook; Wash. D.C.,

undated.

A guide for employment service personnel in placement of handicapped

applicants in jobs; includes registration, interviewing, counseling,

preparation for placement, steps in placement such as employer contact,

job development, job placement and follow-up, and use of community

resources. U.S. Senate, Subcommittee on the Handicapped, Committee on Labor and Human

Resources: Rehabilitation, Comprehensive Services and Developmental

Disabilities Legislation. A Compilation; Wash. D.C., 1979.

P.L. 88-164; P.L. 93-112; P.L. 93-516; P.L. 94-103; P.L. 94-230; and

P.L. 95-602.

U. of New Mexico: The Training of Professionals in Vocational Education for

the Handicapped; prepared by Griffin, Gerals, LaCasse, Robert and others;

The Consumer's Guide Series, Vol. III, Albuquerque, N.M. 1978.

This report contains an indepth analysis of a study of 86 projects

throughout the country which provided inservice, preservice training or

a combination of both to prepare personnel for vocational education for

the handicapped. Describes program administration and financial

support, service spheres, training staffs, ultilmate recipients,

incentives for trainee participation, interagency cooperation, trainee

competencies, measurement and evaluation and dissemination practices.

Offers recommendations.

U. of Wisconsin-Stout, Materials Development Center: Work Evaluation and

Adjustment: An Annotated Bibliography 1947-1977; U. of Wis.-Stout,

Materials Development Center, Menomonie WI, 1978.

Contains descriptive annotations of 1,296 periodic articles, speeches

and publications related to work evaluation and adjustment for the

period 1947 through 1977. Both a KWOC (key-word-out-of-context) and

a subject type Index are included to aid the user in identification

of annotations relevant to a particular topic area.

The Urban Institute: Report of the Comprehensive Service Needs Study

(Authorized by Sec. 130, Rehabilitation Act of 1973), The Urban

Institute, 2100 M. St., N.W., Wash. D.C. 20037, 1975.

Varela, Rita A. & Bowe, Frank: Self -Help Groups in Rehabilitation; The

American Coalition of Citizens With Disabilities, 1346 Conn. Ave.,

N.W., Wtsh. D.C. 20036, 1979, 72 p.

929

9
An analysis of consumer involvement in the delivery of services for

the handicapped, with emphasis on rehabilitation programs. Describes

provisions of vocational rehabilitation programs, the formation of

self-help groups, a model for self advocacy, and policy implications of

consumer involvement.

Vocational Rehabilitation and the Comprehensive Employment Training Act:

A Coordination Guide. Discussion Draft, DHEW, Office of Manpower,

Wash. D.C. 1975.

Includes chapters on deciding whether to coordinate (defines coordination

and what can usefully be coordinated); identifying and evaluating the

opportunities (looks at common denominators, program issues, advantages,

costs, and problems); reviews some specific options and coordination

arrangements; analyzes the role of leadership and outlines steps in

the process of developing coordination.

Weisgerber, Robert A., Ed.: Vocational Education: Teaching the Handicapped

n Regular Classes, Council for Exceptional Children, Reston, VA, 1978, 96 p.

Designed to familiarize vocational educators with federal policy and

program support for handicapped students. Review of legislation and

concepts embodied therein. Specific sections focusing on:

(1) orthopedically handicapped, (2) visually handicapped, (3) mentally

retarded, and (4) communication impaired.

White House Conference on Handicapped Individuals: Economic Concerns - State

White House Conference Work Book, U.S. Dept. of H.E.W, Office of

Human Development, Wash. D.C., undated.

This brochure contains a summary of an awareness paper by Richard T. Sale,

Employment and the Handicapped. Paper discusses attitudes of employers, attitudes of disabled persons, the Law, resolving differences, education

and the handicapped, career education, training, placement systems,

rehabilitation and industry, the handicapped and job success.

Wentling, Tim L. & Albright, Len: Administrator's Manual for the

Identification and Assessment System; Ill. U.-Urbana, Bureau of

Educational Research, Champaign-Urbana, IL, 1978, 33 p.

A manual instructing administrators on a system for identification, assessment

needs learner in vocational education.

information provided by system.

how to initiate and implement

and evaluation of the special

Discusses types and uses of

Wilson, Thurlow & Richards, John: Jobs for Veterans With Disabilities;

Manpower R & D Monograph, U.S; Dept. of Labor, Manpower Admin., GPO #0-583-674183, 1975.

Presents research finds based on a mail survey to 7,800 disabled veterans.

Study is on employment of Vietnam-era veterans with service connected

disabilities; objective of study was to determine what major problems

veterans with service connected disabilities encountered in seeking and

930 1000
holding jobs, and to explore possible solutions. Research was conducted

by Human Resources Research Organization (Hum RRO), Alexandria, VA.

Contains 130 tables, letters from veterans & data.

Wisconsin Vocational Studies Center: Modifying Regular Programs and Developing

Curriculum Materials for the Vocational Education of the Handica ed

Progress Report 1977, U. of Wis.-Madison, Madison, WI, 1977, 73 p.

Reporting the development of multi-session inservice meetings directed

at program modification and prescriptive teaching of handicapped

students enrolled in vocational, technical, or adult education (VTAE)

programs, this document is divided into three major sections. The first

section contains a summary of the project activities. Included is

information regarding cooperation with other agencies; inservice

activities in the VTAE districts; collection of materials for handicapped

and special education; project publications for use with handicapped

persons; state and national program and conference participation; and

consulting and advisory activities. A discussion of future directions

concludes this first major section. Section 2 contains the following

3 papers which were delivered at various national and regional meetings:

"Building Vocational Education for the Handicapped"; "Zeroing in on the

Barriers which keep the Handicapped from Employment--A Big Job for

Vocational Researchers"; and "Integrating the Handicapped Student into

Regular Classes: Can the Educational Researcher Help?" Section 3

(half of the report) contains summaries of the workshops held in 6 of

Wis.'s VTAE districts.

931

1001
COMPREHENSIVE BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abbas, Elizabeth, K. Issues in the Preparation of Personnel for the Vocational Programming of Special Needs Students: Synopses of Selected Materials, Dept. of Voc/Tech Ed., College of Ed., U. of Illinois-Urbana, 1976, Urbana, Il.

Abt Associates: The Program Services and Support System of the Rehabilitation

Administration; Abt Associates Inc., 55 Wheeler St., Cambridge, Mass., 02138, 1974.

ALF-CIO: Working Together--The Key to Jobs For The Handicapped; The President's Committee on Employment of the Handicapped, Washington, D.C. 1973.

Accent Special Publications, Accent Buyer's Guide, Accent Special Publications, 1977, Bloomington, IL.

Alley, Gordon and Foster, Carol: Nondiscriminatroy Testing of Minority and Exceptional Children; FOCUS ON EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN; Vol. 9, No. 8, Jan. 1978.

Altfest, Myra, Vocational Education for Students with Special Needs-A Teacher's Handbook, Dept. of Voc. Ed., Colorado State U., 1975, Fort Collins, Co.

American Society of Landscape Arthitects Foundation: Barrier Free Site Design; The U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development,, Washington, D.C. 1975.

Architectural and Transportation Barriers Compliance Board: Architectural Barriers Removal-Resource Guide; U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Office of Handicapped Individuals, Washington, D.C. 1979.

Asher, Janet: TAPS Would Sound the End of Epilepsy Bias; WORKLIFE, U.S. Department of Labor, Manpower and Training Administration, October 1978.

Barkley, Allen & Others: Industrial Theory: A Study of Success Rates over an Eight Year Period. REHABILITATION LITERATURE Vol. 37, No. 5, May 1976.

Barrett, Neal: High Marks for the Hardest to Employ; U.S. Department of Labor, Manpower and Training Administration, October 1978.

Becker, Clarence: 17 Volume Series-Occupational Education for Students with Special Needs, Board of Cooperative Education Services of Nassau Co, Div. of Occupational Ed., n.d. Westbury, N.Y.

Best, K.I. and Donoghue, D.J. Vocational Education and the IEP. in B.B. Weiner, Ed., Periscope: Views of the Individualized Education Plan, Council for Exeptional Children, 1978, Reston, VA.

Bowe, Frank: Rehabilitating America; American Coalition of Citizens With Disabilities, 1346 Conneticut Avenue, N.W., WasilinSton, D.C. 1979. rOlio

Buscaglio, Leo: The Disabled and Their Parents: A Counseling Challenge; Charles B. Slack; Thorofare, New Jersey; 1975.

932
Cohen, Julius S.: Vocational Guidance and Employment Ia William M.

Cruickshank Cerebral Palsy; Syracuse University Cress, N.Y., 1976.

The Comptroller General of the United States Report to the Congress:

Further Action Needed To Make All Public Buildings Accessible To The

Physically Handicapped; General Accounting Office, Washington, D.C.

July 1975 (FPCD-75-166).

Comptroller General of the United States: What is the Role of Federal

Assistance for Vocational Education? Report to the Congress; General

Accounting Office; MWD-75-31; 1974.

Conley, Robert W: The Economics of Vocational Rehabilitation; The John

Hopkins Press, Baltimore, 1965.

Cooper, N.E.: Vocational Reintegration of Handicapped Workers with

Assistive Devices; INTERNATIONAL LABOUR REVIEW, Vol. 115, No. 3,

May/June 1977.

Cotler, Stephen and DeGraff, Alfred H: Architectural Accessibility for the

Disabled of College Campuses; State University of New York, Albany;

reporduced by the Architectural and Transportation Compliance Board,

Washington, D.C. 1976.

Cybernetic Systems, The Individual Education Program (IEP), Manual, Cybernetic

Systems, Argonaut Publications, no date, Hollister, CA.

Dickman, Irving R.: No Place Like Home, Alternative Living Arrangements

for Teenagers and Adults With Cerebral Palsy; United Cerebral Palsy

Associations, Inc., New York, N.Y.; September 1975.

Dahl, P.R.; Appleby, J.A.; and Lipe, D. Mainstream Guidebook for Vocational

Educators: Teaching the Handicapped, Olympus Publishing Co., 1978;

Salt Lake City, UT.

DuBrose, Rebecca and others: Assessing Severely Handicapped Children;

FOCUS ON EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN; Vol. 9, No. 7, Dec. 1977.

Dunlap, William: Services For Families of Developmentally Disabled;

SOCIAL WORK, Vol. 21, No. 3, May 1976.

Fanning, Peter: The New Relationship Between Parents and Schools: FOCUS

ON EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN; Vol. 9, No. 5; October 1977.

Flanigan, P.J. Work Attitudes of the Educable Mentally Retarded in Relation

to Work Performance; University of Wisconsin, 16 p.

The Foundation for Exceptional Children, Individualized Education Programs

For Handicapped Children, Filmstrip 1, "Fulfilling the Promise.", The

Foundation for Exceptional Children, no date, Reston, VA.

Frank, Donald S.: The Juvenile With Epilepsy: Perspective of Employment and

Life Aspirations (A Summary Analysis); A paper prepared for the Epilepsy

Foundation of American.

933 1 003
Gallaudet College: The Deaf Student in College, Washington, D.C.; 1979.

Goldenberg, I. Ira; and Keatings, Elsie: Businessmen and Therapists,

Prejudices Against Employment; In Vocational Rehabilitation of the Drug

Abuser, published by Youth Projects, Inc. and Department of Health

Education and Welfare, Social and Rehabilitation Service; Washington,

D.C. 1973.

Goodman, Elizabeth M.: Implementing Effective Coordination of Programs

for the Handicapped; EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN, March, 1968.

Halpern, A.S.: Effect of General Unemployment on Vocational Opportunities

for the Mentally Retarded, University of Oregon, 1972, 11 p.

Hamilton, Phyllis: Vocational Education For Special Needs Students

(Contained in The Planning Papers for the Vocational Education Study prepared by the National Institute of Education, April 1979)

National Institute of Education, HEW, 1979.

Harris, W.H. Placement of the Cerebral Palsied and Others through

Evaluation and Training, Memphis Goodwill Industries, 1965, 65 p., Memphis, TN.

Hershbach, Dennis R. Teaching Handicapped Students: Selected Resources

for Vocational Teachers and Teacher Educators, U. of Maryland-College

Park, Dept. of Industrial Ed., no date, College Park, MD.

Hersbach, Dennis, Cooperative Work Experience, U. Of Maryland, Dept.

Industrial Ed., 1976, College Park, Maryland

of

Cooperative Work Experience--(PVE-WS)--Dennis Herschback--1976--

Department of Industrial Education University of Maryland, College Park,

MD 20740--no charge.

Hippolitus, P. and Eddy, W. Bibliography of Vocational Education,

Industrial Arts and Special Education Materials for Handicapped Students; President's Committee on Employment of the Handicapped, 1977,

Washington, D.C.

Hoyt, Kenneth: Career Education and the Handicapped Person; The American

Foundation for the Blind Conference; San Francisco, Cal. 1974.

Horejsi, Charles R.: Development Disabilities Opportunities for

Social Workers; SOCIAL WORK Vol. 24, No. 1; Jan. 1979.

Jones, Roy L.: Operation TRIPOD-Rehabilitation Involvement by Parents

of Deaf; San Fernando Valley State College, Department of Special

Education and Rehabilitative Education, 1971.

Kahn, A. Kamerman, S. and McGowan B.; Child Advocacy Report of A

National Baseline Study; Columbia University, School of Social Work,

N.Y. 1972.

1004

934
Kay, E.R.; Kemp, B.H., and Saunders, F.G. Guidelines For Identifying,

classifying, and 'serving the disadvantaged and handicapped under the

Vocational Education Amendments of 1968, U.S. Government Printing Office,

1973, Washington, D.C.

King, Mariam F.: Barrier Free Design Equipment and Aids Catalogue; Michigan Center for a Barrier Free Environment, 6875 Heather Heath, West Bloomfield,

Michigan 48033.

Kleck, Robert: Self-disclosure Patterns Among Epileptics: Dartmouth College,

HANOVER, N.H. 1968.

Koesler, Francis A.: Jobs For Handicapped Persons: A New Era in CivilRights: Public Affairs Pamphlet #557, 381 Park Avenue, South, New York 10016.

Labonte, Rober, Career Education for the Handicapped Person, Calhoun School

District, 1976, Marshall, MI.

Lacey, David W.: Career Development of the Deaf Student Worker; National

Technical Institute for the Deaf; Rochester, N.Y. 1973.

Lake, Thomas, Career Education for Exceptional Children, Council for

Exceptional Children, no date, Reston, VA.

Lauitsen, R.R., Improved Vocational, Technical, and Academic Opportunities for Deaf Persons, St. Paul Technical Voctational Institute, 1974, St. Paul,

MN. 85 p.

Linari, R.F. A Plan for the implementation of chapter 766 in vocational/

technical school environments, Blue Hills Regional Technical School, 1974,

Canton, MA.

McKinney, L.A. and Seay, D.M., Development of Individualized Education

Programs (IEPS) for the Handicapped in Vocational Education, Ohio State

University, Natl. Reserarh Center for Research in Vocational Education,

Information Series No. 144, 1979, Columbus, Ohio.

Malmberg, Peter A. and Morley, Raymond E. Vocational Education and Curriculum

Modification, Dept. of Public Instruction of Iowa, Special Ed. 1972,

Des Moines, IA.

Marten, E.A. Individualism and Behaviorism as Future Trends in Educating

Handicapped Children, EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN, 1972, Vol. 38, pp. 517-525.

Matinson, M.C. CORRC/RRC Test Matrix Individual Test Descriptions, Coordinating

Office for Regional Resource Centers, U. of Kentucky, no date, Lexington, KY.

Maynard, Research and others: The Supported Work Demonstration: Effects

During the First 18 Months After Enrollment; Mathematica Policy

Research, Inc., Princeton, N.J. 1979.

Meenach, Leon, New Patterns of Service in Rehabilitation, in Vocational

Education Rehabilitation of the Disabled and Disadvantaged, edited by

R. Dean Taylor and Bruce Thomson. Proceedings of Regional Training

935

1005
Conference held 26-29 July 1970 by the U. of Florida, Dept. of Rehab.

Counseling.

Mezoff, M., Experiences of Former Special Class Student and an Exceptional

Work Experience Program for Secondary School Educable Mentally Retarded;

Parents and Friends of Mentally Retarded Children at Bridgeport, Inc.,

1969, 57 p., Bridgeport, CT.

Michigan Dept. of Education, Michigan Interagency Model and Delivery System

of Vocational Education Services for the Handicapped; Michigan Dept. of

Education, 1978, Lansing, MI.

Moreley, Raymond E.: Vocational Assessment Systems: Application in

Programs Serving Special Needs Populations; Iowa Department of Public

Instructions, Des Moines, Iowa; 1973.

Moorman, Jerry: Vocational Education for the Handicapped (A selected

Resource Guide): Southeast Network for Curriculum Coordination; Mississippi

State University Research and Curriculum Unit for Vocational-Technical

Education, Mississippi State, Mississippi 1979.

Muthard, John E. and Hutchenson Jack:' Cerebral Palsied College Students- - Their Education and Employment; University of Florida, Gainesville,

Florida, 1968.

National Association of State Directors of Special Education, Inc.

Functions of the Placement Committee in Special Education, Natl. Assoc, of

State Dir. of Spec. Ed., Inc. 1976, Washington, D.C.

National Center for a Barrier Free Environment: Accessibility Assistance-A

Directr,:2:of Consultants on Environments for Handicapped People; ' Seventh

and Florida Ave., N.E., Washington, D.C. 20002; Nov. 1978.

Neill, Shirley, B.: Able-Disabled Battling Against Barriers; WORKLIFE;

U.S. Department of Labor, Manpower and Training Administration; October 1978.

Noland, 'obert L.: Counseling Parents of the Ill and Handicapped; Charles C.

Thomas, Springfield, Ill., 1971.

Office o:

Sponsor'l by the Office for Handicapped

Ho 4, :lerence on Handicapped Individuals,

Summary of the Proceedings: The

Individuals, Jan. 1977.

Individuals, HEW, and the White

1977, Washington, D.C.

Office of Handicapped Individuals, Directory of National Info. sources on

Handica20 Conditions and Related Sources, Dept. of Health, Education, and

Welfare, Office for Handicapped Individuals, no date, Washington, D.C.

Panzer, Barry M.

SOCIAL WORK, Vol.

Paul, James L.;

for DD Councils;

and others: Program for Developmentally Disabled Children;

23, No. 5, September 1978.

Wiegerink, Ronald; Neufeld, G. Ronald: Advocacy-A Role

Developmental Disabilities Technical Assistance System,

966
Frank Porter Graham Child Development Center, University of North Carolina,

Chapel Hill, N.C. no date (Prepared in 1976).

Pennsylvania Dept. of Education, An Introduction to Individualized Education

Program Plans: Guidelines for School-Age IEP Development, Pennsylvania Dept. of Education, Natl. Learning Resource Center of Pennsylvania, 1978, King of

Prussia, PA.

President's Committee on Employ the Handicapped: Affirmative Action To

Employ Handicapped People: A Pocket Guide, Washington, D.C.

President's Committee on Employment of the Handicapped: Community Support,;

Washington, D.C.; GPO 933 672 (Undated).

President's Committee on Employment of the Handicapped, Employment of

Handicapped People in Leisure Occupations; President's Committee, etc.;

no date, Washington, D.C.

Rawlings, Brenda; Trybus, Raymond and Biser, James: A Guide to

College/Career Programs For Deaf Students; Gallaudet College, 1968, Washington, D.C.

Redden, Martha R. & Others: Recruitment, Admissions, and Handicapped

Students, A Guide for Compliance with Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act

of 1973; The Amer-Association of Collegiate Registrars and Admission Officers

and the American Council on Education; Washington, D.C. 1978.

Rehabilitation International USA: Jobs for Disabled Workers: A Re al. on

the Corporate Handicapped Worker Program in Puerto Rico; Rehabilitation

International U.S.A., 20 West Fortieth Street, N.Y., N.Y. 10018, 1977.

Rehabilitation Services Administration, Ready Reference Guide-Resources for

Disabled People, Rehabilitation Services Adminstration, 1977, Washington, D.C.

Rehabilitation Services Administration, Division of Agency Liaison,

Cooperative Programming Between Vocational Rehabilitation and the Social

Systems, Rehabilitation Services Administration, Division of Agency Liaison,

June 1977, Washington, .D.C, (unpublished xeroxed source booklet. One

copy was sent to UR agency)

Richardson, Stephen A: Careers of Mentall' Retarded Young Persocs--Services

Jobs and Interpersonal Relations; AMERICAN JOURNAL OF MENTAL DEFICIENCY,

1978, Vol. 82, #4, pp. 349-350.

Rocky Mountain Regional

Handicapped-What Are The Issues?.

Topical Conference, March 6-8,

Special Education, University of

Resource Center: The Severely Multiply

The Proceedings From The Regional,

1974, Salt Lake City, Utah; Department of

Utah.

Roth, Helga, Selected Federal Publications Concerning the Handicapped, Office

of Handicapped Individuals, no date, Washington, D.C.

937 1007
Rubin, Stanford & Roessler, Richard: Guidelines for Successful Vocational

Rehabilitation of the Psychiatrically Disabled. REHABILITATION LITERATURE,

Vol. 39, No. 3, March 1978.

Safer, Nancy, Morrisey Patricia and others: Implementation of IEPs:

New Teacher Roles and Requisite Support Systems; FOCUS ON EXCEPTIONAL

CHILDREN, Vol. 10, No. 1, March 1978.

Sankovsky, Ray: Identifying Psychological Tests, Vocational and Adult Ed.,

Auburn University, 1976, Auburn, AL.

Saunders, Glee, Abstracts of Exemplary Projects in Voc. Ed. Division of

Vocational and Technical Education, Bureau of Adult and Technical Ed.,

USDHEW, no date, Washington, D.C.

Schonhardt, Violet, Vocational Education for the Deaf, Ball State University,

no date, Muncie, IN.

Steinfeld, E. & Others: Interim Report: Barrier-Free Access To The

Man-Made Environment-A Review of Current Literature; School of Architects,

Syracuse University, Syracuse, N.Y., Oct. 1975.

Stewart, Jack: Counseling Parents of Exceptional Children: Principles,

Problems and Procedures; MS S Educational Publishiag Co., New York; 1974.

Texas State Learning Resources Center, Sources of Vocational Skills,

Materials, Secondary Level; Texas State Learning Resource Center, no date,

15 p., Austin, TX.

Thomas, Stanley B. Jr.: Report to the President and the Congress on Housing

Needs of Handicapped Individuals; October 1975, Architectural and

Transportation Barriers Compliance Board, HEW, Washington, D.C.

Tindall, Lloyd, Modifying Vocational Programs for the Handicapped, Vocational

Studies Center, U. of Wisconsin-Madison, no date, Madison, WI.

Torres, S. ed., A Primer On Individualized Education Programs for

Children, Foundation for Exceptional Children, 1977, Reston, VA.

Towne, D.C. and Wallace S., Vocational Instruction Materials for Students

with Special Needs, Northwest Regional Education Laboratory, 1972, Portlan.

Tseng, M.S.: Job Performance and Satisfaction of Successfully Rehabilitated

Vocation Rehabilitation Clients; REHABILITATION LITERATURE, Vol. 36, No. 3,

March 1975.

Turnbull, A.P.; Strickland, B.B.; and Brentley, J.C., Developing and

Implementing Individualized Education Programs, Charles E. Merrill, 1978,

Columbus, OH.

University of Kentucky, Regional Resource Center, U. of Kentucky, With Bias

Towards None, Coordination Office, etc., no date, Lexington, KY.

938 1.008
U.S. Congress-94th: Public Law 94-142 November 29, 1975, The Education

For All Handicapped Act of 1975.

U.S. Congress-95th: Public Law 95-S 24-An Act to amend the Comprehensive

Employment and Training Act of 1973; Oct. 27, 1978.

U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Program Instruction

RSA PI-79-16: Employment Tax Credits Under the Revenue Act of 1978,

(P.L. 95-600), HEW, Office of Human Development Services, Washington, D.C.,

May 16, 1979.

U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare:, HaVicapped Persons Rights

Under Federal Law; S. 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 Fact Sheet;'

Washington, D.C., March 1978.

U.S. Department of Health Eduation and Welfare, Office of Handicapped

Individuals: HEW To Improve Coordination of Post Secondary Education

Benefits; PROGRAMS FOR THE HANDICAPPED; July/August 1979, Number 4,

Washington, D.C.

U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare: Key Federal Regulations

Affecting the Handicapped 1975-6; Washington, D.C. September 1977.

U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Rehabilitation Services

Administration: State Vocational Rehabilitation Agency Program Data, Fiscal

Year 1978; Office of Human Development Services, OHDS-79-25053,

Washington, .D.0 1979.

U.S. Department of Health Education and. Welfare, A Summary of Selected

Selected Legislation Relating to the Handicapped, 1977-78, Washington, D.C.,

May 1979.

U.S. Department of Labor; Employment and Training Administration:

Inverviewing Guides for Specific Disabilities1 Alcholism-(GPO: 1979 0-294-409);

Arthritis and other Rheumatic Diseases (GPO: 1979 0-284-273); Cerebral

Palsy (GPO 1978 0-250-615); Hearing Impairments (GPO 1978) 254-219); the

Mentally Restored (GPO 1977 0 234-446); Mental Retardation (GPO 0-294-589);

Legal Blindness and Blindness (GPO- 1977-0- 25-0844); Respiratory Impairments

(GPO 1977) 236-695); Orthopedic Disabilities (GPO 0282-983); Visual

Impairments (GPO 1978 0-271717).

U.S. Department of Transportation: Travel Barriers; Office of the Secretary,

May 1970.

U.S. Department of Treasury, Internal Revenue Service: Publication 908 -

Targeted Jobs Tax Credit and Win Credit, Feb. 1979.

White House Conference On Handicapped Individuals: Volume III Implementation

Plan; 1978, DHEW Publication No. (OHDS) 78-25512, U.S. Department of Health

Education and Welfare, Washington, D.C.

White House Conference On Handicapped Individuals: Summary Final Report;

DHEW Publication No. (OHD) 78-22203; US Department of Health Education and

Welfare, Washington, D.C.

940

1009
Wilcox, K. Coordinated Approaches to Problems of lo

Rehabilitation Institute, 1970, 54 p.

Employment of Epileptics,

Wolfe, Joseph: Disability Is No Handicap For DuPont,

1973; Reprinted by the President's Committee on Employment

941 1010

ALLIANCE REVIEW,

of the Handicapped.
COMPILATIONS OF BIBLIOGRAPHIES

Architectural and Transportation Barriers Compliance Board: Resource

Guide to Literature on Barrier-Free Environments with Selected Annotations,

1977; U.S. Department of Health Education and Welfare, Washington, D.C. 20201.

Albright, Leonard, Biblio ra h of Materials Presented at National Workshop

on Vocational Education for Special Needs Students, University of IllinoisUrbana, Urbana, Illinois, 10 p.

Baumheier, Edward and Welch, Henry, Interagency Linkages in Vocational

Rehabilitation-An Annotated Bibliography; Regional Rehabilitation Research

Institute: Center for Social Research and Development, Denver Research

Insitute, University of Denver, 2142 South High Street, Denver, Colorado

80211, 191 p.

Relates to state of the art on interagency relationships involving

voocational rehabilitation and other major service systems for the

disabled. It is organized in ten major areas.

Council for Exceptional Children/ERIC Clearinghouse on Handicapped and

Gifted Children: Computer Search Reprint on Career Education for Handicapped

Children, 1979; 1920 Association Drive, Reston, Virginia, 22091.

Hall, Linda and Hugh, Jr. Sindney C: Bibliography on Career Education:

Office of Career Education: Office of Education, U.S. Department of Health,

Education and Welfare, Washington, D.C. 20202, 1979.

National Rehabilitation Information Center: Bibliography; Computer printouts

based on descriptors; provides abstracts.

Office of Handicapped Individuals: Selected Federal Publications Concerning

the Handicapped; U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Office of.

Human Development Services, Washington, .D.0 20201 (DREW Publication

No. (OHD) 77-22005.

President's Committee on Employment of the Handicapped: Bibliography of

Secondary Materials for Teaching Handicapped Students; Washington, D.C. 20010

(Contains list of organizations, journals, and resources as well as bibliography).

Schroedel, John C.: Attitudes Toward Persons With Disabilities, A Compendium

of Related Literature: Project PREP, Human Resources Center, Albertson,

New York 11507, 1978.

System Development Corporation: A Topical Bibliography of Work Education

Programs, Projects and Procedures; Santa Monica, California, March 1973.

Section 4 contains a number of references related to the retarded,

slow learner and other types of handicapped.
Tindall, Lloyd, Vocational Education Resource Material: Biblio ra h of

Materials for Handicapped and Special Education; Wisconsin Vocational Sudies

Center, U. of Wisconsin-Madison, 1975-1976 (two years), Madison, WI,

Vocational Education Resource Material: "Bibliography of Materials for

Handicapped and Special Education (VE - PVE - SE)- -1975- 1976 -- $3.00 for each year--Dr. Lloyd Trindall, Director, Wisconsin Vocational

Studies Center, Box 49, 321 Education Building, University of Wisconsin,

Madison, WI 53706--Vocational Materiald for all handicapping conditions-- broken down by area.

Vandergoot, David and others: A Compendium of Placement Related Literature;

A Project PREP Publication; Research and Utilization Institute, Human

Resources Center; Albertson, New York, 1979

943 1012
APPENDICES

-1 01 3

94 4
RESEARCH

Below are listed ex,mples of research and demonstration projects

currently in progress which relate to education, rehabilitation and job

training for handicapped.

National Institute of Handicapped Research - FY '79

University of Wisconsin - Stout, Menomonte, Wisconsin

o National Center for Material Development in Work Evalurtion and Work

Adjustment

o Develop and disseminate training materials

Portland State University, Portland, Oregon

o Regional Rehabilitation Research Institute: Job Development and Job

Placement

o Enhance placement of severely disabled

Columbia University, New York

o Role of Unions and Management in Job Opportunities for the Severely

Disabled

o Relationships and roles of unions and management in job development

and job placement

University of Denver, Denver, Colorado

Regional Rehabilitation Research Institute

o Research in a core area of interagency linkages

George Washington University, Washington, D.C.

o Regional Rehabilitation Research Institute

o Attitudinal legal and recreational barriers to the disabled

Amalgamated Clothing and Textile Workers Union, New York, New York

o Implementation of Affirmative Action for Placement of the Disabled

945 1014
Human Resources Center, Albertson, New York

o Programmatic Research on Employment Preparation for the Handicapped

o A program for transition from school to work for disabled

Electronic Industries Foundation, Washington, D.C.

o A National Model for Hiring Handicapped Within the Electronic

Industries

George Washington University, Washington, D.C.

o Rehabilitation Research and Training Center

o Studying psychosocial, vocational and performance capability of

disabled

Wisconsin University, Madison, Wisconsin

o Rehabilitation Research and Training Center

o Rehabilitation of adolescent and young retarded

Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts

o B.U. Research and Training Center in Mental Illness

o Psychological, social and vocational problems resulting from mental

illness

Texas Rehabilitation Commission, Austin, Texas

o Technology Assessment and Transfer to Rehabilitation

o Development of prototype devices and their manufacture

Cerebral Palsy Research Foundation of Kansas, Inc., Wichita, Kansas

o Use of Technology to Improve Vocational Prospects of the Severely

Disabled

o A rehabilitation engineering center with a core area of vocational

aspects of rehabilitation

University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan

o Rehabilitation Engineering Center - Transportation, Vehicle Driver,

and Systems for Severely Disabled

1015

946
o A rehabilitation engineering center with a co'm area of automotive

transportation for handicapped

Texas Tech University R&T Center for Mental Retardation, Lubbock, Texas

o Research and Training Center

o A core area of exploring work potential of mentally retarded, role

of counselor, community living

Bureau of Education For The Handicapped - Research Projects Branch On Going

as of

University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas

o Kansas Institute in Learning Disabilities

o Focus on interventions on learning disabled adolescents in school

and nonschool settings

University of Florida, Gainaville, Florida

o EH/LD Adolescent Education

o Nationwide survey on secondary school programs

Center for Educational Research, DeKalb, Illinois

o Improving attitudes toward mentally retarded children

North Texas State University, Denton, Texas

o Development and validation of a Standardized Leisure Diagnostic

Battery to assess leisure functioning of handicapped children and

youth

Human Resources, Alberton, New York

o Programmatic Research on Employment Preparation for the Handicapped

o Career development, preparation for work and placement

Boise State University, Boise, Idaho

o Teaching Interpersonal and Self-Management Skills to Mildly

Handicapped Adolescents as Part of a Career Education Curriculum

9016
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Paris, France

o Education of Handicapped Adolescent - An International Analysis of

Model Interventions

o A study of educational opportunities in 24 countries including

training and possibilities for entering world of work

National Committee of Arts for the Handicapped, Washington, D.C.

o Increasing g-Career and Life Skills for Handicapped Youth Through a

Specialized Instructional Program in Arts

o Investigate a program of arts on the career and life skills of

moderately and severely handicapped youth

University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri

o Lifelong Career Development Programming for the Severely Handicapped

o Develop a career development prototype mode, and a staff development

training package

TREC Inc., Cambridge, Massachusetts

o Promoting Collaborative Planning of Career Education for Disabled

Students

o To promote collabOrative planning among local schools,

organizations, and employers for more relevant career .educational

programs and services

Indiana University, Bloormington, Indiana

o Schooling and Early Career Success of Handicapped Youth

o Through national longitudinal survey data, provide determinants of

successful transition from school to work

Metropolitan Cooperative Educational Service Agency, Atlanta, Georgia

o Assessment System for Handicapped Youth in Life Role Skills, Areas

of Academics, Survival Skills, Health and Job Placement, Job

Performance, and Employer in-put

o Improve education decision making and programming; investigate

factors which influence job performance

948 1017
Vocational Education Research

Wisconsin Vocational Studies Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI

o Vocational Educational Models for Linking Agencies Serving the

Handicapped

o Identify federal programs and relationships, report on present

status of linkages, develop models for linkages and cooperative

agreements

National Institute of Education, Washington, D.C.

o The Vocational Education Study: A study mandated by the Education

Amendments of 1976 (P.L. 94-482). Intramural research as well as

subcontracts. Includes coordination of CETA and vocational

education; also meeting the needs of special groups.

o A study of distribution of funds of

Wisconsin Vocational Studies Center, University of Winsconsin, Madison, WI

o Research and Development and Services Center

0

Department of Labor Research and Demonstration

Mainstream, INc., Washington, D.C.

o Technical assistance to help disabled get job and help employers

comply with affirmative action

o Distribute necessary information on compliance to Federal

contractors to 500 companies, handicapped consumer groups, and CETA

prime sponsors

Department of Housing and Urban Development Research

Human Services Research Institute, Washington, D.C.

o Develop a research agenda addressing the needs of handicapped

individuals for housing and related services

o Identify research priorities, develop specific research trotocols

-specific research issues, costs, timetables, etc.

941018
American Council on Education, Washington, D.C.

o Higher Education and the Handicapped, PROJECT HEATH

o Assisting campuses accommodate the needs of the handicapped

10.19

950
WORK EVALUATION SYSTEMS

Below is a list of some of the work evaluation systems which are mentioned frequently in the literature. Most of them are commercially

prepared, and the fact of this list is not an endorsement of them, but is

merely mentioned for purposes of information.

COATS (comprehensive Occupational Assessment and Training System). PREP,

Inc., 1575 Parkway Avenue, Trenton, New Jersey 60607.

JEVS WORK SAMPLES. Jewish Employment and Vocational Service, 1913 Walnut

Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 10103.

MACDONALE VOCATIONAL CMCITY SCALE. MacDonale Training Center Foundation,

Research Division, 4424 Tampa Bay Blvd., Tampa, Florida 33614.

MOVE (Multidimensional Objective Vocational Evaluation). Hester Evaluation.

System, 120 South Ashland Blvd., Chicago, Illinois 60607.

MCCARRON-DIAL WORK EVALUATION' SYSTEM, )epartment of Psychology, Indiana State

University, Terre Hauth, Indiana 47809.

MICRO-TOWER, Institute for Cripi ad and Disabled Rehabilitation and Research

Center, 340 East 24th Street, New York, New York, 10010.

SINGER VOCATIONAL EVALUATION SYSTEM, Singer Education Division, 3750 Monroe

Avenue, Rochester, New York 14603.

TALENT ASSESSMENT PROGRAM, Materials Development Center Department of

Rehabilitation and Manpower Services, School of Education, University of

Wisconsin - Stout, Menomonie, Wisconsin 54751.

TOWER (Testing, Orientation, and Work valuation in Rehabilitation).

Institute for Crippled and Disabled Rehabilitation and Research Center

340 East 24th Street, New York, New York 10010

951 1 020
VALPAR COMPONENT WORK SAMPLE, Valpar Corporation, 2701 East Thomas Road Unit

B. Phoenix, Arizona 89016

VIEWS (Vocational Information Evaluating Work Study). Additional Research

Institute,

p

WREST

1 021

952
Public Forum

On the

Education and Employment

of Handicapped Youth

January 30,1979

Washington,11 C.

Youthwork, Inc.
INTRODUCTION

Youthwork, Inc., is an intermediary corporation formed

in January 1978 by a consortium of private foundations to

help the Office of Youth Programs of the U.S. Department

of Labor implement the Youth Employment and Demonstration

Projects Act of 1977. An intermediary corporation is a

private non-profit organization that assists government

agencies to program public funds.. Youthwork is an intermediary between the private and public sectors; it is a

private/public partnership.

As part of this partnership, Youthwork conducted a

public forum on the education and employment of handicapped

youth on January 30, 1979. The forum's purpose was to solicit advice and information from private citizens and

government officials on the design of a $5 million national

grants competition that Youthwork will conduct in spring

1979 for exemplary in-school projects serving handicapped

youth. In other words, Youthwork through the forum actively

sought out the assistance.of concerned persons familiar with

the problems of handicapped young people before it started

telling local schoolspagencies, and community organizations

what they could and could not do to obtain a federal grant.

The forum thus served a major purpose of an intermediary

corporation: to enable private citizens to participate in

the allocation of public monies.

The present volume reproduces a partial . tranticript of

the forum. Readere of the transcript max learn: for themselves

what a valuable quantity of expert ,adVice and Anforination,

was obtained. Some editorial; deletions: froM .the, teatimony have been made in the Interestgi',:of clarity: .and Continuity.

On .behalf -of,: the YoUthWortc:' -Board of 'DirectorS and the staff I can say: that '-the: information at the ::-forum has

proved ;.exceptionally. useful :Much .. of:thiii.Anforrtiation was

translated: into.. the -text: ;of :- the appliOatiOn .gUidelizies ;or the grantit, and recommendations of forUnt,Witnessises and-paneliits, will bear 'on,Ithe actual selection of 'grantees.;
Special thanks are due Rep. Sh,rley Chisholm (D.-N.Y.),

who kindly obtained authorization for Youthwork to use a

hearing room of the Congressional Annex Building in Washington,

and to the many witnesses who took time off from busy schedules

to assist not just Youthwork but also the nation's handicapped

young people.

Finally, I want to offer r; personal thanks to Youthwork

staff members Robert Eckert and Rued Boone for all their

efforts in developing and coordindting the forum. Special

thanks, too, to Youthwork associates Regina Carmel, Barbara

Hampson, and LaVonne Manley for their invaluable assistance.

955

Corinne H. Rieder

. Executive Director

Youthwork, Inc.

1024
YOUTHWORK PANEL MEMBERS

PUBLIC FORUM ON THE EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENT

OF HANDICAPPED YOUTH

JANUARY 3G, 1979

JOAN WILLS, member, Youthwork Board of Directors, and Director

for Employment and Training Programs, National Governors

Association, Washington, D.C., Chair for the Forum

LEONARD T. CONWAY, member, Youthwork Board of Directors, and

Executive Director, The Youth Project, Washington, D.C.

ALEX DELGADO, member, Youthwork Board of Directors, and Professor

of Sociology, Metropolitan State College, Denver, Colorado

EVELYN GANZGLASS, Office of Youth Programs, U.S. Department of

Labor

DAVIS HAINES, President, Public Welfare Foundation, Washington, D.C.

KITTY HIGGINS, Assistant to the Associate Director, Domestic Policy

Staff, Executive Office of the President

RUBY MARTIN, member, Youthwork Board of Directors

HARRIET MICHEL, Office of Youth Programs, U.S. Department of Labor

MYRTIS H. MOSELEY, The Edna McConnell Clark Foundation, New York, N.Y.

CORINNE H. RIEDER, Executive Director, Youthwork, Inc.

JOSE SANTANA, member, Youthwork Board of Diredtors, and National

Coordinator for Puerto Rican Youth, Public Policy Institute,

Washington, D.C.

THOMAS SCANLON, President, Benchmarks Inc., Washington, D.C.

JOSEPH SEILER, Office of Youth Programs, U.S. Department of Labor

DOROTHY SHIELDS, member, Youthwork Board of Directors, and Assistant

Director of Education, AFL-CIO, Washington, D.C.

EUNICE KENNEDY SHRIVER, President, Jospeh P. Kennedy, Jr., Foundation,

Special Olympics, Inc., Washington, D.C.

ROBERT TAGGART, Administrator, Office of Youth Programs, U.S.

Department of Labor

RONALD TARILIAN, Office of Education, U.S. Department of Health,

Education, and Welfare

956

1025
CONTENTS

Morning Session

Introductory Remarks:

JOAN WILLS, Youthwork Board of Directors

and Chair for the Forum

The Problem in Perspective:

THOMAS SONGSTER, Joseph P. Kennedy

Foundation, Special Olympics,

Accompanied by Elizabeth Labukas

ROBERT LOPEZ, Handicapped Advocate

960

961

963

SHARLENE HIRSCH, Director, Executive

High School Internships of America,

Accompanied by Darryl Grice 964

HARRY WHEELER, Newark, New Jersey 974

EUGENE BEARD, Parent, Howard University 976

A National Perspective:

PAUL HIPPOLITUS, Employment Adviser,

President's Committee on Employment of

the Handicapped 981

ROBERT HUMPHRIES, Commissioner,

Administration on the Handicapped,

U.S. Department of Health, Education

and Welfare 984

VINCENT MORETTI, Human Resource

Development Institute, An-CIO

BOB HERMAN, Associate Director, Bureau of

Education of the Handicapped, U.S.

Department of Health, Education and Welfare

Afternoon Session

Remarks by:

REPRESENTATIVE SHIRLEY CHISHOLM (D.-N.Y.)

The State Perspective:

ROGER BROWN, Associate Commissioner for

Special Education, Commonwealth of

Massachusetts.

986

992

998

1004
FEDERICO ZARAGOZA, Governor's Manpower

Planning Office, Madison, Wisconsin

JOSEPH DAVIS, Governor's Manpower

Planning Office, Madison, Wisconsin

Local Program Perspective:

JUDY HEUMANN, Director, Center for

Independent Living, Berkeley, California

Local CETA Perspective:

STEVEN ICKES, Director, CETA Manpower

Program, Lane County, Oregon

DAVID ABRAMOWITZ, Special Needs Counselor,

Manpower Program, Lane County, Oregon

A Parent's Perspective:

DOROTHY DEAN, The Parents Campaign for

Handicapped Children and Youth,

Washington, D.C.

MARY McCAFFREY, The Council for

Exceptional Children, Reston, Virginia

958

1G27

1011

1012

1017

1028

1031

1039

1044
Morning Session
CHAIRPERSON WILLS; Ladies and gentlemen, because

we have a very tight time schedule today, we are moving right

alcLg so that we have an opportunity to hear from everybody who

has so graciously come to participate in this hearing today.

Some of you may know that Youthwork is a nonprofit organization. It is a very young organization. We

have just had our first birthday. We were incorporated

January 10th of 1978. It is an effort to create a public/

private partnership between a consortium of six foundations

and the Office of. Youth Programs in the Department of Labor

tc. promote the employability of young people, especially

through our institutions of education and learning and other

community service organizations.

Youthwork's primary,task during this past year

has been to administer exemplary programs in school under the

Youth Employment Demonstration Projects Act of 1977. Other.

Youthwork activities under YEDPA include the preparation of

grant application guidelines, identifying and recommending

funding of explemary programs, providing technical assistance

to projects, developing a knowledge base--and we think this

is very important--about education and work transition programs, and participating in the development of a national

youth policy.

Unler Youthwork's first national competition held

in the spring of 1978, the Department of Labor awarded demontration grants totaling $15 million to 48 projects selected

from over 520 proposals. The projects, which feature interrelated components of study and work in conjunction with the

spacial support to aid youth in the transition from school

to work, seek to foster cooperation between local education

institutions, community-based organizations and the CETA

system. Although we believe our organization has indeed

learned a great deal by administering this program for a short

period of time, we are acutely aware that the public interest

must guide our future operations.

In the spring of 1979, Youthwork will conduct

another national grants competition, which wil) seek to identify exemplary programs for young people not normally served- -

specifically, the handicapped,, teenage parents, high school

dropouts, offenders and the very-hard-to-reach youths. We

are holding these forums to increase our own understanding of

the relevant issues and problems.

.960 1 025
Our agenda reflects the interest shown by a wide

variety of people in the public and private sectors in aiding

the unemployed handicapped youth to make the transition from

school to the world of work and self-reliance.

We will hear from you, the experts at the national,

state and local levels who will share their knowledge of handicapped youth in the areas of education and work. In addition,

operators of local exemplary programs will testity about their

own experiences.

In addition, we are fortunate to have among us some

young people who are graduates of programs designed to helps

the disabled person to function independently.

So, we have a full circle: those who formulate

policy and those who implement and live with those policies

and who hopefully will provide input resulting from their

experiences back to the policymakers to improve future legislation.

I think it's now time for us to launch into today's

activities. I guess first what I should do is to introduce

myself, which I just now realized I had not done. I am Joan

Wills, the secretary of the Youthwork board.

The outline of this activity throughout the day

is, first, we think it's absolutely essential to get the problem

in perspective. Before we can decide what it is we are going

to do, we need to know what our problems are. With that in

mind, Mr. Tom Songster of the Kennedy Foundation, Special Olympics,

will be talking with us. He has with him people he would like

to introduce.

THOMAS SONGSTER, JOSEPH P. KENNEDY, JR.,

FOUNDATION, SPECIAL OLYMPICS, AND

ELIZABETH LABUKAS, HANDICAPPED ADVOCATE

MR. SONGSTER: Good morning. Thank you very much.

It is my pleasure to address this panel on behalf of our

president, Mrs. Eunice Kennedy Shriver.

The concern of the Kennedy, Foundation and others

for employment of mentally retarded individuals has been one

of long standing. Some of you may remember that President

Kennedy had strong interest in this area also, and he did something about it. He got behind this project, and, with this

effort, the federal government hired more than 16,000 mentally

retarded people within a very short time. It wasn't easy.

961

1030
Examinations and examining procedures had to be changed, regulations had to be changed; and most of all, attitudes had to be

changed about employing the mentally retarded.

We all know that a large percentage of the mentally

retarded, as well as other handicapped people, can handle a

variety of job skills. It is estimated that about 42 percent of

the mentally retarded are employed. Out of that 42 percent,

however, 79 percent are underemplyed in the jobs they do have.

We at the Kennedy Foundation have put together a small

demonstration project. It was derived because Mrs. Shriver saw

in Special Olympics mentally retarded people who did very well

in sports. I asked the people in sports and recreation why the

mentally retarded couldn't make good employees in the fields of

recreation and sports, and they didn't have any real good answers.

That's why here this morning we have with us a graduate of our

Kennedy intern program, Elizabeth Labukas. Elizabeth is one of

17 mentally retarded people across the United States whom we've

trained as a recreation aide for our program. 16 of those 17 have

graduated and are employed full-time. Some are employed as

swimming instructors. They have passed the very difficult water

safety instructor's examination provided by the Red Cross, and

they are working--teaching normal people swimming-- in a YMCA

in Las Vegas.

The cost of training for Elizabeth and others has not

exceeded $5,000. There is no reason, except lack of money, why

1,700 or 17,000 or 170,000 mentally retarded people cannot be

trained to get jobs in most any field. Elizabeth has some brief

remarks that she'd like to share. Elizabeth?

MS. LABUKAS: My name is Elizabeth Labukas from

Maryland. I graduated from Bowie Special Center in 1977, and in

1978 I was a Kennedy Intern. I learned how to be a bus aide and

a teacher's aide. I learned many things in my training program.

Now I am a full-time staff person for the Maryland Park and

Planning Pre-School. I meet the children at home and walk them

to the bus. I help them get on the bus. I teach them to use

seatbelts and ride safely. At the school we play games with the

children. We do art. After art I help fix the snack. On Friday

we swim. I help the children dress and get into the water. I

can swim, so I can help teach them. I was state swim champ in

the Special Olympics. I like having a real job like my brothers

and sisters do. I want to work for a long time. I do a good

job at my work. I have friends at my school and there are others

who need the chance for a real job too.

MR. SONGSTER: Thank you, I think it's important for

the panel to understuld the Elizabeth is not your borderline,

mentally retarded person. She is a Down syndrome, mongoloid.

There are literally hundreds of young people, like Elizabeth,

who can do the job when they are provided practical and meaningful

training.

962

1031
CHAIRPERSON WILLS: I think that it would

probably be best if we hear from Mr. Lopez, then from all

the panel members, and then start the questioning. Mr.

Lopez?

MR. ROBERT LOPEZ, HANDICAPPED ADVOCATE

MR. LOPEZ: At the age of 12 I quit school,

against my parents' wishes. My father was severely disabled,

so I. decided I'd quit school and go to work to help support

the family. At 15 I enlisted in the Army, and upon my release I started working at anything I could get. I was

working at a packing house when a side of beef fell on me

and broke my back and crushed my leg. After undergoing

several operations, the doctors decided I would never walk

again. In the course of those operations--14 in all--I became

addicted to drugs. After I told the doctors of my addiction,

they responded that I should go to the public health hospital

in Fort Worth, to get cured. I was also told that because

of my injuries I was disabled and being that I had no education at all, would never be able to go to work again.

Well, I wasn't buying that. So, as soon as I

was fitted with aprothesis, I went to all the various agenciesin Denver to try to get funds to go to school, or learn a

trade or something. They all turned me down. They said,

"No, you're disabled; you're handicapped; there's nothing

we can do for you." The only place I was referred to was

the Goodwill Industries to work, which at the time paid

something like 50 or 75 cents an hour. I was married and

had a family, and there was no way I could do that. So,

I found a job with a construction company and I was doing the

same work as everybody else. But when they found out I was

an amputee, they asked me to sign a statement that if I was

ever injured because of my leg or any other cause, they would

not be held responsible. So I left that job.

I went back and tried to get more help. In the

meantime, I got a letter from the Social Security Administration saying that I was disabled. After I started receiving

disability payments, I again went out to various agencies

and was told they could do nothing for me. My family and

myself then moved to California, where I met Dr. Joel Fort,

who worked on drug and alcohol abusers. He had to start

the program from the ground up, and today that's one of the

best programs in the country, but, again, the federal

government told me that the only way I could work in a program like that was to go out and get a degree. Being that

I only had a sixth-grade education, how was I going to do

that?

963

1 032
Anyway, I decided I'd try. I went and got my

General Educational Development Certificate and moved back

to Colorado. I met Mr. Alex Delgado, an old friend of mine,

and he encouraged me to enroll in college. I have received

my bachelor's degree and I'm in a master's program. That's

about it.

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: Very impressive.

Sharlene Hirsh, Director of the Executive

High School Internships of America.

SHARLENE HIRSH, DIRECTOR, EXECUTIVE HIGH

SCHOOL INTERNSHIPS OF AMERICA

MS. HIRSCH: Good morning. The Executive High

School Interships program was founded in 1971 in New York

City and has spread now to 30 cities in 18 states. We've had

about 14,000 students in our program, and the funding mainly

comes f.,--om local school systems.

Ours is a full-time internship program, the kind

that we usually think of as reserved for college or graauate

students, but our students are 16, 17 and 18 year olds

masquerading as adults. They spend a full Femester on leave

from their regular classes as special assistants to managementlevel people in both the public and the private sectors.

They are unpaid to learn how organizations function and decisions

are made. Our students learn how priorities are established.

They get into the budget process. They represent their agencies

before public organizations. They qo out and see clients.

They actually make decisions the No ;:lne would ever

believe that they are high school :.4,:12:-.'ents. They do this four itys a vaek full time, and ,dn

Fridays are in seminars on mane smart i,nd administration.

Our organization is part of the Aca.aem for Educ;ational Development: and our job is to go aro.!,nd and )romote the prog7am

and develop the staff. What we ar.. tr,J.ng to do is tc maintain

quality out there, which is one most difficult jobs

that I have.

During the 1977-78 academic year, we hod grant

from the Office of Career Education and U.S. Offic, of 'A.Ication and a contract from the Office of Gifted and to

mainstream gifted and talented or high-potential ha.,:4.:;P.pped

students into our program. We used eight pilot sites: New

York City, and Buffalo, New York; Des Moines; 0,inqe County,

Florida; Palm Beach County; Springfield, Miro:Ls: Sacramento

and Compton, California. What we did was to focu:, on three

964

1 )33
areas of handicapping: hearing, sight and orthopedic impairment. We were trying to find the no8t severely disabled

students that we could and to try to grove that if they

were selected appropriately, as we try to do with everyone,

and given the right support services, that they would function

as well as all the other students in our program.

We placed these students at management levels

in banking, law and criminal jIwtice, radio, social services,

accounting and data processing, .;ommercial art, health and

the aerospace industry. We tri'd to avoid the stereotypical

occupations associated with thv handicapped, so that none of

our students were with teachers: of the_handicapped or rehabilitation counselors, newsstand operators, or any of that. We

were trying to open new horizoi: for out students. We kept

our standards high. We used thy,. same selection criteria for

the students with disabilities as those without.

We were in an ideal position to test the viability

of mainstreaming. Why? Tho tan coordinators and T who worked

on this project had really .tad no experience at all with

handicapped people. We hadn'twovked 1:ith them. We had no

training at all. If this is going tr, work out in the worlds

of employment and education, -,ha-Jfb unlo you're going to be

dealing with.

For the most part, our students did very, very

well, the same as you would expect for any executive intern.

They did exciting things. They drafted legal briefs and

memos. They compiled job specifIlations. One of our interns

was involved in layoffs at the aerospace industry and in

trying to find new jobs or people who were laid off. We had

one student who was in1-.Av:td in divorce trials and separation

trials and in custody suits for children in a legal services

agency. We had a student with the director of mediCal

illustration in a hospital wino was working alongside people

who had medical school training and was doing technical

drawings, and her clients were medical school professors, and

doctors and so on.

So, thezR were pretty high-level kinds of slots,

the same as they are for the rest of our students. Most of

the students used this internship to explore careers. That's

why they were there; that's what they were about, and this

confirmed their interest in a career. We had a student, for

example,interested in pharmacy. He was placed with the head

ot pharmacology in a hospital and he is now studying pharmacy

in college. Some students didn't know what they wanted to do

at all and were really floundering around until they got more

specific about the kinds of careers that they wanted to follow.

,965
We had one student who was placed in a major worldwide bank

in New York City. She learned the skills in her department

in one-fourth the time that it took anyone else ever to learn

them in the history of the bank, so they grabbed her. There

was no having to convince anybody there about her. Most of

our handicapped students develop a much greater sense of

confidence. They begin to read lips more proficiently to

speak more intelligently, and to cope more effectively with

emotional problems.

We also found our nonhandicapped students gained

from the experience. In one instance a hard-of-hearing student

insisted that our coordinator go to the rest of the group and

describe her disability and prepare them all. She was very

concerned. The coordinator did this and the rest of the

group said, "Hey, if this is mainstreaming, why are you making

such a big issue? We want to treat her like the rest of the

group. Why don't you have confidence in us?" So that was a

group of students who said, "We can handle it. Just get off

our backs and get out of our way. We know how to relate to

one another." Generally that was the case. They're far more

sophisticated, I think, than sometimes we give them credit

for in handling a whole variety of human situations.

What I'd like to do very briefly is go into some

of the difficulties that we have that I see and that I hope

you'll think about and try to address.

The first one is student recruitment. We had

to go out and do a real education job to convince teachers

and principals that there were handicapped people out there

who were at the same time talented. We would go and they

would say, "Well, which do you want, gifted, or do you want

handicapped?"

Another problem is the significant difference in

social maturity between the students in our program who came

with disabilities and those who did not. We attribute that,

perhaps naively, to the fact that most of the disabled have

been in very isolated settings all their lives.

Also, the handicapped students are older chronologically than the nonhandicapped. The average age of our

handicapped students was 19 and.20. The average age of our

nonhandicapped student was 17 and 18. That's because many

of them have been held back in school over the years too.

So, you're generally dealing with a physically more mature

student, but a socially less mature student.

966

1035
Another problem was that much of the central office

special-education people didn't know any students. You go

to the director of special education in your district and

say, "We just want a small number. We're starting out. Here's

what we want." They didn't know who the kids were. They

were behind the times in terms of the federal regulations

on what they were supposed to do. What that means was that

our coordinators had to go in and smoke out that local

teacher in the classroom of handicapped students who really

knew those kids and who could really tell us who those kids

were. You can imagine the levels you have to go through to

do that

As far as the maturity level is concerned, I think

that what's needed is a pre-orientation period of almost a

whole semester for our handicapped students. During that one

semester, the student might go out for a couple of days a

week or a couple of hours a week to get oriented to that

setting; We can also do a-lot of different kinds of roleplaying things, how to relate to a secretary, how to present

yourself in a situation, how to sell a product.

Second of all, the question of sponsors, That's

obviously very important, where you put your students. That's

the key to success in cur program. We have to have a particular

kind of sponsor who's committed to the standards of our program.

They have to be able to provide that sophisticated level of

placement that says, "You're not a kid anymore; you're with

us; we're going to introduce you as a member of the staff;

we firmly believe that you can function as well as a special

assistant in this office, given the right kind of training

and support, and we're prepared to provide it."

Now, in this particular program, we did have some

sponsors, a couple of sponsors, who let us down. We had one

situation, and this happens in internship programs, where

the person who was to be the sponsor traveled all the time

and delegated it to someone else who firmly believed that no

one with less than a Ph.D. could do what we wanted students

to do. So, what did that young woman do? Clerical work.

What did we do? Fought it all they way and finally pulled

her out. What that points to is the need for close staff

monitoring. You have to go out and see every student on the

job; interview the sponsors. Things go wrong. We cannot

have a 200 or 250 ratio per staff member. That's what a lot

of co-op work-study programs have. Our best pupil/teacher

ratio is something like 1 to 25 or 1 to 30. After that, our

program washes out.

Now, that is a cost-effective staff ratio. Our

program operates at a cost of $645 a student--about a

967

1036
third of what it costs to operate a regular sc: program.

The third area is support services, important. We were really surprised. We went to buildings I. ,at supposedly

were barrier free. We had one medical school with a brand-new

ramp outside of the building. A student tried to use that

ramp--dangerous. Any moisture on that ramp and she'd go

crashing down onto the sidewalk. Why? There was no incline

at the end of the ramp. They had installed it all wrong.

They never know that before. They hadn't had any handicapped

people in that medical school before. This was the most

independent young woman in our whole program. She had her

own specially equipped van. She didn't want anyone to help

her in any way, anyhow. What did she have to have? A staff

member come down every morning and let her in and park her

van. The end of the day, they had to get her, take her out

of the building, and get her van and put her in it. That

was humiliating for her. She didn't like that at all. So

now the medical school is looking into rebuilding that ramp.

On another aspect we found that many of our

students required extensive personal counseling because of

home environments. Over half of our students--I'd say

three-fourths- -had been in foster homes or were in foster

homes or were in unstable parent situations. We had one

student who had been raped by a foster father. We had another

student whose natural mother had thrown her out of a window

--how's that for direct rejection?--necessitating 100

stitches.

We also had to attend to the needs of low-income

students because our program requires lunch, requires transportation, and it requires some clothing. What this all points

to is the need for a lot of staff time to compensate for all

these counseling and support problems that arise. That's

very important.

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: Thank you. You have with you

today Darryl Grice, who is going to talk.

DARRYL GRICE, EXECUTIVE INTERN,

BUFFALO, NEW YORK

MR. GRICE: My name is Darryl Grice and I am from

Buffalo. I was a recent intern last spring for the Executive

Internship program. I was a C student in high school. Although I was a C student, I really wanted to know about broadcasting;

that was my interest. School was not the thing for me at the

time. So, the Executive Intership program--I found out

through my counselor--introduced to me broadcasting. I worked

at radio station WUFO for the second semester of my high school

968

1037
senior year, and I got a lot out of it. We learned how to

manage the station, the business aspects of the station and

the administrative part of it, sales, and my favorite part,

broadcasting.

Right now this internship that I was in has led

me to college, which I am now attending, four years. I

am majoring in communications and I hope to finish my four

years and become a radio announcer some day.

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: Thank you.

MS. HIRSCH: I should just mention that it took

Darryl a whole semester sitting at home to get into college

because the state rehab officials sat on his application.

Before our program, he was evaluated for a month in Albany

and they told him, "You can't be a radio announcer. Handicapped people can't be employed in that field." He decided

to show them and his counselor got him into our program and

the counselor became the advocate for Darryl and went back,

and then the state said, "We'll reconsider it since he's

done so well." Then what happened was cutbacks in the budget,

his counselor got fired from the school system and Darryl's

application sat there. Finally our coordinator had to intervene. So, he's been sitting at home for a whole semester

wasted, waiting for the state to respond.

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: We will now open up for questions from the panel.

MR. TAGGART: I have too many questions. As

policy makers we are going to have to view problems in a

lot of different ways. Throughout these hearing we are

going to have a clash between stories of individuals, and

stories of individual needs, and the types of decisions we

have to make as policymakers that translate those needs into

bureaucratic terms.

969

1038
Some of the issues that we are going to have to

address have been raised pointedly. One is definition of

the universe of need. We have a problem in the handicapped

literature that when we look at it from an employment perspective, disability is defined as the inability to hold

work. Not until someone enters the labor market and is

unable to succeed are his impairments translated into disability. So, we have a problem and we have almost no

information about the universe of people who could benefit

from the services that might be offered through employment

and training programs.

Second, we have the question of who is average

and who is exceptional within that universe of need. We

need to determine whether the types of people we've had at

the table are typical or atypical, whether when we reach

down and try to serve them whether those are the types of

individuals we will reach, or whether we'll have to go

further down the employability spectrum and offer more intensive

services.

We have questions about whether we should offer

services, or training, or employment as our primary focus.

We have surveyed our youth employment training program to

get the model handicapped programs, and there are not a great

number of them. About 4 percent of our programs' clientele

is handicapped. Within that, almost all those programs are

service programs. They are programs not aimed at training,

not aimed at employability development, but aimed as stop-gap

measures, ones to build character, to build capacity to deal

with the world but not directly focused at employment. We

need to know how much we can focus them toward employment, and

how much we can focus them toward training.

I think we need to ask ourselves how much we should

aim for a sheltered labor market at the end of our efforts

and how much we should aim at a mainstream labor market.

Now, we have an example here where they create jobs at one end.

Most of our employment training programs in fact create jobs. 80 percent of our participants are in work experience programs.

Should we target our efforts toward a continuum that places

an individual in a subsidized job, or should we try instead

to place them into a mainstream labor markct? I think it was

pointed out very clearly here that there are extra costs and

extra services that have to be offered. We need to know how

much that extra is.

We have to know what institutional linkages we

need to establish to make these programs work at the local

level.

970

1039
We need to know about continuity of services.

All our employment training programs are short term. They

run from six weeks, six months, sometimes for a year but

rarely more than that. I am hearing from this conversation

that we need to somehow break through that so that we're

dealing with the same youth in a continuing fashion for two,

three or four years. We want to know how that can be achieved.

We have questions about what expectations we should

have of these projects. How can we really judge whether

they're a success or failure, or should we not try to judge

that? That is a fundamental question we have to deal with,

because now many of our decisions are driven by these performance criteria.

I have a particular question about when impairments

are disabilities. We've found, for instance, that from 1969

to 1972, there was a massive shift in the labor market from

the category of marginally disabled to severely disabled.

We know that most of the shift was due to a decline in job

opportunities and not to the change in the universe of those

with impairments. How much do we need to change our labor

market institutions to force people to do more hiring, not

to discriminate against the handicapped, and how much do we

instead have to work with human resource development?

All these are broad questions and I

lay them out at the start so that we could get

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: Would anybody

to even answer one of Bob's questions?

just wanted to

on.

like to attempt

MS. HIRSCH: Maybe I could just quickly take a

stab at a couple of them.

I don't know where we go on this last issue, which

is one of discrimination in employment. We had some serious

situations 121 that regard. For example, we had one placement

where people found it difficult to deal with a hearingimpaired individual whose speech was also impaired. It was

also difficult for him. A student coming out of a program

for hard-of hearing still doesn't have the same kind of quick

skills of dealing with a whole roomful of people that the

rest of us do. There's a lot cif adjustment involved; things

aren't picked up immediately. How much, then, does the staff

compensate for this? What kind of assistance is needed, and

how do they feel inside when they hear that student talk?

There are a lot of emotions going on out there, and how is

this dealt with? That one wasn't dealt with very well at

all for a very long period of time.

971

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By contrast, we had one student with severe

emotional problems of cerebral palsy with a sponsor who was

totally committed to her who provided an internship. She had an Executive Internship where most would not have been

willing to produce that. She caused a certain amount of disruption in that office because of her emotional needs, and

they just hung in and they wanted her to have that kind of

experience. It made quite a difference in her life.

So the environment is extemely important, and

how you break through, and what kinds of demands you make, and what you can do when they aren't delivered is an issue

your staff ought to debate and think about and see how people

have handled in the past.

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: Any other questions:

MR. SONGSTER: I think the sheltered works

is certainly a way to go for the mentally retarded in pa:t But we have here this morning some 20 people who have bec.p trained about as far as they can go in the sheltered workshop, and I think we have to look at the private sector to find

jobs for Elizabeth Labukas and others. Money is limited. How many little packages can the sheltered workshop produce, particularly when they pay such low amounts of money? As Mr. Lopez says, 50 or 60 cents an hour is certainly not a

meaningful position to hold. In the case of Elizabeth, The has a full-time, full-paying jcb, 40 hours a week, and is working outside the sheltered community.

MS. MARTIN: How long did it take to train Elizabeth

to become a teacher's aide, and what was the cost involved?

Do you have any estimate of what it would cost to keep her

in an institutional setting compared with where she is now?

MR. SONGSTER: The cost of keeping her in an

institutional setting would be about three times as great as

it is to have her in her community. It cost a little less

than $5,000 to train Elizabeth. It is a cooperative'program

with the Maryland Park. and Planning. Commission and the Kennedy Foundation. We put up the salary for the on-the-fob training that took place within Maryland Park and Planning and they had three people alreadywithin the agency who worked for

the handicapped. So, those, three people along with the staff

were trained and went through the job training and it took

us a little bit over a year totally to do this, but it was

very, very intensive training.

972
CHAIRPERSON WILLS: Could you speak to what kind

of traizthg facility, and how many staff were there, and

how much support services were available?

MR. SONGSTER: There were three direct service

people, and then there were two other people that worked there

in addition to that, and of course the Maryland Park and Planning did some of the adrinistrative things, but she works in

a center every day, works with the bus driver, works with the

people who do the lunches and so on.

MR. TARILIAN: Dedicational amounts in 1978 maddated quite a few changes in dealing with handicapper; and,

Sharlene, one of them was mainstreaming. You gave some answers

about designing programs prior to mainstreaming, maybe for a

semester. Sinde it's such a massive problem, where do you

think the resources should go in possibly building up a local

educational agency? What type of assistance should we be

providing now to foster mainstreaming? Do you have any other

ideas besides this one semester?

MR. HIRSH: Our staff felt very nervous about gett ng

involved in this project. They really wanted to get involved,

but worried whether they were adequate to handle the problems.

Why did they feel inadequate? When you haven't had any exposure to something, very often you feel that you might fail at

it and very often you feel inadequate. So, I think we have to

attend to some of those needs, too, and get staff involved

with the students before they're actually going out and placing

them, which is a big responsibility. We consider ourselves as

having a. zero failure rate, and even one misguided placement

can hurt our program--and the student, too, and we're very concerned about that. So, I think we really need a lot more

capacity building, if that's the proper term, of the staff

that are going to be relating to these students.

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: Other questions?

MR. SCANLON: What can we do to create or to

encourage the creation of more jobs in private industry for

handicapped persons?

MS. HIRSCH: Once we break through with our first

good placement, it's easy. They tell the others long and

loud that they're involved in this. The student goes along

with them, at Chamber of Commerce meetings or whatever. By

the way, Chambers of Commerce have been very effective helpers

of our program. Most of them have committees on career

education and they have been good in opening things up.
One of the selling factors of -Dur program is it's

1 to 1. We say to a sponsor, "You tell us what you want, all

the qualifications, personal, intellectual, whatever, and we,

like any good job counselor, will go out and try to find a

pool of students who will meet that, and then you get a choice

and they get a choice. If you don't see anyone, say it."

So that there s a lot of honesty in our program, and we find

our sponsors very honest because they don't want to let

you down later on, and they also want the commitment to be

very clear. We don't ever assign anyone to anyone. That's

how it works best, I think--through a good placement process.

MR. SCANLON: But you have been successful in

placing in the private sector?

MS. HIRSCH: Oh, yes. We used to be something

like three-fourths in public sector. Now we're almost threefourths private sector, and, frankly, I agree with my colleague

that private industry is where it's at. One of the reasons is

that it has the extra funds to afford to do the special things

for students, to take them on trips, to take them out to lunch.

I mean, a business lunch is an educational experience for a

young person, and we want the student to have those extra

perks around that the public sector seems not to be able to

afford any more.

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: We want this to be an open

forum to the maximum extent possible, and I'like to introduce

you to Mr. Harry Wheeler. Harry is probably one of the oldest

CETA prime sponsor--not in age--from Newark, New Jersey. He is

well experienced in terms of trying to solve some of these

many problems we're faced with here.

HARRY WHEELER, NEWARK, NEW JERSEY

MR. WHEELER: For the young people who look to

the practitioners, our game is linkage. The gentleman over

there raises a question about how do we hook into private

sector, because four out of every five jobs happen to be in

the private sector, and there is a ready-made built-in process.

It's called the PIC, Private Industry Council. Now, one of the

things that President Carter has done is to urge the business

community to come together with the Labor Department in this

whole job effort, and the emphasis is on creativity and flexibility as it relates to this particular kind of structure.

So, I would hope that you don't start thinking about

creating something else when you already have a newly created

structure, and the emphasis is on flexibility, and most people

974

1043
think that the PIC is for on-job training and that's

unmitigated nonsense. The name of the game is creativity,

and the folks in this area ought to be exploring how they can

hook into the private sector through the PICs in the prime

sponsors throughout this country.

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: Let me just explain that each

local prime sponsor throughout this country will be establishing a Private Industry Council through the next few months,

and, Harry, that leads right into my question: Mr. Lopez,

you said that a part of your problems have been directly

related to the fact that sometimes supervisors in different

points thought that what you needed was a high school education

and a college education, and that without that, you were not

able to serve other people. Do you have any solutions to that

dilemma?

MR. LOPEZ: Yes, For one thing, like, I was considered

disabled, but, I considered myself disabled in only one way:

no education. So, I would say that if a youth is handicapped,

put him in school instead of giving him these public-work jobs

and sending him out for the summer and giving him six months

of work. Go out and mop floors, at the end of six months of

work what does he have? The same thing he had before. He's

unemployed. Send him to learn a trade. Give him money to go

to school. Let him get an education, because that was my

biggest hangup. It wasn't my physical handicap. It was my

education.

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: Within the CETA system things

are decentralized. Jobs are created in the local community.

People go to work and they live and go to school in the local

community, and one of the things that it seems to me we're

going to have to face is somehow, some way, developing some

kind of institutional linkages between national programs.

How do we mesh national kinds of activities and national kinds

of programs so that we can begin to institutionalize, bring

some expertise to the local community, so that indeed that's

where the money is in terms of education, and in terms of the

CETA system ?.

MS. HIRSCH: In our program, we operate by persuasion, obviously. You go to a district, and now that we're on

the map, people come to us. In the beginning, they certainly

didn't.

Our program is decentralized. It's really a

franchise kind of operation, if you will. The local school

system votes, usually by school board resolution, to adopt a

975
model of this program. We have certain bottom-line standards:

a full-time coordinator free of all other responsibilities; a

full semester of academic credit in regular subjects. This is

not play; its not extra-curricular; it is not extra year

of high school or whatever. Our students graduate on time.

The kind of placement I described is management-level placement so that our students aren't Xeroxing and doing other things.

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: TI-en you basically train that staff.

MS. HIRSCH: That's right. We train them.

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: Thank you very much. The next

person who will be putting our problem into perspective is

Eugene Beard. He's a parent, Howard University. Mr. Beard?

EUGENE BEARD, PARENT, HOWARD UNIVERSITY

MR. BEARD: Thank you for inviting me to share some

facts and opinions about the handicapped youth who are black- - more specifically, about the problems and issues that revolve

around their making the transition from school to work.

When I accepted the invitation to speak on the problems

and issues facing handicapped black youth, I did not realize

the sheer awesomeness of the task. To Jo what is needed to

overcome the problems of handicapped black youth would require

the creativenass of W.E.B. DuBois, the ingenuity of Benjamin

Banneker, and the fervor of Toussaint L'Overture. To do what

is needed cannot be dyne until the basic research has taken

place, and unless it is done soon--very soon.--handicapped black youth, as far as their entrance into the job market and as far

as their education are concerned, will probably be qualified to

be classified as an endangered species.

Most are worse off than they were a decade ago when the

federal government declared that the black family was deteriorating. Today more handicapped youths are unemployed, more in

mental institutions,.more are abused or killed by their parents,

more are involved in family violence, more are in jail, and

this litany could continue ad infinitum.

There was, until a few years ago, a growing perception

that black families had become self-sustaining and no longer

needed further impetus or federal assistance, and you're

probably wondering why I'm interjecting black families. One

would be remiss if he did not look at the handicapped black

youth from a family context. Indeed, there are many who

believe that the nation's debt to black familes had been so

fully paid that whites themselve were becoming victims of

reverse discrimination. In their view, few, if any, qualities

existed, and those that did exist could be attributed to the

976 1045
deficiencies in motivation, character or intellect of

individual blacks. The spread of these discerning ideas has

altered progress. Some of the gains that black families have

earned are rapidly being lost. The era of retrogression has

set in.

Consequently, the plight of the

member has reached crisis proportions.

in the dirtiest, least desirable occu

levels of the employment pyramid, while:

have made it into the craft, technical

Few are in positions of real significa

handicapped family

He or she is found

,tions and in the lowest

',-ply a few, a very few,

i management jobs.

nc It is apparent from the experience recent decades

that we can never count on the normal functi of the

economy to equalize educational opportunities f handicapped

youth. Such equality wi3 come about through tz... compliance

with equal-opportunity la Pad regulations in c IJayment,

removal 'of job ceilings; a,. intensive progre

and placement in skilled cleirthle jobs. Meae:re this

sort, however, will still not :clve the probmv.

handicapped black youth. educated, unv...1,.ad, hc:avily

concentrated in urban slums, ,lited for steady employment,

they constitute a group that alienated and crime-prone.

What is needed, among cther things, are guidelines for

the development and implementation, of programs designed to

facilitate the handicapped youth's transition from school to

work. Guidelines are needed for transitional programs designed

to counteract a generalized education system that undereduca1:esas well as miseducates the handicapped youth.

Guidelines are.needed for a transitional program that

will provide incentives to or stiMulat both the private. and

the public sector to modify some existing jobs to fit the

functional capaciti of handicapped youth.

Guidelines are neded for transitional programs designed

to provide erraoyment opportunities whe:eby handicapped youth

can not onl :..ecome ego-involved but also receive those supplie..:

necessary the improvement of a damaged self-concept. To do

anything less is to provide the 1piates of temporary relief,

but the pe.n will not be removed.

Guidelines are needed for transitional programs that

focus on the emotional problems often associ,.ted setn both

handicapped and black, many of which are caused by the actions

and reactions of the nonhadicapped world.
Guidelines are also needed to ensure e,72.1ity between

legislation and the availability of support services--for

example, the current phenortenum of dumping, which is currently

going on under the guise of deinstitutionalization.

When peace is established among nations, the trained

minds of handicapped persons may pl a leading role. When

cancer, heart disease, high blood pressure and leprosy, are eliminated, it may be the trained mind of a handicapped person

that does it.

CHAIRPLRSON WII.S: Thank you very much, Mr. Beard.

Are there questions? Bob?

MR. TAGGART: When we look at the disabled universe,

the black is about twice as likely to be unable to work at

all as a white youth or a white adult, and 75 percent of all

adult black males who are outside the labor force are either

ill or disabled. Frequently it is asked why do we keep h...wing this problem. It's almost directly correlated with increases

in disability or claimed disability among minorities. It is

very clearly a problem where those who are disabled or have

an impediment or a handicap, which is compounded by education, or race, or family background, are very, very much worse off.

The question is, when we approach this as a policy how

do we attack that? For instance, in the new rewrite of our

regulations for our youth programs, we wanted to emphasize

handicapped and one of the comments that came in from the

handicapped community was to brwlden the income ,,riteria for

eligibility for our programs. Im*.a use income criteria in order

to target these program to thus in greatest need, and -t would

seem to me that if you had a low income cri--eria you would be

more likely to get the dollars c.o those people who have not

only handicaps but also have other problems. It's ,:ire issue

that came up and most of the handicaT?ed community F..aid broaden

the eligibility with no income criteria and the result of that, I would imagine, is to move away ,rom chose who have compounded

handicaps.

Second, you'll find, and from doing the programs

across the country, that the major:;:y of model handicap proams

are not in your central city poverty areas. They're not in

Newark, because there're 10,000 nondisadvantaged youth who are

lining up for the same jobs and the same opportunities. The

needs are so great that the handicapp:ad is pushed even to the

end of that hiring view. We find that our nl.ograms for

handicapped are in fact in Connecticut. They're in Utah. They're in places where there's not a great minorit:i problem

or as great an unemployment problem. When you have other

problems that are pushing on the handicapped pxolem, you have

a lot of nonhandicapped youth.

978

1.047
My question is, how do we attack this? How do we

change it?

If we try to go to the private sector and say,

"You take the handicapped," we may be able to persuade them

to take the least handicapped individual, the one that only

has an impairment that can be overcome. He doesn't have a

deficit in education or a poverty background. How do we

then get that private sector employer not only to serve that

individual but to reach down to somebody who very much needs

the service?

MR. BEARD: I see two problems involved. One is

equity in terms of distribution. Another is equity in terms

of assets. You yourself pointed out that program r are not

located where they are needed in terms of the black community.

Another problem is in terms of how that program is perceived

and how it is staffed. So oftenpersons who are located within

a black community, their programs are not staffed by community

people. So, as a result, this becomes a roadblock. It becomes

a barrier to the service provider and the service receiver.

MS. MARTIN: What are the priority research issues

from your point of view in this whole area?

MR. BEARD: I can't say there is a priority. Some

of the things that I think should be looked at immediately- -

number one, there is very little reliable data on handicapping

conditions among black youth. Also, there is very little

reliable data on the family context in which the handicappedyouth comes. For example, the coping strategies that are used

by families, the support services that are available to families

with handicapped youth, and so forth and so on.

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: Obviously you have some concerns

about the institutionalization. Could you speak to that?

MR. BEARD: I think it can be descriptively characterized

as dumping. The institutions in my opinion have one goal

in mind, and that is to be in compliance with a judicial

judgment. There are very few, if any, support services that

are provided to people who are released from mental institutions

or other types of institutions, and, as a result, they become

prey to the most vicious type of exploitation. I mean you just

can't take a person out of an institution and say, "You 're on

your own," or put him in a halfway house and say,"You're halfway there."

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: My concern is: Are we at loggerheads with part of what we heard earlier in terms of the desire

979
to mainstream young people, to put them in as a part of the

same school system, put them as a part of the private-sector

involvement that we were talking about earlier? Yet at the

same time questions are being raised about whether or not it

is wise to pursue pell-mill a program for deinsititutionalization, and if it is unwise, why, and if we continue to pursue

it, what kinds of support ser-:.ces are needed in the community?

MR. BEARD: I can't answer "our question in terms of

are we at loggerheads. However, I an say that the legislation

has grossly exceeded the services that are available to make

that legislation meaningful. I think, in the main, mainstreaming is a farce, and the reason I say that is that there

has been very little preparation on the part of persons who

receive the handicapped child from the non-mainstream arena,

and in the main, Americans are not too amenable in terms of

accepting handicapped people. Survey after survey points this

out. We really don't want to be around handicapped people,

to put it grossly.

MR. TARILIAN: You talked quite a bit about guidelines

in different areas. I translate that term "guidelines" into

funds. I think if you talk about funds, where do you see more

funds going when you talk about generalized education versus

vocational skills?

MR. BEARD: More funds are needed in vocational-type

programs, and before that happens, something should be done

to change the concept that we currently have of a vocational

program. It is not one that is equivalent to a person who's

in an academic program, and, as a result, a lot of handicapped

persons hesitate going into such programs.

I think the public schools are probably our greatest

hope in doing something immediately, because this is a system

or a mechanism, however inefficient, that' already in operation.

MR. TARILIAN: At what level do you think we should

put tremendous emphasis?

MR. BEARD: In the very earl,- years, the elementary

level.

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: I hate to do this, but we're

going to be running behind. I t'lank you 1,ry, very much.

We are now going to have another panel of people who

have responsibilities for trying to translate such eloquent

words that we have just, heard into actual programs and policies.

1049

980
to get a sense of the national perspective, we will first

start with Paul Hippolitus.

PAUL HIPPOLITUS, EMPLOYMENT ADVISER,

PRESIDENT'S COMMITTEE ON EMPLOYMENT

OF THE HANDICAPPED.

MR. HIPPOLITUS: What I will attempt to do this

morning is to describe for you some of the critical areas that

you must consider as you make an effortto better serve handicapped youth in education and training opportunities.

The first area centers on policy determination--those

formal and informal directives and designs that determine

the operation of an organization. Policy determination can

divided into two areas:

First, top-level commitment. No program can ever

expect to adequately serve handicapped individuals unless its

stated policies and internal directives are designed so as

to effectively address the needs of this minority. Before

anything will happen in this area, the top of the administrative

structure must have made it clear in both spirit and letter

that the programs the agency administers will serve handicapped

people. The premise here is: What the boss wants, the boss

gets. So, this is where I believe it all should begin--at

the top.

The second dimension to policy determination, program

design, is the point where most well-meaning programs fail.

We must remember that throughout our history, handicapped

people have not been included in the definition of who regular

public programs serve. Consequently, our systems of service

delivery have been devised in such a manner as to automatically

exlcude the handicapped. This type of exclusion is systemic.

The system discriminates, not the individual program manager,

and that is the reason why after equal-access mandates for

the handicapped have been proclaimed, handicapped people still

don't appear. Believe me, it's not because they aren't there.

They are. It's because the program design fails to meet their

needs.

To better illustrate this point, let's consider the

example of a regular vocational/technical school that has

just opened up for the handicapped students. The local superintendent and school principal issue strong directives that

indicate that handicapped students will be served. The top

commitment is clear. The school is made accessible physically.

981
Yet only maybe 10 percent of the area's handicapped eligible

student population show up for admittance. Of that 10 percent,

half may fail within the first year. What went wrong? Well,

what went wrong is simple. The superintendent and school

principal generalized about the handicapped population. They

thought if they simply made entranceways wide enough, bathrooms

accessible, street curbs, etc., this would make the program

accessible. They forgot about the program's design. You see,

with the handicapped population you have enormous extremes.

Physical access is surely important, but it isn't the sum

total of the system modification that's necessary to get handicapped youths into the program. This program, as most other

programs, needs to consider and modify its program design as

well.

The point is, don't stop with top-level commitment.

Consider also your program design and how that program automatically or systemically excludes handicapped youths.

For some handicapped individuals no degree of regular

program modification will ever meet their needs. This segment

surely has career potential-- this fact is proven daily, but

their disability is such that no reasonable modification of

the regular program will supply this. What is needed is a

program that will teach them a skill using special materials

and special instructions. Eventually the special program may

improve their ability to function to the extent that they can

move out into the regular curriculum. The policy should be

flexible so that this movement can occur.

So, the program design is the cornerstone to serving

handicapped individuals. Here is where the system is tuned

in such a way as to truly allow entry.

The second general area that needs to be addressed

is interagency cooperation. In the context of serving handicapped individuals, interagency cooperation becomes an even

more important issue, since handicapped individuals have many

more agencies to contact than non-handicapped youth. Each

agency should be in communication with the other, exchanging

at least information regarding the coordination of the respective

services. This communication should be well established or

formal, though informal channels are certainly better than

nothing.

The third policy area that needs attention is staff

development. It can be broken down into three areas. One,

identify qualified staff to monitor programs for the

handicapped; two, establish training programs to provide staff

with minimal competencies to serve handicapped indiyiduals;

and three, establish general informational efforts designed

to develop staff awareness regarding handicapped individuals.

982

1051
I think all three components are integral policy

concerns if were serious about our commitment to serve

disabled youths. If I had to select, though, one of the

three as the most important, I would have to pick number one.

Unless someone is assigned the responsibility for monitoring

the program for the handicapped, no one will assume that

responsibility. Further, having a staff person or office with

this duty gives the rest of the staff a contact point for

consultation and a constant reminder regarding their obligation. So, consider all three points under staff development

and be sure to implement number one.

The last major item that must be considered is the

art of involving handicapped people and their parents in the

decision-making process. The tendency of many programs is

to attempt to make generalizations. This is especially

evident in career guidance given to some handicapped youths.

This guidance comes not only from the counseling community

but also from teachers, placement specialists and sometimes

from parents who may have limited expectations of their

handicapped children. Generalization in the guidance given

tends to stereotype handicapped youths in traditional careers,

or it fails to challenge the capabilities of disabled youth.

We at the President's Committee on the Employment of the

Handicapped long ago realized that when dealing with the human

spirit nearly nothing is impossible. I've personally met a

blind sportscaster, a double--leg amputee who has a fourthdegree black belt in Karate, a swimming instructor with no

arms, and on, and on. These examples may be exceptions, but

they point out the fact that disabled people can do almost

anything they want to do. The point is that we professionals

don't always know what's best for them in every instance. We

need to bring disabled people more directly into the decisionmaking process.

MR. DELGADO: You mentioned support systems. Do you

view the family as a support system?

MR. HIPPOLITUS: Very definitely. They should be

involved all along in the educational plan as well as the

training and placement. A lot of support can be gained from

that.

CHAIRPERSON WILL: We'll now hear from Bob Humphries,

who is a man with awesome responsibilities but perhaps not

enough resources.

983

1052
ROBERT HUMPHRIES, COMMISSIONER, REHABILITATION

SERVICES ADMINISTRATION, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH,

EDUCATION AND WELFARE.

MR. HUMPHRIES: The Rehabilitation Services Administration is a vital factor in the federal establishment in providing

services for disabled people. Traditionally, RSA has been

concerned with strictly vocational rehabilitation and for many

years and in many states that has meant people between the

ages of majority and the normal termination of the working life.

My idea of what RSA is and should become is much broader than

that, hoWever. I think, too, that within a number of states

a great deal more attention is being given to the younger

individual, ages 14 and 16, for example. There is no exclusion

in the Rehabilitation Act for people of any age to participate,

but, as a matter of practice, often they are excluded if they

are too young or too old. I think all that is changing considerably and I will do the best that I can to make efforts to

assist in that change.

In addition, the Rehabilitation Services Administration

now has a program that is highly important to me in developing

this idea of a broader focus for disability service programs

through RSA, and that is the developmental disabilities program.

That program is a national program of basic state grants,

which involves an effort that I think should be a model in terms

of future efforts for the provision of coordinating resources,

for bringing together various elements within the state, with

respect to providing for local involvement in service provision.

With the enactment of Public Law 95602 the program has been

expanded to include all developmental disabilities the onset

of which occurs prior to the age of 22 and which affects two

or more major life activities. This is the kind of approach

that I see the Rehabilitation Services Administration very

much needing to get into. I see us as having a concern for

questions of preventic.m, of amelioration of maintenance, of

habilitation, of rehabilitation--five levels of care looking

toward development of a comprehensive network of services for

all disabled people, a continqum of care that will ensure, to

the extent that we are able, that disabled people--children,

adults, old people alike--are provided all the supportive

services that they require in order to allow them to function

as fully and as normally as they possibly can.

How does Yovthwork and its projects fit into that

conceptualization? Clearly there is a major interest, as I

have suggested here, of the Rehabilitation Services Administration in all aspects of disability programs, and it is for that

reason that I am here speaking with you to give you an idea

of what we do in RSA and how we might be of assistance to this

and other programs in providing a perspective from a service

delivery point of view.

984 1053
All kinds of cooperative arrangements are, from my perspective

the way of the future in maximizing the resources that we have

available to us. Clearly those resources are limited. The

budget that we have for fiscal 1980 throughout the federal

government is characterized as austere. With the assumption

that the level of funding generally for all programs in the

federal government is for the near term going to be somewhat

restricted, we must take maximum advantage of what resources

we do have, make them more efficient, make them work for us,

make sure that duplication and overlap and waste and confusion

are not the result of our throwing money at programs. We

need to look at programs and scrutinize them carefully to

make sure that we're getting the most out of them.

I think the kind of interaction that can occur through

a program such as that under the CETA program with RSA and

with other agencies can be highly instrumental in making the

most effective use of the dollars that we do have.

MRS. SHRIVER: I find it rather disconcerting to hear

about all of these expansion programs and still the rehabilitation agencies have very little information on families. We

all know that the aspiration of families determines a great

deal how a younster turns out, but in terms of the Chicano,

in terms of the Indian, in terms of the black child, white

child, all those aspirations are different. I'd like to ask

why we don't have research on that. What ought to be done

about that and what plans do you have?

In terms of the Rehabilitation Act that has been

developed up to now, the focus has been onthe individual, and

the service system has been geared around the individual.

There are provisions within the law for services to families

of individuals, and particularly in the case of projects for

migrant workers, this has been an essential component. One

thing that I am very----

MRS. SHRIVER: Could you tell me about the migrant

worker program?

MR. HUMPHRIES: Yes. That was a program that developed

through the 1973 Rehabilitation Act and currently we have

eight projects in eight states, those states that have the

highest level of migrant worker populations.

MRS. SHRIVER: How many people would that include?

Do you have any idea?

985

1 054
MR. HUMPHRIES: Well, the actual level of funding

is rather limited. It's a million and a half dollars for

those eight projects. Essentially it provides seed money in

cooperation with the states that are affected by the projects.

One of the objectives of that is to provide a total social and

rehabilitation service environment to the family and to the

individual who is disabled. But there are, as I say, only

eight of those and it's never been funded at a level that it

probably should be in order to cover the needs of the entire

migrant population.

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: We'll now hear from Vincent

Moretti, a man out there in the firing line many times.

VINCENT MORETTI, HUMAN RESOURCES

DEVELOPMENT INSTITUTE, AFL-CIO

MR. MORETTI: What I will try to do today is give

the committee an idea of what the AFL-CIO commitment is in

rehabilitation, some of the things that we have done over the

years, and some of the things we feel should be done in the

future.

The AFL-CIO represents 14 million workers, which is

a rather large working force. Within that 14 million, we have

several hundred central bodies. We have a rather large resource

of people. We don't pretend to know much about rehabilitation

as such, but we do know a little bit about training and employment.

HRDI, Human Resources Development Institute, has

been in operation now since 1968. We were formed in 1968 to

address the needs of the disadvantaged. George Meany is chairman of the board and we have 13 trustees, who represent the

largest national and internatioal unions. Down through the

years we have been charged with trying to meet the needs of all

of the significant segments which historically, up until the

amendments to the Rehabilitation Act, the handicapped have been

more or less left out of. We have been meeting the needs of

the ex-offender, women in non-traditional jobs, the minorities

into the building trades, and over the years we've been doing

a pretty credible job. Lastyear alone, we developed over 22,000

jobs in our 60 offices in the United States and placed over

8,000 people that would meet the criteria that I just mentioned. The jobs that we had left over we turned over to the

employment service to use our resources to put the disadvantaged

to work.

For the last 18 months, we took on a project in

nine cities to test our capabilities of providing services to

the disabled and the handicapped, and we are rather proud of

our efforts. In 18 months we have developed 1,818 jobs and

placed 719, but I think more significant than the numbers

986 .1.055
placed is that we average $4.23 an hour for all of our

placements. We feel that a job is really not enough. The AFL-CIO does not look at the minimum wage as a living

wage today. So, our offices do concentrate on what we call quality jobs. We do not place anybody in a job without having

some progression. We feel that every individual, regardless of their disability, should have an opportunity to progress and not be locked into a dead-end activity.

The youths that we served among the 719 in the last

18 months would be the 18-to-21 group, for a total of 20

percent. We feel that there probably should be more concentration on the youth. This is where the future work force is coming from. We know that this is the area that we're going

to have to concentrate on. I don't have to tell you the figures of youth unemeployment. It reaches 50, 60 percent. I don't

think there's any accurate count made on the youth rate that

are disabled and handicapped out there. They're discouraged

and they're out of the work force.

We feel that one of the most important parts of our activity is getting our constituency group involved. We

feel that before they can become involved we have to make them

part of the problem. President Meany, of course, in the

executive council sets the policy of the AFL-CIO and it is our

job, the Human Resources Development Institute, to interpret

the manpower problems in the country, to go out and try to get

the constituency to follow the policy, and part of the activity we have been conducting for the last year and a half is the

educational components, and this is involving our constituency

in selected areas in the country, our state AFL -CIOs, and developing programs that would make them more aware of the

rehabilitation community, and what it's all about, and what

is needed, and how we can better involve them.

We have had programs in Connecticut with the state

AFL-CIO, in Missouri, in Seattle, Washington. We have just

developed a program with the Kentucky state AFL-CIO. We offered

technical assistance to this organization and consequently

now they have developed a statewide program and job development

for the handicaps that's going to be sponsored by Kentucky

state AFL-CIO. That was funded through the CETA mechanism.

So, we feel that there is a lot to do. We hope

that we can become more involved in the plans. We feel that

we have a lot to offer to the rehabilitation people. I'm amazed

as I move around the country and the rehabilitation community says, "Well, where have you guys been?" The consumers don't

987
know where to go or how to gain entry into our various apprenticeship programs. These are some of the things that we hope

to accomplish over the next years.

One of the things that we were rather proud of last

year is that along with the National Alliance of Business we conducted some 50 vocational exploration programs. Each program

brought in about 100 youngsters between the ages 14 and 17. These

were basically juniors and seniors. Out of that group we tried

to pilot same of the handicapped youth. Five hundred and fifty

kids in about six selected areas of the vocational exploration

program were given an opportunity to come in and meet with

employers. Unions sponsored the programs, our central and local

state bodies. The employers for the most part had their first

experience in looking at a disabled and handicapped youth.

It gave the youngster the chance to be able to determine

what career he might want to follow. We helped design buddy

programs, along with the exploration program, where we assigned

some of our union members to help the youngsters in some of

their choices.

This is one of the areas we hope this committee will

look into rather strongly. We know that the austerity program

is on. Everything is cost effective now. You only have so

many dollars to go around, but we feel that the vocational

exploration programs are one of the real areas that I think

we can get some meaningful results out of providing some

services and maximizing some of the resources that we have

to offer:

We know that we have a lot of problems in the AFL-CIO

and we are addressing them everyday. We know that we have to

deal with seniority. We have to qualify individuals to be

able to apply for jobs. But it seems like the time is right in

this country for bringing more disabled people into the work

force. We are looking and examining all of the contract lines

in our collective-bargaining agreements, and we hope that we

will be able to effect some meaningful change in contract

language, which is going to be important to move more people

into the work force.

So, those are some of the things that we are doing.

The commitment of the AFL-CIO and the executive committee and

President Meany has been strong over the years. The last

resoluti9n that was passed that was adopted December, 1977,

said,HThe problem of chronic disease, disability and dependency

is becoming increasingly grave for the nation and represents

both a serious economic burden and a major social responsibility. Organized labor realizes that this problem cannot be

988 Y 057
solved quickly. We are aware that without jobs for everyone, the problem of the employment of the handicapped worker will

not be fully solved and only part of the answer provided. Anything which adversely affects the right of men and women

to earn a living is of deepest concern to organized labor

and our active involvement is essential to its resolution.

The AFL-CIO supports the employment of all qualified handicapped individuals and in order to carry out these objectives, urges all affiliates to, number one, support efforts to carry

out affirmative action legislation which requires government

contractors and subcontractors to take affirmative action to

employ qualified handicapped workers; number two, support and

participate in the work of the Industry Labor Council which

has been formed to help resolve the problems of rehabilitation

and employment of handicapped people; number three, support

efforts to eliminate not only architectural barriers which

prevent millions of handicapped individuals from working, but also those which exist in such places as hotels, museums and

parks which prevent these citizens from participating in the

normal activities of society; and, finally, number four, negotiate with employers to protect qualified disabled workers

from being denied continued employment."

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: Are there questions?

MS. MICHEL: You placed, you say, 719 individuals

and developed approximately 1,800 jobs?

MR. MORETTI: Yes.

MS. MICHEL: There's a differential. Why isn't the

placement rate a little higher? You have the slots, obviously.

MR. MORETTI: The question is the qualified worker.

We tried to qualify everybody for all of the jobs that we

developed, but, unfaztunately, we can through our resources

develop a lot more jobs. Now, those 1,800 jobs are turned

over to the rehabilitation community, over to vocational rehab,

and they use our resources for the placements that we can't

make. So, this 1,800 jobs could represent a lot of more

placements, but our actual placement rate is 719.

MS. MICHEL: Many of the handicapped persons who

are so designated in the private sector are people who have

had industrial accidents, how many of those 719 are new

employees to the labor market and had not worked before?

989
MR. MORETTI: Ninety percent of all of these

placements are not from industrial accidents. These are

handicapped and disabled people without industrial accidents.

We are working ,Nn the disabled worker within our own mechanism,

and we're at the workmen's compensation and all of the

modificatir', lobs, but that's a different component. Now,

we have bra: '; in, as I said, the youth, education and

ethnic gra

MS. "J: I'd like to see a profile of the

workers. I'm A ?.sted in their work history.

MR. MOi_ Ninety percent of all these placements

would meet severely disabled conditions, 50 percent disability

or more

MR. TA77.LIAN: In your criteria for selecting the

state and locals ..or funding, do you put any restriction at

all on their acc1ting people into the apprenticeship program?

Do you make any kind of demand that some of the people who

are going to be selected for the training programs will be

given apprenticeship slots later?

MR. MORETTI: The Human Resources Development

Institute runs 22 apprenticeship outreach programs. These

programs were primarily designed to bring more minorities

into the building and construction trades. We have been very

successful in that. We're going to integrate the same concept

for the handicapped and disabled to qualify for the skilled

trades.

MR. TARILIAN: I understand that, but do you make

any kind of provisions before they are funded that they will

take so many into the apprenticeship programs, in this particular

program?

MR. MORETTI: You mean develop goals and quotas?

MR. TARILIAN: Not goals and quotas, but that some

provisions for the handicapped would be in your apprenticeship

programs

MR. MORETTI: No, we don't make any provisions.

MS. MARTIN: Youthwork, like every other agency,

has also been hit by the austerity program, and in trying to

look at and evaluate and judge the number of proposals that

I'm certain we'll get, I'd be interested if either one of you

or both of you gentlemen could give us some clues as to what

990 1059
to be absolutely on the lookout for in terms of what is

good; what to be on the lookout for in terms of what may not

be so good; and if there are any pitfalls that you think we

ought to know about, I think it would be helpful.

MR. MORETTI: We look at it from the employment

perspective, and we feel that the amount of earning that the

individual will make is of prime importance. We are very

concerned with the type of training individuals receive.

We know that they are not training individuals for jobs for

the ready job market or the immediate job needs today, and

we feel that we in the AFL-CIO within all of our resources

can identify some of the types of training that might be

necessary so we can train individuals for real jobs. That's

where we spend a lot of money and a lot of hours, on training

programs, and we can't place them. During the course of the

years, with HRDI, we have had in our offices individuals that

have been through five or six training programs and they still

can't get a job. So, I think that's kind of a basic thing.

CHAIRPERSON WILLIS: Evelyn Ganzglass from the

Department of Labor.

MS. GANZGLASS: My concern is about the employment

prospects after the training. Could you address two points

that were brought out this morning? One is the need for a job

restructuring, and the other one concerns training in the idea

of having more specific limited training in modules where you

are not trained for the total job or to the total occupation,

but for one or two tasks within that.

MR. MORETTI: Well, module training I think is

very important. We think that that could probably be the

answer to meeting all of the immediate job-market demands.

Our apprenticeship programs are'four to five years, but the

bulk of all the jobs, I think, In this country do not take

that comprehensive type of training to do. I think it has to

be coupled along with the realism of the job of what was

available in the community or any given occupation.

As for job restructuring, we look at that from two

angles. We are interested in job restructuring from the

viewpoint of our disabled and injured workers on the job. Instead of moving and individual out on workmen's compensation, we take a good look at modifying the job or restructuring a

particular job to be able to adapt to an individual's

disability. This is an area that really doesn't hit on wages, where most of management and our constituency get bogged down.

991

1 flgn
It's an area where we can work very closely together and we

are willing to work in that area. We think it's very important.

MRS. SHRIVER: One of the areas that black mentally

retarded young people have been put in is recreation and

physical education. Has any thought been given or has any place

tried to restructure recreation or physical education jobs

similar to the way the medical profession has done in nursing,

and then get parks or other public agencies to accept those

youngsters on a paid level?

MR. HIPPOLITUS: Some preliminary work has been done.

We have a subcommittee that deals directly with the recreation

and leisure employment and participation of disabled people.

What we've found is that particularly in the commercial field,

there is a tremendous occupational potential there for the

category you described as well as other handicapped people.

It's really an untapped resource.

MRS. SHRIVER: How could we go about doing more of

that in that direction?

MR. HIPPOLITUS: I think we have to educate both

parents and counseling people, special-education people, to

the broad spectrum of career potential that exists, and this

is part of it.

MEMBER OF AUDIENCE: I'm a job developer, and one of

my problems is with the union seniority system. It's often

the case that you have to be a truck driver, say, for five years

to be eligible for an entry-level position. Do you have any

comments on this?

MR. MORETTI: Seniority is very important to the

AFL-CIO. It protects not only the clerk, but also the new

working coming in. We realize that there are problems in

bringing disabled poeple in, and we're looking at it and looking at the seniority. We're not about to dismantle any of our

seniority rules, but I think that we can bring entry level people

in by restructuring the jobs.

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: Bob Herman.

BOB HERMAN, ASSOCIATE DIRECTOR, BUREAU OF

EDUCATION FOR THE HANDICAPPED, U.S. DEPARTMEN11

OF HEALTH, EDUCATION AND WELFARE

MR. HERMAN: There are a tremendous number of

handicapped children who are not making it into secondary years

and certainly are not making it into any kind of realistic job

market. It is astounding. The extension of services for a

handicapped child from 18 to 21 years old is absolutely essential

and nothing has been done to make that kind of activity happen.

992

1061
President Carter is now asking Congress to appropriate about

a billion dollars this year solely for the education of

handicapped children. Over $860 million of that could go to supporting Public Law 947142,the Education for all Handicapped

Children Act of 1975, which is an extraordinary piece of

legislation for any of you who have followed it. Briefly it is the passport, we hope, to a full and free appropriate educa- tion for every handicapped child in this country.

The issue is that we move handicapped children more into the regular classroom, are we going to be able to

move them more into the regular society? I think certainly

the next part of the Education for all Handicapped Children Act requirement is the requirement on society to bridge the

gap between school and a decent school opportunity and now a

decent employment opportunity for the handicapped child.

The concept of job structuring and job restructuring

and job redisign, the modular training program, are all things we have used when our nation was in a great emergency, such as

during the Second World War, when we all of a sudden found that

women were suitable and appropriate on the assembly line and

that jobs such as riveting on ships and being pluckers and

other kinds of things were things that women could actually

do given appropriate materials, equipment and training.

Now, with handicapped children, we're into a similar kind of situation. I don't wish to draw a parallel completely,but we are spending great time and effort and money on a curriculum

development, early intervention at the earliest possible years

to mitigate or ameliorate their handicapping conditions, but

we are not yet extending the effort, or intelligence, or the

ability to make that kind of bridge between school and society. With the Education for the Handicapped Act being a mandatory piece of legislation and placing burdens upon the state education agency to supply full services and related services to all

children, we are finding a difference of opinion among certain

agencies, the rehabilitation people and others regarding their

responsibilities or legal opportunities.

Recently we signed an agreement with the Rehabilitation Administration, Commissioner Humphries, and with Commissioner Ernie Boyer, representing the Office of Education. We have

signed a common agreement with the vocational education, special

education and the vocational rehabilitation organizations to do

certain kinds of things and to cast aside certain kinds of

barriers, real or artificial, that seem to separate us from

delivering a whole service to a handicapped child.

We have just finished two pamplets on paraprofessionals in education of handicapped children and services to handicapped children, and also in handicapped people serving as paraprofessionals in service activities. These two pamphlets have hit this

993

1062
country like a storm and they are being requested in numbers

for which we never anticipated and which we don't have the

financial resources to print enough copies.

We are also at work with Sharlene Hirsch of tile

Executive Interns of America in getting and working with

exceptional handicapped children, gifted, if you will, handicapped children,as Sharlene Hirsch of Executive Interns did for

so-called normal children.

The number one priority of the Bureau of Education

for the Handicapped for 1979 is improving vocational education,

and secondary and technical education of the handicapped

children. Not that we have left the early childhood intervention

issue behind, but we are now believing that our attention must be

focused toward affecting change in the field of special education,

the field of services to handicapped children, beyond special

education, which I consider one of the prime issues concerning

the handicapped child's welfare and the success in this society.

MS. MARTIN: This is a very short question. As

Youthwork looks at the proposals that undoubtedly will be coming

before us, I wonder to what extent we should be trying to identify

programs that have new teachers, new counselors, etc., or is

there some kind of retraining effort going on now within the

existing educational structure that will do this? I raise the

question because I have some familiarity with the Civil Rights

Act and school desegregation and I know that there was some

difficulty in telling the existing teachers that you now have

a new job, and I wonder was there a lesson learned out of that

so far as the handicapped is concerned?

MR. HERMAN: The Bureau about four years ago developed

some priorities for its very large discretionary teacher training

program. Among those high priorites was vocational education

and teacher preparation. We have almost a $16-million program

this year for supporting training of teachers in, special education and retraining the teachers, in service training for teachers

who would like to change areas or come into special education.

Other than bilingual and certain specific services for disadvantaged kids, it's probably the only real area of teacher shortage

today, as far as we understand it. We have not been flooded with

proposals for vocational education teacher preparation or teacher

retraining. There is not a great sense of enthusiasm or urgency,

I feel, on the part of the training colleges and universities

and institutions of higher education to leap into this matter.

There are only about 220,000 handicapped kids receiving any kind

of vocational or occupational services in this country.

So, without a great demand, we don't see a great supply

of teachers coming out or we don't see a lot of people going

994 -106'3
into the business of preparing the teachers. The funds are

there. Each year, the bureau's amount will be set aside for

vocational teacher preparation and vocational teacher retraining

and it is not fully subscribed to.

MS. MARTIN: Just for the record, you say the funds

are there, so in our attempt to help communities develop programs, is one of the things we can say that there are funds available

so that. Youthwork doesn't have to try to build trainthg or

retraining?

MR. HERMAN: I would say that's right. If we can,

through your good services and your good offices, get some

publicity out there to the institutions of higher education, and

state education agencies, concerning training of teachers, we

would like to see double the number of vocational education

teachers preparation and service teacher training projects come into the Bureau of Education for the Handicapped.

I think the Bureau of Education of Handicapped would

like to meet Youthwork and any other federally sponsored effort

halfway, at least, in development of curriculum and administration

activities in the early intervention into a handicapped child's life so that that child can receive full career education preparation, full job opportunity knowledge, and also to raise the expectations

of parents and elementary school teachers and other people that

handle and work with the handicapped child as to what that child

can possibly be doing in later life.

MR. CONWAY: Mr. Herman, I was wondering if it would

be possible for you to share with the Youthwork staff the

materials on how local districts and such can apply for those

funds and whether you'd be comfortable with Youthwork taking

an even more aggressive posture in sharing with school districts

that information, encouraging them to apply

I guess the second part of that question is what is

the timetable for application, and if people were to apply in

the next upcoming months, when would it be possible for them

to receive funds so that we enn realistically consider as part

of our funding process whether such funds would be available?

MR. HERMAN: Absolutely is the answer to the first,

absolutely and positively in favor of that.

As to the timetable,we are at just the right time

now for the submission. We will have another submission starting

in August and September into October for all of our programs,

and the amount of money there for fiscal year 1980 will be,

995

1064
Congress permitting, similar to the 1979 available funds.

Any applications submitted this summer or fall would be

available for funds around May 1st of the following year.

So, the time is just right for people to begin to work that

thing through in hope of a 12-months-later participation in

this program.

If there are time constraint kinds of activities

or unique kinds of things that can be done, we could shepherd

them through the process much more rapidly.

*** *** ***

1065

996
Afternoon Session

1066
CHAIRPERSON WILLS: Congresswoman, let me say how

pleased and honored we are to have you with us today. Your

reputation in terms of servicing the youth of our nation, the

poor and the disadvantaged is well known to all of us and we

are very glad you could be with us today.

THE HONORABLE SHIRLEY CHISOLM,

HOUSE COMMITTEE ON RULES

MS. CHISOLM: I am pleased to have the opportunity

to participate in this forum today to discuss a topic that has

served as the central focus of my professional and political

career, and that is the future of our youth.

In the decade that I have served in the Congress,

six of those years 'as a Member of the House Education and Labor

Committee, I have observed that the gap between education and

work is largely the result of social, cultural and economic

changes that are altering both the way we treat youth and our

perception of them. Perhaps to a greater extent than any of

our other social institutions, this nation's schools are being

drastically altered by these changes. Today we are engaged in

an intense debate and re-examination of the goals and effectiveness of our educational institutions. We know full well that

millions of children leave our schools each year unable to cope

with the realities of today's highly competitive labor market.

Sadly, however, the most important policy matters affecting

these educational institutions, in my opinion, too frequently

involve politics, power, and the protection of turf. This

nation's classrooms have become the new battleground, not so

much a war against illiteracy and unemployment, which we are

all rightly concerned about, but a struggle to enforce the civil

rights revolution of the 1960s and 70s. We must understand

that the struggle for equity in educational and.employment

opportunities continues for black and brown children and has

now been expanded to include exceptional children with physical

or learning disabilities.

We have recognized for a long time that the subtle

interplay between racial discrimination and discrimination

against the disabled has worked in a most insidious manner to

produce a significant over-representation of minority children

in classes for the educable mentally retarded. Some experts

have even suggested that special education provides a new vehicle

for discrimination against children on the basis of race and

language. Yet, I have only recently begun to detect a sensitivity and an interest in the concerns of poor and minority

youngsters among the predominantly white, middle-income exceptional-children's lobby tlidt functions Eere in Wash1n4ton.

998 1 0 6 7
Let me speak just briefly on the impact of handicapped legislation on the workplace. The real impact of the

legal mandates written into Section 504 of the Rehabilitation

Act of 1973 and the Education for All Handicapped Children

Act of 1975 are just now beginning to be felt at the local

level. And, predictably, the media and some school officials

have overreacted out of fear and ignorance to what they term

the considerable burdens imposed by the mainstreaming concept.

Just yesterday I saw a headline in The Washington Post that

read "Mainstreaming of Handicapped Squeezes Budget." Nevertheless, the national commitment to implement the promise of these federal laws ensuring access to an appropriate education

for all children cannot be ignored. The issue for this panel

today, in my humble opinion, is how to build upon the current

maintreaming and accessibility activities of school systems

to better prepare the workplace for the future job-seeking

clientele now matriculating in grade school

Let me turn to another aspect of the youth unemployment problem that I find particularly disturbing. Over

the last several years, the labor-force participation rate,

which is a measure of those who are both unemployed and

looking for work, has been increasing for white youth but

progressively declining for black teenagers. The unemployment

rates of white youth tend to more closely correspond with the

fluctuations in the economy at large, but for black youth

unemployment and labor-force participation cannot be explained

merely by changes in the state of the economy. The information I have reviewed indicates that at no time in the last 20

years has the unemployment rate for white teenagers risen

higher than 17 percent, while unemployment among black teenagers has remained at 25 percent or more since 1958.

My friends, I earnestly say to you in terms of

what is happening that we run the danger of permanently

excluding a generation of black and brown youngsters from

just participation in the job market. Where are these youth

who are no longer in school, looking for work or receiving public assistance? They are in our streets creating record

levels of violent crimes; they are crowding our juvenile

penal institutions as multiple offenders; they are young

mothers trying to raise infants and at the same time complete

the maturation process themselves; and they are drug addicts

and alcoholics who have used these substances to escape the

hopelessness and the plain drudgery of their everyday lives.

We must all share responsibility for the shortcomings of these

youth and together we must work to develop meaningful employment options for them, and let's get away from traditional

ways of doing things with set tradition. The America of the '70s

is no longer giving us the answers to many of the problems that

we are grappling with. We must not be afraid to innovate and

to experiment.

! I i 3 999 1068
Just a word about the 1980 budget. Implicit in

that document is the assumption that inflation is much more

of a serious threat to the economy than is 'unemployment.

Absent from the President's discussion of his proposed budget

is an honest, in-depth analysis of the kind of unemployment

this nation has been experiencing. The pockets of high

unemployment, especially among youth4, has created disparities

that now resemble an economic caste system, and to allow this

disparity to persist, the President in effect supports the

trade-off theory of unemployment and inflation, that a certain

level of unemployment must be tolerated in order to fight

inflation.

Although the American people have witnessed a high

rate of unemployment and an increase in inflation in the last

10 years, the President insists on using this descredited

trade-off theory in an attempt to stabilize the economy. One

factor in. the President's decreased emphasis on reducing

unemployment is the growing public perception that unemployment doesn't hurt as much as it used to.

Well, of course, this is understandable because

what do most Americans know about the ghettos and the barrios

and the reservations of this nation? These people are invisible. Concentration of unemployment among minorities and young

people in certain communities has helped to lower the profile

of unemployment in the American public's consciousness. When

the unemployed person is black and a teenager from the central

city, the problem is less immediate to a middle-class suburbanite.

Unfortunately, the budget emphasizes income

assistance over job training. Yet in the CETA program, the

government's primary training mechanism, the President has

proposed to reduce Title VI public. service-employment jobs by

at least one - seventh.

I contend that the tax cost to the American people

will be greater if those who could once benefit from publicservice jobs continue to be unemployed.

In anticipation of strong liberal and minority-group

opposition to the Administration's fiscal cpnservatism in

this area as it affects the structurally unemployed, the President

has supposedly redirected more money toward the economically

disadvantaged and long-term unemployed. In actuality, the

President has not recommended any increases in the YEDPA

program under CETA. He has decided to cut the Young Adult

Conservation Corps and use the remaining supplemental 1979

summer youth programs authority to increase the youth employment and training program. The President has also recommended.

that 250,000 jobs be cut from the summer youth job program for

fiscal year 1980.

1000

1069
I should also point out that the Administration

has attempted to justify reductions in CETA youth employment

jobs by relying on the employment tax credit enacted last year.

While I am optimistic about the potential for private-sector

employment initiatives, I must also emphasize the voluntary nature

and broader eligibility categories of the tax credit provision.

We must closely monitor the implementation of this tax credit

to determine if the legislation is sufficiently targeted on

needy and disadvantaged youth in this nation.

In summary, the President's 1980 budget as it

relates to youth unemployment gives, at best, superficial

treatment to a structural problem.

As many of you probably know, the 12th Congressional

District, which I represent in New York City, is probably one

of the most, if not the most, blighted urban area represented

in the United States Congress. I represent a very diverse

community that is predominantly black and Puerto Rican, but

also includes strong Polish, Hasidic, Italian and West Indian

enclaves.

Some sections of my district literally appear to

be war ravaged. Once proud communities such as Bushwick,

where neat, wooden, frame houses stood, have fallen victim to

arson. Sections that were once bustling with manufacturing

and other industries have closed down. Unemployment of young

people in my district, believe me when I tell you, has risen

to about 40 percent, and juvenile crime has increased accordingly.

Thus, you see why I'm so concerned. I am further

concerned that the Youthwork initiatives be relevant--relevant

and applicable to the problems these young people face and

suited to the communities they are attempting to serve. It is

important that job application sites be located strategically

in the communities that are to be served. Last year I remember

riots nearly occurred in my area as a result of hundreds of

desperate youths converging upon sites that were not equipped

to handle the heavy demand.

It is equally important that programs be coordinated

with the community action groups, with schools and with churches

in the area.

Another important issue is the need to emphasize

the development of marketable skills rather than make-work

assignments for teenagers. Inevitable, these programs do not

lead in the direction of preparing the teenager with some kind

of skill or some kind of marketable commodity to function in

in a highly automated and technological society. We're going

to have to begin to look very seriously at alternative educa-

_tional modes,in_this_great nation--the _combination of

1001

1 non
education and work. In this regard, one of the most marvelous

things I've seen happen recently is in a high school in Brooklyn,

and I wish we could begin to consider it as a prototype. The

absentee rate was 80 percent over a long period of time. It

was one of the schools that were going to be closed.' -The

students were bored; they felt that what they were learning

in the school was not going to prepare them to function in

the world of work.

But the situation was turned around by a farreaching principal who got into all kinds of difficulties with

the central board in New York City. He waw that there were

so many houses in the area, structurally sound but houses that

had been closed down, houses that needed rehabilitation. And

this principal for over a year and a half got in touch with

carpenters in the community and plumbers and all kinds of

people and put together a program whereby these students

would go to school four hours a day and work two hours a day

and have some money in their pockets. At the same time they

were motivated enough to have a good attendance pattern.

They learned better and, actually, after graduating, went right

into the world of work.

All I'm saying is that tradition is no longer the

answer to the overwehlming problems that were grappling with

today.

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: Thank you, Congresswoman

Questions?

MS. MARTIN: The problems that the principal ran

into downtown, do you think that's typical? How can we begin

to deal with it?

MS. CHISOLM: I really believe that what,has to be

done is to visually show the results of a change in a different

kind of approach to education. We have to show people that not

only are the young people getting an education, but also they

are acquiring a technique, a skill, a know-how mechanism. Their

motivation to go to school has been increased because they know

once they come out of the doors of that school they will be

productive citizens and have a sense of pride.

I find more and more that you cannot talk about

these things because you have a lot of theoreticians and academicians who know only textbooks and unless everything follows

the textbook, then learning is so prescribed in many instances

that they don't understand what you're talking about. So what

you have to do is show them. You have to give them concrete

examples and it's hard for those people out there who are

trying to be innovative. I've seen them. I've seen some of

1002 1 071
them crack up under the pressures of central boards and what

have you. It's very distressing.

Mr. TARILIAN: Congresswoman, I know that when you

were on the House Education Committee you fought very

hard for increased federal budget for education. I think one

of the statements you made at ore, time was that the federal

outlay for education generally it less than 10 percent of

total monies spent on education. How do you see that small

amount of federal dollars triggering the kind of actions that

need to take place?

MS. CHISOLM: The time has come for the educational

world and all the training program people to really take a

very good, hard, serious look at what they're doing and what

has been the results in terms of the monies that they have put

into certain programs; reassess, reallocate, change priorities.

There's nothing wrong with knocking out certain programs and

getting away from this business of automatically funding programs because it's time to refund them. If the program hasn't

done the kind of job or hasn't brought about help, take that

money and put it in another program that has proved to be more

beneficial.

But everybody is to busy protecting his or her turf,

and that's part of the problem. When are we going to be objective enough to recognize it?

MR. DELGADO: I also am very interested in what you

mentioned about alternative education as a possible necessary

step to focus on. What specific types of alternative education

are you speaking of? Can you elaborate on that?

MS.CHISOLM: In any given community or region across

this country, if you look at your local, your city or your

state employment agencies, you see that there tends to be a

preponderance of certain jobs that require certain skills,

certain know-how. And yet, in many instances you find people

are not being placed in these jobs because the manpower training programs have absolutely no relationship to the availability

and accessibility of employment opportunities in that very

community. The right hand doesn't know what the left hand is

doing.

There is absolutely no coordination between the

millions of dollars that we're putting into education and

plans and programing for a future, and I think that alternative education can work in the direction of a much more active

coordination between the educational institutions and the job

training centers.

MR. SEILER: You've mentioned that we have turf

problems out there. You've mentioned that we should have

1003

1072
education for work in a coordinated, systematic process. My

question is, how can we really deal at the local level about

the disorganizational aspect? Who's in charge? Who works

for whom? What are the lines of authority? Who's going to

take the responsibility?

MS. CHISOLM: The Federal Government--we in the

Congress--can come up with certain basic guidelines for the

communities in terms of their regional and local councils,

to get together and then formulate what is best for them in

their region or their state. I think the Congress can take

the direction by formulating some basic guidelines in response

to the application for different grants for these kinds of

programs.

I think the Congress has to take that kind of

responsibility and establish a framework, because federal funds

will be involved, and then leave it to your local mechanism- -

just like what we do in education.

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: Congresswoman, I wish you luck

in terms of monitoring the jobs tax credit. It's going to be

interesting. It's generating change where a lot of people

don't want change.

We have with us today three people: Roger Brown,

the Associate Commissioner for Special Education from the

great Commonwealth of Massachusetts, and two people who have

been deeply involved in the Governor's Manpower Office in

the State of Wisconsin, Federico Zarazoza and Joe Davis.

Mr. Brown.

STATEMENT OF ROBERT BROWN,

ASSOCIATE COMMISSIONER FOR SPECIAL

EDUCATION, COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS

MR. BROWN: Special education has become a reality

throughout Massachusetts. Current surveys note an increase

of 45 percent in the numbers of students receiving specialized

services, which represents 11.9 percent of the public school

population. Most comprehensive school systems offer a wide

range of programs, in some cases collaborating with other

communities to serve students with low-incident special needs.

Vocational education, however, historically an

optional and quasi-separate educational offering in Massachusetts, has been somewhat less responsive. Philosophy, training,

attitude, lack of understanding of student rights and needs,

and in some cases administrative intransigence, are among the

deterrents to the provision of increased special education

services in vocational schools.

1004
The range of programs in vocational special education considers both the available resources and the technical

educational expertise that the Commonwealth of Massachusetts

currently possesses or could readily develop in responding to

the service delivery needs in this educational area. Implementation of a continuum of program alternatives requires

extensive joint planning between the Division of Curriculum

and Instruction, the Division of Occupational Educational and

the Division of Special Education of the Massachusetts Department of Education, as well as a high degree of intraagency

cooperation.

With the advent of legislation requiring all schools

to admit students with identified special needs. some vocational schools have accepted a disproportionately large group

of those students with special needs whom they felt could be

absorbed into the mainstream. Their concept of mainstream,

however, differs greatly from the letter and spirit of the

special-education mandates.

To be mainstreamed with success, a student should

be placed in a regular program where teachers and instructors

modify their service in service delivery to meet the student's

particular need. But many vocational programs have interpreted

mainstreaming to mean that no changes from the regular program

are needed for the student. Support services are not provided

to help the regular teacher-instructor modify curriculum or

technique. Both teacher and student are left on their own to

flounder and, far too often, to fail.

Another problem with the fact of mainstreaming as

it exists in many vocational programs is the miconception that

an instructor must handle all special educational needs alone

in shop or laboratory. Support personnel are often provided

in academic and related classes but rarely in vocational

instruction. Given that vocational shop-lab instruction is

actually intensely individualized in its presentation, it is

of extreme importance that instructional support personnel

be available to assist in the teaching-learning process. No

shop instructor can be expected or required to perform educational miracles. Interpreters, aides, facilitators, an extra

pair of hands--these are the delivery modifiers that make the

difference between special education and little or no education at all for some students.

Vocational education has presented one of the most

difficult situations that special educators have faced as well.

For the most part, they are unfamiliar with the philosophy and

orientation of vocational education. The jargon is different,

the goals more immediate, the training of teachers dissimilar,

the methods and materials unusual and the scheduling and

actual class-shop work more concentrated. Vocational educators

encourage "these differences-be-Cause they are engaged in preparing students for the realities of employment, and their

1005
programs must emphasize work attitudes and skills if students

are to be job ready at graduation.

Before special educators can begin to work in a

cooperative planning relationship with their vocational educators, they must be trained to work within these fundamental

differences--in philosophy and orientation--between vocational

programs and standard academic programs. For example, the

programs that exist in most vocational schools are a combination of three elements: academic, related instruction, and

actual shop or lab work. Any student who attends a vocational

program will participate in all three areas. It is possible

for, a student with special needs to require a very complicated

schedule if she or he is to receive needed support services.

Given the accepted practice of scheduling alternative shop

and academic weeks, it becomes difficult to plan for the

dent who needs remediation or therapy on a regular, not an

alternating, basis.

Any individualized educational plan must demonstrate an awareness and acceptance of the realities of the

particular scheduling pattern of the target vocational program

and must suggest or prescribe modifications which will be

possible for both school and student.

As a result of much consultation with special and

vocational educators, a diagnostic model has been developed

that will serve as the basis of the development of individual educational plans in vocational special education. This

diagnostic program depends on the combined expertise of a

three-person team composed of a special educator, a vocational

educator and an industrial-arts teacher.' These people will

be trained to work together and to understand each other's

disciplines. They will be responsible for working with those

who are developing individual educational pdans in comprehensive schools, vocational schools or in private schools serving

special-need students.

Regardless of location, placement or age of student, the elements of the diagnostic program will be the same.

Each student will progress through a series of work stations

desigird to provide observable experiences that can serve as

assessment situations for the diagnostic team. The exact

sequence of activities will be prescribed by the team using

information about the student's strengths and weaknesses.

A current-education component will exist in each

center, and the diagnostic team will confer with parents on

a regular basis so that the assessment tasks will be understood and accepted. The diagnostic team members will be

specifically trained to work together. Each work station will

be designed to provide the team with an opportunity to observe

specific points that tend to indicate student's potential for skill

development.

1006 1075
The tasks at each work station will be chosen for

their level of generalization across clusters. The intent will

not be to teach a job, but rather to determine vocational

exploratory areas that should be prescribed for the next phase

of the student's program. At the conclusion of the diagnostic

period, the center team should be able to advise the evaluation

team as to the specific programmatic needs of the student and,

in many cases, the trade areas that should be explored by the

student. Before admission to a vocational education program,

a student with special needs should progress through those

exploratory experiences in his career process which will

allow for informed choice.

There has been much concern, both nationally and

statewide, regarding services to the low-incident disability

populations -- here I make particular reference to multihandicapped individuals, profoundly deaf individuals and children

with severe sight loss. Because these students constitute

a small segment of the total special-needs population,

and because they often have complicated special educational

needs not often encountered by most districts, the potential

for inappropriate educational programming is great.

When considering program development for, low-incident disabilities, one must look at the whole array of

regular education and special education services. No single

service delivery system can effectively serve all students

within a low-incident category.

Some students with low-incident disabilities

require minimum special education services, while others

require a totally specialized program. Some students can be

effectively serviced by special programs designed for the

high-incidence population with, minor adaptations, while

others need major adaptations.

Students with substantial special needs, and

especially the low-incidence population, should be evaluated

in regard to their specific development on the vocational

education continuum of program services. Further, these

individuals should receive the benefit of individualized

educational plans. that provide for educational objectives

related to filling gaps in their development within the Areas

of vocational education.

A major consideration in providing vocational

education services to the low-incident population is the

provision of ancillary support services. This is particularly

important for those students who could be successfully

mainstreamed into regular vocational education programs.

1007

1076
These services include vision itinerants, hearing itinerants,

occupational therapists, physical therapists and speech and

language specialists. Since many of these profez?tonals have

an incomplete knowledge of vocational education, in-service

training is needed for these people so that they can adapt

their role to vocational skills.

To briefly summarize, I have tried to stress five

points. One is the need for joint planning, both interagency

and intraagency. Two, in-service training-retraining, if you will -- to make the match worh, continues to be of high priority. Three is the need to build on the individualized educational

plan that is now requirea both in 95-482, the occupational

education statute, and 94-142, the special education statute.

Four is the need for specialized planning with

regard to low-incidonce populations.

And finally is the need to impregnate the vocational

delivery system with the support services that are found now

in a growing way, in greater abundance as a result of the

special-education statutes, in comprehensive school systems.

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: Thank you very much, Mr. Brown.

If I may, I'd like to ask a couple of questions now.

Could you speak to support services? What kind of things do you think are essential? What is it you really mean by support services and how do you think we can begin to

combine these services?

MR. BROWN: There is a great range of essential

support services. The need for the extra pair of hands,

the person with very little training, but one that can help

within educational programs and particularly vocational programs, I see as a supportive service. The need for extensive and

expansive follow-up to handicapped youngsters who are placed

on jobs and too often the sharp cuts within a budget will

not allow continued or frequent enough counseling around that

job-site training and around that job placement

Counseling: the need for trained counselors within

vocational schools as well as comprehensive schools. Professionally trained social workers who can deal with the family

and involve the family.

The other more really apparent needs for support services include the need for interpreters and the need for

short-term consultants who can go in and work with teachers.

Those are some examples of what we mean by supportive

services.
MR. TARILIAN: Up in Massachusetts, what have they

done in the small communities? You seem to have some experience up there. What do they do when they don't have a

great number of people?

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: I was going to ask you something rather similar, so I think you can do both at the

same time. You call it low incident, low population. It

seems to me that's one of the problems we're going to have

in terms-of trying to do anything in terms of the CETA

legislation, particularly in the rural areas.

I hate to use the term "cost effective" in any kind

of negative way, but how do you pull that population together?

MR. BROWN: The way that problem has been dealt with

in our state, and I think quite successfully, is through a

network of educational collaboratives, which simply means that

groups of three or four, or 14 and 15 communities get together

for the purposes of providing services to this low-incident

population.

A variety of service delivery systems have sprung up.

There are a large number of so-called satellite programs that

are being conducted in vacated bowling alleys, empty factory

and industrial space, or school buildings that have closed

down and what have you. One thing that we have learned, from

the five years of our experience with Massachusetts, is that

seriously handicapped children can be educated and can be

educated very well within public school settings.

MS. MARTIN: Would you take just a minute to talk

to us about costs and per pupil costs for good support services?

.MR. BROWN: It's felt in Massachusetts that a unit

of special education, if I can get by with that without defining it, is four times more expensive than a unit of regular

education. When you add to that the vocational components,

you increase the costs even more than that 4-to-1 ratio,

depending on what type of training is offered. But it is

recognized that the ratio maybe ranges be 4 to 1 and 6 to 1.

The need foi the expensive programs for severely,

multiply impaired youngsters, however, in Massachusetts is

recognized as costing in excess of $30,000 per year per pupil

for some programs. But they appear to be working. At least

the children are still making some progress. They're not

running and are actually going out to work in may cases.

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: On the cost-benefit ratio which

this board is accustomed to worrying about, that may not be

so hot.
MR. DELGADO: Team approach in special education,

industrial arts and vocational rehabilitation--how do you

see these three areas working together, say, in an academic

setting that is putting forth the individuals that are going

to be having some input as to the future of the individuals

that we're talking about?

MR. BROWN: The reason we are moving rapidly in

that direction is that heretofore special-education people were

writing educational plans prescribing vocational education

programs without really any knowledge at all of how the vocational education system works. The vocational educators then

received the child with a plan that they had no input into,

that was written in jargon they did not understand. We

determined that something had to turn that around. The vocational education people were unfamiliar with special education.

The special-education people were unfamiliar with vocational

education. In the middle, there are other people that I call

industrial arts instructors, the home economics people, and

those other kinds of folks who do have some of these skills.

We felt that during a transitional year, when the

individual child was in need of and ready to enter into vocational education the best step was to have that child go for

six or eight weeks to a diagnostic program, where she or he

would work with this team, the vocational educator, the special

educator and another person. By the way, CETA could get

involved in this piece as aell because they have the same

mandate and responsibility for that kind of assessment.

After that assessment period, the team would be able

to state more accurately--in common-sense terms that vocational-education people could understand--what that child's

strengths and weaknesses were and the kind of vocational

training that ought to be delivered to him. That child then

could take`that plan into the vocational school and it would

be, in simple terms, a plan that would make more sense to

the people who are expected to deliver the service to the

child.

MR. SEILER: Do you think we have enough knowledge

already.on how to conduct that diagnostic process or do we

need to develop and test some procedures?

MR. BROWN: I don't think we need to develop another

test procedure. We have the knowledge. We need to do more

sharing. We need to do a better job identifying where the

best programs are and then replicate them. That takes money.

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: Let's now turn to another part

of the state management, dealing with the issues of coordination under the CETA component. Mr. Zaragoza?

1079

1010
FEDERICO ZARAGOZA, GOVERNOR'S MANPOWER

PLANNING OFFICE, MADISON, WISCONSIN

MR. ZARAGOZA: I note that the state perspective

is what we are going to talk on, and, in one word, that's

frustration.

CHAIRPERSON-WILLS: How right you are.

MR. ZARAGOZA: Interestingly enough, the lesson that

I think we in Wisconsin have learned is that one of the most

significant barriers for coordination is the federal government itself. As we look at coordination, look at the horizontal

and vertical relationships, we see that the feds are coordinating in their own way, the states in their own way and the

locals in their own way with no bridge between strategies.

Everybody wants to coordinate and nobody wants to be coordinated.

I think our office has a legitimate right to coordinate.

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: Because the law says so,

right?

MR. ZARAGOZA: And that's where I want tostart from.

Recently we authorized the 1978 Comprehensive Employment and

Training Act mandate that the State Employment and Training

Council continue where the old Service Council left off. Their

primary mission is coordination. It's linkages. It's to

stimulate the growth of a truly comprehensive system. I

would suggest that many of the problems we have heard today

in terms of coordination at the state and local level can be

addressed through the State Employment and Training Council.

Joe's presentation will deal with the nitty-gritty

about coordination, but I want to put the carrot in front

and talk about some of the things that I am very excited about.

Number one, the act provides for the 1 percent

linkages. Here is an opportunity to look at the educational

system and the CETA system.. We have to coordinate our efforts.

We have to somehow establish some direction so that the

resources at the state level are somehaw complementing the

efforts and interests of the federal government. Certainly,

there is a broad spectrum of allowable activities. In any

case, in Wisconsin, we are looking at the 1 percent as somethink that is going to stimulate coordination. We plan to

use a 1 percent, not independent of other categorical funding

that we have. We also have demonstration projects. We are

currently funding supported work projects. We are funding

innovative projects, such as Project Skill. Project Skill,

again, is geared toward the handicapped. Parts of the

supported work effort are geared toward the handicapped.

10111080
We have a research capacity and we fund programs

in the area of research. Technical assistance is another

area. In addition, special needs of clients are taken into

co:sideration. When you look at the 1 percent and the 4 percent, and you look at the flexibility involved, you realize that

the states aren't in a position to really stimulate coordination. I think it becomes more important when you consider

that in addition to those two sources of funding, we also have monies to link voc ed in the voc ed system and monies to

try new ideas, the YETP, the youth programs. We are administering these things. We have a lot of information available.

We have reports and we'd like people to read them.

Why can't the states work together? I think it's

very important to consider the fact that partnerships could

evolve. Conceivably you might want to set up a situation in

one state where a comprehensive package is put together. We

have the forums. We have the institutions link.

Finally, I Want to mention that we have long recognized the need for private-sector involvement and would hope that the forum at the state levels provides you with data

in terms of what can work in a specific state so that we

don't fund categorical programs outside of the coordination

effort. The private-sector role in Wisconsin is something we are beginning to look at as instrumental to any program whose ultimate goal is unsubsidized employment. We are

hoping to invest additional funds in that area. We are

interested in investing funds in terms of looking at the

private sector and of fagilitating its input into a planning

process. We are hoping that that is compatible with what

comes down thorugh the efforts of this panel.

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: Joe:

JOSEPH DAVIS, GOVERNOR'S MANPOWER PLANNING

OFFICE, MADISON, WISCONSIN

MR. DAVIS: I am going to talk, I hope, pretty

specifically about what the state role can be as it relates

to interagency coordination and linkages.

The point that I want to make regarding the state

role, and particularly the business that Youthwork is in, and

the funding you are going to be involved in, the programs you

are going to be involved in, is that there are some lessons

to be learned, and, building on what Federico said, the

investing of funds, the development of categorical activities

in a vacuum or on a separate track has created a nonsystem.

I heard someone state this morning that the federal government

could prevent people from falling through the cracks. I don't

think the federal government can.

1012 1081
In Wisconsin we listened to practitioners at the

local level. If they pointed a finger in Wisconsin, it was

due east and a little south, wherever the Hill is from where

we are right now.

CETA in 1973 was partly intended to be developed as

a comprehensive system. Unfortunately, CETA has been looked

at as a system existing parallel to the same systems that

existed before CETA became operational. What we did in

Wisconsin then was to take a look at the role of the Services

Council (now Employment and Training Council) and found that

it had dropped the ball. We were anxious to figure out what

the state role could be. The roles of the states are still

pretty ambiguous. We did not come from the perspective of

control. In fact, that is the one thing I should mention we

avoid for specific reasons, but we did note that the Council

was intended to coordinate and we saw that it wasn't happening.

So, in the last few months of 1977 the governor initiated a

special ad hoc coordination effort aimed at that part of the

employment and training system that could pretty much control,

or at least have some direct access to, programs provided by

state agencies.

In Wisconsin we have a postsecondary voc ed system

in addition to secondary voc ed. Our postsecondary ed includes

voc rehab, employment service--all the range of eagoloyment-trainingrelated programs you can think of. A committee was establiahed

on which sat the secretaries of these line agencies. There

were representatives from prime sponsors and from our

community-action organizations. For four to five months,

with the staff of the Governor's Manpower Planning Office

meeting the staff of this ad hoc committee, this group attempted to define the problems and suggest some strategies. The

process they used was first inventorying exactly, what went on

in the state, and that in itself was no mean feat. What we

finally came out with, depending upon where you,put such

things as unemployment compensation and various other sources

of funds, was the identification of between $5 million and $750

million of non-CETA employment training funds, and that's

probably apart from local tax lsvy resources in secondary voc

ed and postsecondary voc ed, which are hidden. We an-ilyzed

delivery systems. We used contact people in the specific

agencies and we got a significant amount of input form local

practitioners, including prime sponsors.

Let me add that the ad hoc effort was specifically

related to state agencies. We avoided the CETA network at

first, hoping to bite off a manageable piece--get the statehouse

in order--then come back to the Services Council, then come

back to thr., primes and get the whole act together.

The recommendation the ad hoc committee finally

agreed to was called incremental coordination, with an emphasis
on incremental. It was based on a number of assumptions.

The assumption that coordination does occur, that there are

successes, and oftentimes the state doesn't know about it;

oftentimes it's done in opposition to state barriers, and

certainly in opposition to federal barriers. We wanted to

build on successes, that there were forums out there. People

were really getting together, surprisingly enough. What we

wanted to do then was concentrate on developing an outline,

a structure within which people coordination could begin,

program coordination. We thought that before we could get

to that, before we could get to the actual activity linkages,

we had to get the process. We had to get to some systems,

to some communications, that hated word turfism, competition

for bodies, placement quotas--all those ugly little things

that everybody is forces to do. This process building relied

on lead agencies. We first broke down an ideal delivery

system into access and entry, assessment, outreach, recruitment,

etc., getting into a "system." Then we had employability

training and support services in the middle. The back end

was placement, unsubsidized employment, economic development,

whatever. For each component, we designated a lead agency.

The Governor's Manpower Planning Office was the chief coordinator. For the front end of it we had an agency in Wisconsin

that coordinates community action agencies, Local Affairs and

Development. In the middle we have our postsecondary voc ed

system, and we had our Department of Health and Social Services, with the assistance of our K thourgh 12 system, the Department of Public Instruction. At the back end we had the

employment services. These lead agencies were not and are not

to be confused with delivery of service. They are not presumptive deliverers. They were presumptive facilitators,

presumptive coordinators. They would do what had to be done

to assist the locals.

We intended to have practitioners, deliverers, get

together periodically, identify problems, identify barriers,

identify successes, and decide what they could work on

together to overcome, what they needed from the state in order

to make it possible for them to coordinate, because as much

as the federal government, we see the state government as

partner in the barriers to coordination.

The upshot of it is what we call local cooperative

agreements where the deliverers would agree not to serve

five bodies here or ten bodies here and do that in any degree

of coordination. Frankly we wanted to proceed slowly and

this local cooperative agreement was simply to obtain that

commitment to continue to work on the very difficult problems

that everybody recognizes.

MR. CONWAY: Excuse me. I am having a hard time

staying totally in touch with how this works locally. Youthwork

has about, I think, $750,000 worth of money in two projects

in Milwaukee, and it would be helpful for me to understand

1014

1083
this whole systems thing you're laying out as it related to

specific applications that we have funded, and what you and

the state office are doing to monitor those projects and

what you'll be telling us nine months from now was done with

the $750,000.

MR. DAVIS: Okay. The way we're intending to get

at the local deliverers is, first, incentives with our special

grants. Local people have identified problems at the local

level and in the proposal process for our special grants,

4 percent, 5 percent youth, we have requested and solicited

projects that would meet those needs.

What we did to get this incremental coordination off

the ground is set up around the state a series of public

hearings in which we invited practitioners to give testimony,

and it was very successful. It's not so much we found things

that were new or earth-shaking. What did happen, though, is

that we began to get that trust from the local to the state

level. We were told--well, afterXnumber of years, "you've

finally come out of Madison, and here you are listening to

us," and that meant a lot. We did get their perspectives,

and we intend to use those local perspectives to develop

coordination strategies.

I just want to list some of the problems that were

identified at the local level. They pointed out that agencies

and programs usually have a suspicion about the impact of a

budgetary numbers game, placing quotas andperformance standards there are conflicts among programs between meeting

the needs of individuals and meeting the needs of the,program . the employment and training of the so-called system

is fragmented into discrete programs with independent and

conflicting regulations . . . agencies plan fromrnarrow perspectives . agencies have overlapping roles and responsibilities,

and they do, all things for all people the state needs

to take a more active role in assisting the improvement of

coordination.

We also requested recommendations. These included

such things as joint participatory planning at the state and

local levels . . . increased involvment of private employers . . . mechanisms fore the timely sharing of plans. These are all

basic things that are simply not done, and, frankly, CETA has

not done very much to make them be done. There is a need

for: standard statewide techniques for assessing the employment and training needs of indkvidual, employers, and

communities . . . a common data base . . . improved occupational

labor market information. Going on to procedures: periodic

forums at'the state and, local level . . . common eligibility

requirements and common definitions of terms . . . expanded

and coordinated post-placement follow-up with individuals.

Regarding staff, such things as co-location of staff, zoning

patterns statewide for the deployment of staff--for example,

Outreach workers in DVR. I'm sure there are pockets of the
state in Wisconsin where there are more Outreach workers than

people.

What basically struck me about the relevance of our

ad hoc effort for youth employment in general is that the

problems are the same, and if you are considering programs in

the specific segment of the population, the fact is that there

are gencies out there, there are prima sponsors out there, there are a host of delivery systems out there that are doing

pieces of what vou want to be done. I would just recommend

using states in a constructive way to try to build up that

comprehensive system without putting yet another piece on

the crossword puzzle.

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: Any questions?

MS. HIGGINS: One of the points that was made was

that the federal government is the major obstacle to coordination. I was just curious as to the things you have

accomplished, how much of that you have accomplished within

existing laws and regulations, and how much is really not

doable because of federal obstacles?

MR. DAVIS: There is an awful lot that's not

doable, frankly. What we found was that we had to take

reality and work from there. Its such basic things as

specific programs--in our case specific stare agencies- -

being all things for all people. Everybody assesses; everybody has an employability development plan. We had a case

study--a true story--about a 20-year-old woman with a 5-yearold kid. By the time you get through the tntee pages, she

has had at least six personal interviews, five assessments,

four employability development plans. She has been to voc

rehab, she has been everywhere. At the end she is nowhere.

MR. CONWAY: Mr. Brown, the board of Youthwork is

going to be evaluating at some point, God knows how many

proposals, and I am curious as to what advice you would give

us, given your perspective, of what we should be looking to

accomplish with that money?

MR. BROWN: I guess there are three things you ought

to look for. One, you ought to convince yourself that thorough planning has taken place, and it just isn't one person's

idea or a small group of people getting together with an

interesting notion. A second piece is that it should be tied

firmly to business and industry in terms of the emplcyment

market within that respective geography. Third, it should

utilize existing resources in a different way as opposed to

building some new kind of system. The reason I feel that

is important is that you don't want the program to go away

after the funds have gone away, which is often the case.

1 085 1016
MR. CONWAY: Just to follow-up on the last point;

you know, Youthwork's field staff go out to negotiate a contract and they're looking for those criteria you just gave.

They come and sit down with you and say, "Is there a systemic

commitment to this post-Youthwork money?" You're going to

say yes, while you're trying to get your grant. The question

is, what can the staff do to push you on that?

MR. BROWN: There are some pieces that might show

in planning. For example, you're going to make available

a source of dollars. To what extent will those proposals

speak to the notion of tying those dollars together or of

following up wtih sources of educational dollars, for example?

I think the people who do a thorough job of planning can

carefully think through maybe getting a program started with

this new money but committing some other federal dollars for

a second or third year of whatever.

MS. MOSLEY: Mr. Davis, the concept of the system

plan that you talked about is kind of hard to follow. Is it

written some place that you may have access to it?

MR. DAVIS: Yes. As a matter of fact, Bob Eckert of

Youthwork has it, and it will certainly be available.

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: For the rest of the day we will

focus on what is perhaps the most important part of what we

hope to learn today. And that is, what needs to happen at

the local level? To start this off, we will have . . . JUDY HEUMANN, DIRECTOR, CENTER FOR

INDEPENDENT LIVING, BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA

MS. HEUMANN: What I would like to basically do is

give you some information on what I believe you ought to be

doing with the money that you are going to be getting.

I work at a program called the Center for Independent

Living in Berkeley, California, which is a support-services

program for persons who are physically disabled--blind, deaf,

elderly--and most recently. we are beginning to provide services

to persons who are disabled and also substance abusers who

would be defined as multiple disabled. I have been disabled

myself since I was a year and a half, when I had polio, and

have been through the system. I was in home instruction for

four years because the local principal informed my mother

that I was a fire hazard and couldn't go to the local school.

I was then the first post-polio integrated into a segregated

program for disabled kids. I was the first to graduate from

special education in that program, which gives you some information about the caliber of, education in the program. I was
then bused to high school in my community where I was

theoretically integrated, but because it wasn't in my neighborhood I was socially isolated. I went to college and had some

problems in college. When I graduated college, I decided I

wanted to be a teacher, had to sue the Board of Education in

New York to get my teaching credentials because as a disabled

person I was medically denied my rights. I taught for three

years, and I taught one year disabled children, K through

eight, and I also worked at camp for disabled persons.

Children who are born disabled or who become

disabled in their youth face major problems when trying to

enter the employment market. These children frequently have

poor images of themselves and little expectation that they

will grow up to be productive individuals, a view too frequently shared by their family. Many of these children

either go to segregated camps and therefore are maintained

in a segregated environment.

Most disabled children do not see disabled adults

in professional capacities. Their doctors, nurses, therapists,

social workers, teachers, bus drivers, etc., are not

disabled. There are few persons that disabled youth are able

to emulate.

I'll briefly explain the services we have developed,

%/Lich we still consider to be minimal. We help disabled

individuals find people to come into their homes, get them

up, do cleaning and shopping, help people go to bed at night,

drive cars if they can't themselves, find readers for the

blind, interpreters for the deaf, help people find places to

live. We give them referrals of housing, and we work with

community real estate people to try to determine whether

housing can be made accessible. We have a very minimal

transportation program that does door-to-door service for

disabled individuals. We also sue our local transit authority,

which is not running an accessible transportation program.

We have a conseling program, which is very important. It is

peer oriented. We provide individual and group counseling,

public counseling, family counseling, medical counseling,

independent living skills counseling, and drug and alcohol

counseling. We repair wheelchairs. We repair vehicles. We

help modify vans and cars.

We have blind services and deaf services that have

their own peer counseling programs, mobility instruction. We

have a job development program that works with people who are

job ready.

We have a law program, which we have found to be

incredibly important. We have five attorneys on staff now

so that we can start getting into doing some litigation of

employment, housing, education, transportation, and so forth.

1018 1 087
Overall, it would be fair to say that our goal is to make

disabled individuals independent. We don't believe it is

necessary to do things by yourself to be independent, but

rather to know what your needs are and be able to have access

to what you need.

We work with persons in institutions and persons who

want to move out from their families but have not had the

wherewithal to do that. We believe it is important to take

a holistic approach to the needs of disabled individuals, and

we also believe that the services need to be on a continuum.

I personally will always need attendant care services. It

is inappropriate to say that because I am disabled and I have

my degrees and I have gone out and got a job that I am not

going to need attendant referral. So, our clients close themselves out when they believe they have reached a point where

they don't need a service any more; they can enter the system

without a lot of paperwork.

I believe that when you are getting into designing

a rehabilitation program it is important, given the fact that

you have limited money, to look at people who are severely

disabled, people who have been inappropriately served--or

unserved-.by the school system and the Department of Rehabilitation, people who have been cast off by the non-disabled

population as being unable to be productive. It is very

important, I think, that these individuals be given an opportunity to explore the job market and to make decisions about

what they want to do when going out to work. And those

decisions should be based on what they want to do, not on

what professionals say is realistic for them.

I think one of the things that also needs to be

looked at is the barriers that prohibit disabled individuals

from being able to successfully seek employment and from

being able to successfully maintain employment. Obviously,

that goes back to the issue of the services that I have been

talking about: interpreters, transportation, assess.

When you are talking about a severely disabled

individual on a job, there are a number of things that need

to be looked at.. One is that the place is going to be physically accessible for those persons who have mobility problems.

For example, there is no accessible bathroom in this building,

so I have not been able to go to the bathroom for thlast

hour and a half. If I were working here, that would be a

major problem

It is important to make sure that interpreters are

provided to people who are deaf, that readers are provided

to people who are blind, that transportation issues are looked

into to ensure that a person can get to and from the job, that

job restructuring can be done in order to take into consideration
some of the particular needs--the number of hours that a

person can actually work--and that adequate counseling is

provided.

There is a program that is on the drawing board

out in Oakland-Berkeley. Children's Hospital in Oakland came

to us wanting to design a program for disabled youth, with

one of the goals being employment. What we have is a proposal that would allow severely disabled individuals to be

identified, to utilize the services that exist at the center

and at Children's Hospital, and to combine those services so

that there will be significant emphasis on role-modeling

after disabled individuals--adults and teenagers--who have

been successful, not necessarily in the traditional way,

but in that they have been able to begin to get their independent living skills together, to work with other people in

overcoming their major problems and with families to enable

them to perceive that the child is going to a) grow up and

b) be able to be a productive individual.

The project, I think, if it is funded, is something

that you probably will really be interested in. It seems to

be a model; something like you have been talking about where

we are talking about coordinating with different programs in

the community, talking about working with severely disabled

individuals and talking about an employment goal. That is

one of the things that need to be looked at.

Some of the things that you need to look at are,

one, when you are developing your Youthwork applications guidelines, it needs to be made very clear that there are certain

things that you want. For example, you want to see that the

program was significantly developed by disabled individuals.

Not that it is a program that some community could get money

from andtherefore has decided that disability is the "in"

thing this week but there is no input from disabled individuals.

Two, it should clearly show that there is an intent

to hire disabled individuals, that when money is brought on

for jobs, if it is to work with disabled people, that disabled

people should be employed in those programs.

Three, that meaningful work experience is going to

be able to be developed for the disabled youth and that the

disabled youth are themselves going to be involved in the

determination of the job experiences that they are going to

be going on.

It is very important that disabled youth, like

non-disabled youth, need to know that they are not always

going to succeed. And one of the things that I really perceive as being important when helping youth be able to go out

1020 1089
and get job experience is to let them see what they do and

don't like and that it shouldn't be perceived as a failure if

one doesn't like what one is doing, as long as one is doing

as best as one can do. And I think in.the area of disability

there is much too much emphasis placed on selecting the perfect job at the age 15, 16 or 17.

But there are certain jobs that have been earmarked.

Health professions, for instance, an incredible place for

disabled people to be working, not only in hospitals but in

the community. I think that it is very important the program

try to be multi-disciplinary--or multi-agency would be a better

approach.

Parents must be involved. There is a real feeling

within the disabled community that parents are one of the

biggest barriers to disabled children. And I think in all

fairness that is not their fault. Disabled parents are

basically non-disabled individuals who have grown up in a

society that has told them that to be disabled is to be bad;

therefore, when they have one of them in their own family,

it is a real problem. And parents need to be able to deal

with the real problems that exist on a day-to-day basis to

allow them to take on a role that I think they want to take

on, which is one of being supportive and allowing the child

to grow up and be an equal within the society.

An issue that you need to deal with is that of pay. Severely disabled persons who are receiving benefits from the

federal government are greatly restricted in the amount of

money they can earn. That is, their salary might throw them

off their benefits. And the way the program currently goes, they will not be able to get back on their benefits unless

they're blind. With youth, that is a real problem. You need

disabled people reviewing your grant proposals. If you don't, in my opinion, you will have problems in where the money is

going to be given ou.

I think you also need to take into consideration

that if you are going to be getting some disabled groups to

apply for some of this money they might need some assistance

in writing grant proposals. They don't have large staffs

of highly paid professionals writing grant proposals. Sometimes that makes you not get the grant proposal, even though

your idea is very good.

In conclusion, I would just like to thank you for the opportunity to speak to you and to ensure that the disabled youth of today will be the leaders of tomorrow.

MR. CONWAY: I think that it is really a pleasure

to meet you. The organization I work for out in the weatern

office in San Francisco has heard for a long time about your

1021
work and has done some work with the committee in Berkeley

and given assistance. So, it is a pleasure for me.

I think there is one thing that we ought to take

into consideration in terms of Youthwork. We have a system

that I think has one of the strongest aspects of Youthwork

called the Associates, where people in local areas around the

country assist us to learn what is real and what is not real

and inject little more reality into our process that might

otherwise be the case. I would hope that the staff of Youthwork would strongly consider taking your suggestions and

recommendations of people who might review the proposals.

One step further in terms of formality, with the possibility

of adding some poeple that you and others might recommend to

our core group of Associates who would formally review proposals

and assist us even further in terms of site visits to them to

assure some of the criteria that you mentioned are incorporated

into all of the things we do.

MS. MARTIN: I would just like to express my not

thanks for your coming, and I enjoyed your testimony.

A lot of what we do is going to be on paper. What

should we be looking for to determine that there was significant input in the development of aproposal by disabled people

and that various other kinds of concerns that you raised appear?

MS. HEUMANN: First of all, I would ask a good

question, and I would ask it in a way that they would have to

write it down on paper who it was they worked with and the

disabilities people had. That, at least, gives you some ability

to call people on the phone and find out how much involvement

did they actually had. And the other thing is difficult to

express, but there is a certain flavor that is going to come

out in the development of the program if the program has been

designed with significant input from disabled individuals.

For example, a program that is exclusively employment oriented,

without any other support systems around it, would be less

likely to have had significant input from disabled people.

It would be one ofthe things I world look at.

MS. HIGGINS: Judy, it seems that the kinds of

services you are talking about could be fairly expensive. I

am wondering whether, in this kind of competition, there is

sufficient money out there that could be brought to bear on

this kind of problem, with some of this money being used as

a sort of leverage and cross-fertilizing of all the resources

that are out there, or is there really a lack of resources at

the local level?

MS. HEUMANN: I think it is a combination. One of

the things that needs to be done is that when, for example,

prime sponsors of CETA are distributing their funds, they

1022

1091
ought to be determining whether or not they are giving money

out to clients. In other words, when CETA is giving money

out to programs and communities, do those programs meet

current 503 and 504 federally mandated requirements? If

money were to be distributed in a legal manner, a lot of the

barriers that exist as far as employment, per se, are concerned,

would be removed.

I think there are a number of ways that people can

begin to remove the barriers around disability if, in fact, there were a commitment to doing that. One of the things that could be developed when requesting proposals is to see how much breadth and imagination is utilized, how much in

contact have they been with the local program sponsor, how

much communication has been going on with the local city and

county government, is there any thought to working with foundations, is there any connection with various state agencies who, in fact, have access to a) giving money for removal of

various kinds of barriers; and b) enforcing what they are sup- posed to be doing. Also, I think we should start dealing

with cost effectiveness by not looking at the dollars that

initially have to go in, but rather at the amount of money

that comes out in the form of taxes paid by disabled people who have been given the chance to become productive workers.

MR. DELGADO: You mentioned earlier about service

from a holistic perspective. Could you elaborate on that?

MS. HEUMANN. We try to develop services that

disabled individuals need in order to be as independent as

possible in their community. We look at a disabled person

and say. What are your needs? And we start with the morning: Are you going to be able to get up this morning? If the

answer is no, and the reason I can't get up is there is no one there to help me up, then we will help you find someone who can come in and help you get up. You are going to hire

that person yourself, and you are going to pay that person

yourself; but we will help you find someone. Then you are

going to more on during your day, and there are going to be

all kinds of issues that might arise.

it

You might really be at a, point in time in yOur life when iss very important for you to develop your own ego, to

be able to believe in yourself. So, it's important for you

to be able to have contact with other disabled individuals.

So, you can come to the center and be involved 'n a counseling

program or either in a group counseling situation or an

individual' counseling situation.

We also work a lot with the community. Our goal is integration. We do what we can with, community programs to

get them to understand that disabled individuals have a right

to utilize existing services in the community.
We try to explain to people and work with agencies

opening up their doors so that disabled people can be

integrated into other programs.

We are going to have disabled people running for

elected office. Disabled people are in our community a power- ful force because there are many of us, and we have money.

We are becoming a political force, and that is something that

is long overdue. And so, our holistic approach is to ensure

that disabled individuals have access to everything.

MR. DELGADO: You mentioned, earlier in your statement, frustration. Do you find in your dealings with disabled

individuals that the higher the degree of frustration, psychological distress, that you will find a relationship between

the addictive substances--alcohol and drugs?

MS. HEUMANN: People who are disabled and are then

becoming alcoholics and drug addicts, there are a number of

reasons why that is occurring. The little information that

we have thus far been able to gather is in part showing that

it is the medical profession that is in part the cause of

addiction. By that I mean doctors who are non-disabled, by

and large, have been trained that to be successful one must

be "normal." One is "normal" when one is walking, hearing,

seeing, doing all of these things that "normal" people do.

But disabled people are . . . disabled, and doctors are having

problems with this. Someone will come in with a legitimate

problem of pain, but instead of dealing with pain clinics and

different ways to work on pain, they are giving medication.

We had a doctor about a year ago come to us who was

head of a rehabilitation service in a hospital, who was saying that he knew that his doctors were overprescribing, and

he didn't know what to do about it. He also knew that disabled

people knew how to operate the system--knew the doctors in

the community who will give you what you want, as much as you

want. And you also know that you can check yourself into a

hospital every year and get filled up with whatever it is

you need.

Another problem is that most of the substance abuse

programs will not serve multiply disabled individuals, either

because the programs are physically not accessible themselves

or because of the basic attitudes of the program administrators.

We are working with drug and alcohol programs, trying to make

them recognize that multiple disabled people should not have

to go into a program just for the disabled.

MR. SEILER: Suppose I was an agency and never did

a program regarding the handicapped, but I had an idea for a

program. Should I be able to apply for a grant, as opposed

to an agency that has been in the community, operating such

programs?
MS. HEUMANN: I wouldn't give you the money. You

could apply, but I wouldn't give you the money. I think that

when you are, in fact, going to be working with a limited

amount of money for a limited amount of time that you want

to have as much impact as possible. You need to have as

many people involved from the beginning who understand the

issues. If you have to educate people about disability issues

because a great, great majority of people involved in the

program don't know anything about disability, then I think

you are wasting your -money.

One of the things that I would look at would be

things like what you could ask, having served disabled individuals before. What do you define as a disabled person? What

kind of services have you provided? Waht experience have you

had? Do you have a board of directors? How many disabled

people are on your board? Where are their disabilities varying?

What are their disabilities? Back problems----

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: Why is that--

MS. HEUMANN: Well, back problems are certainly a

disability sometimes.

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: In terms of board members.

MS HEUMANN: Well, the board is the policymaking

body. What I was going to say is back problems, and by that

I mean that you can ask how many people on your board are

disabled, and I can say four, five, ten. If you are not asking the kind of disability that a person has, you will

frequently find out that all of a sudden the person has'

developed this disability in order to meet the form, but

they never were disabled before.

MS. MARTIN: To what extent do you believe the

prime sponsor in your area knows about handicapped people?

MS. HEUMANN: I would say that the prime sponsor

in my community is learning a lot. The prime sponsor had to

send someone to our place to certify people because the place

that you had to go for certification was inaccessible. They

don't have interpreters around for people who are deaf. I

think there is also a lack information on disability by

the certifiers. I know that CETA and Berkeley have still

mid meetings that :lave been inaccessible to us because they

bave been held in a place where there are only stairs.

Interpreters haven't been provided at public meetings around

CETA money. I think also that CETA basically needs a lot of

education about disability--CETA prime sponsors.

There have' been statistics on disabled people who,

in fact, are being served by CETA, and I think a lot of us

question those statistics. Does that answer your question?
MS. SHIELDS: Judy, has your group worked with the

school system or groups similar to yours? And could you give

us any indication of the kind of success?

MS. HEUMANN: We have, since September, gotten a

grant from HEW's Bureau of Education for the Handicapped. And

we are now working for the first year of the grant with the

Berkeley School District. Basically, the program is designed

to, one, work with professionals and parents and disabled and

non-disabled kids to allow them to know more about disability.

The instruction will be done mostly by disabled individuals

and parents so that the role modeling will go on from the outset. We have been involved in Berkeley and Oakland on selection

committees for a superintendent, and we have been involved

in parent advisory committees. We have been involved in working with parents around individual educational plans, or the

plan that the kids get developed in the schools. We have

been involved in helping file complaints and would like to

get a lot more involved in the whole educational system. Essentially, there are no disabled professionals in the Berkeley

and Oakland school systems. You will have one or two, but

nothing to speak of.

MR. SANTANA: Within the handicapped population you

have the blind, the_deaf, mentally disabled, retarded. Which

group do you think is less served?

MS. HEUMANN: I couldn't give you an answer on the

least served by category of disability. I would say the

non-white disabled child is the least served. I would also

say that it would depend on the severity of the disability,

so that the more physically dependent one would be, I would

assume, the fewer services would be available.

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: You said you recommended that,

as we develop guidelines for these proposals, one of the

things we would need to do--and I would agree with you--is to

have a definition of "severely disabled." What would your

definition be?

MS. NEUMANN: A disability that limits one or more

life activities. A person who is having difficulty making it

right now. There is some difficulty in answering your question

because a person can be severely disabled but on a medical

chart wouldn't be listed as such. By that I mean the disability has so overwhelmed them that they are not able to

function.

Programmatically, I think it isn't as important to

say that a person must have one or more and more blah, blah,

blah. I think Some of it really needs to be taken on good

faith. That's maybe wrong to say.

1095

1026
CHAIRPERSON WILLS: Let me explain two or three

things about what I think we're going to have to face as the

Youthwork board and as the Department of Labor, and they are

not necessarily pleasant, but they are realities, at least in

the world today. I would hope that as we try to use this

Youthwork money to find the answers, that we walk the kind

of fine line in terms of these projects that if we do need

to develop unique kinds of programs for the mentally retarded

that are different from programs for quadriplegics and other

kinds of people who are severely disabled, that we at the

front end in terms of thohe application guidelines are able

to delineate different kinds of things so that we are able

to work with them and develop decent kinds of projects. I am

still, quite frankly, as one board member, troubled. I don't

know how to go back out of here and translate what we've all

learned into a set of guidelines that are going to be cogent

and coherent, and let me add my other delemma. It's one of

my biases that I think we need to be linking monies, because

Youthwork monies are demonstration monies. It goes away.

It's one of the great sins of national R&D monies, and as long

as I work with Youthwork I don't want to perpetuate the sins

of old R&D projects, where nothing ever happens after the R&D.

So, I am concerned about how we develop and link that kind of

money. We've heard people from Wisconsin talk about there's

money out there. How do we make it work together?

Now, putting those pieces together, how would you

help us design something so that we know what it is we're

learning?

MS. HEUMANN: First of all, I ideally but not

necessarily would like a program that doesn't just deal with

one category of disabilities.

The needs of many disabled individuals, although

we have different labels, are basically similar, and when you

have to go out and start working with employers, you have to

deal with issues of categorical discrimination, so you need

to be working in a way where you can start removing discrimination barriers. There are certain supportive services that

different disabilities need, but those can be developed in

the program.

Also, the program model should aim at working with

existing programs in the community so that if a specific disabled individual has a specific area of need that person can

work in conjunctiofi with a relevant program and not have it

to be specially created in this small grant.

The issue of severely disabled is something that

needs to be carefully worded. I mean, it needs to be worded

in such a way that you really take into consideration the needs

of the individual. You need to have a staff that is really

1027 1096
sensitive to what needs are and what solutions are to determine whom you're going to allow into a program. You can't

say, "All persons with cerebral palsy are severely disabled

and should benefit from the program." In fact that might be

true, but, given numbers of people, it would be better to

have across- section of disabilities.

MS. HIGGINS: How much of that program emphasis

should be on changing employer attitude?

MS. HEUMANN: It has to go hand in hand. One of

the reasons you can't just look at a goal of employment for

the disabled person in isolation is that you're going to have

to work with the employers in the community, get them to

believe in the fact that disabled people are competent and

qualified workers. If there isn't a strong linkage within

the proposal to work with employers, they don't know what'

they're doing.

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: This has been interesting; however, we have two more sets of people to talk. Thank you

very much, Judy.

Steven Ickes and David Abramowitz.

STEVEN ICKES, DIRECTOR, CETA MANPOWER

PROGRAM, LANE COUNTY, OREGON

MR. ICKES: If David and I could have your attention

for the next few minutes, we would like to share our experience with the Comprehensive Employment and Training Act and

its currently dormant potential as ayouth special-needs

education and work vehicle, and our observations about what

kinds of options might work in the late '70s and early '80s.

While Congress has significantly altered the focus

of CETA, posturing it to direct its policies and funds toward

the most disadvantaged and lessening its impact on recessionrelated issues, it has struck a re-emphasiZed training course,

and is attempting to involve the private sector in a new way

through the private-sector initiative program. If the CETA

program is to become increasingly helpful to special-needs

youth, a series of observations about CETA and how it really

works are in order.

I would like to share six observations, if I can.

First, CETA policy and administration are essentially a

local-federal blend. Major policy directions are set here

in Washington, and local jurisdictions finish the design and

implement within performance standards and their local political reality. If Youthwork is interested in increasing the

resources to special-needs youth through influencing this

1028

. . 1097
policy process, there are two main local targets that must

be touched. The first is the prime sponsor's professional

staff work, the activities around the planning process, the

application work and contracting process, and, finally, the

functioning of its advisory board. Each local prime sponsor

has a different mix of these elements. The development and

status of these systems should be watched carefully as a

stability indicator of the prime's ability to deliver quality

work to you.

The other target is the local political process,

or consortium officials' openness to ideas and, of course,

the unique mix and stability of the staff and officials'

interaction. I hope the board will watch this very carefully

as it begins to look at the sub-granting process.

Second, CETA funds are declining, as Shirley Chisolm

said earlier today. So youth special-needs issues are being

raised in a clear context of declining resources.

The third point is the fact that we are in the Year

of the Child and the afterglow of Public Law 94-142, but that

this is not going to mean much in terms of the total unmet

need, even with the addition of CETA resources income. We

must set realistic expectations about what we attempt to do.

The challenge to me in my professional life, I guess, as a

young Irish dreamer, has been how to sustain those dreams,

and yet on a daily administrative level focus and bite off

manageable pieces of reality.

Four, CETA can be helpful, but increased services

to special-needs youth will require new cooperative partnerships and agreements at the local, state and federal level.

Now, you've heard that one. This partnership will need to

involve packaging and assigning of administrative and grants

and loan ideas aimed at systems innovation, another one of

my pet projects, and another thing that you've heard about

all day.

That leads to the fifth point. It's the one thing

that,got my dander up during the day--about system innovations.

Our perceptions about the concept of innovation can be a

curse or they can be a real step forward. If it's used to

fill up people's time and capture their energies, that's a

mistake. Seen as a holding pattern until a fresh wave of

hope comes along is a second mistake. If's approached as an

opportunity to redesign the base, it will be time well spent.

Now, we've heard about systems innovation all day, but we

haven't talked about the base, and the base is the issue.

Financial and nonfinancial agreements are not the end. They're

the beginning of the metamorphosis prodess. What we have is

one series of federal manpower programs overlayed on the top

of others, and on top of others, and on top of others, and

1029 1098
incremental coordination agreements, and financial and nonfinancialagreements,,I want to say, are:aggressive and-a

majOrstep forward in trying to unravel thatl.but it's not

theend..Innovation with cooperative agreements viewed as

the end at the federal, state and loCal level is a waste of

time, and I want to be real clear about that.

.:The,sixth and,laststhing I wanted to say I hope

isn't misunderstood, btt let's not repeat 'the activities of

the 1960s-ancl'early '70s that-didn't-workand.try to capitalize

on the dimensiona of .those activities that did work. Here are

just four ideas,:,and.there's thougands of them, that I hope

the boaiA,Youthwork, private foundations, EOL, HEW, will

rememberi let's not try to dortoO much;::) in public- policy

innovation we have a_fixed amount of time td.act And to_gather

momentum, approximatelY a year and a half:as:I see it,'so'

let's get going; c) we're facing declining:.resources at the

local level with inflation, and what I guess has been coined

tax-cut fever. So, what YOuthwork puts in-plade--people

have played wits during the dayp'but letvie-say'it right

straight biltso that what Youthwork:puts'i*:place must be

self-sustaining for:the most part, and'Illope that's one of

the things the group remembers as they approach the:JIFF process. We Must nottakethezoad that emphasizes rhetbric

another lessOn,I learned painfully. We must network; we must

plan together; and we must act, and not besWayed from

realistic priorities.

In concltding, I would like to describe five areas , I hope you will target to, as we say our Weat', get the biggest

bang for your buck:

One, get two or three high- potential local'sites -A

and give them enough money to ferment as complete a system

as could become self-sustaining, involving in-school and

out-of-school handicapped youth, the public school system,

CETA and the private sector.

Two, pick two different local sites. Focus the

first site on'education and attitude change, with public, school

administrators, teachers, students, disabled and not disabled,

and parents of disabled and nondisabled children.

Three, pick a state system and test a state's

Ability to stimulate a local statewidespecial7needs action

strategy through financial and nonahancial agreements, and

make it perfectly clear that it's not the end.

Four, fund some targeted technical research to

continue to focus our knowledge about structured employment,

production supervision, non-work-related employment barriers,

job - analysis efforts aimed at current and future job opportunities, work-environment normalization, sequence task

learning, supported work, and graduated stress.

1030 1099
The last one is the most. important. Equip 'a

national clearninghouse with a staff and a capacity to do

technology transfer and give it a realistic "five -year budget

with a strict mandate to focus on the handicapped, and don't

let anybody sway you off that.

The Lane County prime sponsor has acquired enough

experience to bring us to conclude that special-needs youth

can profit from education and work strategies and that they can

deliver--and this is again a technical one--a sustained productive capacity in a competitive labor market.

Mr. Abramowitz will now share some of our specific

insights and program activities. His experience on a daily

basis as a special7needs youth counselor uniquely qualifies

his as a professional and expert witness.

DAVID ABRAMOWITZ, SPECIAL-NEEDS CONSELOR,

MANPOWER PROGRAM, LANE COUNTY, OREGON

MR. ABRAMOWITZ: I have a unique position in that

I am the only counselor who works with special-needs youth

in Eugene through the CETA program, and I think a year ago

we started with my position. Since that time I have initiated

a few programs in Eugene, and it's required the cooperation

of the existing agencies, voc rehab, school district, mental

health, and different private nonprofit agencies that work

with disabled. I'd like to talk about transition, school to

community. I'd like to talk about interagency cooperation,.

and I'd like to talk about education, mostly attitude changing.

Within, this information that was gathered today,

people used terms freely, handicapped and disabled, and when

Judy gave her talk she didn't mention handicapped once, and

some distinctions need to be made, some, consciousness-raising,

even among the panel here as far as the topic we're discussing

is concerned. It's hard for able people to really gather

what the needs are of a disabled person. I think a lot of

people's intentions are good,but they just don't know how to

do it and they would like, some resources on how to go about

doing that.

In Eugene we started al,rogram a year ago with

the University of Oregon. Using money through the CETA.Title

II:Knowledge DeVelOpmentt:we took ten mOderatbly aged16 to 21

retarded,youthlrom theAxibliCAichoOls. We davelopedten

jobklorthervin the tommUnityandwe' took ten Students from

the general'population And'trained them-as trainers to work

with thedisabled,lroUth,Now,:what'..thatprovided was the l-to-1

supervision that these:yOuths neededIt also provided a social

mbdelLItAlso'provided supervision-that--let's.say an

employer wouldsaywould like to:take a kid.onl. but I don't

have the time to supervise. .I'm not a vocational trainer. I
can't help you." Well, we took away that excuse by providing

the on-site person to provide that supervision. What CETA

dollars were able to do in a work experience was open up a

lot of doors that wouldn't open before, which showed to someone who is disabled that he is very capable. A lot of times

all an employer will see is the disability. He never has a

chance to see the person's capabilities. With a subsidized

work experience, that opportunity is provided.

Our program did not end in August of '78. What

happened was, with the knowledge development and with the

continuation of my position, we reached out into the school

systems, and we sat in on those IEP meetings--that is, the

individual educational plans that are mandated by Public Law

94-142. It was a team approach in the idea that the teacher

was there, the student was there, the parent was there, someone from Lane County Mental Health was there, I was there

from CETA, and we also had a vocational rehab counselor. We

talked about the educational plan for that student. We

talked about housing and living situation after school. We

talked about vocational development in school and a half-aday work experience in their last two years in school. We

talked about the types of specialized recreation that would

be available. We all signed to it, and we're working on

those program.

In CETA I have to fill out an employability development plan. My employability development plan ties into

their individual educational plan, transition from school into community, into unsubsidized employment, and with those

contacts, with that team effort, with that interagency contact in communication, we are able to do that.

In, CETA we have three main components. One is the

work experience, one is on-the-job training, and one is

classroom training. The work experience provides the opportunity not to program that person for one specific job, but

to develop positive, basic work habit&, like getting to work

on time, being punctual, cleanliness, ability to get along

with others. What we find is that when you've had kids in

special ed classes for most of their academic life, they've

learned how different they are; they haven't learned how to

interact with the general population. The work experience

serves as a transition period to give them the opportunity

to develop those kinds of skills that will present them as

independent and socially invisible as well.

I have the freedom through employment and training

at Lane County to write a plan for 18 months, and I might

put someone through three or four work experiences to see

what their interests are, use it as an on-sight assessment

tool, and also to give them the time that they need to feel

what it's like to be in the community, earning some money,

handling their money and doing social activities, interacting

1032 1101
with their co-workers. Then, on the basis of their capabilities and interest, we match them to an on-job training that

allows them to go into the private sector. With an OJT we

will look at the data that's available in the community as to what types of jobs will be available in the next ten years,

and go out and negotiate within the private sector to develop

an OJT and we can go six months on that, in which the client

has the opportunity to learn a skill and the employer,has the

opportunity to see if this is someone he indeed would like

to hire.

I have contacts with voc rehab in which they make their direct referrals to me and we will sit down and staff

their client. Voc rehab can provide certain things. We can

provide certain things. A typical example is a kid whom I

have in a wheelchair. I can't buy him an electric wheelchair, but voc rehab can. They have provided that and they

have provided transportation for him, which is a problem and I provided the work experience and the OJT, which will

follow, and then into unsubsidized employment with our job

developers. One agency can't do it all. We need all the assistance we can get. We work with people with special needs.

You have to do a lot of different special kinds of things.

I work in the schools a lot. I used to be a

teacher, junior high school level with mildly retarded, and

then I became a vocational counselor. I saw what was lacking

in the schools, how confining they can be, how limiting they

can be. We, as special-education teachers, had to simulate

daily living skills, banking skills, and teach sort of survival skills, but it was simulated. We didn't have any real

base to show it on. It was a real problem. With a work

experience through CETA it's a real situation. It's reallife kinds of things and we can take the job, take some of the

abilities of the kids who need to learn, and give that information to the teachers and they can build that into

their curriculum. That's another link between the community

and E'hools.

Another thing we do in our co-worker concept is

provide work experience for high school students who want

to wol' with the handicapped, and we've provided a training progna for them in which we talk about attitudes; we talk

characteristics of the different exceptionalities; we

;,..1.k about some of the training procedures they could use.

When we go into the high schools and we educate

the general population about the special needs of the kids

that are being mainstreamed, we see some attitude changes.

We see the kids become the advocates for the special-needs

students, and that's real important. I think education of

your general population will break down some of the preju- dice that people have, the attitudes that they have from

1033 1102
not understanding and not, knowing. Mainstreaming, .I think,

could fall right on its face without a good education program to back it up, educating the general public about what

the special-needs population is all about.

Some of the things that need to be done that we

could use more, help on, is the ability to go into the private

sector with someone who is not ready for competitive employment but who needs the exposure, who needs the work experience

in the private sector to build up his basic work habits and

skills. The future is in the private sector. That's where

most of the lobs are. But .I can't go there right now'with

the work experience._ I can only go into the public sector.

Another thing we need is more vocation.----

MS. MARTIN: Are we prepared to'.say we do that by

something in addition to subsidized employment? This is

something that we went around with before. How do you get

there, I guessris what I'm asking?

MR. ABRAMOWITZ: 'We need an incentive for the

employers to let our, kids in there.

CHAIRPERSON WILLS; Who are the employers? We'd

better let you go through the list.

MR. ABRAMOWITZ: Well, the private sector is real

important. We need vocational trainers. Weneed bus trainers.

We need parent trainers. We need people to run the whole

gamut of the needs of the special-needs person. We ,teach

someone a skill and they might not be able to get to work.

We need someone to bus train them, and I'm speaking mostly

of the retarded population. We need parent trainers who

understand what we're doing with the person, on the job, so

they can help them at home in providing for their child's

independence. We need advocates in and out of schools to set

up the student with agencies that will assist in housing,

with dealing with Supplementary Security insurance, dealing

with voc rehab, dealing with transportation, dealing with

medical, and dealing with getting the person into specialized

recreation programs.

The bureaucratic mess, or whatever, that's out

there is incredible. If I. put someone to work and they're

receiving Supplemental Security insurance, if I'm not careful,

they will lose it if they earn over a certain amount of money.

If they lose their Supplemental Security insurance they lose

their medical card, they lose their food stamps, they lose

their welfare, $12 a month--whatever it is. Fortunately, we

do have a team set up that does deal with these things.

I will be glad to answer any questions. It's real

hard to cover all the different things I do. It's a daily

thing and to get general is hard.

1103

.1034
MR. ICKES: Could I make one quick observation?

With all the testimony that you've heard today, can you see

a unique system? It's there. It's real abstracted but it's

there, and it creates chaos with the bureaucracy, but there

is a rational system buried in there, in the Wisconsin experience, and the kinds of experiences that David has communicated to you. The heart of the system is there and it's

functionally organized in a way that has no bearing to the

bureaucracy at all. That system needs to be pulled together,

put in focus.

MS. SHIELDS: The question I have was in terms of

your presence in the planning of the individual program,

which was something I've been looking for all day in terms of

somebody in the real world and the job that this younster is

going to be encouraged to look into and so forth. Is that

the result of the informal arrangements based really on your

personal relationship with the school system, or does that

in any way set up a model of cooperation that we could look to?

MR. ABRAMOWITZ: In our original knowledge

development program with the ten moderately retarded kids,

it set up the types of communications systems that we wanted.

I'm just expanding on that now to the point where I have six

'seniors on my caseload right now for the next year and a half

and for the next year they will be in school half a day and

working half a day and getting paid for it.

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: Do you have signed interagency

agreements with all these folks?

MR. ABRAMOWITZ: Nothing is signed.

MS. SHIELDS: That's too bad. I thought that was

just a terrific part of your program.

MR. ABRAMOWITZ: Maybe it's because it's not

signed that we can get together and do these kinds of thing.

It doesn't mean it can't be.

MS. MARTIN: Joe Seiler asked whether we believe

that every applicant that gets to you through the prime

sponsor ought to have a track record of having dealt with the

handicapped or disabled people. Do you agree with that?

It's a leading question, I know, but I just don't know how

you get around it. Private industry is a profit-making

enterprise. We have to start with that.

MR. ICKES: I'll say something funny, I guess.

If you set your criteria in terms of a track record, you're

eliminating 99 percent of your proposals. You don't lock

out particular applicants, but in the proposal process you

ask them to demonstrate either performance historically or

1035 .1104
you ask them to demonStrate what specific steps they have

taken to become engaged in your process. If that's absent,

I wouldn't fund them.

MS. MARTIN: Do you have any suggestions for

Youthwork involving private enterprise? I mean, in terms of

providing technical assistance, which is one,of the things

that we said we were going to look for, what are some of the

incentives?

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: Can I ask my question, because

it's all part of the same thing?

I'm wondering where the impediments are in the

current OJT mechanism, and voc ed plan mechanisms, the jobs

tax credit. Why aren't those tools enough? Can you give me absolute specifics?

MR. ABRAMOWITZ: One of the problems is educating

the employers about all the things that are available. It

seems the only way things get done is not on peoples' good

intentions, and if they don't make a profit----

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: But OJT is another tool for

you; is that what you're saying?

MR. ABRAMOWITZ: OJT is a tool for me, if I'm

working with a person who has already developed basic work

habits and he's into competitive employment and he will

learn that specific skill.

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: Then the corollary to that is

that the public sector work site is not sufficient to establish the work habits and work skills that you think are

necessary?

MR. ABRAMOWITZ: It is sufficient to establish

the work habits. Any job that you go into there are some

basic habits that you have to have that will generalize into

all jobs and we work on those.

What I'm limited in doing is after a person already has those habits and isn't quite sure what his interests or

capabilities are, and I don't know where to provide the

opportunity for him to learn that before we really get

serious about "This is where you're going to go."

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: This has been a groping issue

for Youthwork in the last year, and it is for the Labor

Department in policy making. I'm not advocating any of it.

I just can't pull out where the real weaknesses are. I'm

almost at a loss to know whatever else to recommend to

policymakers in Congress and the administration as to where

1036

1105
the missing ingredient is with the _present level.

MR. ABRAMOWITZ: I think we're able to accomplish

that with the OJT. Now, where the problem is, like I said

before, it is if we have someone who does not really know

what they want to do. I mean, we don't really know what

they're capable of doing. We cannot assimilate those kinds

of jobs in the public sector. When we're going with an OJT

we're getting pretty serious.

MS. MARTIN: What are some other incentives?

MR. ABRAMOWITZ: I think subsidized employment,

like on a work experience model, and we also need someone

who can go out there and educate the employers about what

all of the different acts are, Rehabilitation Act of 1973

with Sections 503 and 504. Let them know what kind of job

sites or complications they have to do. Let them know that

they are not vocational trainers, that there will be assistance when they hire someone who is disabled. There is

the money incentive but that is not enough. You have to

follow up with manpower and show them the way, show them some

techniques that have been used.

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: Can a Private Industrial

Council do that, Steven?

MR. ICKES: You see, some of these things are

theoretical. I mean, I don't know what the PIC is going to

become. I think it's going to be different things in different communities.

I think the incentive there is giving the money

to the private sector and saying, "Listen, you develop your

own thing. What makes sense to you?" There's a real fear

on the private sector's part that if trey get involved with

the government, they get entangled in the kind of things

that those of us that just described the alternative system

you will get entangled in. The part that terrifies the

employer is that he has to justify to the tax people that

that employee is an addition to the resources that he had

intended to commit in terms of personnel. They are real

fearful about getting involved with the IRS and that whole

tax issue.

I frankly don't see any way around it unless we

go back to what I said before, which is that we take these

services and that we put them together in different combinations. If we can do that, and people hear that, we

might be able to say to employers, "Listen, you know that

the system that we work with is irrational. We have found

a way to deal with it," and we sign informal agreements,

1037

1106
and sometimes by the power of the personalities of people

that are in the particular jobs, we bridge that and transition

that whole process. If we redesigned our system to ,get at

the base, I think the private sector would be more interested

in it.

MS. HIGGINS: The issue of touching base, I think,

is very important, and I think we are grappling with it from

a lot of standpoints. The question always comes back to

translate that into something specific. Is it making things

consistent; is it allowing more flexibility? How do you

translate that into public policy?

MR. ICKES: There's a silent revolution going

on, which is that in the absence of response, we have created

an informal system. Now, the informal system works better

than the formal system does. We're going to continue to

use the informal system until the formal system changes.

What suffers in the process are the people who need the

service, because we have to go through all sorts of realignments and gyrations to get to where we need to be.

Now, how do you tell policymakers? That's the

scariest part of the whole process, because people talk

about terms like turf, and that whole process of protecting

their own area, and the Wisconsin people and the gentleman

from Massachusetts just said the issue is turf.

I think that what we have to do is to be clear.

It may be a bottom-up process, such as the tax-revolt movement, and that is, the professional people simply depend

on their informal system until somehow this ghost takes

form and people say, "Well, it's right there." Thatl's my

whole issue about the base; it's the whole reason for the

success of-David's activities. There is a system that works.

It isn't the system that exists on paper.

MS. HIGGINS: I guess my only point is that I

think people recognize that the ghost system exists. The

problem is getting that system to make it real and it's just

very difficult for public-policy makers to understand the

things that they have to do to make that happen. I think

everybody would agree that it's very important that it be

done, but the dilemma we're facing is translating that into

the changes that will make it happen.

MR. ICKES: We have a vehicle. We call it

incremental coordination or innovation. And we bite off

little pieces and we make people sign cooperative financial

and nonfinancial agreements which then become the basis of

a new base, maybe.

1038

1107
CHAIRPERSON WILLS: Let me try it another way.

Tell me when I'm not saying what you want me to say, Steve.

There are unromantic things that need to be done, common

planning, pieces of paper that say the same thing in terms

of definition about what it is we're trying to do, a planning process that is a real planning process that involves

people that are going to be effective, rewriting legislation,

if that's what is needed to make sure that that planning

process is open, not having systems that only the federal

or state government operate but the third-party contract

with a variety of organizations such as Judy's, but it all

fits into one holistic thing where we're not cheating with

each other in terms of who gets placement, and we don't

perpetuate fraud and abuse in terms of placement counts.

There are a lot of things and they're not sexy and they're

not romantic and not innovative but they're absolutely basic.

MS. MARTIN: It had better be incremental or we

will end up with a new system that will be worse.

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: Did I say anything wrong?

MR. ICKES: That's what I said. Incremental

has to be directed at the base. If incremental is not at

the base, you're wasting our time.

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: We now have two very patient

people, Dorothy Dean and Mary McCaffery.

DOROTHY DEAN, PRESIDENT, PARENTS' CAMPAIGN

FOR HANDICAPPED CHILDREN AND YOUTH

MS. DEAN: I am head of a small nonprofit service

and research organization called The Parents' Campaign for

Handicapped Children and Youth. Our organization has a

contract with the Bureau of Education for the Handicapped,

Office of Education, to operate a national information

center called Closer Look, for parents of handicapped

children. As project director of this center for the past

ten years, . I have learned a great deal about the needs of

handicapped youth.

Now, I believe that to address these needs- -

what I am about to say to you will repeat what some other

people here have said today, but I feel that I must read

my laundry list.

I am going to read the list and then I'm going to

focus on one of these points very specifically.

The first is the provision of low-cost or free

legal services to parents to assist them in carrying out

their due-process rights guaranteed under Public Law 94 -l42,
the Vocational Education Act, and Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973.

Second, training and education of parents as

advocates to equip them to intervene on behalf of their own

and other handicapped youth when in conflict with school

systems or other agencies.

Third, provision of innovative support services

to families with handicapped youth.

Fourth, monitoring of implementation of federal

directives that mandate state-level interagency cooperation

and agreements between special education, vocational education and vocational rehabilitation.

Fifth, consciousness-raising among traditionally

trained vocational educators and administrators to pave the

way for handicapped teenagers to be truly integrated into

regular vocational education programs.

Sixth, involvement of industry and union leadership in restructuring jobs for trained handicapped youth.

I'd like to tell you just a little bit now about

Closer Look. Those of you who have seen our TV spots and

heard our radio ads and so forth might want to know that

those ads bring our center 1,000 letters every Monday. The

challenge of coping with that burden is tremendous. Many of

these letters are from desperate parents whose sons and

daughters have been rejected by the school system because

they're handicapped. For one reason or anotherl.these

young people simply don't fit into the classification system.

The mental health agency, the school system, rehab agency--

all have certain criteria for qualifying for services and

many of these people simply don't fit.

Well, what happens to these people who don't fit

in? Many of them write to Closer Look, pour out their

problem, and they send us testing records, and they tell us

desperate, unbelievable stories. The challenge of dealing

with it is tremendous. All these young people have the

same human needs as the rest of us. They need education.

They need training. They need to work. They need a job.

They need housing. They need friends, recreation and

social life. But what we're dealing with here is the outmoded practice of making a child fit the program instead

of making the program fit the child. One, giant step toward

remedying this was the passage of the Education for All

Handicapped Children Act in November of 1975. Since that'

time administrators and parents and teachers across the

country have been struggling to make this law work. One of

1040
the law's key provisions,which you heard about earlier today,

is the individualized education program, the IEP, which is

supposed to be tailored to the needs of the child. According

to law, the development of the program shall be based on a

thorough and complete evaluation and assessment. When IEPs

are written, appropriate vocational services must be included where indicated. Unfortunately, what happens all too

often is the IEPs are written on the basis of the services

the school system presently has to offer, not on what the

evaluation and assessment indicates, and there are many

'school districts that have no vocational education programs

to meet the needs of handicapped youth.

Most public school sytems do have vocational

technical high school programs, but the doors to these programs have been very slow to open to handicapped youth,and

that ties in with my point about consciousness-raising among

traditionally trained vocational educators and administrators.

There is a lot of fear and misunderstanding on their part

about what handicapped children are like, what they can do,

and how would I ever fit one in my program. The law provides

that the parents shall sit in and participate. The parents

have the option not to sign documents if they disagree with

the conclusions and recommendations of the program. If, for

example, a parent feels strongly that vocational education

or work/study would benefit his child and the individual

education plan didn't call for this, there is an appeals

process available to the parent. But his chances of winning

are very slim. The school system has at its disposal the

services of an attorney, which the school system uses to

fight the parent. This attorney is paid with the parents'

own tax dollars. How ironic; how unfair.

Now, it may cost the school system $3,000 or more

to win in a dispute with the parent, but it's still cheaper

short term than developing and supplying a good vocational

education program for 20 or 30 students. It is not cheaper

long range, for we all khow the cost to society of depriving

handicapped people of the chance to become wage earners

themselves.

Now, there is an obscure section of P.L. 94-142

regulations that requires the school system to inform parents

of low-cost legal services. This, of course, is a littleknown and little-used portion of the law, because in most

communities legal services are scarce and have a high price

tag, and knowledgeable advocates are hard to find.

As we gain experience trying to make this law

work, some unique legal challenges are emerging. Take, for

example, the case of the parent who has obtained a favorable

decision in the due-process appeals case, but after the

favorable decision, the school system still fails to act.

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What does one do? This is not a make-believe case. There

is more than one case like this. We have been studying the

ramifications and the implications of this law. We have been

watching how it works in different communities across the

country and we've identified certain problems that need to

be worked on. These are some of the perplexing situations

confronting pa -tints of handicapped teenagers in their battle

to equip their children with skills that will make them employable, and I think we must begin soon to change the

system that stacks the deck against parents and keeps handicapped youth from obtaining appropriate vocational education

services.

I happen to have personal experience in this. I

have a son who was mislabled, misplaced, for years, and

years, and years. When he was, I think 7, he had an I.Q.

test and it was 144. Well, today he's wrapping lettuce.

This is what he's doing because he has just not had the

right kind of training from place to place. One very good

adaptive education program finally enabled him to get his

General Educational Development certificate. So, I can

identify very strongly with these letters and phone calls

we get from desperate parents across the country.

Someone earlier was talking about mainstreaming

and some of the problems. What we see are a lot of things

in the press that make us think that maybe there is a conspiracy to discredit 504 and 94-142. The groups responsible

for providing services are exaggerating the costs of being

in compliance. We are very concerned because these groups

are powerful. They have access to the writers. They can

get to a Neil Peirce, and the impact on public opinion is

very strong. In The Post and in The Star in the last few

weeks there has been some devastating negative publicity,

some gross misrepresentation about what mainstreaming is,

and frankly we are concerned.

MR. DELGADO: For the purposes of the record,

are you stating that mainstreaming does work?

MS. DEAN: Indeed. Mainstreaming, depending upon

the child and the program, can work, and this is the intent

to get away from the segregation of children, handicapped

children, being educated in segregated settings, and .it's

absolutely essential, as Judy Heumann said; handicapped

chilc.A.Len need to be educated with nonhandicapped children

insofar as possible. Now, it is so for certain children

during a certain period in their education and therapy,

whatever. They may have to be in a segregated setting,

but there can be a mobility. They can move back and forth.

They can be in a classroom and go out for a period to a

special-resource room. Some children may still be in need

1042
of segregated or residential treatment centers for part of

their education, but hopefully they would be able to develop

and grow and progress and could come to be educated in the

mainstream.

There are people around who are saying mainstreaming is not working. Its really a bad term. It's a

misnomer and I think Mary could elaborate as an educator

more on that than I can.

MS. MARTIN: Maybe it's the end of the day and

I'm getting paranoid, but, again, Joe Seiler's leading

question bothered me and I want to, one, ask you what your

track record is, and, number two, do you think people have

to have a track record in order to be funded in this program,

and what ought that track record be?

MS. DEAN: You've touched on a very interesting

point, because for many consumer organizations who have

good ideas, what they lack is a track record, and the very

spiffy, fancy consulting firms who know all the procedures

walk away with'research contracts, and the consumers are

left behind. Often they go to the consumers and they interview them and get their ideas. They go off and incorporate

it into a proposal. We have five local affiliates--in Boston,

Chicago, Cincinnati, South Bend, and Concord, New Hampshire.

Now, those five Parent Information Centers are coalitions

of disability groups, parents of blind, deaf, emotionally

disturbed, autistic, and so forth. Those coalitions had

never had a contract or a grant in their lifetime before

they won this first contract to operate the information

center, and it was very tough to get the system, the federal

governmentfto agree to do business with a non-profit,

volunteer organization in which the board was composed of

parents of handicapped children.

So, I would say that I think you have to look at

something else besides a track record, and, as Judy was

pointing out, that you need disabled adults involved on a

board. If you don't have the, cooperation of parents, then.

I don't think the thing can be a success. One of the problems with the failure of programs has been the lack of involvement from consumers in the design process,because if

you are going to design something to have an impact'on the

life of a young person, the parent knows a great deal and

that know-hoW should somehow be incorporated into the

program design.

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: All I can do is raise a

question but I'm not sure what the answer, is. Your first

observatiOn of the criteria that need to be in any kind of

project, was low-cost legal services. A bureaucratic question
came to my mind whether or not it's even possible, desirable,

in the context of CETA, Title IV, Youth Demonstration monies

for that to be a part of a package. I think we need to think

that through. I don't know what the answer is. I am not

in any way, shape or form disagreeing with that. I just don't

know whether it could be a part of this, this project.

Let me ask a question on another matter. I'm not

sure of the percentages, but at least 10 percent of the

funds in any state plan are to be spent for handicapped. I

have not heard one positive thing all day long. It is as

though they didn't exist. Is it that bad?

MS. DEAN: It is that bad. The problem is, again,

lack of information dissemination. A principal of a local

school may not know that these funds are available. We arm

the parents with information. We say to them, "Look, 10

percent is mandated," and sometimes parents take our newsletter to local school systems. This is the first information

that this principal has that there is a set-aside. In some

states they let the money go back. There are some states

that have simply not taken advantage of funding for vocational education. They have let the money revert back. I

think this is a disgrace.

I know the time is late but I have to tell you

about a project that we're doing with the Office of Civil

Rights. The same pot of money out of which the National

Governor's Association training is being funded is what we

have, a contract, to train advocates in six cities. We are

training 25 advocates in six states and we are trying them

in Public Law 94-142,the Vocational Education Act, and

Section 504 of the Rehab Act. We are teaching them negotiating skills. We are building their communications skills.

We are building a team in each of the cities, and this team

can be a takeoff point from which consumers will now be

able to have their needs stated and these people can go in

and represent a parent at a hearing.

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: Mary?

MARY MCCAFFREY, THE COUNCIL FOR

EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

MS. McCAFFREY: I am from the Council for

Exceptional Children, which is a professional organization

with 65,000 members. We're suffering what other organizations suffer. Approximately 60 percent of our membership

is teachers. We have a formally adopted policy that supports

the major thrust toward the education and training needs of

handicapped youth, which include career education, vocational

education, special education, and rehabilitation when needed

for exceptional students. Under our definition of exceptional

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1113
we would include all of the handicapped categories that are

included in 94-142 as well as handicapped and gifted students,

but I will just be concerned with handicapped students here.

A related objective of our policy is to reduce

the needs for programs specifically designed to assist the

exceptional students in making the transition from school

to work. Unfortunately, in-school programs do not adequately

design programs to ease that transition. I think I can

safely say that the majority of teachers have not received

training on a pre-service or in-service level to deal with

oyment needs of students. Many of the obstacles that

w identified in preparation of this statement are some that

have been stated here today and I just will briefly go over

those just to reaffirm our position of those.

One, of course, is the issue of stereotyping and

the attitude of employers, parents and students. Exemplary

programs should be encouraged that seek to reduce the stereotyping. In particular, handicapped students are not always

aware of positive role models. We would encourage you to

include successful handicapped workers as staff in the

role of coordinators, teachers, counselors or resource

persons. That would do much to assist handicapped youth

themselves.

The issue of skill development--we feel very

strongly that assessment devices used are not always adapted

for the handicapped. We don't think that new assessment

devices necessarily have to be created. There's a lot that

are around but when they are not adapted for the handicapped,

and placements are made on the basis of questionable assessments, the youth become additionally handicapped. We feel

very strongly about the whole issue of programs design based

and, in particular, these skills that should be developed as

a result must be skills that are marketable.

One basic deterrent is a lack of current information about varying work experiences that may be available

in a different community. Many handicapped students lack

information about work realities as well as their own

performance ability and interests in relation to work.

Exemplary programs are needed that continue to concentrate

on the development of career information, guidance and jobseeking skills.

Unfortunately, the transition from school is

often hampered by teachers, administrators and coordinators

who should be primarily responsible for the design and

maintenance of appropriate programs. Appropriate educators,

coordinators and representatives from the business and labor

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1114
community require training in the design and operation of

instructional programs that will benefit the employment

needs of handicapped students. Exemplary programs should

therefore include an in-service component for appropriate

professionals or paraprofessionals on the design and implementation of various career-development approaches based on

individual needs of handicapped students.

In response to the question that has been brought

up over and over again as to who the service provider should

be, we think that the program should be based on individual

community need. This may or may not mean that there has

been a proven track record. I think that you really have to

look at the respondent's ability to assess those needs and

to really consider ways in which there will be some continuation of effort after the program money runs out. I think

that that can be shown in an RFP.

We also have found in our experience as a professional organization that local efforts--efforts that come

grassroots involvement--are fantastic, and that isn't

always well documented. A lot of the good programs really

are dependent on personalities and ability of people to work

with each other. I think that if some effort could be made

to document that and to get that information out, organizations such as ours and such as the one that Dorothy represents

are in positions to do that. We can disseminate information.

We can play on those professional qualities that teachers

and administrators and parents have to really get out there

and start their own programs.

One area that hasn't been-mentioned, at least

since I've been here( is the issue of eligibility. It's our

understanding that in-school dembnstration programs should

serve low-income youth, aged 14 to 21, who are working

toward a high school diploma or a General Educational

Development certificate. We would request that you reconsider the income eligibility requirement for this population,

already once disadvantaged because of a handicap. To seek

only youth who are both economically disadvantaged and

handicapped could greatly reduce the number of youth who

could be served in a given community.

Assuming that a student's program is linked to the

objectives of increasing the job potential and career opportunities for eligible handicapped youth, actual work

experience, job counseling, career information, and job

restructuring should take place in the least restrictive

environment possible. Moreover, the student's individualized

program should be seen as a management tool toward achievement of the least restrictive environment within a framework

of meeting the unique needs of each individual. Although

there exists a continuum of services from least to most

1046 1115
restrictive, programs should be sought that move closer to

the least restrictive end of that spectrum.

In conclusion, as far as specific things that we

would like to see Youthwork include in the development of

their programs, we should suggest to you that programs,

number one, be accessible to a wide array of handicapped

students. Also, that you make an effort to select programs

that include handicapped individuals on staff or on appropriate governing bodies, board of directors, and so forth.

Finally, we would suggest that of the number of

programs that you do select that you have a couple that really

look at the severely handicapped population. So often we

get into developing programs that are for that middle-level

group.

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: Jose Santana.

MR. SANTANA: This is directed at both of you.

First of all, which subgroup is the least served, and, second,

when talking about severely handicapped, what exactly are we

talking about?

MS. McCAFFREY: We may have different answers on

that. I would go back to that avoidance of categorical

areas and really look at community needs, individual needs

and try to set up demonstration programs that can do that,

that can find the people within a community who are severely

handicapped, and by that I guess I would have to say those

who cannot function, who are dependent, who are really. not

independent, and that who are looking at a life span where

they would continually be pendent unless given some assistance. There are many . tdividuals that can become

independent with appropriate programs.

I don't have the data as to the least served or

the most served, but I would really focus on that individual

need of a community and building programs that can kind of

determine where those people are and what they need.

MS. DEAN: As much as I dislike labeling by

category, unfortunately that's how the law was written. The

reality is that the labeling system still has some usefulness

in terms of, for example, providing reading material for

parents. If a parent writes that they have a cerebral palsy

child, of course we have a reading list. We read books and

we write annotations, lo the labeling system still has some

usefulness, not in prescribing an educational programe but

I would say that from our experience, having heard from

several hundreds of thousands of parents over a ten-year

period, the group that seems to be the least well served is

the so-called mentally ill, seriously emotionally disturbed

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1116
child. The behaviorally disordered child is someone that

school systems don't know how to deal with, for the most part.

The educational technology for dealing with these kids is

still very rough. Many of them, most of them, are still

educated largely in private programs, but principals still

when they have a kid who's acting out, feel free to call the

parent and say, "Come here in half an hour and pick up this

child," and dumps the problem right back into the parent's

lap.

One of the distressing practices that school

systems are now engaging in with respect to children who are

labeled emotionally disturbed is the related services portion.

If the individual educational plan is written for this child

and there is a requirement for supportive related services

and one of these services is the psychological services, the

school system takes the route of saying, "Those psychological

services are medical, psychiatric; therefore, it is not our

responsibility to provide the supportive services for the

child."

I would say that the mentally ill, emotionally

disturbed child is the one who is least well Nerved, because

he simply is an unattractive person to deal with and people

don't know how to cope with the problems.

With respect to the severity of the handicap, I

would say the severely, profoundly handicapped have been

ignored and left out, and the opportunities for them need

to be there. Part of what we are doing in our training

section is dealing with how you train and educate and advocate on behalf of the severely, profoundly handicapped.

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: Physically or mentally?

MS. DEAN: Physically, emotionally and mentally--

all three.

MS. MOSLEY: Mary, your program is sort of made

up mostly of teachers.

MS. McCAFFREY: About 60 percent.

MS. MOSLEY: Are these teachers all specialeducation teachers or are there other teachers also?

MS. McCAFFREY: No, the majority would be

special education.

MS. MOSLEY: Do you do anything with teachers who

have not been trained in special-education programs? Are

you trying to advocate that they get some training to be

able to work in the classroom?

1048 1117
MS. McCAFFREY: Yes. We are in the process of

preparing more materials, doing more kinds of identification

of what types of programs are taking place around the

country for regular-education teachers who are having to

deal with handicapped children, what their needs are, what

kind of training materials. We're trying to develop a process

whereby it could be replicated on the state and local levels,

as well as document appropriate training practices and

materials.

MS. DEAN: The law requires that state education

agencies conduct in-service training programs for regulareducation teachers. No one is monitoring the activities of

state education departments. Our local Parent Information

Center in Concord, New Hampshire, is going out, and parents,

mind you--consumers-are training the teachers, because the

system,hasn't done it. I think we need some monitoring of

training programs in school districts around the country

to find out if in fact, these in-service training programs

are being conducted and, if so, what their nature is. This

is just not going on. It is so poorly dealt with. Monitoring

of state education agencies is a primary thing that could be

attached. We could collect a lot of data in a short length

of time, just to learn about where are the problems.

MS. McCAFFREY: One other thing on that point is

that we do a lot of training ourselves of teachers and

administrators,, and every year it seems that there are still

groups that come back and want training on what the law is,

and what handicapped*children are, and it seems like we're

just treading water as far as,bringing the word to the people.

There are still,those basic questions that haven't been

answered, and-even in the more sOphisticated.programs, the

employment'iisues, the career development issues, are not

being. dealt with.

MS. MARTIN: One of the big problems withmainstreaiing is the parents of nonhandicapped youngsters.

Should Youthwork be concerned with maybe one project that

would try to reach out and involve the parents of'"regular"

kids in .terms of attitudes and changes, etc?

MS. DEAN: Absolutely. ,It'is very important for

parents of so!,called'normai children to tinderstand what is

going to happen.to their child if-there.'are handicapped

children. in'th0 classrOOM. Ws a:very important project

and I think it-will be well worth' the effortthaeyou put

into it..

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: Bob Herman, this morning

observed that no bureaucrat likes to give money back to the

federal government. Every year there is insufficient number

1049
of universities that make application for in-service training.

I don't understand why. What is the problem? Bob made an

offer to collaborate with Youthwork in developing an inservice training program. How would you approach that task?

MS. McCAFFREY: The reason universities don't apply for money is, I think, basically that they see in-service

training as a threat. It doesn't have to be. It could be

a fantastic market for them, if they figured out ways where

they could work with local education agencies and set up

in-service training so the teachers could get college credits.

I think if you looked at that in-service approach and tried

to involved the local university, it would be to your benefit.

Teachers going through in-service programs can always get

professional development from their local education agency,

but it's even more attractive if they can get college or

university credit on top of it, a dual type of credit, and it

helps the pre-service programs that are being developed.

They would certainly have a better reality base. If you could

look at that type of collaboration when you set up some of

the requirements or possibilities that could deal with collaboration, then I think it needs to deal with in-service

collaboration for a number of groups, not just school professionals but some of the other people that would be involved

as well.

MS. DEAN: The question about applying for funds:

Many chairmen of special-education departments in institutions

of higher education are in a rut. They have been training

teachers of the educable mentally retarded for year. They

have a professional investment in marketable skills that they

know how to deliver, and they are isolated in their ivory

towers. But I would say that the Bureau of Education for

the Handicapped can have an impact on this. They give grants

to these institutions, and their guidelines could be one way

they could shape, and in fact are shaping, perceptions.

Changing the attitude of university professors in this particular discipline is long in coming, and I think it's something that Youthwork might be able to have an impact on.

CHAIRPERSON WILLS: One quick comment, Mary. I

have been fascinated. My background is basically on the

labor side. Bob Taggart, when he was here this morning,spoke

on the issue of the income targeting for CETA, and whether

or not that's what we need to perpetuate, particularly as it

related to servicing the handicapped. You are the first

person this entire day that has raised this as a problem.

I find it fascinating.

Now, let me also go back to saying two things.

One, I don't believe that Youthwork, because it is written

into law, must do income targeting. However, it's something

that I think we are aware of in Youthwork and we really need

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to take a hard look at, particularl, as it related to servicing the handicapped. It is a broader question as it

relates to how you develop programs between the educational

system with its universal mandates, responsibility, and CETA

with its other sets of mission. So, I don't think we'll

be able to be in total compliance with your request, but I

just was so fascinated, because I thought a lot of people

would bring that up as a problem today and you're the first.

Thank you both very much. I'm sorry it was so

late. We had to squeeze a lot into one day. I hope that

the other panel members, even though you may be weary of

sitting, feel as I do, as though we have learned a great

deal. We really did come here with lots of questions and

don't know the answers. I think maybe that's progress when

we all sit down and say we don't know the answers.

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