Shift in Global Tantalum Mine Production, 2000–2014

Tantalum has a unique set of 

properties that make it useful in a 

number of diverse applications. The 

ability of the metal to store and release 

electrical energy makes it ideally suited 

for use in certain types of capacitors 

that are widely used in modern electronics. Approximately 60 percent of 

global tantalum consumption is in the 

electronics industry (Papp, 2015). The 

ductility and corrosion resistance of the 

metal lends itself to application in the 

chemical processing industry, and its high 

melting point and high strength retention at elevated temperatures make it an 

important component of super alloys used 

in aircraft engines (Global Advanced 

Metals Pty Ltd, 2010). 

As a major industrialized nation, the 

United States is a leading consumer of 

tantalum and tantalum-containing products. 

Domestic deposits typically are of low 

grade, and no tantalum has been recovered 

from mining activities in the United States 

since 1959 (Wessel, 1961). Consequently, 

the United States is nearly completely 

reliant on imports to meet its domestic 

consumption of tantalum for economic and 

national security needs. The recovery of 

tantalum from mine production is economically viable in only a few countries.

Although developed countries 

dominated tantalum mine production 

in the early 2000s, production today 

is dominated by countries in the Great 

Lakes Region of Africa (figs. 1 and 2). 

There is concern that the sales of 

minerals, including columbite-tantalite or 

“coltan,” a mineral from which tantalum 

is derived, have helped finance rebel 

groups accused of violating human rights 

as part of the continuing armed conflict 

in the Democratic Republic of the Congo 

(DRC) and neighboring countries. These 

accusations have prompted the passage 

of legislation in the United States to 

curb the procurement of these mineral 

commodities, referred to as “conflict 

minerals,” from the DRC. Specifically, 

section 1502 of the 2010 Dodd-Frank 

Wall Street Reform and Consumer 

Protection Act (Public Law 111–203, 

124 Stat. 2213–2218) requires companies 

that source tantalum, tin, tungsten, and 

gold (3TG) to perform due diligence 

on their supply chains to determine 

if the materials they use originate 

from the DRC or adjoining countries 

(defined as sharing a border with the 

DRC) (U.S. Securities and Exchange 

Commission, 2012; Chasan, 2015; 

U.S. Department of State, 2015).

The DRC, Rwanda, and surrounding 

countries are not globally significant 

sources of tin, tungsten, or gold, 

accounting for only about 2 percent 

of the mined world supply for each of 

these elements. The region has, however, 

evolved to become the world’s largest 

producer of mined tantalum. 

A further complication of the 

production of tantalum stems from the 

opacity of the tantalum market. Unlike 

most base and precious metals, tantalum 

concentrates are not publicly traded 

through commodities exchanges but 

are bought and sold through networks 

of dealers and on contract between 

producers and consumers, some of whom 

may not provide accurate statistical 

data concerning the amounts, origins, 

and destination of the concentrates 

(Browning, 2015; Tantalum-Niobium 

International Study Center [TIC], 

2015). Some price data can be found in 

trade journals or in other publications; 

however, there are no recognized official 

Total=1,100 metric tons of tantalum 

contained in concentrates 

Total=1,200 metric tons of tantalum 

contained in concentrates 

Australia

45% 

Australia

4% 

Brazil

17% Canada 5%

Democratic

Republic of

the Congo

17% 

Democratic

Republic of

the Congo

9% 

A. 2000 

Brazil

12% Bolivia <1% 

Bolivia 

<1% 

China 5% 

China 5% Rwanda 

50% 

Rwanda

12% 

Other African countries

7% 

Other African

countries

12% 

B. 2014 

Figure 1. Mine production of tantalum contained in concentrates, by country of origin, for 2000 (A) and 2014 (B).

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Fact Sheet 2015–3079

December 2015
set exchange prices for either concentrate or tantalum metal. Because price is 

determined by negotiation between buyer 

and seller (TIC, 2015), published prices 

for concentrate are probably not representative of global prices paid for concentrate. 

The development of a mine-to-market 

supply-chain analysis is complicated and 

difficult because many of the industry 

participants that produce, trade, and 

consume tantalum do not publish statistical information, contracts are long term 

between miners and buyers, and much of 

the industry is vertically integrated.

As a result of these and other 

considerations, tantalum is considered 

by many to be a “critical” commodity 

(National Research Council, 2007; 

Erdmann and Graedel, 2011; Meinert, 

2014; Geoscience Australia, 2015). This 

fact sheet identifies and addresses the 

major geographic shifts in the sources of 

mine production of tantalum which have 

occurred over the past 15 years, some of 

the factors that drove these shifts, and 

some of the related consequences. 

One of the activities of the U.S. 

Geological Survey National Minerals 

Information Center (USGS–NMIC) 

is to analyze global supply chains and 

characterize major components of 

mineral and material flows from ore 

extraction through processing to first 

tier products. These analyses support 

the core mission of the USGS–NMIC 

as the Federal entity responsible for the 

collection, analysis, and dissemination of 

objective, unbiased, factual information 

on minerals essential to the U.S. economy 

and national security. 

Global Tantalum Mine Production

The estimated annual mine production of tantalum contained in tantalum 

and tin concentrates for 2000 –2014 is 

shown in figure 2 for 15 countries. The 

USGS–NMIC analysis does not address 

the amount of tantalum ultimately 

recovered from these concentrates, which 

may be considerably less because of the 

losses experienced during processing to 

produce marketable products. 

Mine production data are published 

in USGS Minerals Yearbook and Mineral 

Commodity Summaries publications 

available at http://minerals.usgs.gov/

minerals/. In some instances, data have 

been revised to reflect the current state 

of knowledge. Data limitations prevent 

estimating the amounts of potentially 

recoverable tantalum contained in 

tantalum and tin concentrates that are 

produced annually in a number of 

countries including Malaysia, Russia, 

and Thailand. Most of this production is 

a byproduct of the mining and smelting 

of cassiterite, an ore mineral for tin, 

and, to a much lesser extent, wolframite 

and scheelite, ore minerals for tungsten. 

Tantalum contained in slags from past 

smelting activities in Australia, Brazil, 

Portugal, and several Asian countries also 

is excluded from the estimates because 

of data limitations. The level of information required to develop estimates of 

undocumented tantalum production that 

originated in conflict and some nonconflict areas in Africa, South America, and 

some other locations was not available. 

Several major events during the 

period 2000 to 2014 influenced mine 

production (fig. 2). These events included 

(1) the effects of rapid increases in 

tantalum demand and consumption that 

resulted in higher prices just prior to the 

year 2000 during the “dot-com boom,” 

followed by the bursting of the “dot-com 

bubble” in 2000 that lingered into 2002; 

(2) the global recession in 2008–2009, 

which decreased demand for most 

mineral commodities; (3) regional armed 

conflicts in the Great Lakes Region of 

Africa, primarily the DRC and Rwanda, 

through much of the period analyzed; 

and (4) proposed and enacted legislative 

action in Europe and the United States 

in response to issues related to conflict 

minerals, such as implementation of the 

Dodd-Frank Act in 2010. 

The data indicate that the total 

amount of tantalum contained in tantalum 

and tin concentrates in the countries 

studied averaged about 1,300 metric tons 

per year (t/yr) (expressed as tantalum 

contained in concentrate) for the period 

2000 to 2014. Tantalum derived from 

mining, the focus of this fact sheet, 

is a component of total supply, which 

also includes secondary production 

(recycling), and contributions from 

releases of inventories. 

In 2000, a total of approximately 

1,100 metric tons (t) of tantalum in 

concentrate was produced among the 

countries studied. Australia was by 

far the dominant global producer of 

mined tantalum in concentrates with 

a 45 percent share of global production, mostly from the Greenbushes and 

Wodgina Mines. Other leading producers 

in that year were Brazil (17 percent), 

Rwanda (12 percent), and the DRC 

(9 percent) (figs. 1A, 2). Beginning in 

2006, the Greenbushes Mine began to 

reduce production, and, by 2009, the 

Greenbushes and Wodgina Mines were 

placed on care and maintenance, ending 

Australia’s position as the world’s leading 

producer of tantalum in concentrate. 

The estimated annual production of 

tantalum contained in tantalum and tin 

concentrates in the DRC and Rwanda 

was relatively modest for the period 2000 

through 2006, averaging 101 t and 73 t, 

respectively. Combined, the contribution of

the two countries to tantalum-in-concentrate

production among the countries studied 

averaged less than 15 percent during the 

7-year period. In 2007, however, reported 

production in the DRC increased to 320 t of 

tantalum in concentrate, nearly three times 

the average of the previous years, and mine 

production in Rwanda increased to 170 t 

of tantalum in concentrate (fig. 2). The 

combined production from the 2 countries, 

which share a common border, represented 

nearly 35 percent of the total estimated 

mine production from the 15 countries 

studied. The increase in mine production 

from the two countries compensated to 

a large degree for the loss of production 

that resulted from the suspension of the 

higher-cost Australian mining operations 

and from the termination of releases of 

tantalum materials from the U.S. National 

Defense Stockpile.

The increase in production in the 

DRC and Rwanda and the decline in 

production in Australia were already 

underway prior to the global economic 

downturn in 2008–2009 and the drop 

in tantalum prices. This was a time of 

reduced demand for electronics and 

a drop in the price of tantalum. The 

actions on the part of the Australian 

mining companies were reportedly 

taken in response to a combination of 

the comparatively high costs associated 

with hard rock mining, the bankruptcy of 

the owner/operators of the Greenbushes 

and Wodgina Mines, and an increasing 

amount of lower-priced tantalum concentrates entering the supply chain from 

central Africa (Schwela, 2007; Global 

Advanced Metals Pty Ltd, 2011a, b; 

Taylor, 2011; Tse, 2012; Cann, 2014). 

2
Figure 2. Annual mine production of tantalum 

contained in concentrates by country and events that affected mine production, 2000–2014.

Increased production to meet demand by electronics manufacturers in response to the “dot-com boom” 

Nigeria Democratic Republic  of the CongoRwanda 

Namibia Ethiopia Burundi Mozambique 

Australia 

Zimbabwe Uganda Somalia 

China Canada Bolivia Brazil 

Country

EXPLANATION

0 

800 600 400 200 

2,200 2,000 1,800 1,600 1,400 1,200 1,000 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 

Annual production of tantalum contained in concentrates, metric tons 

Year 

Reduced mine production in response to decreased demand from the burst of the "dot-com bubble" and offtake from excess inventory

Reduced production at Greenbushes Mine, Australia, and termination of U.S. National Defense Stockpile

Increased global production largely originating from the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Rwanda

Start of the global recession and suspension of tantalum mining at the Greenbushes andWodgina Mines in Australia 

Decreased production caused by a global recessionand reduced demand

Passage of Dodd-Frank Act

Increased production resulting from higher demand with the recovery from the global recession

Significant increasesin Rwandan mine production

3
Australian and Brazilian mines, the 

dominant producers from 2000 through 

2008, were considered low risk for supply 

disruptions. Although these countries had 

modern mining operations and transparent 

commerce characteristics, the Australian 

hard rock mines had relatively high 

operating costs. In contrast, concentrates 

supplied from Africa were mostly 

sourced from small, labor intensive, and 

relatively unsophisticated artisanal mines, 

producing at lower costs. Brazil was 

able to maintain a position as one of the 

world’s major producers because most 

of the country’s concentrate was derived 

from relatively low-cost unconsolidated 

placer deposits. African production 

increased, and the price for tantalum 

dropped because of decreased global 

demand during the global recession. 

Australian operations decreased or 

suspended production (Schwela, 2010; 

Millman, 2014) and, by 2007, the country 

had lost a significant share of global 

supply to the DRC and Rwanda (fig. 2).

In 2009, the geographic distribution of world tantalum mine production shifted dramatically from Australia 

and Brazil, with a combined global 

share of 18 percent, to the DRC and 

Rwanda, with a combined share of 

51 percent (28 percent and 23 percent, 

respectively). Although still retaining 

a major share of global production, the 

DRC had begun to decline in production from the high of 410 t achieved in 

2008 (fig. 2). Although Brazil retained 

its position as the third largest producer 

of tantalum in concentrate, the leading 

Australian mines were not reactivated 

to previous production levels as the 

recovery from the global recession 

continued. Instead, most of the world’s 

demand for tantalum in concentrate was 

met by the DRC and Rwanda (fig. 2). 

Over the past decade, reports 

published by the United Nations Group of 

Experts (UN GoE) on the DRC and other 

nongovernmental organizations identified 

foreign and domestic armed groups that 

reportedly took control of many artisanal 

mining operations and intercepted trade 

to profit from the production of 3TG 

minerals. The revenues collected by 

these armed groups reportedly continued 

to perpetuate civil unrest in some areas 

in the DRC (Bermúdez-Lugo, 2014). 

Ores and concentrates that originated

in the DRC may have been transported

illegally to some bordering countries

and, when sold, reported as being

produced from the bordering countries

(de Ville, 2009; Bleischwitz and others,

2012; Polinares, 2013; Bafilemba and

others, 2014).

In 2013, Rwanda became the 

world’s leading producer of tantalum 

contained in tantalum and tin concentrates with an estimated 600 t, which is 

nearly 50 percent of the total estimated 

production from the countries studied. 

This was a major increase from the 

estimated 310 t of tantalum in concentrate produced in Rwanda in 2012 when 

it represented about 28 percent of the 

production among the countries studied. 

In December 2013, the Rwandan Government disclosed that they had “dramatically” increased their tantalum concentrate exports and had become the world’s 

largest exporter, mostly to China, which 

has been a major importer of concentrates 

from Rwanda (Bleischwitz and others, 

2012; Browning, 2015). This noteworthy 

increase in production may be attributed 

to the Government privatization of its 

mining operations and opening new 

concessions to investors and artisanal 

cooperatives (Yager, 2014).

In 2014, the combined production 

of tantalum contained in concentrate 

in the DRC and Rwanda represented 

nearly 70 percent of global production 

among the countries studied. World 

mine production further established 

these African countries as the world’s 

major tantalum-in-concentrate producers 

(figs. 1B, 2).

Reports indicate that the implementation of the Dodd-Frank Act resulted 

in an increase in tantalum concentrate 

production in parts of the DRC that were 

determined to be conflict free (Bafilemba 

and others, 2014). In 2013 and 2014, the 

estimates of annual mine production in the 

DRC decreased to about 200 t of tantalum 

in concentrate but continued to represent 

about 17 percent of estimated mine 

production among the countries studied 

(figs. 1B, 2). There have been claims over 

the years by nongovernmental organizations, United Nations observers, and others 

that at least some portion of Rwanda’s 

reported production for the period analyzed 

originated from concentrates smuggled 

across the border from conflict areas in 

North Kivu and South Kivu in the DRC 

and was exported through Rwanda’s 

domestic tagging system as a nonconflict 

source (de Ville, 2009; Bleischwitz and 

others, 2012; Polinares, 2013; Bafilemba 

and others, 2014).

It has been reported that after 2011 

western companies did not purchase 

tantalum concentrate from the Great 

Lakes Region unless it was determined 

to be conflict free to avoid contaminating 

their supply chain and to conform to 

legislation (Bafilemba and others, 2014). 

However, in 2014, nearly 70 percent 

of the estimated amount of tantalum 

contained in concentrate among the countries included in this study originated from 

the DRC and Rwanda. The percentage 

share represents a major change from the 

year 2000, when about 20 percent of the 

production of tantalum in concentrate 

originated from the DRC and Rwanda 

(figs. 1A, B; 2). If producers and traders 

were unable to prove that the tantalum 

concentrate was conflict free, they could 

allegedly sell to Chinese or other buyers 

at an approximately 30 to 60 percent 

discount (de Ville, 2009; Bleischwitz

and others, 2012; Polinares, 2013; 

Bafilemba and others, 2014). 

A significant increase in tantalumin-concentrate production from about 

2007 through 2014 was reported for 

Rwanda; this coincides with the general 

decrease in estimated production from 

the DRC during the same period. On 

the basis of preliminary data, the 2014 

production levels in the two countries 

were estimated to have been similar to 

2013 production levels. The inherent 

risks associated with conflict in the Great 

Lakes Region may present a potential 

risk for short-term disruption of tantalum 

in concentrate to the global tantalum 

supply (Polinares, 2013; Green, 2014; 

Mining Journal, 2015). 

Brazil has been a relatively steady 

and significant producer of tantalum 

concentrate for over the entire period 

analyzed. Purchasing tantalum concentrate from Brazil may be attractive to 

some buyers because its origin is simpler 

to certify as a nonconflict mineral. Brazil 

may also be in a position to expand 

production if supply from the Great 

Lakes Region were to be disrupted. 

Given favorable economics and other 

factors, Australian operations on careand-maintenance status could be reactivated to mitigate, in large measure, a loss 

of supply from the Great Lakes Region. 

4
The Bernic Lake operation in 

Canada, although historically a source 

of minor production of tantalum concentrate, was the only North American 

tantalum mine that has operated within 

the last 50 years. Although the tantalum 

ore processing portion of the facility 

was placed on care-and-maintenance 

status in 2013, the site’s proximity to the 

United States strengthens its strategic 

value as a potentially important source 

of tantalum concentrate.

In 2014, the total production of 

nearly 1,200 t of mined tantalum in 

concentrate from 15 countries studied 

was substantially lower than what 

was estimated just prior to the global 

recession in 2008 when nearly 1,800 t 

was produced. Possible reasons for the 

reduction include (1) global tantalum 

consumption had still not recovered 

to the previous levels of a more robust 

economy; (2) improvement in the efficient 

use of the metal or increased substitution; 

(3) drawdown of producer inventories; 

(4) increased usage of secondary 

(recycled) material; and (5) unaccounted 

tantalum production entering the supply 

chain, some of which may originate 

from conflict-affected sources. The 

USGS–NMIC has no statistical information with regard to the undocumented 

amounts and origins of conflict minerals 

in the global supply chain.

Summary

The United States is highly dependent

on imports of tantalum concentrate, refined

metal and its alloys, and semi- and fully

manufactured products to meet its industrial

and strategic requirements. Dependence 

on a limited number of countries for 

supply may increase the vulnerability 

of the United States to the effects of 

supply disruptions. Additionally, governance risk associated with the largest 

sources of mined tantalum production 

may increase the risk of supply disruptions. The amount of tantalum maintained 

in the U.S. National Defense Stockpile 

has decreased significantly over the 

last decade as a result of selling the 

material into the marketplace, thereby 

removing one buffer which may have 

served to mitigate the risks associated 

with supply disruptions. World tantalum 

mine production has undergone an 

important geographic shift since the start 

of the 21st century when production was 

predominantly from Australia and Brazil. 

Beginning in 2007 and through 2014, 

the major sources of tantalum production 

from mines dramatically shifted to the 

DRC, Rwanda, and some other African 

countries. Consequently, over the 15-year 

period studied, the world’s largest sources 

of mine production have transitioned 

from countries with low governance 

risk, modern mechanized mining and 

advanced processing technologies, and 

transparent supply chains, to countries 

with higher governance risk, artisanal 

mineral production techniques, and far 

less transparent supply chains.

Top, Artisanal tantalum 

mining in central Africa. 

Bottom, Artisanal miners 

in central Africa washing 

tantalum ore to produce 

concentrate. Photographs 

provided courtesy of

Richard Burt, former 

President of the TantalumNiobium International

Study Center (T.I.C.). 

5
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By Donald I. Bleiwas, John F. Papp, and Thomas R. Yager 

For more information, contact 

Director, National Minerals Information Center 

U.S. Geological Survey 

12201 Sunrise Valley Drive 

988 National Center 

Reston, VA 20192 

email: nmicrecordsmgt@usgs.gov

ISSN 2327-6916 (print)

ISSN 2327-6932 (online)

http://dx.doi.org/10.3133/fs20153079

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