National Park Service

U.S. Department of the Interior

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park

MAY 2015

HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK

Draft General Management Plan, Wilderness Study, and Environmental Impact Statement
B | HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Hālau o Kekuhi at Halema‘uma‘u. NPS Photo 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

DRAFT GENERAL MANAGEMENT PLAN / WILDERNESS STUDY 

/ ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT FOR

HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK

Hawai‘i County, Hawai‘i

Prepared by United States Department of the Interior: National Park Service

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park was established on August 1, 1916, as Hawai‘i National Park, and on 

September 22, 1961, its name was changed to Hawai’i Volcanoes National Park when it was split from what 

is now Haleakalā National Park. The 1975 Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park Master Plan no longer provides 

adequate guidance to address the management and operational issues now facing the park.

This draft general management plan / wilderness study / environmental impact statement examines three 

possible management strategies or “alternatives,” including the impacts of implementing these alternatives 

in the park. These alternatives address visitor use and the preservation of natural and cultural resources to 

protect and interpret the significance of the park. They comply with National Park Service (NPS) planning 

requirements and respond to issues identified during the public scoping process. Alternative 2 is the NPS 

preferred alternative. If approved in a record of decision following the release of the final environmental 

impact statement, the preferred alternative will become the general management plan for the park.

Alternative 1: the no-action alternative would assume that existing programming, facilities, staffing, and 

funding would generally continue at current levels to protect the values of Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park. There would be no major changes in current management or visitor use, and implementation of 

currently approved plans would continue as funding allows.

Alternative 2: the preferred alternative would strengthen and broaden opportunities to connect people 

with the volcanic world treasure, Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, and provide a wide range of highquality visitor experiences based on different geographic areas. This alternative emphasizes the park’s 

role as a refuge and haven for native biota, people, and cultures in a world constantly adapting to 

volcanic activity and island-building processes and emphasizes Native Hawaiian values such as mālama 

ʻāina (nourishing or taking care of the land) and kuleana (responsibility) as important concepts in park 

stewardship of resources.

Alternative 3 emphasizes building new connections with the park, primarily through expanded education 

and hands-on stewardship opportunities. As in the preferred alternative, this alternative emphasizes the 

park’s role as a refuge and haven for native biota, people, and cultures in a world constantly adapting to 

volcanic activity and island-building processes and emphasizes Native Hawaiian values such as mālama 

ʻāina (nourishing or taking care of the land) and kuleana (responsibility) as important concepts in park 

stewardship of resources.

These alternatives would provide guidance to park managers about which resource conditions and visitor 

uses and experiences should be achieved rather than the details of how these conditions and experiences 

should be achieved. 

This document includes a detailed description of the alternatives followed by a description of park 

resources affected by the alternatives and the projected environmental consequences of the alternatives. 

Also included in this document are the results of public involvement and consultation with other agencies, 

organizations, and individuals associated with planning for the park’s future. 

Please refer to “How to Use This Document” on the following page for comment procedures and submittal 

methods and addresses. This draft general management plan / wilderness study / environmental impact 

statement has been distributed to agencies, organizations, and individuals for review and comment. The 

public comment period will extend for 60 days following the publishing of the notice of availability in the 

Federal Register.
D | HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Dedication of the Wahi Kapu sculpture. NPS photo by Jay Robinson
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park

PO Box 52

Hawai‘i National Park, HI 96718

Attn: Danielle Foster

808.985.6303

Prepared by:

National Park Service

Pacific West Region – Seattle Office

Park Planning and Environmental Compliance

909 1st Avenue

Seattle, WA 98104

HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK

Draft General Management Plan, Wilderness Study, and Environmental Impact Statement
F | HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Lava tree. NPS photo by Stephen Geiger
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

LETTER FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT

Aloha Friends,

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park is pleased to present for your consideration this draft general 

management plan, wilderness study, and environmental impact statement (GMP/WS/EIS). This draft 

document is the result of four years of public scoping and comment, interdisciplinary research, field 

assessments, stakeholder discussions, and Native Hawaiian consultation.

General management plans are intended to be long-term documents that establish and articulate a 

management philosophy and framework for decision making and problem solving in our national 

parks. In this document, three alternatives for Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park are presented for your 

review. Each alternative offers a different approach to protecting and managing park resources, using 

facilities, and providing a range of access and visitor experiences to meet the needs of local residents, 

off-island visitors, and students of all ages. These alternatives were developed with the intent to 

include and celebrate Native Hawaiian values such as mālama ʻāina (nourishing and taking care of the 

land) and kuleana (responsibility). The park planning team developed these alternatives based on the 

park’s purpose and significance, issues that need to be addressed, legal mandates, and comments that 

you provided for the preliminary alternatives.

We hope that you will give these alternatives serious consideration, take the time to comment, and 

continue to stay involved to help us determine how this national treasure will be protected and 

managed over the next 20 years.

Inside you will find many different ways you can make your voice heard. You can comment online at 

http://parkplanning.nps.gov/havogmp or join us at one of the scheduled talk story sessions to be held 

on the islands. A wilderness hearing will be held during the talk story sessions to receive comments 

specifically on the wilderness study. The public comment period will extend for 60 days following the 

publishing of the notice of availability in the Federal Register.

The staff, partners, and volunteers at Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park remain committed to fulfilling 

our kuleana to protect the park’s geologic features and native ecosystems, preserve its rich cultural 

heritage, and provide unforgettable visitor experiences.

Mahalo for your continued interest in the park. We hope that you will continue to stay engaged with 

the GMP planning process. We look forward to seeing you in the park.

Mahalo nui loa,

Cindy Orlando

Superintendent

You can access information about the Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park GMP/WS/EIS at 

http://www.nps.gov/havo/parkmgmt/plan.htm.
ii | HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Halema‘uma‘u Vent. NPS photo by Stephen Geiger. Credit:
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

HOW TO USE AND COMMENT ON THIS PLAN

This Draft General Management Plan / 

Wilderness Study / Environmental Impact 

Statement for Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park (GMP/WS/EIS) is presented in seven 

chapters and appendixes, consistent 

with federal requirements that guide 

the preparation of an environmental 

impact statement.

The Executive Summary at the beginning 

of the document is a condensed version 

of this document.

Chapter 1: Introduction and Background 

sets the stage for the draft GMP/WS/EIS by 

describing the national park, the planning 

process, the purpose and need for the plan, 

and implementation of the plan. It also 

describes the issues that are addressed in the 

GMP/WS/EIS, resources and values at stake 

in the planning process, and the relationship 

of this GMP/WS/EIS to other plans in the 

park and region.

Chapter 2: Foundation for Planning and 

Management includes the foundation 

document, which describes the national park’s 

purpose, significance, interpretive themes, 

and fundamental resources and values. It 

also describes the special congressional 

designations, authorizations, mandates, and 

legal and policy constraints and guidance.

Chapter 3: Alternatives describes three 

management alternatives, including the 

National Park Service (NPS) preferred 

alternative. The alternatives represent 

reasonable sets of management directions 

consistent with NPS policy and applicable 

laws and planning requirements. This chapter 

includes two tables that allow a quick review 

of each alternative: “Summary of Alternatives” 

and “Summary of Impacts.”

Chapter 4: Wilderness Study and Proposal 

assesses the feasibility of designating 

wilderness in recently acquired lands in 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park. This 

chapter includes a summary of the Wilderness 

Eligibility Assessment completed for the 

Kahuku Unit in 2012, assesses a number 

of alternatives for designating wilderness, 

proposes wilderness designation in the 

Kahuku Unit, and outlines the implications of 

such a designation.

Chapter 5: The Affected Environment

provides detailed information on the national 

park, focusing on those resources that could 

be affected by the decisions contained in the 

individual management alternatives.

Chapter 6: Environmental Consequences 

describes the impacts of each alternative on 

affected resources within the national park.

Chapter 7: Public Involvement summarizes 

the public involvement and consultation 

process that was an integral part of the 

creation of this draft GMP/WS/EIS. This 

chapter also summarizes public comments 

received by the National Park Service 

during scoping and public review of the 

preliminary alternatives.

The appendixes provide more detailed 

information related to the plan, including the 

full text of the Commercial Services Strategy 

and the Analysis of Boundary Modification 

and Land Protection.

All maps and figures are placed within the 

text of the applicable chapters. In many cases, 

actions or other discussions contained in this 

draft GMP/WS/EIS refer directly to maps 

and figures. In fact, many actions themselves 

are map-based. The reader must rely on the 

text, maps, and figures taken together to fully 

understand the actions described in this 

draft GMP/WS/EIS.
iv | 

HOW TO COMMENT ON THIS DOCUMENT

The public comment period for this draft 

GMP/WS/EIS will extend for 60 days 

following the publishing of the notice of 

availability in the Federal Register. We 

encourage you to review the document and 

we welcome your comments. During the 

comment period, comments may be submitted 

using several methods:

1. We prefer that readers submit 

comments online at the Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park GMP 

project website at 

http://parkplanning.nps.gov/havogmp

2. A postage-paid comment form is 

included in the Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park Draft GMP/WS/EIS 

Summary Newsletter, Number 4. You 

may use this form and attach additional 

pages as necessary, or

3. Letters may be sent to:

Superintendent, Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park

PO Box 52

Hawai‘i National Park, HI 96718 

In addition, comments may be made in 

person at one or more of the upcoming talk 

story sessions. The specific dates and times 

for these public meetings will be announced 

in local newspapers, in the draft GMP/WS/

EIS newsletter, and on the Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park homepage (http://www.nps.gov 

/havo) and the GMP/WS/EIS project website 

(http://parkplanning.nps.gov /havogmp). 

A limited number of additional paper and 

digital copies of this report are available from 

the above mailing address. The full report 

is available for viewing and downloading at 

the GMP/WS/EIS project website (http://

parkplanning.nps.gov/havogmp). This 

document is also available for viewing at the 

park, at all public libraries on the Island of 

Hawai‘i, and at the NPS Pacific West Region’s 

library in Seattle, Washington.

Your comments and contributions have been a 

valuable component of this planning process, 

and we look forward to your additional 

comments on this draft GMP/WS/EIS.

Please note: before including your address, 

phone number, e-mail address, or other 

personal identifying information in your 

comment, you should be aware that your 

entire comment—including your personal 

identifying information—may be made 

publicly available at any time. While you can 

ask us in your comment to withhold your 

personal identifying information from public 

review, we cannot guarantee that we will 

be able to do so.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT .......................................................................................... Following Cover

LETTER FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT.......................................................................... i

HOW TO USE AND COMMENT ON THIS PLAN ........................................................... iii

HOW TO COMMENT ON THIS DOCUMENT ................................................................ iv

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................................................................ xiii

Introduction ....................................................................................................................xiii

Issues.............................................................................................................................. xv

Development of the General Management Plan and Wilderness Study .................................xvi

Alternatives.................................................................................................................... xvii

Wilderness Study .......................................................................................................... xxvii

Commercial Services ..................................................................................................... xxvii

Environmental Consequences ....................................................................................... xxviii

Implementation ............................................................................................................. xxix

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND ...................................................... 3

Introduction ......................................................................................................................3

Location and Access...........................................................................................................3

Background of Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park ...................................................................6

Overview of the National Park Service Planning Process ......................................................15

Purpose and Need for the Plan..........................................................................................16

Planning Issues and Concerns...........................................................................................18

Impact Topics ..................................................................................................................24

Relationship to Other Planning Efforts...............................................................................35

Next Steps in the Planning Process ....................................................................................43

Implementation of the General Management Plan..............................................................43

CHAPTER 2: FOUNDATION FOR PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT .............................. 47

Foundation Documents ....................................................................................................47

Park Purpose, Significance, Fundamental Resources and Values, and Special Mandates of 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park .......................................................................................49

Guiding Principles............................................................................................................54

Desired Conditions and Potential Management Strategies Derived from Laws, 

Regulations, and Policies ..................................................................................................55
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

CHAPTER 3: ALTERNATIVES ..................................................................................... 85

Introduction ....................................................................................................................85

Management Zones Used in the Alternatives .....................................................................87

Actions Common to All Alternatives..................................................................................97

Alternative 1: No-action Alternative ................................................................................ 102

Alternative 2: Preferred Alternative ................................................................................. 117

Alternative 3 ................................................................................................................. 149

User Capacity ................................................................................................................ 162

Mitigation Measures Common to All Alternatives............................................................. 165

Actions and Alternatives Considered but Dismissed .......................................................... 171

Identification of the Environmentally Preferable Alternative .............................................. 177

Section 106 Summary .................................................................................................... 178

Summary of Alternatives ................................................................................................ 179

Summary of Costs Associated with Implementation of the Alternatives.............................. 197

Summary of Impacts ...................................................................................................... 197

Implementation of the General Management Plan............................................................ 199

CHAPTER 4: WILDERNESS STUDY AND PROPOSAL ..................................................203

Introduction .................................................................................................................. 203

Wilderness Definition..................................................................................................... 203

Wilderness Eligibility Criteria .......................................................................................... 205

Brief Description of Study Area ....................................................................................... 205

Wilderness Eligibility in the Kahuku Unit ......................................................................... 206

Options Analyzed in this Wilderness Study ...................................................................... 206

Summary of Public Involvement Related to Wilderness...................................................... 208

Wilderness Proposal....................................................................................................... 209

Implications of Managing Lands Proposed for Wilderness ................................................. 209

CHAPTER 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT ............................................................215

The Natural Environment................................................................................................ 215

The Cultural Environment............................................................................................... 246

Visitor Use and Experience ............................................................................................. 259

Visitor and Employee Health and Safety .......................................................................... 271

Transportation and Access (to and within the park) .......................................................... 272

Socioeconomic Conditions and Trends............................................................................. 275

Partnerships and Agreements ......................................................................................... 282
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Adjacent Land Management ........................................................................................... 282

Park Management and Operations .................................................................................. 283

CHAPTER 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES......................................................289

Introduction .................................................................................................................. 289

Terms and Definitions..................................................................................................... 289

Cumulative Impacts ....................................................................................................... 290

Methods and Assumptions for Analyzing Impacts............................................................. 291

Unavoidable Adverse Impacts ......................................................................................... 336

Irreversible and Irretrievable Commitments of Resources................................................... 337

Relationship between Local Short-Term Uses and Long-Term Productivity ........................... 338

CHAPTER 7: PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT .........................................................................343

Public Scoping ............................................................................................................... 343

Public Review of Preliminary Alternatives......................................................................... 345

List of Draft GMP/WS/EIS Recipients................................................................................ 347

Consultation ................................................................................................................. 353

APPENDIX A: HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL 

PARK LEGISLATION..................................................................................................357

APPENDIX B: ACQUISITION OF ‘ŌLA‘A – 

HAWAI‘I TERRITORIAL EXECUTIVE ORDER 1540 ......................................................375

APPENDIX C: PERTINENT LAWS, POLICIES, AND PROCEDURES... .............................381

APPENDIX D: 2011 KAHUKU UNIT WILDERNESS ELIGIBILITY ASSESSMENT.............385

APPENDIX E: ANALYSIS OF BOUNDARY MODIFICATION 

AND LAND PROTECTION .........................................................................................393

APPENDIX F: COMMERCIAL SERVICES STRATEGY FOR

HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK...................................................................405

APPENDIX G: USER CAPACITY INDICATORS AND STANDARDS ................................437

APPENDIX H: SPECIAL STATUS SPECIES DESCRIPTIONS ...........................................451

APPENDIX I: ACOUSTIC SAMPLING AREAS ..............................................................479

PREPARERS AND CONSULTANTS..............................................................................481

GLOSSARY...............................................................................................................483

ACRONYMS .............................................................................................................489

SELECTED BIBLIOLOGY............................................................................................491

INDEX......................................................................................................................509
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

FIGURES

Figure 1.1. Park Vicinity ............................................................................................................4

Figure 1.2. Adjacent Land Ownership .........................................................................................5

Figure 1.3. Existing Conditions—Full Park ...................................................................................9

Figure 1.4. Existing Conditions—Crater Rim Drive......................................................................10

Figure 1.5. Existing Conditions—Kahuku Unit ...........................................................................11

Figure 3.1. Management Zones for Alternative 1, Full Park....................................................... 104

Figure 3.2. Management Zones for Alternative 2, Full Park....................................................... 118

Figure 3.3. Management Zones for Alternative 2 ..................................................................... 119

Figure 3.4. Historic Routes, Full Park....................................................................................... 133

Figure 3.5. Boundary Modifications ........................................................................................ 136

Figure 3.6. Management Zones for Alternative 3, Full Park....................................................... 150

Figure 3.7. Management Zones for Alternative 3, Crater Rim Drive and Kahuku......................... 151

Figure 3.8. User Capacity Framework...................................................................................... 164

Figure 4.1. Wilderness and Backcountry Areas......................................................................... 204

Figure 4.2. Eligible Wilderness, Kahuku .................................................................................. 207

Figure 4.3. NPS Wilderness Review and Management Process................................................... 210

Figure 5.1. Volcanic Flows, Faults, and Cracks ......................................................................... 219

Figure 5.2. Ecological Zones................................................................................................... 223

Figure 5.3. Acoustic Sites and Sampling Areas......................................................................... 245

Figure 5.4. Listed Properties In The National Register Of Historic Places..................................... 249

Figure 5.5. Average Monthly Visitation For Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, 2000–13 ............... 260

Figure 5.6. Timing of Daily CUA Visitation to Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, 2011 ................. 270

Figure 5.7. Age Demographics in Hawai�i County by Age Group, 2010 ..................................... 277

Figure 5.8. Occupancy in Housing Units in Hawai�i County, 2000–10 ........................................ 278

Figure 5.9. Employment Growth by County, 2001-11............................................................... 280

Figure E.1. Boundary Adjustments.......................................................................................... 394

Figure F.1. Timing of Daily CUA Visitation to Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, 2011.................. 417
TABLES 

Table 3.1. Management Zones..................................................................................................89

Table 3.2. Alternative 1: Staffing ............................................................................................ 115

Table 3.3. Alternative 1: Summary of Costs ............................................................................. 116

Table 3.4. Alternative 2: Staffing ............................................................................................ 148

Table 3.5. Alternative 2: Summary of Costs ............................................................................. 148

Table 3.6. Alternative 3: Staffing ............................................................................................ 161

Table 3.7. Alternative 3: Summary of Costs ............................................................................. 161

Table 3.8. Summary of Alternatives......................................................................................... 179

Table 3.9. Summary of Costs.................................................................................................. 197

Table 3.10. Summary of Impacts............................................................................................. 197

Table 5.1. Endangered, Threatened, and Candidate Species of Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park and Surrounding Areas ................................................................................... 231

Table 5.2. Species of Special Concern in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park.................................. 233

Table 5.3. Common Sound Levels and their Effects on the Human Ear....................................... 243

Table 5.4. Ambient Sound Levels (dBA) In Park Acoustic Sampling Areas ................................... 244

Table 5.5. Cultural Landscapes at Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park............................................ 254

Table 5.6. Visitor Use Statistics for Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, 1998–2012 ....................... 259

Table 5.7. Total Commercial Use Authorizations in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, 2012.......... 270

Table 5.8. Population Growth and 2010 Urban and Rural Demographics, Hawai‘i State 

Counties, 2010...................................................................................................... 277

Table 5.9. Demographic in the Nation, State, and County, 2010 ............................................... 278

Table 5.10. Value of Owner-Occupied Units, 2011 ................................................................... 279

Table 5.11. Growth in Median Household Income, 1999–2011 ................................................. 280

Table 7.1. Public Scoping Open Houses 2009........................................................................... 344

Table 7.2. Public “Talk Story” on Preliminary Alternatives ......................................................... 346

Table F.1. Total Commercial Use Authorizations in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, 2012 .......... 416

Table F.2. Commercial Services Evaluation Criteria ................................................................... 420

Table G.1. Indicators, Standards, Management Strategies, and Monitoring Strategies................. 437

Table H.1. Species of Special Concern in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park ................................. 472

HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Hula on crater rim by Halau Hula Kalehuaki‘eki‘e‘ika‘iu. NPS photo by David Boyle
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Executive Summary | xi 

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

View from Palm Trail at Kahuku. NPS photo by Jay Robinson
xii | Executive Summary HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Engagement with youth and volunteers in stewardship activities. NPS photo.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Executive Summary | xiii 

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park is on the 

southeastern edge of the Island of Hawai‘i, the 

southernmost island of the Hawaiian 

Archipelago. The park was established by 

Congress on August 1, 1916, as Hawai‘i 

National Park (subsequent legislation 

separated Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

and Haleakalā National Park).

Today, Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park protects 

approximately 330,0861

(368,106)2

 acres of public 

land, which includes 

some of the most unique 

geologic, biologic, and 

cultural landscapes in the 

world. Extending from 

sea level to the summit of 

Mauna Loa at 13,677 feet, 

the park encompasses the 

summits and rift zones of two of the world’s 

most active shield volcanoes—Kīlauea, 

representing the newest land in the Hawaiian 

Islands chain, and Mauna Loa, the largest 

volcano in the world.

1

 The official, designated acreage of Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park is 323,431 acres. However, the park also 

manages an area called ‘Ōla‘a, which is outside the 

park’s official designated boundary. Because this area has 

been managed by Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park since 

federal acquisition in 1952 and continues to affect current 

management decisions in the park, this GMP includes ‘Ōla‘a 

within the total acreage that the park protects.

2

 Determining acreage at Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park is 

a complex process by which varying sources provide different 

estimations of total acreage. Unless otherwise specified, 

acreage listed in this document includes two numbers: the 

first is the official acreage derived from deeds of conveyance 

to the United States and county/state tax assessor records, the 

sum total of which constitute the official NPS acreage for the 

park. (The official park acreage is maintained by the NPS Land 

Resource Division, WASO.) The second (listed in parentheses) 

is an estimation generated by geographic information 

systems (GIS) software that uses projections on the land 

to calculate acreage within geographically defined boundaries. 

When available and appropriate, both numbers are included in 

this GMP/WS/EIS because deed/tax assessor estimates, which 

are used in legislation and policy for the park, do not exist 

for some areas in the park such as those acres analyzed for 

wilderness eligibility in the Kahuku Unit.

While these two volcanoes are the primary 

features of the park and the principal reason 

for its establishment, this volcanic topography 

also supports one of the most fascinating 

biologic landscapes in the world, sustaining 

incredibly diverse populations of plant and 

animal communities across seven ecological 

life zones. Located more than 2,000 miles 

from the nearest continent, 

Hawaiian plants and animals 

evolved in almost complete 

isolation for the past 30 

million years. As a result, 

over 90% of the native 

terrestrial flora and fauna 

in Hawai‘i are endemic to 

this small archipelago. The 

park provides habitat for 52 

federally listed endangered 

or threatened species 

and eight species that are 

candidates for listing. Included among these 

species are the nēnē (Hawaiian goose), ‘io 

(Hawaiian Hawk), and ‘āhinahina (Mauna 

Loa silversword). Considering this diversity of 

life and its distinction on the planet, Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park is both a fantastic 

laboratory for the study of biogeography and 

evolution within the Pacific Islands and a 

cornerstone for recovery of native Hawaiian 

species found nowhere else in the world.

In addition to its geological and biological 

significance, the park also plays a unique role 

in the history of human development on the 

Hawaiian Islands and remains an important 

home to living cultures in Hawai‘i. Just as the 

volcanic and biologic features of the land have 

shaped the landscape of Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park, so too have the people who 

have been a part of its history. Over five 

centuries before the establishment of the park, 

Native Hawaiians lived, worked, and 

worshiped on this sacred ground. Later, in the 

19th and early 20th centuries, adventurers, 

explorers, scientists, philanthropists, and 

individuals also left their mark on the 

Lava flow. NPS photo by Jay Robinson
xiv | Executive Summary HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

landscape. Today, ancient petroglyphs, stone 

walls, and footpaths persist between massive 

lava flows. Historic housing districts, historic 

structures, and historic roads 

dot the developed corridors of 

the park, together revealing the 

diverse cultures and history 

that have been, and continue 

to play, an integral role on 

this landscape.

Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National 

Park contains 123,100 

(130,950) acres of federally 

designated wilderness set 

aside in 1978. In 1980, Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes and Haleakalā 

National Parks were jointly 

designated as “Hawai‘i Island 

International Biosphere 

Reserve” by United Nations 

Educational, Scientific and 

Cultural Organization (UNESCO), and seven 

years later, in 1987, the park was also declared 

a World Heritage Site by the World Heritage 

Convention of UNESCO. Very few areas in 

the United States are designated as both a 

Biosphere Reserve and World Heritage Site.

The last master plan for Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park was completed in 1975 and 

no longer provides adequate guidance to 

address the policy and operational issues now 

facing park management. Many conditions 

in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park and 

throughout the region have changed since 

the current master plan was completed in 

1975, including: continuous eruptions at 

Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō on Kīlauea Volcano since 1983 

and related impacts on resources and visitor 

opportunities; increased visitation and 

changing visitor patterns (approximately 

1.6 million visitors annually) and resulting 

transportation conflicts and parking 

congestion; the loss of visitor facilities, 

cultural resources, and significant habitat 

for numerous federally listed threatened, 

endangered, and candidate species from 

volcanic activity; the continuing spread of 

introduced invasive species and avian disease; 

increased impacts to the soundscape and 

acoustic environment; expansion of the park 

with the addition of the Kahuku Unit; impacts 

on resources due to climate change; and new 

international designations 

including designation 

as a World Heritage 

Site and International 

Biosphere Reserve.

The purpose of this general 

management plan (GMP) 

is to articulate a vision and 

overall management direction 

for Hawaiʻi Volcanoes 

National Park that reflects 

contemporary and future 

issues and challenges facing 

the park and provide a 

framework that will guide 

decision making for the 

foreseeable future. The 

general management plan 

includes management strategies for resource 

protection and preservation; visitor use; 

interpretation and education; use of facilities 

and the need for new facilities; and longterm operations and management of the 

park. This general management plan also 

includes a wilderness study, or a formal study 

of lands eligible in the park for possible 

recommendation to Congress for wilderness 

designation as well as a commercial services 

strategy that articulates goals and strategies for 

managing commercial services in the park.

New life on lava flow. NPS photo

‘A‘ā flow with Halema‘uma‘u in background. 

NPS photo by Jay Robinson
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Executive Summary | xv 

ISSUES

The general public; NPS staff; Native 

Hawaiian groups; Hawaiian communities; 

federal, state, and local agencies; 

organizations; and businesses identified 

issues and concerns during the scoping phase 

(early information gathering) for this general 

management plan. An issue is defined as an 

opportunity, conflict, or problem regarding 

the use or management of public lands. 

The GMP alternatives provide strategies for 

addressing these issues within the context 

of the park’s purpose, significance, and 

special mandates. A detailed description 

of issues and concerns addressed in the 

general management plan can be found in 

the “Purpose and Need” section of Chapter 

1: Introduction and Background under the 

heading “Planning Issues and Concerns.”

This general management plan provides 

direction on the following topics:

• a management framework for park 

managers to use when making 

decisions about how best to protect 

natural resources, including desired 

resource conditions and long-term 

guidance for protection, restoration, 

and stewardship of the park’s 

natural resources

• a management framework for park 

managers to use when making 

decisions about how best to protect 

the park’s historic structures, 

cultural landscapes, archeological 

sites, ethnographic resources, and 

museum collections, including 

desired resource conditions 

and long-term guidance for 

preservation and management

• a management framework for park 

managers to use when making 

management decisions on issues 

related to Native Hawaiian values 

and ongoing traditional use as part 

of preservation, management, and 

interpretation of park resources

• overall direction for managing the 

qualities of wilderness character 

in designated wilderness and a 

wilderness study to assess lands 

eligible in the park for wilderness 

designation (Chapter 4: Wilderness 

Study and Proposal)

• guidance for park managers 

to use when making decisions 

about the park’s research and 

monitoring efforts

• guidance on how the park will assess, 

respond to, and interpret the impacts 

of global climate change, including 

objectives for reducing or offsetting 

emissions and an evaluation of 

the impacts of proposed actions 

for their impacts on the park’s 

carbon footprint

• a management framework for park 

managers to use when making 

decisions about visitor use, 

experiences, and opportunities 

in different areas of the park by 

identifying the appropriate types of 

visitor use and experience at various 

park sites incorporating visitor 

demand and resource sensitivity

• general guidance for establishing 

the types and levels of commercial

activities that are necessary 

and appropriate for Hawaiʻi 

Volcanoes National Park, 

including recommendations 

for any commercial services in 

Kahuku (Appendix F: Commercial 

Services Strategy)

Hōlei sea arch. NPS photo by Stephen Geiger
xvi | Executive Summary HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

• guidance for transportation options 

and infrastructure, including 

circulation patterns and visitor 

access, that will improve visitor 

experiences, connect park sites, 

and provide access to neighboring 

communities while ensuring 

protection of resources (Appendix 

E: Analysis of Boundary Modification 

and Land Protection)

• a sustainable vision for park 

facilities that supports visitors, park 

operations, and park partners

• a vision for sustainable park 

operations, including operations 

for the Kahuku Unit, and for natural 

event and disaster planning

• opportunities to increase efficiency, 

reduce costs, and create better 

communication while expanding 

the park’s capacity to accomplish 

its mission through interagency 

coordination and collaboration 

and partnerships

• an evaluation of the adequacy of 

park boundaries based on specific 

criteria for protecting park resources, 

providing opportunities for public 

enjoyment consistent with the 

purpose of the park, and addressing 

operational and management issues 

(Appendix E: Analysis of Boundary 

Modification and Land Protection)

• integrated planning for the Kahuku 

Unit as part of a cohesive vision for 

the entire park

DEVELOPMENT OF THE GENERAL 

MANAGEMENT PLAN AND 

WILDERNESS STUDY

This Draft General Management Plan / 

Wilderness Study / Environmental Impact 

Statement (GMP/WS/EIS) was developed 

in consultation with NPS staff and program 

managers; Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park visitors; Native Hawaiian groups; 

local communities; federal, state, and local 

agencies; organizations; and businesses. Public 

involvement efforts were ongoing throughout 

the planning process and provided critical 

input into this plan.

The GMP/WS/EIS is based on an analysis of 

existing and predicted natural and cultural 

resource conditions, visitor experiences, 

environmental impacts, and costs. It primarily 

provides a framework for administration 

and management and a vision to be realized 

through future actions. This document also 

includes an environmental impact statement 

(EIS), which considers at a general qualitative 

level the impacts that each of the alternatives 

could have on the park environment. The 

environmental impact statement sets the 

framework for future compliance with the 

National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) 

and the National Historic Preservation Act 

(NHPA) for the park. It also assists decision 

makers and the public in assessing the relative 

merits and effects of the alternatives.

Nēnē with Southwest Rift of Mauna Loa in background. Photo courtesy of USGS
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Executive Summary | xvii 

ALTERNATIVES

Three alternatives for future management 

of Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park are 

presented in this draft GMP/WS/EIS. 

Each of the alternatives supports and is 

consistent with the park’s purpose and 

significance, desired future conditions, 

and current laws, regulations, and policies. 

The three alternatives represent the range 

of ideas that NPS sources; the public; 

federal, state, and local agencies; and Native 

Hawaiian and stakeholder groups identified 

regarding natural and cultural resource 

conditions, visitor use and experiences, 

and overall management of Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park.

The three alternatives are 

characterized as follows:

• Alternative 1 (the NoAction Alternative)

• Alternative 2 (the NPS 

Preferred Alternative)

• Alternative 3

Several other actions and alternatives were 

also considered but were eventually dismissed 

from further analysis. These actions and 

alternatives, along with the rationale for 

their dismissal, are described near the end of 

Chapter 3: Alternatives.

Management Zones

Management zones define specific resource 

conditions and visitor experiences to be 

achieved and maintained in each particular 

area of the park. Each zone includes the types 

of activities and facilities that are appropriate 

in that management zone. For Hawaiʻi 

Volcanoes National Park, four management 

zones were developed by the planning team. 

These include the following:

• Visitor Services Zone

• Transitional/Semi-primitive Zone

• Wild/Primitive Zone

• Park Support Zone

These zones form the basis of the GMP 

alternatives and are applied to different 

geographic locations or areas of the park in 

alternatives 2 and 3. In alternative 1, the zones 

were taken from the 1975 Hawaiʻi Volcanoes 

National Park Master Plan. Each zone gives a 

general level of management guidance or 

direction. A map depicting the application of 

management zones for each alternative can be 

found in Chapter 3: Alternatives.

Actions Common to All Alternatives

Actions common to all alternatives present 

management guidance, desired conditions, 

and actions that would apply to all alternatives 

(alternatives 1–3). This section is included 

before the detailed descriptions of the 

three alternatives and contains direction 

the park would follow, regardless of which 

alternative is selected.

Many aspects of natural and cultural resources 

management (such as an emphasis on 

restoring native ecosystems, preservation of 

wilderness character, and continued support 

for research), visitor use and experience (such 

as providing access to the iconic places and 

volcanic processes), and collaboration with 

partners on a variety of issues (including 

coastal and shoreline management) are 

common to all alternatives. The park would 

continue to operate Volcano HouseSM as a 

concession operation for lodging, retail, and 

food and beverage services in all alternatives.3

Guidance for Kilauea Military Camp (KMC) 

and use of the 1877 Volcano House should 

3

 The service mark (SM) inserted after “Volcano House” is 

associated with a legally registered name or designation used 

in the manner of a trademark to distinguish an organization’s 

services from those of its competitors.

Deep impression in Footprints area. NPS photo
xviii | Executive Summary HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

conditions change is also common to all 

alternatives. The park would continue to 

provide interpretation at the Jaggar Museum, 

with improved exhibits, and the Hawaiian 

Volcano Observatory would continue to 

operate adjacent to Jaggar Museum.

The park would also continue to implement 

recommendations in recent planning 

efforts including: Fire Management Plan 

(2007), Crater Rim Drive Rehabilitation 

Environmental Assessment (May 2010), 

Archeological Preservation Plan for Kealakomo 

Ahupua‘a (January 2011), and the Final 

Plan/EIS for Protecting and Restoring 

Native Ecosystems by Managing Nonnative 

Ungulates (2013).

Situated on two active volcanoes, the need 

for flexibility in managing Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park is great. Nature is dynamic 

and volcanic eruptions are possible at any 

time. Planning for a national park unit in 

this type of unpredictable environment 

presents both challenges and opportunities 

and requires flexibility in how the park 

may respond to different scenarios. Actual 

management decisions will likely be guided by 

the magnitude of an individual event. Rather 

than provide specific recommendations in the 

general management plan for how the park 

may respond to a given event, the planning 

team developed some general guidance 

for managers facing volcanic activity in the 

future, notably with respect to facilities and 

infrastructure in the park. This guidance is 

also common to all alternatives.

A 5.5 mile segment of the Chain of Craters 

Road that ran through the park towards 

Kalapana was buried by lava flows generated 

by Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō. Due to a change in the direction 

of the lava flow in 2014, an unpaved 

emergency access route was constructed 

following the historic road alignment. 

This route is for emergency access only. 

When this route is no longer needed for 

emergency access, it would be used as an 

equestrian, biking, and hiking trail (similar 

in character and functionality to the Escape 

Road from the summit to Mauna Ulu) to 

provide a quality non-motorized visitor use 

opportunity and future emergency route 

without compromising natural values and 

without adding the management complexity 

of managing a coastal entrance for public 

vehicles to enter the park.

Alternative 1: No-action Alternative

Under alternative 1, existing programming, 

facilities, staffing, and funding would generally 

continue at current levels to protect the 

values of Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park. 

There would be no major changes in current 

management or visitor use. Implementation of 

currently approved plans would continue as 

funding allows. This alternative provides the 

baseline for evaluating actions and impacts in 

other alternatives.

KĪLAUEA VISITOR CENTER AND 

SURROUNDING AREA

The park would continue to maintain the 

current use and function of buildings with no 

expansion to buildings. The park would retain 

the current function of Kīlauea Visitor Center 

as the main park visitor contact station, as well 

as park headquarters and administrative 

offices. The park would continue to upgrade 

Kīlauea Visitor Center, as needed, for building 

maintenance and interpretive exhibits.

CRATER RIM DRIVE

The park would continue to maintain Crater 

Rim Drive as a two-way road in keeping 

with its historic character and, if and when 

possible, would reopen the closed section 

for both public and administrative use. The 

park would also continue to evaluate the pilot 

hydrogen shuttle technology. This includes 

the performance of the shuttles that will 

service proposed stops along Crater Rim 

Bicycling along Crater Rim Trail. NPS photo by Jay Robinson
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Executive Summary | xix 

Drive (scheduled to begin in 2015). The park 

would reopen Halema‘uma‘u Overlook and 

parking lot when hazards associated with the 

volcanic plume are diminished and the park 

determines, through active monitoring, that 

air quality and other hazards are at a level that 

is consistent with general visitor use. This area 

would continue to be used and maintained for 

visitor use.

THURSTON LAVA TUBE AND 

SURROUNDING AREA

The park would continue to implement 

recommendations from the Thurston Parking 

Area Improvement Project for specific site 

improvements at Thurston Lava Tube. Park 

staff would continue to respond to congestion 

at Thurston Lava Tube as issues arise and as 

staff is available. The park would implement 

transportation congestion management 

strategies to improve visitor experience and 

safety in this area. Kīlauea Iki, Pu‘u Pua‘i, 

and Devastation would be maintained in 

their current configurations to serve existing 

parking, trailhead, and overlook functions.

CHAIN OF CRATERS ROAD

The park would continue to maintain the 

character of Chain of Craters Road to NPS 

standards, ensuring a park-like feel to the 

driving experience, while providing for visitor 

safety. The park would identify and clear 

over-vegetated turnouts to restore views and 

vistas and to encourage stops along the road. 

Mauna Ulu and Kealakomo would continue 

to be maintained as day use areas and 

viewing locations. 

The park would continue to work with 

partners to provide a sustainable and 

moveable visitor contact station at the 

current end of Chain of Craters Road for 

interpretation and safety on a trial basis. If

the pilot project is successful, the park would 

retain the structure for visitor contact at the 

end of Chain of Craters Road to replace some 

of the functions provided by the Waha‘ula 

Visitor Center, destroyed by lava in 1989. This 

contact station could be relocated along Chain 

of Craters Road, if necessary, in response to 

volcanic activity.

‘ĀINAHOU RANCH HOUSE AND GROUNDS

‘Āinahou Ranch would continue to provide 

a management area for nēnē recovery. The 

park would also continue to administer the 

ranch house and grounds under the existing 

interim operating plan, which emphasized 

activities necessary for maintaining the house 

and cultural landscape in good condition 

so as not to preclude future uses. The water 

system would be maintained for house fire 

suppression, and the access road to ʻĀinahou 

would be maintained as an unpaved road.

Kahuku forest restoration volunteers. NPS photo by Jay Robinson

KAHUKU UNIT

Kahuku would continue to be managed under 

an interim operating plan with limited day use 

visitation on weekends and for special events, 

but over time and with adequate funding for 

staff and infrastructure, the park would open 

Thurston Lava Tube. NPS photo by Stephen Geiger
xx | Executive Summary HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

this unit seven days a week. The park would 

maintain the existing entrance at Kahuku but 

address safety issues by clearing vegetation, 

improving signage, and possibly lowering 

existing berms to improve the line of sight for 

drivers, in coordination with state highways. 

The park would also seek to collaborate with 

the state to evaluate and add a turn lane.

The park would continue to adaptively reuse 

the site for a mix of visitor services and 

administrative and operational use, as needed. 

The park would develop an orientation/ 

interpretive strategy to define and site various 

media to interpret Mauna Loa geologic and 

natural history, native species and forest 

conservation, history of cattle ranching, 

and Native Hawaiian presence in this area, 

and also consider broader historical context 

including World War II military history. The 

park would maintain a single visitor contact 

station in lower Kahuku.

The current main road would be maintained 

for vehicle access to Upper Glover. The park 

would continue to convert some old pasture 

roads to trails, and the trail from Kahuku to 

ʻAinapō could be considered for future use 

but would not be improved. Interpretation 

would be enhanced along the current road 

system and the park would restore the 

former paddock and pasture areas to natural 

conditions and/or native communities, as 

funding allows.

The area above Upper Glover would remain 

closed to public access because of safety and 

resource management concerns, including 

lack of adequate staff or vehicles to adequately 

patrol this remote area of the park.

Alternative 2: Preferred Alternative 

The NPS preferred alternative would 

strengthen and broaden opportunities to 

connect people with the volcanic world 

treasure, Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park, and provide a wide range of highquality visitor experiences based on 

different geographic areas. Kīlauea summit 

would continue to be the most actively 

visited area of the park with the greatest 

concentration of services and amenities 

for park visitors. Along Chain of Craters 

Road and Mauna Loa Road, the park would 

strive to provide visitors with improved 

opportunities to experience and connect 

with park resources and values, including 

new opportunities at places like Mauna Ulu 

and Kealakomowaena, while dispersing use 

to create a less congested and more tranquil 

experience. At Kahuku, although visitor 

access and recreation opportunities would 

be expanded from what is currently offered, 

infrastructure and development would be 

minimal, gradually phased in over time, and 

remain rustic in design to provide a primitive 

visitor experience.

Natural and cultural resources would 

continue to be managed and protected 

with a high degree of integrity, consistent 

with direction provided by existing laws 

and policies. The preferred alternative 

emphasizes the park’s role as a refuge and 

haven for native biota, people, and cultures 

in a world constantly adapting to volcanic 

activity and island-building processes. The 

preferred alternative would honor the Native 

Hawaiian people and culture by recognizing 

Native Hawaiian values such as mālama ‘āina 

(nourishing or taking care of the land) and 

kuleana (responsibility) and perspectives 

from Native Hawaiian land management 

such as ahupua‘a management (managing 

land from mauka (mountains) to makai (sea)) 

as important concepts in park stewardship 

of resources. Native Hawaiian traditional 

ecological knowledge would be used to 

enhance current scientific understanding 

to protect park resources and provide 

additional interpretive and educational 

opportunities for visitors.

Endangered nēnē at Kahuku. Photo courtesy of USGS
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Executive Summary | xxi 

KĪLAUEA VISITOR CENTER AND 

SURROUNDING AREA

The park would produce a development 

concept plan and site-specific interpretive 

strategy to integrate visitor experiences among 

the complex of buildings on the summit of 

Kīlauea. This integrated campus, or kauhale, 

would include the Kīlauea Visitor Center, 

Ohia Wing, Volcano Art Center, pā hula 

(place reserved for hula dancing), and other 

buildings in the vicinity. The priority would 

be to stay within the existing footprint of 

development; however, modest expansion 

could be necessary to achieve the overall 

vision and to accommodate walkways, 

improve circulation, and reduce conflicts 

between vehicles and visitors.

The park would continue to use Kīlauea 

Visitor Center as one of two primary visitor 

facilities as well as park headquarters and 

administrative offices. Additional parking 

would be provided to address increased 

visitor use, the current restrooms would be 

removed and replaced with a facility of similar 

capacity behind the visitor center to provide 

more interpretive space, and the park would 

construct a 2.5-mile separate shared trail for 

both pedestrian and bicycle use from Kīlauea 

Visitor Center to Jaggar Museum.

The park would adaptively reuse the historic 

Ohia Wing as a cultural museum and 

administrative offices to also complement the 

visitor functions of the Kīlauea Visitor Center 

and Jaggar Museum.

CRATER RIM DRIVE

Assuming eruptive activity ceases or changes 

in Halema‘uma‘u Crater and the park 

determines through active monitoring that 

air quality and other hazards are at a level 

that is consistent with general visitor use, the 

park would reopen the southern section of 

Crater Rim Drive and keep the road open 

to the public for two-way traffic, allowing a 

mix of private vehicles and smaller shuttles 

(nonmandatory). The historic character 

and historic alignment of the road would be 

preserved. To improve safe bicycle access 

around Crater Rim Drive, the park would 

also improve signage along the road corridor, 

provide adjacent bicycle trails when feasible, 

and consider vehicular traffic closures during 

specific times of day or days of the week to 

encourage bicycle use.

As part of a pilot program, large commercial 

buses or vehicles over 98 inches in width and/

or over 38 feet in length would be limited 

to one-way traffic between Jaggar Museum 

and Chain of Craters Road junction along 

the southern portion of road. Administrative 

use of the road for two-way vehicle traffic 

would continue to be allowed. Once the 

Halema‘uma‘u Overlook is reopened to 

visitation, the parking lot would be maintained 

to accommodate the existing capacity, but 

the park could evaluate site modifications to 

address sensitive cultural issues and values 

and improve resource protection.

The park would also continue to evaluate the 

pilot hydrogen shuttle technology, including 

the performance of the shuttles that will 

service proposed stops along Crater Rim 

Drive (scheduled to begin in 2015).

THURSTON LAVA TUBE AND 

SURROUNDING AREA

In the preferred alternative, the park would 

maintain the current mix of parking for 

private and commercial vehicles at Thurston 

and use a suite of tools to address congestion 

and improve visitor experience. These tools 

could include improved visitor information 

and outreach for trip planning (emphasizing 

less busy times of day to visit), increased 

ranger presence to direct traffic, the use of 

intelligent transportation systems (such as 

electronic message boards giving real-time 

information), vehicle size limitations for 

parking, time-of-day restrictions on certain 

vehicles, and/or reservations for commercial 

vehicles only. Additional restriping and 

reconfiguration of parking at Thurston Lava 

Tube along the road may also be required. In 

addition, the park would consider developing 

a more specific site plan or development 

concept plan to integrate trails and parking 

areas from Kīlauea Iki to Devastation.
xxii | Executive Summary HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Large commercial buses would be able to load 

and unload at Thurston, but these buses may 

be required to park at nearby underutilized 

lots such as Devastation Trail and Pu‘u Pua‘i. 

Some reconfiguration within the existing 

developed footprint of these parking lots may 

be needed to accommodate large buses, and 

improved signing and accessibility ramping 

would be needed. The park would continue 

to evaluate implications of implementing 

one-way traffic between Jaggar Museum and 

the Chain of Crater Road junction on Crater 

Rim Drive for large commercial buses and 

requiring buses to only load and unload at 

Thurston as conditions change.

The park would also improve and 

increase interpretive opportunities and 

themes at Thurston while still protecting 

rainforest resources.

CHAIN OF CRATERS ROAD

The park would continue to maintain the 

character of Chain of Craters Road to NPS 

standards, ensuring a park-like feel for the 

driving experience, while providing for visitor 

safety. The park would identify and clear overvegetated turnouts to restore views/vistas and 

to encourage stops along the road.

The park would also explore the option of 

locating an educational pavilion, in addition 

to a mobile visitor contact station, along 

Chain of Craters Road to orient visitors, 

communicate visitor safety information, and 

provide an alternative visitor experience when 

the summit is closed to disperse visitation. 

Potential locations include Mauna Ulu 

or where the 1974 flows first cross Chain 

of Craters Road.

The park would continue to work with 

partners to provide a sustainable and 

moveable visitor contact station at the 

current end of Chain of Craters Road for 

interpretation and safety on a trial basis, 

replacing some of the functions provided 

by the Waha‘ula Visitor Center and 

administration area that was destroyed by 

lava in 1989. If the pilot project is successful, 

the park would retain the structure as a 

contact station to provide visitor services and 

emergency operations over the long term. 

If the pilot project is unsuccessful, the park 

would develop a long-term replacement 

visitor contact station in the form of an open 

pavilion or similar structure at the end of 

Chain of Craters Road. The structure would 

not be mobile, but interior elements could be 

made to be quickly removable in the event of 

an active lava flow that threatens the structure 

and the framing could be salvaged.

A 5.5 mile segment of the Chain of Craters 

Road that ran through the park towards 

Kalapana was buried by lava flows generated 

by Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō. Due to a change in the direction 

of the lava flow in 2014, an unpaved 

emergency access route was constructed 

following the historic road alignment. This 

route is for emergency access only. When this 

route is no longer needed for emergency 

access, it would be used as an equestrian, 

biking, and hiking trail (similar in character 

and functionality to the Escape Road from the 

summit to Mauna Ulu) to provide a quality 

non-motorized visitor use opportunity and 

future emergency route without 

compromising natural values and without 

adding the management complexity of 

managing a coastal entrance for public 

vehicles to enter the park.

‘ĀINAHOU RANCH HOUSE AND GARDENS

As in all alternatives, ‘Āinahou Ranch would 

continue to provide a core management area 

for nēnē recovery. Park staff would continue 

to maintain the house and cultural landscape 

‘Āinahou Ranch House. NPS photo by Jay Robinson
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Executive Summary | xxiii 

in good condition. The water system would be 

maintained for fire protection, and the access 

road to ‘Āinahou would be maintained as 

an unpaved road.

Under the preferred alternative, the National 

Park Service would focus on restoration 

for nēnē. Additional measures to provide 

opportunities for public stewardship of 

the ranch house and gardens and habitat 

restoration may be allowed through the use of 

trained volunteers and small service groups 

under the direction of NPS staff in the field. 

Within the formal gardens, the park would 

work with cultural resource staff to replace 

invasive nonnatives with native species, 

minimize any new plantings or cultivation, 

and prevent any inadvertent introduction of 

nonnatives. Interpretation of ‘Āinahou Ranch 

and its significance as a cultural resource and 

important site for nēnē would occur off-site 

for the general public.

KAHUKU UNIT

Under the preferred alternative, over time 

and with adequate funding for staff and 

infrastructure, the park would strive to for 

operational capacity seven days a week. 

Recreational infrastructure, such as trails, 

small-scale campgrounds, and interpretive 

and educational programs and activities, 

would be developed to optimize visitor 

access and provide a range of opportunities 

to experience Kahuku’s unique natural 

and cultural resources and participate in 

the recovery of species and sites. The focus 

would be on recreational activities such as 

hiking, camping, and nature-viewing, with 

some biking and scenic driving opportunities. 

The park would offer opportunities for the 

community, visitors, and school groups to 

volunteer on restoration projects in Kahuku 

and participate in hands-on resources 

management activities.

The park would maintain the existing 

entrance at Kahuku but address safety issues 

by clearing vegetation, improving signage, 

and possibly lowering existing berms to 

improve the line of sight for drivers. The park 

would also seek to collaborate with the state 

to evaluate and add turn lanes on Highway 

11 and would work with the state and other 

partners to expand interpretive and scenic 

opportunities along Highway 11.

The park would produce a development 

concept plan for the lower Kahuku area 

to provide detailed guidance on adaptive 

reuse of existing buildings for specific uses, 

and would determine the numbers and 

locations of campgrounds, picnic areas, and 

trails consistent with the overall vision for 

this alternative.

The park would upgrade and maintain the 

main road from the existing developed area 

to Upper Glover for two-wheel-drive access, 

primarily as one-lane with turnouts, similar 

in character to the Hilina Pali or Mauna Loa 

Roads. The main road from Upper Glover 

east to a designated location near the 1916 

lava flows (approximately 3 miles) would be 

maintained for four-wheel-drive access. There 

would be no public vehicular access west 

from Upper Glover. No new roads would be 

developed in lower Kahuku.

The park would develop a trail network in 

lower Kahuku that would accommodate 

different visitor abilities across a series of loop 

trails and trail connections in an effort to 

promote hiking, bicycling, and equestrian use. 

The park would prioritize re-establishing 

traditional and historic travel routes before 

any new trail construction; however, new 

trails could also be constructed in order to 

create trail connections.

Kahuku mist. NPS photo by Stephen Geiger
xxiv | Executive Summary HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Overnight camping in Kahuku 

would be allowed and multiple 

small-scale designated 

campgrounds with a low level 

of infrastructure and minimal 

services, such as water and 

compost or vault toilets, would 

be developed. Sites would be 

developed for both drive-in 

and walk-in campers, with 

some wheelchair-accessible 

campsites provided.

The park would implement 

a small pilot program for 

equestrian use in lower Kahuku 

pastures to explore allowing 

equestrian use in Kahuku while 

managing resource concerns 

such as the spread of invasive 

nonnative species. Under 

the pilot program, vegetation 

monitoring would be required and limited 

equestrian use would be allowed by special 

permit and potentially through a commercial 

use authorization (CUA) for guided trips.

Under the preferred alternative, the park 

would manage upper Kahuku for its 

wilderness characteristics based on its 

determination of eligibility for inclusion in 

the national wilderness preservation system. 

Recreational access in upper Kahuku would 

be permitted and visitor opportunities, such 

as hiking and camping, would be managed 

consistent with a wilderness experience. 

Trails would provide the primary recreational 

experience for visitors. The park would also 

consider developing a small campground in 

proximity to the existing cabins, outside nēnē 

habitat and wilderness, for walk-in users, 

which could also serve as a launching point 

for backcountry users. Rainwater catchment/

shelter could also be provided.

No commercial services or commercially 

guided recreation would be permitted 

in upper Kahuku.

Alternative 3

This alternative emphasizes building new 

connections with the park primarily through 

expanded education and handson stewardship opportunities. 

Traditional visitor opportunities 

would continue and capacity 

could be expanded at some 

existing sites to allow increased 

visitation, but new development 

would be very limited and a suite 

of management tools would be 

used to disperse visitors and 

manage congestion throughout 

the park. A greater focus 

would be placed on science 

and learning opportunities for 

visitors from mauka (mountains) 

to makai (sea). The park 

would immerse visitors in the 

protection and restoration of 

native species and ecosystems 

by maximizing opportunities 

to participate in restoration 

activities and additional 

emphasis would be placed on providing 

opportunities for visitors to engage in 

research, scientific investigation, and projects 

associated with natural and cultural resources 

management, notably in Kahuku.

Similar to the preferred alternative, natural 

and cultural resources would continue to be 

managed and protected with a high degree of 

integrity, consistent with direction provided 

by existing laws and policies. This alternative 

also emphasizes the park’s role as a refuge and 

haven for native biota, people, and cultures 

in a world constantly adapting to volcanic 

activity and island-building processes. This 

alternative would honor the Native Hawaiian 

people and culture by recognizing Native 

Hawaiian values such as mālama ‘āina 

(nourishing or taking care of the land) and 

kuleana (responsibility) and perspectives 

from Native Hawaiian land management such 

as ahupua‘a management (managing land 

from mauka to makai) as important concepts 

in park stewardship of resources. Native 

Hawaiian traditional ecological knowledge 

would be used to enhance current scientific 

understanding to protect park resources 

and provide additional interpretive and 

educational opportunities for visitors.

1924 Kīlauea eruption. NPS photo
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Executive Summary | xxv 

KĪLAUEA VISITOR CENTER AND 

SURROUNDING AREA

Same as alternative 2.

CRATER RIM DRIVE

Assuming no eruptive activity, the park would 

maintain the closure of the southern section 

of Crater Rim Drive to private vehicle traffic 

from Jaggar Museum to the Chain of Craters 

Road junction and explore the feasibility of 

implementing a mandatory shuttle system 

that would be owned by the National Park 

Service but operated by 

a commercial service, or 

partner. If implemented, 

this shuttle would run, 

with two-way service, 

the length of Crater Rim 

Drive and would be 

mandatory from Jaggar 

Museum south and east 

to the Chain of Craters 

Road junction. Locations 

for parking would be 

explored and would 

likely include expanding 

existing parking areas at Jaggar Museum and 

Devastation Trail. Large commercial buses 

would be allowed to run on Crater Rim Drive 

but would be limited to one-way traffic on 

the southern section of Crater Rim Drive 

from Jaggar Museum to Chain of Craters 

Road. The historic character of the road 

would be preserved.

In addition, the park would continue to allow 

administrative use of the road for two-way 

vehicle traffic. The park also would encourage 

bicycle use of the road with improved signage 

for safety concerns. Halema‘uma‘u Overlook 

and parking area would be treated the same 

as alternative 2.

THURSTON LAVA TUBE AND 

SURROUNDING AREA

Under alternative 3, the park would address 

congestion and improve visitor experience 

at Thurston by increasing reliance on shuttle 

systems, reducing private vehicle parking, and 

continuing to allow commercial vehicles at 

Thurston. The park would strive to improve 

visitor information and outreach for trip 

planning and emphasize less busy times of 

the day to visit and expand use of intelligent 

transportation systems.

To circulate visitors and provide visitor access 

to Thurston Lava Tube, the park would rely on 

the Crater Rim Drive shuttle, if implemented, 

and redirect private vehicle parking to other 

parking areas such as Kīlauea Iki, Devastation, 

or Pu‘u Pua‘i. Thurston Lava Tube would be 

maintained as a stop for large and small buses 

for commercial or educational groups around 

Crater Rim Drive as well 

as a shuttle stop. Except 

for Americans with 

Disabilities Act (ADA) 

parking, private vehicle 

parking at Thurston 

would be removed. 

Reconstruction of some 

of the parking may be 

necessary to provide 

compliant ADA parking.

As a way to disperse 

visitor use and take 

some of the demand off Thurston Lava 

Tube, the park would explore the option 

of expanding public access to other lava 

tubes for ranger-guided tours that would be 

focused on science.

CHAIN OF CRATERS ROAD

Chain of Craters Road would be managed 

the same as alternative 1. In addition, the 

park would use existing trails, historic trails, 

turnouts, and waysides to improve visitor 

experience and limit new development along 

Chain of Craters Road. New connections 

between existing trails could create loop 

hiking opportunities along Chain of Craters 

Road. To limit informal turnouts, the park 

would improve signage of features and 

viewpoints at existing road turnouts.

A 5.5 mile segment of the Chain of Craters 

Road that ran through the park towards 

Kalapana was buried by lava flows generated 

by Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō. Due to a change in the direction 

of the lava flow in 2014, an unpaved 

‘Apapane and yellow lehua. NPS photo by Jay Robinson
xxvi | Executive Summary HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

emergency access route was 

constructed following the 

historic road alignment. This 

route is for emergency access 

only. When this route is no 

longer needed for emergency 

access, it would be used as an 

equestrian, biking, and hiking 

trail (similar in character and 

functionality to the Escape 

Road from the summit to 

Mauna Ulu) to provide 

a quality non-motorized 

visitor use opportunity and 

future emergency route 

without compromising natural values and 

without adding the management complexity 

of managing a coastal entrance for public 

vehicles to enter the park.

‘ĀINAHOU RANCH HOUSE AND GROUNDS

Similar to alternative 2, ‘Āinahou Ranch 

would continue to provide a core nēnē 

management area for nēnē recovery. Park 

staff would continue to maintain the house 

and cultural landscape in good condition 

with limited use of volunteers or other 

support groups. The water system would be 

maintained for house fire suppression, and the 

access road to ‘Āinahou would be maintained 

as an unpaved road.

Alternative 3 would provide greater emphasis 

on restoration for nēnē and minimize human 

presence in the ranch house and gardens only 

as directly related to the protection of the 

site. NPS staff would conduct the majority of 

the project work at ‘Āinahou, with less use of 

volunteers or other groups, to minimize the 

amount of human presence at the site and 

emphasize nēnē recovery.

KAHUKU UNIT

Similar to alternative 2, park management 

activities in Kahuku would continue to 

concentrate on protecting and recovering 

native species, including special status species, 

and ecosystems, developing interpretive 

programs, and conducting surveys and 

inventories of cultural resources. Alternative 

3 would also provide additional recreation 

opportunities in Kahuku 

from what is currently 

offered, such as camping, as 

well as additional trails and 

interpretive and educational 

programs; however, the 

emphasis would be on a 

more primitive recreational 

experience with dispersed 

recreation and minimal 

facilities. Opportunities 

and programs would place 

additional emphasis on 

science, stewardship, and 

service-learning and focus 

more heavily on coordinated group activities.

Similar to alternative 2, a development 

concept plan would provide detailed 

guidance on how best to implement the 

recommendations of the general management 

plan, including adaptively reusing existing 

buildings for specific uses, and would 

determine the numbers and locations 

of campgrounds, picnic areas, and trails 

consistent with the overall vision for this 

alternative. Recreation opportunities in lower 

Kahuku would be similar to alternative 2—

related to road access, trails, and establishing 

overnight camping opportunities; however, 

there would be no commercially guided 

access for recreation in this alternative. 

Upper Kahuku would be managed the 

same as alternative 2, except there would 

be no additional campground developed in 

proximity to existing cabins.

Boundary Modifications

Under the two action alternatives, including 

the preferred alternative, the following 

boundary modifications are proposed:

• Legislation to include ‘Ōla‘a within 

the official park boundary since the 

parcel is not contiguous with the 

park. The land was donated to the 

park in 1952 and has been managed 

by the park since that time.

• The Great Crack parcels (1,951 

acres), proposed in the park’s 

previous 1975 master plan, and the 

Mauna Loa wilderness. NPS photo
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Executive Summary | xxvii 

Ala Wai‘i parcel (3,478 acres), which 

is adjacent to the Great Crack parcels 

and contains important archeological 

and natural resources.

• Private parcel (222 acres) along the 

southern edge of Kahuku (west of 

the present entrance off Highway 11), 

which would essentially connect the 

entire Kahuku parcel with Highway 

11 and protect lower Kahuku from 

incompatible development, protect 

rare dryland forest habitat, and 

provide access to a historic trail. 

• Private parcel at Pōhue Bay (16,457 

acres) that extends from lower 

Kahuku on Highway 11 down to 

the coast. Acquisition of this parcel 

would extend the park’s portion 

of Kahuku from mauka to makai, 

protecting important natural and 

cultural resources and providing a 

wider range of options for recreation 

improvements in lower Kahuku. 

No legislation would be needed for 

acquisition of these parcels contiguous to 

the boundary; however, acquisition by the 

National Park Service would be restricted 

to a willing-seller purchase only. Additional 

information, including a map of proposed 

parcels can be found in Appendix E: Analysis of 

Boundary Modification and Land Protection.

WILDERNESS STUDY

The National Park Service proposes 

wilderness designation of the lands found 

eligible in the Kahuku Unit (121,015 acres 

[GIS]) as a natural extension of the existing 

wilderness within the park. This designation 

of wilderness at Kahuku would further a 

conservation vision for high-elevation 

protection of natural and cultural resources 

and would create connectivity for park 

wilderness that would span from the summit 

of Mauna Loa Volcano all the way down its 

massive Southwest Rift. This rugged and 

remote environment offers outstanding 

opportunities for solitude and the potential 

for high-challenge recreational hiking. Nearly 

all of this mauka area of Kahuku is a place 

where the imprint of humans is scarcely 

noticeable, overpowered by the vast lava 

expanse and aura of wildness. Consistent with 

NPS policy, the park would continue to 

manage these proposed eligible lands for their 

wilderness qualities prior to formal 

designation. Additional information including 

implications for managing lands proposed for 

wilderness can be found in Chapter 4: 

Wilderness Study and Proposal.

COMMERCIAL SERVICES

A Commercial Services Strategy (CSS) 

has been produced as part of the general 

management plan that includes criteria 

for evaluating new commercial services, 

consistent with existing concession law and 

other statutes (see Appendix F: Commercial 

Services Strategy for Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park). This strategy would provide 

broad guidance for future decisions involving 

commercial services but would not apply 

retroactively to previously made decisions. 

The Commercial Services Strategy would 

not affect the terms of ongoing contracts or 

authorizations previously signed or issued 

prior to the completion of the final 

GMP/WS/EIS.

Koa regeneration at Kahuku within an ungulate-proof exclosure. 

NPS Photo

Coast at Keauhou. NPS photo
xxviii | Executive Summary HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

The potential effects of the three alternatives 

are analyzed for impacts to natural and 

cultural resources, wilderness, visitor use 

and experience, transportation and access, 

socioeconomics, park operations, and 

greenhouse gas emissions, climate change, 

and sustainability. This analysis is the basis for 

comparing the advantages and disadvantages 

of the alternatives. Impacts are described 

in terms of whether they are beneficial 

or adverse. If adverse, their intensity and 

duration are described. Cumulative impacts 

result from the incremental (i.e., additive) 

impact of an action when added to other past, 

present, and reasonably foreseeable future 

actions, regardless of who undertakes such 

actions. Conclusions for each topic area are 

provided, comparing each action alternative 

to the no action alternative.

Summary of Impacts

The following discussion summarizes the 

impacts of the alternatives considered, 

in accordance with the National 

Environmental Policy Act.

IMPACTS FROM ALTERNATIVE 1

Under alternative 1, natural resources would 

continue to experience adverse impacts in 

localized areas related to nonnative species, 

social trails, noise, and disturbances related to 

park operations, facilities, and visitor use. 

Cultural resources would continue to be 

vulnerable to surface disturbance, inadvertent 

damage, and vandalism. Natural and cultural 

resources would continue to benefit from 

ongoing assessment, restoration, treatments, 

and survey work. Visitor use, including 

interpretation and education, would continue 

to benefit from a wide variety of opportunities 

and programming, but would continue to be 

hampered by limited staff, overcrowding in 

some locations, and limited opportunities for 

some modes of recreation. Visitor access and 

transportation would continue to be adversely 

impacted in high visitor use areas, particularly 

during peak periods. Park operations would 

continue to be adversely affected by limited 

staff and the backlog of deferred maintenance.

IMPACTS FROM ALTERNATIVE 2

Many of the adverse and beneficial effects of 

alternative 1 would continue under alternative 

2. Natural resources would benefit from 

mitigation measures and restoration activities, 

as well as improved visitor management. 

Some adverse impacts would occur due to 

construction of new facilities and trails in 

some areas, particularly at Kahuku. Cultural 

resources could experience adverse impacts 

due to construction of new facilities and trails, 

but would be mitigated by strict adherence to 

departmental policy. Beneficial impacts would 

result from the enhanced ability to document 

and protect cultural resources. Visitor use, 

including interpretation and education, 

would continue to benefit from a wide 

variety of opportunities and programming 

and would be enhanced through improved 

facilities, expanded opportunities (such as 

at the Kahuku Unit), and increased staff 

capacity. There could be adverse impacts 

due to potential restrictions on vehicles 

in some areas of the park, but overall the 

changes would be beneficial to visitor access 

and transportation due to enhanced visitor 

and vehicle management. Park operations 

would be improved through increased 

staff capacity, increased environmental 

sustainability of facilities, and a decrease in 

deferred maintenance.

2011 Kamoamoa eruption with Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō in background. 

NPS photo by Jay Robinson
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Executive Summary | xxix 

IMPACTS FROM ALTERNATIVE 3

Many of the adverse and beneficial effects of 

alternative 1 would continue under alternative 

3. Effects on natural and cultural resources 

would be similar to alternative 2. Visitor use, 

including interpretation and education, would 

continue to benefit from a wide variety of 

opportunities and programming and would 

be enhanced through improved facilities, 

expanded opportunities (such as at the 

Kahuku Unit), and increased staff capacity. 

There would be adverse impacts due to 

restrictions on vehicles, such as Crater Rim 

Drive and other areas, and no commercial 

services at the Kahuku Unit. Overall, the 

changes would generally be beneficial to 

visitor access and transportation due to 

enhanced visitor and vehicle management. 

Under alternative 3, there would be some 

noticeable changes to facilities, such as the 

conversion of Volcano House to energy 

independence, and new facilities such 

campgrounds and education pavilions could 

be added, but the overall new development 

would be less than under alternative 

2. Park operations would be improved 

through increased staff capacity, increased 

environmental sustainability of facilities, and a 

decrease in deferred  maintenance.

Environmentally 

Preferable Alternative

The environmentally preferable alternative is 

defined as “the alternative that will promote 

national environmental policy as expressed 

by NEPA (section 101(b)) in Section 101 

of the National Environmental Policy Act.” 

The environmentally preferable alternative 

for Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park is 

alternative 2, the NPS preferred alternative. 

This alternative best satisfies the national 

environmental goals by providing the highest 

level of protection of natural and cultural 

resources while concurrently providing a 

wide range of neutral and beneficial uses of 

the environment. This alternative maintains 

an environment that supports a diversity and 

variety of individual choices, and it integrates 

resource protection with an appropriate range 

of visitor uses and understanding.

IMPLEMENTATION

Once the general management planning 

process is completed, the selected alternative 

would become the new management plan for 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park and would 

be implemented in phases over the next 

couple of decades. Implementation of the 

actions and developments proposed within 

this management plan is dependent on 

funding available at the time of need. The 

approval of this general management plan 

does not guarantee that the funding and 

staffing needed to implement the plan would 

be forthcoming. Instead, the plan establishes a 

vision of the future that will guide future 

management of the park. In addition to 

funding, implementation of any preferred 

alternative could be affected by other factors. 

More detailed planning, environmental 

documentation, and studies could be required 

before most actions proposed in the 

alternatives are completed. Additionally, all of 

the alternatives were developed on the 

assumption that certain mitigating actions 

would be incorporated into the proposed 

actions in order to reduce the degree of 

adverse impacts.

Hālape coast. NPS photo by Jay Robinson
xxx | Executive Summary HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Rugged coastal shoreline. NPS photo
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOE S NAT IONA L PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 1: Introduction and Background | 1 

INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND 1

Coast at Keauhou. NPS photo
2 | Chapter 1: Introduction and Background HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Flowering māmane. NPS photo by Jay Robinson
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 1: Introduction and Background | 3 

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

INTRODUCTION

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park is on 

the southernmost island of the Hawaiian 

Archipelago, more than 2,000 miles from the 

nearest continental land mass. It is a unit of 

the national park system in the Pacific West 

Region and is part of the Hawaiian High 

Islands Ecoregion. The park is within the 

Second Congressional District in Hawai‘i 

County, Hawai‘i. 

LOCATION AND ACCESS

Situated on the southeastern edge of the 

Island of Hawai‘i, the park is approximately 

30 miles southwest of Hilo and 95 miles 

southeast of Kona and is bisected by the 

Mamalahoa Highway (State Route 11)—the 

primary road that stretches between these two 

cities along the southern half of the island. 

The boundary of the park extends from the 

coast (south of the town of Pahoa) up to the 

summits of two of the five shield volcanoes 

on Hawai‘i Island (Kīlauea and Mauna Loa) 

and drops down along the southwest rift zone 

of Mauna Loa to State Route 11, west of the 

town of Nā‘ālehu. Located within Hawai‘i 

County, the park stretches across the rapidly 

growing rural Puna and Ka‘ū Districts (Figure 

1.1. Park Vicinity).

Regional Context

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

encompasses approximately 10% of the land 

on the island and is surrounded by state and 

privately held lands, including those owned by 

the State of Hawai‘i, Kamehameha Schools, 

and The Nature Conservancy (Figure 1.2. 

Adjacent Land Ownership). These entities 

are all part of a consortium of partner 

organizations and land management agencies 

known as the Three Mountain Alliance, 

the largest cooperative land management 

effort focused on watershed protection in 

Hawai‘i. Kamehameha Schools, owners 

of a 30,000 acre parcel called the Keauhou 

Ranch that abuts the park, and the State of 

Hawai‘i, who manages a conglomeration of 

designated natural area reserves (NARS), 

forest reserves, and game management 

areas, both share boundaries with Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park. These areas include: 

the Keauhou Ranch, the Kahauale‘a, Pu‘u 

Maka‘ala, Kīpāhoehoe, and Manukā Natural 

Area Reserves; the Mauna Loa Forest Reserve 

and Game Management Area; and the 

Kapāpala, Ka‘ū, ‘Ōla‘a, and Upper Waiākea 

Forest Reserves.

Four other units of the national park system 

are located on the west coast of the Island of 

Hawai‘i: Pu‘ukoholā Heiau National Historic 

Site, Kaloko-Honokōhau National Historical 

Park, Pu‘uhonua o Hōnaunau National 

Historical Park, and Ala Kahakai National 

Historic Trail (Figure 1.1. Park Vicinity).

The closest communities to Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park are Volcano Village 

to the north and Ocean View to the west of 

the Kahuku Unit. Nā‘ālehu and Pāhala are 

also located along the Māmalahoa Highway 

between Kahuku Unit and the main entrance 

of the park. Kalapana, a community located 

just outside the park’s east boundary was 

connected to the park via a scenic byway 

prior to 1986, when a large portion of the 

road became covered by lava. Within the 

park, military personnel and their guests 

vacation at Kilauea Military Camp (KMC), an 

Army-operated 54-acre historic recreational 

complex on park land currently under a 

special use permit.

Classic depiction of Kīlauea eruption in 1894. 

Painting by D. Howard Hitchcock 1894 from NPS archives 
4 | Chapter 1: Introduction and Background HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Figure 1.1. Park Vicinity

¬«11

¬«11

¬«130

¬«200

¬«190 ¬«19

Kawaihae ¬«19

KOHALA

Waimea

Honoka‘a

MAUNA KEA

HUALĀLAI

Hilo

Kailua-Kona

Kea‘au

Pahoa

Nā‘ālehu

Pāhala

Volcano Village

P A C I F I C O C E A N

Pu‘uhonua o Hōnaunau

National Historical

Park

Kaloko-Honokōhau

National Historical

Park

Hawai‘i Volcanoes

National Park

MAUNA LOA

KĪLAUEA

Pu‘ukoholā Heiau

National Historic Site

Ala Kahakai

National Historic Trail

Ala Kahakai

National Historic Trail

Ocean View

Kalapana

KAHUKU

‘ŌLA‘A

Kaua‘i

O‘ahu

Moloka‘i

Maui

Lāna‘i Hawai‘i

The Hawaiian Islands

MAP AREA

¬«270

Produced by: PWR - Seattle Planning Office

Date Created: June 2014

Data Sources: USGS - Lava Flows, Roads, Coastline

 NPS - Park Boundaries

Fig. 1_1 Park Vicinity_060414.mxd

μ

Legend

0 25

Kilometers

0 10

Miles

NPS Boundaries

Recent Lava Flows

Figure 1.1 Park Vicinity

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park GMP/WS/EIS

Ala Kahakai

National Historic Trail

Major Roads
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 1: Introduction and Background | 5 

Figure 1.2. Adjacent Land Ownership

11

¬«

Volcano 

Village

Hawai‘i Volcanoes

National Park

Hawai‘i Volcanoes

National Park

Ocean View

Kalapana

Ka‘ū

Forest

Reserve

Nā‘ālehu

Pāhala

11

¬«

Manukā

Natural Area

Reserve

Kīpāhoehoe

Natural Area

Reserve

Kahauale‘a

Natural Area

Reserve

Kapāpala

Forest

Reserve

Mauna Loa

Forest

Reserve

P A C I F I C O C E A N

Pu‘u Maka‘ala

Natural Area

Reserve

Upper Waiākea

Forest

Reserve

‘Ōla‘a

Forest 

Reserve

Pōhakuloa

Training Area

Kamehameha

Schools

Kamehameha

Schools

Wao Kele o Puna

Natural Area

Reserve

Figure 1.2 Adjacent Land Ownership

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park GMP/WS/EIS

Hawai‘i Volcanoes

National Park

MAP AREA

μ Legend

Date Created: June 2014

Data Sources: USGS - Lava Flows, Roads,

 Coastline

 NPS - Park Boundaries

 State of Hawai‘i - TMK

Fig. 1.2 AdjLandOwn_060414.mxd

0 5

Miles

0 10

Kilometers

Land Ownership

United States of America

State of Hawai‘i

State Department ofHawaiian Home Lands

Pōhakuloa Training AreaCounty of Hawai‘i

Private Land Owners

The Nature Conservancy

NPS Boundary

Produced by: PWR - Seattle Planning

 Office

Designated Wilderness

Kīpuka ‘

Āinahou

Nēnē Sanctuary

Major Roads
6 | Chapter 1: Introduction and Background HAWAI‘I VOLCANOE S NAT IONA L PARK GMP/WS/EIS

BACKGROUND OF HAWAI‘I 

VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK

Congress established Hawai‘i National 

Park (later to become, separately, Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park and Haleakalā 

National Park) on August 1, 1916 “for the 

benefit and enjoyment of the people of the 

United States ... [and to provide for] ... the 

preservation from injury all timber, birds, 

mineral deposits, and natural curiosities or 

wonders within said park, and their retention 

in their natural condition as nearly as 

possible” (16 United States Code [USC]391). 

The purpose of the park is to protect, study, 

and provide access to Kīlauea and Mauna Loa, 

two of the world’s most active volcanoes and 

to perpetuate endemic Hawaiian ecosystems 

and the traditional Hawaiian culture 

connected to these landscapes (Park 2009f).

Today, Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

protects approximately 330,0861 (368,106)2

acres of public land, which includes some of 

the most unique geologic, biologic, and 

cultural landscapes in the world. Extending 

from sea level to the summit of Mauna Loa at 

13,677 feet, the park encompasses the 

summits and rift zones of two of the world’s 

most active shield volcanoes—Kīlauea, 

representing the newest land in the Hawaiian 

Islands chain and Mauna Loa, the largest 

mountain in the world (see Figure 1.1. 

Park Vicinity).

1

 The official, designated acreage of Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park is 323,431 acres. However, the park also 

manages an area called ‘Ōla‘a, which is outside the 

park’s official designated boundary. Because this area has 

been managed by Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park since 

federal acquisition in 1952 and continues to affect current 

management decisions in the park, this GMP includes ‘Ōla‘a 

within the total acreage that the park protects.

2

 Determining acreage at Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park is 

a complex process by which varying sources provide different 

estimations of total acreage. Unless otherwise specified, 

acreage listed in this document includes two numbers: the 

first is the official acreage derived from deeds of conveyance 

to the United States and county/state tax assessor records, the 

sum total of which constitute the official NPS acreage for the 

park. (The official park acreage is maintained by the NPS Land 

Resource Division, WASO.) The second (listed in parentheses) 

is an estimation generated by geographic information 

systems (GIS) software that uses projections on the land 

to calculate acreage within geographically defined boundaries. 

When available and appropriate, both numbers are included in 

this GMP/WS/EIS because deed/tax assessor estimates, which 

are used in legislation and policy for the park, do not exist 

for some areas in the park, such as those acres analyzed for 

wilderness eligibility in the Kahuku Unit.

While these two volcanoes are the primary 

features of the park and the principal reason 

for its establishment by Congress as a unit 

of the national park system, this volcanic 

topography also supports one of the most 

fascinating biologic landscapes in the world. 

As trade winds sweep across the eastern 

shores of Hawai‘i and up the vast alpine slopes 

of Mauna Loa, moisture from these winds 

creates large variations in precipitation that, 

in turn, sustain incredibly diverse populations 

of plant and animal communities across eight 

ecological life zones. Located more than 2,000 

miles from the nearest continent, Hawaiian 

plants and animals evolved in almost complete 

isolation for the past 30 million years. As 

a result, over 90% of the native terrestrial 

flora and fauna in Hawai`i are endemic to 

this small archipelago. The park provides 

habitat for 52 federally listed endangered or 

threatened species and eight species that are 

candidates for listing. Included among these 

species are the nēnē (Hawaiian goose), ‘io 

(Hawaiian Hawk), and ‘āhinahina (Mauna 

Loa silversword). Considering this diversity of 

life and its distinction on the planet, Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park is both a fantastic 

laboratory for the study of biogeography and 

evolution within the Pacific Islands and a 

cornerstone for recovery of native Hawaiian 

species found nowhere else in the world.

In addition to its geological and biological 

significance, the park also plays a unique role 

in the history of human development on the 

Hawaiian Islands and remains an important 

home to living cultures in Hawai‘i. Just as the 

volcanic and biologic features of the land have 

shaped the landscape of Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park, so too have the people who 

Halema‘uma‘u glow. Photo courtesy of USGS-HVO
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 1: Introduction and Background | 7 

have been a part of its history. Over five 

centuries before the establishment of the 

park, Native Hawaiians lived, worked, and 

worshiped on this sacred ground. Later, in the 

19th and early 20th centuries, adventurers, 

explorers, scientists, philanthropists, and 

individuals also left their mark on the 

landscape. Today, ancient petroglyphs, stone 

walls, and footpaths persist between massive 

lava flows, and historic housing districts, 

ranch buildings, and historic roads dot the 

developed corridors of the park, together 

revealing the diverse cultures and history that 

have been, and continue to play, an integral 

role on this landscape.

Because of these diverse landscapes, its own 

legislative history and political boundaries, 

and patterns of human use, Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park is now geographically separated 

into four units: Kīlauea, Mauna Loa, ‘Ōla‘a, 

and Kahuku Unit (Figure 1.3. Existing 

Conditions—Full Park).

The Kīlauea Unit is the most accessible and 

developed unit of the park. Located just off 

Māmalahoa Highway west of Volcano Village, 

this unit extends from approximately 4,000 

feet elevation down to the coast between the 

east and southwest rift zones of Kīlauea 

(Figure 1.4. Existing Conditions—Crater Rim 

Drive). Characterized primarily by the 

volcanic, biologic, and cultural significance of 

this shield volcano and its crater, 

Halema‘uma‘u, this unit also sees the highest 

visitor and administrative use of any other unit 

in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park. The 

Kīlauea Visitor Center, Jaggar Museum, and 

Volcano HouseSM, a historic commercially 

operated hotel on the rim of Kīlauea caldera, 

are all in this unit, as are most of the NPS 

administrative buildings, the Hawaiian 

Volcano Observatory (operated by the US 

Geological Survey), and Kilauea Military 

Camp (operated by the US Army).3 The park’s 

primary entrance and two primary roads—

Crater Rim Drive, which provides access 

around the Kīlauea summit area, and Chain of 

Craters Road, which provides access to the 

coast—are also in this unit.

The Mauna Loa Unit extends approximately 

10,000 feet in elevation northeast from State 

Route 11 near Volcano Village to the summit 

of Mauna Loa. Characterized primarily 

by the diversity of life zones that span this 

volcanic landscape, this unit provides visitors 

with the opportunity to explore several 

volcanic, biologic, and historic features of 

the park, including the Tree Molds Area, 

the Kīpukapuaulu (Bird Park) Nature Trail, 

and the Mauna Loa Lookout. This unit also 

includes hiking access (with cabins and water 

catchment systems) along the southeast 

rift zone to Moku‘āweoweo, the caldera of 

Mauna Loa, for those willing to brave the 

20 miles of ascending gradient, fluctuating 

weather conditions, and volcanic terrain. 

The Nāmakanipaio campground, the only 

frontcountry campground in the park, is also 

in this unit along the Māmalahoa Highway. 

The only other public vehicular access to this 

unit is along Mauna Loa Road, an 11.3-mile, 

one-lane paved road.

3

 The service mark (SM) inserted after “Volcano House” is 

associated with a legally registered name or designation used 

in the manner of a trademark to distinguish an organization’s 

services from those of its competitors.

Keanakāko‘i Overlook. NPS photo by Stephen Geiger

Snow on Mauna Loa. NPS photo by Stephen Geiger
8 | Chapter 1: Introduction and Background HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

The ‘Ōla‘a Unit, donated to the National Park 

Service in 1952 via the Hawai‘i Territorial 

Executive Order 1540, is geographically 

separated from the other units of the park 

by Volcano Village and has therefore never 

been formally designated as part of Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park. (Language in 

the 1938 legislation for the park stated 

that Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

could acquire lands only if “adjacent and 

contiguous” to park boundaries.) However, 

the unit is managed by park administrators 

for its valuable forest habitat and presence 

of endemic and/or rare and endangered 

species. A large portion of the unit (9,329 

acres) was designated as wilderness in 1978. 

Today, this unit remains undeveloped, with 

no formal trails or services provided to the 

general public.

As the newest addition to the park, Kahuku 

Unit, at 115,788 (150,865) acres in size, was 

acquired by the National Park Service in 

2003 (Figure 1.5. Existing Conditions, Kahuku 

Unit). Stretching from approximately 2,000 to 

12,500 feet in elevation, this unit encompasses 

the southwest rift zone of Mauna Loa and 

extends across lava fields, pastures, forests, 

shrubland and mesic, subalpine, alpine, 

and desert environments. Prior to NPS 

acquisition, portions of Kahuku had been 

profoundly transformed by almost two 

centuries of resource use—most recently 

that of cattle ranching in the lower section 

of the unit. Although Hawai`i Volcanoes 

National Park has begun restoration efforts by 

fencing and removing nonnative ungulates, 

controlling localized nonnative plants, and 

conducting restoration experiments over the 

last nine years, restoration of native forest will 

likely take decades. Currently, public access 

to this unit is limited to weekends and special 

events and limited to the lower portion of the 

unit where several ranching roads provide 

vehicular, bicycling, and pedestrian access.

Bicycling Mauna Loa Road. NPS photo by Jay Robinson
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 1: Introduction and Background | 9 

Figure 1.3. Existing

C

onditi

ons—Full Park

à

à

à

ÆQ

ÆQ

à

à

11

¬«

Volcano 

Village

‘ Ō L A ‘ A

Ocean View

Kalapana

Nā‘ālehu

Pāhala

11

¬«

P A C I F I C O C E A N

Pu‘u‘ula‘ula

Red Hill Cabin

Mauna Loa

Lookout

Mauna LoaSummit Cabin

Pepeiao

Cabin

Footprints

Shelter

Hilina Pali

Overlook

Nēnē Cabin

Punalu‘ukāhāwai

(CCC Cabin)

SMALL

TRACT

Nāmakanipaio

Kīlauea

Visitor

Center

Jaggar

Museum

Volcano

House

Thurston

Lava Tube

(Nāhuku)

‘Āinahou Ranch

House

Kūlanaokuaiki

Former

Waha‘ula Heiau

and

Visitor Center

(covered by lava)

Road

M A U N A L O A

K A H U K U

Kīpukapualulu

MAUNA LOA

KĪLAUEA

Chain of Cra ters Road

Cra et r R

mi Dr vi e

UPPER

LOWER

LARGE

TRACT

K Ī L A U E A

MaunaLoa

Ranch House

(Administrative 

Office)

Kahuku Road

Ka‘aha

Halap

ē

Halapē Keauhou

‘Āpua Point 

Hil ni a Pali Ro da

Nāpau

Figure 1.3 Existing Conditions, Full ParkHawai‘i Volcanoes National Park GMP/WS/EIS

Legend

Hawai‘i Volcanoes

National Park

MAP AREA

μ Produced by: PWR - Seattle Planning Office Date Created: June 2014

Data Sources: USGS - Lava Flows, 

 Roads, Coastline

 NPS - Park Boundary,

 Trails, Wilderness,

 Campgrounds

Fig. 1.3 ExistCond_060414.mxd 0 5.5

Miles

0 10

Kilometers

ÆQ Campground

à

Park BoundaryKalapana ExtensionSpecial Ecological Zones

Primitive Campground

Roads

Designated WildernessEligible Wilderness
10 | Chapter 1: Introduction and Background HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Figure 1.4. Existing Conditions—Crater Rim Drive

HALEMA‘UMA‘U

CRATER

KĪLAUEA

CALDERA

U W Ē K A H U N A

Crater Rim Drive

Research

Facilities

Administration 

and Housing

Halema‘uma‘u

Overlook

(closed)

Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (USGS)

Jaggar Museum

Kīlauea Overlook

Steam Vents

Sulphur Banks

Volcano House

PU‘U PUA‘I

Kilauea 

Military 

Camp

Halema‘uma‘u

C ar

et

r R mi

Dr vi

e

ROAD AND

TRAIL CLOSURE

Mauna

Loa

Road

Nāmakanipaio

Campground

!9

Tree Molds Horse Corral

KĪLAUEA IKI 

CRATER

Pu‘u Pua‘i

Overlook

Devastation 

Trail

FOOT TRAFFIC

ONLY

Byron Ledge Trail

Keanakāko‘i

Overlook

(foot traffic only)

Byron Ledge Trail

Halema‘uma‘u Trail

Kīlauea Iki Trail

Crater

Trail

Rim

Crater

Trail Rim

Pi‘i Mauna

Drive

Park Entrance

Kīlauea

Visitor

Center

KEANAKĀKO‘I

CRATER

11

¬«

Escape Road

ThurstonLavaTubeNāhuku

Chain of Craters Road

Pua‘i

Pu‘u

Trail

C ar et r R mi Trail

Su pl hur Banks Trail

‘Iliahi Trail

Trail

Ó

Ó

TRAIL CLOSURE

Ó

TRAIL CLOSURE

Ó

TRAIL CLOSURE

Ó

ROAD CLOSURE

Ó

Figure 1.4 Existing Conditons, Crater Rim DriveHawai‘i Volcanoes National Park GMP/WS/EIS

μ

Hawai‘i Volcanoes

National Park

MAP AREA

0 0.5

Miles

0 1

Kilometers

Produced by: PWR - Seattle Planning 

 Office

Date Created: June 2014

Data Sources: USGS - Coastline, Roads

 NPS - Campgrounds, 

 Park Boundary, Trails

Fig. 1.4 ExstCondCraterRim_060414.mxd

Legend

ÆQ

NPS Boundary

Campground

Roads

Trails

Note: Road and trail closures are

currently in effect due to volcanichazards. Check with park staff for

current conditions.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 1: Introduction and Background | 11 

Figure 1.5. Existing Conditions—Kahuku Unit

¬«11

Nā‘ālehu

‘Āinapo Trail

K A ‘ Ū F O R E S T R E S E R V E

Pit Crater

Pu‘u ‘Akihi

Lower Pu‘u o Lokuana

Glover

Ranch House

(Administrative 

Office)

Nēnē Cabin

Punalu‘ukāhāwai

(CCC Cabin)

Ocean View

Pāhala

P A C I F I C O C E A N

Upper

Glover U PPER

LOWER Kahuku

Road

Mauna Loa 

Summit Cabin

Hawai‘i Volcanoes

National Park

MAP AREA

μ

Figure 1.5 Existing Conditions, Kahuku Unit

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park GMP/WS/EIS

Produced by: PWR - Seattle Planning Office

Date Created: June 2014

Data Sources: USGS - Roads, Coastline, Lava Flows

 NPS - Park Boundary,Trails, Cabins

Fig. 1.5 ExistCond_Kahuku_060414.mxd

0 10

Kilometers

0 5

Miles

Roads

Trails

Legend

NPS Boundary

Cabins

Designated Wilderness

Recent Lava Flows

Eligible Wilderness
12 | Chapter 1: Introduction and Background HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Establishment of Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park

Congress established Hawai‘i National Park 

(later to become Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park and Haleakalā National Park) on 

August 1, 1916, declaring:

The tracts of land on the Island of Hawai‘i 

and the Island of Maui, in the Territory of 

Hawai‘i ... shall be perpetually dedicated 

and set apart as a public park or pleasuring 

ground for the benefit and enjoyment of the 

people of the United States ... [and provide 

for] ... the preservation from injury of all 

timber, birds, mineral deposits, and natural 

curiosities or wonders within said park, 

and their retention in their natural 

condition as nearly as possible.

Since that time, the enabling legislation of the 

park has been modified several times, both 

to establish the national parks on the islands 

of Hawai‘i and Maui as separate parks and to 

expand the boundary of Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park. Below is the complete list of 

amendments made to the enabling legislation.

Subsequent Acts

The following acts occurred after enabling 

legislation and served to shape the park (see 

appendix A for full legislation):

• The Act of 1920 authorized the 

governor of the Territory of Hawai‘i 

to acquire privately owned lands and 

rights-of-way within the boundaries 

of Hawai‘i National Park.

• The Act of 1922 added additional 

lands to the park, specifically 

those lands of the Ka‘ū 

Desert and Kapāpala.

• The Act of 1928 modified the park 

boundary on the Island of Hawai‘i.

• The Act of 1930 stated that the 

United States had sole and exclusive 

jurisdiction over Hawai‘i National 

Park and further defined the 

purpose of the park and the activities 

allowed or prohibited. Specifically, 

the act stated: 

All hunting or the killing, wounding, or 

capturing at any time of any wild bird 

or animal, except dangerous animals 

when it is necessary to prevent them 

from destroying human lives or inflicting 

personal injury, is prohibited within the 

limits of said park ... That the Secretary 

of the Interior shall make and publish 

such general rules and regulations as 

he may deem necessary and proper for 

the management and care of the park 

and for the protection of the property 

therein, especially for the preservation 

from injury or spoliation of all timber, 

natural curiosities, or wonderful objects 

within said park, and for the protection of 

animals and birds in the park from capture 

or destruction, and to prevent their being 

frightened or driven from the park. Skylights to lava. NPS photo
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 1: Introduction and Background | 13 

• The Act of 1938 added additional 

lands, known as the Kalapana 

extension, to Hawai‘i National 

Park. This Act eventually passed in 

legislation authorizing 42,000 acres 

for addition to the park. It includes 

provisions for Native Hawaiian 

fishing access and short-term leases 

for homesites for Native Hawaiians 

from the Kalapana community.

• The Act of 1959 formed part of 

the legislation for the admission 

of Hawai‘i to the Union, approved 

March 18, 1959.

• The Act of 1961 separated the parks 

on Maui and Hawai‘i; officially 

establishing the park on the Island 

of Hawai‘i as “Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park.” 

• The Act of 1978 added 269 acres to 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park. 

• The Act of 2000 eliminated 

restrictions on the acquisition of 

certain lands contiguous to Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park and 

changed the spelling of the park 

name to include the okina, Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park.

International Biosphere Reserve and 

World Heritage Site Designations

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park has also 

been designated as an International Biosphere 

Reserve and as a World Heritage Site. In 1980, 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes and Haleakalā National 

Parks were jointly designated as “Hawai‘i 

Island International Biosphere Reserve” as 

part of the Man and the Biosphere Program by 

UNESCO. This designation identifies the park 

as an internationally significant ecosystem 

within the world’s biogeographical provinces. 

Biosphere reserves are created “to promote 

and demonstrate a balanced relationship 

between humans and the biosphere” and must 

“encompass a mosaic of ecological systems.”

Seven years later, in 1987, the park was also 

declared a World Heritage Site by the World 

Heritage Convention of UNESCO, joining 

it with a system of natural and cultural 

properties that are considered irreplaceable 

treasures of outstanding universal value. 

The park’s designation was based on 

its qualification as a unique example of 

significant island building through ongoing 

volcanic processes that represents the most 

recent activity in the continuing process of the 

geologic origin and change of the Hawaiian 

Archipelago. The World Heritage Committee 

is currently in the process of developing 

Statements of Outstanding Universal 

Value (OUV) for each site that identify the 

site’s resources or values that are of global 

significance. These statements, which are 

expected to be finalized in 2015, can be seen 

as a sort of “contract” between the host 

nation and the international community about 

what resources or values must be preserved 

to retain the site’s designation as a World 

Heritage Site. The draft OUV statement for 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park is based on 

the following statement of significance:

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

contains Mauna Loa and Kīlauea, two 

of the world’s most active and accessible 

volcanoes where ongoing geological 

processes are easily observed. This property 

serves as an excellent example of island 

building through volcanic processes. 

Through the process of shield-building 

volcanism, the park’s landscape is one 

of relatively constant, dynamic change. 

The park contains significant parts of 

two of the world’s most active and best 

understood volcanoes, Kīlauea and Mauna 

Loa. The volcano Mauna Loa, measured 

from the ocean floor, is the greatest 

volcanic mass on earth.

‘Apapane on a māmane tree. NPS photo by Jay Robinson
14 | Chapter 1: Introduction and Background HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Having these global designations, the park is 

linked with the planet’s most cherished and 

endangered treasures and is protected for 

people worldwide. Very few areas in the 

United States are designated as both a 

Biosphere Reserve and World Heritage Site. 

There is no jurisdiction implied by either of 

the UNESCO designations, and the United 

States and the National Park Service have full 

authority and jurisdiction over park lands.

Hāpaimamo at Kahuku. NPS photo by Jay Robinson

Lava ball. NPS photo by Jay Robinson Hiking Palm Trail at Kahuku. NPS photo by Jay Robinson
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 1: Introduction and Background | 15 

OVERVIEW OF THE NATIONAL PARK 

SERVICE PLANNING PROCESS

General Management Plans and the 

National Park System

The National Parks and Recreation Act 

of 1978 requires each unit of the National 

Park Service to have a general management 

plan; and NPS Management Policies 2006

(2.3.1) states “The National Park Service will 

maintain a general management plan for each 

unit of the national park system.”

The purpose of a general management plan 

is to ensure that a national park system unit 

(park unit) has a clearly defined direction for 

resource preservation and visitor use that will 

best achieve the NPS mandate to preserve 

resources unimpaired for the enjoyment of 

future generations. General management 

planning also makes the National Park 

Service more effective, collaborative, and 

accountable by:

• Providing a balance between 

continuity and adaptability in 

decision making 

General management 

plans define the desired 

conditions to be achieved 

and maintained in a park unit 

and provide a touchstone that 

allows NPS managers and 

staff to constantly adapt their 

actions to changing situations 

while staying focused on 

what is most important 

about the park unit.

• Analyzing the park unit in 

relation to its surrounding 

ecosystem, cultural 

setting, and community

This helps NPS managers and staff 

understand how the park unit can 

interact with neighbors and others 

in ways that are ecologically, socially, 

and economically sustainable. 

Decisions made within this larger 

context are more likely to be 

successful over time.

• And, providing everyone who 

has a stake in decisions affecting 

a park unit an opportunity to be 

involved in the planning process 

and to influence and understand the 

decisions that are made.

Park units are often the focus of 

intense public interest. Public 

involvement through the planning 

process provides focused 

opportunities for NPS managers 

and staff to interact with the 

public and learn about public 

concerns, expectations, and values. 

Public involvement also provides 

opportunities for NPS managers 

and staff to share information 

about the park unit’s purpose and 

significance, as well as opportunities 

and constraints for the management 

of park unit lands.

The National 

Environmental Policy Act 

(NEPA) requires federal 

agencies to fully consider 

the environmental costs 

and benefits of their 

proposed actions before 

they make any decision to 

undertake those actions. 

NEPA and the Council on 

Environmental Quality 

(CEQ) regulations 

implementing NEPA

put two important 

mechanisms in place to 

achieve this goal. One is 

the requirement that all 

agencies make a careful, 

complete, and analytical 

study of the impacts of 

any proposal that has the 

potential to affect the human environment, 

and alternatives to that proposal, well before 

any decisions are made. The other is the 

mandate that agencies be diligent in involving 

any interested or affected members of the 

public in the NEPA process.

Native hau kuahiwi. 

NPS photo by Jay Robinson 
16 | Chapter 1: Introduction and Background HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

As plans that focus on desired conditions to be 

achieved and maintained over a relatively long 

period of time, general management plans 

are generally large in scope, implemented in 

phases over many years, and contain little or 

no detail about specific actions. As a result, the 

NEPA analysis for general management plans 

is typically a programmatic, or broad-scale 

analysis, rather than a site-specific analysis. 

As decision making moves from general 

management planning into program planning, 

strategic planning, and implementation 

planning, the need for information becomes 

increasingly focused and specific, requiring 

additional analysis at those levels.

The ultimate outcome of general management 

planning for park units is an agreement 

among the National Park Service, its partners, 

and the public on why each area is managed 

as part of the national park system, what 

resource conditions and visitor experience 

should exist, and how those conditions can 

best be achieved and maintained over time. 

General management plans are intended to 

be long-term documents that establish and 

articulate a management philosophy and 

framework for decision making and problem 

solving in the parks.

Public involvement provided critical input 

into this plan. The planning team held many 

stakeholder and public meetings (talk story 

sessions) throughout the Hawaiian Islands to 

discuss the GMP progress. A detailed account 

of the public involvement process and public 

comments received by the National Park 

Service is provided in Chapter 7: Public 

Involvement in this draft GMP/WS/EIS.

PURPOSE AND NEED FOR THE PLAN

Purpose of the Plan

The approved general management plan 

will be the foundational document guiding 

management of Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park for the next 15 to 20 years. The 

purposes of this general management plan 

are as follows:

• confirm the purpose, significance, 

and special mandates of Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park

• clearly define resource conditions 

and visitor uses and experiences to be 

achieved in the park

• provide a framework for managers 

to use when making decisions about 

how to best protect the park’s 

resources, how to provide quality 

visitor uses and experiences, how to 

manage visitor use, and what kinds of 

facilities, if any, to develop in the park

• formally study lands eligible in the 

park for possible recommendation to 

Congress for wilderness designation 

• provide goals and a strategy for 

managing commercial services 

within the park

• evaluate whether park boundaries are 

adequate for protecting resources or 

whether they need to be adjusted to 

carry out park purposes

• ensure that this comprehensive plan 

for decision making that includes a 

wilderness study and commercial 

services strategy has been developed 

in consultation with interested 

stakeholders and adopted by NPS 

leadership after an analysis of the 

benefits, impacts, and economic costs 

of alternative courses of action

Legislation establishing the National Park 

Service as an agency and governing its 

management provides the fundamental 

direction for the administration of Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park (and other units and 

programs of the national park system). This 

general management plan is intended to build 

on these laws and the legislation that 

Members of park’s Kupuna consultation group. NPS photo
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 1: Introduction and Background | 17 

established and governs Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park to provide a vision for the 

park’s future (Appendix A: Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park Enabling Legislation and 

Appendix C: Pertinent Laws, Policies, 

and Procedures).

This Draft General 

Management Plan / Wilderness 

Study / Environmental Impact 

Statement presents and 

analyzes three alternative 

future directions for the 

management and use 

of Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park. Alternative 

2 is the NPS preferred 

alternative (see Chapter 3: 

Alternatives). The potential 

environmental impacts of 

all alternatives are identified 

and assessed in Chapter 6: 

Environmental Consequences.

Actions directed by general 

management plans or in 

subsequent implementation 

plans are accomplished over 

time. Budget restrictions, 

requirements for additional data or 

regulatory compliance, and competing 

priorities may delay implementation of many 

actions. Major or especially costly actions 

could be implemented ten or more years 

into the future.

This general management plan is a 

programmatic document that provides 

conceptual guidance to NPS managers as well 

as more detailed strategies and actions where 

appropriate. This general management plan 

will not describe how particular programs or 

projects will be implemented or prioritized. 

Those decisions will be deferred to more 

detailed implementation planning, which 

will follow the broad, comprehensive plan 

presented in this document. All future plans 

would be consistent with the approved general 

management plan.

Need for the Plan

The last master plan for Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park was completed in 1975 and no 

longer provides adequate guidance to address 

the policy and operational issues now facing 

park management.

Many conditions in Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park and 

throughout the region have 

changed since the current 

master plan was completed in 

1975, including: continuous 

eruptions at Pu‘u ‘ Ō‘ō 

on Kīlauea Volcano since 

1983 and related impacts 

on resources and visitor 

opportunities; increased 

visitation and changing visitor 

patterns (approximately 1.6 

million visitors annually) 

and resulting transportation 

conflicts and parking 

congestion; the loss of visitor 

facilities, cultural resources, 

and significant habitat for 

numerous federally listed 

threatened, endangered, 

and candidate species from 

volcanic activity; the continuing spread of 

introduced invasive species and avian disease; 

increased impacts to the soundscape and 

acoustic environment; expansion of the park; 

impacts on resources due to climate change; 

and new international designations including 

designation as a World Heritage Site and 

International Biosphere Reserve. 

Specifically, Mauna Loa Volcano last erupted 

in 1984, and Kīlauea Volcano has been in 

nearly continuous eruption since 1983. Given 

the uncertainty of operating on a volcanic 

landscape, there is a great need for flexibility 

in management that would benefit from a 

general management planning process. Due 

in part to this volcanic activity, park visitation 

has also changed dramatically over the last 

35 years. Both the demographics and size 

of visitation has changed and diversified, 

as have the ways in which people interact 

with park resources. These changes require 

Visitors learning about park. NPS photo
18 | Chapter 1: Introduction and Background HAWAI‘I VOLCANOE S NAT IONA L PARK GMP/WS/EIS

creative strategies to connect visitors to the 

park, provide visitor services, and manage 

congestion and conflicts. In addition, these 

changes in visitation, along with ecological 

changes both at home and around the world, 

have created a number of natural and cultural 

resource protection issues, such as the 

introduction of invasive nonnative species, 

that need to be addressed in the new general 

management plan.

In 1978, 123,100 (130,950) acres of Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park were also designated 

as wilderness. Two years later, Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes and Haleakalā National Parks were 

jointly designated as “Hawai‘i Island 

International Biosphere Reserve” by 

UNESCO, and eight years later, in 1987, the 

park was also declared a World Heritage Site 

by the World Heritage Convention of 

UNESCO. Then, in 2003, the park acquired 

115,788 (150,865) acres of the Kahuku Ranch, 

creating the Kahuku Unit, located on the 

southwest rift of Mauna Loa summit down to 

State Route 11. This acquisition increased the 

park size by 50% and now provides unique 

opportunities and challenges for resource 

management and visitor use. These changes in 

lands and designations need to be integrated 

into park planning efforts, and the wilderness 

potential of these new lands needs 

to be assessed.

Scope of the Plan

The following topics describe some of the 

preliminary needs and challenges this Draft 

General Management Plan / Wilderness 

Study / Environmental Impact Statement 

must address for the park to preserve 

resources while providing for public use and 

enjoyment. The general public; NPS staff; 

and representatives from Native Hawaiian 

groups; local communities; county, state, and 

federal agencies; and various organizations 

and businesses identified issues and concerns 

about park management during the scoping 

phase (early information gathering) for 

this general management plan. An issue 

is defined as an opportunity, conflict, or 

problem regarding the use or management 

of public lands. Comments were solicited 

at public open houses, through planning 

newsletters, and at meetings with agencies and 

community stakeholders (see Chapter 7: Public 

Involvement for more information about the 

scoping efforts).

PLANNING ISSUES AND CONCERNS

NATURAL RESOURCE PRESERVATION 

AND MANAGEMENT

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park is home 

to an amazing diversity of life contained in 

habitats that span from subtropical rainforest 

to mesic and dry forest, subalpine and alpine 

ecosystems and coastal strand communities. 

Invasive species are an overriding natural 

resource issue at the park. Invasive nonnative 

species have degraded natural ecosystems 

and compromised the flora and fauna. They

threaten many species with local extirpation 

which, in some cases, can threaten an entire 

population’s viability. 

Fifty-two species in the park are federally 

listed as threatened or endangered, eight 

species are candidates considered for 

listing, and several dozen more species are 

considered State Species of Concern or 

locally rare. Strategies are needed to staff and 

fund preservation and restoration activities 

to sustain resource viability. Improving the 

capacity of the park to manage, preserve, 

and perpetuate natural resources is likely to 

Hilina Pali Overlook. NPS photo
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 1: Introduction and Background | 19 

require innovative problem solving, creative 

funding, dynamic partnerships, and regional 

collaboration. The general management plan 

will provide a framework for park managers 

to use when making decisions about how 

best to protect natural resources. The general 

management plan will also articulate desired 

resource conditions and provide long-term 

guidance for protection, restoration, and 

stewardship of the park’s natural resources.

CULTURAL RESOURCE PROTECTION 

AND MANAGEMENT

The park has many significant cultural 

landscapes, historic structures, archaeological 

sites, ethnographic resources, and museum 

collections. Managing these resources 

presents challenges, such as identifying 

appropriate adaptive reuse options; 

determining appropriate treatments in a 

changing or harsh environment; protection 

from visitor impacts, weathering, and 

vandalism; and ensuring funding for 

preservation and education. The general 

management plan will provide a framework 

for park managers to use when making 

decisions about how best to protect the park’s 

historic structures, cultural landscapes, 

archaeological sites, ethnographic resources, 

and museum collections. The general 

management plan will also convey desired 

resource conditions and provide long-term 

guidance for preservation and management.

NATIVE HAWAIIAN VALUES AND 

TRADITIONAL CULTURAL USE

There are many places in the park that are 

significant to Native Hawaiians for cultural 

continuity and ongoing traditional use. 

Natural conditions such as unobstructed 

mountain vistas, soundscapes and the acoustic 

environment, and native ecosystems are 

valued. The general management plan will 

address Native Hawaiian values and ongoing 

traditional use as part of preservation, 

management, and interpretation of park 

resources. The general management plan will 

also create a framework for park managers to 

use when making management decisions on 

issues related to Native Hawaiian values and 

traditional uses and provide long-term 

guidance for the preservation, management, 

and interpretation of park resources.

WILDERNESS

Approximately 123,000 (130,950) acres 

of the park are designated wilderness, 

and, according to the 2012 Kahuku Unit 

Wilderness Eligibility Assessment, another 

121,0154 acres in the Kahuku Unit meet the 

eligibility criteria and requirements necessary 

to qualify for the National Wilderness 

Preservation System. Based on this eligibility 

assessment, this planning process formally 

incorporates a wilderness study into the 

4

 This figure was estimated using GIS; no official government 

survey has been completed to determine the acreage for the 

wilderness eligible portion of this parcel. The official estimate 

of the size of the entire Kahuku Unit is based on the state 

Tax Map Key maps that have not been verified by cadastral 

surveys. The deed to the land recognizes that the actual 

acreage may be different than the Tax Map Key acreage 

(due to the age of the Tax Map Key documents, which were 

created in the early 1900s). Historic trail across the lava. NPS photo

Lei making at 2013 Cultural Festival. NPS photo by Jay Robinson
20 | Chapter 1: Introduction and Background HAWAI‘I VOLCANOE S NAT IONA L PARK GMP/WS/EIS

general management plan that assesses 

lands eligible in the park for possible 

recommendation to Congress for wilderness 

designation (Chapter 4: Wilderness 

Study and Proposal).

In addition, the park’s large expanses of lava 

produce soundscapes that offer little sound 

shielding, such that noise from mechanized 

sources or air tour and military overflights in 

many wilderness areas are audible for long 

periods of time. An air tour management plan 

is underway, but the general management plan 

will provide general guidance that is needed 

for noise and wilderness issues. 

The general management plan will address the 

full range of wilderness values and potential 

impacts to wilderness values, including 

noise and visual impacts. All wilderness 

and potential wilderness will be zoned 

to protect wilderness values in the action 

alternatives of this plan.

RESEARCH

The park is the home of pioneering studies in 

conservation biology, ecosystem development, 

island bio-geography, evolution, invasive 

species ecology, and long-term monitoring of 

climate change. Cultural resources also 

provide significant research potential. There 

are opportunities to explore how the park can 

best facilitate research and monitoring efforts, 

provide for the sharing of research findings, 

and promote public and staff understanding 

and appreciation for the value of scientific 

investigation. The general management plan 

will provide guidance for park managers to 

use when making decisions about the park’s 

research and monitoring efforts.

CLIMATE CHANGE

The effects of global climate change are 

anticipated to include changes in local 

weather patterns, wildfire and hurricane 

frequency, sea levels and ocean resources, 

distribution of plant and animal communities, 

and increased avian disease. Proactive 

planning and management actions will 

allow the park to adjust to climate change 

and interpret changing conditions while 

reducing the impacts to park resources, 

NPS operations, and visitors. The general 

management plan will provide guidance 

on how the park will assess, respond to, 

and interpret the impacts of global climate 

change on fundamental resources, including 

objectives for reducing or offsetting emissions. 

The general management plan will evaluate 

the impacts of proposed actions for their 

impacts on the park’s carbon footprint.

Ash layers. NPS photo by Jay Robinson

‘Io. Photo by Lanaya Deily
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 1: Introduction and Background | 21 

VISITOR USE

Approximately 1.6 million people visit the 

park each year. The park offers these visitors 

an opportunity to witness the active 

volcanoes, biodiversity, and cultural richness 

of the park while encouraging enjoyment, 

understanding, and stewardship of these 

resources. Park managers must address 

competing uses, demands of incompatible 

activities, and levels of use that may 

overwhelm resources and infrastructure. 

Changes in volcanic activity and gas emissions 

also require proactive management to protect 

visitor health and safety, yet allow access. The 

general management plan will provide a 

framework for park managers to use when 

making decisions about visitor use in different 

areas of the park by identifying the 

appropriate types of visitor use and 

experience at various park sites incorporating 

visitor demand and resource sensitivity. The 

plan will also provide guidance to promote, 

evaluate, and adaptively manage appropriate 

and desired types and levels of visitor use in 

the park. This will include guidance on 

managing various types of recreation in the 

park and providing visitors with connections 

to the resources through interpretation 

and education.

COMMERCIAL VISITOR SERVICES

Commercial visitor service operators provide 

a range of visitor services within the park, 

including food service, lodging, retail sales, 

guided tours, and educational programs. How 

can the park improve visitor experiences and 

promote services that are necessary and 

appropriate to support visitor needs? The 

general management plan will provide general 

guidance for establishing the types and levels 

of commercial activities that are necessary and 

appropriate for Hawai’i Volcanoes National 

Park, including recommendations for any 

commercial services in Kahuku.

TRANSPORTATION, ACCESS, 

AND CIRCULATION 

Current transportation options and 

infrastructure do not support the high level of 

visitation at the park and result in congestion, 

degradation of existing infrastructure, 

and resource impacts at several popular 

destinations, including sections of Crater Rim 

Drive and the Thurston Lava Tube (Nāhuku) 

areas. Volcanic events have led to closures 

of park roads and may continue to disrupt 

established travel patterns. Park roads, parking 

lots, trails, and modes of transportation 

need to be evaluated in relationship to visitor 

needs, commercial use trends, and resource 

protection. In addition, climate-friendly 

modes of transportation need to be evaluated. 

The general management plan will evaluate all 

modes of transportation, circulation patterns, 

and identify visitor access that will improve 

visitor experiences, connect park sites, and 

provide access to neighboring communities 

while ensuring protection of resources.

FUNCTIONAL AND FLEXIBLE 

PARK FACILITIES

The needs for administrative and visitor 

facilities in the park have changed significantly 

since the last general management plan was 

completed, with increases in staffing, growth 

in park partnerships, and changes in volcanic 

activity and visitor use patterns. Today, park 

Learning about kapa bark cloth. NPS photo

Bicycle tour stopped at Kīlauea Iki. NPS photo
22 | Chapter 1: Introduction and Background HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

operations are scattered throughout the park, 

often in structures that were not intended for 

these uses and that may not be sustainable or 

efficient. Since 1986, lava flows have destroyed 

a number of facilities including a visitor 

center, campground, and ranger residences. 

The flows have covered cultural sites, trails, 

and miles of highway. The park needs to 

determine which facilities need to be replaced, 

and if so, where and how. The park needs to 

consider whether any facilities and functions 

should be moved outside the park, further 

from expected volcanic activity. In addition, 

the park needs to determine what types of 

facilities are needed in the recently acquired 

Kahuku Unit. The general management plan 

will present a sustainable vision for park 

facilities, including determining locations, 

uses, and design guidelines.

EFFECTIVE AND ADAPTABLE 

PARK OPERATIONS

Having a park situated on two active 

volcanoes presents many challenges for park 

operations. The uncertainty of future volcanic 

activity and concerns about health and safety 

require operational and emergency 

procedures that are flexible and responsive to 

changing conditions. The park needs to 

determine how park operations will respond 

to natural events and disasters in terms of 

communication, access, commitment of 

facilities, and monitoring in the event of 

evacuation. With the addition of the Kahuku 

Unit, the park needs to determine how to 

extend park operations to cover basic visitor 

services throughout the park. The general 

management plan will develop a vision for 

sustainable park operations, including 

operations for the Kahuku Unit, and for 

natural event and disaster planning.

PARTNERSHIPS AND 

INTERAGENCY COLLABORATION

Partnerships, both inside and outside park 

boundaries, have profoundly aided the 

capacity of the park to meet its mission and 

have greatly enhanced the quality of services 

provided. Interagency coordination and 

cooperation have been ongoing at the park 

since its inception, focusing on volcanic 

activity and processes, research, control of 

invasive species and species recovery. In 2009, 

the park had over 30 written agreements 

with various private entities, governmental 

agencies, and tour groups, educational 

programs, and cultural and natural resource 

stewardship projects. The park’s involvement 

with local, regional, and landscape-level 

conservation partnerships include the Three 

Mountain Alliance and close relationships 

with the USGS Hawaiian Volcano 

Observatory and the Pacific Island Ecosystems 

Research Center.

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park has 

reimbursable agreements for use of park 

facilities with several federal agencies 

occupying the park. These relationships 

provide crucial services and opportunities to 

the park. The general management plan looks 

at ways to increase efficiency, reduce costs, 

and create better communication while 

expanding the park’s capacity to 

accomplish its mission.

Mauna Ulu eruption (1969-1974) covered Chain of Craters Road 

by Alanui Kahiko Overlook. NPS photo Volunteer assisting with restoration. NPS photo
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 1: Introduction and Background | 23 

The general management plan also provides 

guidance to improve communication, 

coordination, and participation with partners 

with a goal of protecting ecosystems, 

watersheds, and visitor opportunities 

that cross jurisdictional boundaries. The 

general management plan will develop a 

framework for interagency coordination and 

collaboration that enables NPS managers to 

make effective decisions and foster flexible, 

productive relationships.

PARK BOUNDARY

The National Park Service, in accordance 

with the National Parks and Recreation Act 

of 1978 (Public Law 95-625), also requires 

that general management plans determine 

whether park boundaries are adequate for 

protecting resources or whether they need 

to be adjusted to carry out park purposes. 

NPS Management Policies 2006 state that the 

National Park Service will conduct studies 

of potential boundary adjustments and may 

make boundary revisions to include significant 

resources or opportunities for public 

enjoyment related to the purposes of the 

park; to address operational and management 

issues such as boundary identification by 

topographic or other natural features; or to 

protect park resources critical to fulfilling 

park purposes. NPS policies also instruct 

that any recommendation to expand park 

boundaries be preceded by determinations 

that the added lands will be feasible to 

administer considering size, configuration, 

ownership, cost and other factors, and that 

other alternatives for management and 

resource protection have been considered and 

are not adequate.

Activities adjacent to the park’s boundaries 

have the potential to impact park resources. 

Resources don’t stop at the park’s boundary. 

The ‘Ōla‘a rainforest area is managed by 

the National Park Service, but was never 

officially included within the park boundary. 

The NPS jurisdiction for coastal areas within 

the park stops at the mean high-water line 

limiting enforcement efforts regarding coastal 

resources and visitor safety. The general 

management plan will address how to best 

protect the park’s resources and evaluate 

whether any boundary changes should 

be recommended.

KAHUKU UNIT

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park increased in 

size by over 50% when the 115,788 (150,865)

acre Kahuku Unit was added to the park in 

2003. There are currently minimal visitor 

facilities at the Kahuku Unit, and highway 

access to this unit needs to be analyzed. The 

Kahuku Unit includes areas with native 

ecosystem values, as well as indigenous 

Hawaiian cultural resources and traditional 

ranching landscapes. Resource inventory and 

monitoring has begun, and a wilderness 

eligibility assessment for the Kahuku Unit, as 

required by NPS management policy, was 

completed in 2012.

Planning for the Kahuku Unit will be included 

in the general management plan as part of a 

cohesive vision for the entire park, but due 

to the unique needs of this unit, the general 

management plan will provide specific 

guidance on the following issues in the 

Kahuku Unit: the entrance to the Kahuku 

Unit; facilities and infrastructure, including 

roads, existing buildings, and campgrounds; 

public use, access, and recreation in both 

the lower and upper sections of the unit; 

education and interpretation opportunities; 

resources management; commercial services; 

and wilderness. Chapter 4 of this plan 

includes a wilderness study that evaluates 

any foreseeable effects associated with 

possible designation of wilderness within 

the Kahuku Unit.

Forested pit crater at Kahuku. NPS photo by Jay Robinson
24 | Chapter 1: Introduction and Background HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Planning Issues and 

Concerns Not Addressed

Not all of the issues or concerns raised 

by the public are included in this general 

management plan. Issues that were raised 

by the public were not considered if they 

are already prescribed by law, regulation, 

or policy; if they would be in violation of 

law, regulation, or policy; or if they were at 

a level that was too detailed for a general 

management plan and would be more 

appropriately addressed in subsequent 

planning documents.

IMPACT TOPICS

Impact topics allow comparison of the 

environmental consequences of implementing 

each alternative. These impact topics were 

identified based on federal laws and other 

legal requirements, the CEQ guidelines for 

implementing the National Environmental 

Policy Act, NPS Management Policies 2006, 

subject-matter expertise and knowledge of 

limited or easily impacted resources, and 

issues/concerns expressed by other agencies 

or members of the public during scoping. 

Impact topics were developed to focus the 

environmental analysis and to ensure that 

alternatives were evaluated against relevant 

topics. A brief rationale for the selection of the 

impact topics that are analyzed in the 

environmental consequences chapter is given 

below, as well as a more detailed justification 

for dismissing other topics from 

further consideration.

Impact Topics to Be Considered

NATURAL RESOURCES

GEOLOGIC RESOURCES—According to NPS 

Management Policies 2006 (4.8.2), the National 

Park Service will preserve and protect 

geologic resources and features from adverse 

effects of human activity, while allowing 

natural processes to continue. Geologic 

resources found in the park include volcanoes, 

faults, earth cracks, cinder cones, lava tubes, 

collapse features, geothermal features, spatter 

ramparts, tree molds, pahoehoe, ‘ā‘ā, ash 

layers, and many more. The alternatives 

include ground-disturbing activities, as well 

as potential disturbance of other geologic 

features. For example, alternatives include 

actions such as new trail construction, which 

would result in disturbance to soils and 

geologic features. Shifts in visitor use patterns 

or increases in visitor concentrations may 

impact geologic features. Therefore, geologic 

resources are included as an impact topic.

SOUNDSCAPES— For management and 

planning purposes, it is important to 

distinguish and define certain key terms. 

Acoustic resources are physical sound 

sources, including both natural sounds (wind, 

water, wildlife, vegetation) and cultural and 

historic sounds (battle reenactments, tribal 

ceremonies, quiet reverence). The acoustic 

environment is the combination of all the 

acoustic resources within a given area—

natural sounds as well as human-caused 

sounds. While the acoustic environment 

includes sound vibrations made by geological 

processes, biological activity, and even sounds 

that are inaudible to most humans, such as 

bat echolocation calls, the soundscape is the 

component of the acoustical environment 

that can be perceived and comprehended 

by humans. The character and quality of the 

soundscape influences human perceptions 

of an area, providing a sense of place 

that differentiates it from other regions. 

Noise refers to sound which is unwanted, 

either because of its effects on humans 

and wildlife, or its interference with the 

perception or detection of other sounds. 

Cultural soundscapes include opportunities 

Endangered Cyanea shipmanii. NPS photo for appropriate transmission of cultural 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 1: Introduction and Background | 25 

and historic sounds that are fundamental 

components of the purposes and values for 

which a park was established.

NPS Director’s Order 47: Soundscape 

Preservation and Noise Management defines 

operational policies that will protect, 

maintain, or restore soundscapes and the 

acoustic environment (NPS 2000). Natural 

sounds are part of the park environment, are 

vital to the functioning of ecosystems, and 

may also be valuable indicators of ecosystem 

health. The alternatives include various 

motorized activities associated with visitor 

use and park management, as well as potential 

shifts in visitor use and concentrations, 

which may impact soundscapes and the 

acoustic environment.

VEGETATION, INCLUDING NONNATIVE 

SPECIES— NEPA calls for examination of 

the impacts on the components of affected 

ecosystems. NPS Management Policies 2006

calls for protecting the natural abundance 

and diversity of park native species and 

communities, including avoiding, minimizing, 

or mitigating potential impacts from proposed 

projects. The alternatives are likely to result 

in vegetation loss in some areas, as well as 

enhancement or restoration of vegetation. 

In addition, various management actions 

may risk introduction of nonnative plant 

species, particularly in upper Kahuku Unit. 

Mitigations will be developed to minimize 

risk. Therefore vegetation is included as 

an impact topic.

WILDLIFE AND WILDLIFE HABITAT, 

INCLUDING NONNATIVE SPECIES— NEPA

calls for examination of the impacts on the 

components of affected ecosystems. NPS 

policy is to protect the natural abundance 

and diversity of park native species and 

communities, including avoiding, minimizing, 

or mitigating potential impacts from proposed 

projects. Many wildlife species may reside 

in or near the project areas. The alternatives 

would involve impacts to wildlife such as 

the removal of wildlife habitat and increased 

noise levels caused by construction activities 

or increased concentrations of visitors. The 

loss or alteration of habitat has a direct effect 

on wildlife, which is often greatest when 

nesting and/or foraging areas are affected. 

Various management actions outlined in 

the alternatives may risk introduction of 

nonnative wildlife species, particularly in 

upper Kahuku Unit. Mitigations will be 

developed to minimize risk. Therefore 

wildlife and wildlife habitat is included as 

an impact topic.

SPECIAL STATUS SPECIES— The federal 

Endangered Species Act (ESA) requires an 

examination of impacts to all federally listed 

threatened or endangered species. NPS 

Management Policies 2006 also calls for an 

analysis of impacts to state-listed threatened 

or endangered species and federal candidate 

species, as well as rare, declining, and sensitive 

species. There are multiple special status 

species in the park, some of which may be 

impacted by the proposed alternatives; 

therefore, special status species are included 

as an impact topic.

CULTURAL RESOURCES

ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESOURCES / HISTORIC 

STRUCTURES / CULTURAL LANDSCAPES— 

Consideration of the impacts to historic 

properties is required under provisions of 

Section 106 of the 1966 National Historic 

Preservation Act (NHPA), as amended, and 

the 2008 NPS Programmatic Agreement 

among the National Park Service, the National 

Conference of State Historic Preservation 

Officers, and the Advisory Council on 

Historic Preservation (NPS 2008). It is also 

Newly emerged endemic Kamehameha butterfly. 

NPS photo by Jay Robinson
26 | Chapter 1: Introduction and Background HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

required under the NPS Management Policies 

2006. Conformance with the Archaeological 

Resources Protection Act in protecting known 

or undiscovered archaeological resources is 

necessary. NPS Management Policies 2006 

calls for ongoing inventory and analysis of the 

significance of archaeological resources found 

within parks. Federal land managing agencies 

are required to consider the effects proposed 

actions may have on properties listed in, 

or eligible for inclusion in, the National 

Register of Historic Places (i.e., historic 

properties), and to allow the Advisory Council 

a reasonable opportunity to comment. 

Agencies are required to consult with 

federal, state, local, and tribal government/

organizations; identify historic properties; 

assess adverse effects to historic properties; 

and negate, minimize, or mitigate adverse 

effects to historic properties while engaged in 

any federal or federally assisted undertaking 

(36 CFR Part 800).

The National Historic Preservation Act also 

requires the inventory of national registereligible properties under Section 110. The 

extent of cultural resources at Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes documents nearly 600 years 

of human activity and includes a range of 

resources from indigenous island cultural 

adaptations to a unique lava landscape 

(e.g., Tuggle and Tomonari-Tuggle 2008 and 

others). Cultural resources in the park include 

archaeological resources, cultural landscapes, 

ethnographic resources, and historic 

structures. The park contains archaeological 

resources, prehistoric/historic structures, and 

cultural landscapes, which may be impacted 

by the proposed alternatives (e.g., new or 

expanded trails or other facilities, changes in 

visitor use concentrations); therefore, these 

topics will be analyzed.

ETHNOGRAPHIC RESOURCES— NHPA, NPS 

Management Policies 2006, and Director’s 

Order 28 direct parks to consider potential 

impacts of planned actions on cultural 

resources, including ethnographic resources. 

An analysis of impacts to known resources is 

important under the National Historic 

Preservation Act and other laws, including 

the Native American Graves Protection and 

Repatriation Act and the American Indian 

Religious Freedom Act. The National Park 

Service defines American Indian or Native 

Hawaiian traditional cultural (ethnographic) 

resources as any “site, structure, object, 

landscape, or natural resource feature 

assigned traditional legendary, religious, 

subsistence, or other significance in the 

cultural system of a group traditionally 

associated with it” (NPS 2006a). Traditional 

uses by native populations still occur today, 

including ceremonial activities. Elements of 

the proposed alternatives may have impacts 

on ethnographic resources; therefore this 

topic will be analyzed.

VISITOR USE AND EXPERIENCE

The Organic Act directs the National Park 

Service to promote and regulate the use of 

national parks to conserve resources and 

to provide for their enjoyment by existing 

and future generations. NPS Management 

Policies 2006 and Director’s Order 17 provide 

guidance on visitor use patterns and the 

desired visitor carrying capacity, and discuss 

appropriate recreational activities within park 

units (NPS 1999). Depending on the selected 

alternative, a variety of impacts to visitor use 

may occur. The impacts to be considered 

in this section related to visitor use include 

visitor use opportunities, range of recreational 

opportunities, interpretation and education, 

and scenic resources.

Birdwatching at Kīpukapuaulu. NPS photo
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 1: Introduction and Background | 27 

SOCIOECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT

The National Environmental Policy Act 

requires evaluation of the impacts of federal 

actions on the social and economic 

environment. The general management plan 

alternatives could affect the social and 

economic environment and opportunities of 

residents and businesses in the park vicinity 

through potential changes in park 

management, operations, and visitor use and 

experience. Hawai‘i County makes up the 

affected area for socioeconomic analysis. 

Local communities within the county and 

private sector businesses, including visitor 

services facilities and operators could be 

affected by actions proposed in this 

management plan. Consequently, the 

socioeconomic environment is retained as 

an impact topic.

WILDERNESS

NPS wilderness management policies 

are based on provisions of the 1916 NPS 

Organic Act, the Wilderness Act (1964), and 

legislation establishing individual units of the 

national park system. These policies establish 

consistent direction for the preservation, 

management, and use of wilderness, and they 

prohibit the construction of roads, buildings, 

and other human-made improvements, as 

well as the use of mechanized transportation 

in wilderness. All park management activities 

proposed within wilderness are subject to 

review following the minimum requirement 

concept and decision guidelines. The public 

purpose of wilderness in national parks 

includes the preservation of wilderness 

character and wilderness resources in an 

unimpaired condition, and provides for 

recreational, scenic, scientific, educational, 

conservation, and historical use. The 

wilderness study included in this GMP/WS/

EIS proposes recommending new lands for 

wilderness designation; therefore, wilderness 

is retained as an impact topic.

PARK MANAGEMENT AND OPERATIONS

The alternatives proposed in this plan could 

affect park operations and facilities in the 

park. Topics include staffing, maintenance, 

facilities, ability to enforce park regulations 

and protect park values, employee and visitor 

health and safety, and management of other 

resources. Therefore park management and 

operations was retained as an impact topic.

TRANSPORTATION AND ACCESS

NPS Management Policies 2006 (9.2) calls 

for NPS managers to identify solutions to 

transportation issues that preserve natural 

and cultural resources while providing a 

high-quality visitor experience. Management 

decisions regarding transportation generally 

require a comprehensive alternatives analysis 

and thorough understanding of natural 

systems and trends and their consequences. 

The location, type, and design of multimodal transportation facilities (such as roads, 

parking areas, bikeways, and pedestrian 

trails) strongly influence the quality of the 

visitor experience and the preservation of 

park unit resources. Different alternatives are 

proposed regarding transportation and access, 

therefore the impacts to these resources will 

be analyzed further.

Steaming bluff. NPS photo by Stephen Geiger

Going green – solar powered cart for staff transport. NPS photo
28 | Chapter 1: Introduction and Background HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS, CLIMATE 

CHANGE AND SUSTAINABILITY

Recent reports by the U.S. Climate Change 

Science Program, the National Academy 

of Sciences, and the United Nations 

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 

provide evidence that climate change is 

occurring and could accelerate in the 

coming decades. While climate change is a 

global phenomenon, it manifests differently 

depending on regional and local factors. 

Increasing average temperatures have been 

documented for Hawai‘i, particularly at 

higher elevations. Climate models for Hawai‘i 

predict increasing severity and frequency of

El Niño drought events and changes in the 

mean elevation level of the inversion layer. 

However, predicting the specific effects of 

global climate change at a regional level is in a 

preliminary stage.

There is strong evidence linking global 

climate change to human activities, especially 

greenhouse gas emissions associated with the 

burning of fossil fuels (IPCC 2007). Although 

it is also likely that changing weather patterns 

may affect the distribution of both nonnative 

and native plant and wildlife populations, 

analysis of the degree to which effects may 

occur over the time frame of this plan would 

be speculative. The general management plan 

will provide guidance on how the park will 

assess, respond to, and interpret the impacts 

of global climate change on fundamental 

resources, including objectives for reducing or 

offsetting emissions. The general management 

plan will evaluate the impacts of proposed 

actions for their impacts on the park’s 

carbon footprint.

Impact Topics Dismissed from

Further Consideration

Some impact topics that are commonly 

considered during the planning process 

were not relevant to the development of 

this general management plan for Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park due to the following: 

(a) implementing the alternatives would have 

no effect, a negligible effect, or a minor effect 

on the topic or resource or (b) the resource 

does not occur in the national park. These 

topics are as follows.

GEOLOGIC HAZARDS

Geologic hazards, including lava flows, 

earthquakes, rock slides, and others, are 

present within Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park. As stated in the Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park Strategic Plan (Park 2000) 

the park’s mission is “to protect, conserve, 

and study the volcanic landscapes . . . and to 

facilitate safe public access to active volcanism 

. . . .” The activity from these volcanoes would 

not be impacted by any of the alternatives 

in the general management plan; rather the 

volcanoes may impact actions taken under 

the alternatives. The geologic processes that 

are a part of active volcanism are sometimes 

hazardous. NPS Management Polices 2006

states that geologic processes would be 

addressed during planning and other 

management activities in an effort to reduce 

hazards that can threaten the safety of park 

visitors and staff and the long-term viability 

of the park infrastructure (NPS 2006a). Due 

to the interconnectedness of this topic with 

other impact topics, the potential impacts 

from geological hazards will be addressed 

throughout the environmental consequences 

analysis, not as its own topic.

Native forest trees ‘ōhi‘a, ‘ōlapa, and hapu‘u. NPS photo
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 1: Introduction and Background | 29 

AIR QUALITY

The Clean Air Act of 1963, as amended, was 

established to promote public health and 

welfare by protecting and enhancing the 

nation’s air quality (42 USC 7401 et seq., PL 

88-206). The act establishes specific programs 

that provide special protection for air 

resources and air quality-related values 

associated with national park units. Section 

118 of the Clean Air Act requires a park unit 

to meet all federal, state, and local air quality 

pollution standards.

By virtue of its 

1978 wilderness 

designation, 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park 

is a Class I 

airshed under 

the Clean Air Act 

Amendments 

of 1977. Class 

I airsheds are 

afforded the 

highest degree 

of protection, 

meaning that very little additional 

deterioration of air quality is permitted. 

The act states that park managers have 

an affirmative responsibility to protect air 

quality-related values (including visibility, 

plants, animals, soils, water quality, cultural 

resources, and visitor health) from adverse air 

pollution impacts (NPS 2006a). The greatest 

impact to air quality at the park is the volcanic 

emissions, which the park has no control over.

Overall, there would be slight and temporary 

degradation of local air quality due to the use 

of construction equipment in the park, such 

as construction equipment emissions and 

dust. This effect would last only as long as 

the particular construction activity, and the 

park’s Class I air quality would not be affected 

by the proposal. Impacts would be negligible 

and short-term. The proposed actions 

would not adversely affect the long-term air 

quality; therefore, air quality is dismissed as 

an impact topic.

LIGHTSCAPES

NPS Management Policies 2006 (4.10) states 

that “the Service will preserve, to the greatest 

extent possible, the natural lightscapes of 

parks, which are natural resources and values 

that exist in the absence of human-caused 

light.” The extreme isolation of the Hawaiian 

Islands allows for excellent air quality at high 

elevations and results in clear night skies that 

provide outstanding opportunities to see 

the stars and constellations. Dark night skies 

are so important that 

Hawai‘i County passed 

lighting ordinances to 

protect the dark night 

sky (Hawai‘i County 

Outdoor Lighting 

Ordinance, 1988, Ord. 

No. 88-122, sec. 3; 

Chapter 14, Article 

9). More recently, the 

State of Hawai‘i (Act 

287, Hawai‘i Night 

Sky Protection Act, 

2012; Chapter 201 - 

Night Sky Protection 

Strategy, Hawai‘i 

Revised Statutes revision) recently passed an 

act to ensure the rest of the state is protecting 

night skies (previously only Hawai‘i and Maui 

Counties had ordinances).

The dark night sky has tremendous scientific 

value for astronomy and is vitally important 

for wildlife in Hawai‘i, including birds and 

turtles, because the absence of artificial light 

allows native wildlife to navigate without 

becoming disoriented. The proposed actions 

under the alternatives could introduce 

or increase artificial light sources in the 

environment beyond current or historic levels, 

which, without mitigation, could affect the 

ability to see natural features visible on clear 

nights. However, due to county ordinances as 

well as park policy, any new lighting installed 

would strictly adhere to county ordinances 

and park standard operating procedures for 

protection of night skies. This is necessary 

not just to protect the lightscapes, but also to 

protect night-flying birds and other nocturnal 

animals, including special status species. The 

Moon over Kīlauea. NPS photo by Ed Shiinoki
30 | Chapter 1: Introduction and Background HAWAI‘I VOLCANOE S NAT IONA L PARK GMP/WS/EIS

park has in the past, and will continue to 

protect the lightscapes to the highest degree 

possible; this will ensure the impact levels of 

the proposed actions are minor or less over 

the life of the plan. Therefore lightscapes has 

been dismissed as an impact topic.

WATER QUALITY OR QUANTITY

The 1972 Federal Water Pollution Control 

Act, as amended by the Clean Water Act (33 

USC 1251 et seq., Public Law 92-500 and 

Public Law 95-217), is a national policy to 

restore and maintain the chemical, physical, 

and biological integrity of the nation’s waters, 

to enhance the quality of water resources, and 

to prevent, control, and abate water pollution. 

NPS Management Policies 2006 provides 

direction for the preservation, use, and quality 

of water in national parks.

Minimal surface waters, including a small 

number of temporary streams that occur 

during heavy rain events, are located in or 

adjacent to the park; therefore, the possibility 

that this resource would be impacted by the 

proposed alternatives would be negligible 

so this topic is dismissed from further 

analysis. Please refer to the “Marine and 

Estuarine Resources” section below for more 

information about anchialine pools.

STREAMFLOW CHARACTERISTICS

There are no permanent streams in the park. 

Minimal surface waters, including a small 

number of temporary streams that occur 

during heavy rain events, are in or adjacent 

to the park; therefore, the possibility that this 

resource would be impacted by the proposed 

alternatives would be negligible so this 

topic is dismissed.

MARINE AND ESTUARINE RESOURCES

The boundary of Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park includes the shoreline and associated 

habitats along the Pacific Ocean. Within 

the park, brackish anchialine pools along 

the shoreline serve as the only habitat for 

certain species. None of the actions proposed 

in this plan would affect the shoreline 

environments of the park, and other marine 

and estuarine environments are outside of 

the park jurisdiction. The park is the primary 

owner of the watershed and does not extract 

groundwater. The park’s water supply is 

wholly from rainwater catchment, so there are 

no impacts to the aquifer quantity or quality. 

No new impacts from runoff are anticipated 

from the proposed actions because very 

little new development is proposed and the 

changes would be distant from the coastal 

resources. In addition, no changes are 

proposed for the coastal campsites. It is not 

anticipated that upstream water quality or 

quantity would be measurably affected by the 

proposed alternatives; therefore downstream 

impacts would be negligible.

Impacts on marine and estuarine habitats 

would not likely be measurable; therefore, 

impacts on species inhabiting these 

environments are not anticipated. Of 

particular concern in these environs are 

federally listed threatened and endangered 

species. These include the Hawaiian monk 

seal (Monachus schauinslandi), green sea 

turtle (Chelonia mydas), hawksbill sea turtle 

(Eretmochelys imbricate), and a candidate 

endangered endemic shrimp 

(Metabetaeus lohena).

•	 The Hawaiian monk seal is 

endangered throughout its range, 

with critical habitat designated in the 

Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (a 

remote archipelago of small islands, 

largely protected as a marine reserve). 

Within the park, Hawaiian monk 

seals have been observed to haul out 

Endangered Hawaiian monk seal at ‘Āpua. NPS photo
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 1: Introduction and Background | 31 

and bask along the shoreline. Because 

the use of the park by this species is 

limited, and because the marine and 

shoreline habitats of the park would 

not be affected under the proposed 

alternatives, the Hawaiian monk seal 

is not carried forward for analysis.

• Green sea turtles are most commonly 

found in fairly shallow waters (except 

when migrating) inside reefs, bays, 

and inlets. They prefer lagoons and 

shoals with an abundance of marine 

grass and algae and require open 

beaches with a sloping platform and 

minimal disturbance for nesting 

(USFWS 2009g). The green sea turtle 

may forage offshore and occasionally 

haul out to bask on the park’s 

beaches, but there are no known 

nesting sites at the park. Because the 

use of the park by this species is 

limited to basking on the shoreline, 

and because the marine and shoreline 

habitats of the park would not be 

affected under the proposed 

alternatives, the green sea turtle is not 

carried forward for analysis.

• Hawksbill turtles occur along the 

shoreline and surrounding waters 

of the island (Park 2009e). They are 

typically found feeding in the vicinity 

of rock or reef habitats in shallow 

tropical waters with little turbidity 

(NMFS and USFWS 1998b). 

Preferred nesting habitat includes 

low-energy sandy beaches under the 

cover of woody vegetation (NMFS 

and USFWS 1998b). Hawksbill nests 

are monitored and protected at 

‘Āpua Point, Halapē, and Keauhou 

in the park. Because the marine and 

shoreline habitats of the park would 

not be affected under the proposed 

alternatives, the hawksbill sea turtle is 

not carried forward for analysis.

• The brackish-water shrimp 

(Metabetaeus) is known to occur 

in low- to high-salinity anchialine 

pools. Anchialine pools are rare, 

localized brackish waters along 

coastal lava flows that are subject 

to tidal fluctuations but are not 

openly connected to the ocean 

(USFWS 2009c; USGS 2005b). 

Recent surveys (2004–2009) for 

Metabetaeus in national parks in 

Hawai‘i have documented that it is 

widespread in this unique habitat 

type. Current studies indicate that 

adults are sensitive to increases in 

pool salinity (Foote 2009b). Because 

none of the proposed alternatives 

would affect water quantity, quality, 

or salinity in the shoreside anchialine 

pools, this species is not carried 

forward for analysis.

UNIQUE OR ESSENTIAL FISH HABITAT

The boundary of Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park includes the shoreline and associated 

habitats along the Pacific Ocean, but does 

not extend into the marine environment. 

In addition, there are no perennial or 

intermittent streams in the park. Therefore, no 

unique or essential fish habitat is designated at 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes. Because this habitat does 

not occur in the park, and because impacts on 

upstream water quality and quantity are not 

likely to be measurable, no impacts on nearby 

unique or essential fish habitat would be 

anticipated. Therefore, this topic is not carried 

forward for analysis.

WILD AND SCENIC RIVERS

The purpose of designating a river as “Wild 

and Scenic” is to protect its free flow, water 

quality, and “outstandingly remarkable scenic, 

Halapē. NPS photo recreational, geologic, fish and wildlife, 
32 | Chapter 1: Introduction and Background HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

historic, cultural or other similar values” 

(16 USC 1271). These rivers and others 

eligible for this designation must be managed 

to avoid impacts on the values for which they 

were designated (NPS 2006a, 2.3.1.9). There 

are no wild and scenic rivers or rivers that may 

be eligible for wild or scenic status within the 

park. Therefore, this topic was dismissed from 

further analysis.

FLOODPLAINS AND WETLANDS

Executive Order 11988, “Floodplain 

Management,” requires an examination of 

impacts to floodplains and the potential 

risk involved in placing facilities within 

floodplains. NPS Management Policies 

2006; The Planning Sourcebook: General 

Management Planning (NPS 2005); 

Director’s Order 12: Conservation Planning, 

Environmental Impact Analysis, and 

Decision-making (NPS 2001); and Director’s 

Order 77-2: Floodplain Management (NPS 

2003a) provide guidelines for proposals 

that occur in floodplains. Executive Order 

11988 requires that impacts to floodplains, 

if present, be addressed. There are no 

designated floodplains in the park that would 

be impacted by the actions in the general 

management plan. 

Executive Order 11990, “Protection of 

Wetlands,” requires an examination of 

impacts on wetlands. In Kahuku, vegetation 

mapping surveys in the 1970s and in 2005 

failed to locate significant bogs in the area. 

The park has some small semi-bog areas in 

wet forests in ‘Ōla‘a that could be affected 

by management activities, particularly 

the management of nonnative ungulates. 

However, these adverse impacts would be 

short-term negligible, with long-term minor 

beneficial impacts. Therefore, this topic has 

been dismissed from further analysis.

PRIME AND UNIQUE FARMLANDS

The Farmland Protection Policy Act was 

implemented to preserve and protect the 

dwindling supply of farmland in the nation. 

In 1980, the CEQ directed that federal 

agencies assess the effects of their actions on 

farmlands classified as prime or unique by 

the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) 

Natural Resources Conservation Service. 

Prime farmland, as defined by the USDA, is 

land that has the best combination of physical 

and chemical characteristics for producing 

food, feed, forage, fiber, and oilseed crops 

and is available for these uses. It may include 

cultivated land, pastureland, forestland, or 

any other type of land that is not considered 

an urban or built-up land or water areas. 

In prime farmland areas, the soil quality, 

growing season, and moisture supply are 

optimal for the soil to economically produce 

sustained high yields of crops when proper 

management—including water management—

and acceptable farming methods are applied. 

Unique farmlands are lands other than prime 

farmland that are used for the production of 

specific high value food and fiber crops.

A 1973 soil survey conducted for the Island of 

Hawai‘i, which included Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park, identified some soils in Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes that could be classified as prime 

or unique farmland soils. They are as follows 

(USDA-NRCS 2009): Alapai hydrous silty 

clay loam consociation; Mauna‘iu-‘Akelelu 

complex; Ha‘a-Ke‘amoku complex; Ki medial 

loam consociation; and Manu medial silt 

loam consociation. However, areas containing 

these soils are not currently in active 

production, nor does the potential exist for 

them to be converted or developed, thereby 

precluding their potential use as productive 

areas in the future. As a result, prime and 

unique farmlands are not carried forward for 

further analysis. 

MUSEUM COLLECTIONS

NPS Management Policies 2006 and cultural 

resources laws identify the need to evaluate 

effects on museum collections, if applicable. 

Requirements for proper management of 

museum objects are defined in NPS 

Management Policies 2006; Director’s Order 

24: NPS Museum Collections Management; and 

the NPS Museum Handbook. Museum 

collections would not be adversely affected by 

the proposed alternatives, except by the 

potential addition of material to the 

collections, if any is found. Under all 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 1: Introduction and Background | 33 

alternatives, the park would adaptively reuse 

the historic ‘Ōhi‘a Wing, also known as the 

1932 Administration Building, as a cultural 

museum and for museum collections storage. 

The improved storage facilities in the ‘Ōhi‘a 

Wing would have a long-term beneficial effect 

on museum collections; however, any storage 

location in the park (or on the island for that 

matter) would have the potential to be 

threatened by volcanic and seismic activity. 

Currently 0.04% of the park’s museum 

collection is stored off-island and in one NPS 

and two non-NPS facilities. Due to limited 

facilities and space, only eight items from the 

park’s collection are currently on display in the 

park. The park maintains emergency response 

plans for the collections, including evacuation 

and mitigation plans.

INDIAN TRUST RESOURCES

Secretarial Order 3175: Departmental 

Responsibilities for Indian Trust Resources, 

requires that any anticipated impacts to Indian 

trust resources from a proposed project or 

action by the Department of the Interior 

(DOI) agencies be explicitly addressed in 

environmental documents. The federal Indian 

trust responsibility is a legally enforceable 

fiduciary obligation on the part of the United 

States to protect tribal lands, assets, resources, 

and treaty rights. It represents a duty to carry 

out the mandates of federal law with respect to 

American Indian and Alaska Native tribes.

There are no Indian trust resources in 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park. The lands 

comprising the park are not held in trust by 

the Secretary of the Interior for the benefit of 

Indians due to their status as Indians. For these 

reasons, this topic is dismissed from further 

analysis in this document.

LAND USE AND BOUNDARY

NPS Management Policies 2006 provides 

direction for protection of lands and resources 

within park units, acquisition of nonfederal 

lands that are within park units, and 

cooperation with agencies, tribes, and private 

property owners to provide appropriate 

protection measures. Land use refers to the 

general characteristics of how land is allocated 

among various administrative, preservation, 

recreational, and development needs. There 

would be beneficial effects from the potential 

boundary adjustments and from development 

of management zoning in the park. No 

alternatives would adversely impact 

neighboring landowners. The lands proposed 

for acquisition are currently undeveloped, so 

no significant changes in use will occur. The 

impacts to land use are anticipated to be 

negligible or less; therefore, land use is 

dismissed as an impact topic.

ENERGY RESOURCES AND 

RESOURCE CONSERVATION

Under any alternative, the National Park 

Service would continue to implement its 

policies of reducing costs, eliminating waste, 

and conserving resources by using energy 

efficient and cost-effective technology (NPS 

2006a). Irrespective of this plan, NPS staff 

would continue to look for energy saving 

opportunities in all aspects of park operations. 

As directed by NPS Management Policies 2006, 

the National Park Service strives to minimize 

the short- and long-term, environmental 

impacts of development and other activities 

through resource conservation, recycling, 

waste minimization, and the use of energy1877 Volcano House. NPS photo

Photovoltaic system at the park’s fire station. NPS photo
34 | Chapter 1: Introduction and Background HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

efficient and ecologically responsible materials 

and techniques. None of the alternatives being 

considered would result in the extraction of 

resources from the park. Implementation 

of the proposed actions would not cause 

measurable increases in the consumption 

of energy resources. Actions are proposed 

that would continue to improve the resource 

conservation at the park. Therefore, this topic 

was dismissed from further analysis.

ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE

Executive Order 12898, “Federal Actions 

to Address Environmental Justice in 

Minority Populations and Low-income 

Populations” (59 FR 7629, as amended by 

Executive Order 12948, 60 FR 6381, 42 

USC 4321), requires all federal agencies 

to incorporate environmental justice into 

their missions by identifying and addressing 

disproportionately high and adverse levels of 

human health or environmental effects from 

their programs and policies on minorities and 

low-income populations and communities. 

This executive order does not apply to 

the subject of this document. The actions 

evaluated in this document would not have 

an effect (either beneficial or adverse) on 

socially or economically disadvantaged 

populations. There are also no indications 

that disadvantaged persons would be 

disproportionately affected. Therefore this 

topic was dismissed from further analysis.

PUBLIC HEALTH AND SAFETY

The proposed developments and actions 

in the alternatives would not result in any 

identifiable adverse impacts on human health 

or safety. Under all of the alternatives, the 

park would manage visitor use to ensure 

visitor safety and reduce the risks associated 

with managing park use on an active volcano. 

Therefore, this topic was dismissed from 

further analysis.

Keanakāko‘i Overlook. NPS photo by Stephen Geiger
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 1: Introduction and Background | 35 

RELATIONSHIP TO OTHER 

PLANNING EFFORTS

The following plans, agreements, and related 

documents have influenced the preparation 

of this general management plan, or may be 

modified based on the information in this 

general management plan. The following 

list in not all inclusive. Rather, it represents 

the plans most relevant to the management 

actions, issues, policies, and procedures 

addressed in this general management plan.

National Park Service Plans

HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK 

MASTER PLAN/ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT 

STATEMENT (1975)

In 1975, the National Park Service finalized 

the Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park Master 

Plan/Environmental Impact Statement

that, at the time, outlined a future vision 

for interpretation, research, resources 

management, visitor use, special use areas, 

transportation and access, and facilities 

at Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park. This 

master plan also assessed park boundaries 

(recommending inclusion of ‘Ōla‘a within 

the formal boundary) and developed 

management zones in the park, including 

a primary use zone, Kīlauea Vicinity zone, 

wilderness threshold zone, and backcountry 

zone. The Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

General Management Plan, once finalized 

and approved, will replace and supersede the 

1975 Master Plan.

FINAL ENVIRONMENTAL STATEMENT 

FOR THE PROPOSED WILDERNESS AREAS 

AT HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL 

PARK (1975)

The National Park Service completed 

the Final Environmental Statement for 

the Proposed Wilderness Areas at Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park in 1975 which 

proposed that Congress designate 

123,100 (130,950) acres within the park as 

wilderness and an additional 7,580 acres 

outside the park as potential wilderness. In 

1978, Congress moved forward with this 

designation, resulting in 62% of Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park’s then 210,667 

acres, being designated as wilderness. This 

environmental impact statement and the 

wilderness recommendation (1974) also 

recognized the need for certain uses to 

continue in the recommended wilderness 

areas. These include: continuation of existing 

and proposed shelters for rainwater collection 

and storage, volcanic research and monitoring 

(including the use of helicopters), and the 

use of whatever minimum fences, tools, and 

equipment were necessary for control of 

invasive feral animals. While this language 

did not go into the wilderness designation 

language, minimum requirement analyses 

have been done and will be done in the future, 

as needed, to continue these uses.

Because this wilderness designation occurred 

after the completion of the Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park Master Plan/Environmental 

Impact Statement, this general management 

plan provides the first opportunity to integrate 

management planning across the park’s 

wilderness and nonwilderness areas within 

the broader scope of law and policy.

HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES LAND PROTECTION 

PLAN (1986)

All NPS units that contain private or other 

nonfederal land or interest in land within their 

authorized boundaries are required by policy 

to complete a land protection plan (LPP) in 

order to achieve management purposes 

consistent with public objectives of the unit. 

Sulfur Banks boardwalk. NPS photo
36 | Chapter 1: Introduction and Background HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park completed 

the unit’s most recent land protection plan in 

1986 which identified 7,846 acres for future 

proposed protection by fee acquisition and 

4,033 acres with no action proposed. The park 

also identified three tracts that are unsuitable 

for national park purposes (Park 1986). The 

1986 land protection plan informs the 

boundary analysis included within this general 

management plan and provides guidance for 

future boundary adjustments in Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park.

HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES 

NATIONAL PARK RESOURCE 

MANAGEMENT PLAN (1999)

The National Park Service 

completed the Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National 

Park Natural Resources 

Management Plan in 1999 

that is a composite plan for 

recovering park ecosystems; 

restoring lost biodiversity 

including endangered and 

rare plant and animal species; 

completing scientific research 

to develop understanding of 

populations, communities, 

ecosystems, threats and 

stressors; maintaining and 

expanding park partnerships for natural 

resources management; and providing 

avenues for expanding and sharing public 

knowledge of these unique resources. Aimed 

at fulfilling applicable congressional mandates 

for natural resources management in the park, 

this plan specifically outlines strategies to reestablish species into their former ranges and 

protect Hawaiian ecosystems from nonnative 

species in the Mauna Loa, ‘Ōla‘a, and Kīlauea 

Units in the park.

HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK FIRE 

MANAGEMENT PLAN (2005)

The purpose of this plan is to develop and 

improve the park’s fire management program 

to protect human life, property, and natural 

and cultural resources. This plan facilitates 

the implementation of current national fire 

plan direction and provides guidance for 

addressing wildland/urban interface areas in 

the park, particularly near Volcano Village and 

Hawaiian Ocean View Estates.

KA‘Ū COAST RECONNAISSANCE 

SURVEY (2006) 

In 2006, the National Park Service completed 

the Ka‘ū Coast Reconnaissance Survey 

which provided a preliminary evaluation of 

20,365 acres along 27 miles of shoreline on 

the southeast coast of Ka‘ū, 

including its resources and 

its suitability and feasibility 

of including the area in the 

national park system. This 

survey provides preliminary 

evaluations that the study area 

is of national significance, 

would be a suitable addition 

to the national park system, 

and could be feasibly managed 

for resource protection and 

public enjoyment, provided 

that its protection could be 

achieved through communitysupported approaches that 

limit acquisition costs and are 

based on partnership with 

local entities. The National 

Park Service found that further 

study of the resources was 

warranted and recommended that Congress 

consider authorizing a special resource study 

for the Ka‘ū Coast of Hawai‘i. The Ka‘ū 

Coast Reconnaissance Survey informs the 

boundary analysis included within this general 

management plan.

KAHUKU: AN INTERIM OPERATING 

PLAN (2006)

This interim operating plan directs the 

management and public use of the Kahuku 

Unit, an approximately 115,788 (150,865)-acre 

area that was added to Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park in 2003. This document 

provides guidance for managing this section 

of the park using established procedures and 

policies. The Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

General Management Plan, once finalized 

and approved, will replace and supersede 

this interim plan.

Native old growth rain forest in ‘Ōla‘a Unit. 

NPS photo
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 1: Introduction and Background | 37 

ALA KAHAKAI NATIONAL HISTORIC TRAIL 

FINAL COMPREHENSIVE MANAGEMENT 

PLAN/ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT 

STATEMENT (2008)

Added to the National Trails System on 

November 13, 2000, the Ala Kahakai National 

Historic Trail extends approximately 

175-miles along the prehistoric ala loa (long 

trail) on or parallel to the seacoast extending 

from ‘Upolu Point on the north tip of Hawai‘i 

Island down the west coast of the island 

around Ka Lae (South Point) to 

the east boundary of Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park. In 

2008, as required by the 

National Trails System Act 

(16USC 1241–1251), the 

National Park Service 

completed the Ala Kahakai 

National Historic Trail Final 

Comprehensive Management 

Plan / Environmental Impact 

Statement which outlines how 

the national trail would be 

administered and managed for 

approximately 15 years. Under 

the proposed action, a 

continuous trail parallel to the 

shoreline would be protected; however, on 

public lands and where landowners wish it, 

the Ala Kahakai National Historic Trail could 

include inland portions of the ala loa or other 

historic trails that run lateral to the shoreline, 

and the shoreline ala loa would be connected 

to ancient or historic mauka-makai (mountain 

to sea) trails that would have traditionally 

been part of the ahupua‘a system. Also, 

through an agreement, the state of Hawai‘i 

could convey to the National Park Service a 

less-than-fee management interest in trail 

segments that are state-owned under the 

Highways Act of 1892 within the Ala Kahakai 

National Historic Trail corridor. The National 

Park Service would then be responsible for 

managing these segments and federal law 

would fully apply. Due to the historic 

significance of this trail and the trail linkages 

and signage proposed in this plan, this 

comprehensive management plan plays a role 

in cultural resources management and 

interpretation/visitor use at Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park and informed some of the 

actions proposed in this plan.

CRATER RIM DRIVE REHABILITATION / 

ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT (2010)

The Crater Rim Drive Rehabilitation / 

Environmental Assessment (EA) was finalized 

on August 3, 2010. Under this environmental 

assessment, Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park rehabilitated 2.8 miles of Crater Rim 

Drive (between the junction 

with Highway 11 and Jaggar 

Museum) in 2012 by improving 

the road’s structural section to 

accommodate heavy vehicle 

load and average daily traffic 

volume. This included widening 

or reducing the width of 

the road to a typical design 

template of 22 feet.

This environmental assessment 

provides a foundation for 

some of the actions considered 

in this general management 

plan because it considered 

but dismissed several options 

for managing the park’s busiest road, Crater 

Rim Drive, and in some instances, deferred 

decisions to a general management plan. 

Actions that were dismissed in the planning 

process include adding bicycling lanes to 

Crater Rim Drive because of the potential 

impacts to threatened and endangered species 

and cultural resources. Actions that the 

plan deferred to a general management plan 

include: limit all vehicles to one-way traffic on 

Crater Rim Drive, limit all vehicles to one-way 

traffic between the Jaggar Museum and the 

Halema‘uma‘u Parking Area, limit the size and 

direction of commercial vehicles to one-way 

traffic between the Jaggar Museum and the 

Halema‘uma‘u parking area, implement an 

alternative transportation system, and allow 

concurrent use of park roads by commercial 

vehicles, personal vehicles, bicycles, and 

pedestrians. The general management 

planning process considered all of these 

actions when developing and refining 

alternatives for the plan.

Caldera view from ‘Iliahi Trail. NPS photo
38 | Chapter 1: Introduction and Background HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

ARCHAEOLOGICAL PRESERVATION PLAN 

FOR KEALAKOMO AHUPUA‘A, HAWAI‘I 

VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK (2011)

The focus of this site (Kealakomowaena) is to 

highlight Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park’s 

rich prehistoric and early historic period 

archeology. The plan assists the park in 

identifying the archaeological sites to be 

interpreted. The plan recommends 

appropriate interpretive themes and primary 

messages for interpretive trails and signage 

and mitigates impacts to sensitive resources. 

The preservation plan discusses specific 

archaeological sites and clusters to be 

interpreted, makes recommendations for site 

preparation requirements, and helps guide the 

park in managing the natural and cultural 

resources within the designated interpretive 

site. The preservation plan also recommends 

appropriate artifacts from the area that may be 

used in tactile exhibits and handson  activities.

WILDERNESS ELIGIBILITY ASSESSMENT FOR 

KAHUKU (2012)

The National Park Service completed a 

Wilderness Eligibility Assessment for Kahuku 

and other potentially eligible areas in the park 

which was signed by the regional director 

in June 2012. As required by the Wilderness 

Act of 1964, Secretarial Order 2920, and NPS 

Management Policies 2006, this assessment 

was conducted in order to determine the 

eligibility of Kahuku for preservation as 

wilderness. The assessment determined that 

29,848 acres (GIS) of Kahuku’s total 115,788 

(150,865) acres are ineligible for wilderness 

designation due to the changes wrought by 

past cattle ranching activities and the presence 

of past development. However, Kahuku’s 

remaining 121,0155 acres (GIS) are eligible 

for wilderness designation and exemplify 

the qualities of wilderness character. As a 

result of this determination of eligibility, 

this general management plan includes a 

wilderness study to evaluate any foreseeable 

effects associated with possible designation 

of additional wilderness within Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park.

PROTECTING & RESTORING NATIVE 

ECOSYSTEMS BY MANAGING NONNATIVE 

UNGULATES PLAN/ ENVIRONMENTAL 

IMPACT STATEMENT (2013)

The National Park Service completed the 

Final Plan/Environmental Impact Statement 

for Protecting and Restoring Native Ecosystems 

by Managing Nonnative Ungulates for Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park in April 2013. This 

plan/EIS creates a parkwide comprehensive, 

systematic management framework for 

ungulates that relies on scientifically based 

methods for managing nonnative ungulate 

populations to allow for the protection and 

recovery of park resources. Actions include 

expanding boundary fencing to encompass 

remaining unfenced portions of Kahuku 

and ‘Ōla’a rainforest, and the potential use 

of localized internal fencing to assist in the 

exclusion of nonnative ungulates, expansion 

of lethal and nonlethal techniques, and 

a population objective of zero nonnative 

ungulates, or as low as practicable in managed 

areas. Actions in this plan were incorporated 

within the general context of natural resource 

management when developing alternatives for 

the general management plan.

KAHUKU RESTORATION PLAN/

ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT (DRAFT 

PLAN/EA TO BE RELEASED IN 2014)

The National Park Service plans to release 

the Draft Kahuku Restoration Plan / 

Environmental Assessment in 2014 with the 

goal of creating a plan to restore former 

native ‘ōhi‘a or mixed ‘ōhi‘a /koa forest in 

the Kahuku Unit. The preferred alternative 

in this plan outlines restoration strategies

5

 Again, this figure was estimated using GIS; no official 

government survey has been completed to determine the 

acreage for this parcel.

Sail image at Pu‘uloa Petroglyphs. NPS photo
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 1: Introduction and Background | 39 

for the former pastures that facilitate or 

augment natural recovery, such as suppression 

of nonnative grasses, stimulation of koa 

and ‘ōhi‘a seedling establishment, and 

augmentation and reintroduction of lost or 

depleted species. Although not finalized, if 

approved as is, this plan provides guidance for 

natural resource management and restoration 

activities in portions of Kahuku and therefore 

informed the development of the alternatives 

in this general management plan.

AIR TOUR MANAGEMENT PLAN/

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 

(PRELIMINARY ALTERNATIVES RELEASED 

IN 2011)

The Federal Aviation Administration, National 

Park Service, and the Volpe National 

Transportation Systems Center are working 

together to develop the Hawai’i Volcanoes 

National Park Air Tour Management Plan/

Environmental Impact Statement whose 

objective, as outlined under the National 

Parks Air Tour Management Act (NPATMA) 

of 2000, “shall be to develop acceptable and 

effective measures to mitigate or prevent the 

significant adverse impacts, if any, of 

commercial air tour operations upon the 

natural and cultural resources, visitor 

experiences, and tribal lands.” In April 2011, 

the Federal Aviation Administration and the 

park released the preliminary alternatives for 

this plan, and have currently analyzed public 

comments and refined the alternatives. During 

the scoping phase of this general management 

plan, park staff received comments from the 

public concerning commercial air tours. This 

issue was not originally included in the scope 

of the general management plan; however 

some general guidance is included in this 

general management plan in both the 

management zones and alternatives. Decisions 

made through this plan will impact both the 

visitor experience and natural and cultural 

resources in the park, just as this general 

management plan will inform the AT MP about 

anticipated future visitor use patterns. The 

lead agency for the AT MP/EIS is the Federal 

Aviation Administration; the National Park 

Service is a cooperator. As the FAA is the lead 

on the document, it is not currently known 

when this plan will be completed.

Ropey pāhoehoe lava. NPS photo

MISSION CRITICAL ADMINISTRATIVE 

AVIATION PLAN/ENVIRONMENTAL 

ASSESSMENT (PUBLIC REVIEW PROCESS 

INITIATED FEBRUARY 2014)

The National Park Service, United States 

Geological Survey (USGS), and other 

cooperating agencies use helicopters in the 

park for approximately 250 hours per year 

in order to respond to eruptive activity, 

monitor the volcano, control invasive species, 

recover rare species, restore degraded 

ecosystems, protect cultural resources, and 

conduct wildland fire, search and rescue, 

and law enforcement operations. In an effort 

to provide a decision-making framework 

for managing the administrative use of 

aviation over the park, Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park completed public scoping for 

a Mission Critical Administrative Aviation 

Plan / Environmental Assessment (plan/EA) 

in spring 2012 and released the draft plan/

EA for public review in February 2014. The 

purpose of this plan/EA is to provide for 

operational use of aviation by the park staff 

and cooperators in a safe, timely, and efficient 

manner while avoiding or minimizing impacts 

to the park’s natural and cultural resources, 

soundscapes, wilderness, and visitor 

experience. Under the preferred alternative 

in this plan, aviation would continue to be 

used for the health and safety of visitors, 

employees, and island residents and for park 

resource protection and restoration. However, 

formal best management practices (BMPs), 

area closures, and flight restrictions would 

be instituted to minimize impacts to park 

resources, soundscapes, wilderness, visitors, 

and adjoining landowners. The final plan 

and its approval will likely beneficially impact 
40 | Chapter 1: Introduction and Background HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

both the visitor experience and natural and 

cultural resources in the park, just as this 

general management plan will inform this 

plan/EA about anticipated future visitor use 

patterns in the park.

Other Agency Plans

US FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE 

RECOVERY PLANS

The US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) 

has developed several recovery plans for 

species with known habitat in Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park. These plans play an 

important role in managing natural resources 

in the park as they direct both protection 

of these species of special status and their 

habitats. The recovery plans informed both 

the development of alternatives for this 

general management plan as well as the 

analysis of environmental consequences. 

Changes to the recovery plans may affect 

future natural resources management 

decisions in the park.

These plans include, but are not limited 

to, recovery plans for the Hawaiian goose, 

Hawaiian hawk, Hawaiian crow, Hawaiian 

hoary bat, hawksbill turtle, Hawaiian 

petrel, 21 taxa of Hawaiian forest birds, and 

multiple plant species.

Plans for Adjacent Lands

STATE OF HAWAI‘I DIVISION OF FORESTRY 

AND WILDLIFE PLANS

KA‘Ū FOREST MANAGEMENT RESERVE 

MANAGEMENT PLAN FINAL 

ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT— The 

Hawai‘i Department of Land and Natural 

Resources (DLNR), Division of Forestry and 

Wildlife (DOFAW)released the Final Ka‘ū 

Forest Reserve Management Plan / 

Environmental Assessment in October 2012. 

This final plan, which provides guidance for 

the Ka‘ū Forest Reserve located to the 

southeast of the Kahuku Unit (Figure 1.1. Park 

Vicinity), was created with the goal of 

maintaining and restoring a key watershed 

while providing for continued and expanded 

Hawaiian Volcano Observatory. NPS photo
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 1: Introduction and Background | 41 

public use. While actions proposed by this 

plan include monitoring and controlling 

invasive species and improving access for 

hunters and hikers, DOFAW’s most notable 

proposed action includes fencing 

approximately 12,000 acres along the 

southeastern border of Kahuku, removing 

ungulates in this area, and restoring the site in 

order to foster the potential reintroduction 

and survival of the ‘alalā (Hawaiian crow). 

Due to the proximity of Ka‘ū to the park, this 

action provides a wonderful interagency 

partnership opportunity to restore endemic 

species and habitat across the landscape.

PU‘U MAKA‘ALA 

NATURAL AREA RESERVE 

MANAGEMENT PLAN/

FINAL ENVIRONMENTAL 

ASSESSMENT— The DLNR, 

Division of Forestry and 

Wildlife, Natural Area 

Reserves System (NARS) 

released the Pu‘u Maka‘ala 

Natural Area Reserve 

Management Plan / Final 

Environmental Assessment

in October 2013. This plan 

includes a 15-year general 

management strategy for 

Pu’u Maka‘ala Natural 

Area Reserve (NAR or 

Reserve) that updates the 

1989 Management Plan 

to reflect management 

accomplishments and current management 

needs of this reserve. The overall management 

goal is to protect, maintain, and enhance 

the reserve’s unique natural, cultural, 

and geological resources. Proposed 

actions to achieve this goal include 

fencing (including areas along the park’s 

boundary), feral ungulate removal, weed 

control, habitat restoration, out-planting 

rare pants, monitoring, public access, 

outreach and education, fire management, 

enhanced enforcement, and continued 

collaboration with partners.

Established in 1981 by Governor’s Executive 

Order 3102 to protect native wet forest, Pu‘u 

Maka‘ala NAR is, as of 2010, approximately 

18,706 acres in size and links the ‘Ōla‘a Unit 

and the upper elevation native forests of 

Kīlauea, Keauhou, and Upper Waiakea (Figure 

1.1. Park Vicinity). These forests comprise 

an important water resource for the lower 

Puna and Hilo regions of Hawai‘i Island, 

and provide exceptional habitat for a wide 

diversity of native plant and animal species. 

As a result of this relationship between the 

Reserve and the park, the Final Pu‘u Maka‘ala 

Natural Area Reserve Management Plan

provides continued partnership opportunities 

for natural resource management across 

interagency boundaries.

THREE MOUNTAIN ALLIANCE 

THREE MOUNTAIN ALLIANCE 

MANAGEMENT PLAN—

Formed in 2007, the Three 

Mountain Alliance (TMA) 

is a formal nine-member 

partnership between 

large, private, and public 

landowners on the Island 

of Hawai‘i (including the 

National Park Service 

and neighbors of Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park) 

who have shared interests 

in watershed protection 

and management across 

Mauna Loa, Kīlauea, and 

Hualālai. TMA encompasses 

over one million acres, or 

45%, of Hawai‘i Island. 

Because of the differing management goals 

and priorities of TMA members, the Three 

Mountain Alliance created a management 

plan in 2007 that identifies and builds upon 

jointly identified priorities and collaborative 

management and research efforts. This plan 

identifies the resources that are shared by 

TMA members, the threats to TMA, and the 

current management practices of TMA, and 

develops a management program to support 

the goals of TMA. Because this plan applies 

to both Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

and neighboring lands, like the Kahauale‘a 

NAR and Pu‘u Maka‘ala NAR, it informs 

natural and cultural resource management 

alternatives in the general management plan.

Endemic Hawaiian mint. NPS photo
42 | Chapter 1: Introduction and Background HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Local, State, and Regional Plans

KA‘Ū COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT PLAN

The County of Hawai‘i is in the process of 

developing a community development plan 

(CDP) for the Ka‘ū District. While the first 

draft of the CDP is under development, 

Hawai‘i County has identified the following 

community objectives: (1) manage and 

conserve natural resources; (2) build a 

resilient, sustainable local economy; and (3) 

preserve and strengthen community character. 

PUNA COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT PLAN 

The Puna Community Development Plan was 

adopted by Hawai‘i County in September 

2008, and was 

most recently 

updated in 

December 

2011. Outlining 

some of the 

major planning 

issues affecting 

this district 

in Hawai‘i 

County, this 

plan develops 

goals and 

actions for 

addressing: 

Mālama I Ka 

‘Āina (how 

contextual natural, historic, and cultural 

features of Puna should be preserved and 

respected), growth management (how the 

future pattern of human settlement and land 

use should be shaped), and transportation 

(how to develop sustainable approaches 

to transportation). Included among the 

proposed actions in the plan is the creation of 

a biosphere reserve buffer zone immediately 

adjacent to the park, between the park 

boundary and Volcano Village.

VOLCANO LONG RANGE PLAN: 

VOLCANO 2020

Tiered from the Puna Community 

Development Plan, the Volcano Long Range 

Plan (VLRP) is an action plan for the village 

of Volcano. With the primary goal “to live in 

harmony with the environment and among 

each other, to be good stewards of the land 

and of our community, and to strive for a 

sustainable way of living, and provide for 

the benefit of future generations”, VLRP

promotes action in the areas of environmental 

quality and resource conservation; historic 

preservation and education; land use, 

agriculture, and economic development; 

recreation; public health, safety and sanitation 

and; improvements in public infrastructure 

and transportation. Specifically related to 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, VLRP

identifies Volcano Village as a gateway to the 

national park and establishes a Biosphere 

Reserve Transition Area between the National 

Park and NARS/

Forest Reserves and 

the suburban and 

industrial areas beyond 

Volcano. The intent of 

the transition area is to 

ensure a gradual, rather 

than abrupt, landscape/

habitat change between 

the park or NAR and 

the more intensely used 

lands further away.

KA‘Ū SCENIC 

BYWAY CORRIDOR 

MANAGEMENT PLAN

Designated as a State 

Scenic Byway in February 2012, the Ka‘ū 

Scenic Byway – The Slopes of Mauna Loa 

follows the Māmalahoa Highway for 54 miles 

from Manukā State Park near sea level south 

of Kona to Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

at more than 4,000 feet. In order to maintain 

this designation, the byway sponsor group, 

the Ka‘ū Chamber of Commerce, developed 

a required corridor management plan in 

December 2013 which outlines strategies to 

enhance the visitor experience through the 

Ka‘ū District while preserving the natural 

beauty of the area. The plan identifies some 

of the more significant sites along the Byway, 

three (of 16) of which are (1) Kahuku, (2) the 

turn-off for Mauna Loa Road, and (3) the 

main entrance to Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Halema‘uma‘u glows red. Photo by Peter Anderson
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 1: Introduction and Background | 43 

Park, and key resources along the byway, 

including those located in the park. While 

none of the projects proposed by this plan are 

located within the park, some of the overlooks 

and viewpoints identified for development 

would overlook resources in the park and 

would enhance the visitor experience for park 

visitors by providing visitor information to 

many of the park’s visitors before or following 

their visit to Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park. 

The designation of the scenic byway may 

also increase tourism in the area, drawing 

an increasing number of visitors from Kona 

toward and into the park.

NEXT STEPS IN THE 

PLANNING PROCESS

After distribution of the draft GMP/WS/

EIS, there will be a 60-day public review 

and comment period after which the NPS 

planning team will evaluate comments from 

federal agencies, Native Hawaiian groups, 

organizations, businesses, and individuals 

regarding the draft plan. The planning team 

will then incorporate appropriate changes to 

produce a final GMP/WS/EIS.

The final plan will include letters from 

governmental agencies, any substantive 

comments on the draft GMP/WS/EIS, and 

NPS responses to those comments. Following 

public distribution of the final GMP/WS/

EIS and a 30-day no-action period, a record 

of decision approving the final plan will be 

signed by the NPS regional director. The 

record of decision documents the NPS 

selection of an alternative for implementation. 

With the signing of the record of decision, and 

its publication in the Federal Register, the plan 

can then be implemented.

IMPLEMENTATION OF THE 

GENERAL MANAGEMENT PLAN

Although the final GMP/WS/EIS will be 

implemented in phases over the next 15–20 

years, implementation of the specific actions 

and developments proposed within the 

management plan is dependent upon funding 

available at the time of need. The approval 

of this general management plan does not 

guarantee that the funding and staffing needed 

to implement the plan would be forthcoming. 

Instead, the plan establishes a vision of the 

future that will guide future management of 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park.

Implementation of the approved plan also 

could be affected by other factors, such as 

changes in visitor use patterns, management 

agreements among partner agencies, and 

unanticipated environmental changes. Once 

the general management plan has been 

approved, additional feasibility studies and 

more detailed site-specific documentation, 

planning, and compliance will be completed, 

as appropriate, before many proposed actions 

could be carried out. Full implementation of 

the approved general management plan may 

be many years in the future.

This general management plan does not 

describe how particular programs or projects 

should be prioritized or implemented. 

Those decisions will be addressed during 

the more detailed planning associated with 

strategic plans, implementation plans, or 

other plans. All of these future plans will tier 

from this approved general management 

plan and will be based on the goals, future 

conditions, and appropriate types of activities 

established in this plan.

Volcanic landscape. NPS photo
44 | Chapter 1: Introduction and Background HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

.

Hōlei Sea Arch. Photo by Peter Anderson
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 2: Foundation for Planning and Management | 45 

FOUNDATION FOR PLANNING 

AND MANAGEMENT 2

Historic coastal house site at Keauhou Landing. NPS photo
46 | Chapter 2: Foundation for Planning and Management HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Halapē Iki. NPS photo
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 2: Foundation for Planning and Management | 47 

CHAPTER 2: FOUNDATION FOR PLANNING 

AND MANAGEMENT

This chapter contains a summary of the 

foundation document developed for Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park. This foundation 

document provides a shared understanding 

of the park’s purpose, significance, resources 

and values, interpretive themes, and special 

mandates. These statements identify the 

park’s unique characteristics and what is most 

important about the park and provide basic 

guidance for decision making and management. 

This chapter also contains guiding principles to 

help inform park management.

FOUNDATION DOCUMENTS

A foundation document serves as the 

underlying guidance for all management and 

planning decisions in a national park unit. 

Based on the park unit’s enabling legislation, 

the foundation document describes the core 

mission of the park unit by identifying the 

unit’s purpose and significance, fundamental 

resources and values, interpretive 

themes, special mandates, and legal and 

policy requirements.

The primary advantage of developing and 

adopting a foundation document is the 

opportunity to integrate and coordinate 

all kinds of levels of planning and decision 

making from a single, shared understanding 

of what is most important about the park. The 

process of preparing a foundation document 

develops understanding by park managers, 

staff, and stakeholders of what is most 

important about the park and the additional 

information needed to plan for the future.

The foundation document can be used in all 

aspects of park management to ensure that the 

most important objectives are accomplished 

before turning to items that are not directly 

critical to achieving the park purpose and 

maintaining its significance.

The foundation for planning and management 

is generally developed (or revised or 

expanded) early in the general management 

planning process, as part of agency scoping 

and data collection for a park’s general 

management plan. Partner and public 

involvement as well as scholarly analysis 

are incorporated into the development of a 

foundation document.

The foundation document, as identified in 

the Park Planning Program Standards, has the 

following elements.

Park Purpose

The park purpose is a clear statement of 

the reason or reasons for which the park 

was set aside as part of the national park 

system. Statements of the park’s purpose 

are grounded in a thorough analysis of the 

park’s enabling legislation and legislative 

history. This includes studies prior to 

authorization that go beyond a restatement 

of the law to document shared assumptions 

about what the law means in terms specific 

to the park. It is the most fundamental 

criteria against which the appropriateness 

of all plan recommendations, operational 

decisions, and actions are tested. The 

purpose is derived from law and policy; 

however, developing the park purpose often 

requires some interpretation of the language 

in the park’s establishing legislation or 

presidential proclamation.

Earth fissure during 2011 Kamoamoa eruption. 

Photo by Kelly Wooten, courtesy of USGS
48 | Chapter 2: Foundation for Planning and Management HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Park Significance

Statements of significance express why the 

park’s resources and values are important 

enough to warrant national park designation. 

These statements are directly linked to the 

purpose of the park and describe why an area 

is important within a global, national, regional, 

and system-wide context. Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park contains many 

significant resources, but not 

all the resources contribute 

to the park’s significance. The 

significance statements are 

used to guide management 

decisions and planning 

alternatives, interpretive 

themes, desired conditions, in 

addition to setting priorities. 

Significance statements 

are substantiated by data 

or consensus, and reflect 

the most current scientific 

or scholarly inquiry and 

cultural perceptions, which 

may have changed since the 

park’s establishment.

Interpretive Themes

Interpretive themes connect 

park resources to relevant ideas, meanings, 

concepts, contexts, beliefs, and values. 

Based on the park purpose and significance, 

these themes are intended to increase 

visitor understanding and appreciation 

of the significance of a park’s resources. 

Identification of primary themes is part of a 

park’s basic foundation document. Themes 

are derived from—and should reflect—the 

park’s significance. Additional perspectives 

may be obtained from the identification and 

analysis of fundamental and other important 

resources and values. It is anticipated that 

the interpretive themes may be revised 

through development of the park’s future 

comprehensive interpretive plan.

Fundamental Resources and Values

Fundamental resources and values articulate 

the most important ideas or concepts to 

be communicated to the public about a 

park and warrant primary consideration 

during planning and management because 

they are critical to achieving the park’s 

purpose and maintaining its significance. 

These may include systems, 

processes, features, visitor 

experiences, stories, scenes, 

sounds, smells, or other 

resources and values.

The identification of 

fundamental resources 

and values should not be 

interpreted as meaning that 

some park resources are not 

important. This exercise is 

primarily done to separate 

those resources or values 

that are covered by the 

service-wide mandates and 

policies from those that have 

important considerations to 

be addressed in the general 

management plan.

Special Mandates and Constraints

Special mandates or constraints often 

direct park planning and management 

decisions. The special mandates are specific 

directions or agreements that relate directly 

to the park. Mandates might be a legislative 

requirement or signed agreement that adds 

another dimension to a park’s purpose and 

significance or commits park managers to 

specific actions and limits their ability to 

modify land use in the park. Examples of 

these mandates and constraints include 

wilderness designations, unique designations 

such as a world heritage site or biosphere 

reserve, and long-term cooperative 

agreements or easements. Special mandates 

and constraints are specific to the park and are 

not an inventory of all the laws and policies 

applicable to the National Park Service.

Halema‘uma‘u Vent in distance. NPS photo
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 2: Foundation for Planning and Management | 49 

PARK PURPOSE, SIGNIFICANCE, 

FUNDAMENTAL RESOURCES 

AND VALUES, AND SPECIAL 

MANDATES OF HAWAI‘I 

VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK

Purpose of Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park

The following purpose was developed for 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park:

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park protects, 

studies, and provides access to Kīlauea and 

Mauna Loa, two of the world’s most active 

volcanoes and perpetuates endemic Hawaiian 

ecosystems and the traditional Hawaiian 

culture connected to these landscapes.

Significance Statements for Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park

The following significance statements were 

developed for Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park based on the park’s legislation and 

previous management and resource plans:

• Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

protects and interprets the largest 

and most continuously active shield 

volcanoes in the United States and 

provides the best physical evidence 

of island building processes that 

continue to form the 2,000-mile-long 

Hawaiian archipelago.

• Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park’s 

active volcanoes serve as a living 

laboratory for scientific investigations 

that began over a century ago 

and continue to advance global 

understanding of volcanic processes.

• Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

protects, restores, and studies unique 

and diverse ecosystems and endemic 

species that are the result of over 

30 million years of evolution on an 

isolated environment characterized 

by its active volcanic landscape and 

wide climate variations. 

• Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

encompasses the largest and most 

ecologically diverse wilderness in the 

Pacific Islands.

• Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

embraces the Native Hawaiian 

spiritual significance of this 

landscape and interprets related 

cultural traditions. 

• Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

encompasses sites, structures, objects 

and landscapes that document over 

600 years of human life and activities 

on an active volcanic landscape.

• Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

provides access to two of the most 

active volcanoes in the world and an 

opportunity to understand and 

appreciate the distinctive geology and 

natural and cultural 

adaptations to the land.

Entrance to Thurston Lava Tube. NPS photo
50 | Chapter 2: Foundation for Planning and Management HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Interpretive Themes for Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park

The following interpretive themes 

have been developed for Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park:

• Monitoring the daily pulse of 

active volcanoes in Hawai‘i active 

volcanoes leads to new discoveries 

and advances in the understanding 

of volcanic eruptions and 

hazard monitoring.

• The approachable active volcanoes of 

Mauna Loa and Kīlauea allow firsthand discovery and connection with 

one of the most fundamental forces 

in our world, in both its creative and 

destructive roles. 

• In Hawai‘i, active volcanism created 

an isolated home for a few immigrant 

species and gave rise to a rich yet 

fragile endemic biota. Due to the 

accelerating change brought about by 

human actions and introduced plants 

and animals, much of that unique 

heritage is being lost to extinction, 

challenging all of us to learn from the 

past and work together to preserve 

and restore the remaining native 

plants and animals.

• The park’s designation as a World 

Heritage Site and International 

Biosphere Reserve attests to 

the compelling values that the 

park’s unique geologic resources 

and island biota hold for people 

worldwide and its global importance 

as a benchmark for monitoring 

environmental change. 

• Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

protects a diverse wilderness that 

stretches from rich coastline to stark 

alpine summit, providing visitors 

with opportunities to connect with 

nature’s challenges, remote solitude 

and wild spirit.

• Kīlauea Volcano, the home of 

Pelehonuamea, and Mauna Loa 

Volcano are sacred to many Native 

Hawaiians. The park is a place of 

birth and the physical representation 

of many spirits and forces; the active 

volcanism, the features of the terrain, 

and the plants and animals that live 

there are all important to the Native 

Hawaiian sense of identity, unity, 

and continuance.

• The journeys of the Hawaiian people, 

and those who followed, portray 

cultural clashes, adaptations and 

assimilations that provide enduring 

lessons about human resourcefulness, 

interdependence and respect on an 

active volcanic landscape.

Pu‘u Pua‘i and Kīlauea Iki. NPS photo by Stephen Geiger

Kīlauea Iki hikers. NPS photo by Stephen Geiger
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 2: Foundation for Planning and Management | 51 

Fundamental Resources and Values 

for Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park

The following fundamental resources and 

values have been identified for Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park.

VOLCANOES AND ASSOCIATED VOLCANIC 

FEATURES AND PROCESSES

Two active hot-spot shield volcanoes, dynamic 

geologic processes and volcanic features 

demonstrate the effects of the forces of nature 

and record the geologic history.

BODY OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE 

AN  INVESTIGATIONS

Documents, collections, and observations 

contribute to scientific discovery and range 

from early first-hand accounts of eruptive 

events to current scientific research and 

museum collections.

OPPORTUNITIES FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH 

AND MONITORING

The park serves as a world-class living 

laboratory for geologic research, conservation 

biology, ecosystem development, island 

biogeography and evolution that continues 

to build on the existing body of scientific 

knowledge for resource protection, public 

safety, and environmental understanding.

BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY

The park contains an extraordinary 

assemblage of native plants and animals—over 

90% of which are endemic to the Hawaiian 

Islands and many of which are rare, 

endangered and threatened with extinction.

ECOLOGICAL INTEGRITY

The park perpetuates native ecosystems and 

communities, many of which are unique to the 

park, and provides a refuge for endemic plants 

and animals that span seven ecological zones 

ranging from seacoast to alpine. The park also 

supports the continuation of natural processes 

and interactions among species and between 

the biotic and abiotic environments.

NATURAL SOUNDS

Park soundscapes are protected from many 

human-caused sounds and are dominated by 

the sounds of wind, ocean, volcanic activity, 

and native species.

NIGHT SKY

The unobscured night sky is characterized by 

an absence of artificial light.

REMOTE AND CHALLENGING EXPERIENCES

The park promotes opportunities for 

visitors to experience solitude, primitive 

conditions, and challenge.

NATURAL LANDSCAPE CHARACTER

From mauka (toward the mountain) to makai 

(toward the ocean), vast expanses of the 

park’s wilderness have been affected primarily 

by the forces of nature—retaining their 

primeval character.

FIRST-HAND VOLCANIC EXPERIENCES

The park provides opportunities for visitors 

to approach and experience the park’s active 

volcanic eruptions including fountains, 

fissures and flows.

PELEHONUAMEA

Volcanic landscapes and all active flows 

and products of eruptive events are the 

representation of Pelehonuamea, deity of 

Hawaiian volcanoes.

WAHI KAPU (SACRED PLACES) AND WAHI 

PANA (CELEBRATED PLACES)

The entire park landscape and all of its 

inhabitants and features are sacred to Native 

Hawaiians, particularly Halemaʻuma‘u Crater 

(home of Pelehonuamea), Mauna Loa’s 

Moku‘āweoweo caldera (a focal point for the 

greater Hawaiian relationship to the universeEndangered ‘ōhai at ‘Āpua. NPS photo stars, sun, moon), and mauka forested areas.
52 | Chapter 2: Foundation for Planning and Management HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

OPPORTUNITY FOR TRADITIONAL 

CULTURAL USE

Native Hawaiian traditional uses in the park 

perpetuate traditional practices, knowledge, 

and the cultural importance of this area. 

These practices, including chants and dances, 

depend upon natural sounds, unobstructed 

views of mountain summits and an 

environment that has not been greatly altered 

by man-made changes.

CULTURAL RESOURCES

The park’s rich and varied cultural resources, 

including objects, archeological sites, cultural 

landscapes, historic structures and 

ethnographic resources are preserved and 

contribute to interpreting and understanding 

the greater Hawaiian culture and the more 

recent human history within the park.

Lava entering ocean. NPS photo by Jay Robinson
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 2: Foundation for Planning and Management | 53 

Special Mandates and Constraints for Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park

The following mandates and constraints are specific to Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park:

Topic Explanation Public Law

Kalapana Fishing and 

Homesteading Rights

Fishing and the lease of homesites under specific conditions shall 

be permitted in the Kalapana extension only by native Hawaiian 

residents of said area or of adjacent villages and by visitors under 

their guidance.

Public Law No. 

680, June 20, 1938.

Wilderness Designation Designation of 123,100 (130,950) acres1

 of known wilderness and 

7,850 acres as potential wilderness additions to be known as the 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes Wilderness.

Public Law No. 95-625, 

November 10, 1978.

International 

Biosphere Reserve 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes and Haleakalā National Parks were designated 

as “Hawai‘i Island International Biosphere Reserve” in 1980. 

Biosphere reserves are created “to promote and demonstrate 

a balanced relationship between humans and the biosphere.” 

Biosphere reserves must “encompass a mosaic of ecological 

systems.” Through appropriate zoning and management, the 

conservation of these ecosystems and their biodiversity is sought to 

be maintained. This effort requires relevant research, monitoring, 

education and training.

Designated 1980

World Heritage 

Site Designation

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park was designated as a World 

Heritage Site in 1987. The United States, as a country that has 

ratified the World Heritage Convention, has pledged to conserve 

its World Heritage Sites and to protect its national heritage. The 

United States. Also has committed to ensuring the identification, 

protection, conservation, presentation and transmission to future 

generations of the World Heritage Sites and shall endeavor by 

all appropriate means, and in particular through educational and 

information programs, to strengthen appreciation and respect by 

their peoples of the cultural and natural heritage of these sites.

Designated 1987

1

 Determining acreage at Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park is a complex process by which varying sources provide different estimations 

of total acreage. Unless otherwise specified, acreage listed in this document includes two numbers: the first is the official acreage 

derived from deeds of conveyance to the United States and County/State tax assessor records, the sum total of which constitute the 

official NPS acreage for the park. (The official park acreage is maintained by the NPS Land Resource Division, WASO.) The second (listed 

in parentheses) is an estimation generated by GIS software that uses projections on the land to calculate acreage within geographically 

defined boundaries. When available and appropriate, both numbers are included in this GMP/WS/EIS because deed/tax assessor 

estimates, which are used in legislation and policy for the park, do not exist for some areas in the park, such as those acres analyzed 

for wilderness eligibility in the Kahuku Unit.

Halema‘uma‘u Crater from Jaggar Museum Overlook. NPS photo
54 | Chapter 2: Foundation for Planning and Management HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

GUIDING PRINCIPLES

Park managers must follow many laws, 

policies, and directives when managing 

national parks. In addition, the following 

guiding principles of Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park express a philosophy 

and commitment that also inform 

management decisions.

Global Responsibility

The park acknowledges a global responsibility 

to further international relationships that are 

inherent in the World Heritage Site and 

International Biosphere Reserve designations. 

The World Heritage Site and International 

Biosphere Reserve designations attest to the 

compelling values that the park’s unique 

geologic resources and island biota hold for 

people worldwide, as well as its global 

importance as a benchmark for monitoring 

environmental change. These designations 

provide an important visible reminder for all 

visitors about why this park is special. 

Participation in training and information 

exchange within this international network 

brings a richness and depth to 

park management.

Stewardship

The park is committed to the ongoing 

involvement of individuals and organizations 

in understanding, caring for, preserving 

and restoring the park’s native species and 

habitats, cultural sites, geologic features, 

trails and facilities. Opportunities that 

immerse people in this dynamic landscape 

nourish a common vision and commitment 

to preserving this globally important site, 

sustaining species and places whose long-term 

survival depends on the help of others.

Partnerships and Collaboration

In working to preserve and restore the 

park’s resources unimpaired for future 

generations, the park will continue to build 

on the legacy of the many partnerships that 

have extended its ability to protect resources 

and serve the public since the park was 

established. Park managers will establish 

and maintain cooperative relationships with 

managers of adjacent public and private 

lands; state and local governments; Native 

Hawaiians and community organizations. 

The park will collaborate to ensure that 

watersheds, ecosystems, endangered species, 

cultural resources, viewsheds, and trail and 

transportation systems that extend beyond 

park boundaries are considered holistically. 

Through mutual collaboration, shared values 

and learning, partnerships create outcomes 

beyond any one organization’s individual 

capacity. Partnerships will continue to 

be an important way to accomplish the 

park’s mission.

Research

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park is a world 

class living laboratory, and the park is 

committed to hosting and fostering research 

and studies that continue to advance 

knowledge and understanding. Numerous 

universities, agencies and organizations 

are involved in on-going studies related to 

geology, ecosystem development, island 

biogeography and evolution, habitat 

restoration, climate change, human 

connections to the landscape, historical 

settlement patterns, human resource 

procurement, and paleoenvironmental 

studies. The world’s first Volcano 

Observatory, operated by the US Geological 

Survey, is within the park and serves as a 

global center for volcanic study and hazard 

monitoring. The park is committed to 

nurturing a home for the science community 

whose work continues to build on the 

existing body of scientific knowledge for 

resource protection, public safety and 

environmental understanding.

Hale (traditional thatched house) at pā hula. NPS photo
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 2: Foundation for Planning and Management | 55 

Sustainability and 

Environmental Leadership

The park will continue to explore 

and use practices that help 

sustain the Earth’s resources. 

Sustainability is fundamental to 

the facilities, projects, programs, 

and operations of the park. 

The park will demonstrate 

environmental leadership and 

seek opportunities to promote 

sustainability and stewardship 

to park visitors, neighboring 

communities, and stakeholders. 

The park is committed to 

reducing its carbon footprint and 

interpreting the impacts of global 

climate change on natural and 

cultural resources.

DESIRED CONDITIONS 

AND POTENTIAL MANAGEMENT 

STRATEGIES DERIVED FROM LAWS, 

REGULATIONS, AND POLICIES

To fully understand the implications, 

limitations, or requirements of an alternative 

proposed in this GMP/WS/EIS, it is important 

to compare the service-wide laws and policies 

with the management actions described in 

the alternatives. To facilitate this process, 

this section identifies what must be done at 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park to comply 

with applicable laws, regulations, and policies. 

Management directives derived from these 

sources are summarized in two ways: as the 

desired conditions they set forth and as the 

potential management strategies that park 

managers may employ to achieve them. 

These are then used to assess the merits of 

alternatives during the planning process.

Many management directives for Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park are specified in 

laws, regulations, and policies guiding the 

National Park Service and, therefore, are 

not subject to alternative approaches. For 

example, there are laws and policies about 

managing environmental quality (such as the 

Clean Air Act and the Endangered Species 

Act), laws governing the preservation of 

cultural resources and cultural 

values (such as the National 

Historic Preservation Act and 

the Native American Graves 

Protection and Repatriation 

Act) and laws about providing 

public services (such as the 

Americans with Disabilities 

Act), to name only a few. 

In other words, a general 

management plan is not 

needed to decide, for instance, 

that it is appropriate to 

protect endangered species, 

control nonnative species, 

protect archeological sites, 

conserve artifacts, or provide 

for universal access, where 

feasible— laws and policies 

already require the National 

Park Service to fulfill these 

mandates. The National Park Service would 

continue to strive to implement these and 

other legal requirements with or without a 

new general management plan.

Some laws and executive orders are applicable 

solely or primarily to units of the national park 

system. These include the 1916 Organic Act 

that created the National Park Service, the 

General Authorities Act of 1970, the National 

Parks and Recreation Act of 1978 relating to 

the management of the national park system, 

and the National Parks Omnibus Management 

Act (1998). Other laws and executive orders, 

such as those addressing environmental 

quality, have much broader application.

The national park system General Authorities 

Act affirms that while all national park 

system units remain “distinct in character,” 

they are “united through their interrelated 

purposes and resources into one national 

park system as cumulative expressions of a 

single national heritage.” The act makes it 

clear that the NPS Organic Act and other 

protective mandates apply equally to all units 

of the system. Further, the Redwood Act of 

1978 states that NPS management of park 

units should not “derogat[e]...the purposes 

and values for which these various areas have 

Mauna Loa silversword. 

NPS photo by Mark Wasser
56 | Chapter 2: Foundation for Planning and Management HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

been established.” The National Park Service 

also has established policies for all units under 

its stewardship. These are identified and 

explained in a guidance manual entitled NPS 

Management Policies 2006. The alternatives 

considered in this document incorporate 

and comply with the provisions of these 

mandates and policies.

The most pertinent servicewide laws and 

policy topics related to planning and 

managing Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

are examined below. For each topic, there are 

a series of desired conditions that staff at 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park are 

achieving and will continue to strive to 

achieve. The laws or policies behind these 

desired conditions are cited, and examples of 

the types of actions being pursued by NPS 

staff are given. The alternatives in this GMP/

WS/EIS address the desired future conditions 

that are supported, but not mandated, by law 

and policy and must therefore be determined 

through a planning process.

Natural Resources

ECOSYSTEMS MANAGEMENT

LAW AND POLICY SOURCE— NPS 

Management Policies 2006 (1.5, 4, 4.1, 4.1.4, 

4.4.1) provides general direction for managing 

park units from an ecosystem perspective.

DESIRED CONDITIONS—

• Components and processes of 

park ecosystems are protected and 

highly altered ecosystems restored, 

including the natural abundance, 

diversity, and genetic and ecological 

integrity of the plant and animal 

species native to those ecosystems. 

• Regular monitoring and condition 

assessments are made on key 

indicators of ecosystem health.

• Ecosystems and habitats damaged by 

nonnative species or human activities 

are restored. Future development 

avoids sensitive habitats and dynamic 

areas prone to natural disturbances.

• Develop and maintain an 

understanding of populations, 

communities, ecosystems, threats, 

stressors, and ecosystem health 

through a systematic, sciencebased program of inventory, 

monitoring and research. 

• Effective management strategies 

to perpetuate and restore park 

ecosystems are developed and 

implemented based on the best 

available science.

POTENTIAL MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES—

• Restore park ecosystems recently 

invaded by nonnative species through 

removal of key nonnative species 

followed by natural recovery; restore 

highly altered park ecosystems 

through a program of active 

rehabilitation to conditions as natural 

as practicable. Expand restoration 

efforts focused on localized model 

areas to a park-wide scale.

• The most intensive management 

of ecosystems is focused in park 

special ecological areas. These special 

Early morning mist. NPS photo ecological areas are representatives 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 2: Foundation for Planning and Management | 57 

of the wide diversity of native plant 

and animal habitats, and natural 

landscapes in the park, and are 

prioritized based on the areas 

representativeness of a particular 

ecological zone and/or rarity in the 

park or on the islands, concentrations 

of species diversity and rare 

species, and value for research and 

interpretation to the public.

• Restore lost biodiversity in 

park ecosystems by recovering 

endangered, threatened and 

rare plant and animal species, 

and by reintroducing locally 

extirpated species. 

• Develop and maintain an 

understanding of populations, 

communities, ecosystems, threats, 

stressors, and ecosystem health 

through a systematic, sciencebased program of inventory, 

monitoring and research. 

• Support research and experimental 

studies to develop and implement 

effective strategies to perpetuate and 

restore park ecosystems.

• Incorporate current and future 

climate change research in 

the development of strategies 

to perpetuate and restore 

park ecosystems.

• Maintain and expand park 

partnerships for natural resource 

management, particularly those 

involving neighboring lands.

• Participate in collaborative planning 

efforts with adjacent land and 

resource managers to identify 

common goals, pursue solutions, 

and build a knowledge base through 

information sharing.

• Provide interpretive and educational 

programs about ecosystem processes, 

“ecological services,” and methods to 

sustain these. Update interpretations 

at interpretive stops or displays.

FIRE MANAGEMENT

LAW AND POLICY SOURCE— NPS 

Management Policies 2006 (4.5), Federal 

Wildland Fire Management Policy; 

Director’s Order 41: Wilderness Preservation 

and Management; and Director’s Order 

18: Wildland Fire Management, and 

accompanying Reference Manual 18 provide 

guidance on the basic principles and strategic 

guidelines governing NPS management 

of wildland fire.

DESIRED CONDITIONS—

• All wildland fires are effectively 

managed, considering resource 

values to be protected and firefighter 

and public safety, using the full range 

of strategic and tactical operations 

as described in an approved fire 

management plan. 

• Fire management programs will 

be designed to meet resource 

management objectives prescribed 

for the various areas of the park and 

to ensure that the safety of firefighters 

and the public are protected.

• The best available technology and 

scientific information are used to 

manage fire within the park, to 

conduct routine monitoring to 

determine if objectives are met and 

to evaluate and improve the fire 

management program.

Kamoamoa eruption (2011) with tree molds from previous 

eruptions in foreground. NPS photo by Jay Robinson
58 | Chapter 2: Foundation for Planning and Management HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

• Hazard fuel reduction efforts 

protect structures, wildlandurban interface areas, and natural 

and cultural resources where 

appropriate and necessary.

• Maintain and strengthen 

partnerships with local, state and 

federal cooperators on and adjacent 

to the park. Continue to develop 

agreements and operating plans 

to facilitate mutual cooperation in 

detection, prevention, training and 

suppression activities.

POTENTIAL MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES—

• Maintain a current fire management 

plan to reflect the most recent 

wildland fire policy, fire use 

applications, and the body of 

knowledge on fire effects within the 

unit’s vegetation types.

• Maintain cooperative agreements for 

fire detection, prevention, training 

and suppression activities with 

appropriate federal, state, and local 

agencies and organizations.

• Develop fuel maps, conduct fire 

history research, fire behavior and 

effects studies, and fire restoration 

experiments to gain a better 

understanding of historic and 

current natural fire regimes, to 

mitigate the detrimental effects of 

fire in highly altered fire regimes and 

to ensure that long-term resource 

objectives are met.

• Conduct research and monitor 

the effects of fires in the park to 

ensure that long-term resource 

objectives are met.

• Monitor individual prescribed fires 

to provide information on whether 

specific objectives regarding smoke 

behavior, fire effects, etc. are met.

• Minimum requirement methods 

and tools are used to manage 

fires in wilderness.

• Provide information to visitors 

about the role of fire in Pacific 

Islands ecosystems.

NATIVE SPECIES

LAW AND POLICY SOURCE— NPS 

Management Policies 2006 (4.4) calls for the 

National Park Service to maintain natural 

ecosystems in parks and to restore native plant 

and animal populations. Natural Resource 

Management Reference Manual #77 also 

provides general direction on the restoration 

of natural resources in the park.

DESIRED CONDITIONS— 

• The National Park Service strives 

to protect the full range of genetic 

types (genotypes) of native plant and 

animal populations by perpetuating 

natural evolutionary processes and 

minimizing human interference with 

evolving genetic diversity.

• Native animal and plant populations 

in the park are stable and managed 

to promote long-term viability, 

including maintaining age-structures, 

abundance, density and distributions 

within normal ranges, and a full range 

of natural genetic variability. Locally 

extirpated species are reintroduced 

to former habitat.

‘Ōhi‘a seedling on nurse log. NPS photo
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 2: Foundation for Planning and Management | 59 

• The most intensive management 

of native plant and animal 

habitat is focused in park special 

ecological areas.

• Effects of native diseases and 

pests are within normal range of 

variation and are not worsened by 

human-caused factors.

• Effective management strategies to 

perpetuate and restore native species 

are developed and implemented 

based on the best available science.

POTENTIAL MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES— 

• Restore lost biodiversity by 

recovering endangered, threatened 

and rare plant and animal species, 

and by reintroducing locally 

extirpated species. 

• Develop and maintain an 

understanding of populations, 

communities, ecosystems, threats, 

stressors, and ecosystem health 

through a systematic, sciencebased program of inventory, 

monitoring, and research.

• Support research and experimental 

studies to develop and implement 

effective strategies to perpetuate and 

restore park species and native plant 

and animal communities.

• Incorporate current and future 

climate change research in the 

development of strategies and 

implementation to perpetuate native 

species and communities.

• Maintain and expand park 

partnerships for species and habitat 

management, particularly those 

involving neighboring lands.

• Protect the park’s biotic communities 

from impacts due to human activities 

and facilities while ensuring that 

visitors have opportunity to observe 

and enjoy them.

• Provide interpretive and educational 

programs about native species and 

habitat and methods to sustain these. 

Update interpretations at interpretive 

stops or displays.

Endangered halapepe. NPS photo by Mark Wasser Volcanic plume from Halema‘uma‘u (2008). NPS photo
60 | Chapter 2: Foundation for Planning and Management HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

NONNATIVE SPECIES

LAW AND POLICY SOURCE—

NPS Management Policies 2006 (4.4) calls 

for the National Park Service to maintain 

natural ecosystems in parks and to restore 

native plant and animal populations. This 

includes managing all nonnative plant and 

animal species up to and including eradication 

(4.4.4). “Natural Resource Management 

Reference Manual #77” also provides general 

direction on the restoration of natural 

resources in the park. Executive Order 13112, 

“Invasive Species” provides direction for the 

management of nonnative species.

DESIRED CONDITIONS— 

• Populations of nonnative plant 

and animal species are monitored 

and controlled. These populations 

are eradicated wherever such 

species threaten park resources or 

public health and when control is 

prudent and feasible.

• If an invasive plant is part of a 

historic resource, the park removes 

or replaces with a noninvasive, 

or preferably, native plant with 

similar form and size.

• Particularly sensitive habitats 

in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park, including those containing 

endemic or rare species, are 

maintained free of invasive nonnative 

species, when feasible.

• Effective management of invasive 

nonnative species is based on the best 

available science.

POTENTIAL MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES—

• Complete an inventory of 

nonnative plants, animals, and, 

as feasible, other organisms in 

the park. Regularly monitor the 

distribution and population trends of 

invasive nonnatives.

• Study the environmental and 

ecological effects of nonnative species 

invasion to assess threats, prioritize 

management actions, and prevent 

introduction and establishment of 

nonnative species. Highest priority is 

given to managing nonnative species 

that have, or potentially could have, a 

substantial impact on park resources, 

and that can reasonably be expected 

to be successfully controlled.

• Support scientific studies to develop 

and implement effective strategies to 

manage invasive nonnative species 

and restore park ecosystems. 

• Highest priority for intensive 

management of widespread 

disruptive nonnative species are in 

park special ecological areas and in 

areas required for the protection of 

rare and special status species. 

• Implement park management 

actions in a manner that minimizes 

the introduction of or increase 

in nonnative species, in both 

number and type.

• Control of nonnative species is part 

of an integrated pest management 

approach that prevents unacceptable 

levels of pest effects by costeffective means while minimizing 

risk to people, resources, and 

the environment.

• Cooperate with agencies, adjacent 

land owners, and local communities 

to monitor and control invasive 

nonnative species.

• Provide interpretive and educational 

programs on the impacts of invasive 

nonnative species on park resources.

Park greenhouse facilities. NPS photo by Carol Johnson
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 2: Foundation for Planning and Management | 61 

RARE, THREATENED, AND 

ENDANGERED SPECIES

LAW AND POLICY SOURCE— Under the 

Endangered Species Act, the National 

Park Service is mandated to promote the 

conservation of all federal threatened 

and endangered species and their critical 

habitats within park unit boundaries. NPS 

Management Policies 2006 (4.4.2.3) also call for 

the agency to survey for, protect, and strive to 

recover all species native to park units that are 

listed under the Endangered Species Act. In 

addition, the National Park Service is directed 

to inventory, monitor, and manage state-listed 

species in a manner similar to the treatment 

of federally listed species to the greatest 

extent possible.

DESIRED CONDITIONS—

• Federally listed and state listed 

threatened and endangered and 

rare species and their habitats are 

protected and sustained.

• Native threatened and endangered 

and rare species populations that 

have been severely reduced or 

extirpated are restored where feasible 

and sustainable.

• Populations of threatened, 

endangered, or otherwise imperiled 

species in the park are increasing, 

leading to improvement in the 

species’ status and, ultimately, to 

recovery. State and federally listed 

and rare wildlife populations are 

stable or increasing, as measured by 

recovery goals outlined in USFWS 

species recovery plans.

• Habitats that support or are suitable 

for sensitive, rare, endemic, or listed 

species are protected.

• Visitors learn about species in the 

park that are rare or listed under the 

Endangered Species Act, as well as 

actions that may assist their recovery.

• Effective management strategies 

to perpetuate and restore rare and 

listed species are developed and 

implemented based on the best 

available science.

POTENTIAL MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES—

• Support research that contributes to 

management knowledge of rare and 

protected species and their habitat. 

Incorporate findings in interpretive 

and educational programs.

• Inventory rare, state and federally 

listed species in the park and 

regularly monitor their distribution, 

condition, and population trends. 

Modify management plans to 

be more effective, based on the 

results of monitoring.

• Support research and experimental 

studies to develop and implement 

effective strategies to perpetuate 

and restore rare and listed 

species in the park.

• Manage critical habitat, essential 

habitat, and recovery areas to 

maintain and enhance their value for 

listed species.

• Consult with the USFWS and 

NOAA-Fisheries to ensure that 

NPS actions comply with the 

Endangered Species Act.

• Implement management actions in 

the park in a manner that minimizes 

the potential adverse effect on listed 

species and their habitat.

• Manage nonnative species that have 

unacceptable impacts on listed and 

rare species and their habitat.

Endangered honohono. NPS photo
62 | Chapter 2: Foundation for Planning and Management HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

• Participate in the recovery planning 

process when appropriate. Cooperate 

with the USFWS and NOAAFisheries to implement recovery 

plans approved by those agencies for 

listed species found in the park.

• Maintain and expand park 

partnerships for managing rare 

and listed species and their habitat, 

particularly those involving 

neighboring lands. 

• Provide information to visitors 

regarding listed species that occur in 

the park and measures to promote 

their recovery. Update interpretations 

at interpretive stops or displays.

AIR QUALITY

LAW AND POLICY SOURCE— The Clean Air 

Act (42 USC 7401 et seq.) gives federal land 

managers the responsibility for protecting 

air quality and air quality related values, 

including visibility, plants, animals, soils, 

water quality, cultural resources, and public 

health, from adverse air pollution impacts. 

NPS Management Policies 2006 (4.7) and 

“Natural Resource Management Reference 

Manual #77” provide further direction on the 

protection of air quality and related values 

for park units. Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park is a Class I air quality area under 

the Clean Air Act.

Since monitoring for sulfur dioxide (SO2) 

began in the park in 1986, the SO2 National 

Ambient Air Quality Standard has been 

violated routinely. Because the volcanic source 

is natural, the exceedances of the standard are 

considered to be “exceptional events” by the 

US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 

meaning that controls are not possible but 

that the public must still be protected. EPA

states that for exceptional events, protection 

of public health is the highest priority and 

that the public should get timely information 

and measures be taken to safeguard public 

health. The protection of visitors and staff 

within parks from unusual and largely unseen 

hazards is a concern.

DESIRED CONDITIONS—

• Air quality in Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park meets national ambient 

air quality standards for specified 

pollutants and is maintained 

or improved with little or no 

deterioration, except for volcanicrelated emissions.

• Visibility is excellent, such that 

scenic views, including integral 

vistas and views of landscapes within 

and outside the park, are clear and 

meet visibility standards, except for 

volcanic-related visibility reductions.

• Views from park overlooks, 

integral vistas, and scenic stops 

are not obstructed or marred by 

human-caused air pollution for 

most of each year.

• Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

management and visitor service 

activities promote preservation 

of excellent air quality, including 

healthful indoor air quality in NPS 

concession facilities.

• Air quality monitoring within or near 

the park is able to verify whether 

trends are improving or deteriorating 

and whether air quality standards are 

met within the park, discounting any 

“exceptional events.”

• Air pollution ecological effects 

research and monitoring confirms 

air quality related values are 

not being impacted by humancaused air pollution.

Hawaiian Volcano Observatory at sunrise. 

NPS photo by Stephen Geiger
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 2: Foundation for Planning and Management | 63 

POTENTIAL MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES—

• Cooperate with local air pollution 

control authorities, the Idaho 

Hawai‘i State Department of Health, 

and the EPA to monitor air quality 

and visibility and ensure that these 

authorities maintain high-quality 

characteristics consistent with EPA

and state and local standards.

• Inventory and monitor air quality 

related values associated with the 

park. Establish baseline conditions 

for and monitor native plants or 

other species that may be sensitive 

to air pollution.

• Evaluate air pollution impacts 

to air quality related values and 

identify causes.

• Participate in federal, regional, 

and local air pollution control 

planning efforts and drafting of 

regulations, and coordinate with 

the NPS Air Resources Division to 

review permit applications for major 

new air pollution sources that may 

affect the park.

• Through timing and appropriate 

equipment, minimize air pollution 

emissions associated with park 

operations and visitor use activities. 

Use and demonstrate sustainable 

practices and pollution prevention 

measures in park operations. Use best 

available practices and technologies 

to provide healthful indoor air 

quality at facilities.

• Form regional partnerships to 

develop alternative transportation 

systems and promote clean fuels.

• Provide information regarding air 

quality and related values to park 

visitors and encourage them to 

reduce their air pollution emissions.

• Conduct and assist research on 

air quality related values to learn 

about effects of local and long-range 

atmospheric deposition on plants 

and soils within the park. Determine 

changes in ecosystem function 

caused by atmospheric deposition 

and assess the resistance and 

resilience of native ecosystems from 

the effects of air pollution.

• Work to meet the NPS Pacific West 

Region’s “carbon neutral” goal as 

soon as possible.

• Ensure the park warning system 

and monitoring are in place to 

protect park visitors and staff when 

volcanic emissions are increased. 

Participate in information and health 

warnings to the public based on inpark monitoring.

• Provide visibility and haze data 

for background and current 

condition assessments.

GEOLOGIC AND SOIL RESOURCES

LAW AND POLICY SOURCE— NPS 

Management Policies 2006 (4.8) and NPS-77 

“Natural Resources Management Guidelines” 

provide general direction on the protection of 

geologic and soil resources, including geologic 

features and geologic processes.

Hiking through the Ka‘ū Desert. NPS photo by Jay Robinson
64 | Chapter 2: Foundation for Planning and Management HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

DESIRED CONDITIONS—

• Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park’s 

geologic resources are preserved and 

protected as integral components of 

the park’s natural systems.

• The National Park Service actively 

seeks to understand and preserve 

the soil resources of the park, and 

to prevent, to the extent possible, 

the unnatural erosion, physical 

removal, or contamination of the 

soil, or the soil’s contamination of 

other resources.

• Natural soil resources and 

processes function in as natural 

a condition as possible, except 

where special considerations are 

allowable under policy.

• Monitoring and research programs 

assess conditions and trends in the 

park’s geoindicators, particularly 

those that are both important to the 

park’s ecosystem and management, 

and those that are subject to 

human influence (e.g., sea level and 

shoreline position, erosion, and 

volcanic processes). 

• Surficial geology is mapped and 

geo-hazards are identified.

POTENTIAL MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES—

• Assess the impacts of natural 

processes and human-related events 

on geologic and soil resources and 

restore as warranted.

• Partner with the US Geological 

Survey and others to 

identify, address, and monitor 

geologic hazards.

• Collect baseline information on soils, 

and develop surficial geology maps.

• Update geologic interpretations 

at interpretive stops, displays, and 

wayside exhibits. 

• Identify interpretive themes or other 

opportunities for interpreting the 

notable geologic events or processes 

that are preserved, exposed, or 

occur in the park.

• Prevent or minimize adverse 

irreversible human impacts to 

geologic resources. Implement 

mitigations to reduce impacts, such 

as area closures, trail development 

to protect surrounding area, or 

enhanced visitor education.

• Prevent or minimize adverse, 

potentially irreversible impacts 

on soils. Possibly implement soil 

conservation and soil amendment 

practices to reduce impacts, and 

import clean, weed-free, off-site soil 

or use soil amendments as necessary 

to restore damaged sites. 

• Minimize soil excavation, erosion, 

and off-site soil migration during and 

after any ground-disturbing activity.

• Survey areas of the park with 

soil resource problems and 

take actions appropriate to the 

management prescription to prevent 

or minimize further erosion, 

compaction, or deposition.

• Apply effective best management 

practices to areas with soil erosion 

and compaction in a manner that 

stops or minimizes erosion, restores 

soil productivity, and reestablishes or 

sustains a self-perpetuating 

Hāpaimamo and the Southwest rift of Mauna Loa. vegetative cover.

NPS photo by Jay Robinson
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 2: Foundation for Planning and Management | 65 

WATER QUALITY

LAW AND POLICY SOURCE— NPS 

Management Policies 2006 (4.6.1, 4.6.2) calls 

for the National Park Service to perpetuate 

surface and groundwater as integral 

components of park aquatic and terrestrial 

ecosystems. “Natural Resource Management 

Reference Manual #77” provides further 

direction on the management of water 

quantity on parks, stating the National 

Park Service will manage and use water to 

protect resources, accommodate visitors, and 

administer park units within legal mandates.

DESIRED CONDITIONS—

• Surface water and groundwater are 

protected, and water quality meets 

or exceeds all applicable water 

quality standards.

• NPS and NPS-permitted programs 

and facilities are maintained and 

operated to avoid pollution of surface 

water and groundwater.

• Water resources meet state criteria 

for Class 1.a (highest level).

• Hydrologic processes 

continue unimpeded. 

POTENTIAL MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES—

• Promote water conservation by the 

National Park Service, partners, 

visitors, and park neighbors.

• Apply best management practices to 

all pollution-generating activities and 

facilities in the park. Take positive 

steps to reduce such activities.

• Minimize the use of pesticides, 

fertilizers, and other chemicals, and 

manage them in keeping with NPS 

policy and federal regulations.

• Monitor water quality in selected 

areas, such as anchialine pools.

• Manage stormwater 

runoff appropriately.

• Promote greater public 

understanding of water resource 

issues at Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park, and encourage public support 

for and participation in 

protecting watersheds.

LIGHTSCAPE MANAGEMENT / NIGHT SKY

LAW AND POLICY SOURCE— NPS 

Management Policies 2006 (4.10) recognizes 

that natural lightscapes are natural resources 

and values that contribute to the visitor 

experience. The policy further states that the 

park staff will seek to minimize the intrusion 

of artificial light into the night scene. In 

natural areas, artificial outdoor lighting will be 

limited to meet basic safety requirements, will 

be shielded, full-cut off fixtures with longwavelength bulbs, and will take advantage of 

other minimum impact techniques.

Halema‘uma‘u at sunset. NPS photo by Ed Shiinoki

‘Ua‘u prepares for takeoff. NPS photo
66 | Chapter 2: Foundation for Planning and Management HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

DESIRED CONDITIONS—

• Natural darkness and other 

components of the natural lightscape 

in the park are protected.

• The National Park Service will seek 

the cooperation of park visitors, 

neighbors, concessioners, and local 

government agencies to prevent or 

minimize the intrusion of artificial 

light into the night scene of the 

ecosystems of the park.

• The park’s inventory of natural 

resources identifies ecological 

processes or components that 

uniquely depend upon or are affected 

by nighttime light.

• Artificial light sources in the park’s 

developed areas are designed to 

prevent light pollution and should 

serve as an example to educate the 

public about night sky and wildlife 

friendly lighting.

• Throughout a majority of the park, 

visitors have opportunities to 

experience a naturally dark night sky 

free of light pollution.

POTENTIAL MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES—

• Cooperate with park visitors, 

neighbors, concessioners, and local 

government agencies to find ways to 

prevent or minimize the intrusion 

of artificial light into the night 

scene in the park.

• In developed areas, limit artificial 

outdoor lighting to basic safety 

requirements and design to minimize 

impacts on the night sky and be 

wildlife friendly.

• Evaluate the impacts on the night sky 

caused by park operations. If light 

sources in the park are on at night, 

consider alternatives such as shielding 

lights, changing lamp types, reducing 

intensity, reducing time of operation, 

or eliminating unnecessary sources. 

Examine alternatives such as 

wayfinding markers and the use of 

portable flashlights.

• Develop lighting zones to delineate 

where outdoor lighting is appropriate 

and what type of lighting is needed, 

and match outdoor lighting to visitor 

expectations and basic safety needs.

• Strictly adhere to the park’s best 

management practices for mitigating 

light pollution.

• Meet or exceed standards set in local 

night sky ordinances.

• Inventory and track, as feasible, 

night sky quality for the NPS 

Night Sky Program.

• Provide interpretive programs and 

materials to help visitors understand 

the role and value of natural 

lightscape and the status of natural 

lightscapes within the park and 

communicate what can be done to 

protect this resource.

SOUNDSCAPES AND THE 

ACOUSTIC ENVIRONMENT

LAW AND POLICY SOURCE— NPS 

Management Policies 2006 (4.9) and NPS 

Director’s Order 47: Soundscape Preservation 

and Noise Management require park managers 

to preserve the soundscapes and acoustic 

resources associated with the physical and 

biological resource components of the park, 

such as the sounds of the wind in the trees and 

birds singing.

East Rift Zone. NPS photo by Jim Gale
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 2: Foundation for Planning and Management | 67 

DESIRED CONDITIONS—

• The National Park Service preserves 

the natural ambient soundscape, 

restores degraded soundscape to the 

natural ambient condition wherever 

possible, and protects the acoustic 

environment from degradation due 

to noise (such as inappropriate/ 

undesirable human-caused sound). 

• Noise from management or 

recreational uses is minimized 

to provide a high-quality visitor 

experience and protect biological 

resources and processes that rely 

on sound (for example intraspecies 

communication, courtship, predation 

and predator avoidance, and effective 

use of habitat).

• The acoustical environment 

remains unimpaired.

• Natural sounds predominate in 

the park. Noise would not affect 

appropriate transmission of 

natural sounds.

• Ecological processes and interactions 

that depend upon or are affected by 

sound are protected.

• Visitors have opportunities to 

experience, understand, and 

appreciate the park’s soundscapes 

and acoustic environment.

• The park maintains an inventory 

of natural sounds and, as 

feasible, monitors key locations 

throughout the park to ensure 

protection of soundscapes and the 

acoustic environment.

• The park uses best available 

technology and methods to 

minimize or mitigate artificial 

noises produced by equipment and 

management activities.

POTENTIAL MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES—

• Monitor and prevent or minimize 

unnatural sounds that adversely affect 

park resources or values or visitors’ 

enjoyment of them.

• Require park staff, concessioners, 

contractors, and commercial use 

companies to comply with measures 

designed to reduce noise levels.

• Minimize noise generated by NPS 

management activities by moderating 

administrative functions such as the 

use of motorized equipment.

• Use best technologies and methods 

to minimize noise when procuring or 

using equipment.

• Encourage visitors to avoid 

unnecessary noise, such as 

minimizing the use of generators 

and maintaining quiet hours in 

the campgrounds.

• Provide interpretive programs and 

materials to help visitors understand 

the role of natural sounds and the 

value of the park’s soundscape.

Thurston Lava Tube. NPS photo
68 | Chapter 2: Foundation for Planning and Management HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

SCENIC RESOURCES/VIEWSHEDS

LAW AND POLICY SOURCE— NPS Organic 

Act and NPS Management Policies 2006 (1.4, 

1.6, 3.1) call for the National Park Service to 

conserve and protect scenery and 

scenic vistas.

DESIRED CONDITIONS—

• The scenic views at Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park continue 

to stir imaginations, inspire, and 

provide opportunities for visitors 

to understand, appreciate, and 

forge personal connections to the 

Pacific Islands.

• Intrinsically important scenic 

vistas and scenic features are not 

significantly diminished by humanmade developments.

• In collaboration with landowners 

inside and outside the park, 

viewsheds within and adjacent to the 

park are protected.

POTENTIAL MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES—

• Work with adjacent and nearby 

landowners to minimize any visual 

impacts from nearby developments 

and to ensure that developments do 

not encroach on the park.

• Consider scenic vistas, cultural 

landscapes, and visual impacts when 

planning park projects.

CLIMATE CHANGE

LAW, POLICY, AND GUIDANCE SOURCES— 

Executive Order 13423, DOI Secretarial 

Order 3226, DOI Secretarial Order 3289, 

The Presidents Climate Change Action Plan 

(2013), NPS 2010 Climate Change Response 

Strategy, NPS Climate Change Action Plan 

2012–2014, 2012 Green Parks Plan, and 

PWR Vision for Climate Change provide 

guidance to parks for managing resources 

and providing interpretation services in light 

of climate change. The Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park 2007 Climate Change Action 

Plan also provides guidance for determining 

desired conditions and potential management 

strategies for responding and adapting to 

climate change.

DESIRED CONDITIONS—

• The park works together with other 

federal, state, and local governments, 

and private landowner partners to 

develop strategies at multiple scales, 

including landscape-level strategies, 

for understanding and responding to 

climate change impacts.

• Park staff considers and analyzes 

potential climate change impacts 

when undertaking long-range 

planning exercises, setting 

priorities for scientific research and 

investigations, and/or when making 

major decisions affecting natural and 

cultural resources.

• The park engages in partnerships 

to implement projects and activities 

that contribute to the conservation 

of species, natural communities, and 

lands and waters placed at risk by 

changing climate conditions.

• Continue to provide and foster 

state-of-the art science to better 

understand the impacts of climate 

change and to develop sciencebased adaptive management 

strategies for natural and cultural 

resource managers.

View from Kealakomo Overlook. NPS photo by Jay Robinson
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 2: Foundation for Planning and Management | 69 

• Continue to minimize the park’s 

contributions to climate change 

by implementing strategies 

to improve sustainability and 

energy efficiency and decrease 

the park’s carbon footprint and 

consumption of resources.

POTENTIAL MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES—

• Meet or exceed the requirements of 

Executive Order 13423.

• Meet or exceed the goals of the 

Federal Green Challenge.

• Follow regional policy and guidance 

on sustainable energy, water, 

fuel, fleet, buildings, waste, and 

purchasing practices.

• Inventory park emissions, implement 

the park’s climate action plan and 

relevant or applicable portions of 

regional climate change action plan, 

and implement climate friendly 

actions within the Environmental 

Management Systems framework.

• Inventory park emissions, implement 

the park’s climate action plan and 

relevant or applicable portions of 

regional climate change action plan, 

and implement climate friendly 

actions within the Environmental 

Management Systems framework.

• Collaborate with partners to develop, 

test, and distribute the best results 

from climate change models to 

inform NPS activities.

• Work with others to inventory 

and monitor key attributes of the 

natural resources, cultural resources, 

and visitor experiences likely to 

be impacted by climate change. 

Systematically assess the vulnerability 

of these resources to climate change.

• Acquire, provide, and apply scientific 

information to reduce the national 

park system carbon footprint.

• Incorporate climate change 

considerations and responses 

in all levels of the NPS 

planning framework.

• Implement adaptation strategies that 

promote ecosystem resilience and 

enhance restoration, conservation, 

and preservation of park 

natural resources.

• Develop, prioritize, and implement 

management strategies to preserve 

climate-sensitive cultural resources.

• Include climate-related vulnerability 

assessments in project approval and 

funding decisions.

• Enhance the sustainable 

maintenance, design, and 

construction of park infrastructure.

• Substantially reduce the national park 

system’s carbon footprint from 2008 

levels by 2016 through aggressive 

commitment to greener operations.

• Integrate climate change 

mitigation into NPS business 

practices and culture.

• Incorporate biological carbon 

sequestration as a mitigation 

option where it is consistent with 

the NPS mission.

• Coordinate and distribute climate 

change information throughout the 

National Park Service.

• Increase climate change knowledge 

and understanding within the 

National Park Service.

• Provide external communications 

about the implications of climate 

change and the National Park 

Service response.

• Model and communicate sustainable 

practices that lead by example.

Halema‘uma‘u Trail. NPS photo by David Boyle
70 | Chapter 2: Foundation for Planning and Management HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Historic 1941 Volcano House. NPS photo by Jay Robinson

Cultural Resources

ARCHEOLOGICAL RESOURCES

LAW AND POLICY SOURCE— The Antiquities 

Act of 1906; the Historic Sites Act of 1935; the 

National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, as 

Amended; the Archeological Resources 

Protection Act of 1979, as Amended; Secretary 

of the Interior’s Standards and Guidelines for 

Archeology and Historic Preservation; 

Programmatic Agreement among the National 

Park Service, the Advisory Council on 

Historic Preservation, and the National 

Conference of State Historic Preservation 

Officers (2008); NPS Management Policies 

2006 (5.3.5.1) and Director’s Order 28: 

Cultural Resource Management call for the 

National Park Service to manage archeological 

resources in situ unless physical disturbance is 

justified and mitigated by data recovery or 

other means in concurrence with the State 

Historic Preservation Officer. See also 36 CFR

Part 79 and the Secretary of the Interior’s 

Standards and Guidelines for 

Archeological Documentation.

DESIRED CONDITIONS—

• Archeological sites are identified and 

inventoried, and their significance is 

determined and documented.

• Archeological sites are protected 

in an undisturbed condition unless 

it is determined through formal 

processes that disturbance or natural 

deterioration is unavoidable. 

• When disturbance or deterioration is 

unavoidable, the site is professionally 

documented and excavated, and the 

resulting artifacts, materials, and 

records are curated and conserved 

in consultation with the Hawai‘i 

state historic preservation office and 

Native Hawaiians. 

• Some archeological sites that can 

be adequately protected may be 

interpreted to the visitor.

• Archeological site baseline data 

are available. Site conditions are 

monitored to record changes in 

resource conditions as a result 

of environmental conditions or 

visitor use impacts. 

• To the extent feasible, archeological 

resources degrading from 

environmental conditions and visitor 

impacts are mitigated through data 

recovery or other preservation 

strategies, including site-hardening.

• To the extent feasible, archeological 

resources threatened by project 

development are mitigated first 

through avoidance or secondly 

through other preservation strategies 

such as data recovery.

• Archeological collections are 

handled, stored, cleaned, conserved, 

and exhibited in a way that is 

appropriate to the nature of the 

materials, protects the objects, and 

preserves data.

• Archeological collections are made 

available for scientific, educational, 

and religious uses. 

• Access to information on the specific 

location, character, etc. of objects 

or collections that may create risk of 

theft or destruction is limited. Historic canoe shed at Kamoamoa that was covered by lava in 1992. 

NPS photo
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 2: Foundation for Planning and Management | 71 

POTENTIAL MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES—

• Gather field data regarding 

habitation-sites, rock shelters, lithic 

scatters, hunting camps, gathering 

areas, and other resources to develop 

a more accurate predictive model of 

prehistoric site distribution and to 

address related research questions.

• Inventory, evaluate, and manage 

archeological resources that reflect 

post-contact activities, such as 

park development and protection, 

early development sites, and 

associated trash dumps. 

• Document and evaluate national 

register-eligible resources. As 

appropriate, nominate these 

resources for listing on the National 

Register of Historic Places.

• Monitor sites, as needed, on a case 

by case basis monthly, annually, or 

biannually, or as required under 

Section 106 for projects. 

• Educate visitors on regulations 

governing protection 

and conservation of 

archeological resources.

• Document, track, and prosecute 

for violations of cultural resource 

laws associated with disturbance/ 

vandalism, removal, or transport.

• Survey and inventory archeological 

sites throughout the park; determine 

and document their significance. 

• Treat all archeological resources as 

eligible for listing on the National 

Register of Historic Places pending a 

formal determination by the National 

Park Service, the state historic 

preservation office, and the park’s 

Native Hawaiian kupuna group as to 

their significance.

• Determine which archeological sites 

should be added to the Archeological 

Sites Management Information 

System and the National Register of 

Historic Places.

Ohia Wing a.k.a. 1932 Administration Building. NPS photo

HISTORIC STRUCTURES

LAW AND POLICY SOURCE—The Antiquities 

Act of 1906 and the National Historic 

Preservation Act of 1966 as amended, call 

for analyzing the effects of possible federal 

actions on historic structures on, or eligible 

for, the national register and for inventorying 

and evaluating their significance and 

condition. The programmatic agreement 

among the National Park Service, the 

Advisory Council on Historic Preservation, 

and the National Conference of State Historic 

Preservation Officers for Compliance 

with Section 106 of the National Historic 

Preservation Act (2008) and NPS Management 

Policies 2006 (5.3.5.4) call for the treatment of 

historic and prehistoric structures to be based 

on sound preservation practices to enable 

the long-term preservation of a structure’s 

historic features, materials, and qualities. All 

treatment of historic structures must comply 

with the Secretary of the Interior’s Standards 

for the Treatment of Historic Properties. 

See also Director’s Order 28: Cultural 

Resource Management.

DESIRED CONDITIONS—

• Historic structures are inventoried 

and their significance and integrity 

are evaluated under National Register 

of Historic Places criteria. 
72 | Chapter 2: Foundation for Planning and Management HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

• The qualities that contribute to the 

listing or eligibility for listing of 

historic structures on the national 

register are protected in accordance 

with the Secretary of the Interior’s 

Standards and Guidelines for 

Archeology and Historic Preservation, 

unless it is determined through a 

formal process that disturbance or 

natural deterioration is unavoidable.

• Laws pertaining to historic 

preservation remain applicable 

within wilderness but must be 

generally administered to preserve 

the area’s wilderness character.

• The historic character of historic 

buildings and structures are managed 

in accordance with Section 5.3.5.4 of 

NPS Management Policies 2006.

• Historic structure inventories and 

reports are prepared and existing 

reports amended as needed. Actions 

identified in historic structure reports 

are implemented and a record of 

treatment is added to the reports.

• Identified and evaluated historic 

structures are monitored, inspected 

and managed to enable the long-term 

preservation of a resource’s historic 

features, qualities and materials.

POTENTIAL MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES—

• Employ the comprehensive 

maintenance, protection and 

preservation measures in accordance 

with the Secretary of the Interior’s 

Standards for the Treatment of 

Historic Properties. For properties 

lacking specific plans, preservation 

actions would be based on the 

Secretary of the Interior’s Standards 

and NPS Management Policies 2006.

Treat all historic structures as eligible 

for listing on the National Register 

of Historic Places pending formal 

determination (by the National 

Park Service and State Historic 

Preservation Division).

• Consider frontcountry historic 

buildings not actively being used in 

the park for adaptive reuse by other 

public and private entities to assist in 

preservation of the structures.

• Create design guidelines and/or 

historic structure/cultural landscape 

reports for all developed areas in the 

park to preserve the architectural and 

landscape-defining features. Include 

design review oversight to ensure 

the compatibility of new planning, 

design, and construction.

• Pursue basic preservation 

maintenance activities to avoid costly 

rebuilding or reconstruction of 

historic structures.

• Comply with cultural resource 

protection and preservation policies 

and directives and the wilderness 

minimum requirements analysis in 

wilderness areas for the maintenance 

of historic structures. 

• Before modifying any historic 

structure on the National Register 

of Historic Places, consult with the 

state historic preservation office and 

the Advisory Council for Historic 

Preservation, as appropriate.

ETHNOGRAPHIC RESOURCES

LAW AND POLICY SOURCE— NPS 

Management Policies 2006 (5.3.5.3) calls for 

gathering ethnographic information through 

anthropological and collaborative community 

research that recognizes the sensitive nature 

of such cultural data and documenting the 

meanings that traditionally-associated groups 

assign to traditional natural and cultural 

resources and the landscapes they form. 

In accordance with the National Historic 

Preservation Act, the purpose is to preserve, 

conserve, and encourage the continuation 

of the diverse traditional prehistoric, 

historic, ethnic, and folk cultural traditions 

that underlie and are a living expression 

of American heritage as manifested in the 

traditional use of ethnographic resources 

in park units. American Indian Religious 

Freedom Act also calls for NPS managers 

to accommodate the access to and the 

ceremonial use of sacred sites by practitioners 

and to preserve the sites’ physical integrity.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 2: Foundation for Planning and Management | 73 

DESIRED CONDITIONS—

• Appropriate cultural anthropological 

research is conducted in cooperation 

with groups associated with the park.

• To the extent practicable, permitted 

by law, and not clearly inconsistent 

with essential agency functions, the 

National Park Service accommodates 

access to and ceremonial use of 

Hawaiian sacred sites by Hawaiian 

religious practitioners and avoids 

adversely affecting the physical 

integrity of these sacred sites.

• All ethnographic resources 

determined eligible for listing or 

listed in the national register are 

protected. If disturbance of such 

resources is unavoidable, formal 

consultation with the state historic 

preservation officer, the Advisory 

Council on Historic Preservation, 

and, as appropriate, with Native 

Hawaiians is conducted.

• The identities of community 

consultants and information 

about sacred and other culturally 

sensitive places and practices 

are kept confidential when 

research agreements or other 

circumstances warrant.

• Potentially sensitive natural and 

cultural resources and traditional 

cultural properties (ethnographic 

resources eligible for the National 

Register of Historic Places) are 

identified, recorded, and evaluated 

through consultation with Native 

Hawaiians. The integrity of 

traditional cultural properties is 

preserved and protected.

• Positive and productive relationships 

exist with each of the Native 

Hawaiian groups that have 

traditional with the park.

POTENTIAL MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES—

• Survey and inventory ethnographic 

resources and document 

their significance.

• Treat all ethnographic resources as 

eligible for listing in the National 

Register of Historic Places pending a 

formal determination by the National 

Park Service and the state historic 

preservation officer. 

• Continue to encourage the 

employment of Native Hawaiians 

on the NPS staff to improve 

communications and working 

relationships and encourage cultural 

diversity in the workplace.

• Conduct consultation with Native 

Hawaiians throughout the course of 

the planning processes at the park.

• Continue to work collaboratively 

with Native Hawaiians when 

conducting research related to the 

resources they value.

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park recognizes 

that the Native Hawaiians’ relationships to 

lands in the park have endured for hundreds 

of years, and park staff will continue to work 

with them to ensure that sites of traditional 

importance are preserved and protected.

Members of the park’s Kupuna Consultation Group at the 

opening of the Museum of the Native American Indians. 

NPS photo
74 | Chapter 2: Foundation for Planning and Management HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

CULTURAL LANDSCAPES

LAW AND POLICY SOURCE— NPS 

Management Policies 2006 (5.3.5.2) calls for 

the preservation of the physical attributes, 

biotic systems and uses of cultural landscapes 

that contribute to historical significance.

DESIRED CONDITIONS—

• Cultural landscape inventories are 

conducted to identify landscapes 

potentially eligible for listing in the 

national register and to assist in 

future management decisions for 

landscapes and associated resources, 

both cultural and natural.

• The management of cultural 

landscapes focuses on preserving 

the landscape’s physical attributes, 

biotic systems, and uses when 

that use contributes to its 

historical significance.

• The preservation, rehabilitation, 

restoration, or reconstruction of 

cultural landscapes is undertaken in 

accordance with the Secretary of the 

Interior’s Standards for the Treatment 

of Historic Properties.

• Laws pertaining to historic 

preservation remain applicable 

within wilderness but must be 

generally administered to preserve 

the area’s wilderness character. 

• The cultural landscapes of the park 

retain a high degree of integrity.

• Cultural landscape inventories and 

reports are prepared, and existing 

reports are amended as needed.

• Identified and evaluated cultural 

landscapes are monitored, inspected, 

and managed to enable the long-term 

preservation of a resource’s historic 

features, qualities, and materials.

• Actions identified in cultural 

landscape reports are implemented, 

and a record of treatment is added 

to the reports.

POTENTIAL MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES—

• Treat cultural landscapes that are 

potentially eligible for listing in the 

national register as eligible until a 

formal determination is made (by 

the National Park Service and state 

historic preservation office).

• Comply with cultural resource 

protection and preservation policies 

and directives and the wilderness 

minimum requirements analysis in 

wilderness areas for the maintenance 

of cultural landscapes. 

• Create design guidelines and/or 

cultural landscape reports for all 

developed areas in the park to ensure 

that the landscape-defining features 

of these areas are preserved. These 

guidelines would include provisions 

for design review oversight to ensure 

the compatibility of new planning, 

design, and construction.

MUSEUM COLLECTIONS

LAW AND POLICY SOURCE— NPS 

Management Policies 2006 (5.3.5.5) states that 

the National Park Service “...will collect, 

protect, preserve, provide access to, and 

use objects, specimens, and archival and 

manuscript collections...in the disciplines 

of archeology, ethnography, history, 

Adult moth of the carnivorous caterpillar. 

NPS photo by Jay Robinson
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 2: Foundation for Planning and Management | 75 

biology, geology, and paleontology to aid 

understanding among park visitors and to 

advance knowledge in the humanities and 

sciences.” The Antiquities Act (16 USC 431- 

433), the Reservoir Salvage Act (16 USC 469-

469c), section 110 of the National Historic 

Preservation Act (16 USC 470h-2), the 

Archeological Resources Protection Act (16 

USC 470aa-mm), NPS Director’s Orders 28 

and 36 CFR 79, Curation of Federally Owned 

and Administered Archeological Collections 

also provide guidance on managing and 

protecting museum collections.

DESIRED CONDITIONS—

• All museum collections and 

associated records (objects, 

specimens, and manuscript 

collections) are identified and 

inventoried, cataloged, documented, 

preserved, and protected. The 

collections are periodically 

inspected to monitor their 

conditions and written report of 

the results of the inspections and 

inventories are provided.

• Provision is made for access to 

and use of the park’s museum 

collections for exhibits, research, 

and interpretation.

• The qualities that contribute to 

the significance of collections 

are protected in accordance with 

established standards.

• Research and development projects 

include plans for the curation of 

collected objects and specimens.

• The park’s museum collections 

are housed in appropriate facilities 

that provide protection for current 

collections and allow for future 

collection expansion. These 

facilities are periodically inspected 

to monitor physical security and 

environmental conditions.

• Park museum collections provide 

documentation of park natural and 

cultural resources.

POTENTIAL MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES—

• Inventory and catalog all park 

museum collections in accordance 

with standards in the NPS 

Museum Handbook.

• Develop and implement a collection 

management program according 

to NPS standards to guide the 

protection, conservation, and use of 

museum objects.

• Continue outreach efforts to 

park visitors, provide access to 

and give tours of the collections 

to the community, and provide 

field assistance with park research 

projects as needed. Provide digital 

access to images of and information 

about collections.

• Collections facilities would be 

upgraded, improved, and expanded 

according to the recommendations of 

the Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

Museum Management Plan.

• Provide efficient access to reference 

materials and information.

Wilderness

WILDERNESS RESOURCES, CHARACTER, 

AND VALUES

LAW AND POLICY SOURCE— The 

Wilderness Act of 1964; the National Historic 

Preservation Act; the Archeological and 

Historic Preservation Act; NPS Management 

Policies 2006 (6.3, 6.4); Director’s Order 41: 

Wilderness Preservation and Management 

and corresponding Reference Manual 41; 

and Director’s Order 28: Cultural Resource 

Management provide guidance and direction 

for the management of wilderness areas and 

the preservation of wilderness character 

and wilderness resources. The Wilderness 

Act specifies that each agency administering 

any areas designated as wilderness shall be 

responsible for preserving the wilderness 

character of the areas and shall so administer 

such area for other purposes for which it may 

have been established and also to preserve its 

wilderness character.
76 | Chapter 2: Foundation for Planning and Management HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

The Wilderness Act also specifies that the 

designation of any area of the park system 

as wilderness “shall in no manner lower 

the standards evolved for the use and 

preservation of such unit of the park system 

under the various laws applicable to that unit” 

(16 USC 1133 (a)(3)).

DESIRED CONDITIONS—

• The National Park Service will 

manage wilderness areas including 

those proposed for wilderness 

designation for the use and 

enjoyment of the American people 

in such a manner as will leave them 

unimpaired for future use and 

enjoyment as wilderness.

• The park ensures that the land’s 

primeval character and influence is 

retained and protected, that visitors 

continue to find opportunities for 

solitude and primitive, unconfined 

recreation and that the landscapes 

generally appear to have been 

affected primarily by the forces of 

nature, with the imprint of mans’ 

work substantially unnoticeable.

• Cultural resources that have been 

included within wilderness will be 

protected and maintained according 

to the pertinent laws and policies 

governing cultural resources using 

management methods that are 

consistent with the preservation of 

wilderness character and values.

• Natural processes, native 

components, and the 

interrelationships among them 

are protected, maintained, and/or 

restored to the extent possible, while 

providing opportunities for their 

enjoyment as wilderness.

• Present and future visitors enjoy 

the unique qualities offered in 

wilderness. These include the 

experiences of solitude, remoteness, 

risk, challenge, self-sufficiency, 

discovery, and observation of an 

untrammeled ecosystem.

• Scientific studies are encouraged 

that contribute to understanding 

wilderness resources, threats, and 

restoration of wilderness character.

• Wilderness management is based on 

the minimum requirement concept, 

allowing only those actions necessary 

and appropriate for administration 

of the area as wilderness and that 

do not cause a significant impact to 

wilderness resources and character.

• The values of the wilderness in 

the park are understood by the 

public and staff through education 

in wilderness ethics and use, 

and by using management skills 

and techniques to promote and 

preserve these values.

• Park operations and wilderness 

functions are coordinated in the 

unit to manage and protect natural 

and cultural resources in wilderness 

and preserve wilderness character. 

Management is coordinated to 

provide consistency in regulations, 

standards, and guidelines to the 

extent feasible, and work will 

continue to be done with other local 

and regional groups, communities, 

agencies, and Native Hawaiians to 

preserve wilderness values.

Viewing the coastal wilderness from Pepeiao Trail. NPS photo
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 2: Foundation for Planning and Management | 77 

POTENTIAL MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES—

• Develop and implement research 

programs related to the wilderness 

ecosystem and key natural resources 

and visitor experiences.

• Inventory wilderness resources, 

facilities, and operational activities.

• Assess management actions using the 

minimum requirement analysis.

• Develop a wilderness stewardship 

plan to articulate wilderness 

character and determine wilderness 

character monitoring techniques. 

In the plan, further define a 

range of desired conditions for 

wilderness resources, visitor 

wilderness experiences, wilderness 

character, and management and 

operational techniques.

• Develop and implement a program 

to restore conditions that are outside 

the range of desired conditions 

for wilderness resources, visitor 

wilderness experiences, and 

wilderness character.

• Manage activities to maintain 

and restore resource conditions, 

to protect visitor experiences, 

and to protect and restore 

wilderness character.

• Develop an educational program 

for visitors, staff, and local 

community members, and others 

that enhances the appreciation of 

wilderness resources.

• Monitor the wilderness resources and 

incorporate the results of monitoring 

to refine management programs.

Visitor Use and Experience

VISITOR OPPORTUNITIES

LAW AND POLICY SOURCE— The NPS 

Organic Act, NPS General Authorities Act, 

and NPS Management Policies 2006 (1.4, 

8.1) all address the importance of park units 

being available to all Americans to enjoy and 

experience. Current laws, regulations, and 

policies leave considerable room for judgment 

about the best mix of types and levels of 

visitor use activities, programs, and facilities. 

For this reason, most decisions related to 

visitor experience and uses are addressed in 

the alternatives. However, all visitor use of the 

national park system must be consistent with 

the following guidelines.

DESIRED CONDITIONS—

• Park resources are conserved 

unimpaired for the enjoyment 

of future generations. Visitors 

have opportunities for forms of 

enjoyment that are uniquely suited 

and appropriate to the superlative 

natural and cultural resources found 

in the park. No activities occur that 

would cause derogation of the values 

and purposes for which the park has 

been established.

• Park visitors will have opportunities 

to understand and appreciate the 

significance of the park and its 

resources and to develop a personal 

stewardship ethic.

• To the extent feasible, programs, 

services, and facilities in the park are 

accessible to and usable by all people, 

including those with disabilities.

• For all zones or districts in the park, 

the types and levels of visitor use are 

consistent with the desired resource 

and visitor experience conditions 

prescribed for those areas.

• The park visitor is able to obtain 

visitor orientation and tripplanning information through 

a variety of media. Educational 

programs are available.

• Frontcountry day use visitation 

and overnight facilities are Visitors on a ranger-guided hike at Pu‘uloa Petroglyphs. 

NPS photo by David Boyle
78 | Chapter 2: Foundation for Planning and Management HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

provided in some developed areas. 

Roads, trails, campgrounds, and 

related facilities are provided, but 

locations and numbers may be 

modified for resource protection, 

restoration, visitor experience, or 

increased visitation.

• The level and type of commercial 

guided activities would be managed 

to protect park resources and the 

visitor experience.

POTENTIAL MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES—

• For all zones, districts, or other 

logical management divisions in 

a park, identify visitor carrying 

capacities for managing public use 

and ways to monitor for and address 

unacceptable impacts on park 

resources and visitor experiences.

• Monitor visitor comments on issues 

such as crowding, encounters with 

other visitors in the backcountry, 

availability of campsites at 

busy times of the year, and 

availability of parking.

• Conduct periodic visitor surveys 

to stay informed of changing 

visitor demographics and desires 

to better tailor programs to visitor 

needs and desires.

• Develop outreach programs for and 

with schools, Native Hawaiians, and 

community organizations.

• Provide a variety of educational 

opportunities in the park with 

continued facility-based contacts 

and guided activities. Web-based 

education would be provided. Some 

activities could be for a fee.

• Coordinate education programs with 

partners and focus on improving the 

general understanding of park natural 

and cultural resources, biodiversity, 

the protection of resources and 

natural processes, research, 

stewardship, wilderness, park values, 

and recreational and 

visitor  opportunities.

PUBLIC HEALTH AND SAFETY

LAW AND POLICY SOURCE— NPS 

Management Policies 2006 (8.2.5) states 

that the saving of human life would take 

precedence over all other management actions 

as the National Park Service strives to protect 

human life and provide for injury-free visits. 

Other federal statutes and regulations that 

apply to the protection of public health and 

safety include Director’s Order 50 and RM50, “Safety and Health”; Director’s Order 58 

and RM-58, “Structural Fire Management”; 

Director’s Order 83 and RM-83, “Public 

Health”; Director’s Order 51 and RM-51, 

“Emergency Medical Services”; Director’s 

Order 30 and RM-30, “Hazard and Solid 

Waste Management”; and OSHA 29CFR.

DESIRED CONDITIONS—

• While recognizing that there are 

limitations on its capability to totally 

eliminate all hazards, the National 

Park Service and its partners, 

contractors, and cooperators work 

to cooperatively to provide a safe and 

healthful environment for visitors 

and employees. 

• The NPS staff strives to 

identify recognizable threats to 

safety and health and protect 

property by applying nationally 

accepted standards. 

Steam Vents viewing area. NPS photo
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 2: Foundation for Planning and Management | 79 

• Consistent with mandates and 

nonimpairment, the NPS staff 

reduces or removes known hazards 

or applies appropriate mitigating 

measures, such as closures, guarding, 

gating, education, and other actions.

POTENTIAL MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES—

• Maintain a documented safety 

program in the park to address 

health and safety concerns and 

identify appropriate levels of action 

and activities.

• Continue maintenance efforts to 

ensure that all potable water systems 

and waste water systems in the park 

would continue to meet state and 

federal requirements.

• Provide interpretive signs and 

materials as appropriate to notify 

visitors of potential safety concerns, 

hazards and procedures to help 

provide for a safe visit to the park 

and to ensure visitors are aware of 

possible risks of certain activities. 

• Encourage scientific studies, and 

rely on best available science to 

identify, evaluate, and mitigate 

environmental hazards. 

NPS staff would continue to work with local 

emergency and public health officials to make 

reasonable efforts to search for lost persons 

and rescue sick, injured or stranded persons.

Transportation to and within 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park

LAW AND POLICY SOURCE—

NPS Management Policies 2006 (9.2) calls 

for NPS managers to identify solutions to 

transportation issues that preserve natural 

and cultural resources while providing a 

high-quality visitor experience. Management 

decisions regarding transportation generally 

require a comprehensive alternatives analysis 

and thorough understanding of their 

consequences. The location, type, and design 

of multimodal transportation facilities (e.g., 

roads, bridges, parking areas, sidewalks, 

bikeways, pedestrian trails, transit centers, 

and shelters) strongly influence the quality of 

the visitor experience and the preservation of 

park unit resources.

DESIRED CONDITIONS—

• Multimodal transportation facilities 

in the park provide access for the 

protection, use, and enjoyment of 

park resources. They preserve the 

integrity of the surroundings, respect 

ecological processes, protect natural, 

cultural, and scenic resources, and 

provide the highest visual quality and 

a rewarding visitor experience.

POTENTIAL MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES—

• Participate in transportation studies 

and planning processes that may 

result in links to the park’s units 

or impacts to park resources. 

Work closely with other federal 

agencies (such as the Federal 

Highway Administration), state and 

local governments (e.g., Hawai‘i 

Department of Transportation), 

regional planning bodies, citizen 

groups, and others to enhance 

partnering and funding opportunities 

and to encourage effective regional 

transportation planning. 

• Implement transportation strategies 

that contribute to maximum visitor 

enjoyment of, and minimum adverse 

impacts to, park resources and 

values. Before a decision is made to 

design, construct, expand, or upgrade Traffic congestion at Thurston Lava Tube. NPS photo
80 | Chapter 2: Foundation for Planning and Management HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

transportation access to or within the 

park, fully explore nonconstruction 

alternatives, such as distributing 

visitors to underutilized locations. If

nonconstruction alternatives would 

not achieve satisfactory results, then 

a design strategy should consider 

whether the project:

» is appropriate and necessary to 

meet management needs

» is designed with extreme care 

and sensitivity to the landscape 

through which it passes

» would not cause adverse 

impacts to natural and cultural 

resources, and would minimize 

or mitigate those impacts that 

cannot be avoided

» reduces traffic congestion, noise, 

and air pollution

» would not violate federal, state, 

or local air pollution control 

plans or regulations

» would not cause use in the areas to 

exceed the areas’ physical capacity

» incorporates the principles 

of energy conservation 

and sustainability

» is able to demonstrate financial 

and operational sustainability

» incorporates universal design 

principles to provide for 

accessibility for all populations, 

including those with disabilities

» takes maximum advantage 

of interpretive opportunities 

and scenic values

» is based on a comprehensive 

and multidisciplinary approach 

that is fully consistent with the 

parks general management 

plan and asset management 

plan; and enhances the visitor 

experience by offering new or 

improved interpretive or visitor 

opportunities, by simplifying 

travel within the park, or by 

making it easier or safer to 

see park features

Management and Operations

UTILITIES AND COMMUNICATION 

FACILITIES

LAW AND POLICY SOURCE— The 

Telecommunications Act of 1996 directs 

all federal agencies to assist in the 

national goal of achieving a seamless 

telecommunications system throughout the 

United States by accommodating requests by 

telecommunication companies for the use of 

property, rights-of-way, and easements to the 

extent allowable under each agency’s mission. 

The National Park Service is legally obligated 

to permit telecommunication infrastructure in 

park units if such facilities can be structured 

to avoid interference with park unit purposes.

Rights-of-way for utilities to pass over, 

under, or through NPS property may be 

issued only pursuant to specific statutory 

authority and generally only if there is no 

practicable alternative to such use of NPS 

lands. Statutory authorities in 16 USC 5 and in 

NPS Management Policies 2006 (8.6.4) provide 

guidance on these rights-of-way.

DESIRED CONDITIONS—

• Park resources or public enjoyment 

of the park are not denigrated by 

nonconforming uses. 

• Utility structures are permitted 

in the park to the extent they do 

not jeopardize the park’s mission 

and resources. 

• No new nonconforming use 

or rights-of-way are permitted 

‘A‘ā lava forming. NPS photo by Jay Robinson
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 2: Foundation for Planning and Management | 81 

through the park without specific 

statutory authority and approval by 

the director of the National Park 

Service or their representative and 

are permitted only if there is no 

practicable alternative to such use 

of NPS lands.

POTENTIAL MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES—

• Work with service companies, local 

communities, and the public to locate 

new utility lines and maintain existing 

lines so that there is minimal effect on 

park resources. 

• If necessary, and there are no other 

options, place new or reconstructed 

utilities and communications 

infrastructure in association with 

existing structures and along 

roadways or other established 

corridors in developed areas. For 

reconstruction or extension into 

undisturbed areas, select routes 

that minimize impacts on the park’s 

natural, cultural, and visual resources. 

Place utility lines underground to the 

maximum extent possible away from 

sensitive resources.

• Follow NPS polices in processing 

applications for commercial 

telecommunications facilities.

Relations with Private and Public 

Organizations, Owners of Adjacent 

Land, and Governmental Agencies

LAW AND POLICY SOURCE— NPS 

Management Policies 2006 (1.6) stresses 

the need for cooperative conservation 

beyond park boundaries. This cooperation 

is necessary in order for the National 

Park Service to fulfill its mandate to 

preserve the natural and cultural resources 

unimpaired for future generations. Local 

and regional cooperation may involve 

other federal agencies, state, and local 

governments, neighboring landowners, 

and nongovernmental and private 

sector organizations.

DESIRED CONDITIONS—

• Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

is managed as part of a greater 

ecological, social, economic, and 

cultural system.

• Good relations are maintained 

with adjacent landowners, such as 

the state of Hawai‘i, Kamehameha 

Schools, The Nature Conservancy, 

surrounding communities, and 

private and public groups that 

affect, and are affected by, Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park. 

• Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

is managed proactively to resolve 

external issues and concerns and 

ensure that the resources and values 

of the park are not compromised.

• Because the park is an integral part 

of a larger regional environment, 

the National Park Service works 

cooperatively with others to 

anticipate, avoid, and resolve 

potential conflicts, protect national 

park resources, and address mutual 

interests in the quality of life for 

community residents. Regional 

cooperation involves federal, state, 

and local agencies, Native Hawaiians, 

neighboring landowners, and all 

other concerned parties.

Exit of Thurston Lava Tube. NPS photo
82 | Chapter 2: Foundation for Planning and Management HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

POTENTIAL MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES—

• Continue to establish and foster 

partnerships with public and private 

organizations to achieve the purposes 

and missions of Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park. Partnerships would 

continue to be sought for resource 

protection, research, education, and 

visitor enjoyment purposes.

• To foster a spirit of cooperation 

with neighbors and encourage 

compatible adjacent land uses, 

continue to keep landowners, land 

managers, local governments, and the 

public informed about management 

activities. Continue periodic 

consultations with landowners who 

might be affected by visitors and 

management actions. 

• Continue to respond promptly 

to conflicts that arise over NPS 

activities, visitor access, and 

proposed activities and developments 

on adjacent lands that could 

affect the park. 

• Consider providing technical 

and management assistance to 

landowners to address issues of 

mutual interest. Continue to work 

closely with adjacent landowners, 

local, state, and federal agencies 

whose programs affect, or are 

affected by, activities in the park. 

• Continue to pursue cooperative 

regional planning whenever possible 

to integrate the unit into issues of 

regional concern.

RELATIONS WITH NEARBY COMMUNITIES

LAW AND POLICY SOURCE— As noted 

earlier, NPS Management Policies 2006 (1.6) 

stresses the need for cooperative conservation 

beyond park boundaries. The cooperation 

includes working with nearby communities.

DESIRED CONDITIONS—

• NPS staff maintains close 

working relationships with 

nearby communities. 

• NPS staff and local officials maintain 

a high level of trust and goodwill. 

Local officials feel they have an 

important stake in the park, and NPS 

staff feel they have an important stake 

in the local communities. 

• NPS managers are familiar with local 

issues and concerns.

POTENTIAL MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES—

• Communicate and meet with local 

officials to identify problems and 

concerns facing the communities 

and the park and actions that 

can be taken to address these 

problems and concerns.

• Inform local officials of planning and 

other actions in the park that could 

affect the communities. Continue to 

work with local law enforcement, 

emergency services, and community 

education programs, as appropriate.

• When appropriate, provide technical 

and management assistance to 

local communities, including 

sharing information and resources, 

to address problems and issues 

of mutual interest, such as the 

spread of nonnative, invasive 

species. Continue to be involved in 

community-based efforts.

Earth cracks along the Southwest Rift of Kīlauea. 

Photo by J.D. Griggs courtesy of USGS

Fog is common in park upland forests. NPS photo
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 83 

ALTERNATIVES 3

Family of endangered nēnē. NPS photo
84 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Happy face spider. NPS photo by Jay Robinson
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 85 

CHAPTER 3: ALTERNATIVES 

INTRODUCTION

In the summer of 2010, the general 

management planning team composed 

of staff from Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park and the Pacific West Region began 

the process of developing management 

alternatives for Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park, incorporating public responses from 

newsletters and public meetings. The National 

Environmental Policy Act and National 

Park Service planning regulations require 

the formulation of a reasonable range of 

alternatives that address identified planning 

issues and management concerns as described 

in the Purpose and Need section in Chapter 1. 

The development of alternatives for the 

future of Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park

was based on the purpose of the park, 

including providing access to Kīlauea and 

Mauna Loa volcanoes, preserving endemic 

Hawaiian ecosystems, and perpetuating the 

traditional Hawaiian culture connected to 

these landscapes. The alternatives define and 

present proposed strategies for the protection, 

preservation, and management of shared 

values at Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park.

It is intended that all the alternatives 

presented in this draft GMP/WS/EIS

meet both the spirit and the intent of the 

laws establishing the park. In meeting this 

goal, the interdisciplinary planning team 

developed a range of alternatives that provide 

for the long-term protection of the park’s 

resources and the public enjoyment of those 

resources in a way that is respectful of Native 

Hawaiian culture.

This chapter contains the following elements:

• Description of the four management 

zones for the action alternatives

• Actions common to all alternatives

• Description of Alternatives 1, 2, 

and 3, including:

» Alternative concept

» Desired conditions/

proposed actions

» Boundary modifications

» Estimated costs

• User capacity prescriptions

• Mitigation Measures

• Other actions and 

alternatives considered

• Environmentally preferred alternative

• Summary of alternatives table 

detailing the components of 

the alternatives

• Summary of Costs Associated with 

Implementation of the Alternatives

• Summary of Impacts Chart based 

upon the analysis in Chapter 6, 

“Environmental Consequences”

• Implementation of the General 

Management Plan

In some cases, decisions or other discussions 

contained in this draft GMP/WS/EIS refer 

directly to maps and figures; thus many 

decisions themselves are “map-based.” The 

reader must rely on the text, maps, and figures 

taken together to fully understand the range of 

alternatives described in this draft 

GMP/WS/EIS.

Three alternatives are described in this 

draft GMP/WS/EIS. Each alternative has a 

different overarching concept, application of 

management zones on the landscape, series 

of desired conditions and/or actions, and 

associated costs. The three alternatives are 

characterized as follows:
86 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Alternative 1: the no-action alternative

would assume that existing programming, 

facilities, staffing, and funding would generally 

continue at current levels to protect the 

values of Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park. 

There would be no major changes in current 

management or visitor use. Implementation of 

currently approved plans would continue as 

funding allows. This alternative provides the 

baseline for evaluating actions and impacts in 

other alternatives.

Alternative 2: the NPS preferred alternative

would strengthen and broaden opportunities 

to connect people with the volcanic world 

treasure, Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, 

and provide a wide range of high-quality 

visitor experiences based on different 

geographic areas. Experiences would range 

from a concentration of visitor services 

and amenities on Kīlauea summit, to a less 

congested experience with new opportunities 

to disperse use along Chain of Craters Road 

and Mauna Loa Road. Kahuku would provide 

additional visitor services that offer more 

primitive recreational opportunities.

Natural and cultural resources would 

continue to be managed and protected 

with a high degree of integrity, consistent 

with direction provided by existing laws 

and policies. This alternative emphasizes 

the park’s role as a refuge and haven for 

native biota, people, and cultures in a 

world constantly adapting to volcanic 

activity and island building processes. This 

alternative also emphasizes Native Hawaiian 

values such as mālama ʻāina (nourishing 

or taking care of the land) and kuleana 

(responsibility) as important concepts in park 

stewardship of resources.

Alternative 3: This alternative emphasizes 

building new connections with the park 

primarily through expanded education 

and hands-on stewardship opportunities. 

Traditional visitor opportunities would 

continue and capacity could be expanded 

at some existing sites to allow for increased 

visitation, but new development would be 

very limited and a suite of management tools 

would be used to disperse visitors and manage 

congestion throughout the park. A greater 

focus would be placed on science and learning 

opportunities for visitors from mauka to 

makai. The park would immerse visitors in the 

protection and restoration of native species 

and ecosystems by maximizing opportunities 

to participate in restoration activities and 

additional emphasis would be placed on 

providing opportunities for visitors to engage 

in research, scientific investigation, and 

projects associated with natural and cultural 

resources management, notably in Kahuku.

Natural and cultural resources would 

continue to be managed and protected with 

a high degree of integrity, consistent with 

direction provided by existing laws and 

policies similar to the preferred alternative. 

As in the preferred alternative, this alternative 

emphasizes the park’s role as a refuge and 

haven for native biota, people, and cultures 

in a world constantly adapting to volcanic 

activity and island building processes. This 

alternative also emphasizes Native Hawaiian 

values such as mālama ʻāina (nourishing 

or taking care of the land) and kuleana 

(responsibility) as important concepts in park 

stewardship of resources.

Formulation of Alternatives

Development of the alternatives was based 

on information about the park’s resources 

and visitor use, as well as from NPS

sources, including public, federal, state, and 

local agencies, and Native Hawaiian and 

stakeholder groups. Each of the alternatives 

supports and is consistent with the park’s 

purpose and significance, desired future 

conditions, and current laws, regulations, and 

policies. The alternatives avoid unacceptable 

resource impacts and respond to issues or 

concerns raised by the public during the 

scoping and preliminary alternatives phases 

of the project.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 87 

The alternatives vary in how management 

zones are applied geographically, according 

to the overall concept of the alternative. The 

alternatives also vary in the management 

prescriptions, or actions, that the park would 

take to achieve the desired conditions for 

various key resources.

Identification of the 

Preferred Alternative

The preferred alternative is the alternative 

that the National Park Service has 

determined would best fulfill its mission and 

responsibilities. The preferred alternative 

was identified following an initial assessment 

of the impacts of the alternatives. The 

public’s ideas, preferences, and reasoning 

greatly assisted the National Park Service 

in its selection of the preferred alternative. 

A decision-making process was used to 

compare the relative advantages and costs 

of each alternative in a workshop attended 

by the GMP team. The preferred alternative 

for Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park was 

identified because, of the alternatives 

considered, it: preserves resources and 

promotes long-term stewardship of the 

park, provides a range of high-quality visitor 

opportunities and experiences, preserves the 

wilderness character and values of the area, 

and provides for cost-effective, efficient and 

sustainable facilities and operations.

Identification of the environmentally 

preferable alternative is discussed at the end 

of this chapter.

Implementation of the

General Management Plan

Once the general management planning 

process is completed, the selected alternative 

would become the new management plan 

for Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park and 

would be implemented in phases over the 

next 15–20 years.

Implementation of the actions proposed 

within this management plan is dependent 

upon funding availability. The approval of this 

general management plan does not guarantee 

that funding and staffing needed to implement 

the plan would be forthcoming. Instead, 

the general management plan establishes 

a vision to guide future management 

of Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park. In 

addition to funding, implementation of the 

preferred alternative could also be affected 

by other factors. More detailed planning, 

environmental impact analysis, and studies 

could be required before most conditions 

proposed in the alternatives are achieved. 

All of the alternatives were developed 

based on the assumption that mitigation 

measures would be incorporated into the 

proposed actions to reduce the degree of 

adverse impacts.

MANAGEMENT ZONES USED

IN THE ALTERNATIVES

Management zones define specific resource 

conditions and visitor experiences to be 

achieved and maintained in each particular 

area of the park. Each zone includes the types 

of activities and facilities that are appropriate 

in that management zone. For Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park, four management 

zones were developed by the planning team. 

These include the following:

• Visitor Services Zone

• Transitional/Semi-primitive Zone

• Wild/Primitive Zone

• Park Support Zone

These zones form the basis of the general 

management plan’s alternatives and are 

applied to different geographic locations 

or areas of the park in Alternatives 2 and 3. 

In Alternative 1, the zones were taken from 

the 1975 Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

Master Plan. Each zone gives a general level of 

management guidance or direction.
88 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

For Alternatives 2 and 3, management zone 

boundaries were assigned according to 

the overall concept of each alternative. For 

example, for an alternative whose overall 

concept emphasizes a high level of visitor 

use with a wide range of facilities, a larger 

Visitor Services Zone makes sense. For an 

alternative that emphasizes wild character 

and wilderness, a larger Wild/Primitive Zone 

would be appropriate.

The management zones for Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park are presented in Table 3.1. 

Management Zones. For each zone, the table 

depicts the zone concept; the natural and 

cultural resource conditions; special uses 

such as communication facilities; visitor 

experience; and facilities and operations.

In addition to the management zones, 

park managers would continue to use the 

Superintendent’s Compendium (NPS 2012). 

The compendium is a list of designations, 

closures, requirements, and other restrictions 

imposed under the discretionary authority of 

the superintendent as provided in Title 36 of 

the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR).
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: 

Alternatives | 89 

Table 3.1. Management Zones

Category Visitor Services Zone Transitional/ Semi-primitive Zone Wild/Primitive Zone Park Support Zone

ZONE CONCEPTS

The Visitor Services Zone is managed primarily for a high level of visitor use, access, and interpretation with a wide range of media and facilities to support diverse visitor needs. 

The Transitional/Semi-primitive Zone is managed as a transition between areas of high development and remote areas of the park. It focuses on natural and cultural resource protection with more rustic visitor facilities, experiences, and activities that encourage visitors to connect with the resource.

The Wild/Primitive Zone is managed primarily for natural and cultural resource protection and its wild character and wilderness values. Visitor experiences are consistent with wilderness character and provide opportunities for immersing visitors with the resource.

The Park Support Zone is managed primarily to support park operations and maintenance, including the operational needs of park partners. Access for visitors is primarily for limited visitor services (such as backcountry permitting), orientation, and organized meetings or events.

NATURAL RESOURCES

Overall Conditions

Native species, communities and ecological processes are perpetuated and restored in as natural condition as possible. Specific areas are disturbed to accommodate visitor and administrative needs, but resources are protected elsewhere. If resource modification does occur, the goal is to avoid sensitive areas to the extent practical and feasible and focus development in less sensitive areas in this zone.

Native species, communities and ecological processes are perpetuated and restored in as natural condition as possible.Resource impacts or manipulation of resources for visitor or administrative purposes is generally avoided.

Native species, communities and ecological processes are perpetuated and restored in as natural condition as possible.Resource impacts or manipulation of resources for visitor or administrative purposes is rare and generally consistent with preserving wilderness character.

Native species, communities and ecological processes are perpetuated and restored in as natural condition as possible. Specific areas are disturbed to accommodate administrative and visitor needs, but resources are protected elsewhere. If resource modification does occur, the goal is to avoid sensitive areas to the extent practical and feasible and focus development in less sensitive areas in this zone.

Wildlife and Vegetation

If development occurs, landscape and habitat areas elsewhere, preferably within the zone, are restored for a “no net green loss” policy. Habitat restoration to provide wildlife corridors could occur in this zone. 

Modification or impacts to native wildlife and vegetation are avoided. Consider relocating or removing current and proposed development to restore wildlife and vegetation. Habitat restoration to provide wildlife corridors could occur in this zone. 

Modification or impacts to native wildlife and vegetation are avoided. Consider relocating or removing current development to restore wildlife and vegetation. The minimum requirements analysis is required in designated and eligible wilderness.

If development occurs, landscape and habitat areas are restored elsewhere, preferably within the zone, for a “no net green loss” policy. 

Geology and Soils

Geologic features and soils are protected and geologic processes continue. Consider relocating or removing development (reroute roads, trails, and parking). Facilities and infrastructure provide visitor access to geologic resources and could impact those resources that are non-sensitive. Some nonsensitive areas are disturbed to facilitate visitor access, but resources are protected elsewhere in the zone.

Geologic features and soils are protected and geologic processes continue. Consider relocating or removing development (reroute roads, trails, and parking). 

Geologic features and soils are protected and geologic processes 

continue. Consider relocating or removing development (reroute roads, trails, and parking). The minimum requirements analysis is required in designated and eligible wilderness.

Geologic features and soils are protected and geologic processes continue. Consider relocating or removing development (reroute roads, trails, and parking). Some nonsensitive areas are disturbed to support park administration and facilitate visitor access, but resources are protected elsewhere in the zone.
90 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Table 3.1. 

Management Z

ones

Category Visitor Services Zone Transitional/ Semi-primitive Zone Wild/Primitive Zone Park Support Zone

Soundscapes Natural sounds are generally audible, 

but sounds from park activities and visitors dominate during the day. New facilities are sited and designed to minimize impacts on the acoustical environment.

Natural sounds dominate, but sounds from visitor and park operations may be heard. New facilities are sited and designed to minimize impacts on the acoustical environment.

Natural sounds dominate, but distant artificial sounds may be heard in some areas of the zone.New installations are sited and designed to minimize impacts on the acoustical environment. The minimum requirements analysis is required in designated and eligible wilderness.

Natural sounds are generally audible, but sounds from park activities and visitors dominate during the day. New facilities are sited and designed to minimize impacts on the acoustical environment.

Natural Lightscapes

A natural lightscape can be experienced at certain locations within this zone. Permanent artificial lighting is minimized and retrofitted to be Dark Sky compliant, which would restore views of night sky and minimize impacts to nocturnal wildlife . New facilities are sited and designed, and existing facilities retrofitted, to minimize intrusions to the night sky.

Natural lightscape is largely unobscured. Lighting from developed areas may be visible from certain locations. Permanent artificial lighting is minimal and would be Dark Sky compliant. Permanent artificial lighting is retrofitted to restore views of night sky and to minimize impacts to nocturnal wildlife. New facilities are sited, designed, and existing facilities retrofitted, to minimize intrusions to night sky.

The natural lightscape is unobscured, with the exception of personal lighting. No permanent lighting is present though distant lighting may be visible from certain locations. Public enjoyment and understanding of natural lightscapes is encouraged. The minimum requirements analysis is required in designated and eligible wilderness.

A natural lightscape can be experienced at certain locations.Permanent artificial lighting is minimized and would be Dark Sky compliant. Permanent lighting is retrofitted to restore views of night sky and minimize impacts to nocturnal wildlife. New facilities are sited and designed, and existing facilities retrofitted, to minimize intrusions to the night sky.

Sensitive Species and Natural Resources

All sensitive species and resources are perpetuated and restored in as natural condition as possible. Visitor access may be limited as needed. If administrative/visitor facilities are destroyed by natural elements in sensitive areas, they may not necessarily be replaced in their existing location.

All sensitive species and resources are perpetuated and restored in as natural condition as possible. Visitor access may be limited as needed. If administrative/visitor facilities are destroyed by natural elements in sensitive areas, they may not necessarily be replaced in their existing location. 

All sensitive species and resources are perpetuated and restored in as natural condition as possible. Visitor access may be limited as needed. If administrative or visitor facilities are destroyed by natural elements in sensitive areas, they may not necessarily be replaced in their existing location. The minimum requirements analysis is required in designated and eligible wilderness.

All sensitive species and resources are perpetuated and restored in as natural condition as possible. If administrative or visitor facilities are destroyed by natural elements in sensitive areas, they may not necessarily be replaced in their existing location. 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 91 

Table 3.1. 

Management Z

ones

Category Visitor Services Zone Transitional/ Semi-primitive Zone Wild/Primitive Zone Park Support Zone

CULTURAL RESOURCES

Overall Conditions Cultural sites are protected and 

interpreted in a manner that reflects the high visitor use of this zone. Key cultural sites related to specific themes may be featured and actively interpreted. Traditional cultural practices are facilitated as allowed by NPS policy and regulations.Small-scale exhibits of cultural resources (temporary, low-impact facilities) are appropriate in this zone.

Cultural sites are protected and may be interpreted to facilitate public understanding and preservation. Key cultural sites related to specific themes may be featured and actively interpreted. Traditional cultural practices are facilitated as allowed by NPS policy and regulations.

Cultural sites are part of the wild character of this zone and are protected and interpreted consistent with wilderness values.Traditional cultural practices are allowed as by NPS policy and regulations.

Cultural sites are protected and interpreted in a manner that reflects the primary administrative and operational use of this zone.Traditional cultural practices are facilitated as allowed by NPS policy and regulations.

ArcheologicalResources

Archeological resources are inventoried and protected, which is key to informing management decisions and determining a protection strategy that is consistent with the primary visitor use of this zone. Archeological sites are interpreted on-site, where appropriate. Archeological sites in areas of high visitation may require a higher degree of protection and monitoring to minimize impacts to those resources.

Archeological resources are inventoried and protected, which is key to informing management decisions and determining a protection strategy that is consistent with the transitional/semi-primitive use of this zone. Archeological sites are interpreted on-site, where appropriate. Archeological sites in areas of high visitation may require a higher degree of protection and monitoring to minimize impacts to those resources.

Archeological resources are inventoried and protected, which is key to informing management decisions and determining a protection strategy that is consistent with wilderness character and values. Archeological sites are primarily interpreted to visitors off-site. The minimum requirements analysis is required in designated and eligible wilderness.

Archeological resources are inventoried and protected, which is key to informing management decisions and determining a protection strategy that is consistent with the primary administrative and operational use of this zone. Archeological sites are primarily interpreted to visitors off-site.

Historic Structuresand Features

Historic structures and features are inventoried and monitored, and may be actively interpreted in place, compatible with the historic character of the site. Historic structures are adaptively reused for visitor and administrative use.Historic roads and trails are typically used and maintained for their historic and scenic values. 

Historic structures and features are inventoried and monitored, and may be actively interpreted in place, compatible with the historic character of the site. Historic structures may be adaptively reused for visitor and administrative use. Historic roads and trails are typically used and maintained for their historic and scenic values.

Historic structures and features are inventoried and monitored, and are primarily interpreted off-site. Historic structures are maintained and may be adaptively reused, consistent with wilderness values. Historic routes may be maintained and used for their historic and scenic values, consistent with wilderness character. In designated and eligible wilderness, management actions are consistent with minimum requirements analysis.

Historic structures and features are inventoried and monitored and are primarily interpreted off-site. Historic structures are adaptively reused for visitor and administrative use. Historic roads and trails are typically used and are maintained for their historic 

and scenic values.
92 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Table 3.1. 

Management Z

ones

Category Visitor Services Zone Transitional/ Semi-primitive Zone Wild/Primitive Zone Park Support Zone

Cultural Landscapes Cultural landscapes are inventoried, 

monitored, and maintained. Cultural landscapes may be actively interpreted in place, compatible with the historic character and features of the site.

Cultural landscapes are inventoried, monitored, and maintained. Cultural landscapes may be actively interpreted in place, compatible with the historic character and features of the site.

Cultural landscapes, though typically not prevalent in this zone, are inventoried and monitored. Cultural landscapes are primarily interpreted off-site. In designated and eligible wilderness, management actions are consistent with minimum requirements analysis.

Cultural landscapes are inventoried, monitored, and maintained. Cultural landscapes are primarily interpreted off-site.

Museum Collections Museum collections are curated 

in this zone. They are accessible for research and exhibits and offer opportunities for research and learning. 

Small-scale exhibits of museum collections provide learning opportunities in this zone.

Museum collections are not compatible with this zone.

Museum collections are curated in this zone. They are accessible for research and exhibits and offer opportunities for research and learning. 

Culturally Sensitive Resources 

If natural elements destroy administrative or visitor facilities in sacred areas, they may not necessarily be replaced in their existing location. Further development is limited in recognized sacred areas based on consultation. Rehabilitate landscapes and screen or buffer facilities that are in sacred areas to protect resources and blend into landscape. 

If natural elements destroy facilities in sacred areas, they may not necessarily be replaced in their existing location. Further development is limited in recognized sacred areas based on consultation. Rehabilitate landscapes and screen or buffer facilities that are in sacred areas to protect resources and blend into landscape. 

If natural elements destroy facilities in sacred areas, they may not necessarily be replaced in their existing location. Further development is limited in recognized sacred areas based on consultation. Rehabilitate landscapes, and screen or buffer facilities that are in sacred areas to protect resources and blend into landscape. The minimum requirements analysis is required in designated and eligible wilderness.

If natural elements destroy administrative/visitor facilities in sacred areas, they may not necessarily be replaced in their existing location. Further development is limited in recognized sacred areas based on consultation.Rehabilitate landscapes and screen or buffer facilities that are in sacred areas to protect resources and blend into landscape. 

WILDERNESS

N/A Wilderness character is preserved in 

areas that contain the qualities of wilderness character. 

Wilderness character is preserved in designated and eligible wilderness and in areas that contain the qualities of wilderness character. Cultural sites are protected consistent with law and policy. The minimum requirements analysis is required for all management actions in designated and eligible wilderness. 

N/A
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 93 

Table 3.1. 

Management Z

ones

Category Visitor Services Zone Transitional/ Semi-primitive Zone Wild/Primitive Zone Park Support Zone

VISITOR EXPERIENCE

Overall Conditions This zone is the primary visitor 

use zone. Visitor opportunities, experiences, and services are emphasized with high levels of access to features, resources, and personal services. This zone has capacity for a large number of park visitors and is an access point for park experiences and opportunities. There is high probability of contact with rangers, park staff, and other visitors. Commercial services and concession facilities are readily available in conjunction with the park mission. Appropriate stewardship opportunities (such as removal of kahili ginger and planting natives in and around facilities) may occur in this zone.

In this zone, visitors have more opportunities for less congested or solitary discovery, relaxation, and exploration in a relatively natural environment with limited interpretation, based on time of day. The visitor experience is primarily unstructured, including some self-guided interpretive trails and possibly some guided trails. Facilities are more dispersed. Visitors have the opportunity to be immersed in a particular natural or cultural resource setting. Appropriate commercial services and stewardship opportunities may occur in this zone.

Visitor experience in this zone affords opportunities for personal challenge, self-reliance, self-discovery, and for solitude. Visitors experience a primitive and wild environment that can be hostile and dangerous. In designated wilderness, the visitor experience is consistent with wilderness character—a natural and untrammeled landscape and primitive and unconfined recreation. Visitors have the opportunity to be immersed in a particular natural or cultural resource setting. Stewardship opportunities may occur in this zone.

This zone is managed for limited visitor access to services such as permitting, organized meetings or events, and limited orientation.

Types of Visitor Activities

This zone supports a wide range of visitor activities, opportunities, and services with easy access to recreation, education, and interpretation programming. Activities are available to visitors of all abilities and can include large groups. Typical activities include ranger-led programs, biking, hiking, picnicking, scenic driving, sightseeing, star gazing, camping and overnight stays, lava viewing, birding, educational and stewardship programs, cultural demonstrations, special events, and commercial visitor services activities.

Visitor activities in this zone are primarily self-guided activities with some ranger or commercially guided programs. A medium range of more dispersed activities is available to small and medium groups. Large group use is limited. Typical activities include biking, hiking, equestrian, picnicking, scenic driving, sightseeing, stargazing, camping and overnight stays, lava viewing, birding, educational and stewardship programs, and cultural demonstrations. 

Visitor activities are unstructured, selfguided, and human-powered. This zone supports small groups; large groups are limited. Activities do not degrade the integrity of resources or compromise wilderness values. Visitor use and activities could be controlled to ensure that activities and their intensities are compatible with protecting resource integrity and wilderness values. Typical activities include hiking, camping, backpacking, equestrian, lava viewing, route finding, exploring, and cultural demonstrations, and include some stewardship programs consistent with wilderness values.

This zone supports very limited visitor activities and use.
94 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Table 3.1. 

Management Z

ones

Category Visitor Services Zone Transitional/ Semi-primitive Zone Wild/Primitive Zone Park Support Zone

Interpretation and Education Programming

Visitors have opportunities to connect with the meanings and themes of the park. A wide variety of interpretive methods provide connections between the meanings and values of the resource being highlighted. This zone provides orientation and intensive interpretation that is programmatically accessible with a wide range of media and facilities to support diverse visitor needs. The focus is placed on interpreting, protecting, and preserving geologic, biologic, and cultural resources and emphasizing specific stories or themes. 

Interpretation and education is focused, site-specific, and placebased in this zone. A moderate range of interpretive services, methods, facilities, and programs are available, in keeping with the surrounding environment. The focus is placed on interpreting, protecting, and preserving geologic, biologic, and cultural resources and emphasizing specific stories or themes.Facilities and interpretive infrastructure may primarily be clustered at trailheads and nodes. Waysides and self-guided interpretive trails are characteristic of this zone. 

Interpretation and education is minimal, focused on wilderness values and is mostly self-directed, consistent with wilderness values and minimum requirements analysis. No facility based interpretation occurs in the zone; however, interpretation and education may be provided through off-site materials, such as trail guides.

Interpretive and education programming in this zone occurs primarily in specific facilities designated for this purpose such as the Visitor Emergency Operations Center and the Education Center.

Encounters with Other Visitors

A high level of encounters with other visitors is expected, but concentrations of visitors are managed. Visitors can expect congested experiences during peak visitation hours. A wide range of group sizes, ages, and diverse populations may be accommodated.

A low to moderate level of encounters with other visitors is expected with occasionally high levels of encounters around key destinations or facilities, such as trailheads, or new volcanic activity. Visitors can easily avoid congested experiences, and opportunities for solitude are available with minimal effort in this zone. Small to moderate group sizes may be accommodated.

Encounters with other visitors are rare, occurring most likely around designated campsites, cabins, and wilderness trailheads. This zone offers for the highest level of solitude, accommodating small group sizes. 

A low level of encounters with other visitors is expected. Encounters are primarily around facilities and services that do provide some visitor support (e.g., permitting offices).

Safe Visitor Access to Volcanic Events

This zone supports the highest level of visitor access that provides safe viewing. Access to volcanic events for visitors is made available as quickly as possible with an appropriate level of visitor orientation. This zone also supports the highest level of operational support as well. 

This zone could support a high level of visitor access to volcanic events, depending on proximity to existing infrastructure such as roads and trails. New visitor access to volcanic events could be accommodated, though the level of access provided varies.

Visitor access to volcanic events is heavily dependent on self-reliance and not facilitated with permanent infrastructure by the park. Signs and reflectors could be used as opposed to construction of new trails, roads, and parking. This zone could support a temporary higher level of operations to support visitor access, if feasible. The minimum requirements analysis would be applied in designated and eligible wilderness.

Visitor access that provides safe viewing for visitors could be accommodated in this zone.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 95 

Table 3.1. 

Management Z

ones

Category Visitor Services Zone Transitional/ Semi-primitive Zone Wild/Primitive Zone Park Support Zone

SCIENCE, RESEARCH, AND LEARNING

Overall Condition Research is encouraged and 

manipulative research or permanent structures may be allowed with appropriate orientation and consultation. Public safety hazard monitoring instrumentation and equipment could be in this zone. Learning occurs in indoor and outdoor classrooms, emphasizing a hands-on experience with the resource and including stewardship projects (field labs, outdoor classroom). Information sharing and collaborative efforts among disciplines and partners are focused and coordinated in this zone.

Research is encouraged and manipulative research or permanent structures may be allowed with appropriate orientation and consultation. Public safety hazard monitoring instrumentation and equipment could be in this zone. Learning occurs in outdoor classrooms away from high-density visitor use areas and emphasizes a hands-on experience with the resource, including stewardship projects (field labs, outdoor classroom). Information sharing and collaborative efforts among disciplines and partners are focused and coordinated in this zone.

Research that contributes to understanding and management of wilderness resources and public safety is permitted. Public safety hazard monitoring instrumentation and equipment could be in this zone. Learning occurs in wilderness in smaller groups and emphasizes a hands-on experience with the resource, including stewardship projects and opportunities to learn about wilderness (field labs, outdoor classroom). The minimum requirements analysis would be applied in designated and eligible wilderness.

Research is encouraged and manipulative research or permanent structures may be allowed with appropriate orientation and consultation. Public safety hazard monitoring instrumentation and equipment could be in this zone. Management of documents, research, and learning could occur in this zone. Limited learning opportunities occur in existing park offices and facilities. Information sharing and collaborative efforts among disciplines and partners are focused and coordinated in this zone. 

TYPES OF FACILITIES

Overall Conditions Areas of high-density infrastructure 

occur in this zone.Facilities in this zone support concentrations of park visitors and their diverse needs, such as visitor centers, museum, interpretive waysides, picnic areas, developed campgrounds, parking lots, and staging areas, and include commercial facilities such as lodging, food services, gift shops, bookstores. Some administrative and park operational facilities may exist in this zone, such as administrative offices and curatorial storage. All facilities are mixed within open space and natural settings. Adaptive reuse of historic buildings and structures could occur. Alternative energy or water treatment facilities could also be used as interpretive elements in this zone.

Facilities in this zone support visitor interaction with resources such as trails, campgrounds with minimal services, picnic areas, wayside exhibits, water tanks, boardwalks, turnouts, storage sheds or caches, small transit shelters, overlooks, and benches. Temporary facilities needed to address changing conditions (e.g., new lava flows) and could include ranger contact stations, emergency services, and research installations. Facilities conform to the natural surroundings and do not dominate the landscape. Facilities are limited and dispersed, predominately clustered at trailheads and nodes. Temporary, small-scale commercial facilities that support operational needs may be present, compatible with the visitor experience. Adaptive reuse of historic buildings and structures could occur.

Facilities are very minimal and are consistent with wilderness character. In designated wilderness, facilities must be consistent with the minimum requirements analysis. Types of facilities could include trails, composting toilets, water catchments, and temporary structures to support research and resource management activities.

Areas of high-density infrastructure occur in this zone.Limited visitor service facilities may exist in this zone, such as backcountry permitting. Facilities in this zone 

primarily support park operations, such as administrative offices, monitoring and research, maintenance, energy infrastructure, utilities, park housing, storage, and parking. Partner research facilities are part of this zone, as well as administrative aviation facilities (helipads). All facilities are mixed within open space and natural settings. Adaptive reuse of historic buildings and structures could occur.
96 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Table 3.1. 

Management Z

ones

Category Visitor Services Zone Transitional/ Semi-primitive Zone Wild/Primitive Zone Park Support Zone

TRANSPORTATION AND ACCESS

Overall Conditions Access throughout this zone 

uses a full range of multi-modal transportation options (hiking, biking, equestrian, vehicles, and public transit (Hele-On)). Some areas in this zone may have limited or restricted access which may be temporary or permanent (i.e., for research, housing, sensitive resources, or administration). Roads are prevalent and accommodate a high density of travelers; roads are wider, typically a two-lane road, and provide a less-intimate driving experience (such as Crater Rim Drive or Highway 11). Paved and unpaved trails, including multi-use trails, allow for mechanized and nonmechanized use. This zone provides linkages to areas and transit outside the park. Aircraft use is allowed for administrative purposes for resource and visitor protection.

A range of multi-modal (foot, bicycle, motorized, transit) transportation options exist, but emphasis is on smaller vehicles and nonmotorized access (biking, hiking, pedestrian, equestrian). Roads, including administrative roads, are very limited in this zone and accommodate a lower density of travelers. The road character is narrow, sometimes one-lane, and creates an intimate driving experience (such as Hilina Pali Road, Mauna Loa Road). Emphasis is on maintaining the historic character of the roads. Primarily unpaved trails and some paved trails (including multi-use trails) allow for mechanized and non-mechanized use. This zone provides linkages to areas and transit outside the park. Aircraft use is allowed for administrative purposes for resource and visitor protection.

Access throughout this zone is primarily by foot or equestrian (trails allow for nonmechanized use). No new roads are developed. Existing unpaved roads may be maintained for occasional administrative access including research. In designated wilderness, the maintenance of trails and existing roads must be consistent with the minimum requirements analysis. Unpaved, multi-use trails (equestrian, pedestrian) occur in this zone. Bicycles will not be allowed on trails, consistent with wilderness policy. Aircraft use is allowed for administrative purposes for resource and visitor protection, following minimum requirements analysis where necessary.

Access throughout this zone uses multi-modal (foot, bicycle, motorized, transit) transportation options and focuses on park employees and partners. Visitor access may be limited or restricted. Roads are prevalent in this zone. Road character may vary from typical two-lane roads to less developed administrative roads, possibly one-lane service roads. Paved and unpaved trails, including multi-use trails, are primarily for administrative use and allow for mechanized and nonmechanized use. Aircraft use is allowed for administrative purposes for resource and visitor protection.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 97 

ACTIONS COMMON TO 

ALL ALTERNATIVES

The following section includes management 

guidance, desired conditions, and actions that 

would apply to all alternatives (Alternatives 

1–3). This section describes guidance the park 

would follow under this plan, regardless of 

which alternative is selected.

Natural and Cultural 

Resource Management

• The park would continue to 

protect and provide access to the 

iconic places, volcanic processes, 

and experiences that the park 

is known for—volcanic features 

and active eruption sites, endemic 

species, evolutionary and ecological 

processes, traditional Hawaiian 

culture, and historic properties.

• Native species, communities, and 

ecological processes would be 

perpetuated and restored in as 

natural condition as possible.

• The National Park Service would 

continue to rely on the best available 

science to guide management actions 

so as to minimize impacts to park 

resources and visitor experience and 

as required by policy and law.

• Park management actions would 

continue to recognize the sacredness 

of the park to Native Hawaiians, 

notably Kīlauea and Mauna Loa 

Volcanoes, important to the Native 

Hawaiian sense of identity, unity, and 

continuance. Pelehonuamea, more 

widely known as Pele, is the deity of 

the volcano. The literal meaning of 

Pelehonuamea is lava earth matter; 

hence lava is a manifestation of the 

deity. She is the creative force that 

provides the land that we need to live.

• Restoration activities would 

emphasize restoring native 

ecosystems, and the recovery of rare 

species (including endangered and 

threatened species) and biological 

diversity of native species. Specific 

activities include fencing and 

nonnative ungulate removal; control 

of other invasive nonnative plant 

and animal species; reintroducing, 

augmenting, and otherwise bolstering 

native species; and monitoring to 

assess both short and long-term 

management impacts. 

• Restoration activities would continue 

to be implemented consistent 

with the park’s Final Plan/EIS for 

Protecting and Restoring Native 

Ecosystems by Managing Nonnative 

Ungulates (2013).

• The park would also consider 

additional techniques for 

establishing native species and plant 

communities, such as mechanized 

tools or prescribed fire to stimulate 

native species recovery and remove 

invasive species in severely degraded 

areas, such as those provided in the 

Fire Management Plan (2007) and 

Kahuku Pasture Restoration Plan / 

Environmental Assessment (currently 

in progress). The park would 

continue to provide opportunities 

for communities, visitors, and school 

groups to volunteer on restoration 

projects in the park, notably at 

Kahuku. The park would also 

continue to coordinate activities with 

members of Three Mountain Alliance 

and other partners on research and 

restoration measures, including 

reintroduction activities.

• The park would continue to improve 

interpretation and preservation of 

Kealakomowaena and its resources 

by implementing recommendations 

from the Archeological Preservation 

Plan for Kealakomo Ahupua‘a

(January 2011) in a phased approach, 

including primary messages and 

themes for interpretive trails and 

signage, sites to be interpreted, site 

preparation required to mitigate 

impacts to sensitive resources, and 

guidance for managing natural and 

cultural resources in the area.
98 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

• The park would continue to 

collaborate with and engage 

other partners in monitoring and 

protecting of terrestrial, coastal, and 

marine resources. The park would 

continue to maintain formal and 

informal partnerships in support 

of broader landscape protection, 

including Three Mountain Alliance, 

the largest land partnership in the 

state of Hawai‘i.

• Use of personal lighting (flashlights) 

would be limited when required for 

safe movement and work and/or 

modified (such as using red or blue 

light bulbs as opposed to white) to 

protect wildlife.

• Traditional cultural practices would 

be facilitated as allowed by NPS

policy and regulations.

• Shoreline resources that the park 

manages above the high water mark 

would be perpetuated and restored 

in as natural condition as possible, 

while acknowledging that some 

ethnographic use of nonsensitive 

shoreline resources may be allowed.

Visitor Experience—Recreation, 

Interpretation, and Education

• The park would strive to provide 

high-quality visitor experiences, 

and visitors would continue to 

be offered a menu of options 

depending on length of stay, interests, 

and capabilities. 

• Visitors would continue to 

experience the park’s world 

treasures, iconic landscapes, and 

other significant highlights. 

• Continue existing recreation 

opportunities such as camping, 

picnicking, hiking, biking, 

equestrian use, and viewing lava, 

scenery, and wildlife.

• Continue to provide a variety 

of interpretive and educational 

programs, events, and guest 

speakers to engage park visitors and 

diverse audiences.

• Continue to maintain the 

Kūlanaokuaiki Campground as a 

frontcountry campground with less 

than ten sites and a vault toilet, i.e. no 

water. (Kūlanaokuaiki Campground 

was constructed in 1999 to replace 

the Kipuka Nēnē Campground, 

which had to be closed due to 

conflicts with the endangered nēnē.)

• Over time and with adequate funding 

for staff and infrastructure, strive to 

expand recreation opportunities at 

Kahuku and provide public access 

seven days a week.

• Update the park’s Accessibility 

Plan to help prioritize and locate 

accessibility improvements.

• Continue to make accessibility 

improvements to park facilities, 

such as campgrounds, trails, and 

overlooks, as feasible.

• Continue to rehabilitate and interpret 

the historic Civilian Conservation 

Corps (CCC) shelter and footprints 

in the Ka‘ū Desert area.

• Establishment of the Ala Kahakai 

National Historic Trail in November 

2000 included approximately 27 

miles of trail segments along the coast 

in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park. 

The park would continue to work 

with Ala Kahakai National Historic 

Trail staff to sign and interpret those 

trail segments through the park.

Facilities

• Continue to maintain trails 

and provide visitor facility 

improvements as needed.

• Continue to manage the 2.8 miles 

of Crater Rim Drive between the 

entrance station and Jaggar Museum, 

consistent with the Crater Rim 

Drive Rehabilitation Environmental 

Assessment (May 2010).

• Continue to provide vehicular 

access along the rest of the open 

section of Crater Rim Drive (from 

entrance station to Chain of Craters 

Road junction).
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: 

Alternatives | 99 

• Continue to provide vehicular access 

along Chain of Craters Road from 

Kīlauea summit to the ocean and 

maintain the character of the road 

to NPS standards.

• Kilauea Military Camp would 

continue to operate in the park under 

permit as a military recreation facility 

for the duration of the existing special 

use permit. The park would continue 

to coordinate with Kilauea Military 

Camp on natural and cultural 

resource protection, including the List of Classified Structures eligible 

for the national register, and to 

interpret the park’s military and 

KMC history, including the World 

War II Japanese internment and 

prisoner of war (POW) history.

• When the special use permit for 

Kilauea Military Camp expires in 

2021, the National Park Service 

would review existing laws, policies, 

authorities, and park goals to (1) 

assess the appropriateness and/or 

necessity of the commercial services 

provided by Kilauea Military Camp 

and their alignment with the goals 

and strategies identified by this CSS

and the GMP, and (2) to determine 

or reaffirm the appropriate authority 

by which these commercial services 

should be authorized to operate, such 

as whether or not the operation could 

occur under a special use permit or 

lease or some other legal instrument. 

•If the permitted military recreation 

operations at Kilauea Military Camp 

are discontinued, the land will revert 

to the exclusive use of the National 

Park Service. The National Park 

Service would prepare a master plan 

to explore options for the site such as: 

adaptively reusing the site for the park 

main visitor center, a multiagency 

research and education campus, 

converting the site to a commercial 

visitor services operation under a 

concession contract, or leasing to or 

otherwise authorizing the use of the 

facilities by a noncommercial visitor 

service tenant, such as a nonprofit. Nonhistoric structures could be 

removed and areas of native forest 

and habitat restored.

• When the cooperating association 

agreement with the Volcano 

Art Center expires in 2014, the National Park Service would review 

existing laws, policies, authorities, 

and park goals to:

1. assess the appropriateness and/

or necessity of the commercial 

service and its alignment with 

the goals and strategies identified 

by this CSS and the general 

management plan; and

2. to determine or reaffirm the 

appropriate legislative authority 

by which the commercial service 

should operate.

•If the Volcano Art Center Gallery 

were to relocate, the National Park 

Service would consider the following 

options for the 1877 Volcano House, 

the first hotel on the rim of Kīlauea 

that was relocated next to the visitor 

center in 1921, (not in priority 

order): continue to maintain and 

adaptively reuse the building for 

continued visitor services, including 

potential commercial services, 

evaluate restoring the building to 

its original layout and developing a 

living history demonstration with 

period furnishings and interpretive 

programs and media, examine 

adaptively reusing the building for 

additional self-guided interpretive 

visitor services and as a staging area 

for educational groups, or lease to or 

otherwise authorize the use of the 

facility by a noncommercial visitor 

service tenant, such as a nonprofit.
100 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Research

• The park would continue park 

research efforts and collaboration 

with partners and continue to 

support independent research under 

the NPS permitting system consistent 

with NPS Management Policies 2006. 

Particular emphasis would be placed 

on research related to volcanology 

and geologic processes, ecology 

and evolutionary processes, biology 

of rare plant and animal species, 

invasive species and their impacts, 

weather and climate change, air 

quality, archeology, history, and 

traditional cultural properties.

• Hawaiian Volcano Observatory 

(HVO) would continue to operate 

out of its present location adjacent 

to Jaggar Museum.

Wilderness

• Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

would continue to manage designated 

and eligible wilderness consistent 

with NPS management policies and 

the Wilderness Act. The park would 

continue to manage proposed eligible 

wilderness in upper Kahuku for its 

wilderness qualities.

• The minimum requirements analysis 

would continue to be completed as 

required for all management actions 

in designated and eligible wilderness.

Park Operations

• The park would continue to 

maintain the existing park entrance 

off Highway 11 for both public and 

administrative use. A second entrance 

off Highway 11 near the intersection 

of Mauna Loa Road would continue 

to be used for administrative 

use and to address safety and 

emergency concerns.

• Aircraft use would continue to be 

allowed for administrative purposes 

throughout the park and minimum 

requirements analysis would be used 

when appropriate, as outlined in the 

Draft Mission Critical Administrative 

Aviation Plan/Environmental 

Assessment (Park 2014).

• Continue to consult with the 

Kalapana community about 

issues and projects in the 

Kalapana Extension.

Boundary

• The park would seek legislation to 

include ‘Ōla‘a within the legislated 

park boundary. ‘Ōla‘a is comprised of 

two tracts of land noncontiguous to 

the park boundary totaling 9,654.67 

(9,684.5)19

 acres and has already been 

managed by the park since 1952.

• In accordance with the park’s 1975 

Master Plan, the park would seek 

to acquire the Great Crack parcels 

(1,951 acres) to the south of the 

Kīlauea Unit. No legislation would 

be needed for acquisition of these 

parcels contiguous to the boundary; 

however, acquisition by the National 

Park Service would be restricted to a 

willing seller purchase only.

19 Determining acreage at Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park is a complex process by which varying sources provide 

different estimations of total acreage. Unless otherwise 

specified, acreage listed in this document includes two 

numbers: the first is the official acreage derived from deeds of 

conveyance to the United States and County/State tax assessor 

records, the sum total of which constitute the official NPS 

acreage for the park. (The official park acreage is maintained 

by the NPS Land Resource Division, WASO.) The second (listed 

in parentheses) is an estimation generated by GIS software 

that uses projections on the land to calculate acreage within 

geographically defined boundaries. When available and 

appropriate, both numbers are included in this GMP/WS/

EIS because deed/tax assessor estimates, which are used 

in legislation and policy for the park, do not exist for some 

areas in the park, such as those acres analyzed for wilderness 

eligibility in the Kahuku Unit.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 101 

Additional Guidance for 

Alternatives—Need for Flexibility

Situated on two active volcanoes, the need 

for flexibility in managing Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park is great. Nature is dynamic and 

volcanic eruptions are possible at any time. 

Planning for a national park unit in this type 

of unpredictable environment presents both 

challenges and opportunities and requires 

flexibility in how the park may respond to 

different scenarios.

Actual management decisions will likely be 

guided by the magnitude of an individual 

event. Rather than provide specific 

recommendations in the GMP for how 

the park may respond to a given event, the 

planning team developed some general 

guidance for managers facing volcanic 

activity in the future. The need for this 

type of flexible management guidance is 

most notable with respect to facilities and 

infrastructure in the park.

Continuing to replace facilities that could 

be destroyed within a few years of being 

rebuilt is not necessarily fiscally sound or 

a good public investment, especially when 

other options for replacing structures or 

the functions provided by structures exists. 

However, the park may choose to repair or 

replace a high value structure that incurs light 

damage. A lower value facility that sustains 

more significant damage may not be rebuilt or 

replaced. Decisions about individual facilities 

will in large part be guided by the park’s asset 

management plan.

In addition to buildings, other infrastructure, 

such as roads, are vulnerable to volcanic and 

seismic activity. There are very few roads 

in the park and visitors rely on them for 

experiencing the park’s various environments 

and features. Closing a road may result in 

measurable impacts to communities, visitors, 

and park operations; therefore, replacing 

a road or maintaining vehicular access to 

certain areas may be a viable and sound 

management decision.

Rather than attach potential scenarios to 

individual alternatives about what park 

management might undertake if a specific 

building or road were impacted by volcanic or 

seismic activity, the planning team developed 

three broad strategies to consider.

1. designing new facilities that could be 

mobile and moved out of harm’s way 

(similar to the movable visitor contact 

station proposed near the end of 

Chain of Craters Road);

2. adaptively reusing existing 

buildings in the park to replace lost 

functionality so new construction 

may not be needed; and

3. determining that some buildings 

would not be rebuilt within the park 

if they are significantly damaged 

or destroyed. The park and its 

partners would strive to replace 

necessary functionality provided 

by lost facilities in less vulnerable 

or culturally sensitive locations 

outside the park.

The following general guidance is also 

provided for several specific areas within 

the park. The guidance for these locations 

should also serve as examples of the types 

of solutions the park might consider for 

responding to different events in other 

areas of the park.

VOLCANO HOUSESM

If the Volcano HouseSM is destroyed or 

significantly damaged, the National Park 

Service would consider either rebuilding the 

lodging facility inside the park as close to the 

present location as is safe or not rebuilding 

Volcano HouseSM on the rim of the crater 

but rather relying on lodging outside the 

park in adjacent communities. Rebuilding 

the facility in the park would allow the 

National Park Service to continue to provide 

an overnight volcano experience to visitors 

and maintain the tradition of lodging at the 

summit of Kīlauea which dates back to 1848. 

Relying on lodging outside the park would 

reduce the amount of infrastructure the park 

needs to maintain and would provide more 
102 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

opportunities for the adjacent communities 

to benefit from the revenue generated 

by park visitors.

JAGGAR MUSEUM AND THE HAWAIIAN 

VOLCANO OBSERVATORY 

If Jaggar Museum and the Hawaiian Volcano 

Observatory facilities are destroyed or 

significantly damaged, the National Park 

Service would consider three options:

• Repair or rebuild Jaggar and HVO in 

the current location to the greatest 

extent possible. Keeping the facilities 

on the edge of Kīlauea Caldera and 

in close proximity to Halema‘uma‘u 

Crater continues the link between 

science and visitor interpretation 

which has been instrumental at 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park. 

Both buildings also have their own 

cultural significance with the site. 

• Explore alternative locations, 

preferably inside the park and off the 

crater edge and Uwekahuna Bluff 

but still within Kīlauea Caldera, to 

maintain continuity for the historic 

visitor experience and scientific 

operations as much as possible.

• Remove all facilities from the edge 

of Kīlauea Caldera, and specifically 

Uwekahuna Bluff, restore the site as 

a sacred place to Native Hawaiians, 

and strive to rebuild the functions 

provided by Jaggar Museum and 

HVO in a less culturally sensitive 

location, outside the park. The 

park and USGS would maintain the 

minimum amount of instrumentation 

and infrastructure necessary for 

monitoring volcanic activity, but 

offices and other components of 

HVO would be relocated outside the 

park. The visitor exhibits provided by 

Jaggar Museum would preferably be 

relocated to other buildings within 

the park, but could be combined with 

a new HVO facility, depending on 

location and proximity to the park.

HILINA PALI AND MAUNA LOA ROADS 

Should Hilina Pali Road or Mauna Loa Road 

be impassible due to volcanic or seismic 

activity, the National Park Service would 

consider the following three options: (1) 

maintaining and restoring road access to 

the historic features such as the Hilina Pali 

Overlook or Mauna Loa Observatory (2) 

converting the former road into a trail for 

pedestrians and/or bicycles, and (3) evaluating 

the areas for potential wilderness designation.

CHAIN OF CRATERS ROAD

A 5.5 mile segment of the Chain of Craters 

Road that ran through the park towards 

Kalapana was buried by lava flows generated 

by Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō. Due to a change in the direction 

of the lava flow in 2014, an unpaved 

emergency access route was constructed 

following the historic road alignment. 

This route is for emergency access only. 

When this route is no longer needed for 

emergency access, it would be used as an 

equestrian, biking, and hiking trail (similar 

in character and functionality to the Escape 

Road from the summit to Mauna Ulu) to 

provide a quality non-motorized visitor use 

opportunity and future emergency route 

without compromising natural values and 

without adding the management complexity 

of managing a coastal entrance for public 

vehicles to enter the park.

ALTERNATIVE 1: 

NO-ACTION ALTERNATIVE

Description of Alternative

Under Alternative 1, existing programming, 

facilities, staffing, and funding would generally 

continue at current levels to protect the 

values of Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park. 

There would be no major changes in current 

management or visitor use. Implementation of 

currently approved plans would continue as 

funding allows. This alternative provides the 

baseline for evaluating actions and impacts in 

other alternatives.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 103 

Management Zones Applied to the 

No-action Alternative

Alternative 1 would continue to use the 

three management zones developed in the 

1975 master plan for the park. These zones 

include: (1) Primary Use Zone, (2) Wilderness 

Threshold Zone, and (3) Backcountry Zone. 

Because the Kahuku Unit was not owned or 

managed by the National Park Service at the 

time the 1975 master plan was completed, 

none of these management zones would 

be applied to this unit of the park under 

Alternative 1. Rather, the park would continue 

to manage Kahuku under the interim guidance 

which does not utilize zoning within its suite 

of management tools.

The specific configurations of the 

management zones for Alternative 1 are 

provided in Figure 3.1. Management Zones for 

Alternative 1, Full Park.

PRIMARY USE ZONE

The Primary Use Zone would serve as 

the center for visitor and management 

activities and would provide the most 

accessible facilities and intensive interpretive 

opportunities for visitors. Facilities in this 

zone would provide a brief glimpse of the 

park’s attractions, make detailed information 

available for those who wish to spend longer 

periods of time in the park, and provide a 

variety of overnight accommodations for 

visitors, including facilities like Volcano 

HouseSM, the cabins at Nāmakanipaio, and 

frontcountry campgrounds. Areas within 

this zone would include Crater Rim Drive 

and Kīlauea Crater, Chain of Craters Road 

corridor, the Kalapana Coast, and the small 

tract of ‘Ōla‘a.

WILDERNESS THRESHOLD ZONE

The management intent of this zone would 

be to provide a more intimate experience for 

visitors to the park who would have more 

time and energy to enjoy the attractions than 

the average visitor. Interpretation would be 

low-key in this zone and predominantly of 

a self-guiding nature. Access into this zone 

and its development would be on gravel or 

more narrow roads that have been designed 

to retain an intimate association with the 

environment, rather than solely provide 

access. Areas within this zone would include 

Hilina Pali Road, backcountry trailheads along 

the Chain of Craters Road, and the Mauna 

Loa Road corridor.

BACKCOUNTRY ZONE

The management intent of this zone is 

to provide visitors with opportunities 

to connect with the unique resources at 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park. Visited 

less intensively than other zones in the 

park, the Backcountry Zone would provide 

unique opportunities to visitors who have 

considerably more time and energy to spend 

within the park than the average visitor. This 

management zone would be the largest in 

the park and would encompass the Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes Wilderness (which includes the 

Ka‘ū Desert, East Rift, Mauna Loa, and 

‘Ōla‘a Forest wilderness units) as well as all 

coastal lands in the park beyond the Chain of 

Craters Road Corridor.

Site-Specific Management Guidance

The following section presents an overview 

of the management strategies for the noaction alternative for specific areas of Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park.

KĪLAUEA VISITOR CENTER AND 

SURROUNDING AREA

The park would continue to maintain the 

current use and function of buildings with no 

expansion to buildings.
104 | Chapter 3: 

Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Figure 3.1. Management Zones for Alternative 1, Full Park

P A C I F I C O C E A N

UPPER

LOWER

‘ Ō L A ‘ A

M A U N A L O A

K A H U K U

K Ī L A U E A

Figure 3.1 Management Zones for Alternative 1, Full Park

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park GMP/WS/EIS

Hawai‘i Volcanoes

National Park

MAP AREA

μ

Note: Zoning is based on 

the 1975 Master Plan. No 

zoning exists for Kahuku 

under Alternative 1 because this land was not managed 

by the NPS when the 1975 

Master Plan was completed.

Produced by: PWR - Seattle Planning Office

Date Created: June 2014

Data Sources: USGS - Coastline, Roads

 NPS - Management Zones, 

 Park Boundary, Wilderness

Fig. 3.1 MgmtZones Alt.1 Full Park_060514.mxd

0 10

Kilometers

0 5

Miles

Legend

NPS Boundary

Roads

Designated Wilderness

Eligible Wilderness

Primary Use ZoneWilderness Threshold ZoneBackcountry Zone
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 105 

KĪLAUEA VISITOR CENTER— Kīlauea Visitor 

Center is one of two small visitor centers 

and one of the most visited sites in the park. 

In Alternative 1, the park would retain the 

current function of Kīlauea Visitor Center 

as the main park visitor contact station, as 

well as park headquarters and administrative 

offices. The park would continue to upgrade 

Kīlauea Visitor Center, as needed, for building 

maintenance and interpretive exhibits.

VOLCANO HOUSESM— Located on the rim of 

Kīlauea Caldera, the historic 1941 Volcano 

HouseSM provides overnight accommodations, 

food and beverage service, and retail to park 

visitors. Since 1969, the services provided in 

this location have been authorized under a 

concession contract with the Secretary of the 

Interior. Between 2010 and 2012, a number of 

renovations were made by the National Park 

Service to the Volcano HouseSM concession 

facilities, including deferred maintenance 

projects, seismic and fire suppression retrofits, 

and other upgrades related to life, health, 

and safety. Due to the extensive nature of 

this work as well as a concession facility 

improvement program implemented by a 

new concessioner, the National Park Service 

closed the Volcano HouseSM concession 

facilities to the visiting public beginning 

January 1, 2010, and did not re-open it until 

August 2012.102 The Volcano HouseSM now 

has 33 hotel rooms, an approximate 219-seat 

dining room with additional outdoor seating, 

an approximate 58-seat snack bar, a cocktail 

lounge, and a retail sales operation. In 2012, 

the CC-HAVO001-12 concession contract 

for operations at the Volcano HouseSM

was awarded to Hawai‘i Volcanoes Lodge 

Company, LLC, which will expire in 2025. 

Under the no-action alternative, the park 

would continue to operate Volcano HouseSM 

as a concession operation for lodging, retail, 

and food and beverage services. The park 

would also continue to provide interpretive 

and educational programs at the Volcano 

HouseSM as provided by park partners.

102 Re-opening occurred in phases. The retail store 

reopened on August 18, 2012. The Annex reopened on 

March 22, 2013, and the full hotel operations, along with the 

restaurant, bar, and gift shops reopened on May 23, 2013.

1877 VOLCANO HOUSE— The 1877 Volcano 

House, relocated in 1921 to its present 

site adjacent to the visitor center, was the 

first hotel on the rim of Kīlauea. Currently, 

the 1877 Volcano House is occupied by 

the Volcano Art Center, an environmental 

nonprofit organization, who operates 

a fine art gallery under a cooperating 

association agreement.

In Alternative 1, the park would continue the 

current function of 1877 Volcano House as a 

nonprofit educational arts center and would 

continue to interpret the structure as one of 

the early buildings that provided lodging to 

visitors on the summit of Kīlauea, primarily 

through existing waysides. The building would 

be maintained in its present location.

OHIA WING (1932 ADMINISTRATION 

BUILDING)— Under the no-action alternative, 

the park would adaptively reuse the historic 

1932 Ohia Wing (Administration Building) 

as a cultural museum. The Ohia Wing once 

served as the original park headquarters 

building, but was used for lodging from 

1949-2010 and was named the Ohia Wing 

during this period. This action would be 

taken, in part, to replace the function of the 

Waha‘ula Visitor Center, which emphasized 

cultural exhibits but was destroyed by lava 

in 1989. Adaptively reusing the Ohia Wing 

as a museum complements the visitoruse functions of its neighbor, the Kīlauea 

Visitor Center. Due to its associated costs, 

rehabilitating the Ohia Wing may need to be 

phased over time.

CRATER RIM DRIVE

Providing vehicular access along the entire rim 

of Kīlauea Caldera, Crater Rim Drive is the 

most visited corridor in the park and provides 

access to a number of unique volcanic, scenic, 

and cultural features such as Thurston Lava 

Tube and the Steam Vents. Because of eruptive 

activity beginning in 2008 in Halema‘uma‘u 

Crater and the resultant hazardous volcanic 

plume and volcanic gases, the southern 

portion of this historic two-lane road from 

Jaggar Museum to Chain of Craters Road 

intersection has been closed. Most visitors 
106 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

exploring Crater Rim Drive usually drive from 

the visitor center to Jaggar Museum but must 

double back again to view the remaining open 

portion of Crater Rim Drive.

In Alternative 1, the park would continue to 

maintain Crater Rim Drive as a two-way road 

in keeping with its historic character and, if 

and when possible, would reopen the closed 

section for both public and administrative 

use. The park would also continue to evaluate 

the pilot hydrogen shuttle technology. This 

includes the performance of the shuttles that 

will service proposed stops along Crater Rim 

Drive (scheduled to begin in 2015).

HALEMA‘UMA‘U PARKING AND 

OVERLOOK— Considered by Native 

Hawaiians as the home of the deity 

Pelehonuamea, Halema‘uma‘u Crater is a 

culturally recognized sacred site in Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park. However, as 

an accessible crater of an active volcano, 

Halema‘uma‘u has also historically been one 

of the most highly visited locations in the park 

and as such, houses the largest parking lot in 

the park, with 300 spaces. Because of eruptive 

activity beginning in 2008 in Halema‘uma‘u 

Crater and the resultant hazardous volcanic 

plume, this area is currently closed.

In Alternative 1, the park would reopen 

Halema‘uma‘u Overlook and parking lot 

when hazards associated with the volcanic 

plume are diminished and the park 

determines through active monitoring that air 

quality and other hazards are at a level that is 

consistent with general visitor use. This area 

would continue to be used and maintained 

for visitor use.

KILAUEA MILITARY CAMP

Kilauea Military Camp is a Department of 

Army-operated historic recreational complex 

that serves military branch personnel 

(including retired and inactive members), 

their dependents and guests, in addition to 

serving nonprofit educational organizations 

in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park. Spanning 

54 acres, this complex includes 90 rooms 

for overnight accommodations, a cafeteria, 

bar, grocery store, gas station, bowling alley, 

recreation room, exercise facility, conference 

rooms, theater, and bus and van tours for 

guests staying at Kilauea Military Camp, as 

well as other support programs and facilities.

Under the no-action alternative, Kilauea 

Military Camp would continue to operate 

under a special use permit as a military 

recreation facility in park-owned historic 

structures and land for the duration of their 

existing permit. The site would maintain its 

current function as a military morale, welfare, 

and recreation center—a self-supporting 

operation under a Non-Appropriated 

Funding Instrument (NAFI) for active duty 

military and military retirees and their guests.

As such, the park would continue to 

coordinate with Kilauea Military Camp on 

resource protection, particularly historic 

resources on the List of Classified Structures 

and resources eligible for the national register, 

and to interpret the park’s military history 

and the camp’s history, including the World 

War II Japanese internment and POW history. 

The park would work with Kilauea Military 

Camp to develop and implement interpretive 

waysides at Kilauea Military Camp that 

highlight important features and stories.

Kilauea Military Camp would continue to 

be used as a staging and/or parking area for 

special events, such as the park’s Cultural 

Festival, and emergencies.

JAGGAR MUSEUM AND HAWAIIAN 

VOLCANO OBSERVATORY

Jaggar Museum was the first park museum 

in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park and 

continues today as an interpretive visitor 

center on the rim of Kīlauea Crater, 

overlooking Halema‘uma‘u. Considering its 

location, historic significance, and easy access 

for commercial buses, Jaggar is one of the 

most heavily visited places in the park.

Connected to the museum is the Hawaiian 

Volcano Observatory operated by the 

US Geological Survey. Hawaiian Volcano 

Observatory houses scientists, laboratories, 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 107 

offices, and monitoring equipment. As its 

mission, HVO provides timely and effective 

disaster warnings for emergencies to land 

managers and the affected population using 

hazard assessments, research, and monitoring.

In Alternative 1, the park would continue 

its current interpretation at the Jaggar 

Museum, and the Hawaiian Volcano 

Observatory would continue to operate 

adjacent to Jaggar Museum. The park 

would continue to upgrade Jaggar Museum 

as needed for building maintenance and 

interpretive exhibits.

THURSTON LAVA TUBE AND 

SURROUNDING AREA

THURSTON LAVA TUBE (NĀHUKU)— As 

the only publicly accessible lava tube in 

the park, Thurston Lava Tube is one of the 

most congested areas in Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park, and both transportation and 

visitor studies have been conducted recently 

to address this issue.

In the no-action alternative, the park would 

continue to implement recommendations 

from the Thurston Parking Area Improvement 

Project for specific site improvements at 

Thurston Lava Tube. Park staff would 

continue to respond to congestion at 

Thurston Lava Tube as issues arise and as 

staff is available.

The park would implement transportation 

congestion management strategies to improve 

the visitor experience and safety in this area.

Park ranger-guided tours of Pua Po‘o would 

also continue, as staffing and funding permits, 

to provide an additional lava tube experience.

KĪLAUEA IKI, PU‘U PUA‘I, AND 

DEVASTATION— Kīlauea Iki would continue 

to be maintained as a parking lot and 

trailhead to Thurston Lava Tube. The trail 

begins at Kīlauea Iki and provides a half-mile 

walk to Thurston.

Pu‘u Pua‘i would continue to be maintained as 

a parking lot, overlook, and trail connection to 

Devastation Trail and parking lot.

Devastation would continue to be maintained 

as a parking lot and serve as a trailhead for the 

Devastation Trail.

ESCAPE ROAD— The Escape Road offers an 

unimproved road between Highway 11 near 

the junction with Old Volcano Highway, past 

Thurston Lava Tube and down to Mauna Ulu 

on Chain of Craters Road. The Escape Road 

is made up of two historic routes, the upper 

portion of the Keauhou Trail/Road and Lee’s 

Short Cut, and is an escape route in the event 

that Chain of Craters Road is cut off.

The park would continue to maintain the 

Escape Road as an emergency egress route 

and as a trail for pedestrians, bicycles, and 

equestrians. Given that it is comprised of 

two historic routes, the park would not 

significantly alter the route in the course of 

maintenance activities.

CHAIN OF CRATERS ROAD 

The park would continue to maintain the 

character of Chain of Craters Road to NPS

standards, ensuring a park-like feel to the 

driving experience, while providing for visitor 

safety. Chain of Craters Road would continue 

to immerse people in the volcanic landscape 

and history of the area from mauka to makai.

The park would identify and clear overvegetated turnouts to restore views and vistas 

and to encourage stops along the road.

CHAIN OF CRATERS ROAD TO MAUNA 

ULU— Mauna Ulu would continue to be 

maintained as a day use area with parking 

for viewing lava fields and associated lava 

features, as well as the trailhead for Pu‘u 

Huluhulu and Nāpau Crater and campground.

KEALAKOMO— Kealakomo would continue 

to be maintained as a day use area and viewing 

location. In addition, the park would continue 

to improve interpretation and preservation 

of Kealakomowaena, located further down 

Chain of Craters Road, and its resources by 

implementing recommendations from the 

Archeological Preservation Plan for Kealakomo 

Ahupua‘a (Tomonari-Tuggle 2011) (see 

“Common to All Alternatives”).
108 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

END OF CHAIN OF CRATERS ROAD— The 

end of Chain of Craters Road is defined 

as the place where vehicles currently turn 

around before parking. The actual end of the 

pavement is approximately 0.5 mile beyond 

the visitor contact station and provides 

pedestrian access to where the lava flows 

crossed the road.

The park would continue to work with 

partners to provide a sustainable and movable 

visitor contact station at the current end of 

Chain of Craters Road for interpretation 

and safety on a trial basis. If the pilot project 

is successful, the park would retain the 

structure for visitor contact at the end of 

Chain of Craters Road to replace some of the 

functions provided by the Waha‘ula Visitor 

Center, destroyed by lava in 1989. This contact 

station could be relocated along Chain of 

Craters Road if necessary in response to 

volcanic activity.

A 5.5 mile segment of the Chain of Craters 

Road that ran through the park towards 

Kalapana was buried by lava flows generated 

by Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō. Due to a change in the direction 

of the lava flow in 2014, an unpaved 

emergency access route was constructed 

following the historic road alignment. 

This route is for emergency access only. 

When this route is no longer needed for 

emergency access, it would be used as an 

equestrian, biking, and hiking trail (similar 

in character and functionality to the Escape 

Road from the summit to Mauna Ulu) to 

provide a quality non-motorized visitor use 

opportunity and future emergency route 

without compromising natural values and 

without adding the management complexity 

of managing a coastal entrance for public 

vehicles to enter the park.

HILINA PALI ROAD

The Hilina Pali Road is a historic 8.5-mile 

paved one-lane narrow spur road dating from 

the early 1930s. It extends southwest from 

the Chain of Craters Road to a view of the 

Pacific Ocean and Ka’ū Desert wilderness 

unit. The Hilina Pali Road is significant for 

its association with NPS road design and 

construction principles as well as for its NPS

Rustic architectural style. In the no-action 

alternative, the park would maintain the 

existing road width and historic alignment 

indicative of the architecture style. The park 

would also continue to maintain the Hilina 

Pali Lookout, a historic CCC shelter, and 

adjacent trails.

KŪLANAOKUAIKI CAMPGROUND— 

Kūlanaokuaiki Campground was constructed 

in 1999 to replace the Kipuka Nēnē 

Campground, which had to be closed due 

to conflicts with the endangered nēnē. 

The park would maintain Kūlanaokuaiki 

Campground as a frontcountry campground 

as it currently exists with eight sites and a vault 

toilet (no water).

‘ĀINAHOU RANCH HOUSE AND GROUNDS

‘Āinahou Ranch was purchased by National 

Park Service from B. P. Bishop Estate under 

the authority of the Endangered Species 

Conservation Act of 1969 (Public Law 91-

135) for the purpose of protecting, restoring 

and propagating endangered bird species. 

Since then, the area has served an important 

role in the conservation and reestablishment 

of endangered nēnē on the island. In 1995 

the Ranch House was listed in the National 

Register for Historic Places, and in 2004 the 

Cultural Landscape Inventory amended 

the NR nomination to include the gardens 

with concurrence from the State Historic 

Preservation Officer.

In the no-action alternative, ‘Āinahou Ranch 

would continue to provide a management 

area for nēnē recovery. The park would also 

continue to administer the ranch house and 

grounds under the existing interim operating 

plan which emphasized activities necessary for 

maintaining the house and cultural landscape 

in good condition so as not to preclude future 

uses. The water system would be maintained 

for house fire suppression, and the access 

road to ʻĀinahou would be maintained as 

an unpaved road.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 109 

MAUNA LOA ROAD

Mauna Loa Road extends just over 11 

miles, from Highway 11 to an elevation of 

approximately 6,662 feet. A two-lane road 

constitutes the lower 1.5 miles, then the 

upper section of road is a narrow two lane 

road for 2.1 miles at which point it narrows 

further to one-lane (approximately 10 feet 

wide) for the next 7.7 miles. The road ends at 

the Mauna Loa Observatory, a historic CCC 

lookout shelter.

The road has low visitation, so the park would 

maintain the existing road width and historic 

alignment. To address safety issues along the 

one-lane section, the park would improve 

signage and employ other management 

actions, such as adding more turnouts to allow 

for easier passing.

NĀMAKANIPAIO CAMPGROUND— 

Nāmakanipaio Campground would continue 

to be maintained as one of two frontcountry 

campgrounds and would function as the 

primary campground for visitors on the 

summit offering both tent and cabin camping. 

It would be managed for fee camping as part 

of the concession contract with Volcano 

HouseSM and would include retail services at 

the campground.

KA‘Ū FOOTPRINTS AREA AND KA‘Ū DESERT

Ka‘ū Footprints area and Ka‘ū Desert would 

continue to be maintained as a self-guided 

interpretive experience with limited visitation. 

No improvements would be made to 

facilitate public access.

The National Park Service would continue to 

ensure protection and preservation of cultural 

resources while addressing visitor use issues 

(see “Common to All Alternatives”).

‘ŌLA‘A

‘Ōla‘a is composed of two tracts of land 

noncontiguous to the park boundary 

totaling 9,654.67 (9,684.5) acres. This unit, 

though not officially within the boundary of 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, has been 

managed by the park since it was donated to 

the National Park Service in 1952. The park 

would seek legislation to include ‘Ōla‘a within 

the legislated park boundary (see “Common 

to All Alternatives”).

‘ŌLA‘A SMALL TRACT— The small tract of 

‘Ōla‘a is 356.13 (355.9) acres in size and is 

not designated wilderness (as opposed to the 

“large tract”). Currently, visitors accessing the 

small tract informally park along Wright Road 

in Volcano Village.

‘ŌLA‘A LARGE TRACT— The large tract of 

‘Ōla‘a is comprised of 9,298.54 (9,329.5) 

acres of designated wilderness. Under 

Alternative 1, the park would maintain 

custodial responsibility for the large tract of 

‘Ōla‘a. The park would continue to manage 

the large tract for its wilderness values without 

developing trails for day use. There would be 

no on-site guided interpretation or overnight 

camping opportunities, and no improvements 

would be made to facilitate public access. 

Interpretation would occur off-site for this 

wilderness portion of ‘Ōla‘a.

KAHUKU UNIT

In 2003 Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

acquired 115,788 (150,867) acres of land that 

straddles the Southwest Rift Zone of Mauna 

Loa and extends across lava fields, pastures, 

forests, shrubland, mesic, subalpine, alpine, 

and desert environments in the Ka‘ū District 

in Hawai‘i County. Referred to as the Kahuku 

Unit, this acquisition increased the size of the 

park by 38% and essentially doubled the size 

of the park and expanded opportunities for 

visitor use and resource protection. Kahuku 

is noted for its biological diversity, ecological 

integrity, and wild character. Existing park 

management activities in the unit concentrate 

on protecting and recovering native species 

and ecosystems, controlling invasive 

nonnative plants and animals, developing 

interpretive programs, and conducting 

surveys and inventories of cultural and 

natural resources. 
110 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

The Kahuku Unit is currently managed under 

an interim operating plan with limited day use 

visitation on weekends and for special events, 

but over time and with adequate funding for 

staff and infrastructure, the park would open 

this unit seven days a week.

KAHUKU ENTRANCE— The entrance to 

Kahuku is 43 miles to the southwest of the 

main park entrance on Highway 11. The 

existing entrance is a safety concern to the 

park due to its location on a curve with limited 

line-of-sight. Under the no-action alternative, 

the park would maintain the existing entrance 

at Kahuku but address safety issues by 

clearing vegetation, improving signage, and 

possibly lowering existing berms to improve 

the line of sight for drivers, in coordination 

with state highways. The park would also seek 

to collaborate with the state to evaluate and 

add a turn lane.

LOWER KAHUKU— For the purposes of this 

GMP/WS/EIS, lower Kahuku is defined as 

the acreage below a line that is 100 meters 

above the upper most road in the paddock 

system (see Figure 1.5. Existing Conditions, 

Kahuku). Lower Kahuku extends down the 

Southwest Rift Zone of Mauna Loa from this 

line to Highway 11.

DEVELOPED AREA AND USE OF 

EXISTING BUILDINGS

The park would continue to adaptively reuse 

the site for a mix of visitor services and 

administrative and operational use, as needed. 

Some limited use of existing ranch buildings 

would continue.

The park would develop an orientation/ 

interpretive strategy to define and site various 

media to interpret Mauna Loa geologic and 

natural history, native species and forest 

conservation, history of cattle ranching, and 

Native Hawaiian presence in this area. The 

interpretive strategy should also consider the 

broader historical context of Kahuku that 

would include military history, World War II

development, and other themes that could be 

identified through further site investigation.

The park would maintain a single visitor 

contact station in lower Kahuku.

RECREATION ACTIVITIES AND 

VISITOR OPPORTUNITIES

Recreational access at Kahuku would 

continue to be limited to day use only on 

weekends and for special events in the 

short-term; however, the long-term goal 

is to provide access seven days per week. 

Recreational opportunities would include 

sightseeing, picnicking, self-guided hiking, 

bird watching, wildlife viewing, and ranger-led 

programs on biodiversity, conservation, and 

history of the area, among others.

The National Park Service would continue to 

provide for bicycle use on designated roads 

and trails and prohibit or restrict equestrian 

use and overnight camping.

Road Access: The current main road would 

be maintained for vehicle access to Upper 

Glover. Selected unimproved pasture roads 

would be maintained for administrative use, 

and some pasture roads could continue to be 

converted to trails for public access. Any roads 

not used for visitor and/or administrative use 

may be restored to natural conditions and/or 

native communities.

Interpretation would be enhanced along 

the current road system and the park would 

restore the former paddock and pasture 

areas to natural conditions and/or native 

communities, as funding allows.

Trails and Trailheads: Trails at Kahuku 

would be opened primarily for weekend 

use during the day and for special events, 

with the goal of opening seven days a week 

in the long-term. The park would continue 

to convert some old road beds to trails at 

Kahuku, and the trail from Kahuku to ʻAinapō 

could be considered for future use but would 

not be improved.

UPPER KAHUKU— For the purposes of this 

GMP/WS/EIS, upper Kahuku is defined as the 

acreage above a line that is 100 meters above 

the upper most road in the paddock system. 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 111 

Upper Kahuku extends up the Southwest Rift 

Zone of Mauna Loa (see Figure 1.5. Existing 

Conditions, Kahuku).

In Alternative 1, the park would seek to 

manage upper Kahuku for its wilderness 

characteristics based on its determination of 

eligibility. There would be no public vehicular 

access above Upper Glover, though vehicular 

access for administrative use and emergencies 

would be allowed on existing roads.

RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES AND 

VISITOR OPPORTUNITIES

Under the no-action alternative, the area 

above Upper Glover would remain closed to 

public access because of safety concerns and 

to limit the spread of harmful invasive plants 

and animals, such as argentine ants which 

threaten the park’s high-altitude ecosystems. 

The road above Upper Glover is rugged and 

lacks adequate infrastructure to support 

public vehicular access. There would also not 

be adequate staff or vehicles to adequately 

patrol the area which is a remote part of the 

park. There would be no opportunities for 

recreation and visitor use in upper Kahuku. 

Upper Kahuku would be managed for its 

wilderness characteristics.

Boundary Modifications

Under the no-action alternative, Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park would seek 

legislation to include ‘Ōla‘a within the official 

park boundary. Donated to the National Park 

Service in 1952 via the Hawai‘i Territorial 

Executive Order 1540, ‘Ōla‘a is geographically 

separated from the rest of the park by Volcano 

Village and has therefore never been formally 

designated as part of Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park. Language in the 1938 

legislation for the park stated that Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park could acquire lands 

only if “adjacent and contiguous” to park 

boundaries. However, the unit is managed 

by park administrators for its valuable forest 

habitat and presence of endemic and/or 

rare and endangered species. In addition, in 

accordance with the park’s 1975 Master Plan, 

the park would continue to seek acquisition of 

the Great Crack parcels (1,951 acres), located 

to the south of the Kīlauea Unit. No legislation 

would be needed for acquisition of these 

parcels contiguous to the boundary; however, 

acquisition by the National Park Service 

would be restricted to a willing seller purchase 

only. This means that the seller would be 

willing to sell and adequate funds would be 

available to support the purchase.

Program Specific 

Management Guidance

The following section presents an overview of 

management strategies for program areas at 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park.

Although this plan separates resource 

protection into discrete categories of natural 

and cultural resources, park management 

recognizes that these resources are 

inextricably integrated, particularly within 

Native Hawaiian understanding. In Hawaiian 

culture, the land or ‘āina is sacred. The 

natural and cultural worlds are intricately 

bound together, and the spiritual world is 

not separate from the secular at Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park. For example, 

volcanic activity is a part of geological 

processes and history, but Kīlauea volcano 

is also home to Pelehonuamea (Pele), the 

volcano deity, and her family. Observed in 

the lava flows and other natural phenomena 

associated with volcanic activity, Pele and 

her family continue to be a presence in 

Native Hawaiians’ lives both physically and 

spiritually. Management of Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park will continue to recognize and 

embrace the interconnectedness of natural 

and cultural resources into the future.

NATURAL RESOURCES

Under the no-action alternative, the natural 

resource program would continue efforts 

to perpetuate and restore native ecosystems 

and recover populations of rare species 

(including threatened and endangered) 

and biological diversity of native species 

by using scientifically informed methods. 

Management activities include monitoring 

and control of invasive nonnative plants and 

animals, reintroduction of historical species, 

augmentation of locally rare, threatened 
112 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

and endangered species, fire restoration, 

fuels reduction, and supporting research 

that informs natural resources management 

activities (e.g., climate change studies, 

fire ecology, vegetation mapping, wildlife 

monitoring, etc.). The degree to which these 

actions are implemented would vary year to 

year depending on available funding and staff.

CULTURAL RESOURCES

Under the no-action alternative, the cultural 

resources program would continue to 

provide cultural resources protection for 

park-related projects as required by law. 

Program development would continue to 

be dependent on available funding and staff. 

Documentation, research, and stewardship 

of cultural resources would continue with 

opportunities to expand program capabilities 

dependent on increased funding and staff 

made available.

Under the no-action alternative 

documentation of cultural landscapes, historic 

structures and national register eligible 

properties would remain dependent on 

available non-base funding. The park would 

continue to stabilize and maintain significant 

landscapes or national register eligible 

properties or contributing elements. Due to 

inadequate numbers of staff, a slow decline in 

resource condition would occur.

WILDERNESS

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park would 

continue to manage designated wilderness 

consistent with NPS management policies and 

the Wilderness Act. The park would continue 

to manage proposed eligible wilderness in 

upper Kahuku for its wilderness qualities.

SOUNDSCAPES AND THE 

ACOUSTIC ENVIRONMENT

The National Park Service would continue to 

use a variety of methods to reduce humancaused noise and improve natural sounds.

The park, as a cooperator with the FAA, 

would also complete an air tour management 

plan/environmental impact statement 

that would develop measures to limit or 

prevent any significant impacts that may be 

caused by commercial air tour operations 

upon the natural and cultural resources, 

or visitor experiences at the park. This 

plan would be consistent with the guiding 

principle of reducing noise/human sound in 

sensitive areas.

VISITOR EXPERIENCE

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park would 

continue to provide visitors with safe access 

to volcanic features, active lava, cultural 

resources, and ecosystems from sea to summit 

under the no-action alternative.

To help manage visitor congestion, the park 

would use a variety of methods, such as 

educating the public and dispersing visitor use 

through information.

RANGE OF RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES—

Under the no-action alternative, the park 

would continue to allow for a range of 

recreational activities such as camping, hiking, 

backpacking, biking, equestrian use, birdwatching and other wildlife viewing, lava 

viewing, picnicking, general sightseeing, and 

stargazing. Opportunities at Kahuku would 

continue to be limited.

TRAILS: HIKING, BIKING, AND 

EQUESTRIAN— Under the no-action 

alternative, the existing trail network 

within the main part of the park would be 

maintained, with an emphasis on maintaining 

frontcountry trails.

Park staff would continue to improve and 

create safe trail corridors that link key 

features or park sites such as Nāmakanipaio 

Campground, Kīlauea Visitor Center, Jaggar 

Museum, and Thurston Lava Tube (Nāhuku) 

to encourage bicycling, pedestrian, and 

equestrian use as recreational activities and to 

support alternative means of transportation 

and access to park sites.

In addition, the park would continue to 

seek solutions to provide safe pedestrian 

and bicycle access around Crater Rim Drive 

and would continue to identify key needs 

for trail improvement on the summit and 

throughout the park.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 113 

Establishment of the Ala Kahakai National 

Historic Trail in November 2000 included 

27 miles of trail segments along the coast 

in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park. In 

Alternative 1, Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park would work with Ala Kahakai National 

Historic Trail staff to sign and interpret those 

trail segments through the park.

CAMPING—

FRONTCOUNTRY CAMPING

Nāmakanipaio Campground and 

Kūlanaokuaiki Campground would continue 

to serve as the only formal frontcountry 

campgrounds that offer drive-in camping 

facilities in the park under Alternative 1, and 

Nāmakanipaio Campground would continue 

to be run as a concession/fee operation.

BACKCOUNTRY CAMPING

The park would maintain the existing 

backcountry campsites and associated 

facilities including water catchment systems, 

restrooms, shelters, etc.

INTERPRETATION AND EDUCATION—

PROGRAMS

The park would continue to offer a range of 

interpretive programs, media, and techniques.

In addition, the park would develop a 

comprehensive interpretive plan that 

would expand interpretive opportunities 

to introduce visitors to all of the park’s 

interpretive themes through the use of 

interpretive standards and methods. Under 

the no-action alternative, Kahuku would be 

integrated into the park’s comprehensive 

interpretive plan that is currently under 

development and would continue to 

develop a wayside plan for Kahuku and 

interpretive techniques as part of the plan. 

In the short-term, planning is occurring for 

some waysides at trailheads and current 

features. Interpretation at Kahuku would 

focus on a range of themes and media for 

visitor immersion.

The park would also continue to promote 

environmental education, ranger-led 

programs and tours, and a variety of 

curriculum-based activities.

INTERPRETATION AND 

EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES

Kīlauea Visitor Center and Jaggar Museum 

would continue to be used as primary 

locations for visitor orientation and in-depth 

exposure to the park’s interpretive themes. 

Kahuku would also serve as an important 

location for visitor orientation on days it is 

open for public access.

The basic infrastructure for visitors and 

education groups would be maintained with 

upgrades to these facilities as needed.

COMMERCIAL SERVICES

Under the no-action alternative, Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park would continue 

to authorize existing commercial services 

through a range of legal authorities using a 

variety of different permits, contracts, and 

other authorizations, depending on the type 

and location of the activity involved.

ADMINISTRATIVE FACILITIES AND 

INFRASTRUCTURE

The park would continue to maintain, and 

upgrade when necessary, administrative 

infrastructure in the park such as offices, 

storage, and utilities and improve provisions 

for accessibility.

Similarly, at Kahuku, the park would continue 

to maintain, and upgrade when necessary, 

existing infrastructure in lower Kahuku and 

continue to use existing buildings for office 

space and storage.

TRANSPORTATION AND ACCESS

Under Alternative 1, park roads would be 

maintained to provide for safety consistent 

with the park setting, ensuring a park-like 

and scenic driving experience. Historic 

road alignments would be maintained to the 

extent possible. The current range of roads 

and road standards would continue, and the 

park would continue to work cooperatively 

with the state and other partners, particularly 

on Highway 11, for visitor safety, signage, 

and information.
114 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

The park would also continue to maintain 

parking areas and turnouts with upgrades 

as needed. No major new parking areas are 

anticipated for this alternative.

PARTNERSHIPS

The park would continue to maintain existing 

partnerships with organizations that are key 

to the park’s mission under Alternative 1. As 

examples, the park would continue to partner 

with Hawaiian Volcano Observatory to ensure 

the safety and education of park visitors and 

with co-members of the Three Mountain 

Alliance to protect regional watersheds.

CLIMATE CHANGE AND SUSTAINABILITY

As a leader in responding to the potential 

impacts from climate change, the park 

would continue to implement the climate 

action plan for Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park and participate in the Climate Friendly 

Parks program. The park would strive to 

reduce greenhouse gas emissions, continue 

monitoring and research, increase climate 

change education and outreach, and develop 

climate change adaptation strategies.

Operations

ESTIMATED COSTS

Cost estimates for Alternative 1 are identified 

on Table 3.3. Alternative 1: Summary of Costs. 

Costs shown are not intended for budgeting 

purposes; instead they are used to show 

a relative comparison of costs among the 

alternatives. Implementation of the approved 

plan will depend on future funding, and 

approval of a general management plan 

does not guarantee that funding and staffing 

needed to implement the plan would be 

forthcoming. Full implementation of the 

plan may take many years. The National Park 

Service will also evaluate proposed facility 

investments prior to project approvals using 

the best scientific information available related 

to climate change and other possible scenarios 

to ensure the long-term sustainability of these 

investments. Due to potential vulnerabilities 

of some of the park’s facilities, it is feasible 

that the National Park Service may conclude 

that such financial investments for facilities 

would be unwise and that other options 

would be considered or potentially the project 

would not be pursued or implemented.

These costs are presented in 2012 dollars and 

are based upon general “Class C” estimates 

for site development and construction and 

are referred to as conceptual estimates by the 

design and construction industry. Class C 

costs are general in nature and representative 

of a broad based vision rather than focused 

on specific details. Prior to submitting funding 

requests for the design and construction 

phases, “Class B” estimates are required, 

based on detailed site and facility designs. 

“Class A” estimates would be prepared from 

completed construction documents.

ONE-TIME COSTS— The estimated costs 

for Alternative 1 reflect the continuation 

of current management, including the 

current level of facilities. One-time facility 

costs would include costs associated with 

projects already approved and fully funded 

such as the construction of a visitor contact 

station at lower Kahuku and rehabilitation 

of the shelter at Ka‘ū Footprints. One-time 

nonfacility costs would include actions for the 

preservation of cultural or natural resources 

not related to facilities, the development of 

visitor use tools not related to facilities, and 

other park management activities that would 

require substantial funding above park annual 

operating costs. Examples would include 

construction and rehabilitation of fencing for 

animal control at Kahuku.

Projects in the one-time costs for the 

alternatives are identified as either Priority 

1 or Priority 2. Priority 1 projects include 

projects that emphasize resource protection, 

threats, and visitor safety. Priority 2 projects 

which are less urgent include all other projects 

important to the full implementation of the 

alternative, including those that address 

visitor opportunities and experiences such 

as enhanced facilities (as funding allows 

and could be sustained). Priority 1 projects 

in Alternative 1 include construction and 

rehabilitation of fencing needed for animal 

control in Kahuku and renovation of the Ohia 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 115 

Wing. Although the Ohia Wing is a Priority 1 

project, it should be noted that this renovation 

effort is expected to take many years so it may 

be completed after implementation of other 

Priority 1 projects.

Deferred maintenance, also presented in 

Table 3.3. Alternative 1: Summary of Costs, 

is maintenance and repair activities that 

were not performed when they should have 

been or were scheduled to be and which, 

therefore, are put off or delayed for a future 

period. Maintenance and repairs are activities 

directed toward keeping fixed assets in an 

acceptable condition. Many of the proposals 

in Alternative 1 address deferred maintenance 

issues; therefore, deferred maintenance costs 

would “offset” the total one-time costs.

STAFFING

Alternative 1 assumes current staffing levels 

would be maintained at 143 classified fulltime equivalent employees (FTEs). One FTE

employee is one person working 40 hours per 

week for one year, or the equivalent. The total 

number of FTE employees is the number of 

staff required to maintain the assets of Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park at an appropriate 

level, provide acceptable visitor services, 

protect resources, and generally support park 

operations. In addition, 10.5 additional staff 

would be needed to implement Alternative 

1, which is specifically for the operational 

requirements to open the Kahuku Unit 

seven days a week. 

Table 3.2 does not include seasonal staffing, 

which would vary depending on specific 

project needs and funding allocations.

ANNUAL OPERATING COSTS— Annual 

operating costs are the total costs per year 

for maintenance and operations associated 

with Alternative 1, including utilities, supplies, 

staff salaries and benefits, leasing, and other 

materials. Costs and staffing estimates assume 

that the alternative is fully implemented as 

described in the narrative, including opening 

the Kahuku Unit seven days a week. The 

park’s annual operating budget for fiscal year 

2014 was $7,281,000. Full implementation 

of Alternative 1 would include filling vacant 

positions and filling an additional 10.5 

FTE ($638,000). Additional operations 

and maintenance costs related to capital 

investments would be $71,000. Total operating 

costs for Alternative 1 would be $7,990,000.

FTE employee salaries and benefits are 

included in the annual operating costs.

Table 3.2. Alternative 1: Staffing

Park Management Division FTE

Administrative and Management (includes Kahuku staff) 27 + 9 new

Natural and Cultural Resource Management 29

Interpretation and Education 12

Facilities and Maintenance 28

Visitor Protection/Fire 26 + 1.5 new

Vacant positions 21

Total New Positions 10.5

Total Positions 153.5 FTE 

Total Staffing Costs $7,919,000
116 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Table 3.3. Alternative 1: Summary of Costs

Description of Cost Estimated Summary of Costs

ANNUAL OPERATIONAL COSTS

Existing Annual Operational Costs $7,281,000

Additional Staffing Costs (+10.5 FTE)* $638,000 

Additional Operations & Maintenance Costs 

Related to Capital Investments

$71,000

Total Annual Operational Costs $7,990,000

ONE-TIME CAPITAL COSTS

Program Support

Priority 1 Projects** $0

Priority 2 Projects $0

Facility Rehabilitation

Priority 1 Projects $0 

Priority 2 Projects $0 

Natural Resource Management

Priority 1 Projects $1,575,000

Priority 2 Projects $0

Cultural Resource Management

Priority 1 Projects $5,260,000

Priority 2 Projects $0

New Construction

Priority 1 Projects $245,000

Priority 2 Projects $0 

Transportation

Priority 1 Projects $0

Priority 2 Projects $0

Total Priority 1 Projects $7,080,000 (Kahuku costs are $1,820,000 of this total)

Total Priority 2 Projects $0 

Total One-time Costs $7,080,000 (Kahuku costs are $1,820, 000 of this total)

Deferred Maintenance Offset $5,275,000

* The additional 10.5 FTE under alternative 1 are included in OFS requests. The current staffing level is below the authorized level of 

143 FTE; the additional staffing level would add 10.5 FTE to the authorized level of 143. The new staffing level would be 153.5 FTE. 

** Priority 1 projects include projects that emphasize resource protection, threats, and visitor safety. Priority 2 projects include all other 

projects important to the full implementation of the alternative, including those that address visitor opportunities and experiences such 

as enhanced facilities as funding allows and could be sustained. Costs are in 2012 dollars.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 117 

ALTERNATIVE 2: 

PREFERRED ALTERNATIVE

Description of Alternative

The NPS preferred alternative would 

strengthen and broaden opportunities to 

connect people with the volcanic world 

treasure, Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, 

and provide a wide range of high-quality 

visitor experiences based on different 

geographic areas. Kīlauea summit would 

continue to be the most actively visited area 

of the park with the greatest concentration 

of services and amenities for park visitors. 

Along Chain of Craters Road and Mauna 

Loa Road, the park would strive to provide 

visitors with improved opportunities to 

experience and connect with park resources 

and values, including new opportunities at 

places like Mauna Ulu and Kealakomowaena, 

while dispersing use to create a less congested 

and more tranquil experience. At Kahuku, 

although visitor access and recreation 

opportunities would be expanded from 

what is currently offered, infrastructure 

and development would be minimal, 

gradually phased in over time, and remain 

rustic in design to allow for a primitive 

visitor experience.

Natural and cultural resources would 

continue to be managed and protected with 

a high degree of integrity, consistent with 

direction provided by existing laws and 

policies. This alternative emphasizes the park’s 

role as a refuge and haven for native biota, 

people, and cultures in a world constantly 

adapting to volcanic activity and island 

building processes. The preferred alternative 

would honor the Native Hawaiian people and 

culture by recognizing Native Hawaiian values 

such as mālama ‘āina (nourishing or taking 

care of the land) and kuleana (responsibility) 

and perspectives from Native Hawaiian land 

management such as ahupua‘a management 

(managing land from mauka (mountains) 

to makai (sea)) as important concepts in 

park stewardship of resources. Native 

Hawaiian traditional ecological knowledge 

would be used to enhance current scientific 

understanding to protect park resources 

and provide additional interpretive and 

educational opportunities for visitors.

Native Hawaiian Traditional Ecological 

Knowledge is a cumulative body of 

knowledge, beliefs, practices that refer to 

the relationships and effects between living 

things and their environment which passes 

from one generation to the next through 

traditional practice, stories, chants and songs. 

The Native Hawaiian culture was an oral 

culture; therefore the stories, chants, and 

songs documented significant events, and 

documented and perpetuated their scientific 

understanding of the environment. The 

traditional land management system of the 

ahupua‘a is an example of the application 

of traditional ecological knowledge, which 

informed individuals of the appropriate 

uses, harvest times, and planting sequences 

from the ocean to the mountain tops. This 

knowledge was applied across each island and 

managed by the people so that the resources 

from all environments within the ahupua‘a 

would be sustainable for future generations.

Management Zones Applied to 

Preferred Alternative

The management zones for Alternative 2 

are geographically located to identify an 

area’s predominant use and desired future 

conditions. The specific configurations of 

the management zones for Alternative 2 are 

provided in Figure 3.2. Management Zones 

for Alternative 2, Full Park and Figure 3.3. 

Management Zones for Alternative 2, Crater 

Rim Drive and Kahuku. The following 

description identifies the locations and details 

for the application of management zones 

in Alternative 2.
118 | Chapter 3: 

Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Figure 3.2. Management Zones for Alternative 2, Full Park

P A C I F I C O C E A N

UPPER

LOWER

‘ Ō L A ‘ A M A U N A L O A

K A H U K U

K Ī L A U E A

Figure 3.2 Management Zones for Alternative 2, Full Park

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park GMP/WS/EIS

Hawai‘i Volcanoes

National Park

MAP AREA

μ

Produced by: PWR - Seattle Planning 

 Office

Date Created: June 2014

Data Sources: USGS - Coastline, Roads

 NPS - Management Zones, 

 Park Boundary, 

 Wilderness

Fig. 3.2 MgmtZonesAlt2. Full Park_060514

0 10

Kilometers

0 5

Miles

Legend

NPS Boundary

Roads

Designated Wilderness

Eligible WildernessPark Support ZoneTransitional/Semi-Primitive ZoneVisitor Services ZoneWild/Primitive Zone
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 119 

Figure 3.3. Management Zones for Alternative 2

UPPER

LOWER

Ranch House

(Administrative 

Office)

Lower 

Glover

Upper

Glover

1868 Flow

1907

Flow

1887

Flow

1916

Flow 1926

Flow

Jaggar

Museum

Thurston

Lava Tube

Kīlauea

Visitor

Center

Kilauea

Military

Camp

HALEMA‘UMA‘U

CRATER

LUA MANU 

CRATER

ROAD AND

TRAIL CLOSURE

#

#

TRAIL CLOSURE

TRAIL CLOSURE

#

TRAIL CLOSURE

#

#

FOOT TRAFFIC

ONLY

#

ROAD CLOSURE

Lower

Kahuku

Crater

Rim

Drive

Hawai‘i Volcanoes

National Park

MAP AREA

Crater Rim Drive

Lower Kahuku

Figure 3.3 Management Zones for Alternative 2, Crater Rim Drive and Kahuku 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park GMP/WS/EIS

Produced by: PWR - Seattle Planning Office

Date Created: June 2014

Data Sources: USGS - Coastline, Roads

 NPS - Management Zones, NPS Boundary

Fig. 3.3 MgmtZones Alt.2 Crater_Kahuku_060914.mxd

μ

0 1

Kilometers

0 0.5

Miles

μ

0 1

Kilometers

0 0.5

Miles

Legend

NPS Boundary

Roads

Park Support Zone

Transitional/Semi-Primitive Zone

Visitor Services Zone

Wild/Primitive Zone
120 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

VISITOR SERVICES ZONE

In Alternative 2, the Visitor Services Zone 

would include the Highway 11 corridor 

through the park, all of Crater Rim Drive and 

surrounding visitor facilities, Mauna Ulu, 

Kealakomowaena, the end of Chain of Craters 

Road, and the vicinity around the existing 

development in lower Kahuku.

Around Crater Rim Drive, the Visitor Services 

Zone would include 0.1 mile on either side 

of the road between Jaggar Museum and the 

junction with Chain of Craters Road, along 

the southwestern section of the road, and 

would extend 0.25 mile on either side of the 

northeastern section of the road between 

these two locations in order to accommodate 

higher volumes of traffic and multiple uses 

along this corridor. The Visitor Services 

Zone would also include high visitor use 

facilities/locations along Crater Rim Drive 

including Kīlauea Visitor Center and 1877 

Volcano House, the Ohia Wing and Volcano 

HouseSM, the Steam Vents, Kīlauea Overlook, 

Jaggar Museum, Halema‘uma‘u Overlook, 

Devastation, Pu‘u Pua‘i and Kīlauea Iki 

parking lots, and Thurston Lava Tube. 

Nāmakanipaio Campground, off Highway 11, 

would also be included in this zone.

Along Chain of Craters Road, the 

Visitor Services Zone would include 

Kealakomowaena and the area surrounding 

the movable visitor contact station near the 

end of the current road that is intended to 

replace the current temporary structures. 

However, because this visitor contact station 

would be movable and likely relocated in 

response to future eruptions and sea-level rise, 

the zone in this area is intended to be flexible.

In Kahuku, the Visitor Services Zone would 

encompass all of the existing ranch buildings 

in lower Kahuku and the Pu‘u o Lokuana 

Trailhead, extending north to the far side of 

Pu‘u o Lokuana and west to the eastern edge 

of the Old Mamalahoa Highway.

TRANSITIONAL/SEMI-PRIMITIVE ZONE

The Transitional/Semi-primitive Zone would 

include areas that are dominated by natural 

conditions where visitor experiences focus on 

providing a sense of solitude, relaxation, and 

exploration in a relatively natural environment 

with limited interpretation. In Alternative 2, 

this zone would include the nonwilderness 

area of the Mauna Loa Unit, a large portion of 

the Kīlauea Unit, and most of lower Kahuku.

In the Kīlauea Unit, the Transitional/Semiprimitive Zone would include all areas east of 

the Ka‘ū Desert wilderness unit to Chain of 

Craters Road (except the Park Support Zone 

around ‘Āinahou), including Hilina Pali Road. 

This zone would then extend south to the 

coast along Chain of Craters Road and east 

to the East Rift wilderness unit, the vicinity 

of Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō, and to the east boundary of the 

park. Around Crater Rim Drive, this zone 

would include all areas except those included 

in the visitor services and park support 

zones along Crater Rim Drive, including 

Kīlauea Caldera.

In Kahuku, the Transitional/Semi-primitive 

Zone would include the road corridors 

and surrounding lands in lower Kahuku, 

extending from the eastern edge of the 1887 

flows north to the top of lower Kahuku and 

east to the eastern park boundary of lower 

Kahuku. The quarter-mile corridor on 

north side of the Highway 11 along the park 

boundary, beginning near the eastern edge 

of the rare dry land forest and extending 

westward, would also be included in this zone.

WILD/PRIMITIVE ZONE

The Wild/Primitive Zone would include 

all areas designated wilderness or eligible 

wilderness within Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park, including the Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

Wilderness (which includes the East Rift, Ka‘ū 

Desert, ‘Ōla‘a, and Mauna Loa wilderness 

units). This zone would also include the 

small tract of ‘Ōla‘a and the lands extending 

east and south of the East Rift wilderness 

unit to 2.5 miles from the coast. All of upper 

Kahuku and the southwest corner of Lower 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 121 

Kahuku (including the 1887 flows west to the 

western boundary of Kahuku) minus the road 

corridors would also be included within the 

Wild/Primitive Zone.

PARK SUPPORT ZONE

The Park Support Zone in Alternative 2 

includes only those facilities and surrounding 

areas in the park used primarily for NPS

administration, such as the research facilities, 

administration and housing area, the rainshed, 

the NPS horse corral, and Kilauea Military 

Camp. Both ‘Āinahou and Kilauea Military 

Camp are zoned Park Support Zone because 

they are not open to the general public under 

this alternative.

The greatest proportion of Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park (about 76.6%) would be 

managed in the wild/primitive zone. The 

transitional/semi-primitive zone would 

cover about 22.6%, and the visitor services 

zone would cover approximately 0.7%. The 

park support zone would cover the smallest 

portion (less than 0.1%) of the park.

See Table 3.1. Management Zones for a 

comparison of the zone concept; desired 

natural and cultural resource conditions; 

shoreline and wilderness management 

practices; visitor opportunities; science, 

research, and learning opportunities; 

facility conditions; and access and 

transportation conditions of the proposed 

management zones.

Site-Specific Management Guidance

The following section presents an overview of 

the preferred strategies for managing specific 

areas of Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park.

KĪLAUEA VISITOR CENTER AND 

SURROUNDING AREA

Under the action alternatives, including the 

preferred alternative, the park would produce 

a development concept plan (DCP) and 

site-specific interpretive strategy to integrate 

visitor experiences among the complex of 

buildings on the summit of Kīlauea. This 

integrated campus, or kauhale, would include 

the Kīlauea Visitor Center, Ohia Wing, 

Volcano Art Center, pā hula (place reserved 

for hula dancing), and other buildings in the 

vicinity. Individual building functions would 

be evaluated as part of a larger vision for the 

entire campus for improving visitor services. 

The priority would be to stay within the 

existing footprint of development; however 

some potentially modest expansion could be 

necessary to achieve the overall vision. As part 

of the kauhale DCP, the park would consider 

redesigning walkways around the buildings 

to improve circulation and reduce potential 

conflicts between vehicles and visitors.

KĪLAUEA VISITOR CENTER— Kīlauea Visitor 

Center (KVC) is one of two small visitor 

centers in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, 

with approximately 1,700 square feet of 

interior space for visitors which includes 

exhibits, auditorium, and a book sales area, 

and is one of the most visited sites in the park. 

Under the preferred alternative, the park 

would continue to use Kīlauea Visitor Center 

as one of two primary visitor facilities as well 

as park headquarters and administrative 

offices. Additional parking would be provided 

to address increased visitor use to the Kīlauea 

campus. The park would also install an HVAC 

(heating, ventilation, and air conditioning) 

system in the building to improve efficiency.

The covered outdoor lanai at Kīlauea Visitor 

Center offers 24-hour trip planning and 

orientation. To provide more interpretive 

space on the often crowded lanai, the current 

restroom would be removed and replaced 

with a facility of similar capacity behind the 

visitor center and closer to the 1877 Volcano 

House, where Volcano Art Center Gallery 

is located. Relocating the restrooms would 

lessen the noise level and reduce congestion in 

this visitor use area, improving the experience 

for visitors using the displays and attending 

interpretive programs and information 

sessions on the lanai. The relocated restrooms 

would also replace the restrooms near the 

1877 Volcano House building and may include 

a covered walkway to provide rain-free path 

to the restrooms.
122 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

In the preferred alternative, the park would 

also construct a 2.5-mile separate shared 

trail for both pedestrian and bicycle use from 

Kīlauea Visitor Center to Jaggar Museum. The 

new trail would help promote safe bicycle 

access between these two popular visitor 

destinations. The historic character of Crater 

Rim Drive and attributes of the existing Crater 

Rim Trail make it difficult to modify existing 

infrastructure for safe bicycling. However, if 

possible, the new trail alignment should use 

portions of the existing trail and road that are 

safe for shared use, without compromising 

natural and cultural resources.

VOLCANO HOUSESM— Dating back to 1846, 

Volcano HouseSM is the oldest operating 

hotel in Hawai‘i. In the preferred alternative, 

Volcano HouseSM would be managed as a 

great historical hotel, providing high qualityservice, embodying traditional elegance, 

and expressing a true aloha spirit to visitors 

from entrance to departure. As a historical 

hotel, the park would continue to operate 

Volcano HouseSM as a concession operation 

for lodging, retail, and food and beverage 

services and would strive for environmentally 

sound and sustainable practices for the entire 

operation of Volcano HouseSM. Additional 

detail is provided in the Commercial Services 

Strategy in Appendix F.

In addition, as part of the concession contract, 

the concessioner would work with the park to 

provide interpretive services.

If in the future for any reason, the Volcano 

HouseSM is no longer operating as a 

commercial lodging facility, it could be 

adaptively reused for other park visitation 

and/or administrative functions.

1877 VOLCANO HOUSE— The 1877 Volcano 

House was the first hotel on the rim of Kīlauea 

and was relocated in 1921 to its present site 

adjacent to the visitor center. Currently, 

the 1877 Volcano House is occupied by the 

Volcano Art Center, a nonprofit organization 

dedicated to arts and environmental 

education, who operates a fine art gallery 

under a cooperating association agreement 

with Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park.

In the preferred alternative, the park would 

continue to maintain the 1877 Volcano 

House in its present location and would 

evaluate accessibility improvements for the 

front entrance, lanai, and parking. The park 

would also continue to interpret the historic 

structure and landscape, primarily through 

interpretive waysides, as one of the park’s 

early buildings providing lodging to visitors 

on the summit of Kīlauea. Inside the building, 

interior exhibits could include additional 

historic photos of the 1877 Volcano House to 

highlight historic uses of the building.

OHIA WING (1932 ADMINISTRATION 

BUILDING)— Constructed in 1932, the 

Ohia Wing served as the original park 

administration building. For many years it 

was used as a lodging wing of the Volcano 

HouseSM. Under the preferred alternative, the 

park would adaptively reuse the historic Ohia 

Wing as a cultural museum and administrative 

offices. Adaptive reuse of the Ohia Wing 

would in part replace the function of the 

Waha‘ula Visitor Center, which emphasized 

cultural exhibits but was destroyed by lava in 

1989. This action would also complement the 

visitor functions of the Kīlauea Visitor Center 

and Jaggar Museum. Due to its associated 

costs, rehabilitating and adaptively reusing the 

Ohia Wing may need to be phased over time.

CRATER RIM DRIVE

Providing vehicular access along the entire rim 

of Kīlauea Caldera, Crater Rim Drive is the 

most visited corridor in the park and provides 

access to a number of unique volcanic, scenic, 

and cultural features such as Thurston Lava 

Tube and Steam Vents. Since the eruptive 

activity beginning in 2008 in Halema‘uma‘u 

Crater and the resultant hazardous volcanic 

plume, the southern portion of Crater Rim 

Drive from Jaggar Museum to Chain of 

Craters Road intersection has been closed. 

As a result of this closure, most visitors 

exploring Crater Rim Drive usually drive from 

Kīlauea Visitor Center to Jaggar Museum, 

which serves as the park’s other main visitor 

center, but must double back again to view the 

remaining open portion of Crater Rim Drive.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 123 

Assuming eruptive activity ceases or changes 

in Halema‘uma‘u Crater and the park 

determines through active monitoring that 

air quality and other hazards are at a level 

that is consistent with general visitor use, the 

park would reopen Crater Rim Drive and 

keep the road open to the public for two-way 

traffic, allowing a mix of private vehicles and 

smaller shuttles (nonmandatory). Allowing 

two-way vehicular access around Crater Rim 

Drive provides a number of benefits to park 

visitors and management, and is consistent 

with the rationale for designing the original 

road. Loop roads are popular with visitors, 

allowing them to approach the crater without 

having to back track along the same road on 

which they entered. Visitors can also approach 

the crater from two directions, helping 

disperse visitation. Further, when eruptions 

bring increased traffic, the road could be 

converted to one-way access for a temporary 

duration, increasing safety, especially at night. 

Finally, a loop road can provide an escape 

route in an emergency should lava block a 

portion of the road.

The historic character and historic alignment 

of the road would be preserved. As part of 

a pilot program, large commercial buses 

or vehicles over 98 inches in width and/or 

over 38 feet in length would be limited to 

one-way traffic between Jaggar Museum and 

Chain of Craters Road junction along the 

southwest portion of road. Administrative use 

of the road for two-way vehicle traffic would 

continue to be allowed.

The park would also continue to evaluate 

the pilot hydrogen shuttle technology. This 

includes the performance of the shuttles that 

will service proposed stops along Crater Rim 

Drive (scheduled to begin in 2015). Current 

proposed stops include Kīlauea Iki, Thurston 

Lava Tube, Pu‘u Pua‘i, and Devastation 

Trail. If this project proves successful, 

the shuttle operations could be extended 

under the preferred alternative to include 

other stops along Crater Rim Drive, such as 

Kīlauea Visitor Center, Steam Vents, Kilauea 

Military Camp, and Jaggar Museum, or other 

areas of the park.

Prior to the 2008 closure of part of Crater Rim 

Drive, a ride around Halema‘uma‘u Crater 

was a popular riding loop for bicyclists. To 

improve safe bicycle access around Crater 

Rim Drive, the park would also improve 

signage along the road corridor, provide 

adjacent bicycle trails when feasible, and 

consider vehicular traffic closures during 

specific times of day or days of the week to 

encourage bicycle use.

HALEMA‘UMA‘U PARKING AND 

OVERLOOK— Considered by Native 

Hawaiians as the home of the deity 

Pelehonuamea, Halema‘uma‘u Crater is a 

culturally recognized sacred site. However, 

as an accessible crater of an active volcano, 

Halema‘uma‘u has also historically been one 

of the most highly visited locations in the park, 

with parking for 300 cars. Because of eruptive 

activity beginning in 2008 in Halema‘uma‘u 

Crater and the resultant hazardous volcanic 

plume, this area is currently closed to the 

public. In the preferred alternative, once the 

overlook is reopened to visitation, the parking 

lot would be maintained to accommodate 

the existing capacity but the park could 

evaluate site modifications to address sensitive 

cultural issues and values and improve 

resource protection.

KILAUEA MILITARY CAMP

Kilauea Military Camp is an army-operated 

historic recreational complex that serves 

military branch personnel, including retired 

and inactive members, and their dependents 

and guests, in addition to serving nonprofit 

educational organizations in Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park. Spanning 54 acres, 

this complex includes 90 rooms for overnight 

accommodations, a cafeteria, bar, grocery 

store, gas station, bowling alley, recreation 

room, exercise facility, conference rooms, 

theater, and bus and van tours for guests 

staying at Kilauea Military Camp, as well as 

other support programs and facilities.

Under the preferred alternative, Kilauea 

Military Camp would continue to operate as a 

military recreation facility using park-owned 

historic structures and land for the duration of 
124 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

its existing special use permit. The site would 

maintain its current function as a military 

morale, welfare, and recreation center—a 

self-supporting operation under a NonAppropriated Funding Instrument, primarily 

for active duty military, military retirees, 

and their guests.

The park would continue to coordinate 

with Kilauea Military Camp on resource 

protection, particularly historic resources 

on the List of Classified Structures and 

those that are eligible for the National 

Register of Historic Places. The park would 

also coordinate with the camp to expand 

interpretation of the park’s military history 

and the camp’s history, including the World 

War II Japanese internment and POW 

history. This interpretation could include 

the placement of additional waysides 

and guided tours.

Kilauea Military Camp may continue to be 

used for parking during special events. When 

the special use permit expires, the National 

Park Service would review existing laws, 

policies, authorities, and park goals to (1) 

assess the appropriateness and/or necessity 

of the commercial services provided by 

Kilauea Military Camp and their alignment 

with the goals and strategies identified by the 

CSS and the general management plan, and 

(2) to determine or reaffirm the appropriate 

authority by which these commercial services 

should be authorized to operate, such as 

whether or not the operation could occur 

under a special use permit or lease or some 

other legal instrument. If the permitted 

military recreation operations at Kilauea 

Military Camp are discontinued, the 

National Park Service would prepare a plan 

and explore future options for the site (see 

“Common to All Alternatives”).

JAGGAR MUSEUM AND HAWAIIAN 

VOLCANO OBSERVATORY

Jaggar Museum was the first park museum 

in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park and 

continues today as a interpretative visitor 

center located on the rim of Kīlauea Crater, 

overlooking Halema‘uma‘u. Considering its 

location, historic significance, and easy access 

for commercial buses, Jaggar Museum, like 

the Kīlauea Visitor Center, is another one of 

the most heavily visited locations in the park, 

especially when Kīlauea is active. However, 

its current exhibits, installed in the 1980s, are 

dated and worn and do not reflect the park’s 

interpretive themes. Under the preferred 

alternative, the park would rehabilitate and 

upgrade the interpretive exhibits at Jaggar 

Museum. Improved exhibits would enable 

Jaggar Museum to continue to serve as the 

premier location for visitors to learn about 

past and current volcanic eruptions and 

to view Halema‘uma‘u Crater. Connected 

to the museum is the Hawaiian Volcano 

Observatory operated by the US Geological 

Survey. Hawaiian Volcano Observatory 

houses scientists, laboratories, offices, and 

monitoring equipment. As its mission, HVO 

provides timely and effective disaster warnings 

for emergencies to land managers and the 

affected population using hazard assessments, 

research, and monitoring. Under the preferred 

alternative, Hawaiian Volcano Observatory 

would continue to operate adjacent 

to Jaggar Museum.

Staying within the existing developed 

footprint around Jaggar Museum and HVO, 

the park would consider adding an outdoor 

seating area for about 30 people to allow for 

ranger demonstrations and programs, such as 

night programs for visitors viewing the current 

lava glow from Halema‘uma‘u Crater. The 

outdoor seating area would improve overall 

visitor experience and provide a venue for 

park programs to inform visitors about the 

cultural significance of the site. This addition 

would also make better use of the limited 

space on the rim with its views of the caldera. 

If an outdoor seating area is not feasible 

around Jaggar Museum, other locations that 

could be considered would be in the vicinity 

of the pā hula.

THURSTON LAVA TUBE AND 

SURROUNDING AREA

THURSTON LAVA TUBE (NĀHUKU)— As 

the only lava tube in the park that is open 

to visitation, Thurston Lava Tube is one 

of the most congested areas in the park. 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 125 

Transportation studies have been conducted 

recently to better understand and develop 

solutions to address this issue.

In the preferred alternative, the park would 

maintain the current mix of parking for 

private and commercial vehicles at Thurston 

and use a suite of tools to address congestion 

and improve the visitor experience. These 

tools could include improved visitor 

information and outreach for trip planning 

(emphasizing less busy times of day to visit), 

increased ranger presence to direct traffic, 

the use of intelligent transportation systems 

(such as electronic message boards giving realtime information), vehicle size limitations for 

parking, time-of-day restrictions on certain 

vehicles, and/or reservations for commercial 

vehicles only. Additional restriping and 

reconfiguration of parking at Thurston Lava 

Tube along the road may also be required. In 

addition, the park would consider developing 

a more specific site plan or DCP to integrate 

trails and parking areas from Kīlauea Iki 

to Devastation.

Large commercial buses would be able to load 

and unload at Thurston but these buses may 

be required to park at nearby underutilized 

lots such as Devastation Trail and Pu‘u Pua‘i. 

Some reconfiguration within the existing 

developed footprint of these parking lots may 

be needed to accommodate large buses, and 

improved signing and accessibility ramping 

would be needed. The park would continue 

to evaluate implications of implementing 

one-way traffic on Crater Rim Drive between 

Jaggar Museum and Chain of Craters Road 

junction for large commercial buses and 

requiring buses to only load and unload at 

Thurston as conditions change.

The park would also improve and increase 

interpretive opportunities and themes at 

Thurston while still protecting rainforest 

resources. Improvements could include a 

focused rain forest experience and interpretive 

rainforest trail and interpretation of Hawaiian 

caves. Improved visitor information about 

the site’s unique geological and biological 

resources and the site’s significance to Native 

Hawaiian cultural would be disseminated at 

Thurston to expand visitor appreciation. To 

improve the overall visitor experience as well 

as respect traditional Hawaiian regard for the 

area, signage could emphasize and encourage 

appropriate visitor behavior, such as use of 

soft voices and turning off cell phones, among 

others, so that bird sounds and other natural 

sounds could be heard.

The park would also continue ranger-guided 

tours of Pua Po‘o, as staffing and funding 

permits, similar to Alternative 1.

KĪLAUEA IKI, PU‘U PUA‘I, AND 

DEVASTATION— New or improved 

trail connections would be explored for 

pedestrians and bicycles from these parking 

areas and other locations in the park, such 

as trails linking Thurston to Pu‘u Pua‘i and 

Devastation Trail parking lots in order to 

create more pedestrian access to Thurston.

At Kīlauea Iki parking lot, there is an existing 

half-mile rainforest trail linking Kīlauea Iki 

to Thurston. In the preferred alternative, the 

park would consider creating a return trail 

from Thurston to Kīlauea Iki on the other 

side of the road using part of the Escape Road 

to create a loop trail experience. Any new or 

renovated trail would incorporate trail design 

features that protect rainforest resources and 

meet visitor capacity, such as adequate trail 

width and surface, improved signage, and 

better definition of the trail edge.

The park would explore the feasibility of 

establishing an educational covered pavilion 

in the vicinity of Devastation Trail or the 1974 

lava flow for outdoor educational use. Ideally, 

this pavilion would be situated near the trail 

and users would park at the Devastation 

Trail parking lot located at the intersection 

of the park’s two main roadways, however 

a final location would also be dependent 

on a site that would avoid disturbing nēnē 

in the area. The pavilion would provide an 

opportunity for student groups to observe 

and learn about the cinder outfall of the 

1959 eruption of Kīlauea Iki. In addition, 

the park would update the environmental 

education curriculum and waysides in the 

Devastation Trail area.
126 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

ESCAPE ROAD— The Escape Road is an 

unpaved road off of Highway 11, near the 

junction with Old Volcano Highway that 

continues through the park past Thurston 

Lava Tube and down to Mauna Ulu on Chain 

of Craters Road. The Escape Road is made up 

of two historic routes, the upper portion of 

the Keauhou Trail/Road and Lee’s Short Cut, 

and is primarily used as a multipurpose trail 

for nonmotorized use. It is also maintained 

as an escape route in the event that Chain of 

Craters Road is cut off.

Under the preferred alternative, the park 

would continue to maintain the historic 

road as an emergency egress route, but also 

improve the trail surface on the Escape 

Road to accommodate increased bicycle, 

equestrian, and pedestrian use and improve 

connections from the park to the Volcano 

community. The park would also consider 

linking the Escape Road with possible loop 

trail connections outside of wilderness and 

sensitive wildlife habitat.

CHAIN OF CRATERS ROAD

The park would continue to maintain the 

character of Chain of Craters Road to NPS

standards, ensuring a park-like feel for the 

driving experience, while providing for visitor 

safety. Chain of Craters Road would continue 

to immerse people in the volcanic landscape 

and history of the area from mauka to makai.

The park would limit new development along 

Chain of Craters Road and would prioritize 

use and maintenance of existing trails, historic 

trails, turnouts, and waysides to improve 

the visitor experience, dispersing use and 

providing a more tranquil experience than 

in other areas of the park. The park would 

identify and clear over-vegetated turnouts to 

restore views/vistas and to encourage stops 

along the road. In order to limit informal 

turnouts and social trails, the park would 

improve signage of features and viewpoints at 

road turnouts. The park would also explore 

the option of locating an educational pavilion, 

in addition to a mobile visitor contact station, 

along Chain of Craters Road to orient visitors, 

communicate visitor safety information, and 

provide an alternative visitor experience when 

the summit is closed to disperse visitation. 

The mobile contact station could be located at 

Mauna Ulu (around the developed area or the 

1969 flows) or where the 1974 flows first cross 

Chain of Craters Road.

CHAIN OF CRATERS ROAD TO MAUNA 

ULU— Mauna Ulu would continue to be used 

as a day use area similar to Alternative 1. In 

addition, around the 1974 lava flows near the 

Lua Manu Crater, the park would develop 

a site plan to create a more comprehensive 

and organized interpretive experience to 

improve visitor opportunities and connect 

visitors to the entire eruption story that 

stretches from the crater to the sea. The 

park would strive to work with existing trails 

and historic alignments and prioritize using 

those alignments first, before any new trail 

construction; however trail development 

would be needed at the 1974 flows to prevent 

trampling and protect geologic resources. 

The park would also explore options to 

locate an educational pavilion in the vicinity 

of Mauna Ulu or elsewhere along the 

1974 flows as part of this new interpretive 

experience. The pavilion could be tied to the 

staging area for the mobile contact station, or 

could stand alone.

Mauna Ulu would continue to be maintained 

as a day use area for viewing lava fields and 

associated lava features and would continue to 

provide trailhead parking for Pu‘u Huluhulu 

and Nāpau Crater and campground. Mauna 

Ulu also provides the best views of Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō, 

which is part of the current eruption.

KEALAKOMO— Kealakomo would continue 

to be maintained as a day use picnic area and 

viewing platform.

Further makai in the Kealakomo ahupua‘a, 

or closer to the ocean along Chain of 

Craters Road, the park would continue to 

improve interpretation and preservation 

of Kealakomowaena and its resources by 

implementing recommendations from the 

Archeological Preservation Plan for Kealakomo 

Ahupua‘a (Tomonari-Tuggle 2011) (see 

“Common to All Alternatives”).
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 127 

In the preferred alternative, the park 

would also explore the establishment of an 

educational pavilion at Kealakomowaena. 

Other site improvements needed would 

include expanding parking at the turnout 

along Chain of Craters Road, creating an area 

for school bus parking, and installing vault 

toilets near the pavilion. The park would 

interpret and protect archeological sites along 

the loop trail at Kealakomowaena.

END OF CHAIN OF CRATERS ROAD— The 

end of Chain of Craters Road is defined 

as the place where vehicles currently turn 

around before parking. The actual end of 

the pavement is approximately 0.5 mile 

past the visitor contact station and provides 

pedestrian access to where the lava flows 

crossed the road.

In the preferred alternative, the park would 

strive to replace some of the functions 

provided by the Waha‘ula Visitor Center and 

administration area that was destroyed by 

lava in 1989. These functions being replaced 

include visitor contact information, exhibit 

space, interpretation and outdoor education, 

emergency operations, restrooms, and an 

alternative visitor center when the summit is 

closed. To achieve this goal, the park would 

continue to work with partners to provide a 

sustainable and movable visitor contact station 

at the current end of Chain of Craters Road 

for interpretation and safety on a trial basis. 

If the pilot project is successful, the park 

would retain the structure as a contact station 

to provide visitor services and emergency 

operations over the long-term.

If the pilot project is unsuccessful, the park 

would develop a long-term replacement 

visitor contact station in the form of an open 

air pavilion or similar structure at the end of 

Chain of Craters Road.

Under either scenario, the existing temporary 

mobile infrastructure would be removed 

once a long-term contact station was finalized 

and any additional site requirements such as 

improved vehicle turnaround and parking 

facilities would be evaluated.

As in all alternatives, the park would continue 

to consult with the Kalapana community 

about issues in the Kalapana Extension related 

to the community.

A 5.5 mile segment of the Chain of Craters 

Road that ran through the park towards 

Kalapana was buried by lava flows generated 

by Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō. Due to a change in the direction 

of the lava flow in 2014, an unpaved 

emergency access route was constructed 

following the historic road alignment. 

This route is for emergency access only. 

When this route is no longer needed for 

emergency access, it would be used as an 

equestrian, biking, and hiking trail (similar 

in character and functionality to the Escape 

Road from the summit to Mauna Ulu) to 

provide a quality non-motorized visitor use 

opportunity and future emergency route 

without compromising natural values and 

without adding the management complexity 

of managing a coastal entrance for public 

vehicles to enter the park.

HILINA PALI ROAD

The Hilina Pali Road is a historic 8.5-mile 

paved, one-lane narrow spur road dating 

from the early 1930s. It extends southwest 

from the Chain of Craters Road to a view of 

the Pacific Ocean and Ka’ū Desert wilderness 

unit. The Hilina Pali Road is significant for 

its association with NPS road design and 

construction principles as well as for its NPS

Rustic architectural style. The park would 

maintain the existing road width and historic 

alignment indicative of the architecture style. 

The park would also continue to maintain the 

Hilina Pali Overlook, a historic CCC shelter, 

and adjacent trails.

Under the preferred alternative, the park 

would consider expanding interpretive 

opportunities, such as waysides and turnouts 

for interpreting wilderness values. Interpretive 

signs could be placed at trailheads leading 

into wilderness, at short trails along the 

road corridor, and at the end of Hilina Pali 

Road near the CCC shelter and outside of 

wilderness boundaries. An outdoor covered 

education pavilion could also be developed 
128 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

in the vicinity of Kūlanaokuaiki Campground 

in an area that avoids sensitive wildlife, and 

the park could expand on the interpretive 

themes in this area.

The park would improve trailhead 

management at the end of the road by 

removing nonnative plants and restoring 

native species.

As a way to encourage hiking and biking, the 

park would consider management strategies 

to provide safer access. The park would 

consider identifying days or parts of days 

when Hilina Pali Road could be closed to 

day use vehicles and would become hike/

bike only. Overnight campers staying at 

Kūlanaokuaiki and backpackers with permits 

would still have vehicular access on the road 

during these times. The park would also 

consider developing a bicycle loop access to 

connect Escape Road with Hilina Pali Road 

outside designated wilderness and sensitive 

wildlife habitat.

‘ĀINAHOU RANCH HOUSE AND GARDENS

The 6,324 acre ‘Āinahou Ranch was acquired 

under the authority of the Endangered Species 

Conservation Act of 1969 (Public Law 91-135) 

for the purpose of protecting, restoring and 

propagating endangered bird species. Since 

then, the general area has served an important 

role in the conservation and reestablishment 

of endangered nēnē on the island. In 1995, 

the Ranch House was listed in the national 

register for Historic Places, and in 2004, the 

Cultural Landscape Inventory amended the 

national register nomination to include the 13-

acre garden with concurrence from the State 

Historic Preservation Officer.

As in all alternatives, ‘Āinahou Ranch would 

continue to provide a core management area 

for nēnē recovery. Park staff would continue 

to maintain the house and cultural landscape 

in good condition. The water system would be 

maintained for fire protection, and the access 

road to ‘Āinahou would be maintained as 

an unpaved road.

Under the preferred alternative, the National 

Park Service would focus on restoration 

for nēnē. Additional measures to provide 

opportunities for public stewardship of 

the ranch house and gardens and habitat 

restoration may be allowed through the use of 

trained volunteers and small service groups 

under the direction of NPS staff in the field. 

Such opportunities would be consistent 

with NPS management policies and with 

appropriate consultation with USFWS so as to 

avoid impacts to nēnē and other endangered 

species in the area.

Within the formal gardens, the park would 

work with cultural resource staff to replace 

invasive nonnatives with native species, 

minimize any new plantings or cultivation, 

and prevent any inadvertent introduction 

of nonnatives. In the areas surrounding the 

formal gardens and where invasive faya tree 

(Morella faya) and European olive (Olea 

europaea) have taken over, habitat restoration 

to remove these invasives and re-establish 

native plant communities would occur, 

improving forage for native forest birds (e.g., 

amakihi, apapane, ‘i‘iwi).

Interpretation of ‘Āinahou Ranch and 

its significance as a cultural resource and 

important site for nēnē would occur off-site 

for the general public.

MAUNA LOA ROAD

Mauna Loa Road extends just over 11 miles, 

from Highway 11 to an elevation of 6,662 

feet. A two-lane road constitutes the lower 

1.5 miles, then the upper section of road 

is a narrow two lane road for 2.1 miles at 

which point it narrows further to one-lane 

(approximately ten feet wide) for the next 

7.7 miles. The road ends at the Mauna Loa 

Observatory, a historic CCC lookout shelter.

Under the preferred alternative, the park 

would maintain the existing road width and 

historic alignment. To address safety issues 

along the one-lane section, the park would 

improve signage and employ other techniques, 

such as adding more turnouts to allow 

for safer passing.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 129 

Because of the current low visitation levels 

along the Mauna Loa Road and the unique 

resources in this area of the park, the focus at 

Mauna Loa would be on increasing the unique 

interpretive and bird-watching opportunities 

with minimal additional infrastructure or 

impacts. The park would consider a turnout 

at a designated area for bird-watching at about 

the 6,000 feet elevation. Forest restoration 

could also be an important interpretive theme 

for this location with parallels between Mauna 

Loa and Kahuku.

The park would also consider adding 

interpretive waysides and one or two loop 

trails along the road for hiking and watching 

native birds (such as elepaio and iʻiwi), which 

would also provide opportunities for visitors 

to experience a wide range of mesic and dry 

montane habitats not found in the rest of the 

park. Possible trail linkages could include 

trails to Kīpuka Kī and the mosaic of native 

koa forest, shrublands, and grasslands above 

the Powerline Road; a trail linking the lookout 

to Kīpukapuaulu; and trails linking Ka‘ū 

Desert and Mauna Loa wilderness units.

For outdoor education use, the park would 

provide two covered educational pavilions 

along Mauna Loa Road at different elevations 

to represent different types of habitat.

Similar to Hilina Pali Road, the park could 

consider identifying days or parts of days 

when Mauna Loa Road is closed to private 

day use vehicles and would become hike/bike 

only. Backpackers would not be restricted 

from using the road for trailhead access 

during these times.

NĀMAKANIPAIO CAMPGROUND— 

Nāmakanipaio Campground, a property 

eligible for inclusion in the national register, 

would continue to function as the primary 

campground for visitors on the summit and 

be managed as part of the park’s concession 

contract for commercial services. In order 

to expand capacity and address demand 

for amenities, concession operations could 

expand at Nāmakanipaio under the preferred 

alternative to include the construction and 

operation of an indoor lodging opportunity 

such as a dormitory style or hostel-like facility, 

cabins, or similar. The construction and 

operation of such facility could be included 

in the park’s concession contract covering 

operations at Nāmakanipaio. The concession 

operation would incur the construction costs 

for such a facility.

Under the preferred alternative, a pedestrian 

and possibly a bicycle trail could be created 

to link the Nāmakanipaio Campground with 

Kīpukapuaulu on Mauna Loa Road and key 

sites on Crater Rim Drive. The park would 

take particular caution in siting the trail 

due to the high concentration of sensitive 

resources in the area.

KA‘Ū FOOTPRINTS AREA AND KA‘Ū DESERT

A DCP would be developed to address 

issues and needs for interpretation of the 

Ka‘ū Footprints and the Ka‘ū Desert area. 

Planning for the Ka‘ū area would focus on 

concentrating use in existing development 

areas and improving amenities for visitor 

use while ensuring the protection and 

preservation of cultural and natural resources. 

Planning should also address: (1) expanding 

and promoting access, including accessible 

access, to the area, (2) providing trail 

connections and interpretive opportunities, 

and (3) determining other visitor support 

facilities needed such as signs, toilets, and 

parking. Within the existing development 

areas, the park could consider slightly 

expanding the development footprint to 

accommodate the goals of the DCP.

‘ŌLA‘A 

‘Ōla‘a is comprised of two tracts of land 

totaling 9,679 (9,684.5) acres that are 

noncontiguous to the park boundary. 

Donated to the National Park Service in 

1952 via Hawai‘i Territorial Executive Order 

1540, this area, though not officially within 

the boundary of Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park, is managed by the park. Under the 

preferred alternative, the park would seek 

legislation to include ‘Ōla‘a within the 

legislated park boundary.
130 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

The park would construct a boundary fence 

for unfenced portions of the ‘Ōla‘a rainforest, 

consistent with the park’s plan for protecting 

and restoring native ecosystems by managing 

nonnative ungulates.

‘ŌLA‘A SMALL TRACT— The small tract of 

‘Ōla‘a is 356.13 (355.9) acres in size and is 

not designated wilderness (as opposed to the 

“large tract”). Currently, visitors accessing 

the small tract informally park along Wright 

Road in Volcano Village. Under the preferred 

alternative, the park would collaborate with 

the county to formalize a turnout for parking 

on Wright Road for two to three vehicles 

(current capacity).

In addition, to ensure resource protection 

and minimize impacts, the park would 

develop a boardwalk-style or weed-mat trail 

to provide visitors with on-site interpretation 

of the rainforest. Before implementation, 

the park would determine a route to avoid 

sensitive resources, develop and implement a 

monitoring and treatment plan to address the 

spread of nonnative plants and determine a 

group size limit for the trail. Once completed, 

the trail would be available for general selfguided public access.

To increase off-site interpretation 

opportunities and educational group use 

of the ‘Ōla‘a rainforest, the park would 

explore partnership opportunities to create 

joint interpretive media with adjacent land 

managers such as the Pu‘u Maka‘ala Natural 

Area Reserve managed by the Department 

of Lands and Natural Resources (DLNR) 

and a co-member with the park in the Three 

Mountain Alliance Watershed Partnership.

‘ŌLA‘A LARGE TRACT— The large tract 

of ‘Ōla‘a is 9,298.54 (9,329.5) acres of 

designated wilderness. Under the preferred 

alternative, the park would maintain custodial 

responsibility for the large tract of ‘Ōla‘a 

and would continue to manage it for its 

wilderness values without developing trails 

for day use. No improvements would be made 

to facilitate public access and no overnight 

camping would be allowed. Interpretation 

would occur off-site only for the wilderness 

portion of ‘Ōla‘a.

In the long-term, if trails and access provided 

in the small tract are successful in terms of 

providing visitor access with minimal resource 

damage, the park would consider additional 

public access in the large tract consistent 

with wilderness values and character. Any 

additional public access would be determined 

through minimum requirements analysis as 

directed by the Wilderness Act (1964).

KAHUKU UNIT

In 2003, Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

acquired 115,788 (150,867) acres of land that 

straddles the Southwest Rift Zone of Mauna 

Loa and extends across lava fields, pastures, 

forests, shrubland and mesic, subalpine, 

alpine, and desert environments towards the 

Ka‘ū District in Hawai‘i County. Referred to 

as the Kahuku Unit, this acquisition increased 

the size of the park by 38% and expanded 

opportunities for visitor use and resource 

protection. While the lower portion of 

Kahuku is a pastoral landscape resulting from 

years of cattle ranching, much of Kahuku is 

noted for its biological diversity, ecological 

integrity, and wild character. Existing park 

management activities in Kahuku concentrate 

on protecting and recovering native species, 

including special status species, and 

ecosystems, controlling invasive nonnative 

plants and animals, developing interpretive 

programs, and conducting surveys and 

inventories of cultural and natural resources. 

Restoration activities would continue to 

include installing construction of boundary 

and internal fences to exclude nonnative 

ungulates, consistent with the park’s Final 

Plan/EIS for Protecting and Restoring 

Native Ecosystems by Managing Nonnative 

Ungulates (2013).

The Kahuku Unit is currently managed under 

an interim operating plan with limited day 

use visitation on weekends and for special 

events. Under the preferred alternative, over 

time and with adequate funding for staff and 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 131 

infrastructure, the park would strive to open 

Kahuku for visitors beyond the weekends, and 

ultimately have operational capacity seven 

days a week. Recreational infrastructure, 

such as trails, small-scale campgrounds, 

and interpretive and educational programs 

and activities would be developed to 

optimize visitor access and provide a range 

of opportunities to experience Kahuku’s 

unique natural and cultural resources and 

participate in the recovery of species and 

sites. The experience would be designed 

to fully immerse visitors and engage local 

communities in the restoration process and 

story throughout Kahuku. The park would 

offer opportunities for the community, 

visitors, and school groups to volunteer on 

restoration projects in Kahuku and participate 

in hands-on resources management activities.

KAHUKU ENTRANCE— The existing entrance 

to Kahuku is 43 miles to the southwest of 

the main park entrance on Highway 11 and 

poses safety concerns due to its location on 

a curve with limited line-of-sight. Under the 

preferred alternative, the park would maintain 

the existing entrance at Kahuku but address 

safety issues by clearing vegetation, improving 

signage, and possibly lowering existing berms 

to improve the line of sight for drivers. The 

park would also seek to collaborate with 

the state to evaluate and add turn lanes on 

Highway 11 and would work with the state 

and other partners to expand interpretive and 

scenic opportunities along Highway 11.

The park would also explore working with the 

state to develop a parking area for a few cars 

off the Old Mamalahoa Highway as a trailhead 

to the 1868 lava flow and rare native dryland 

forest, as well as a potential trail following the 

historic Kahuku-ʻAinapō Trail alignment to 

connect other trails in lower Kahuku.

LOWER KAHUKU— For the purposes of this 

GMP/WS/EIS, lower Kahuku is defined as 

the acreage below a line that is 100 meters 

above the upper-most road in the paddock 

system (see Figure 1.5. Existing Conditions, 

Kahuku). Lower Kahuku extends down the 

Southwest Rift Zone of Mauna Loa from this 

line to Highway 11.

The park would develop a DCP for the lower 

Kahuku area to create a design that provides 

visitors with a sense of arrival in Kahuku as 

well as general orientation and information. 

The DCP would provide detailed guidance on 

how best to implement the recommendations 

of the general management plan, including 

adaptively reusing existing buildings for 

specific uses, and would determine the 

numbers and locations of campgrounds, 

picnic areas, and trails consistent with the 

overall vision for this alternative.

DEVELOPED AREA AND USE OF 

EXISTING BUILDINGS

In lower Kahuku, some limited use of 

existing ranch buildings would continue. In 

addition, the park would adaptively reuse 

the existing ranch buildings and surrounding 

site for a mixture of visitor services and park 

operations, including administrative offices 

and maintenance space.

Under the preferred alternative, the 

park would rely primarily on self-guided 

infrastructure to convey a sense of arrival 

and tell interpretive stories of Kahuku. In 

order to welcome visitors to Kahuku, the 

park would maintain a visitor contact station 

past the current entrance gate and closer 

to the existing visitor contact area. This 

visitor contact station could be self-guided 

or staffed. The park would also maintain a 

small amphitheater in proximity to the visitor 

contact station that could be used for outdoor 

programs and organized activities.

In an effort to improve visitor circulation 

near the entrance, the park would explore 

opportunities to use existing interior roads in 

the developed area.

In addition, the park would provide a location 

in lower Kahuku to accommodate camping 

and staging for groups such as volunteers, 

researchers, students, and educational and 

service groups.
132 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

RECREATION ACTIVITIES AND 

VISITOR OPPORTUNITIES

In the preferred alternative, the park 

would encourage a rustic visitor 

experience in Kahuku. The focus would 

be on recreational activities such as hiking, 

camping, and nature-viewing, with some 

biking and scenic driving opportunities. A

minimum amount of pavement and road 

infrastructure would be reconstructed and/

or maintained to accommodate recreation 

and visitor circulation while preserving the 

natural surroundings.

An educational covered pavilion would 

be provided near the 1916 flows to 

support a range of visitor programs and 

volunteer groups.

The park would manage the amount of 

commercially guided recreation in lower 

Kahuku primarily through vehicle size limits 

and commercial use authorizations (CUAs). 

The road would be evaluated to determine 

final vehicle size limits; however, based on 

current knowledge it is likely that commercial 

services would be limited to vehicles no 

greater than 22 feet in length or 15,000 pounds 

maximum GVWR in lower Kahuku. The park 

would encourage commercial service groups 

to provide environmental or conservationfocused messages while sightseeing and/or 

recreating in lower Kahuku.

Road Access: No new roads would be 

developed in lower Kahuku, and access and 

circulation would focus on use of the existing 

road network. Large commercial vehicles 

would be restricted to the developed area 

around the existing visitor contact area due to 

the constraints of existing road infrastructure.

The park would upgrade and maintain the 

main road from the existing developed area 

to Upper Glover for two-wheel-drive access. 

This road would primarily be one-lane 

with turnouts, and the surface will be either 

gravel or paved surface, similar in character 

to the Hilina Pali or Mauna Loa Roads. 

The main road, from Upper Glover east 

to a designated location near the 1916 lava 

flows (approximately three miles), would be 

maintained for four-wheel-drive access. There 

would be no public vehicular access west 

from Upper Glover.

Any remaining roads not used for 

administrative purposes (including 

administrative or emergency vehicular access 

or use as a fuel break) or trail access would be 

restored to natural conditions and/or native 

communities. Prior to making a determination 

on converting roads to trails or restoring roads 

to natural conditions, the park will evaluate 

routes for any historic significance. Historic 

use of routes in Kahuku should help guide 

management decisions about future use of 

these roads and routes (see Figure 3.4. Historic 

Routes, Full Park). The park could consider 

allowing smaller capacity shuttles in response 

to increased demand (e.g., 15–20 passengers) 

as a transportation strategy in Kahuku.

Trails and Trailheads: The park would 

emphasize the use of trails and trailheads 

for nonmotorized access through Lower 

Kahuku as opposed to formalizing any 

additional road access.

Under the preferred alternative, as part of the 

DCP, the park would develop a trail network 

in lower Kahuku that would accommodate 

different visitor abilities across a series of 

loop trails and trail connections in an effort 

to promote hiking, bicycling, and equestrian 

use. In designing the trail network, the park 

would take existing and historic trails and 

routes into consideration for long-term use 

and preservation and would prioritize reestablishing these traditional and historic 

travel routes before any new trail construction 

(see Figure 3.4. Historic Routes, Full Park). 

However, new trails could also be constructed 

in order to create trail connections, such 

as connecting Kahuku to the Mauna Loa 

summit, or to the historic Kahuku-ʻAinapō 

Trail, or creating linkages between historic 

trails across lava flows. Trail alignments and 

uses would also be analyzed for identifying 

appropriate locations of picnic tables and 

trail signs. Trail management in the Kahuku 

Unit should also be evaluated and assessed 

as part of the trail management plan for 

the entire park.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: 

Alternatives | 133 

Figure 3.4. Historic Routes, Full Park

11¬«

Volcano 

Village

K Ī L A U E A

11¬«

P A C I F I C O C E A N

K A H U K U

M A U N A L O A

Nā‘ālehu

Pāhala

Ocean View

‘ Ō L A ‘ A

Hawai‘i Volcanoes

National Park

MAP AREA

Figure 3.4 Historic Routes, Full Park

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park GMP/WS/EIS

Legend

NPS Boundary

Roads

Trails

Historic Routes

Produced by: PWR - Seattle Planning 

 Office

Date Created: June 2014

Data Sources: USGS - Roads, Coastline

 NPS - Park Boundary,

 Trails, Historic Routes

Fig. 3.4 HistRoutes_Full Park_060914.mxd

0 5

Miles μ 0 10

Kilometers
134 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Campgrounds: Under the preferred 

alternative, overnight camping in Kahuku 

would be allowed and supporting 

infrastructure developed. Development 

to support overnight camping in Kahuku 

would be focused on multiple small-scale 

designated campgrounds with a low level of 

infrastructure and minimal services, such as 

water and compost or vault toilets. Sites would 

be developed for both drive-in and walk-in 

campers, with some handicap-accessible 

campsites provided. Camping opportunities 

would be located close to trailheads and 

features of interest.

The park would also accommodate extended 

family or group camping by providing 

multiple tent sites in close proximity to one 

another in different locations. The park would 

ensure a separate group camping location 

for larger educational groups, such as school 

groups and volunteer groups, with a covered 

area for staging or programs. Some temporary 

and movable field camps could be established 

at designated sites for environmental study 

areas for staff, volunteers, or other science, 

research, and educational groups, but no 

permanent infrastructure would be associated 

with these sites.

Bicycling: Bicycling would be allowed on 

designated routes. Primary pasture roads 

would be assessed for their ability to serve as 

bicycle routes or trails. Some pasture roads 

could be maintained as multipurpose trails 

if they are wide enough and some of which 

could also be maintained for administrative 

vehicular road access. Unless new connector 

trails are necessary to manage the flow of bike 

traffic on these trails, no new bike trails would 

be developed on undisturbed ground.

Equestrian Use: Under the preferred 

alternative, the park would implement a 

small pilot program for equestrian use in 

lower Kahuku pastures. The goal of the pilot 

program is to explore allowing equestrian 

use in Kahuku while managing for resource 

concerns such as the spread of invasive 

nonnative species. Under the pilot program, 

limited equestrian use would be allowed 

by special permit and potentially through 

a CUA for guided trips. Best management 

practices, such as weed-free protocols, would 

be implemented for resource protection, and 

use would be authorized only on designated 

trails or in designated sites. The number of 

equestrian-accessible trails would also be 

limited as a way to manage use and monitor 

impacts. Separating equestrian and bicycle 

trails would be considered in the DCP.

Implementation of this pilot program would 

require park staff to research, monitor, and 

mitigate potential impacts of concern, such 

as the spread of invasive plants. A baseline 

vegetation assessment and monitoring plan 

would be needed in advance of the pilot 

program. If impacts to resources are found 

to be acceptable and manageable, limited 

equestrian use could be allowed in lower 

Kahuku pastures in the long-term under 

similar conditions of the pilot program. Any 

future increases in equestrian use would 

need to be slowly phased in to monitor 

and mitigate impacts. The extent of future 

equestrian use would depend on the success 

of the pilot program.

UPPER KAHUKU— For the purposes of this 

GMP/WS/EIS, upper Kahuku is defined as the 

acreage above a line that is 100 meters above 

the upper-most road in the paddock system. 

Upper Kahuku extends up the Southwest Rift 

Zone of Mauna Loa (see Figure 1.5. Existing 

Conditions, Kahuku).

Under the preferred alternative, the park 

would manage upper Kahuku for its 

wilderness characteristics based on its 

determination of eligibility for inclusion in 

the national wilderness preservation system. 

Management of upper Kahuku would 

emphasize restoring native ecosystems and 

recovering biological diversity of native 

species based on best available science. 

Recreational access in upper Kahuku would 

be permitted and visitor opportunities such 

as hiking and camping would be managed 

consistent with a wilderness experience.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 135 

NPS vehicular access for administrative use 

and emergencies would be allowed on existing 

roads outside of eligible wilderness. These 

roads would be maintained to the minimum 

standard required to support administrative 

and emergency use.

RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES AND 

VISITOR OPPORTUNITIES

Recreation in upper Kahuku would consist 

of all recreational activities associated with 

foot travel such as hiking, bird-watching, 

and overnight backcountry travel. No public 

vehicular, biking, or equestrian use would be 

permitted beyond the 1916 lava flows. The 

park would consider NPS-guided vehicular 

and/or biking cost-recovery interpretive and 

recreational experiences above the 1916 lava 

flows if practical and feasible.

The park would implement a permit system 

for public hiking and backcountry use for 

access beyond the 1916 lava flows. Facilities, 

such as a trailhead and primitive campground 

in the vicinity of the 1916 flows, would be 

developed, and water tanks and catchments 

would be provided, as appropriate.

No commercial services or commercially 

guided recreation would be permitted 

in upper Kahuku.

NPS administrative vehicular access, such 

as use associated with protection of special 

status species, restoration, wildland fire 

suppression, and search and rescue would 

be allowed in upper Kahuku; however, the 

park would implement best management 

practices to minimize spread of invasives, such 

as sanitizing procedures for NPS vehicles and 

sanitation protocols for boots and gear.

Trails and Trailheads: Trails in upper Kahuku 

would provide the primary recreational 

experience for visitors. Trail design would be 

consistent with the undeveloped character of 

the area, emphasizing minimal development, 

and could be as simple as routes designated by 

cairns. The trail network, including any new 

routes, would emphasize connecting historic 

trails across lava flows.

Campgrounds: Under the preferred 

alternative, dispersed backcountry camping 

would also be permitted, consistent with 

wilderness recreation. Backcountry camping 

would not necessarily require camping 

in designated sites but would require a 

backcountry use permit.

The park would consider developing a 

system of shelters with water catchments for 

backcountry and wilderness camping. These 

shelters could simply be a covered water tank 

for rain catchment, with the cover providing 

enough shelter for a windbreak for a tent. 

Any development in eligible or designated 

wilderness in upper Kahuku would need to be 

analyzed through the minimum requirements 

analysis as required by the Wilderness Act 

(1964) and NPS Management Policies 2006.

The park would also consider developing 

a small campground in the proximity of 

the existing cabins and out of nēnē habitat 

in nonwilderness for walk-in users. This 

campsite could also serve as a launching point 

for backcountry users. Water catchment/ 

shelter could also be provided.

Boundary Modifications

NPS policies require park managers to 

evaluate the adequacy of boundaries for 

protecting resources and providing visitor 

opportunities in general management plans. 

Appendix E of this GMP/WS/EIS includes 

an Analysis of Boundary Modification and 

Land Protection that reviews the criteria for 

boundary adjustments as applied to Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park. In accordance 

with this analysis, the preferred alternative 

proposes several parcels for inclusion 

within the boundary of Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park, all of which meet the 

boundary adjustment criteria (see Figure 3.5. 

Boundary Modifications).
136 | Chapter 3: 

Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Figure 3.5. Boundary Modifications

11¬«

Volcano 

Village

K A H U K U

M A U N A L O A

K Ī L A U E A

‘ŌLA‘A

Ocean View

3,475 acres

(3,478 GIS acres)

Nā‘ālehu

Pāhala

11¬«

16,457 acres

(16,387 GIS acres)

P A C I F I C  O C E A N

222 acres

(221 GIS acres)

1,951 acres

(1,983 GIS acres) UPPER

LOWER

Kahuku

Road

9,679 acres

(9,684 GIS acres)

SEE INSET

Hawai‘i Volcanoes

National Park

MAP AREA

Figure 3.5 Boundary Modifications

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park GMP/WS/EIS

Legend

Produced by: PWR - Seattle Planning 

 Office

μ

0

Date Created: June 2014

Data Sources: USGS - Lava Flows, 

 Roads, Coastline

 NPS - Park Boundary

 State of Hawaii - TMK

10

Kilometers

0 5

Miles

Proposed Boundary 

Additions

NPS Boundary

Roads

Fig. 3.5 Boundary Mod_060914.mxd

11¬«

0 1

Miles INSET

‘Ōla‘a

Ala Wai‘i Holdings

Pōhue BayGreat CrackPrivate
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 137 

Under the preferred alternative, Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park would seek 

legislation to include ‘Ōla‘a within the official 

park boundary. Donated to the National Park 

Service in 1952 via the Hawai‘i Territorial 

Executive Order 1540, ‘Ōla‘a is geographically 

separated from the rest of the park by Volcano 

Village. Because language in the 1938 

legislation for the park stated that Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park could acquire 

lands only if “adjacent and contiguous” 

to park boundaries, ‘Ōla‘a has never been 

formally designated as part of Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park, even though the 

unit is managed by park administrators for its 

valuable rainforest habitat and presence of 

endemic and/or rare and endangered species. 

This proposed legislation would adjust the 

boundary of Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park to include ‘Ōla‘a’s two noncontinguous 

parcels (Parcels 319001006 and 319001007).

The preferred alternative would also 

recommend that the following parcels are 

added to the park boundary.

The park would seek to acquire the Great 

Crack parcels (1,951 acres) and the Ala Wai‘i 

parcel (3,478 acres), which is located west of 

the Great Crack. Both properties are in private 

ownership and contain excellent geology and 

important archeological sites. Acquisition of 

the Great Crack parcels was proposed in the 

park’s 1975 Master Plan.

The park would also pursue acquisition of 

a private parcel (222 acres) located along 

the southern edge of Kahuku (west of 

present entrance off Highway 11), which 

would essentially connect the entire Kahuku 

parcel with Highway 11. Acquisition of this 

property would protect lower Kahuku from 

incompatible development.

Finally, the park would pursue acquisition of 

a parcel at Pōhue Bay that has been proposed 

to the county as a development called Kahuku 

Village. This privately-owned parcel is 16,457 

acres and extends from lower Kahuku on 

Highway 11 down to the coast. The local 

community, nonprofit organizations, elected 

officials, and the developers have approached 

the park to acquire it. The site is used by the 

endangered hawksbill turtle for nesting. The 

threatened green turtle and the endangered 

Hawaiian monk seal are both known to bask 

on the beaches during the day. The area also 

contains other endemic and endangered 

invertebrate, plant, and animal species. In 

addition, there are important archeological 

sites and coastal resources that are still used 

traditionally. Acquisition of this parcel would 

extend the park’s portion of Kahuku from 

mauka to makai and give the park a wider 

range of options for recreation improvements 

in lower Kahuku.

No legislation would be needed for 

acquisition of these parcels contiguous to 

the boundary; however, acquisition by the 

National Park Service would be restricted 

to a willing seller purchase only. This means 

that the seller would be willing to sell 

and adequate funds would be available to 

support the purchase.

Rather than proposing boundary adjustments 

to enhance protection of coastal and 

marine resources, the park would engage 

partners, such as the DLNR and NOAA, to 

enhance protection of these resources. Park 

jurisdiction at the coast currently ends at the 

high water mark, so resources or activities 

that fall below that mark are outside of park 

jurisdiction and make protection of marine 

resources difficult. Increased emphasis on 

partnerships for coastal and marine resources 

could improve protection by engaging 

agencies with different authorities to work 

together in pursuit of common preservation 

goals. A number of tools and techniques 

would be available, including pursuing 

designation of the coastal area as a marine 

managed area or national marine sanctuary

under the preferred alternative. Designation 

would ensure additional protection 

of these waters.
138 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Program Specific 

Management Guidance

The following section presents an 

overview of the preferred management 

strategies for program areas at Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park.

Although this plan separates resource 

protection into discrete categories of natural 

and cultural resources, park management 

recognizes that these resources are 

inextricably integrated, particularly within 

Native Hawaiian understanding. In Hawaiian 

culture, the land or ‘āina is sacred. The 

natural and cultural worlds are intricately 

bound together, and the spiritual world is 

not separate from the secular at Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park. For example, 

volcanic activity is a part of geological 

processes and history, but Kīlauea volcano 

is also home to Pelehonuamea or Pele, the 

deity of the volcano, and her family. The literal 

meaning of Pelehonuamea is lava earth matter; 

hence, lava is a manifestation of the deity. 

Observed in the lava flows and other natural 

phenomena associated with volcanic activity, 

Pele and her family continue to be a presence 

in Native Hawaiians’ lives both physically and 

spiritually. Management of Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park will continue to recognize and 

embrace the interconnectedness of natural 

and cultural resources into the future.

NATURAL RESOURCES

Under the preferred alternative, the natural 

resources program would continue efforts 

to perpetuate and restore native ecosystems 

and recover populations of rare species 

(including threatened and endangered) 

and biological diversity of native species 

by using scientifically informed methods. 

In addition, the park would strive to 

increase current staffing levels to improve 

monitoring and control of nonnative plants 

and animals, reintroduction of historical 

species, protection and recovery of locally 

rare, threatened and endangered species, fire 

restoration, fuels reduction, and supporting 

research that informs natural resources 

management activities (e.g. climate change 

studies, fire ecology, vegetation mapping, 

wildlife monitoring etc.). The natural 

resources program would emphasize and 

expand research to identify new methods 

and optimize existing methods for habitat 

conservation, watershed protection, and 

restoration of native species, habitats, 

ecosystems, and habitat linkages, such as 

those provided in the Fire Management Plan

(2007) and such as those being developed for 

the Plan and Environmental Assessment for 

Facilitating Forest Recovery in Former Cattle 

Pastures, Kahuku Unit. Concepts of traditional 

Native Hawaiian land management, such as 

ahupua‘a management that recognizes the 

interconnectedness between mauka and 

makai ecosystems and the natural and cultural 

environments, would be integrated into 

natural resource management activities. The 

park would also seek to enhance restoration 

techniques and practices with native Hawaiian 

traditional ecological knowledge.

The natural resources program would also 

seek to engage the visitor in the protection and 

restoration of native species and ecosystems 

by expanding opportunities to participate 

in restoration activities. Additional NPS-led 

volunteer stewardship, and service-learning 

opportunities (defined as a strategy that 

integrates meaningful community service 

with instruction and reflection to enrich the 

learning experience, teach civic responsibility, 

and strengthen community ties to the park) 

would be offered to the public to foster 

long-lasting connections to the park and 

enhance resource protection and education 

opportunities. Also, citizen science (defined 

as participation in a science-based approach 

to understanding the environment, such as 

collecting data) would be expanded for park 

visitors in focal areas.

The park would also work with interpretive 

and education programs to showcase 

specific areas, such as special ecological 

areas, as living laboratories for experimental 

restoration and research, such as the 

exclosures in the former cattle pastures at 

Kahuku and the exclosures on Mauna Loa, 

and strategically engage educational groups 

and service groups in restoration activities at 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 139 

Kahuku. Students and general public would 

be provided opportunities to study and 

participate in restoration efforts in these areas 

as part of expanding service-learning and 

stewardship programs.

The park would continue to participate in 

existing partnerships for landscape-level 

restoration and conservation. Partnering 

opportunities would include coordinating 

activities with members of the Three 

Mountain Alliance (TMA) and other partners 

on research and restoration measures 

including reintroduction activities, such as 

the Hawaiian crow (‘alalā). The park would 

continue to engage partners such as DLNR

and NOAA for coastal and marine resource 

protection along the park boundary. The 

park would seek additional collaborations 

with appropriate agencies and surrounding 

communities to enhance protection of 

coastal and marine resources in addition to 

land resources.

CULTURAL RESOURCES

The cultural resources program 

would continue to provide cultural 

resource protection for park resources. 

Documentation, research, and stewardship 

of cultural resources, including natural 

and cultural history collections, would 

be strengthened. The park would strive 

to expand towards a full complement of 

preservation specialists on staff. The park 

would seek to enhance cultural resource 

preservation techniques and practices with 

Native Hawaiian traditional ecological 

knowledge. The park would also strive to 

expand understanding of cultural resources 

within the context of Native Hawaiian 

world view. Concepts of traditional Native 

Hawaiian land management, such as ahupua‘a 

management, would be integrated into 

cultural resource management activities and 

emphasize the interconnectedness of the 

cultural and natural environments.

Under the preferred alternative, the cultural 

resource program would seek to strengthen 

the archeology program in the park by 

building and expanding the permanent staff 

of archeologists which would allow the park 

to better meet the needs of all the park’s 

compliance projects. The larger staff will seek 

to expand the on-going documentation and 

inventory of park resources which formally 

began in 1994. Formal determinations of 

eligibility and national register nominations 

will be sought. Staff specialists would be hired 

to facilitate compliance with the National 

Historic Preservation Act and the NPS

guidelines for the park’s cultural resource 

management program.

A suite of preservation plans that would 

provide guidelines for interpreting and 

preserving cultural landscapes and historic 

structures would be developed and 

implemented. Natural and cultural museum 

collections would be researched and 

exhibited at a greater number of available and 

appropriate opportunities. The park would 

work toward permanent facilities to house 

and showcase locally and nationally significant 

collections as staff expand the preservation of 

park history through the care of objects and 

archives, and provide researchers access to 

those materials.

The park would seek to stabilize and maintain 

some significant ranching and World War 

II-era landscapes and their contributing 

elements, and work in a collaborative manner 

with the natural resources division to carry 

out the vision of an integrated restoration plan 

for Kahuku that will provide for protection of 

Kahuku’s rich and diverse histories. The park 

would also continue to inventory Kahuku’s 

resources and complete the National 

Register of Historic Places Determination 

of Eligibility, when appropriate. Some 

historically significant landscapes or 

contributing elements of landscapes in 

Kahuku would be identified and maintained 

for interpretation and education, highlighting 

different periods of occupation, such as early 

Hawaiian use, World War II, and ranching 

(if historic research shows ranching to be a 

significant theme).
140 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

RESEARCH

As in all alternatives, the park would continue 

park research efforts and collaboration with 

partners and would continue to support 

independent research under the NPS

permitting system consistent with NPS

management policies.

The preferred alternative would also 

strengthen the emphasis on disseminating 

research related to ecology, endemics, climate 

change, archeology, history, and traditional 

cultural properties to park visitors in a 

lay-person format.

WILDERNESS

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park would 

continue to manage designated wilderness 

consistent with National Park Service 

management policies and the Wilderness Act 

and would develop a wilderness stewardship 

plan to guide wilderness use in the park after 

completion of this GMP/WS/EIS. Wilderness 

stewardship would emphasize preserving the 

qualities of wilderness character including 

undeveloped, untrammeled, natural, solitude, 

and primitive and unconfined recreation. 

Activities and uses that would continue 

to occur in wilderness under minimum 

requirements analysis based on previous 

environmental compliance include: (1) fences 

to protect native ecosystems from nonnative 

ungulates, (2) research instrumentation and 

telecommunication essential to continued 

volcanic studies and warnings, (3) the 

use of helicopters as a minimum tool in 

servicing research instrumentation and in 

the protecting and restoring of natural and 

cultural resources, and (4) water catchment 

shelters in remote waterless backcountry.

Under the preferred alternative, Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park Wilderness 

Study would also recommend wilderness 

designation for 121,015 acres (GIS) of the 

Kahuku Unit that met eligibility criteria and 

requirements necessary to qualify for the 

National Wilderness Preservation System. 

Consistent with NPS policy, the park would 

continue to manage these proposed eligible 

lands for their wilderness qualities prior to 

formal designation.

Approximately 13,795 acres (GIS) in upper 

Kahuku are not recommended for wilderness 

designation at this time due to incompatible 

uses in the area, particularly the presence of 

four-wheel-drive roads and the needed access 

along these roads for NPS management efforts 

to protect and restore natural conditions 

including the native plant and animal 

communities, ecological processes, and 

threatened and endangered species. If and 

when recovery and restoration are completed 

and successful in upper Kahuku, the National 

Park Service would consider conducting 

another eligibility and suitability study for 

these remaining 13,795 acres (GIS) in the 

upper Kahuku area.

The remaining 16,055 acres (GIS) in Kahuku 

(located in the lower pastures) are not eligible 

for wilderness designation due to the changes 

wrought by past cattle ranching activities and 

the presence of past developments including 

extensive cattle paddocks of exotic grasses, 

roads, corrals, water pipelines, a small 

runway, two water reservoirs, and a series 

of small ranch buildings. In addition, visitor 

services for Kahuku would be developed 

in this area, including campgrounds, picnic 

areas, interpretive exhibits, and a visitor 

contact station.

SOUNDSCAPES AND THE 

ACOUSTIC ENVIRONMENT

The National Park Service would continue to 

use a variety of methods to reduce humancaused noise and improve natural sounds.

The Federal Aviation Administration, 

National Park Service, and the Volpe National 

Transportation Systems Center are working 

together to develop the Hawai’i Volcanoes 

National Park Air Tour Management Plan 

/ Environmental Impact Statement, whose 

objective, as outlined under the National 

Parks Air Tour Management Act of 2000, 

“shall be to develop acceptable and effective 

measures to mitigate or prevent the significant 

adverse impacts, if any, of commercial 

air tour operations upon the natural and 

cultural resources, visitor experiences, and 

tribal lands.” The National Park Service, 

as a cooperator with the Federal Aviation 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 141 

Administration, would complete an AT MP/

EIS that would develop measures to limit or 

prevent any significant impacts that may be 

caused by commercial air tour operations 

upon the natural and cultural resources, 

or visitor experiences at the park. This 

plan would be consistent with the guiding 

principle of reducing noise/human sound in 

sensitive areas.

To improve soundscapes and the acoustic 

environment, the park would expand 

active management practices to include: (1) 

implementing best management practices 

to limit the duration of artificial noise, (2) 

maximize human-caused noise free periods, 

(3) create more opportunities for visitors 

to experience natural soundscapes, and (4) 

implement partial closures of air space in 

sensitive areas. In addition, park operations 

and projects would be implemented 

using best management practices to 

minimize noise impacts.

The park would strive to improve soundscapes 

and the acoustic environment by reducing 

artificial noise within wilderness; in and near 

critical habitat for threatened and endangered 

species; in traditional cultural areas such 

as volcano summits, active lava, or active 

volcanic features; and in high visitor use areas. 

The park would also provide commercial air 

tour operators with information and training 

on wilderness boundaries and the location of 

these sensitive areas, and provide guidance 

on best management practices to improve 

understanding of the importance of these 

resources and encourage greater protection.

Under the preferred alternative, the park 

would also recommend the implementation 

of a soundscape monitoring program 

and would consider developing a 

soundscape management plan, if additional 

guidance is needed.

VISITOR EXPERIENCE

Under the preferred alternative, Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park would continue to 

provide visitors with safe access to volcanic 

features, active lava, cultural resources, and 

ecosystems from mauka to makai. The park 

would offer unique opportunities that provide 

visitors with an appreciation for the ways in 

which kama‘āina (local people of the land) 

view, understand, and connect with park 

landscapes and resources today.

Under this alternative, the park would 

deliberately manage different geographic 

areas of the park for different types of visitor 

experiences and levels of visitor services. 

The summit of Kīlauea would continue to 

be managed for the greatest concentration 

of park visitors and offer the most readily 

accessible services and amenities, such 

as visitor centers, restrooms, interpretive 

programming, etc. Along Chain of Craters 

Road and Mauna Loa Road, the park 

would maintain the driving and sightseeing 

experience by preserving the character of 

these park roads. The park would also strive to 

provide visitors with improved opportunities 

along these road corridors to experience 

and connect with park resources and values, 

including new opportunities at places like 

the 1974 flows.

The end of Chain of Craters Road would 

continue to be a destination for park 

visitors, offering a coastal experience and 

opportunities to experience recent lava flows. 

As the primary location to see the ocean in 

the park, this area would continue to be more 

congested than other locations along the road, 

however, replacement visitor contact facilities 

would improve the overall experience.

At Kahuku, infrastructure and development 

in Kahuku would be minimal, would be 

gradually phased in over time, and remain 

rustic in design to allow for a primitive visitor 

experience. Visitor access and recreation 

opportunities would be expanded from what 

is currently offered.

New visitor opportunities at ʻŌla‘a would 

expand rainforest experiences in the 

park. While ʻĀinahou Ranch would be 

managed primarily as a core nēnē recovery 

area; however, guided access would be 

allowed for groups participating in habitat 

restoration or historic preservation and 

maintenance activities.
142 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

The park would also set the expectation for 

visitors in the park that eruptive events would 

likely be linked with congested areas in the 

park. Experience and research at Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park has shown that 

the public has tolerance for greater levels of 

congestion during these events.

The park would also develop an accessibility 

plan to identify and evaluate opportunities 

throughout the park to improve accessibility.

RANGE OF RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES— 

Under the preferred alternative, the park 

would continue to allow for a range of 

recreational activities such as viewing lava 

and evidence of volcanic activity, camping, 

hiking, backpacking, biking, equestrian use, 

birding and wildlife viewing, picnicking, 

general sightseeing, and stargazing. Additional 

opportunities for existing activities could be 

provided in different geographic areas of the 

park. The park would focus on ranger-guided 

tours for access to new and particularly 

sensitive areas in the park. Expanded 

recreational activities would be authorized in 

Kahuku beyond current use.

TRAILS: HIKING, BIKING, AND 

EQUESTRIAN— Under the preferred 

alternative, a trail management plan would 

be created to comprehensively assess trail 

conditions and needs and to identify specific 

trail alignments and uses, such as hiking, 

biking, and equestrian use. Development of 

any new trail alignments would be primarily 

along historic alignments and traditional 

routes, or on existing roads, such as at Kahuku 

(see Figure 3.4. Historic Routes, Full Park). The 

park would strive to provide access to a variety 

of locations for different audiences and types 

of recreationists. The park would also strive 

to create loop trail experiences through new 

links between existing trails.

Rather than construct extensive new trails, the 

park would evaluate ways to use the existing 

road network for improved nonvehicular 

recreation opportunities. For example, in 

some areas of the park, such as Hilina Pali 

or Mauna Loa, roads could be closed to 

private day use vehicles during certain times 

of day or days of the week to provide a more 

enjoyable and less congested experience for 

recreationists such as hikers, backpackers, 

bikers, and equestrian users.

CAMPING—

FRONTCOUNTRY CAMPING

Nāmakanipaio Campground and 

Kūlanaokuaiki Campground would 

continue to serve as formal frontcountry 

campgrounds in the park with drive-in 

camping opportunities. Nāmakanipaio 

Campground would continue to be run as a 

concession/fee operation.

Any additional camping considered in the 

future would be more primitive and dispersed 

than current facilities and would most likely 

be in Kahuku due to the lack of current 

facilities in this unit. Any future frontcountry 

camp development would also be considered 

in relationship to outdoor education pavilions 

that have been sited based on ecological 

themes and would be targeted to educational 

groups but could also expand capacity for 

general public camping.

BACKCOUNTRY CAMPING

Under the preferred alternative, the park 

would maintain existing backcountry 

camping and would explore, with additional 

planning, formally designating backcountry 

campsites, primarily along the coast 

outside the tsunami evacuation zone and 

at Mauna Loa, but potentially in a range 

of environments. Additional backcountry 

camping opportunities would also be available 

in Kahuku. Any new campsites would require 

further planning.

Some sites could contain water catchments/ 

shelters, and any decisions about designating 

campsites in wilderness would be 

consistent with the minimum requirements 

decision guide.

INTERPRETATION AND EDUCATION—

The park would develop a comprehensive 

interpretive plan which is a comprehensive 

interpretive strategy. This plan would be 

parkwide with an interpretive media plan 

and long-term direction for the park’s front-
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 143 

line interpretive programs and the park’s 

education program. Some of the park themes 

that require additional, updated guidance in 

this plan include Kahuku; the park’s special 

ecological areas as places to experience the 

park’s most intact native ecosystems, learning 

about the special plants and animals and 

efforts to protect and restore them in these 

areas; and impacts from climate change to 

park resources.

PROGRAMS

The park would continue to provide the 

current range of interpretive programs, 

media, and techniques and would develop 

a comprehensive interpretive plan that 

would expand interpretive opportunities 

to introduce visitors to all of the park’s 

interpretive themes through the use of 

interpretive standards and methods. Kahuku 

would also be integrated into the park’s 

comprehensive interpretive plan, and key 

stories such as the Southwest Rift of Mauna 

Loa and the five recent eruptions, the story 

of refugia and restoration, ranching and 

the paniolo lifestyle, Pu‘u Akihi - a Special 

Ecological Area, and how land affects 

people and people affect the land, Kahuku 

in the context of climate change, and the 

ahupua‘a management (Native Hawaiian 

land management) system would be 

featured in this unit.

Under the preferred alternative, interpretation 

methods, while diverse in nature, would 

focus on ranger-led experiences and live 

programs to immerse visitors in the volcanic, 

biologic, and cultural resources at Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park. These live programs 

would also provide additional opportunities 

to learn from Native Hawaiians and/or 

other cultural practitioners. Self-guided 

interpretation opportunities such as waysides 

and interpretive trails would also be provided, 

particularly in lower Kahuku.

New, additional interpretive programs would 

also focus on providing hands-on educational 

experiences for school, volunteer, and 

other organized groups in the frontcountry. 

Stewardship and hands-on activities would 

be a key element in these programs engaging 

visitors in research, learning, science, 

restoration, and educational programs and 

facilities. In addition, park staff would engage 

visitors in research and citizen science.

Interpretive programming would also utilize 

new media and tools to provide inquiry-based 

learning through frontcountry self-guided 

interpretive and educational opportunities 

in order to meet the diverse needs of an 

increasingly international audience.

INTERPRETATION AND 

EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES 

In the preferred alternative, the park 

would expand the uses of Jaggar Museum 

and Kīlauea Visitor Center as dramatic 

opportunities to introduce visitors to the 

volcanic, biologic, and cultural resources at 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park. Kahuku 

would also serve as an important location for 

visitor orientation.

The park would emphasize minimal new 

facilities. When needed, structures would be 

small, low-impact, potentially designed to be 

consistent with traditional Hawaiian design 

(such as thatched hale), and would provide 

flexibility during periods of eruptive activity.

The park would provide opportunities 

for outdoor education and inquiry-based 

learning that stretches from mauka to makai 

with a series of small, covered pavilions 

at key locations.

The park would also seek to engage visitors 

in resource management activities through 

developing combined interpretive and 

resource management features such as a mala 

(native and canoe plant garden), rare plant 

orchards, or a greenhouse, which would serve 

to interpret indigenous plants, provide plant 

material for stewardship restoration activities 

and demonstrate the park’s role in protecting 

endemic plant species.
144 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

COMMERCIAL SERVICES

A Commercial Services Strategy has been 

produced as part of the general management 

plan that includes criteria for evaluating 

new commercial services, consistent with 

existing concession law and other statutes 

(see Appendix F: Commercial Services Strategy 

for Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park). This 

strategy would provide broad guidance 

for future decisions involving commercial 

services but would not apply retroactively to 

previously made decisions. The Commercial 

Services Strategy would not affect the terms 

of ongoing contracts or authorizations 

previously signed or issued prior to the 

completion of the final GMP/WS/EIS.

Under the preferred alternative, the park 

would continue to allow the range of 

commercial services that presently exist at 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park. Commercial 

services would continue to operate in the 

existing developed area around Crater Rim 

Drive and would extend to the end of Chain 

of Craters Road when necessary, such as 

to provide access to eruptive events in that 

area. Commercial use would also continue at 

current levels along Hilina Pali and Mauna 

Loa Roads. Commercial services would also 

be allowed in lower Kahuku, similar to access 

granted to the general public, but would be 

restricted from upper Kahuku, including all 

areas eligible for wilderness designation. Any 

proposed significant increases in use due 

to eruptive events, or even due to increased 

ecotourism or other type of tours not 

related to an eruptive event, would need to 

be evaluated due to safety concerns, natural 

and cultural resource concerns, and limited 

infrastructure in these areas. Any necessary 

environmental and/or cultural compliance 

would also need to be completed.

In managing commercial services, the park 

would continue to balance access to resources 

for commercial service providers and clients 

with access granted to the general public, 

ensuring that the public is not displaced from 

high use areas in the park. The park would 

also engage commercial service providers in 

managing visitor use and providing valuable 

information to the public, including general 

park visitor information, safety updates, and 

interpretation of the park’s fundamental 

resources and values. Management strategies 

could include: infrastructure changes to 

accommodate commercial uses (such as 

additional parking, staging areas, and limiting 

tour buses to one-way traffic on Crater 

Rim Drive when fully opened), limits on 

numbers or size/capacity or times/dates of 

commercial activities, interpretive training 

for all commercial service employees, and 

ongoing communication with commercial 

service providers about changes in park 

conditions, etc.

ADMINISTRATIVE FACILITIES AND 

INFRASTRUCTURE

The park would continue to maintain and 

upgrade, when necessary, administrative 

infrastructure in the park such as offices, 

storage, and utilities and would improve 

provisions for accessibility. Under the 

preferred alternative, administrative functions 

would be relocated from Kīlauea Visitor 

Center to other buildings within the park so 

that interpretive and visitor use functions 

could be consolidated at the visitor center.

At Kahuku, the park would continue to 

maintain and upgrade when necessary, 

existing infrastructure in lower Kahuku and 

continue to use existing buildings for office 

space and storage. The park would also 

adaptively reuse the existing developed area in 

lower Kahuku for a mix of visitor services and 

administrative and operational use as needed. 

Any new development in Kahuku would 

occur in the existing developed footprint.

TRANSPORTATION AND ACCESS

All park roads are eligible for inclusion on the 

national register and would be maintained 

to provide for a safe driving experience, 

consistent with the park setting to ensure 

a park-like and scenic driving experience. 

Historic road alignments and built features 

that define the period of significance of the 

roads would be maintained to the extent 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 145 

possible. A range of roads and road standards 

would continue, and the park would continue 

to work cooperatively with the state and 

other partners, particularly on Highway 11, 

in order to provide for visitor safety, signage, 

and information.

No construction of new roads and no major 

new parking areas would be anticipated, 

though the park would continue to maintain 

parking areas and turnouts with upgrades 

as needed. Existing parking areas could be 

expanded or new smaller parking areas could 

be developed to facilitate visitor access in 

keeping with the existing road history and 

character defining features. Some parking 

areas could also be reduced or removed out of 

concern for park resources.

In the preferred alternative, the park would 

strive to maintain and improve visitor access 

for both vehicles and bicycles. This improved 

access could involve exploring the use of 

utility corridors or other existing unpaved 

areas in the park, especially for bicycles.

The first focus for managing congestion and 

reducing private vehicle use would be guided 

by demand management, marketing strategies 

such as educating visitors about when to 

visit locations that may be crowded, and 

park policies to control cars and congestion. 

Intelligent transportation systems (ITS) would 

be another tool or element of this strategy. 

New restrictions or management of vehicles 

on some roads would be implemented, such 

as implementing size limits (no vehicles 

greater than 98 inches in width or over 38 feet 

in length) and testing one-way traffic for large 

commercial buses within a pilot program on 

part of Crater Rim Drive.

Some road connections previously lost to lava 

could be restored and the park would strive 

to reopen roads impacted by lava, seismic 

activity, eruptive events, or other acts of 

nature when feasible.

Continuation of a shuttle (nonmandatory) 

would be evaluated after completion of 

the pilot project.

PARTNERSHIPS

The park would continue to maintain existing 

partnerships with agencies and organizations 

that are key to the park’s mission, such as 

Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, Kilauea 

Military Camp, the Three Mountain Alliance, 

park concessioners, and other entities 

that provide visitor services and support 

park operations.

The park would also foster and expand 

partnerships with local and regional 

communities, organizations, nonprofits, and 

businesses; Native Hawaiian communities 

(including families and Native Hawaiian 

organizations); adjacent landowners; 

local, state, and federal agencies; and other 

interested groups or organizations in efforts 

to support the purpose and significance of 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park.

As a way to involve local participation, the 

park would promote community and school 

involvement in traditional practices and 

environmental service projects.

CLIMATE CHANGE AND SUSTAINABILITY 

As a leader in how parks and land managers 

are responding to threats from climate change, 

the park would continue to implement the 

climate action plan for Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park and participate in the Climate 

Friendly Parks program. The park would strive 

for increased energy efficiency, conservation, 

and sustainability in development of facilities 

and would give priority to green facility 

design for any new construction, retrofitting, 

and upgrading of facilities to the greatest 

extent possible. Increased reliance would 

be placed by the park on temporary and 

movable facilities to improve flexibility for 

both visitors and operations during periods of 

eruptive activity.

Contractors and concessioners would be 

encouraged to reduce their own greenhouse 

gas emissions, particularly during their 

operations in the park, by using sustainable 

practices, purchasing local products, and 

using vehicles with alternative fuels.
146 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

The park would also promote activities to 

get visitors out of cars such hiking, biking, 

and equestrian use, and employees would be 

encouraged to bicycle to decrease the park’s 

carbon footprint.

The park would serve as a model for 

climate change adaptation by supporting 

climate change-related research, adapting 

management activities based on climate 

projections, and building resilience 

among populations of rare native species, 

communities, and ecosystems. Examples 

include long-term weather monitoring of park 

ecosystems, establishing wildlife corridors 

through restoration of forest fragments, 

and expanding populations of rare species 

throughout their former range.

Operations

ESTIMATED COSTS

Cost estimates for Alternative 2 are identified 

in Table 3.5. Alternative 2: Summary of Costs. 

Costs shown are not intended for budgeting 

purposes; instead they are used to show 

a relative comparison of costs among the 

alternatives. Implementation of the approved 

plan will depend on future funding, and 

approval of a general management plan 

does not guarantee that funding and staffing 

needed to implement the plan would be 

forthcoming. Full implementation of the 

plan may take many years. The National Park 

Service will also evaluate proposed facility 

investments prior to project approvals using 

the best scientific information available related 

to climate change and other possible scenarios 

to ensure the long-term sustainability of these 

investments. Due to potential vulnerabilities 

of some of the park’s facilities, it is feasible 

that the National Park Service may conclude 

that such financial investments for facilities 

would be unwise and that other options 

would be considered or potentially the project 

would not be pursued or implemented.

These costs are in 2012 dollars and are 

based upon general “Class C” estimates for 

site development and construction and are 

referred to as conceptual estimates by the 

design and construction industry. They are 

general in nature and representative of a 

broad based vision rather than focused on 

specific details. Prior to submitting funding 

requests for the design and construction 

phases, “Class B” estimates are required, 

based upon detailed site and facility designs. 

“Class A” estimates would be prepared from 

completed construction documents.

ONE-TIME COSTS— One-time costs for 

Alternative 2 emphasize the rehabilitation of 

facilities and infrastructure and addressing 

critical resource management concerns. 

Almost half the one-time costs associated with 

Alternative 2 involve projects in the Kahuku 

Unit which is the newest addition to the 

park. At Kahuku, the majority of costs would 

be to rehabilitate the main road from the 

entrance to Upper Glover for two-wheel-drive 

access and to invest in the construction and 

maintenance of ungulate-proof fences that 

help control invasives and assist the natural 

recovery of native species. Additional new 

construction costs at Kahuku would include 

campsites and associated infrastructure, an 

educational pavilion, wayside exhibits, and a 

small amphitheater associated with the visitor 

contact station.

Overall, a large portion of the costs in the 

main part of the park would be to renovate 

the Ohia Wing, a historic structure, as a 

cultural museum/administrative offices. 

Additional facility rehabilitation costs include 

those necessary to accommodate the steady 

stream of visitors at the park’s main visitor 

facilities such as Kīlauea Visitor Center, Jaggar 

Museum, and the Ohia Wing.

Resource management costs for Alternative 

2 would be primarily for fencing for 

nonnative animal control. Invasive species 

are the overriding threat to natural resources 

in the park, degrading and simplifying 

native ecosystems and eroding biological 

diversity. The park’s main strategy to control 

invasives and monitor the natural recovery 

of native species is through constructing 

and maintaining ungulate-proof fences. In 

addition to Kahuku, the park would invest 

in fencing to exclude ungulates from the 

wilderness area at ‘Ōla‘a.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 147 

Costs for new construction in Alternative 

2 focus on installation of educational 

pavilions, waysides, and new trail segments 

or linkages in the main portion of the park. 

Transportation costs for Alternative 2 focus on 

continuing and expanding the shuttle system 

around the rim and evaluating the feasibility 

of a shuttle system at Kahuku.

Projects in the alternatives are identified 

as either Priority 1 or Priority 2. Priority 1 

projects include projects that emphasize 

resource protection, threats, and visitor safety. 

Priority 2 projects which are less urgent 

include all other projects important to the full 

implementation of the alternative, including 

those that address visitor opportunities and 

experiences such as enhanced facilities, as 

funding allows and could be sustained. For 

the Priority 1 projects, the renovation of the 

Ohia Wing is expected to take many years so 

it may be completed after implementation 

of other Priority 1 projects. At Kahuku, the 

most pressing Priority 1 projects would be 

construction and rehabilitation of fencing 

for animal control. Though still a Priority 1 

project, the rehabilitation of the main road at 

Kahuku from the entrance to Upper Glover 

for two-wheel-drive access may be phased 

after fencing projects are completed. The 

least important Priority 2 project would be 

the evaluation of the development of a shuttle 

system for visitor access at Kahuku.

Deferred maintenance, also presented in 

Table 3.5. Alternative 2: Summary of Costs, 

is maintenance and repair activities that 

were not performed when they should have 

been or were scheduled to be and which, 

therefore, are put off or delayed for a future 

period. Maintenance and repairs are activities 

directed toward keeping fixed assets in an 

acceptable condition. Many of the proposals 

in Alternative 2 address deferred maintenance 

issues; therefore, deferred maintenance 

costs would “offset” the total one-time 

costs. A fully staffed maintenance division 

as presented in this alternative would also 

assist the park in addressing the amount of 

deferred maintenance.

STAFFING

Implementation of Alternative 2 would 

require additional staffing for increased 

natural resources protection and restoration 

efforts, additional cultural resources program 

needs, new interpretive and educational 

programs, and additional maintenance, law 

enforcement, and administrative needs.

Proposed staffing in Alternative 2 would 

require 47 new FTE employees (one person 

working 40 hours per week for one year, 

or the equivalent): 11.5 FTE for additional 

natural and cultural resources management 

and restoration activities, eight positions 

for interpretation and education to address 

additional and new interpretation throughout 

the park, 12 positions for facilities and 

maintenance, five additional positions for 

visitor protection, nine positions for Kahuku 

operations seven days a week, and 1.5 new 

administrative and management positions. 

The staffing table does not include 

seasonal staffing, which would vary 

depending on specific projects needs and 

funding allocations.

ANNUAL OPERATING COSTS— Annual 

operating costs are the total costs per year 

for maintenance and operations associated 

with Alternative 2, including utilities, supplies, 

staff salaries and benefits, leasing, and other 

materials. Costs and staffing estimates assume 

that the alternative is fully implemented as 

described in the narrative. The park’s annual 

operating budget for fiscal year 2014 was 

$7,281,000. Full implementation of Alternative 

2 would include filling vacant positions and 

filling an additional 47 FTE ($3,079,000). 

Additional operations and maintenance 

costs related to capital investments would be 

$379,000. Total operating costs for Alternative 

2 would be $10,739,000. FTE salaries 

and benefits are included in the annual 

operating costs.
148 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Table 3.5. Alternative 2: Summary of Costs

Description of Cost Estimated Summary of Costs

ANNUAL OPERATIONAL COSTS

Existing Annual Operational Costs $7,281,000

Additional Staffing Costs (+47 FTE)* $3,079,000

Additional Operations & Maintenance Costs Related 

to Capital Investments

$379,000

Total Annual Operational Costs $10,739,000

ONE-TIME CAPITAL COSTS

Program Support

Priority 1 Projects** $1,158,000

Priority 2 Projects $0

Facility Rehabilitation

Priority 1 Projects $13,281,000 

Priority 2 Projects $1,312,000

Natural Resource Management

Priority 1 Projects $6,763,000

Priority 2 Projects $0

Cultural Resource Management

Priority 1 Projects $10,494,000

Priority 2 Projects $70,000

New Construction

Priority 1 Projects $1,006,000

Priority 2 Projects $3,684,000

Transportation

Priority 1 Projects $150,000

Priority 2 Projects $150,000

Total Priority 1 Projects $32,852,000 (Kahuku costs are $14,029,000 of this total)

Total Priority 2 Projects $5,216,000 (Kahuku costs are $2,452,000 of this total)

Total One-time Costs $38,068,000 (Kahuku costs are $16,481,000 of this total)

Deferred Maintenance Offset $22,841,000

* The current staffing level is below the authorized level of 143 FTE; the additional staffing level would add 47 FTE to the authorized 

level of 143. The new staffing level would be 190 FTE.

** Priority 1 projects include projects that emphasize resource protection, threats, and visitor safety. Priority 2 projects include all other 

projects important to the full implementation of the alternative, including those that address visitor opportunities and experiences such 

as enhanced facilities as funding allows and could be sustained. Costs are in 2012 dollars.

Table 3.4. Alternative 2: Staffing

Park Management Division FTE

Administrative and Management (includes Kahuku staff) 27 + 10.5 new

Natural and Cultural Resource Management 29 + 11.5 new

Interpretation and Education 12 + 8 new

Facilities and Maintenance 28 + 12 new

Visitor Protection/Fire 26 + 5 new

Vacant positions 21

Total New Positions 47

Total Positions 190 FTE 

Total Staffing Costs $10,739,000 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 149 

ALTERNATIVE 3

Description of Alternative

This alternative emphasizes building 

new connections with the park primarily 

through expanded education and hands-on 

stewardship opportunities. Traditional visitor 

opportunities would continue and capacity 

could be expanded at some existing sites 

to allow for increased visitation, but new 

development would be very limited and a 

suite of management tools would be used 

to disperse visitors and manage congestion 

throughout the park. A greater focus would be 

placed on science and learning opportunities 

for visitors from mauka (mountains) to makai 

(sea). The park would immerse visitors in the 

protection and restoration of native species 

and ecosystems by maximizing opportunities 

to participate in restoration activities and 

additional emphasis would be placed on 

providing opportunities for visitors to engage 

in research, scientific investigation, and 

projects associated with natural and cultural 

resources management, notably in Kahuku.

Similar to the preferred alternative, natural 

and cultural resources would continue to be 

managed and protected with a high degree of 

integrity, consistent with direction provided 

by existing laws and policies. This alternative 

also emphasizes the park’s role as a refuge and 

haven for native biota, people, and cultures 

in a world constantly adapting to volcanic 

activity and island building processes. This 

alternative would honor the Native Hawaiian 

people and culture, by recognizing Native 

Hawaiian values such as mālama ‘āina 

(nourishing or taking care of the land) and 

kuleana (responsibility) and perspectives 

from Native Hawaiian land management such 

as ahupua‘a management (managing land 

from mauka to makai) as important concepts 

in park stewardship of resources. Native 

Hawaiian traditional ecological knowledge 

would be used to enhance current scientific 

understanding to protect park resources 

and provide additional interpretive and 

educational opportunities for visitors.

Management Zones Applied 

to Alternative 3

The management zones for Alternative 3 

are geographically located to identify an 

area’s predominant use and desired future 

conditions. The specific configurations of 

the management zones for Alternative 3 are 

provided in Figure 3.6. Management Zones 

for Alternative 3, Full Park and Figure 3.7. 

Management Zones for Alternative 3, Crater 

Rim Drive and Kahuku. The following 

description identifies the locations and details 

for the application of management zones 

in Alternative 3.

VISITOR SERVICES ZONE

In Alternative 3, the visitor services zone 

would include Nāmakanipaio Campground, 

the northeast section of Crater Rim Drive 

and some surrounding facilities, and the 

vicinity around existing development 

in lower Kahuku.

Around Crater Rim Drive, the visitor services 

zone would include 100 yards on either side 

of northeastern section of the road between 

Jaggar Museum and the junction with Chain 

of Craters Road and would extend around 

high visitor use facilities/locations including 

the campus around Kīlauea Visitor Center and 

the parking lots for Kīlauea Overlook, Kīlauea 

Iki, Devastation, and Pu‘u Pua‘i.

In Kahuku, the Visitor Services Zone would 

encompass all of the existing ranch buildings 

in lower Kahuku and the Pu‘u o Lokuana 

Trailhead, extending north to the far side of 

Pu‘u o Lokuana and west to the eastern edge 

of the Old Mamalahoa Highway.
150 | Chapter 3: 

Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Figure 3.6. Management Zones for Alternative 3, Full Park

P A C I F I C O C E A N

UPPER

LOWER

‘ Ō L A ‘ A M A U N A L O A

K A H U K U

K Ī L A U E A

Hawai‘i Volcanoes

National Park

MAP AREA

μ

Produced by: PWR - Seattle Planning Office

Date Created: June 2014

Data Sources: USGS - Roads, Coastline

 NPS - Park Boundary, Wilderness,

 Management Zones

Fig. 3.6 MgmtZonesAlt 3 Full Park_060914.mxd

0 10

Kilometers

0 5

Miles

Legend

NPS Boundary

Roads

Figure 3.6 Management Zones for Alternative 3, Full Park

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park GMP/WS/EIS

Eligible Wilderness

Designated Wilderness

Park Support ZoneTransitional/Semi-Primitive ZoneVisitor Services ZoneWild/Primitive Zone
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 151 

Figure 3.7. Management Zones for Alternative 3, Crater Rim Drive and Kahuku

UPPER

LOWER

Lower 

Glover

Upper

Glover

Ranch House

(Administrative 

Office)

Lower

Kahuku

Crater

Rim

Drive

Hawai‘i Volcanoes

National Park

MAP AREA

Thurston

Lava Tube

Kīlauea

Visitor

Center

Kilauea

Military

Camp

Jaggar

Museum

HALEMA‘UMA‘U

CRATER

#

TRAIL CLOSURE

FOOT TRAFFIC

ROAD CLOSURE ONLY

ROAD AND

TRAIL CLOSURE

#

#

TRAIL CLOSURE

#

Crater Rim Drive

Lower Kahuku

Figure 3.7 Management Zones for Alternative 3, Crater Rim Drive & Kahuku 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park GMP/WS/EIS

Produced by: PWR - Seattle Planning Office

Date Created: June 2014

Data Sources: USGS - Coastline, Roads

 NPS - Management Zones, Park Boundary

Fig. 3.7 MgmtZones Alt 3 Crater_Kahuku_060914.mxd

0 1

Kilometers

0 0.5

Miles μ

μ

0 1

Kilometers

0 0.5

Miles

Legend

NPS Boundary

Roads

Park Support Zone

Transitional/Semi-Primitive Zone

Visitor Services Zone

Wild/Primitive Zone
152 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

TRANSITIONAL/SEMI-PRIMITIVE ZONE

In Alternative 3, the transitional/semiprimitive zone would encompass all major 

road corridors in the park, including areas 

surrounding high use visitor turnoffs and 

trailheads. This includes the Highway 11 

corridor through the park, the Mauna Loa 

Road (including the areas surrounding 

Kīpukapuaulu and Mauna Loa Lookout), 

the southern section of Crater Rim Drive 

between Jaggar Museum and junction with 

Chain of Craters Road, the Escape Road, 

Hilina Pali Road, Chain of Craters Road 

(including the areas surrounding Mauna Ulu, 

Kealakomowaena, Pu‘u Loa, and the end of 

the road), and the road corridors in lower 

Kahuku (100 yards on either side of the road 

corridors). This zone also encompasses the 

Tree Molds area off of Mauna Loa Road; and 

the area between Crater Rim Drive and the 

Crater Rim Trail, extending west and south to 

include room for a possible trail connection 

between Kīlauea Iki Overlook, Thurston Lava 

Tube, Pu‘u Pua‘i, and Devastation.

WILD/PRIMITIVE ZONE

The wild/primitive zone in Alternative 3 

would include all areas designated wilderness 

or eligible wilderness within Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park, including the 

East Rift, Ka‘ū Desert, ‘Ōla‘a, and Mauna 

Loa wilderness units within the Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes Wilderness. The zone would also 

include the small tract of ‘Ōla‘a and most 

of the nonwilderness areas of the Mauna 

Loa, Kīlauea, and Kahuku units, except for 

major road corridors, high use visitor and 

administrative facilities, and high visitor use 

turnouts along the road corridors (see “Visitor 

Services Zone,” “Transitional/ Semi-Primitive 

Zone,” and “Park Support Zone”).

All of upper Kahuku would be included 

within the Wild/Primitive zone, as would 

most of lower Kahuku except along the road 

corridors (see “Transitional/Semi-Primitive 

Zone”) and in the vicinity of the ranch 

buildings (see “Visitor Services Zone”).

PARK SUPPORT ZONE

The Park Support Zone in Alternative 3 

includes those facilities and surrounding 

areas in the park used primarily for NPS

administration, such as the research facilities, 

administration and housing area, the rainshed, 

and the NPS horse corral. Both ‘Āinahou 

and Kilauea Military Camp are zoned Park 

Support because they are not open to the 

general public under this alternative.

The greatest proportion of Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park (about 98.8%) would be 

managed in the Wild/Primitive zone. The 

Transitional/Semi-Primitive Zone would 

cover about 1.0%, and the Visitor Services 

Zone would cover approximately 0.1%. The 

Park Support Zone would cover the smallest 

portion (less than 0.1%) of the park.

See Table 3.1. Management Zones for a 

comparison of the zone concept; desired 

natural and cultural resource conditions; 

shoreline and wilderness management 

practices; visitor opportunities; science, 

research, and learning opportunities; 

facility conditions; and access and 

transportation conditions of the proposed 

management zones.

Site-Specific Management Guidance

The following section presents an 

overview of the management strategies for 

Alternative 3 for specific areas of Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park.

KĪLAUEA VISITOR CENTER AND 

SURROUNDING AREA

Same as Alternative 2.

KĪLAUEA VISITOR CENTER—Same 

as Alternative 2.

VOLCANO HOUSESM— Same as Alternative 2. 

In addition, the park would articulate in the 

next concession contract a goal to retrofit and 

update Volcano HouseSM to use solar energy 

to serve as a leader in sustainable design and 

adaptive reuse of historic structures. Costs to 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 153 

construct and/or install solar infrastructure 

would be borne by the concession. The park 

would strive for environmentally sound and 

sustainable practices for the entire operation.

1877 VOLCANO HOUSE— Same as 

Alternative 2. In addition, the park would 

increase historic interpretation of 1877 

Volcano House (current home of the 

Volcano Art Center) and the historic campus. 

Interpretation could be expanded inside the 

building by adding interior exhibits. These 

exhibits could include a period restored room 

and/or additional historic photos of the 1877 

Volcano House in the appropriate rooms to 

highlight historic uses of the building. On the 

outside, interpretation could be expanded by 

adding an additional wayside.

OHIA WING (1932 ADMINISTRATION 

BUILDING)—Same as Alternative 1.

CRATER RIM DRIVE

Assuming no eruptive activity, the park would 

maintain the closure of the southern section 

of Crater Rim Drive to private vehicle traffic 

from Jaggar Museum to the Chain of Craters 

Road junction and explore the feasibility of 

implementing a mandatory shuttle system 

that would be owned by the National Park 

Service but operated by a concession, CUA, or 

partner. This shuttle would run, with two-way 

service, the length of Crater Rim Drive and 

would be mandatory from Jaggar Museum 

south and east to Chain of Craters Road 

junction. Locations for parking would be 

explored and would likely include expanding 

existing parking areas at Jaggar Museum and 

Devastation Trail. Large commercial buses 

would be allowed to run on Crater Rim Drive 

but would be limited to one-way traffic on the 

southern section of Crater Rim Drive from 

Jaggar Museum to the Chain of Craters Road 

junction. The historic character of the road 

would be preserved.

In addition, the park would continue to allow 

administrative use of the road for two-way 

vehicle traffic. The park also would encourage 

bicycle use of the road with improved signage 

for safety concerns.

HALEMA‘UMA‘U PARKING AND 

OVERLOOK—Same as Alternative 2.

KILAUEA MILITARY CAMP

Same as Alternative 2.

JAGGAR MUSEUM AND HAWAIIAN 

VOLCANO OBSERVATORY

Same as Alternative 1. In addition the park 

would rehabilitate and upgrade the outdated 

Jaggar Museum interpretive exhibits.

With the closure of part of Crater 

Rim Drive to private vehicles, Jaggar 

Museum could also serve as a staging 

area for the shuttle. Additional parking 

improvements may be needed.

THURSTON LAVA TUBE AND 

SURROUNDING AREA

THURSTON LAVA TUBE (NĀHUKU)— Under 

Alternative 3, the park would implement a 

more active management strategy at Thurston 

to address congestion and improve the visitor 

experience by increasing reliance on shuttle 

systems, reducing private vehicle parking, and 

continuing to allow commercial vehicles at 

Thurston. The park would strive to improve 

visitor information and outreach for trip 

planning and emphasize less busy times of 

the day to visit and expand use of intelligent 

transportation systems.

To circulate visitors and provide visitor access 

to Thurston Lava Tube, the park would rely on 

the Crater Rim Drive shuttle, if implemented, 

and redirect private vehicle parking to other 

parking areas such as Kīlauea Iki, Devastation, 

or Pu‘u Pua‘i. Thurston Lava Tube would 

be maintained as a stop for large and small 

buses for commercial or educational groups 

around Crater Rim Drive as well as a shuttle 

stop. Except for ADA parking, private vehicle 

parking at Thurston would be removed. 

Reconstruction of some of the parking may be 

necessary to provide compliant ADA parking.

The park would continue ranger-guided tours 

of Pua Po‘o, as staffing and funding permits, 

similar to Alternative 1. As a way to disperse 

visitor use and take some of the demand off 
154 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Thurston Lava Tube, the park would explore 

the option of expanding public access to other 

lava tubes for ranger-guided tours that would 

be focused on science.

KĪLAUEA IKI, PU‘U PUA‘I, AND 

DEVASTATION— New or improved 

trail connections would be explored for 

pedestrians and bicycles from Kīlauea 

Iki and Devastation Trail parking areas 

to Thurston, but the existing footprint of 

those parking areas for private vehicles 

would be maintained.

ESCAPE ROAD— Same as Alternative 1.

CHAIN OF CRATERS ROAD

Same as Alternative 1. In addition, the park 

would use existing trails, historic trails, 

turnouts, and waysides to improve the visitor 

experience and limit new development along 

Chain of Craters Road. New connections 

between existing trails could create 

loop hiking opportunities along Chain 

of Craters Road.

To limit informal turnouts, the park would 

improve signage of features and viewpoints at 

existing road turnouts.

MAUNA ULU— Same as Alternative 1.

KEALAKOMO— Same as Alternative 2.

END OF CHAIN OF CRATERS ROAD— Same 

as Alternative 1. In addition, the park would 

provide a covered educational pavilion at a 

key location for visitor contact, interpretive 

programs, and outdoor educational use.

The park would strive to replace lost 

picnicking opportunities with a new picnic 

area along the coastal portion at the end of 

Chain of Craters Road.

HILINA PALI ROAD

Same as Alternative 2.

‘ĀINAHOU RANCH HOUSE AND GROUNDS

Similar to Alternative 2, ‘Āinahou Ranch 

would continue to provide a core nēnē 

management area for nēnē recovery. Park 

staff would continue to maintain the house 

and cultural landscape in good condition 

with very limited use of volunteers or other 

support groups. The water system would be 

maintained for house fire suppression, and the 

access road to ‘Āinahou would be maintained 

as an unpaved road. Also, in the areas 

surrounding the formal gardens and where 

invasive faya tree (Morella faya) and European 

olive (Olea europaea) have taken over, habitat 

restoration to remove these invasives, and 

re-establish native plant communities would 

occur and improve forage for forest birds 

(e.g., amakihi, apapane, ‘i‘iwi). Within the 

formal gardens, the park would work with 

cultural resource staff to replace invasive 

nonnatives with native species, minimize any 

new plantings or cultivation, and prevent any 

inadvertent introduction of nonnatives.

Alternative 3 would provide greater emphasis 

on restoration for nēnē and minimize human 

presence in the ranch house and gardens only 

as directly related to the protection of the 

site. NPS staff would conduct the majority of 

the project work at ‘Āinahou, with less use 

of volunteers or other groups, in order to 

minimize the amount of human presence at 

the site and emphasize nēnē recovery.

MAUNA LOA ROAD 

Same as Alternative 2.

NĀMAKANIPAIO CAMPGROUND— Same 

as Alternative 2 except there would be no 

expansion of Nāmakanipaio Campground to 

include additional indoor lodging facilities.

KA‘Ū FOOTPRINTS AREA AND KA‘Ū DESERT

Similar to Alternative 2, a DCP would be 

developed to address issues and needs for 

interpretation of the Ka‘ū Footprints and 

the Ka‘ū Desert area; however, the park 

would focus on improvements within the 

current capacity of the area rather than 

expanding access.

‘ŌLA‘A

Same as Alternative 2.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 155 

‘ŌLA‘A SMALL TRACT— Similar to 

Alternative 2, the park would coordinate with 

the county to formalize a turnout for parking 

on Wright Road for two to three cars (current 

capacity) or for shuttle or guided access.

The park would provide additional public 

access by developing a trail that would be 

a flagged route for guided access only, and 

possibly fee interpretation. A flagged route 

could be moved as needed and limiting 

recreation to guided access only would help 

ensure hikers stay on the appropriate route. 

Group size limits for trail use would be 

determined similar to Alternative 2.

To increase off-site interpretation 

opportunities and educational group use of 

the ‘Ōla‘a rainforest, the park would explore 

partnership opportunities to create new 

joint interpretive media with adjacent land 

managers such as the Pu‘u Maka‘ala Natural 

Area Reserve managed by and co-member 

with the park in the Three Mountain Alliance 

watershed partnership.

Park staff would work to engage other 

partners in forest restoration and 

maintenance in ‘Ōla‘a.

‘ŌLA‘A LARGE TRACT— Same 

as Alternative 1.

KAHUKU UNIT

Similar to Alternative 2, park management 

activities in Kahuku would continue to 

concentrate on protecting and recovering 

native species, including special status 

species, and ecosystems, controlling invasive 

nonnative plants and animals, developing 

interpretive programs, and conducting 

surveys and inventories of cultural resources. 

Restoration activities would continue to 

include construction of boundary and internal 

fences to exclude nonnative ungulates, 

consistent with the park’s Final Plan / EIS for 

Protecting and Restoring Native Ecosystems by 

Managing Nonnative Ungulates (2013).

Alternative 3 would also provide additional 

recreation opportunities in Kahuku, such 

as trails, camping, and interpretive and 

educational programs; however, the emphasis 

would be on a more primitive recreational 

experience with dispersed recreation 

and minimal facilities. Opportunities and 

programs would place additional emphasis 

on science, stewardship and service-learning 

and focus more heavily on coordinated 

group activities.

KAHUKU ENTRANCE— Same as Alternative 

2, except the park would not create a 

parking area and trailhead off the Old 

Māmalahoa Highway.

LOWER KAHUKU— For the purposes of this 

GMP/WS/EIS, lower Kahuku is defined as 

the acreage below a line that is 100 meters 

above the upper-most road in the paddock 

system (see Figure 1.5. Existing Conditions, 

Kahuku). Lower Kahuku extends down the 

Southwest Rift Zone of Mauna Loa from this 

line to Highway 11.

The park would develop a DCP for the lower 

Kahuku area to create a design that provides 

visitors with a sense of arrival in Kahuku as 

well as general orientation and information. 

The DCP would provide detailed guidance on 

how best to implement the recommendations 

of the general management plan, including 

adaptively reusing existing buildings for 

specific uses, and would determine the 

numbers and locations of campgrounds, 

picnic areas, and trails consistent with the 

overall vision for this alternative.

DEVELOPED AREA AND USE OF 

EXISTING BUILDINGS

Adaptively reuse buildings and maintain 

visitor contact station with a small 

amphitheater in lower Kahuku, similar 

to Alternative 2.

RECREATION ACTIVITIES AND 

VISITOR OPPORTUNITIES

Same as Alternative 2, except there would be 

no commercially guided access for recreation 

in this alternative.

Road Access: Same as Alternative 2.
156 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Trails and Trailheads: Same as Alternative 2.

Campgrounds: Facilities and infrastructure 

to support overnight camping would consist 

of primitive and dispersed campsites with 

minimal services rather than campgrounds.

Bicycling: Same as Alternative 2.

Equestrian Use: Same as Alternative 2, except 

no commercial use would be permitted.

UPPER KAHUKU— For the purposes of this 

GMP/WS/EIS, upper Kahuku is defined as the 

acreage above a line that is 100 meters above 

the upper-most road in the paddock system. 

Upper Kahuku extends up the Southwest Rift 

Zone of Mauna Loa (see Figure 1.5. Existing 

Conditions, Kahuku).

Upper Kahuku would be managed the 

same as Alternative 2. The park would 

manage upper Kahuku for its wilderness 

characteristics based on its determination 

of eligibility for inclusion in the national 

wilderness preservation system. Management 

of upper Kahuku would emphasize restoring 

native ecosystems and recovering biological 

diversity of native species based on best 

available science. Recreational access in 

upper Kahuku would be permitted and 

visitor opportunities such as hiking and 

camping would be managed consistent with a 

wilderness experience.

NPS vehicular access for administrative use 

and emergencies would be allowed on existing 

roads outside of eligible wilderness. These 

roads would be maintained to the minimum 

standard required to support administrative 

and emergency use.

RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES AND 

VISITOR OPPORTUNITIES

Same as Alternative 2.

Campgrounds: Same as Alternative 2, except 

no campground would be developed in the 

proximity of the existing cabins.

Trails and Trailheads: Same as Alternative 2.

Boundary Modifications

Same as Alternative 2.

Program-Specific 

Management Guidance

The following section presents an overview of 

the management strategies for program areas 

at Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park.

Although, for the sake of discussion, this 

plan separates resource protection into 

discrete categories of natural and cultural 

resources, these resources are inextricably 

integrated, particularly within Native 

Hawaiian understanding. In Hawaiian culture, 

the land or ‘āina is sacred. The natural and 

cultural worlds are intricately bound together 

and the spiritual world is not separate from 

the secular at Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park. For example, volcanic activity is a part 

of geological processes and history, but 

Kīlauea is also home to Pelehonuamea or 

Pele, the volcano goddess, and her family. 

Observed in the lava flows and other natural 

phenomena associated with volcanic activity, 

Pele and her family continue to be a presence 

in Native Hawaiians’ lives both physically 

and spiritually.

NATURAL RESOURCES

Same as Alternative 2; however, the 

park would maximize opportunities for 

volunteerism, stewardship, service-learning, 

and citizen science as a major component of 

natural resources management.

Also, the park natural resources staff would 

maximize efforts to work with interpretive 

and education programs to showcase specific 

areas, such as special ecological areas, as living 

laboratories for experimental restoration and 

research and expand efforts to engage visitors 

in restoration activities and projects.

CULTURAL RESOURCES

Same as Alternative 1, plus the park would 

emphasize surveys (including oral history 

and interviews), research, and stewardship 

opportunities to foster long-lasting 

connections to the park’s cultural resources. 

Similar to Alternative 2, the park would also 

emphasize and expand research, scientific 

investigation, and learning opportunities 

to enhance cultural resources protection. 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 157 

Additional emphasis would be placed on 

providing opportunities for visitors to engage 

in the research, scientific investigation, 

and projects associated with cultural 

resources management.

The park cultural resources staff would 

expand efforts to work with interpretation 

and education in order to broaden messages 

used in visitor programs about the sacredness 

of the park and aloha ‘āina (love of the land) 

to Native Hawaiians and emphasize the 

interconnectedness and interdependency 

between the natural and cultural 

environments. This expanded education and 

interpretation would enhance and strengthen 

cultural resources protection in the park.

Management of cultural resources including 

archeological resources, cultural landscapes, 

historic structures, and museum collections 

would be the same as Alternative 2.

RESEARCH

Same as Alternative 2, plus the park would 

expand opportunities for citizen science as 

part of the research program. Additional 

emphasis would be placed on finding new 

ways for visitors to participate in research 

activities, such as data collection, to improve 

understanding of the environment and engage 

in hands-on resource stewardship.

WILDERNESS

Same as Alternative 2.

SOUNDSCAPES AND 

ACOUSTIC ENVIRONMENT

Same as Alternative 2.

VISITOR EXPERIENCE

Same as Alternative 1. In addition, the park 

would enhance the visitor experience by 

expanding the capacity of existing sites (while 

limiting new development) and providing 

unique hands-on learning and stewardship 

opportunities for visitors that stretch from 

mauka to makai.

In addition to education, the park would 

consider managing general park congestion 

with a mandatory shuttle around Crater Rim 

Drive, in addition to a suite of other tools 

to disperse visitors and traffic. (See “SiteSpecific Management Guidance” for more 

detailed guidance.)

The park would set the expectation for visitors 

in the park that eruptive events would likely 

be linked with congested areas in the park. 

Experience at Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park has proved that the public has tolerance 

for greater levels of congestion during these 

events, however management of congestion 

during eruption events could be improved 

with earlier messaging about conditions.

Same as Alternative 2, the park would also 

develop an accessibility plan to identify and 

evaluate opportunities throughout the park to 

improve accessibility.

RANGE OF RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES—

Similar to Alternative 2, however access to 

new and particularly sensitive areas would 

primarily focus on ranger-guided tours, 

and any expanded recreational uses would 

emphasize opportunities and amenities for 

larger educational and stewardship groups.

TRAILS: HIKING, BIKING AND 

EQUESTRIAN USE— Under Alternative 3, 

a trail management plan would be created 

to comprehensively assess trail conditions 

and needs and to identify specific trail 

alignments and uses, such as hiking, biking, 

and equestrian use. Development of any new 

trail alignments would be primarily along 

historic alignments and traditional routes, 

or on existing roads, such as at Kahuku. Any 

new trail development would work with 

existing trails, historic trails, turnouts, and 

waysides to connect key features or park sites, 

improve the visitor experience, and limit any 

new development.

In the main part of the park, hiking and biking 

opportunities would be enhanced in order to 

create a trail network to accommodate, within 

existing capacities, bicycle, equestrian, and 

pedestrian use and improve connection to 

other trails and other visitor facilities within 

and outside of park boundaries. Few new 

trails would be created, but existing trails 

would be upgraded.
158 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

In some areas of the park, such as Hilina 

Pali or Mauna Loa, roads could be closed 

to private day use vehicles during certain 

times of day/days of week to provide a more 

enjoyable and less congested experience for 

recreationists such as hikers, backpackers, 

bikers, and equestrian users.

CAMPING—

FRONTCOUNTRY CAMPING

Frontcountry camping in the main area of 

the park would be the same as Alternative 

1. Additional general public camping would 

be provided at Kahuku. In addition, any 

additional, future frontcountry camping in the 

main park would be considered in relationship 

to outdoor education pavilions that have been 

sited based on ecological themes and would 

be targeted to educational groups rather than 

increased general public camping.

BACKCOUNTRY CAMPING

Same as Alternative 1, plus additional 

backcountry camping would be 

available at Kahuku.

Interpretation and Education— The park 

would develop a comprehensive interpretive 

plan, the same as Alternative 2.

PROGRAMS

Same as Alternative 1, plus interpretation 

methods, while diverse in nature, would 

focus on ranger-led experiences and live 

programs to immerse visitors in the volcanic, 

biologic, and cultural resources at Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park. These live programs 

would provide additional opportunities 

to learn from Native Hawaiians and/or 

cultural practitioners.

New, additional interpretive programs would 

also focus on providing hands-on educational 

experiences for school, volunteer, and other 

organized groups in the front country (in 

Kahuku). Stewardship activities would be 

a key element in these programs engaging 

visitors in research, learning, science and 

educational programs and facilities. In 

addition, park staff would engage visitors in 

research and citizen science.

Kahuku would be integrated into the park’s 

comprehensive interpretive plan. The plan 

would address key stories that should be 

interpreted at Kahuku, such as the Southwest 

Rift of Mauna Loa and five recent eruptions, 

the story of refugia and restoration, ranching 

and the paniolo lifestyle, Pu‘u Akihi - a Special 

Ecological Area, and how land affects people 

and people affect the land, Kahuku in the 

context of climate change, and the ahupuaʻa 

(Native Hawaiian land management) system. 

Instead of ranger-led, visitor interpretation 

in Kahuku would primarily be self-guided, 

independent, and full of discovery, with 

interpretive trails and waysides for the 

general public.

This alternative would emphasize hands-on 

stewardship where visitors can lend a hand 

to help restoration activities at the park. 

Additional emphasis would also be placed 

on engaging educational groups and service 

groups in Alternative 3 and the program 

would work with natural resources staff 

to showcase specific areas (such as special 

ecological areas) for restoration and research.

INTERPRETIVE AND EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES

Similar to Alternative 2 except the park would 

not expand the uses of Jaggar Museum and 

Kīlauea Visitor Center. The park would 

provide opportunities for outdoor education 

and inquiry-based learning that stretches 

from mauka to makai with a series of small, 

covered pavilions at key locations similar 

to Alternative 2.

COMMERCIAL SERVICES

Same as Alternative 2, except the concession 

operation at Nāmakanipaio campground 

would not be expanded to include additional 

indoor lodging facilities.

ADMINISTRATIVE FACILITIES AND 

INFRASTRUCTURE 

Same as Alternative 2.

TRANSPORTATION AND ACCESS

Under Alternative 3, park roads would be 

maintained similar to Alternative 1.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 159 

Following the completion of the hydrogen 

shuttle pilot project, the park would explore 

the feasibility of implementing a mandatory 

shuttle system on Crater Rim Drive, and 

potentially to other locations in the park, to 

reduce private vehicle traffic and congestion.

The park would improve bicycle access on 

roads by considering limits on private vehicles 

(see “Site-Specific Management Guidance” 

above for examples).

Alternative 3 would minimize any expansion 

or development of new parking. Some parking 

areas could also be reduced or removed for 

resource concerns.

No construction of new roads is envisioned. 

Roads impacted by volcanic or seismic activity 

or other natural events would be reevaluated 

for reopening to vehicle traffic and could be 

converted to trails.

PARTNERSHIPS

Same as Alternative 2.

CLIMATE CHANGE AND SUSTAINABILITY

Same as Alternative 2.

Operations

ESTIMATED COSTS

Cost estimates for Alternative 3 are identified 

on Table 3.7. Alternative 3: Summary of Costs. 

Costs shown are not intended for budgeting 

purposes; instead they are used to show 

a relative comparison of costs among the 

alternatives. Implementation of the approved 

plan will depend on future funding, and 

approval of a general management plan 

does not guarantee that funding and staffing 

needed to implement the plan would be 

forthcoming. Full implementation of the 

plan may take many years. The National Park 

Service will also evaluate proposed facility 

investments prior to project approvals using 

the best scientific information available related 

to climate change and other possible scenarios 

to ensure the long-term sustainability of these 

investments. Due to potential vulnerabilities 

of some of the park’s facilities, it is feasible 

that the National Park Service may conclude 

that such financial investments for facilities 

would be unwise and that other options 

would be considered or potentially the project 

would not be pursued or implemented.

These costs are in 2012 dollars and are 

based upon general “Class C” estimates for 

site development and construction and are 

referred to as conceptual estimates by the 

design and construction industry. They are 

general in nature and representative of a 

broad based vision rather than focused on 

specific details. Prior to submitting funding 

requests for the design and construction 

phases, “Class B” estimates are required, 

based upon detailed site and facility designs. 

“Class A” estimates would be prepared from 

completed construction documents.

ONE-TIME COSTS— Alternative 3 one-time 

costs would consist of the rehabilitation 

of facilities and infrastructure. Similar to 

Alternative 2, a large portion of the costs 

in the main part of the park would be to 

renovate the Ohia Wing as a cultural museum/

administrative offices. At Kahuku, the majority 

of costs would be to rehabilitate the road from 

the entrance to Upper Glover for two-wheeldrive access at Kahuku.

Resource management costs for Alternative 3 

would be primarily for fencing with significant 

investments to exclude ungulates from 

Kahuku and the wilderness area at ‘Ōla‘a.

Costs for new construction in Alternative 3 

focus on installation of educational pavilions, 

waysides, and new trail segments or linkages 

in the main portion of the park. At Kahuku, 

new construction would include primitive 

campsites, an educational pavilion, wayside 

exhibits, and a small amphitheater associated 

with the visitor contact station.

Transportation costs for Alternative 3 focus on 

continuing and expanding the shuttle system 

around the rim and to evaluating the feasibility 

of a shuttle system at Kahuku.

Projects in the alternatives are identified 

as either Priority 1 or Priority 2. Priority 1 

projects include projects that emphasize 
160 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

resource protection, threats, and visitor safety. 

Priority 2 projects which are less urgent 

include all other projects important to the full 

implementation of the alternative, including 

those that address visitor opportunities and 

experiences such as enhanced facilities, as 

funding allows and could be sustained. For 

the Priority 1 projects, the renovation of the 

Ohia Wing is expected to take many years 

so it may be phased after implementation 

of other Priority 1 projects. At Kahuku, the 

most pressing Priority 1 projects would be 

construction and rehabilitation of fencing for 

animal control. The least important Priority 

2 project would be the evaluation of the 

development of a shuttle system for visitor 

access at Kahuku.

Deferred maintenance is maintenance and 

repair activities that were not performed when 

they should have been or were scheduled 

to be and which, therefore, are put off or 

delayed for a future period. Maintenance and 

repairs are activities directed toward keeping 

fixed assets in an acceptable condition. 

Total costs for deferred maintenance 

offset in Alternative 3 are listed in Table 

3.7. A fully staffed maintenance division 

as presented in this alternative would also 

assist the park in addressing the amount of 

deferred maintenance.

STAFFING

Implementation of Alternative 3 would 

require additional staffing for increased 

natural resources restoration efforts, 

additional cultural resources program needs, 

new interpretive and educational programs, 

and additional maintenance, law enforcement, 

and administrative needs. 

Proposed staffing in Alternative 3 would 

require 46 new FTEs (one person working 

40 hours per week for one year, or the 

equivalent). These new FTEs would include 

an additional 13 FTE for additional resources 

management and restoration activities, six 

positions for interpretation and education to 

address additional and new interpretation at 

Kahuku and expanded education throughout 

the park, 12 positions for facilities and 

maintenance, five additional positions for 

visitor protection, nine positions for Kahuku 

operations seven days a week, and one new 

administrative and management position. 

The staffing table does not include seasonal 

staffing, which would vary depending on 

specific project 

ANNUAL OPERATING COSTS— Annual 

operating costs are the total costs per year 

for maintenance and operations associated 

with Alternative 3, including utilities, supplies, 

staff salaries and benefits, leasing, and other 

materials. Costs and staffing estimates assume 

that the alternative is fully implemented as 

described in the narrative. The park’s annual 

operating budget for fiscal year 2014 was 

$7,281,000. Full implementation of Alternative 

3 would include filling vacant positions and 

filling an additional 46 FTE ($3,034,000). 

Additional operations and maintenance 

costs related to capital investments would be 

$372,000. Total operating costs for Alternative 

3 would be $10,687,000. 

FTE salaries and benefits are included in the 

annual operating costs.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 161 

Table 3.6. Alternative 3: Staffing

Park Management Division FTE

Administrative and Management 27 + 10 new

Natural and Cultural Resource Management 29 + 13 new

Interpretation and Education 12 + 6 new

Facilities and Maintenance 28 + 12 new

Visitor Protection/Fire 26 + 5 new

Vacant positions 21

Total New Positions 46

Total Positions 189

Total Staffing Costs $10,687,000

Table 3.7. Alternative 3: Summary of Costs

Description of Cost Estimated Summary of Costs

ANNUAL OPERATIONAL COSTS

Existing Annual Operational Costs $7,281,000

Additional Staffing Costs (+46 FTE)* $3,034,000

Additional Operations & Maintenance Costs 

Related to Capital Investments

$372,000

Total Annual Operational Costs $10,687,000

ONE-TIME CAPITAL COSTS

Program Support

Priority 1 Projects** $828,000

Priority 2 Projects $0

Facility Rehabilitation

Priority 1 Projects $13,173,000 

Priority 2 Projects $1,010,000

Natural Resource Management

Priority 1 Projects $6,763,000

Priority 2 Projects $0

Cultural Resource Management

Priority 1 Projects $10,474,000

Priority 2 Projects $70,000

New Construction

Priority 1 Projects $856,000

Priority 2 Projects $2,667,000

Transportation

Priority 1 Projects $590,000

Priority 2 Projects $740,000

Total Priority 1 Projects $32,684,000 (Kahuku costs are $14,029,000 of this total)

Total Priority 2 Projects $4,487,000 (Kahuku costs are $2,452,000 of this total)

Total One-time Costs $37,171,000 (Kahuku costs are $16,481,000 of this total)

Deferred Maintenance Offset $21,823,000

* The current staffing level is below the authorized level of 143 FTE; the additional staffing level would add 57.5 FTE to the authorized 

level of 143. The new staffing level would be 200.5 FTE. 

** Priority 1 projects include projects that emphasize resource protection, threats, and visitor safety. Priority 2 projects include all other 

projects important to the full implementation of the alternative, including those that address visitor opportunities and experiences such 

as enhanced facilities as funding allows and could be sustained. Costs are in 2012 dollars.
162 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

USER CAPACITY

Overview of Visitor Use 

Management and Visitor Capacity

General management plans for national 

park system units, including Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park, must address 

visitor use management and visitor capacity. 

Managing visitor use in national park units 

is inherently complex and depends not 

only on the number of visitors, but also on 

where the visitors go, what they do, and the 

“footprints” they leave behind. The National 

Park Service defines visitor use management 

as the proactive and adaptive process of 

planning for and managing characteristics 

of visitor use and the physical, social, and 

managerial setting through a variety of 

strategies and tools to sustain desired resource 

conditions and visitor experiences. Visitor 

use characteristics may include amount, 

type, timing, and distribution of visitor use, 

including activities and behaviors. In short, 

visitor use management strives to maximize 

the benefits of visitor use while meeting 

resource and experiential protection goals. 

This planning and management process 

provides the framework within which visitor 

capacity should be addressed. As part of 

the visitor use management process, visitor 

capacity is the maximum amount and type 

of visitor use that an area can accommodate 

while sustaining desired resource conditions 

and visitor experiences consistent with the 

values for which the area was established. In 

managing for visitor use, Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park staff and partners rely on a 

variety of management tools and strategies 

rather than relying solely on regulating the 

number of people in the park. In addition, the 

ever-changing nature of visitor use requires 

a deliberate and adaptive approach to visitor 

use management.

The foundations for making visitor use 

management decisions in this general 

management plan are the purpose, 

significance, special mandates, and 

management zones associated with the 

park. The purpose, significance, and special 

mandates define why the park was established 

and identify the most important resources, 

values, and visitor opportunities that would 

be protected and provided. The management 

zones in each action alternative describe 

the desired resource conditions and visitor 

experiences, including appropriate types of 

activities and general use levels, for different 

locations throughout the park. The zones, 

as applied in the alternatives, are consistent 

with, and help the NPS achieve, its specific 

purpose, significance, and special mandates. 

As part of the NPS commitment to implement 

visitor use management, the park staff would 

abide by these directives for guiding the 

types and levels of visitor use that would be 

accommodated while sustaining the quality 

of park resources and visitor experiences 

consistent with the purposes of Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park.

In addition to these important directives, 

this GMP/WS/EIS includes indicators and 

standards for Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park. Indicators are measurable variables 

that would be monitored to track changes in 

resource conditions and visitor experiences. 

Standards represent the minimum acceptable 

conditions for those indicator variables. 

The indicators and standards are important 

feedback mechanisms that help the National 

Park Service make decisions about managing 

all aspects of visitor use to ensure that desired 

conditions are being attained and that the 

park’s legislative and policy mandates are 

being fulfilled. The general management 

plan also identifies the types of management 

actions that would be taken to achieve 

desired conditions and related legislative and 

policy mandates.

Appendix G: User Capacity Indicators 

and Standards includes the indicators, 

standards, and potential future management 

and monitoring strategies, allocated by 

management zones, which would be 

implemented as a result of this planning 

effort. The planning team considered many 

potential issues and related indicators that 

would identify impacts of concern, but 

those described below were considered 

the most significant, given the importance 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 163 

and vulnerability of the resource or visitor 

experience affected by visitor use. The 

planning team also reviewed the experiences 

of other parks with similar issues to help 

identify meaningful indicators. Standards that 

represent the minimum acceptable condition 

for each indicator were then assigned, taking 

into consideration the qualitative descriptions 

of the desired conditions, data on existing 

conditions, relevant research studies, staff 

management experience, and scoping on 

public preferences.

Some of the indicators and standards are 

more directly tied to helping NPS address 

visitor capacity. These indicators include 

crowding, parking issues, and traffic 

congestion. These indicators and standards 

directly inform management of the kinds and 

amounts of use that can be accommodated in 

different areas of the park while maintaining 

desired conditions. Further guidance for 

addressing visitor capacity would be found in 

subsequent implementation level plans that 

have a significant visitor use management 

component. These types of plans may be 

informed by the proposed/planned traffic 

study, which would provide baseline data 

for acceptable levels of traffic flow, and 

potentially would provide additional 

management strategies that could be 

implemented to achieve acceptable levels. 

Visitor use management is a form of adaptive 

management (see Figure 3.8. User Capacity 

Framework) in that it is an iterative process in 

which management decisions are continuously 

informed and improved. Indicators are 

monitored, and adjustments are made as 

appropriate. As monitoring of conditions 

continues, managers may decide to modify 

or add indicators if better ways are found to 

measure important changes in resource and 

social conditions. Monitoring indicators helps 

National Park Service determine the most 

effective way to manage kinds and amounts 

of visitor use in order to attain desired 

visitor experience and resource conditions. 

Frequency of monitoring may vary depending 

on the availability of funds. Information on 

the NPS monitoring efforts, related visitor use 

management actions, and any changes to the 

indicators and standards would be available to 

the public through the most appropriate and 

effective outreach method chosen by the park. 

It should be noted that revisions to indicators 

and standards would potentially be subject 

to compliance with NEPA, NHPA, and other 

laws, regulations, and policies.

Indicators and Standards

The priority indicators for Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park are associated with the 

following issues:

• informal trails

• invasive plant and animal species

• incidences of human-wildlife 

interactions (threatened or 

endangered species)

• damage or theft of threatened or 

endangered plant and animal species

• damage or loss of geologic resources

• campsite conditions

• fire risk

• artificial light

• damage to archeological sites

• lack of understanding of Native 

Hawaiian culture

• visitors impacting access for 

cultural practitioners

• soundscapes

• crowding

• trail-based user conflicts

• parking and traffic congestion

A table detailing the specific indicators, 

standards, management strategies and 

monitoring strategies appears in Appendix G: 

User Capacity Indicators and Standards.
164 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Figure 3.8. User Capacity Framework
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 165 

MITIGATION MEASURES COMMON

TO ALL ALTERNATIVES

Mitigation measures are the practicable 

and appropriate methods that would be 

used under any alternative to avoid and/

or minimize harm to natural and cultural 

resources, wilderness, visitors and the 

visitor experience, and socioeconomic 

resources when no other management 

alternative exists (such as avoidance). These 

mitigation measures have been developed 

using existing laws and regulations, best 

management practices, conservation 

measures, and other known techniques from 

past and present work in and around Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park.

This general management plan provides 

a management framework for Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park. Within this broad 

context, the alternatives include the following 

measures that may be used to minimize 

potential impacts from the implementation 

of the alternatives. These measures would be 

applied to all alternatives, subject to funding 

and staffing levels. Additional mitigation 

would be identified as part of implementation 

planning and for individual projects to further 

minimize resource impacts.

Cultural Resources

The National Park Service would preserve 

and protect, to the greatest extent possible, 

resources that reflect human occupation of 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park. Specific 

mitigation measures include the following:

• Adverse impacts on historic 

properties listed in, determined 

eligible for listing in, or not yet 

assessed for eligibility to the National 

Register of Historic Places would 

be avoided, if possible. If adverse 

impacts could not be avoided, an 

assessment of effect and a treatment 

plan, if necessary, would be 

developed through a consultation 

process with all interested parties. In 

accordance with NPS Management 

Policies 2006, proposed adverse 

effects would be assessed to 

determine whether the proposed 

actions constitute impairment 

of significant fundamental 

cultural resources.

• Continue to develop inventories 

for and oversee research about 

archeological, historic, and 

ethnographic resources to better 

understand and manage the 

resources, including historic cultural 

and ethnographic landscapes. 

• Conduct any needed archeological 

or other resource-specific surveys, 

national register evaluations, and 

identify recommended treatments. 

• Incorporate the results of these 

efforts into site-specific planning and 

compliance documents.

• Continue to manage cultural 

resources and collections following 

federal regulations and the National 

Park Service guidelines.

• Inventory the park’s collection and 

keep in a manner that would meet 

NPS curatorial standards. 

• In accordance with NPS

Management Policies 2006, cultural 

resources that have been included 

in wilderness would be protected 

and maintained according to 

the pertinent laws and policies 

governing cultural resources, using 

management methods that are 

consistent with the preservation 

of wilderness character and values 

such as the Organic Act, the National 

Historic Preservation Act, the 

Archeological Resources Protection 

Act, the American Indian Religious 

Freedom Act, the Native American 

Graves Protection and Repatriation 

Act, and Executive Order 13007 

that addresses government-togovernment consultation.
166 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

ARCHEOLOGICAL RESOURCES

• Archeological surveys would precede 

ground disturbance required for new 

construction or removal of eligible 

historic properties. 

• Known archeological resources 

would be avoided to the greatest 

extent possible. If national register 

listed, eligible, or unassessed 

archeological resources could 

not be avoided, an appropriate 

treatment plan would be developed 

in consultation with the Hawai‘i 

State Historic Preservation Officer, 

Advisory Council on Historic 

Preservation, and associated Native 

Hawaiian groups.

• Conduct archeological site 

monitoring and routine protection. 

• Conduct data recovery excavations 

at archeological sites threatened 

with destruction, where protection 

or site avoidance during design and 

construction is infeasible.

• If previously unknown archeological 

resources are discovered during 

project work, NPS cultural resources 

staff would be immediately informed, 

work in the immediate vicinity 

of the discovery would be halted 

and the location secured until the 

resources are identified, evaluated, 

and documented and an appropriate 

treatment plan is developed, if 

necessary, in consultation with the 

Hawai‘i State Historic Preservation 

Officer and associated Native 

Hawaiian groups.

• Encourage visitors through the park’s 

interpretive programs to respect and 

leave undisturbed any inadvertently 

encountered archeological 

resources and respect and leave 

undisturbed any offerings placed by 

Native Hawaiians.

HISTORIC BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

All project work relating to historic 

structures/buildings would be conducted 

in accordance with Director’s Order 28 

and the guidelines and recommendations 

of the Secretary of the Interior’s Standards 

for the Treatment of Historic Properties with 

Guidelines for Preserving, Rehabilitating, 

Restoring and Reconstructing Historic 

Buildings. Typical mitigation measures for 

historic buildings include:

• Rehabilitate and adaptively reuse 

structures wherever feasible.

• Design any new development to 

be compatible with surrounding 

historic properties

• Screen new development from 

surrounding historic resources to 

minimize impacts on viewsheds, 

cultural landscapes, and 

ethnographic resources. 

• Historic structures would 

be maintained or stabilized 

until appropriate preservation 

maintenance could be undertaken. 

Benign neglect would not be 

considered an appropriate 

management strategy. 

• No national register listed or eligible 

structure would be removed or 

allowed to decay naturally without 

prior review by park and region 

cultural resource specialists, 

including approval by the NPS

regional director and consultation 

with the Hawai‘i State Historic 

Preservation Officer. Before a 

national register listed or eligible 

structure is removed, appropriate 

documentation recording the 

structure would be prepared in 

accordance with Section 110(b) of 

the National Historic Preservation 

Act, and the documentation would be 

submitted to the Historic American 

Buildings Survey (HABS)/Historic 

American Engineering Record 

(HAER) or Historic American 

Landscape Survey (HALS) program, 

if deemed appropriate.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 167 

• Historic structures that are within 

designated wilderness areas would be 

protected and maintained according 

to the pertinent laws and policies 

governing cultural resources using 

management methods that are 

consistent with the preservation 

of wilderness character and 

values. Laws pertaining to historic 

preservation remain applicable 

within wilderness but must generally 

be administered to preserve the area’s 

wilderness character. Consultation of 

treatment would include appropriate 

consideration of the application of 

the provisions of the Wilderness Act 

in analyses and decision-making 

concerning cultural resources.

CULTURAL LANDSCAPES

All project work relating to cultural 

landscapes would be conducted in accordance 

with Director’s Order 28 and the guidelines 

and recommendations of the Secretary of 

the Interior’s Standards for the Treatment 

of Historic Properties with Guidelines for 

the Treatment of Cultural Landscapes. 

Typical mitigation measures for cultural 

landscapes include:

• Design new development to be 

compatible with surrounding 

historic properties.

• Screen new development from 

surrounding cultural landscapes 

to minimize impacts on those 

landscapes and viewsheds.

ETHNOGRAPHIC RESOURCES

The National Park Service would protect 

sensitive traditional use areas to the extent 

feasible by avoiding or mitigating impacts on 

ethnographic resources and continuing to 

provide access to traditional use and spiritual 

areas. Mitigation strategies include:

• Continue to consult with Native 

Hawaiian groups to identify 

ethnographic resources and develop 

appropriate strategies to mitigate 

impacts on these resources.

• Continue to provide access to 

traditional use or spiritual areas

• Screen new development from 

traditional use areas to minimize 

impacts on ethnographic resources. 

• Consult with Native Hawaiians 

linked by ties of kinship, culture, 

or history to park lands to address 

any inadvertent discovery of 

human remains, funerary objects, 

sacred objects, or objects of 

cultural patrimony.

• Follow all provisions outlined in the 

Native American Graves Protection 

and Repatriation Act of 1990.

MUSEUM COLLECTIONS

• Conserve all collections through 

proper storage, handling, and 

exhibit of objects as specified in 

the NPS Museum Handbook and 

NPS Director’s Order 24, “NPS

Museum Collections Management”. 

This would include artifacts used in 

exhibits in the visitor centers.

Natural Resources

AIR QUALITY

• Implement a dust abatement program 

including the following potential 

actions: water or otherwise stabilize 

soils, cover haul trucks, employ speed 

limits on unpaved roads, minimize 

vegetation clearing, and revegetate 

with native species.

• Minimize NPS vehicle emissions by 

using the best available technology 

whenever possible.

• Encourage the public and commercial 

tour companies to employ methods 

that reduce emissions.

• Employ sustainable designs that 

reduce energy demands, thus 

reducing pollutant production.
168 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

SOUNDSCAPES AND THE 

ACOUSTIC ENVIRONMENT

• Implement standard noise abatement 

measures during NPS operations, 

including: scheduling to minimize 

impacts in noise-sensitive areas, 

using the best available noise control 

techniques wherever feasible, 

using hand tools or hydraulically or 

electrically powered impact tools 

when feasible, and locating stationary 

noise sources as far from sensitive 

areas as possible.

• Site and design facilities to minimize 

objectionable noise.

• Minimize idling of motors when 

power tools, equipment, and vehicles 

are not in use.

• Muffle above ambient 

noise whenever possible to 

reduce noise impacts.

LIGHTSCAPES AND NIGHT SKIES

• Light only where and 

when it is  needed.

• Shield lights and 

direct them downward.

• Use minimum amount of 

light  necessary.

• Consider alternatives to the use of 

artificial lighting such as reflective 

surface walkways, reflective signage, 

or guidance to use hand held 

lighting devices.

• Replace existing outdoor lighting 

with fixtures that do not contribute to 

nighttime light pollution.

• Install energy-efficient lights 

equipped with timers and/or motion 

detectors so that light would only be 

provided when it is needed to move 

safely between locations.

• Use low-impact lighting, such as 

diffused light bulbs, and techniques 

such as downlighting in outdoor 

fixtures, to prevent light spill and 

preserve the natural lightscape and 

avoid light pollution. Select lamps 

with warmer colors (less blue light).

• Limit use of personal lighting 

(flashlights) when required for 

safe movement and work and/or 

modified (such as using red or blue 

light bulbs as opposed to white) to 

protect wildlife.

SOILS

• Build new facilities on soils suitable 

for development. Minimize soil 

erosion by limiting the time that 

soil is left exposed and by applying 

erosion control measures, such as 

erosion matting, silt fencing, and 

sedimentation basins in construction 

areas to reduce erosion, surface 

scouring, and discharge to water 

bodies. Once work was completed, 

revegetate construction areas with 

native plants in a timely period.

• Place construction equipment in 

previously disturbed areas.

• Locate trails on soils with low erosion 

hazards and small changes in slope 

and develop proper signs to minimize 

social trails to the extent possible.

• Ensure proper drainage 

of parking areas.

WATER RESOURCES

• To prevent water pollution during 

construction, use erosion control 

measures, minimize discharge 

to water bodies and washes, and 

regularly inspect construction 

equipment for leaks of petroleum 

and other chemicals. 

• Build a runoff containment filtration 

system to minimize water pollution 

from larger parking areas.

• Parking area designs should 

include ways to minimize damage 

from runoff. Parking areas could 

include detention basins, runoff 

filtration, and/or could be sited 

away from drainage.

VEGETATION

• Monitor areas used by visitors (e.g., 

trails and campsites) for signs of 

native vegetation disturbance. Use 

public education, revegetation of 

disturbed areas with native plants, 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 169 

erosion control measures, and 

barriers to control potential impacts 

on plants from erosion or social trails.

• Avoid impacts by relocating project 

sites when possible.

• Develop revegetation plans for 

disturbed areas and require the use 

of genetically appropriate native 

species. Revegetation plans should 

specify species to be used, seed/

plant source, seed/plant mixes, sitespecific restoration conditions, soil 

preparation, erosion control, and 

ongoing maintenance and monitoring 

requirements, etc. Salvaged 

vegetation should be used to the 

extent possible. 

• Survey for rare plants prior to 

any ground-disturbing activities; 

disturbance to rare or unique 

vegetation would be avoided to the 

greatest extent possible. Consult with 

the USFWS for projects where listed 

species and their habitats occur.

• Implement an invasive, nonnative 

plant management program. 

Standard measures could include 

the following elements: use only 

weed-free materials for road and 

trail construction, repair, and 

maintenance; ensure equipment 

arrives on-site free of mud or seedbearing material; certify all seeds 

and straw material as weed-free; 

identify areas of invasive plants preproject; monitor and treat invasive 

plants or invasive plant topsoil 

before construction (e.g., topsoil 

segregation, storage, herbicide 

treatment); when depositing ditch 

spoils along the roads, limit the 

movement of material to as close 

as possible to the excavationsite; scrupulously and regularly 

monitor and clean areas that serve 

as introduction points for invasive 

plants (campgrounds, staging 

areas, maintenance areas, and 

corrals); revegetate with genetically 

appropriate native species; 

inspect rock and gravel sources 

to ensure these areas are free of 

invasive plant species; and monitor 

locations of ground-disturbing 

operations followed by appropriate 

invasive plant control actions for 

at least three years following the 

completion of projects.

WILDLIFE

• Employ techniques to reduce or 

avoid impacts to fish and wildlife, 

including visitor education 

programs, restrictions on visitor 

and NPS activities, and law 

enforcement patrols.

• Implement a wildlife protection 

program. Standard measures 

would include project scheduling 

(season and/or time-of-day), project 

monitoring, biological monitoring, 

erosion and sediment control, 

fencing or other means to protect 

sensitive resources adjacent to 

project areas, disposing of all foodrelated items or rubbish, salvaging 

topsoil, and revegetating. This 

could include specific construction 

monitoring by resource specialists 

as well as treatment and reporting 

procedures. Consider relocation of 

facilities to avoid impacts, temporary 

closures, and group size limits 

to mitigate impacts. Also include 

management of artificial light and 

sound to avoid adverse impacts to 

wildlife (since not discussed under 

those topics with regards to wildlife 

need to mention this here).

SPECIAL STATUS SPECIES

Mitigation actions would occur during normal 

park operations as well as before, during, and 

after construction to minimize immediate and 

long-term impacts on rare, threatened, and 

endangered species and their habitat. These 

actions would vary by specific project and area 

of the national park affected, and additional 

mitigations would be added depending on 

the specific action and location. Many of 

the measures listed above for vegetation and 

wildlife would also benefit rare, threatened, 
170 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

and endangered species by helping to preserve 

habitat including designated critical habitat. 

Further mitigation efforts the National Park 

Service would perform include the following:

• Conduct surveys for rare, threatened, 

and endangered species as warranted. 

• Locate and design facilities/actions 

to avoid adverse effects on rare, 

threatened, and endangered species 

and their habitat. If avoidance 

is infeasible, minimize and 

compensate for adverse effects on 

rare, threatened, and endangered 

species as appropriate and in 

consultation with the appropriate 

resource agencies. Conduct work 

outside of critical periods for the 

specific species.

• Develop and implement restoration 

and/or monitoring plans as 

warranted. Plans should include 

methods for implementation, 

performance standards, 

monitoring criteria, and adaptive 

management techniques.

• Implement measures to reduce 

adverse effects of nonnative plants 

and wildlife on rare, threatened, and 

endangered species and their habitat.

• Carry out surveys and monitoring for 

special status species.

• Protect and preserve critical habitat 

features, such as nest trees and key 

host plants, whenever possible.

Management and Protection

of Wilderness Values

• Develop specific desired conditions 

in the park’s future wilderness 

stewardship plan for wilderness 

resources, visitor experiences, and 

management protocols. 

• Develop standards and guidelines 

establishing acceptable limits of 

change and mitigation measures for 

wilderness within a future wilderness 

stewardship plan. 

• Conduct monitoring to ensure that 

conditions are meeting established 

standards and to determine 

if mitigation measures have 

been successful. 

• Apply the minimum requirement 

process to all proposed management 

actions that might affect wilderness 

and potential wilderness in order 

to develop, evaluate, and select 

the actions that would be the least 

intrusive on wilderness character 

and values, while allowing necessary 

administration of the wilderness.

Scenic Resources

• Where appropriate, use facilities 

such as boardwalks and fences to 

route people away from sensitive 

natural and cultural resources 

while still permitting access to 

important viewpoints. 

• Design, site, and construct facilities 

to minimize adverse effects on 

natural and cultural resources and 

visual intrusion.

• Provide vegetative screening, 

where appropriate.

• Implement vegetation management 

that could include selective clearing 

to manage or improve important 

viewpoints and viewsheds while 

minimizing impacts to native 

vegetation and wildlife habitat.

Socioeconomic Environment

• During the future planning and 

implementation of the approved 

management plan for Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park, the 

National Park Service would pursue 

partnerships with Native Hawaiian 

organizations, local communities, 

and county governments to further 

identify potential impacts and 

mitigating measures that would best 

serve the interests and concerns of 

both the National Park Service and 

the local communities.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 171 

Sustainable Design and Aesthetics

• Use sustainable practices in the 

selection of building materials and 

sources and building location and 

siting. Sustainable practices and 

resources would be used whenever 

practicable by recycling and reusing 

materials, by minimizing materials, 

by minimizing energy consumption 

during the project, and by minimizing 

energy consumption throughout the 

lifespan of the project.

• Develop design standards specific to 

the park in all repair, rehabilitation, 

and construction projects.

Visitor Safety and Experiences

• Consider accessibility in each project 

to understand barriers to programs 

and facilities. Provide the maximum 

level of accessibility.

• Implement adaptive visitor use 

management, as outlined in the user 

capacity section of this plan, when 

resource and visitor experience 

conditions are trending towards or 

violating a user capacity standard. 

Management strategies may include 

visitor education, site management, 

visitor use regulations, rationing 

or reallocation of visitor use, 

and enforcement.

• Consider visitor safety in all 

planning and projects.

• Consider using the principles of 

operational leadership in planning 

safe visitor access to park features.

Hazardous Materials

• Implement a spill prevention and 

pollution control program for 

hazardous materials. Standard 

measures could include hazardous 

materials storage and handling 

procedures; spill containment, 

cleanup, and reporting procedures; 

and limitation of refueling and other 

hazardous activities to upland/

nonsensitive sites.

ACTIONS AND ALTERNATIVES 

CONSIDERED BUT DISMISSED

Under NEPA and Council on Environmental 

Quality Forty Questions, alternatives may be 

eliminated from detailed study based on the 

following reasons [40 CFR 1502.14 (a)]:

• Technical or economic infeasibility.

• Inability to meet project objectives or 

resolve need for the project.

• Duplicate other less environmentally 

damaging alternatives.

• Conflict with an up-to-date valid 

plan, statement of purpose and 

significance, or other policy, 

and therefore would require 

a major change in that plan or 

policy to implement.

• Environmental impacts are too great.

The following alternatives or actions were 

considered during the initial alternatives 

development phase of the planning process, 

but were ultimately dismissed from further 

consideration in the general management 

plan because they met one or more of the 

above criteria.

Alternatives B and C

The planning team originally developed four 

preliminary alternatives for public review. 

These preliminary alternatives included a noaction alternative (Alternative A) to continue 

current management and three action 

alternatives (Alternatives B, C, and D).

During the process of comparing these 

preliminary alternatives to identify the 

preferred alternative, the planning team, using 

a value analysis methodology for comparison 

purposes, decided to combine the primary 

alternative actions from Alternatives B and C 

for the main part of the park and Alternative 

D for Kahuku in order to form the new 

preferred alternative, Alternative 2, as these 

actions best met the goals for the general 

management plan. Since many components 

of the former Alternatives B and C were 

included in the preferred alternative, the 

planning team felt that the original concepts 
172 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

were strong enough to stand alone (many 

public comments suggested combining 

elements between alternatives and saw 

similarity in the alternative concepts), these 

separate alternatives (B and C) were ultimately 

dropped from further consideration in 

this GMP/WS/EIS. Alternative D was 

retained from the preliminary alternatives, 

and is now Alternative 3. Alternative A is 

now Alternative 1.

New Park Entrance

The park explored several proposals to add 

a second entrance to the park in order to 

alleviate traffic congestion. One proposal 

was to add an entirely new second entrance 

to the park along Highway 11 for the general 

public and administrative use. The second 

entrance would likely require infrastructure 

that could be staffed to manage entrance 

fees. The planning team also evaluated 

formalizing a second park entrance using 

the Mauna Loa Road connection for staff 

and administrative use (but not the general 

public), in order to help improve overall 

park access and minimize vehicle congestion 

at the main public entrance. This second 

entrance would likely require additional key 

card infrastructure, but there would be no 

staffed infrastructure.

Both these proposals were dismissed from 

further consideration due to potential 

impacts to cultural and natural resources. 

Such an entrance would expand the 

developed footprint within important 

habitat for endangered species such as the 

nēnē, potentially impact archeological 

sites, and would have greater impacts than 

other alternatives considered, without 

significant benefit.

Public Entrance at Kilauea

Military Camp

To alleviate traffic congestion at the existing 

entrance station, a proposal was considered 

to use the service road in Kilauea Military 

Camp as an entrance station into the park. 

Establishing a turnoff on Highway 11 would 

require improvements on the highway, as 

well as within the KMC area. This alternative 

was dismissed due to engineering and 

security concerns and potential adverse 

effects to cultural resources, including the 

historic district.

Other Options for Managing the 

Emergency Access Route along 

Chain of Craters Road

The park considered several management 

options for the future use of the emergency 

access route along Chain of Craters Road, 

but ultimately considered but dismissed ideas 

that involved maintaining the route for future 

vehicular access from further evaluation in the 

action alternatives. 

In general, keeping the road open to regular 

vehicular use will have potentially significant 

impacts due to invasive species introductions. 

Invasive species pose a serious risk to park 

resources from introduction of potentially 

ecosystem altering species such as little fire 

ants, coqui frogs, fountain grass, and many 

other invasive plant species. Many of these 

species were not on the island, or were not as 

widespread, when the road was open prior to 

1989. The risk of inadvertent introductions 

is much greater with traffic directly from 

the Lower Puna region and would require 

extensive monitoring and control.

Significant impacts to endangered species 

would likely occur, particularly to nēnē 

(endangered). Long-term vehicular traffic is 

likely to disturb nēnē breeding, nesting, and 

rearing along a 1 to 1.5 mile stretch from the 

current end of the pavement to the west and 

along a stretch further up Chain of Crater 

Road and the risk of vehicular strikes in these 

areas is significantly greater.

Significant impacts would likely occur to 

visitor experience and park operations due 

to increased traffic on already congested 

park roads in certain areas, which would 

change the character of the visitor experience. 

There would be potentially significant longterm adverse impacts to park operations 

due to increased staffing needs and other 

potential new infrastructure requirements. 

Additional staff would be required to 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 173 

manage the additional fee collection, provide 

visitor and resource protection including 

law enforcement over a broader area, and 

monitor and manage sensitive natural and 

cultural resources in the area. Infrastructure 

and equipment improvements would include 

communication upgrades (there is no radio 

or cell phone reception along the proposed 

route), additional law enforcement vehicles 

and equipment, a visitor contact station to 

replace the one was previously removed, 

a contact station on the Kalapana side, an 

additional ambulance for emergency response, 

among others. These long-term staffing and 

infrastructure additions and upgrades are 

due to the increased numbers of vehicles and 

people in the park and the fact that this area 

of the park does not currently have or support 

this level and type of visitor access. 

The following specific ideas for the future use 

of the road beyond the emergency access were 

considered but dismissed: 

CLOSING THE ROAD COMPLETELY

Closing the route completely and allowing no 

access was considered but dismissed. Visitors 

come to view more recent lava flows and this 

area provides easy access to recent flows. The 

alignment does potentially provide for an 

enhanced visitor opportunity consistent with 

the purpose of the park, and can be managed 

for an appropriate non-motorized recreational 

opportunity that also enables protection of 

sensitive resources. Therefore, closing the 

route completely to future public access was 

dismissed from consideration.

MAINTAINING THE UNPAVED ROUTE FOR 

FUTURE VEHICULAR ACCESS

The park considered maintaining the unpaved 

route for future vehicle access. Maintaining 

the unpaved route for future vehicular access 

would result in potentially significant, adverse 

impacts to park resources and operations 

mentioned above. In addition, maintaining the 

alignment as an unpaved route for vehicular 

access would cost an estimated $300,000 per 

year for road maintenance and an additional 

$1,275,000 per year for other park operations 

due to the anticipated heavy use of the road. 

The park also considered maintaining the 

unpaved route for vehicular access until a 

major seismic, volcanic, or maintenance 

issue forced closure; however, all of the same 

impacts to resources and operations and 

concerns about the high cost of maintaining 

and operating the road would still apply under 

that situation. Therefore, maintaining the 

unpaved route for future vehicular access was 

dismissed from further consideration. 

PAVING THE ROAD FOR FUTURE 

VEHICULAR ACCESS

Paving the alignment would lessen the 

long-term maintenance costs; however, the 

up-front costs would be more involved and 

costly than simply adding pavement to the 

current alignment. The current roadbed was 

not designed as a regular road and would not 

meet standards for a paved roadway. 

Significant upgrades would be needed in 

order to pave the roadway and meet NPS

park road standards. The roadway bench 

would have to be widened further to provide 

additional clear zone at cut slopes, similar to 

the open segment of the roadway between 

the current closure point and Crater Rim 

Drive, and the vertical profile would need 

to be smoothed out to safely accommodate 

the higher speeds motorists will drive on 

a paved surface. Additionally, before an 

investment in pavement could be made, 

upgrades to the quality of the subbase would 

be required - the subbase being built now is 

not as well graded or compacted as would 

be required for a permanent facility. Storm 

drainage improvements would also likely 

be necessary. Initial estimates indicate that 

it is likely that such improvements would 

cost about $2 million per mile of road, or 

about $11 million for the 5.5 miles total (NPS

pers. comm., 2014).

Paving the road is not a sound long-term 

investment for the NPS given the volcanic 

activity in this area and funding agencies have 

indicated in the past that they will not fund 

repaving the road due to the area’s high level 

of volcanic activity. Therefore, this alternative 

was dismissed from further consideration.
174 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

MAINTAINING THE ROUTE FOR A 

SHUTTLE  OPERATION

Keeping the road open as a shuttle route was 

considered but dismissed. The park does not 

envision a shuttle route for this part of the 

park and running a shuttle on the emergency 

access route would not link specific 

destinations of public interest. Without a 

connection to a larger shuttle operation and 

without prominent visitor attractions at either 

end of the route, proposing a shuttle operation 

on this segment of road is not likely to be 

economically viable. Therefore, this alternative 

was dismissed from further consideration.

MAINTAINING THE ROUTE FOR LOCAL OR 

COMMUTER ACCESS ONLY

Keeping the route open to only locals as a 

commuter route for authorized access only 

was considered but dismissed. Maintaining 

any type of commuter route or limited access 

is not consistent with the purpose of the park. 

Therefore, this alternative was dismissed from 

further consideration.

One-way Circulation Along Crater

Rim Drive

Instituting one-way traffic for all vehicles on 

the southern portion of Crater Rim Drive 

was dismissed from further analysis for 

several reasons. First, the length of the drive 

is approximately 11 miles. A missed stop by 

visitors would result in additional driving to 

return 11 miles to that location, which would 

have a significant adverse effect on the visitor 

experience. Emergency vehicles, researchers 

at HVO, and park administration would need 

to be exempt from the one-way requirement, 

which would pose a serious safety hazard and 

could confuse visitors traveling in the one-way 

direction. In addition, Crater Rim Drive has 

historically been a two-way drive and altering 

the traffic pattern would partially change the 

historic character of the driving experience. 

Public input during the planning process has 

also been opposed to this idea.

Eliminating Motorized 

Transportation on Crater Rim Drive

The planning team explored the idea of 

converting the southern portion of Crater 

Rim Drive to pedestrian and bicycle access 

only and maintaining the current closure 

to private vehicle traffic between Jaggar 

Museum and Chain of Craters Road. This 

alternative was dismissed from additional 

consideration due to the potential impacts 

to the visitor experience, the need to still 

maintain the road for administrative access, 

its historic significance, and the technical 

difficulties of managing visitation without 

vehicular access on this road. The planning 

team concluded that other alternatives were 

more successful in meeting the goals for 

balancing visitor opportunities with resource 

protection and dismissed this idea from 

further consideration.

Closure or Reduction of 

Halema‘uma‘u Parking Area

The planning team explored the idea of 

closing or reducing the size of the parking 

area at Halema‘uma‘u Overlook. The 

overlook and parking area are historic, so 

any reduction would be an adverse impact 

to the historic feature. In addition, when the 

road is open and there is an eruptive event, 

having this parking area would reduce the 

potential impacts to nearby cultural and 

natural resources that would otherwise be 

trampled or parked on.

Kīlauea Visitor Center Expansion

Adding a second story to the Kīlauea Visitor 

Center (KVC) was discussed as a way to allow 

for additional space for visitor interpretive 

services, as well as for park headquarters and 

administrative offices. Although a second story 

was featured in one of the several proposed 

1938 sketches for Kīlauea Visitor Center, this 

idea was dismissed due to associated costs 

and impacts to cultural resources. While 

there were multiple proposed sketches for 

visitor facilities, the actual design drawing in 

the park records for Kīlauea Visitor Center 

represents a single-story building. While the 

decision to build a one-story facility could 

have been influenced by expediency in the 

face of World War II, no documentation 

for this final decision exists. Furthermore, 

the current building is consistent with the 

design drawing and the historic district. It is 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 175 

anticipated that the addition of a second story 

would impact cultural resources by changing 

the viewshed; moreover, modifications would 

need to be made to the structure and interior, 

which currently align closely with the selected 

1938 design of the building. Finally, the cost 

of improving the first story and constructing 

a second story addition are high compared 

with other options that could still improve the 

amount of space available for interpretation 

and visitor orientation in the area around 

Kīlauea Visitor Center. Therefore, this idea 

was dismissed from further consideration.

The planning team also explored the idea 

of converting an additional 500 square 

feet within Kīlauea Visitor Center from 

offices to general public space in order to 

accommodate existing visitation, and improve 

visitor services, orientation, and interpretive 

support. The remaining park headquarters 

and administrative functions would be 

relocated out of the visitor center to other 

buildings within the park. Due to concerns 

about the potential impacts associated with 

removing walls to allow for more general and 

open visitor space and the importance of 

maintaining the remaining historic integrity of 

Kīlauea Visitor Center, this idea was dismissed 

from further consideration.

Rainshed Road

The planning team evaluated the feasibility 

of relocating the entrance of the road that 

continues past the 1877 Volcano House to the 

rainshed area. Relocating the road would help 

separate administrative use from a primarily 

visitor use area, improving safety and visitor 

circulation for pedestrians crossing the road 

to access the Sulfur Banks Trail. The impacts 

to both natural and cultural resources from 

relocating the road, given its location and 

surrounding terrain, were considered too 

great, especially when compared with the 

minimal benefits to the visitor experience. 

Furthermore, the costs associated with 

constructing a new road, which would be 

significant given the terrain and numerous 

earth cracks in the area, were considered too 

high when compared with the relative benefits 

to the visitor experience. The planning team 

concluded that other, more cost-effective 

ideas like improved signage and crosswalks 

could achieve park goals; therefore this idea 

was dismissed from further consideration.

Park Administrative Area

The park administrative area is part of the 

Kīlauea Administration and Employee 

Housing Historic District and is eligible for 

listing in the National Register of Historic 

Places. Many facilities in this area, which 

traditionally all served as housing, have 

been converted to park offices and storage 

areas over time. A proposal to return the 

administrative area back to housing was 

considered by the planning team but 

dismissed due to current NPS policies about 

providing housing in parks. Although there 

continues to be housing needs at the park, 

especially for volunteers who come to work 

in the park, the demand for office space still 

exceeds that of housing.

Park Visitor Center in Hilo

A proposal to develop a park visitor center 

in Hilo and provide a shuttle bus to the park 

with visitor orientation was dismissed as 

economically not feasible.

Additional Lava Tube Experience

As a way to disperse visitor use and take 

some of the demand off Thurston Lava Tube, 

the planning team explored the option of 

adding an additional lava tube or lava tunnel 

experience within the park. This additional 

lava tube experience would be in a more 

remote location and at a smaller-scale than 

Thurston. In order to protect the resources 

within the lava tubes and offer a unique 

experience in the park, this additional 

experience would be a ranger-led or guidedonly experience. Due to concerns about 

potential impacts to the sensitive natural 

and cultural resources associated with caves, 

as well as the feasibility of having adequate 

staff and funding to implement this idea on a 

consistent basis, the planning team dismissed 

this idea from further consideration. 

However, the park could re-evaluate this 

idea in subsequent updates to the cave 

management plan.
176 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Kahuku Alternative Entrance and

Loop Road

A new entrance for Kahuku was considered, 

further west using a section of the old 

Māmalahoa Highway and connected to 

a new road that would provide a scenic 

loop driving experience through lower 

Kahuku. This idea was dismissed due to 

the impacts associated with constructing 

a new road as well as the costs associated 

with constructing and maintaining the new 

road and entrance. Dismissing this idea 

in this general management plan does not 

preclude considering it in the future should 

travel patterns and demand for recreation 

in Kahuku change.

Kahuku Overnight Accommodations

The planning team considered establishing 

a traditional frontcountry, accessible 

campground (provided for a fee) with 

approximately 20 sites including a mix 

of group sites and small sites that would 

accommodate a wide range of users near the 

existing developed area in lower Kahuku. 

Some sites could offer structural shelters 

such as a lean-to or covered pavilion for 

cooking, while other sites could offer walkin camping. Campground locations could 

include previously disturbed areas, such as 

the abandoned tree farm or the area adjacent 

to/across the road from the former ranch 

house infrastructure. The campground 

likely would not have provided water or 

electrical hookups due to the feasibility of 

providing those amenities. Given the limited 

resources available and unknown demand 

for overnight camping in lower Kahuku, 

as well as the impacts and costs associated 

with constructing and managing a large 

campground, the planning team dismissed 

this idea from further consideration in favor 

of smaller, more distributed camping in lower 

Kahuku. If demand changed in the future, 

other overnight accommodations in lower 

Kahuku could be considered.

The planning team also considered the idea 

of cabins or a lodge (potentially run by a 

concessioner) in lower Kahuku based on 

a few public comments received. This idea 

was dismissed from further consideration 

due to the availability of overnight lodging 

in adjoining communities and the desire 

expressed by many public comments 

to keep infrastructure development in 

Kahuku to a minimum.

Expanded Mountain Biking in

Lower Kahuku

Constructing new mountain biking trails 

in Kahuku on previously undisturbed 

ground was considered but dismissed. An 

expansive network of pasture roads already 

exists in Kahuku and is adequate enough 

to accommodate a range of recreation 

including mountain biking. The potential 

resource impacts and costs associated with 

new trail construction and allowing off-trail 

mountain biking use were both concerns, 

as well as the additional staff that would 

be required to patrol and manage more 

expansive bicycling use.

Full, Unrestricted Equestrian

Access in Kahuku

The proposal from the public to provide full, 

unrestricted equestrian access to Kahuku was 

considered but dismissed due to anticipated 

impacts to natural resources in this unit. 

Kahuku is recognized as an ecologically 

unique landscape, one that, to this date, has 

been largely unaffected by the introduction 

of some very detrimental invasive species, 

particularly within the upper reaches of the 

unit. In seeking to expand public access and 

facilities in this unit, park management has 

a unique opportunity and responsibility 

to carefully manage the introduction of 

development and recreational uses in Kahuku 

and to better understand the consequences 

and impacts of those uses. While all modes 

of transportation have the potential to spread 

invasive species, equestrian use has the 

increased potential of introducing and/or 

spreading invasive species through manure. 

Stock animals can potentially trample and 

damage plants if they were inadvertently 

allowed to wander, posing a particular issue 

for native plant communities that are not 

adapted to large herbivores. This concern 

would be particularly in areas in recovery 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 177 

and under restoration. Therefore, out of 

concern for natural resources in Kahuku and 

a desire to respond to the public’s request 

for access, the National Park Service believes 

that equestrian use, if introduced in Kahuku, 

needs to be done so gradually and within 

a monitored pilot program to research, 

monitor, and mitigate issues, such as the 

spread of invasive plants and damage to native 

vegetation through trampling and feeding (in 

areas where native vegetation and sensitive 

species occur).

Expanded Recreational Access in

Upper Kahuku

The planning team considered allowing NPS

and/or commercially guided vehicular fourwheel-drive access in upper Kahuku as well 

as implementing a permit system for public 

bicycling use in upper Kahuku. Concern for 

resource protection in upper Kahuku was 

paramount in dismissing this idea from further 

consideration, as well as the cost, staffing, and 

oversight that would be required for ensuring 

adequate resource protection. The National 

Park Service is gradually introducing lowimpact recreation in Kahuku so as to better 

understand resource impacts and ensure the 

success of restoration efforts to the greatest 

extent possible. Should monitoring and other 

research, including techniques for prohibiting 

the spread of invasive species, demonstrate 

a greater ability of the resources to sustain 

potential impacts from increased recreation 

access, the park could reconsider providing 

additional recreation access in the future.

IDENTIFICATION OF THE 

ENVIRONMENTALLY 

PREFERABLE ALTERNATIVE

In accordance with NPS Director’s Order 

12: Conservation Planning, Environmental 

Impact Analysis, and Decision-making, 

the National Park Service is required to 

identify the environmentally preferable 

alternative in environmental documents. The 

environmentally preferable alternative is “the 

alternative that will promote the national 

environmental policy expressed in NEPA

(Sec. 101(b))”.

The environmentally preferable alternative is 

determined by applying the criteria suggested 

in the National Environmental Policy Act of 

1969, which is guided by the CEQ. The criteria 

outlined in NEPA Sec. 101(b) considers:

1. Fulfilling the responsibilities 

of each generation as trustee 

of the environment for 

succeeding generations; 

2. Assuring for all generations 

safe, healthful, productive, and 

aesthetically and culturally 

pleasing surroundings; 

3. Attaining the widest range of 

beneficial uses of the environment 

without degradation, risk of health 

or safety, or other undesirable and 

unintended consequences;

4. Preserving important historic, 

cultural and natural aspects of our 

national heritage and maintaining, 

wherever possible, an environment 

that supports diversity and variety of 

individual choice;

5. Achieving a balance between 

population and resource use that will 

permit high standards of living and a 

wide sharing of life’s amenities; and 

6. Enhancing the quality of renewable 

resources and approaching the 

maximum attainable recycling of 

depletable resources.

The CEQ regulations state that the 

environmentally preferable alternative is “the 

alternative that causes the least damage to the 

biological and physical environment; it also 

means the alternative which best protects, 

preserves, and enhances historic, cultural, 

and natural resources (46 FR 18026 – 46 FR

18038).” According to NPS NEPA Handbook 

(Director’s Order 12), through identification 

of the environmentally preferred alternative, 

the NPS decision-makers and the public are 

clearly faced with the relative merits of choices 

and must clearly state through the decisionmaking process the values and policies used in 

reaching final decisions.

The environmentally preferable alternative 

for Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park is 

Alternative 2, the NPS preferred alternative. 
178 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

This alternative best satisfies the national 

environmental goals by providing the highest 

level of protection of natural and cultural 

resources while concurrently providing for a 

wide range of neutral and beneficial uses of 

the environment. This alternative maintains 

an environment that supports a diversity and 

variety of individual choices, and it integrates 

resource protection with an appropriate range 

of visitor uses and understanding.

Both of the action alternatives (the preferred 

alternative and Alternative 3) would provide 

a high level of protection of natural and 

cultural resources. In addition, the preferred 

alternative provides a wider range of visitor 

opportunities than Alternative 3, thus better 

fulfilling criteria 3. Alternative 3 would have a 

greater stewardship/volunteerism component 

related to research, but overall, the preferred 

alternative would provide the greatest 

educational and research opportunities to 

foster better understanding of the park’s 

resources, therefore better equipping the park 

in fulfilling NEPA criteria 3, 4, and 5.

Alternative 1, no action, while accurately 

describing the current management direction 

and best efforts of the staff, fails to satisfy 

the NEPA requirements outlined above 

when compared to the action alternatives. 

A shortage of funding, staff, facilities, and 

services limits the park’s effectiveness in 

achieving NEPA criteria 1, 4, and 6.

SECTION 106 SUMMARY

Section 106 of the National Historic 

Preservation Act (16 USC 470 e seq.) requires 

(1) that federal agencies consider the effect 

of their projects on historic properties 

(including archeological resources) eligible 

for the National Register of Historic Places, 

and (2) that agencies give the Advisory 

Council on Historic Preservation and the state 

historic preservation office an opportunity to 

comment on projects.

As required by Section 110 of the National 

Historic Preservation Act, federal land 

management agencies survey cultural 

resources on lands under their jurisdiction 

and evaluate these resources by applying 

criteria for the National Register of Historic 

Places. A number of surveys, inventories, 

and studies have been completed or are 

ongoing, and further resource evaluation 

and documentation will continue in Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park.

At this time, there is not enough information 

to identify an undertaking-determined area 

of potential effect or make a determination 

of effect consistent with section 106 of the 

National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 (as 

amended, 16 USC 470-470w-6) for the actions 

related to historic properties. Undertakings 

that have the potential to effect resources 

eligible for or listed on the National Register 

of Historic Places such as ground disturbing 

construction activities for developing visitor 

facilities at Kahuku or undertakings related 

to the implementation of the Archeological 

Preservation Plan for Kealakomo Ahupua‘a, 

will fulfill all procedural requirements 

specified in 36 CFR 800 (as amended 

in August, 2004). As more information 

is available, NPS staff will continue to 

consult with the SHPO.

In the interim, no historic properties would be 

inalterably changed without consultation with 

the State Historic Preservation Office and the 

Advisory Council on Historic Preservation, 

as appropriate. Archeological sites would be 

protected in an undisturbed condition unless 

it is determined through formal processes 

that disturbance or natural deterioration 

is unavoidable and when disturbance is 

unavoidable appropriate treatment would 

follow in consultation with the Hawai‘i State 

Historic Preservation Division and the park’s 

Kupuna Consultation Group.

Copies of this draft GMP/WS/EIS have 

been distributed to affected/concerned 

Native Hawaiian Organizations, the park’s 

Kupuna Consultation Group, the Hawai‘i 

State Historic Preservation Division, and the 

Advisory Council on Historic Preservation for 

review and comment related to compliance 

with section 106 of the National Historic 

Preservation Act.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: 

Alternatives | 179 

Table 3.8. Summary of Alternatives

Topic Alternative 1: No Action Alternative 2: Preferred Alternative Alternative 3

Alternative Concept Assume existing programming, facilities, 

staffing, and funding would generally continue at current levels. No major changes in current management or visitor use. Continue implementation of currently approved as funding allows. This alternative provides the baseline for evaluating actions and impacts in other alternatives.

Strengthen and broaden opportunities to connect people with the park and provide a wide range of high-quality visitor experiences based on different geographic areas. Provide concentrated visitor services and amenities on Kīlauea summit; a less congested experience with new opportunities to disperse use along Chain of Craters Road and Mauna Loa Road; additional visitor services that offer more primitive recreational opportunities at Kahuku.Natural and cultural resources would continue to be managed and protected with a high degree of integrity. Emphasis is on the park’s role as a refuge and haven for native biota, people, and cultures in a world constantly adapting to volcanic activity and island building processes. Additional emphasis on Native Hawaiian values such as mālama ‘āina (nourishing or taking care of the land) and kuleana (responsibility) as important concepts in park stewardship. 

Emphasize building new connections with the park primarily through expanded education and handson stewardship opportunities. Traditional visitor opportunities would continue, new development would be very limited and a suite of management tools would be used to disperse visitors and manage congestion throughout the park. Greater focus on science and learning opportunities and maximizing opportunities for visitors and groups to participate in restoration and resource management activities, research and scientific investigation, notably in Kahuku. Natural and cultural resources would continue to be managed and protected with a high degree of integrity. Emphasis is on the park’s role as a refuge and haven for native biota, people, and cultures in a world constantly adapting to volcanic activity and island building processes. Additional emphasis on Native Hawaiian values such as mālama ‘āina (nourishing or taking care of the land) and kuleana (responsibility) as important concepts in park stewardship. 

SITE-SPECIFIC MANAGEMENT GUIDANCEKīlauea Visitor Center and Surrounding Area

Actions Common to All Alternatives

Maintain the existing park entrance off Highway 11 for both public and administrative use.Consider a range of options for adaptive reuse of facilities should conditions change such as the 1877 Volcano House and Kīlauea Military Camp (see “Common to all Alternatives”)

Kīlauea Visitor Center and Surrounding Area

Maintain the current use and function of buildings with no expansion of buildings proposed.

Produce a DCP and site-specific interpretive strategy to integrate visitor experiences among the complex of buildings on Kīlauea summit.

Same as Alternative 2.

Kīlauea Visitor Center Retain current function as main park 

visitor center and headquarters and upgrade as needed.

Continue to use as one of two primary visitor facilities as well as park headquarters. Provide additional parking and upgrade HVAC system. Remove the current restroom and replace with a facility of similar capacity behind the visitor center and closer to the 1877 Volcano House.Construct a 2.5-mile pedestrian and bicycle trail from Kīlauea Visitor Center to Jaggar Museum.

Same as Alternative 2.

SUMMARY OF ALTERNATIVES
180 | Chapter 3: 

Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Table 3.8. Summary of Alternatives

Topic Alternative 1: No Action Alternative 2: Preferred Alternative Alternative 3

Volcano HouseSM Continue to operate as a concession 

operation for lodging, retail, and food services. Continue to provide educational programs and cultural demonstrations by park partners.

Continue as a concession operation, strive for environmentally sustainable practices, and work with the park to provide interpretive services. Adaptively reuse for other park visitation and/or administrative functions if it is no longer operating as commercial lodging.

Same as Alternative 2, plus update for solar energy in the next concession contract.

1877 Volcano House Retain current function as a nonprofit 

educational arts center. Continue to interpret structure primarily through existing waysides.

Same as Alternative A plus evaluate accessibility improvements for the front entrance, lanai, and parking. Consider additional historic photos on the interior to highlight historic uses of the building. 

Same as Alternative 2, plus increase historic interpretation by potentially adding interior exhibits such as a period restored room and/or additional historic photos. Expand outside interpretation with an additional wayside. 

Ohia Wing (1932 Administration Building)

Adaptively reuse as a cultural museum to replace some of the functions provided by the Waha‘ula Visitor Center.

Adaptively reuse as a cultural museum and administrative offices to replace some of the functions provided by the Waha‘ula Visitor Center and complement functions of Kīlauea Visitor Center and Jaggar Museum. 

Same as Alternative 1.

Crater Rim Drive

Actions Common to All Alternatives

Continue to manage the 2.8 miles of Crater Rim Drive between the entrance station and Jaggar Museum, consistent with the Crater Rim Drive Rehabilitation Environmental Assessment (May 2010).

Crater Rim Drive Maintain as two-way road, keeping 

with historic character and reopening closed section when and if possible. Continue to evaluate the pilot hydrogen shuttle technology.

Reopen drive to the public for two-way traffic when the park determines through active monitoring that air quality and other hazards are at a level that is consistent with general visitor use. Allow a mix of private vehicles and smaller, non-mandatory shuttles. Preserve historic character and alignment of the road. Limit large commercial buses or vehicles to one-way traffic between Jaggar Museum and Chain of Craters Road junction along the southern portion of road. Continue to allow administrative use of the road for two-way vehicle traffic. Continue to evaluate the pilot hydrogen shuttle technology, which includes the performance of the shuttles that will service proposed stops along Crater Rim Drive. If this project proves successful, the shuttle operations could be extended to include other stops along Crater Rim Drive, such as Kīlauea Visitor Center, Steam Vents, Kīlauea Military Camp, and Jaggar Museum.Improve signage for bicycles along the road corridor. Provide adjacent bicycle trails when feasible, and consider vehicular traffic closures during specific times of day or days of the week to encourage bicycle use.

Maintain the closure (despite eruptive activity) of the southern section of Crater Rim Drive to private vehicle traffic from Jaggar Museum to the Chain of Craters Road junction. Explore feasibility of implementing a mandatory shuttle system that would be owned by the National Park Service but operated by a concession, commercial use authorization, or partner. Allow large commercial buses to run on Crater Rim Drive but limit to one-way traffic on the southern section of Crater Rim Drive from Jaggar Museum to the Chain of Craters Road junction. Preserve the historic character of the road. Continue to allow administrative use of the road for two-way vehicle traffic. Encourage bicycle use of the road and add signage to improve safety.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: 

Alternatives | 181 

Table 3.8. Summary of Alternatives

Topic Alternative 1: No Action Alternative 2: Preferred Alternative Alternative 3

Halema‘uma‘u Parking and Overlook

Reopen when hazards associated with the volcanic plume are diminished and the park determines through active monitoring that air quality and other hazards are at a level that is consistent with general visitor use. Continue to use and maintain for visitor use.

Maintain parking lot once the overlook is reopened to visitation to accommodate the existing capacity, but evaluate site modifications to address sensitive cultural issues and values and improve resource protection. 

Same as Alternative 2.

Kīlauea Military Camp 

Actions Common to All Alternatives

Continue to operate Kīlauea Military Camp as a military recreation facility for the duration of the existing special use permit. Continue to coordinate on natural and cultural resource protection and interpretation.When the special use permit expires, review existing laws, policies, authorities, and park goals to 1) assess the appropriateness and/or necessity of the commercial services and their alignment with park goals, and 2) to determine or reaffirm the appropriate authority by which these commercial services should be authorized to operate (see “Common to All Alternatives”).If the permitted military recreation operations at Kīlauea Military Camp are discontinued, the National Park Service would prepare a plan and explore future options for the site (see “Common to All Alternatives”).

Kīlauea Military Camp Work with Kīlauea Military Camp to 

develop and implement interpretive waysides at Kīlauea Military Camp that highlight important features and stories.Continue to provide parking/staging for park’s special events.

Same as Alternative 1 plus expand interpretation of the park’s military history and KMC history to include the placement of additional waysides and guided tours.

Same as Alternative 2.

Jaggar Museum

Actions Common to All Alternatives

Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO) would continue to operate out of its present location adjacent to Jaggar Museum.

Jaggar Museum Continue interpretation and upgrade 

visitor center as needed for building maintenance and interpretive exhibits. 

Actively rehabilitate and upgrade the interpretive exhibits at Jaggar Museum. Consider adding an outdoor seating area (within existing footprint) for ranger demonstrations and programs. Consider other locations in the vicinity of the pā hula if an outdoor seating area is not feasible around Jaggar Museum.

Same as Alternative 1 plus rehabilitate and upgrade the outdated Jaggar Museum interpretive exhibits. Develop a shuttle staging area and add parking improvements as needed. 
182 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Table 3.8. 

Summary of

Alternati

ves

Topic Alternative 1: No Action Alternative 2: Preferred Alternative Alternative 3

Thurston Lava Tube and Surrounding Area

Thurston Lava Tube (Nāhuku)

Continue to implement recommendations from Thurston Parking Area Improvement Project. Implement visitor-use planning to reduce congestion. Implement transportation congestion management strategies to improve the visitor experience and safety in this area. Continue ranger-guided tours of Pua Po‘o, as staffing and funding permits.

Maintain the current mix of parking for private and commercial vehicles and use a suite of tools to address congestion and improve the visitor experience. Restripe and reconfigure parking, if needed. Consider a more specific site plan or DCP to integrate trails and parking areas from Kīlauea Iki to Devastation. Large commercial buses would be able to load and unload at Thurston but may be required to park at nearby underutilized lots, which may need reconfiguration and other improvements. Continue to evaluate implications of implementing one-way traffic on Crater Rim Drive between Jaggar Museum and Chain of Craters Road junction for large commercial buses and requiring buses to only load and unload at Thurston as conditions change. Improve and increase interpretive opportunities, themes and signage while still protecting rainforest resources. Continue ranger-guided tours of Pua Po‘o, as staffing and funding permits.

Increase reliance on shuttle systems and reducing private vehicle parking, and other active management strategies to address congestion. Continue to allow large and small commercial vehicles to park at Thurston.Strive to improve visitor information and outreach for trip planning and emphasize less busy times of the day to visit. Expand use of intelligent transportation systems. Rely on shuttle to circulate visitors and redirect private vehicle parking to other parking areas. Maintain Thurston as a shuttle stop. Remove private vehicular parking at Thurston (except for ADA parking). Continue ranger-guided tours of Pua Po‘o, as staffing and funding permits, and to disperse visitor use, explore the option of expanding public access to other lava tubes for ranger-guided tours that would be focused on science.

Kīlauea Iki, Pu‘u Pua‘i, and Devastation

Continue to maintain Kīlauea Iki as a parking lot and trailhead to Thurston Lava Tube.Continue to maintain Pu‘u Pua‘i as a parking lot, overlook, and trail connection to Devastation Trail and parking lot. Maintain Devastation as a parking lot and trailhead for the Devastation Trail. 

Explore new or improved trail connections for pedestrians and bicycles from these parking areas to Thurston.Consider creating a return trail from Thurston to Kīlauea Iki on the other side of the road to create a loop trail. Incorporate trail design features that protect rainforest resources and meet visitor capacity. Explore establishing an educational covered pavilion for student groups near Devastation Trail or the 1974 lava flow. Update the environmental education curriculum and waysides in the Devastation Trail area.

Explore new or improved trail connections for pedestrians and bicycles from these parking areas to Thurston, but maintain the existing footprint of those parking areas for private vehicles.

Escape Road Maintain the historic road as an 

emergency egress route and trail for pedestrians, bicycles, and equestrians.

Same as Alternative 1, plus improve the trail surface on the road to accommodate increased bicycle, equestrian, and pedestrian use and improve connections from the park to the Volcano community. Consider linking the road with additional loop trail connections, but avoid wilderness and sensitive wildlife habitat. 

Same as Alternative 1.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 183 

Table 3.8. 

Summary of

Alternati

ves

Topic Alternative 1: No Action Alternative 2: Preferred Alternative Alternative 3

Chain of Craters Road

Actions Common to All Alternatives

Continue to improve interpretation and preservation of Kealakomowaena and its resources by implementing recommendations from the Archeological Preservation Plan for Kealakomo Ahupua‘a (January 2011) in a phased approach, including primary messages and themes for interpretive trails and signage, sites to be interpreted, site preparation required to mitigate impacts to sensitive resources, and guidance for managing natural and cultural resources in the area. Continue to consult with the Kalapana community about issues in the Kalapana Extension related to the community.

Chain of Craters Road Maintain character of road to NPS 

standards for a park-like driving experience and to immerse visitors in landscape and history.Identify and clear over-vegetated turnouts to restore views/vistas and to encourage stops along the road. 

Continue to maintain character of road to NPS standards. Limit new development along the road and prioritize use and maintenance of existing trails, historic trails, turnouts, and waysides to improve the visitor experience, disperse use and provide a more tranquil experience. Identify and clear over-vegetated turnouts and improve signage of features and viewpoints. Explore option of locating an educational pavilion, in addition to a mobile visitor contact station, along Chain of Craters Road to orient visitors, communicate visitor safety information, and provide an alternative visitor experience when the summit is closed. 

Same as Alternative 1, plus use existing trails, historic trails, turnouts, and waysides to improve visitor experience and limit new development along the road. Create loop hiking opportunities by connecting existing trails along Chain of Craters Road. Improve signage of features and viewpoints at existing road turnouts to limit informal turnouts.

Chain of Craters Road to Mauna Ulu

Continue to maintain as a day use area with parking for viewing lava fields and features and trailhead for Pu‘u Huluhulu and Nāpau Crater and campground.

Continue to maintain Mauna Ulu as a day use area similar to Alternative 1, plus develop a site plan around the 1974 lava flows near the Lua Manu Crater to create a more comprehensive and organized visitor experience. Prioritize using existing and historic trails, but some new trail development would be needed. Explore an educational pavilion in the vicinity of Mauna Ulu or elsewhere along the 1974 flows. 

Same as Alternative 1.

Kealakomo Continue to maintain as a day use 

area and viewing location. Continue to improve interpretation and preservation of Kealakomowaena by implementing plan recommendations.

Same as Alternative 1, plus explore locating an educational pavilion at Kealakomowaena. Expand parking at the turnout for school bus parking. Install vault toilets near the pavilion. Interpret and protect archeological sites along the loop trail at Kealakomowaena. 

Same as Alternative 2.

End of Chain of Craters Road

Continue to work with partners to provide a sustainable and movable visitor contact station for interpretation and safety to replace some of the functions provided by the Waha‘ula Visitor Center. If this pilot project is successful, the park would retain the structure for visitor contact at the end of Chain of Craters Road.

Same as Alternative 1 except if pilot project is unsuccessful, develop a long-term replacement visitor contact station in the form of an open air pavilion or similar structure at the end of Chain of Craters Road. Under either scenario, remove temporary mobile infrastructure once a longterm contact station is finalized and evaluate any additional site requirements. 

Same as Alternative 1, plus provide a covered educational pavilion at a key location for visitor contact, interpretive programs, and outdoor educational use. Strive to replace lost picnicking opportunities with a new picnic area along the coastal portion at the end of Chain of Craters Road. 
184 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Table 3.8. 

Summary of

Alternati

ves

Topic Alternative 1: No Action Alternative 2: Preferred Alternative Alternative 3

Hilina Pali Road

Actions Common to All Alternatives

Continue to maintain the Kūlanaokuaiki Campground as it currently exists.

Hilina Pali Road Maintain the existing road width and 

historic alignment indicative of the architecture style. Continue to maintain Hilina Pali Lookout and adjacent trails.

Same as Alternative 1, plus consider expanding interpretive opportunities, such as waysides and turnouts for interpreting wilderness values. Consider an education pavilion in relationship to Kūlanaokuaiki Campground. Improve trailhead management at the end of the road by removing nonnative plants and restoring native species. Consider management strategies to provide safer access for hiking and bicycling such as identifying days or parts of days the road could be closed to day-use vehicles and become hike/bike only. Consider developing a bicycle loop to connect Escape Road with Hilina Pali Road outside designated wilderness and sensitive wildlife habitat.

Same as Alternative 2.

‘Āinahou Ranch House and Grounds

‘Āinahou Ranch House and Grounds

Continue to provide management area for nēnē recovery. Continue to administer the ranch house and grounds under existing interim operating plan. Maintain water system and unpaved access road.

Same as Alternative 1, plus focus on restoration for nēnē but provide opportunities for public stewardship by using trained volunteers and small service groups under the direction of NPS staff in the field. Replace some ornamental nonnatives with native species, minimize any new plantings or cultivation, and prevent any inadvertent introduction of nonnatives. Remove invasive nonnatives and re-establish native plant communities in the areas surrounding the formal gardens to improve forage for native forest birds. Promote off-site public interpretation of ‘Āinahou Ranch and its significance as a cultural resource and important site for nēnē.

Similar to Alternative 2, but provide greater emphasis on restoration for nēnē and minimize human presence in the ranch house and gardens only as directly related to the protection of the site. Conduct majority of project work at ‘Āinahou by NPS staff, with less use of volunteers or other groups, in order to minimize the amount of human presence at the site and emphasize nēnē recovery.

Mauna Loa Road

Mauna Loa Road Maintain existing road width and historic 

alignment. Address safety issues by improving signage and adding turnouts.

Same as Alternative 1, plus consider developing a turnout at about the 6,000 feet elevation for birding. Consider adding interpretive waysides and 1 or 2 loop trails along the road for hiking and watching native birds. Provide opportunities for visitors to experience a wide range of mesic and dry montane habitats not found in the rest of the park. Explore providing trail linkages to other trails in the park. Provide 2 covered educational pavilions along Mauna Loa Road at different elevations to represent different types of habitat. Similar to Hilina Pali Road, consider identifying days or parts of days when Mauna Loa Road is closed to private day use vehicles and would become hike/bike only. 

Same as Alternative 2.
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Alternatives | 185 

Table 3.8. Summary of Alternatives

Topic Alternative 1: No Action Alternative 2: Preferred Alternative Alternative 3

Nāmakanipaio Campground

Manage for fee camping as part of concession contract with Volcano House and include retail services.

Same as Alternative 1, plus consider expanding concession operations at Nāmakanipaio to include the construction and operation of an indoor lodging opportunity such as a dormitory style or hostellike facility, cabins, or similar. Explore creation of a pedestrian and possibly a bicycle trail to link the Nāmakanipaio Campground with Kīpukapuaulu on Mauna Loa Road and key sites on Crater Rim Drive. 

Same as Alternative 2, except no expansion of the campground to include additional indoor lodging facilities.

Ka‘ū Footprints Area and Ka‘ū Desert

Ka‘ū Footprints Area and Ka‘ū Desert

Continue to maintain as a selfguided interpretive experience with limited visitation. No improvements to facilitate public access.

Develop a DCP to address issues and needs for interpretation of the area. Focus planning on expanding and promoting access, including accessible access; providing trail connections and interpretive opportunities; determining other visitor support facilities needed; and ensuring the protection and preservation of cultural and natural resources. Consider slightly expanding the development footprint to accommodate the goals of the DCP.

Similar to Alternative 2, except focus on improvements within the current capacity of the area rather than expanding access. 

‘Ōla‘a 

Actions Common to All Alternatives

Seek legislation to include ‘Ōla‘a within the legislated park boundary. 

‘Ōla‘a –Small Tract Visitors would continue to access the 

small tract by informally parking along Wright Road in Volcano Village. 

Collaborate with county to formalize a turnout for parking on Wright Road. In addition, to ensure resource protection and minimize impacts, develop a boardwalk-style or weed-mat trail for visitors with self-guided on-site interpretation. Determine a route to avoid sensitive resources. Develop and implement a monitoring and treatment plan to address the spread of nonnative plants and determine a group size limit for the trail.Explore partnership opportunities to create joint interpretive media with adjacent land managers.

Coordinate with county to formalize a turnout for parking on Wright Road similar to Alternative 1. Develop a flagged trail for guided access only, and possibly fee interpretation. Develop group size limits similar to Alternative 2. Explore partnerships to create new joint interpretive media with adjacent land managers. Engage other partners in forest restoration and maintenance in ‘Ōla‘a.

‘Ōla‘a –Large TractWilderness

Continue to manage the large tract for its wilderness values without developing trails for day use. Continue to provide interpretation off-site. Do not provide on-site guided interpretation or overnight camping opportunities or make improvements to facilitate public access.

Continue to manage the large tract for its wilderness values without developing trails for day use, and continue to provide interpretation off-site. Prohibit improvements for public access and overnight camping. Consider additional public access if small tract can be managed with minimal resource damage. Access would be determined through minimum requirements analysis for wilderness.

Same as Alternative 1.
186 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Table 3.8. 

Summary of

Alternati

ves

Topic Alternative 1: No Action Alternative 2: Preferred Alternative Alternative 3

Kahuku Unit

Actions Common to All Alternatives

Strive to expand recreation opportunities for public access seven days a week, over time and with adequate funding for operations.

General Concept Concentrate on protecting and recovering 

native species and ecosystems, controlling invasive nonnative plants and animals, developing interpretive programs, and conducting surveys and inventories of cultural and natural resources. Continue to operate with limited day use visitation on weekends and special events.

Concentrate on protecting and recovering native species, including special status species, and ecosystems, controlling invasive nonnative plants and animals, developing interpretive programs, and conducting surveys and inventories of cultural and natural resources. Develop recreational infrastructure, such as trails, small-scale campgrounds, and interpretive and educational programs and activities to optimize visitor access and provide a range of opportunities. Immerse visitors and engage local communities in the restoration process and story throughout Kahuku. Offer opportunities for the community, visitors, and school groups to volunteer on restoration projects and participate in hands-on resource management activities. 

Concentrate on protecting and recovering native species, including special status species, and ecosystems, controlling invasive nonnative plants and animals, developing interpretive programs, and conducting surveys and inventories of cultural and natural resources. Develop infrastructure such as trails and campsites to support primitive recreational experience and dispersed and minimal facilities. Opportunities and programs place additional emphasis on science, stewardship, and service learning. Focus more heavily on coordinated group opportunities.

Kahuku Entrance Maintain the existing entrance but 

address safety issues by clearing vegetation, improving signage, and possibly lowering existing berms to improve the line of sight for drivers. Collaborate with state to add a turn lane(s).

Same as Alternative 1, plus work with the state and other partners to expand interpretive and scenic opportunities along Highway 11. Explore working with the state to develop a parking area for a few cars off Old Mamalahoa Highway as a trailhead.

Same as Alternative 2, except do not create a parking area and trailhead off Old Māmalahoa Highway.

Lower Kahuku

General Continue to adaptively reuse the site for 

a mix of visitor services, administrative, and operational use with limited use of existing ranch buildings. Develop an orientation/ interpretive strategy to site various media to interpret Mauna Loa geologic and natural history, native species and forest conservation, history of cattle ranching, Native Hawaiian presence in this area, and military history.

Same as Alternative 1, plus develop a DCP to create a design that provides visitors with a sense of arrival as well as general orientation and information, and provides detailed implementation guidance on adaptively reusing existing buildings for specific uses and determining the numbers and locations of campgrounds, picnic areas, and trails consistent with the overall vision for this alternative. 

Same as Alternative 1, plus develop a DCP to create a design that provides visitors with a sense of arrival as well as general orientation and information, and provides detailed implementation guidance on adaptively reusing existing buildings for specific uses and determining the numbers and locations of campgrounds, picnic areas, and trails consistent with the overall vision for this alternative.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 187 

Table 3.8. 

Summary of

Alternati

ves

Topic Alternative 1: No Action Alternative 2: Preferred Alternative Alternative 3

Developed Area and Use of Existing Buildings

Maintain a single visitor contact station in lower Kahuku.

Continue some limited use of existing ranch buildings, and adaptively reuse the existing ranch buildings and surrounding site for a mixture of visitor services and park operations, including administrative offices and maintenance space. Rely primarily on self-guided infrastructure. Maintain an open air visitor contact station and a small amphitheater that could be used for outdoor programs and organized activities. Explore opportunities to use existing interior roads to improve circulation. Provide a location to accommodate camping and staging for groups such as volunteers, researchers, students, and educational and service groups.

Adaptively reuse buildings and maintain visitor contact station with a small amphitheater in lower Kahuku, similar to Alternative 2. 

Recreation Activities and Visitor Opportunities

Strive to provide access for 7 days per week. Provide current range of recreational uses. Allow bicycle use on designated roads and trails and prohibit or restrict equestrian use and overnight camping.

Encourage a rustic visitor experience in Kahuku. Focus on recreational activities such as hiking, camping, and nature-viewing, with some biking and scenic driving opportunities. Reconstruct and/or maintain a minimal amount of pavement and road infrastructure. Provide an educational covered pavilion near the 1916 flows. Manage the amount of commercially guided recreation primarily through vehicle size limits and CUAs. 

Same as Alternative 2, except do not provide commercially guided access for recreation.

Road Access Maintain current road for vehicle 

access to Upper Glover. Maintain selected unimproved pasture roads for administrative use. Consider restoring roads, former paddock, and pasture areas not used for visitor or administrative use to natural conditions and/or native communities. Enhance interpretation along the current road system. 

No new roads developed; focus on use of existing road network. Restrict large commercial vehicles to the developed area.Upgrade and maintain main road from the developed area to Upper Glover for two-wheeldrive access as a one-lane with turnouts. Maintain the main road from Upper Glover east to a designated location near the 1916 lava flows for four-wheel-drive access. Prohibit public access west from Upper Glover. Roads not used for administrative purposes or trail access are restored to natural conditions and/or native communities. Evaluate routes for historic significance/use to help guide management. Consider allowing smaller capacity shuttles in response to increased demand as a transportation strategy in Kahuku. 

Same as Alternative 2.
188 | Chapter 3: 

Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Table 3.8. Summary of Alternatives

Topic Alternative 1: No Action Alternative 2: Preferred Alternative Alternative 3

Trails and Trailheads Continue to convert some pasture 

roads to trails.

Emphasize the use of trails and trailheads for nonmotorized access through Lower Kahuku as opposed to formalizing any additional road access. Develop a trail network as part of an overall trail management plan. Accommodate different visitor abilities across a series of loop trails and trail connections to promote hiking, bicycling, and equestrian use. Analyze trail alignments and uses to identify appropriate locations of picnic tables and trail signs. Evaluate and assess trail management in Kahuku as part of the trail management plan for the entire park.

Same as Alternative 2.

Campgrounds N/A Allow overnight camping in Kahuku. Develop 

multiple small-scale campgrounds with minimal services. Develop sites close to trailheads and features of interest for both drive-in and walkin campers; provide some accessible campsites. Accommodate extended family or group camping by providing multiple tent sites in close proximity to one another. Ensure a separate group camping location for larger educational groups with a covered area for staging or programs. Establish some temporary and movable field camps at designated sites for researchers, volunteers and others.

Allow overnight camping similar to Alternative 2 but infrastructure would consist of primitive and dispersed campsites with minimal services rather than smallscale campgrounds. 

Bicycling Allow bicycles on designated routes. Allow bicycles on designated routes by adaptively 

reusing pasture roads. Unless new connector trails are necessary to manage the flow of bike traffic on these trails, no new bike trails would be developed on undisturbed ground.

Same as Alternative 2.

Equestrian Use N/A Implement a small pilot program to explore allowing 

equestrian use while managing for resource concerns. Consider separate equestrian and bicycle trails in the DCP.Prepare a baseline vegetation assessment and monitoring plan in advance of the pilot program.

Same as Alternative 2, except do not allow commercial use.

Upper Kahuku

Upper Kahuku Manage area for its wilderness 

characteristics based on its determination of eligibility. Do not provide public access above Upper Glover, though allow vehicular access for administrative use and emergencies on existing roads.

Manage upper Kahuku for its wilderness characteristics based on its determination of eligibility. Emphasize restoring native ecosystems and recovering biological diversity of native species. Permit recreational access and visitor opportunities such as hiking and camping consistent with a wilderness experience. Allow NPS vehicular access on existing roads outside eligible wilderness for administrative use and emergencies.

Same as Alternative 2.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: 

Alternatives | 189 

Table 3.8. Summary of Alternatives

Topic Alternative 1: No Action Alternative 2: Preferred Alternative Alternative 3

Recreational Activities and Visitor Opportunities

Maintain closure above Upper Glover to public access. Do not provide opportunities for recreation and visitor use in upper Kahuku.

Allow recreation in upper Kahuku associated with foot travel such as hiking, birding, and overnight backcountry travel. Above the 1916 lava flows: do not allow public vehicular, biking, or equestrian activities; consider NPS-guided vehicular and/or biking cost-recovery interpretive and recreational experiences; implement a permit system for backcountry hiking. Develop facilities, such as a trailhead, water catchment and primitive campground in the vicinity of the 1916 flows. No commercial services or commercially guided recreation in upper Kahuku. Allow NPS vehicular access with implementation of best management practices.

Same as Alternative 2.

Campgrounds N/A Allow dispersed backcountry camping via 

backcountry use permit consistent with wilderness recreation. Consider developing a small walkin campground near the existing cabins and out of nēnē habitat outside of wilderness. Consider developing a system of shelters with water catchments for backcountry and wilderness camping. 

Same as Alternative 2, except no additional campground would be developed near the existing cabins.

Trails and Trailheads N/A Provide primary recreational experiences for visitors 

through use of trails. Design trails consistent with wilderness character and emphasize historic trail connections. 

Same as Alternative 2.

Boundary Modifications

Actions Common to All Alternatives

Seek legislation to include ‘Ōla‘a within the legislated park boundary. 

Boundary Modifications

Continue to seek acquisition of the Great Crack parcels (1,951 acres), located to the south of the Kīlauea Unit.

Add four contiguous parcels to the park boundary on a willing seller basis only:

• Great Crack parcel (1,951 acres) as earlier 

proposed in the park’s 1975 master plan.

• Ala Wai‘i parcel (3,475 acres) adjacent to the 

Great Crack parcel.

• Private parcel (222 acres) at the southern 

edge of Kahuku.

• Pōhue Bay parcel (16,457 acres) from lower 

Kahuku down to the coast.

No legislation would be needed for acquisition of these parcels contiguous to the boundary.

Same as Alternative 2.
190 | Chapter 3: 

Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Table 3.8. Summary of Alternatives

Topic Alternative 1: No Action Alternative 2: Preferred Alternative Alternative 3

PROGRAM SPECIFIC MANAGEMENT GUIDANCENatural and Cultural Resources

Actions Common to All Alternatives

Emphasize the Hawaiian concept of mālama ‘āina (care of the land) and the idea that caring for park resources is the kuleana (responsibility) of us all.

Natural Resources

Actions Common to All Alternatives

Perpetuate and restore native species, communities, and ecological processes in as natural condition as possible. Rely on the best available science to guide management actions so as to minimize impacts to park resources and visitor experience and as required by policy and law.Emphasize restoring native ecosystems and the recovery of biological diversity of native species, including special status species. Restoration activities would be implemented consistent with the park’s Final Plan/EIS for Protecting and Restoring Native Ecosystems by Managing Nonnative Ungulates (2013), the Fire Management Plan (2007), Kahuku Pasture Restoration Plan/Environmental Assessment (currently in progress) and other planning documents.Continue to provide opportunities for communities, visitors, and school groups to volunteer on restoration projects. Continue to coordinate activities with members of Three Mountain Alliance and other partners on research and restoration measures.

General Continue efforts to perpetuate and 

restore native ecosystems. Recover populations of rare species and biological diversity of native species by using scientifically informed methods.

Same as Alternative 1, plus expand research and recovery efforts on a range of issues including habitat conservation, watershed protection, restoration of native species and ecosystems. Native Hawaiian traditional ecological knowledge would be used to enhance current scientific understanding to protect park resources. Engage visitors with additional opportunities to participate in resource management and restoration activities. Work with interpretive and education programs to showcase specific areas, such as special ecological areas as living laboratories for experimental restoration and research.

Same as Alternative 2; however, the park would maximize opportunities for volunteerism, stewardship, service-learning, and citizen science as a major component of natural resources management. Also, the park natural resources staff would maximize efforts to work with interpretive and education programs to showcase specific areas, such as special ecological areas, as living laboratories for experimental restoration and research and expand efforts to engage visitors in restoration activities and projects.

Cultural Resources

Actions Common to All Alternatives

Continue to provide cultural resource protection for cultural landscapes, historic buildings and structures, archeological and ethnographic resources, and museum collections for park-related projects as required by law.Continue to recognize the sacredness of the park to many Native Hawaiians. Facilitate traditional cultural practices as allowed by NPS policy and regulations.Acknowledge that some ethnographic use of nonsensitive shoreline resources may be allowed above the high water mark.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: 

Alternatives | 191 

Table 3.8. Summary of Alternatives

Topic Alternative 1: No Action Alternative 2: Preferred Alternative Alternative 3

General Continue to provide cultural resources 

protection for park-related projects as required by law. Continue with documentation, research, and stewardship of cultural resources with limited opportunity to expand program capabilities. Continue to stabilize and maintain significant landscapes or national register-eligible properties or contributing elements, as able.

Strengthen and expand documentation, research, and stewardship of cultural resources. Expand toward a full complement of preservation specialists on staff. Integrate concepts of traditional Native Hawaiian land management and traditional ecological knowledge and strive to expand understanding of cultural resources within the context of Native Hawaiian world view. Expand the permanent staff or archeologists to meet the needs of all the park’s compliance projects. Pursue a suite of preservation plans to provide guidelines for interpreting and preserving cultural landscapes and historic structures. Research and exhibit a greater number of museum collections. Work toward permanent facilities to house and showcase significant collections and provide researchers access to those materials.

Same as Alternative 2, plus emphasize surveys (including oral history and interviews), research, and stewardship opportunities to foster long-lasting connections to the park’s cultural resources. Maximize opportunities for visitors to engage in the research, scientific investigation, and projects associated with cultural resources management. Expand efforts to work with interpretation and education in order to broaden messages used in visitor programs about the sacredness of the park and aloha ‘āina (love of the land) to Native Hawaiians and emphasize the interconnectedness and interdependency between the natural and cultural environments. 

Historic Resources Continue to inventory Kahuku’s resources 

and update the National Register of Historic Places Determination of Eligibility.

Same as Alternative 1, plus continue to stabilize and maintain for interpretation some significant ranching and World War II-era landscapes or contributing elements at Kahuku. 

Same as Alternative 2.

Research

Actions Common to All Alternatives

Continue park research efforts and collaboration with partners; continue to support independent research under the NPS permitting system. Emphasize research related to ecology, endemics, climate change, archeology, history, and traditional cultural properties.Continue to allow operations for Hawaiian Volcano Observatory in its present location adjacent to Jaggar Museum.

Research See “Common to All Alternatives” Strengthen the emphasis on disseminating 

research related to ecology, invasive species, rare species, climate change, archeology, history, and traditional cultural properties to park visitors in a lay-person format.

Same as Alternative 2, plus expand opportunities for citizen science and new ways for visitors to participate in research activities.

Wilderness

Actions Common to All Alternatives

Continue to manage designated wilderness consistent with NPS management policies and the Wilderness Act and to manage proposed eligible wilderness in upper Kahuku for its wilderness qualities.Continue to complete the minimum requirements analysis as required for all management actions in designated and eligible wilderness.
192 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Table 3.8. 

Summary of

Alternati

ves

Topic Alternative 1: No Action Alternative 2: Preferred Alternative Alternative 3

General See “Common to All Alternatives” Recommend wilderness designation for 121,015 

acres (GIS) at Kahuku that met eligibility criteria. Develop a wilderness stewardship plan to guide wilderness use in the park after completion of this GMP/WS/EIS. Emphasize preserving the qualities of wilderness character and continue activities and uses in wilderness under minimum tool analysis based on previous environmental compliance which include: (1) fences to protect native ecosystems from nonnative animals, (2) research instrumentation and telecommunication essential to continued volcanic studies and warnings, (3) the use of helicopters as a minimum tool in servicing research instrumentation and in the protecting and restoring of natural and cultural resources, and 4) water catchment shelters in remote waterless backcountry. 

Same as Alternative 2.

Soundscapes and the Acoustic Environment

Actions Common to All Alternatives

Aircraft use is allowed for administrative purposes throughout the park and minimum tool analysis is used when needed, as outlined in the Mission Critical Administrative Aviation Plan/EA (2014). 

General Continue to use a variety of methods 

to reduce human-caused noise and improve natural sounds. Complete an air tour management plan/EIS that would develop measures to limit or prevent any significant impacts that may be caused by commercial air tour operations upon the natural and cultural resources, or visitor experiences at the park.

Same as Alternative 1, plus expand active management practices to improve soundscapes and the acoustic environment by: (1) implementing best management practices to limit the duration of artificial noise, (2) maximizing human-caused noise free periods, (3) creating more opportunities for visitors to experience natural soundscapes, and (4) implementing partial closures of air space in sensitive areas. Reduce artificial noise within wilderness; in and near critical habitat for threatened and endangered species; in traditional cultural areas such as volcano summits, active lava, or active volcanic features; and in high visitor use areas. Expand information and training to commercial air tour operators. Implement a soundscape monitoring program and consider developing a soundscape management plan, if additional guidance is needed.

Same as Alternative 2.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: 

Alternatives | 193 

Table 3.8. Summary of Alternatives

Topic Alternative 1: No Action Alternative 2: Preferred Alternative Alternative 3

Visitor Experience

Actions Common to All Alternatives

Strive to provide high-quality visitor experiences and continue to offer visitors a menu of options depending on length of stay, interests and capabilities. Continue to allow visitors to experience the park’s world treasures, iconic landscapes, volcanic processes, and other significant highlights. Continue existing recreation opportunities such as camping, picnicking, hiking, biking, equestrian use, and viewing lava, scenery, and wildlife.Continue to maintain trails and provide visitor facility improvements as needed.Continue to maintain the Külanaokuaiki Campground as a frontcountry campground with approximately eight sites and a vault toilet, i.e., no water.Prioritize and locate accessibility improvements.Continue to rehabilitate and interpret the historic Civilian Conservation Corps shelter and footprints in the Ka‘ü area.Work with Ala Kahakai National Historic Trail staff to sign and interpret those trail segments through the park. 

General Continue to provide visitors with safe 

access to volcanic features, active lava, cultural resources, and ecosystems from sea to summit. Use a variety of methods to help manage visitor congestion such as educating the public and dispersing visitor use through information.

Continue to provide visitors with safe access to volcanic features, active lava, cultural resources, and ecosystems from mauka to makai. Manage different geographic areas of the park for different types of visitor experiences and levels of visitor services. Offer unique opportunities to understand the ways in which kama‘āina (local people of the land) view, understand, and connect with park landscapes and resources today. Manage visitor expectations that eruptive events would likely be linked with congestion. 

Same as Alternative 1, plus enhance and expand unique hands-on learning and stewardship opportunities for visitors that stretch from mauka to makai.Consider managing general park congestion with a mandatory shuttle around Crater Rim Drive, in addition to a suite of other tools to disperse visitors and traffic. 

Range of Recreational Activities

Continue to allow for a range of recreational activities: camping, hiking, backpacking, biking, equestrian use, birding and other wildlife viewing, lava viewing, picnicking, general sightseeing, and stargazing. Opportunities at Kahuku would continue to be limited.

Continue recreational activities same as Alternative 1, plus provide additional opportunities for existing activities in different geographic areas and expand recreational activities in Kahuku beyond current use. Focus on ranger-guided tours for access to new and particularly sensitive areas in the park.

Similar to Alternative 2, however focus expanded recreational uses on providing opportunities and amenities for larger educational and stewardship groups.

Trails: Hiking, Biking, and Equestrian

Maintain the existing trail network within the main part of the park with emphasis on frontcountry trails. Continue to create safe trail corridors that link key features or park sites. Encourage bicycling, pedestrian, and equestrian use as recreational activities and as alternative transportation to park sites. Continue to seek solutions to provide safe pedestrian and bicycle access around Crater Rim Drive. Identify key needs for trail improvements. Work with Ala Kahakai National Historic Trail staff to sign and interpret those trail segments through the park. 

Develop a trail management plan to comprehensively assess trail conditions and needs and to identify specific trail alignments and uses. Develop new trail alignments primarily along historic alignments and traditional routes, or on existing roads, such as at Kahuku. Strive to provide access to a variety of locations for different audiences and types of recreationists. Try to create loop trail experiences through new links between existing trails. Evaluate ways to use the road network for improved nonvehicular recreation opportunities rather than construct extensive new trails. 

Create a trail management plan to comprehensively assess trail conditions and needs and to identify specific trail alignments and uses. Create few new trails, but upgrade existing trails, historic trails, turnouts, and waysides to connect key features or park sites. Focus on road closures in some areas to during certain times of day/days of week to provide a less congested experience for recreationists such as hikers, backpackers, bikers, and equestrian users.
194 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Table 3.8. 

Summary of

Alternati

ves

Topic Alternative 1: No Action Alternative 2: Preferred Alternative Alternative 3

Frontcountry Camping

Maintain Nāmakanipaio Campground and Kūlanaokuaiki Campground as the only formal frontcountry campgrounds that offer drive-in camping facilities in the park. Maintain Nāmakanipaio Campground as a concession/fee operation.

Maintain Nāmakanipaio and Kūlanaokuaiki campgrounds as formal frontcountry campgrounds in the park with Nāmakanipaio similar to Alternative 1, plus consider developing additional primitive and dispersed campsites in the main park for general public camping. Additional camping opportunities would be provided in Kahuku. Consider future frontcountry camping development in relationship to outdoor education pavilions targeted to educational groups. 

Similar to Alternative 2 except the only increased general public camping would be at Kahuku.

Backcountry Camping

Maintain the existing backcountry campsites and associated facilities, including water catchment systems, restrooms, shelters, etc.

Maintain existing backcountry camping. Explore formally designating some backcountry campsites (beginning with areas already in use), primarily along the coast. Additional backcountry camping opportunities would be available at Kahuku. Any new campsites would require further planning.

Same as Alternative 1, plus additional backcountry camping opportunities would be available at Kahuku.

Interpretation and Education

Actions Common to All Alternatives

Continue to provide a variety of interpretive and educational programs, events, and guest speakers to engage park visitors and diverse audiences.

Interpretation and Education Programs

Continue to offer a range of interpretive programs, media, and techniques. Integrate wayside and interpretive planning for Kahuku into the comprehensive interpretive plan currently under development. Focus interpretation at Kahuku on a range of themes and media for visitor immersion. Continue to promote environmental education, ranger-led programs and tours, and variety of curriculum-based activities.

Continue to provide the current range of interpretive programs, media, and techniques in Alternative 1. Finalize a comprehensive interpretive plan and include Kahuku. Focus interpretation methods on ranger-led experiences and live programs to immerse visitors in the volcanic, biologic, and cultural resources at the park. Provide hands-on educational experiences in the frontcountry and engage visitors in research and citizen science. Utilize new media and tools to provide inquiry-based learning through frontcountry self-guided interpretive and educational opportunities in order to meet the diverse needs of an increasingly international audience. 

Same as Alternative 1 plus focus on ranger-led experiences and live programs to immerse visitors in the volcanic, biologic, and cultural resources. Provide additional opportunities to learn from Native Hawaiians and/or cultural practitioners. Focus on providing hands-on educational experiences for school, volunteer, and other organized groups and engage visitors in stewardship, research, and citizen science as a key element. Emphasize engaging educational groups and service groups. Work with natural resources staff to showcase specific areas (such as special ecological areas) for restoration and research.

Interpretation and Education Facilities

Continue to use Kīlauea Visitor Center and Jaggar Museum as primary locations for visitor orientation and in-depth exposure to the park’s interpretive themes. Promote Kahuku as an important location for visitor orientation on days it is open for public access.Maintain the basic infrastructure for visitors and education groups and upgrade facilities as needed.

Expand the uses of Jaggar Museum and Kīlauea Visitor Center as dramatic opportunities to introduce visitors to the volcanic, biologic, and cultural resources at Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park and include Kahuku as an important location for visitor orientation. Emphasize minimal new facilities: structures would be small, low-impact, potentially designed to be consistent with traditional Hawaiian design (such as thatched hale), and provide flexibility during periods of eruptive activity. Provide opportunities for outdoor education and inquiry-based learning that stretches from mauka to makai with a series of small, covered pavilions at key locations. 

Similar to Alternative 2 except do not expand the uses of Jaggar Museum and Kīlauea Visitor Center. Provide opportunities for outdoor education and inquiry-based learning that stretches from mauka to makai with a series of small, covered pavilions at key locations similar to Alternative 2.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 195 

Table 3.8. 

Summary of

Alternati

ves

Topic Alternative 1: No Action Alternative 2: Preferred Alternative Alternative 3

Transportation and Access 

General Maintain park roads to provide for safety 

consistent with the park setting, ensuring a park-like and scenic driving experience. Maintain historic road alignments to the extent possible. Continue current range of roads and road standards. Continue to work cooperatively with the state and other partners, particularly on Highway 11 for visitor safety, signage, and information.Maintain parking areas and turnouts with upgrades as needed but provide no major new parking areas.

Same as Alternative 1 plus, provide some upgrades or expansion as needed to facilitate and improve visitor access for vehicles and bicycles. Could reduce or remove some parking areas out of concern for park resources. Manage congestion and private vehicle use using an intelligent transportation system, marketing strategies, and park policies to control cars and congestion. Implement new restrictions or management of vehicles on some roads, such as size limits and a pilot program for one-way traffic for large commercial buses on Crater Rim Drive. Possibly restore some road connections previously lost to lava and reopen roads impacted by lava, seismic activity, eruptive events, or other acts of nature, when feasible. Explore continuation of a nonmandatory shuttle system in the park after completion of the hydrogen shuttle pilot project.

Maintain park roads similar to Alternative 1. Explore the feasibility of implementing a mandatory shuttle system on Crater Rim Drive, and potentially to other locations in the park, to reduce private vehicle traffic and congestion, following the completion of the hydrogen shuttle pilot project. Maintain closure of Crater Rim Drive to private vehicles.Improve bicycle access on roads by considering limits on private vehicles.Minimize any expansion or development of new parking and potentially remove or reduce parking for resource concerns. Do not construct new roads. Reevaluate reopening of roads to vehicle traffic that are impacted by volcanic or seismic activity or other natural events and whether roads could be converted to trails.

Commercial Services

General Continue to authorize existing 

commercial services through a range of legal authorities using a variety of different permits, contracts, and other authorizations, depending on the type and location of the activity involved.

Continue to allow the range of commercial services that presently exist at existing levels and locations. Implement guidance in the Commercial Services Strategy (Appendix F) for future decisions and evaluating new requests. Consider expansion of Nämakanipaio campground to include additional indoor lodging facilities. Allow commercial services in lower Kahuku, but restrict from upper Kahuku. Include management strategies such as infrastructure changes to accommodate commercial uses; limits on numbers or size/capacity or times/dates of commercial activities; engaging commercial service providers in communicating park information to the public. 

Same as Alternative 2 except no expansion of Nāmakanipaio campground to include additional indoor lodging facilities.

Partnerships

Actions Common to All Alternatives

Continue to collaborate with and engage other partners in monitoring and protecting of terrestrial, coastal and marine resources. Continue to maintain formal and informal partnerships in support of broader landscape protection, including Three Mountain Alliance, the largest land partnership in the state of Hawai‘i.
196 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Table 3.8. 

Summary of

Alternati

ves

Topic Alternative 1: No Action Alternative 2: Preferred Alternative Alternative 3

General Continue to maintain existing 

partnerships and relationships that are key to the park’s mission.

Same as Alternative 1, plus foster and expand partnerships with local and regional communities, organizations, nonprofits, and businesses; Native Hawaiian communities; adjacent landowners; local, state, and federal agencies; and other interested groups or organizations to support the purpose and significance of the park. Promote community and school involvement in traditional practices and environmental service projects.

Same as Alternative 2.

Administrative Facilities and Infrastructure

General Continue to maintain, and upgrade when 

necessary, administrative infrastructure in the park such as offices, storage, and utilities and improve provisions for accessibility.Continue to maintain, and upgrade when necessary, existing infrastructure in lower Kahuku and continue to use existing buildings there for office space and storage. 

Same as Alternative 1 plus, strive to relocate administrative functions from Kīlauea Visitor Center to other buildings consolidate interpretation and visitor use functions at the visitor center. At Kahuku, continue to maintain and upgrade when necessary existing infrastructure. Adaptively reuse the existing developed area in lower Kahuku for a mix of visitor services and administrative and operational use as needed. Locate any new development in Kahuku in the existing developed footprint.

Same as Alternative 2.

Climate Change and Sustainability

General Continue to implement the climate action 

plan for the park and participate in the Climate Friendly Parks program. Strive to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, continue monitoring and research, increase climate change education and outreach, and develop climate change adaptation strategies.

Continue to implement the climate action plan for Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park and participate in the Climate Friendly Parks program. Strive for increased energy efficiency, conservation, and sustainability of facilities and prioritize green facility design to the greatest extent possible. Encourage contractors and concessioners to reduce their own greenhouse gas emissions, use sustainable practices, and purchase local products. Promote hiking and biking to get visitors and employees out of cars and decrease the park’s carbon footprint. Serve as a model for climate change adaption by supporting climate change-related research, adapting management activities based on climate projections, and building resilience among populations of rare native species, communities and ecosystems.

Same as Alternative 2.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 197 

SUMMARY OF COSTS ASSOCIATED WITH IMPLEMENTATION

OF THE ALTERNATIVES

Table 3.9. Summary of Costs

Alternative 1 

(No Action)

Alternative 2 

(Preferred) Alternative 3

ANNUAL OPERATIONAL COSTS

Total Annual Operational Costs $7,990,000 $10,739,000 $10,689,000

Total Staffing (FTE) 153.5 190 189

ONE-TIME COSTS

Priority 1 Projects Main Park $5,260,000 $18,823,000 $18,655,000

Priority 2 Projects Main Park $0 $2,674,000 $2,035,000

Total Main Park $5,260,000 $21,497,000 $20,690,000

Priority 1 Projects Kahuku $1,820,000 $14,029,000 $14,029,000

Priority 2 Projects Kahuku $0 $2,452,000 $2,452,000

Total Kahuku $1,820,000 $16,571,000 $16,481,000

Total One-time Costs $7,080,000 $38,068,000 $37,171,000

Deferred Maintenance Offset $5,275,000 $22,841,000 $21,823,000

SUMMARY OF IMPACTS

Table 3.10. Summary of Impacts

Alternative 1 (No Action) Alternative 2 (Preferred) Alternative 3

GEOLOGIC RESOURCES

Negligible to moderate adverse impacts. 

Widespread minor to moderate 

beneficial impacts.

Negligible to moderate adverse 

cumulative impacts.

Minor to moderate adverse impacts, 

all localized. Widespread minor to 

moderate beneficial impacts.

Negligible to moderate adverse 

cumulative impacts.

Negligible to moderate 

adverse impacts, all localized. 

Widespread minor to moderate 

beneficial impacts.

Negligible to moderate adverse 

cumulative impacts.

VEGETATION

Negligible to moderate, long-term and 

adverse impacts. Long-term minor to 

major beneficial impacts.

Cumulative impacts are moderate adverse 

and minor to major beneficial.

Negligible to moderate, long-term, 

localized, adverse impacts. Long-term 

minor to major beneficial impacts.

Cumulative impacts are moderate 

adverse and minor to major beneficial.

Same as Alternative 1.

NATIVE WILDLIFE AND WILDLIFE HABITAT

Negligible to minor long-term adverse 

impacts. Moderate to major long-term 

beneficial impacts.

Moderate long-term adverse and 

moderate to major long-term beneficial 

cumulative impacts.

Negligible to moderate long-term 

localized adverse effects. Minor to 

major long-term and more widespread 

beneficial impacts.

Moderate long-term adverse and 

moderate to major long-term beneficial 

cumulative impacts.

Same as Alternative 2.
198 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Table 3.10. Summary of Impacts

Alternative 1 (No Action) Alternative 2 (Preferred) Alternative 3

SPECIAL STATUS SPECIES

Negligible to minor short-term adverse 

impacts. Long-term moderate to major 

beneficial impacts.

Cumulative impacts would be longterm moderate adverse and long-term 

moderate to major beneficial.

Similar to Alternative 1 with increased 

protection which will result in 

decreased adverse impacts.

Same as Alternative 2.

WILDERNESS

Short- and long-term minor to moderate 

adverse impacts. Long-term minor to 

major beneficial impacts.

Cumulative impacts would be minor to 

major and adverse.

Overall impact levels same 

as Alternative 1.

Overall impact levels same 

as Alternative 1.

SOUNDSCAPES AND THE ACOUSTIC ENVIRONMENT

Short-term moderate and long-term 

negligible to moderate adverse impacts. 

Minor to major adverse 

cumulative impacts.

Short-term minor to moderate and 

long-term negligible to minor adverse 

impacts. Long-term minor to moderate 

beneficial impacts.

Minor to major adverse 

cumulative impacts.

Same as Alternative 2.

ARCHEOLOGICAL RESOURCES

Long-term negligible to minor adverse 

and beneficial impacts. 

Cumulative impacts would be adverse.

Long-term negligible to minor 

adverse impacts. Long-term moderate 

beneficial impacts.

Cumulative impacts would be adverse.

Same as Alternative 2.

HISTORIC STRUCTURES/CULTURAL LANDSCAPES

Long-term negligible to minor 

beneficial impacts.

Cumulative impacts are long-term, 

minor to moderate, and both adverse 

and beneficial.

Both beneficial and adverse negligible 

to minor impacts.

Cumulative impacts are long-term, 

minor to moderate, and both adverse 

and beneficial.

Same as Alternative 2.

ETHNOGRAPHIC RESOURCES

Negligible to minor long-term 

adverse impacts.

Cumulative impacts would be minor 

long-term and adverse.

Minor to moderate long-term beneficial 

impacts. Negligible to minor long-term 

adverse impacts.

Cumulative impacts would be minor 

long-term and adverse.

Same as Alternative 2.

VISITOR USE AND EXPERIENCE

Minor to moderate, long-term and both 

beneficial and adverse impacts.

Moderate long-term beneficial cumulative 

impacts, both widespread and localized.

Minor to major, long-term beneficial 

impacts. Moderate adverse impacts.

Moderate long-term beneficial 

cumulative impacts, both widespread 

and localized, with this alternative 

contributing a greater amount to 

these impacts compared to the noaction alternative.

Minor to major, long-term 

beneficial impacts. Moderate to 

major adverse impacts.

Moderate long-term beneficial 

cumulative impacts, both 

widespread and localized, with 

this alternative contributing a 

greater amount to the adverse 

impacts compared to the 

preferred alternative.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 3: Alternatives | 199 

Table 3.10. Summary of Impacts

Alternative 1 (No Action) Alternative 2 (Preferred) Alternative 3

TRANSPORTATION AND ACCESS

Adverse, minor to moderate impacts 

parkwide, and localized negligible 

beneficial impacts.

Negligible adverse cumulative impacts.

Long-term minor to moderate beneficial 

and adverse impacts. 

Negligible adverse cumulative impacts.

Long-term minor to moderate 

beneficial impacts. Long-term 

moderate adverse impacts.

Negligible adverse 

cumulative impacts.

SOCIOECONOMICS

Overall continuing impacts would 

be short- and long-term, moderate 

and beneficial.

Long-term moderate and beneficial 

cumulative impacts.

Short- and long-term, moderate 

and beneficial.

Long-term moderate and beneficial 

cumulative impacts, with the impacts 

greater than the no-action alternative.

Same as Alternative 2.

PARK OPERATIONS

Long-term minor to moderate and 

adverse impacts.

Moderate short-term adverse and 

moderate long-term beneficial 

cumulative impacts.

Overall long-term moderate and 

beneficial impacts, if funded, 

otherwise moderate to major 

adverse if implemented without 

additional funding.

Moderate short-term adverse and 

moderate long-term beneficial 

cumulative impacts.

Same as Alternative 2.

GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS, CLIMATE CHANGE, AND SUSTAINABILITY

Negligible to minor, long-term 

beneficial impacts.

Cumulative impacts would be 

beneficial and adverse.

Minor to moderate, long-term 

beneficial impacts.

Cumulative impacts would be 

beneficial and adverse.

Same as Alternative 2.

In addition to funding, implementation of the 

preferred alternative also could be affected 

by other factors. More detailed planning 

and environmental documentation may be 

completed, as appropriate, before some of the 

actions would be carried out.

Implementation Plans, 

Studies,and Design Work

The following list includes some of the plans, 

studies and design work needed to implement 

the preferred alternative. 

Plans and Designs

• development concept plan (summit 

of Kīlauea including visitor 

center improvements)

• adaptive reuse for Ohia Wing

IMPLEMENTATION OF THE 

GENERAL MANAGEMENT PLAN

Once the general management planning 

process is completed, the selected alternative 

would become the new management plan for 

the park and would be implemented in phases. 

The park’s strategic plan, business plan, 

and annual work plans would help develop 

priorities that would determine how best to 

implement the general management plan.

Implementation of the actions and 

developments proposed within the 

management plan is dependent upon funding 

available at the time of need. The approval 

of this general management plan does not 

guarantee that the funding and staffing needed 

to implement the plan would be forthcoming.
200 | Chapter 3: Alternatives HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

• development concept plan (Kīlauea 

Iki to Devastation)

• site plan (Lua Manu Crater area)

• development concept plan (Ka‘ū 

Footprints / Ka‘ū Desert area)

• wilderness stewardship 

plan (parkwide)

• soundscape management plan (if 

additional guidance is needed)

• trail management plan (parkwide)

• accessibility plan (parkwide)

• comprehensive interpretive 

plan (parkwide)

• development concept 

plan (lower Kahuku)

• emergency operations plan (update 

to address changes to park as a 

result of implementing the general 

management plan)

Site Improvements

• trail design (Kīlauea Visitor Center 

to Jaggar Museum)

• design for outdoor seating area 

(Jaggar Museum)

• site plan improvements for groups 

(Kealakomowaena)

• interpretive waysides and trail 

development for bird-watching 

(Mauna Loa Road)

• trail design (Nāmakanipaio 

Campground to Mauna Loa Road)

• interpretive site design for boardwalk 

(‘Ōla‘a-small tract)

• site improvements for 

entrance (Kahuku)

Studies and Data Needs

• environmental education 

curriculum and waysides updates 

(Devastation Trail area)

• soundscape monitoring 

program (parkwide)

• pilot program for testing one-way 

traffic for large commercial buses 

(Crater Rim Drive)

• monitoring and treatment plan to 

address spread of nonnative plants 

(‘Ōla‘a rainforest)

• pilot program for equestrian use 

(lower Kahuku pastures)

• baseline vegetation assessment 

and monitoring plan (lower 

Kahuku pastures)

• National Register of Historic Places 

determination of eligibility (Kahuku)

• site-specific assessment of rare and 

listed species (all projects) 

In addition, policy-required baseline studies 

and updates of existing plans such as the Fire 

Management Plan and Museum Management 

Plan would be completed when needed.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 4: WILDERNESS STUDY AND PROPOSAL | 201 

WILDERNESS STUDY AND PROPOSAL

Hawksbill sea turtle hatchling. NPS photo

4
202 | Chapter 4: WILDERNESS STUDY AND PROPOSAL HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Hawksbill sea turtle hatchlings leaving nest. NPS photo
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 4: WILDERNESS STUDY AND PROPOSAL | 203 

CHAPTER 4: WILDERNESS STUDY AND PROPOSAL

INTRODUCTION

With the passage of the 1964 Wilderness 

Act, Congress declared a national policy to 

secure for present and future generations the 

benefits of enduring wilderness resources. 

NPS policy further directs that lands and 

waters within the national park system that 

are found to possess the characteristics and 

values of wilderness be formally studied 

for possible recommendation to Congress 

for wilderness designation. The purpose of 

wilderness designation is to preserve and 

protect wilderness characteristics and values 

in perpetuity. Wilderness can be officially 

designated only through congressional action.

In 1973, Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park 

initiated the first parkwide inventory to 

identify any wilderness-eligible lands, 

accompanied by a Wilderness Study/Final 

Environmental Impact Statement. The study 

resulted in the National Park Service formally 

proposing that 123,100 acres (130,950)1 be 

designated as wilderness. In 1978, this acreage 

within Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park was 

formally designated by Congress (see Figure 

4.1. Wilderness and Backcountry Areas). 

An additional 7,850 acres outside of park 

boundaries were also designated as potential 

wilderness by Congress, to be converted 

to wilderness upon acquisition. Since this 

land is outside the park boundary, it is not 

shown on the map. 

1 Determining acreage at Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park is a complex process by which varying sources provide 

different estimations of total acreage. Unless otherwise 

specified, acreage listed in this document includes two 

numbers: the first is the official acreage derived from deeds of 

conveyance to the United States and County/State tax assessor 

records, the sum total of which constitute the official NPS 

acreage for the park. (The official park acreage is maintained 

by the NPS Land Resource Division, WASO.) The second (listed 

in parentheses) is an estimation generated by GIS software 

that uses projections on the land to calculate acreage within 

geographically defined boundaries. When available and 

appropriate, both numbers are included in this GMP/WS/

EIS because deed/tax assessor estimates, which are used 

in legislation and policy for the park, do not exist for some 

areas in the park, such as those acres analyzed for wilderness 

eligibility in the Kahuku Unit.

In 2003, the park acquired 115,788 (150,865) 

acres in an area long known as Kahuku on 

the Southwest Rift Zone of Mauna Loa. 

NPS Management Policies 2006 (“Chapter 

6: Wilderness Preservation”) direct the 

park to review roadless and undeveloped 

areas, including new areas or expanded 

boundaries within the national park system, 

to determine whether or not they are eligible 

for preserving as wilderness. The GMP/EIS 

process, which began in 2009, and the Kahuku 

acquisition presented the planning team with 

an opportunity to analyze the potential for 

additional wilderness designation within 

Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park since the 

1974 Wilderness Study and the 1975 Final 

Environmental Statement. 

Early in the planning process for the general 

management plan, the planning team 

conducted an assessment of wilderness 

eligibility for the Kahuku Unit and an 

assessment of the potential for wilderness 

suitability of all lands within park boundaries. 

In 2011 park staff determined that 121,015 

(GIS) acres of the Kahuku Unit met eligibility 

criteria and requirements necessary to qualify 

for the National Wilderness Preservation 

System. Subsequently, in December 2011, the 

GMP/EIS planning process was amended to 

include a wilderness study and a notice was 

published in the Federal Register (volume 

76, number 232, pages 75557-58). This draft 

GMP/Wilderness Study/EIS now evaluates 

any foreseeable effects associated with 

possible designation of additional wilderness 

within Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park.

WILDERNESS DEFINITION

The Wilderness Act of 1964 (PL 88-577) is the 

guiding piece of legislation for all wilderness 

areas. This Act refers to wilderness as follows:

• lands designated for preservation 

and protection in their natural 

condition (Section 2[a])
204 | Chapter 4: WILDER

NESS STUDY AND PROPOSAL HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Figure 4.1. Wilderness and Backcountry Areas

à à à

à

à

à

à

à

à

à

11¬«

11¬«

Volcano Village

Pāhala

Nā‘ālehu

Ocean View

Mauna Loa

Wilderness Unit

K A H U K U

M A U N A L O A

K Ī L A U E A

Ka‘aha

Halapē

Nāpau

Pepeiao

Cabin

Mauna Loa

Summit Cabin

Pu‘u‘ula‘ula

Red Hill Cabin

‘ Ō L A ‘ A

‘Ōla‘a

Wilderness

Unit

East Rift

Wilderness Unit

Ka‘ū Desert

Wilderness

Unit

Keauhou

‘Āpua Point

P A C I F I C O C E A N

U PPER

LOWER

Hawai‘i Volcanoes

National Park

MAP AREA

Figure 4.1 Wilderness and Backcountry Areas

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park GMP/WS/EIS

Fig. 4.1 WildBackAreas_060914.mxd

μ 0 10

Kilometers

0 5

Miles

Produced by: PWR - Seattle Planning Office

Date Created: June 2014

Data Sources: USGS - Lava Flows, Roads, 

 Coastline

 NPS - Park Boundary,Trails, 

 Wilderness, Campgrounds

Legend

Park BoundaryDesignated Wilderness

à

Eligible WildernessCampgroundsTrailsRoads

Recent Lava Flows
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 4: WILDERNESS STUDY AND PROPOSAL | 205 

• an area where the earth and its 

community of life are untrammeled 

by man (Section 2[c])

• an area of “undeveloped Federal 

land retaining its primeval 

character and influence, without 

permanent improvement or human 

habitation” (Section 2[c])

• an area that “generally appears 

to have been affected primarily 

by the forces of nature, with the 

imprint of man’s work substantially 

unnoticeable” (Section 2[c})

• an area that “has outstanding 

opportunities for solitude or a 

primitive and unconfined type of 

recreation” (Section 2[c])

• an area that “shall be devoted to the 

public purposes of recreation, scenic, 

scientific, educational, conservation 

and historic use” (Section 4[b])

Based on these descriptions of wilderness, 

the Aldo Leopold Research Institute, an 

interagency group representing all four 

federal agencies that manage wilderness, 

prepared statutory language in Keeping It 

Wild: An Interagency Strategy to Monitor 

Trends in Wilderness Character Across the 

National Wilderness Preservation System. 

This document, along with the 1964 

Wilderness Act definitions, specifically 

articulates the following five qualities of 

wilderness character:

• Natural: wilderness ecological 

systems are substantially free from 

the effects of modern civilization.

• Untrammeled: wilderness is 

essentially unhindered and free 

from modern human control 

or manipulation.

• Solitude or a Primitive and 

Unconfined Type of Recreation: 

wilderness provides outstanding 

opportunities for solitude or 

primitive and unconfined recreation.

• Undeveloped: wilderness 

retains its primeval character and 

influence, and is essentially without 

permanent improvements or modern 

human occupation.

• Other Features of Value: wilderness 

preserves other tangible features that 

are of scientific, educational, scenic, 

or historical value.

WILDERNESS ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA

NPS lands are considered eligible for 

wilderness if they are at least 5,000 acres or 

of sufficient size to make practicable their 

preservation and use in an unimpaired 

condition, and if they possess the following 

characteristics (as identified in the 1964 

Wilderness Act):

• The earth and its community of 

life are untrammeled by humans, 

where humans are visitors 

and do not remain.

• The area is undeveloped and retains 

its primeval character and influence 

without permanent improvements or 

human habitation.

• The area generally appears to have 

been affected primarily by the 

forces of nature, with the imprint 

of humans’ work substantially 

unnoticeable. The area is protected 

and managed so as to preserve its 

natural conditions. 

• The area offers outstanding 

opportunities for solitude or 

a primitive and unconfined 

type of recreation.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF 

STUDY AREA

The wilderness study area consists of 

approximately 121,015 (GIS) acres within 

the legal boundaries of Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park at the Kahuku Unit. This area 

was determined wilderness-eligible in a 2012 

Wilderness Eligibility Assessment (see Figure 

4.1. Wilderness and Backcountry Areas).

The Kahuku Unit straddles dramatic lava 

flows and volcanic features along the 

Southwest Rift Zone of Mauna Loa, an active 

volcano and the largest mountain in the world. 

Over the past century, Mauna Loa has erupted 

frequently, often every two decades, and is 

known for its voluminous lava flows that 

extend down its Northeast Rift Zone (outside 
206 | Chapter 4: WILDERNESS STUDY AND PROPOSAL HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

the park) and its Southwest Rift Zone at 

Kahuku. The wilderness-eligible area stretches 

from alpine at 12,600 feet in elevation down 

to approximately 4,600 feet. Native montane 

‘ōhi‘a and koa forests are scattered between 

historic lava flows, providing habitat for 

several species of federally listed endangered 

plants and animals. Known in Native 

Hawaiian culture as the “realm of the gods,” 

the only visible evidence of humans at the 

highest elevations are the stone remnants of 

Native Hawaiian archaeological sites and a 

few remaining segments of trails dating to 

the 18th and 19th centuries. The Southwest 

Rift Zone has experienced seven eruptions 

since 1843 and exhibits outstanding geologic 

features including high-elevation cinder and 

sulfur cones, cinder fields, and lava tubes. A

colorful tephra deposit, called Hapaimamo, 

is located along the southern boundary of the 

area proposed as wilderness between 5,000 

and 6,500 feet in elevation.

WILDERNESS ELIGIBILITY IN THE

KAHUKU UNIT

In July 2003, 115,788 (150,865) acres (now 

known as the Kahuku Unit) were purchased 

from the estate of Samuel M. Damon and 

added to Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park. 

In accordance with NPS policy, park staff 

analyzed the Kahuku Unit for eligibility as 

wilderness based on the results of an inventory 

conducted in 2010. Of the 115,788 (150,865) 

acres assessed, approximately 121,015 (GIS) 

acres of the Kahuku Unit met the wilderness 

eligibility criteria and were proposed for further 

wilderness study and potential designation, as 

outlined in the 2012 Kahuku Unit Wilderness 

Eligibility Assessment (full text of analysis is 

available in Appendix D) (see Figure 4.2. Eligible 

Wilderness, Kahuku).

Other Park Lands Considered for 

Wilderness Eligibility

During the GMP process, staff also revisited 

two large roadless areas of the park previously 

excluded from the 1973 Wilderness Study. Park 

staff determined that the uses that resulted in 

their exclusion from the 1973 study are still 

continuing today; therefore, these areas do not 

meet the criteria necessary for wilderness.

One area analyzed is located immediately south 

of Kīlauea Crater, adjoining the Ka‘ū Desert 

wilderness unit. This area of approximately 

4,000 acres is heavily instrumented by the US 

Geological Survey for volcanic monitoring 

and research. The monitoring sites located 

there require routine maintenance and 

transport of heavy equipment. As a result, 

this site is excluded for eligibility as additional 

park wilderness.

A second parcel is located on the southeast 

side of the park in a section known as the 

Kalapana Extension lands. The Kalapana 

Extension lands include 49,340 acres and are 

covered by provisions in Section 3 of the Act 

of June 20, 1938, titled “An Act to add certain 

lands on the island of Hawai‘i to the Hawai‘i 

National Park, and for other purposes” 

(HR 1995. 52 Stat. 781), which enables the 

Secretary of the Interior to lease home sites 

in the Kalapana Extension. This type of use is 

inconsistent with wilderness preservation and 

use, therefore none of the Kalapana extension 

lands are proposed as wilderness-eligible or 

considered for additional park wilderness.

OPTIONS ANALYZED IN THIS 

WILDERNESS STUDY

Under all action alternatives in this GMP/

WS/EIS, the National Park Service would 

propose wilderness designation of all 121,015 

(GIS) acres found eligible for designation in 

the 2012 Wilderness Eligibility Assessment. 

These 121,015 (GIS) acres include an 

upper-elevation roadless parcel at Kahuku 

that is undeveloped and borders the park’s 

previously designated wilderness atop Mauna 

Loa at 12,600 feet in elevation. A majority 

of the parcel descends to approximately 

8,000 feet, with a small section on the west 

side dropping down to approximately 4,600 

feet in elevation southeast of an area known 

as Hapaimamo. The National Park Service 

would propose that the wilderness-eligible 

lands to the north be demarcated from a point 

lying roughly 300 feet from the centerline of 

the northernmost roadways that run parallel 

to the park boundary both west and east of 

the upper Kahuku parcel. Lands in upper 

Kahuku adjacent to the east and west roads 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 4: WILDERNESS STUDY AND PROPOSAL | 207 

Figure 4.2. Eligible Wilderness, Kahuku

Mauna Loa

Wilderness Unit

¬«11

Nā‘ālehu

‘ Ā i n a p o

T r a i l

Pit Crater

Pu‘u ‘Akihi

Pu‘u o Lokuana

Ranch House

(Administrative 

Office)

Nēnē Cabin

Punalu‘ukāhāwai

(CCC Cabin)

Ocean View

PA C I F I C O C E A N

K A ‘ Ū

F O R E S T

R

E S E

R V E

UPPER

LOWER

Upper

Glover

Lower

Glover

Pāhala

Kahuku

Road

Mauna Loa

Summit Cabin

Hawai‘i Volcanoes

National Park

MAP AREA

Legend

NPS Boundary

Designated Wilderness

Eligible Wilderness

Cabins

Roads

Trails

μ

Figure 4.2 Eligible Wilderness, Kahuku 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park GMP/WS/EIS

Fig. 4.2 KahukuEligibleWild_060914.mxd

Produced by: PWR - Seattle Planning Office

Date Created: June 2014

Data Sources: USGS - Lava Flows, Roads, Coastline

 NPS - Park Boundary,Trails, Wilderness

0 10

Kilometers

0 5

Miles

Recent Lava Flows
208 | Chapter 4: WILDERNESS STUDY AND PROPOSAL HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

that lie between the park boundary and the 

roadways would be excluded. No developed 

roads would be included in this proposal for 

designation. See Figure 4.1. Wilderness and 

Backcountry Areas. 

In order to maintain the ecological integrity of 

the Kahuku Unit, restore the native forest, and 

promote the recovery of endangered species, 

park staff will need to use and maintain 

the current road system for a number of 

decades in order to conduct activities 

such as fencing, ungulate removal, and 

restoration of exotic grass pastures. The need 

for ongoing administrative or operational 

access to existing roads restricts wilderness 

designation options at the Kahuku Unit as 

it is anticipated that both the historic and 

nonhistoric portions of the higher-elevation 

road system would need to remain open to 

administrative vehicles for these purposes. 

Upon completion of high-elevation forest and 

endangered species recovery projects, parts or 

all of the road system, as well as any restored 

native forest areas, could be reconsidered 

for wilderness and used as a hiking trail or 

restored to natural conditions.

In addition to the higher-elevation roadways, 

the 2012 Wilderness Eligibility Assessment 

also determined that 29,848 (GIS) acres at the 

Kahuku Unit are ineligible for designation due 

to the changes wrought by past cattle ranching 

activities and the presence of past ranching 

developments, including extensive paddocks 

of exotic grasses, roads, corrals, water 

pipelines, a small runway, two reservoirs of 

water, and a series of ranch buildings. Portions 

of the area are more heavily degraded due 

to extensive modification by bulldozers. 

Ongoing native forest and endangered species 

recovery activities in all excluded areas of 

the Kahuku Unit are needed in order to 

restore ecological integrity. These activities 

will require administrative use of the current 

road system and routine road maintenance 

for a number of decades. The presence of 

these activities and road uses preclude further 

options for wilderness proposals in Kahuku 

Unit at this time.

Under the no-action alternative in this draft 

GMP/Wilderness Study/EIS, the park would 

continue to manage the proposed eligible 

wilderness in upper Kahuku for its wilderness 

qualities, but there would be no proposal for 

wilderness designation. Recreational access 

at Kahuku would continue to be limited to 

day use only on weekends and for special 

events in the short-term, with the long-term 

goal of providing access seven days per week, 

and the current main road system would 

be maintained for vehicle access to Upper 

Glover. There would be no public vehicular 

access above Upper Glover.

SUMMARY OF PUBLIC 

INVOLVEMENT 

RELATED TO WILDERNESS

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park received 

public comments on wilderness during 

both the 2009 initial GMP public scoping 

process and during the 2011 public review of 

preliminary alternatives, which also served as 

the official scoping for this wilderness study. 

In 2011, the preparation of a wilderness 

study was added as part of the GMP process 

and was advertised via press releases. On 

December 2, 2011, a Notice of Intent was 

published in the Federal Register (Volume 

76, Number 232, and Pages 75557–58) 

announcing the inclusion of the Wilderness 

Study. In addition, the mailing of Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park GMP Newsletter 

3 Preliminary Alternatives included a map 

of proposed eligible lands in Kahuku and 

a discussion of wilderness criteria (see 

“Chapter 7: Public Involvement”).

During initial public scoping for the parkwide 

general management plan in 2009, 17 

wilderness-related comments were received. 

Of the 17 respondents, 16 were supportive 

of park wilderness protection and promoted 

wilderness values. One respondent cautioned 

that the park should be careful with any 

new wilderness designation due to limits on 

access or increased costs it might incur in 

accomplishing native forest protection and 

restoration activities. No other opposition was 

expressed to further wilderness assessment 

or designation. Four individuals specifically 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 4: WILDERNESS STUDY AND PROPOSAL | 209 

mentioned the importance of the wilderness 

experience in describing the future of 

Kahuku. One comment recommended that 

the upper slopes of Kahuku be officially 

designated as wilderness. One respondent 

thought that the public should have 4x4 road 

access to Kahuku’s higher elevations. Overall 

comments on the Kahuku Unit emphasized 

the conservation values of this area and 

the importance of native forest protection 

and restoration.

 In 2011, 21 respondents submitted 33 

review comments on wilderness in Kahuku. 

A number of respondents specifically 

voiced support for the wilderness study and 

designation at Kahuku. Several comments 

focused on the need for backcountry 

facilities to support high-elevation access 

in rugged terrain, such as minimal shelters 

and water catchments. Another respondent 

emphasized that high-altitude historic trail 

remnants should be accessible to hikers. 

Several comments expressed concern that 

wilderness designation should not hamper 

the park’s needs for intensive management 

related to removing ungulates, maintaining 

fencing, or administrative use of helicopters. 

Others were concerned about potential 

conflicts with wilderness designation due to 

the presence of air tours, administrative access 

needs for forest restoration and research, 

and the perceived need for backcountry 

shelters. One commenter stated that it 

made sense to exclude Kahuku roads from 

wilderness designation.

Several commenters voiced their support 

for the wilderness study and wilderness 

designation, and a few recommended 

including the Great Crack and the Ka‘ū 

coastline, which are outside the park 

boundary. One commenter requested that the 

park reassess former wilderness designations, 

as some boundaries seem inappropriate and/

or arbitrary, such as wilderness boundaries 

around ʻĀinahou Ranch and pit craters in the 

Ka‘ū Desert. This commenter also suggested 

creating a buffer zone for wilderness in areas 

in Kahuku that are adjacent to other lands. 

There was no opposition to further wilderness 

assessment, study, or designation at Kahuku. 

All comments were received either in written 

form or orally at public meetings and “talk 

story sessions.”

WILDERNESS PROPOSAL

After studying the various resources on the 

Southwest Rift Zone of Mauna Loa, the 

National Park Service proposes wilderness 

designation of the lands found eligible in 

the Kahuku Unit as a natural extension of 

the existing wilderness within the park. 

This designation of wilderness at Kahuku 

would further a conservation vision for 

high-elevation protection of natural and 

cultural resources and would create a link of 

connectivity for park wilderness that would 

span from the summit of Mauna Loa Volcano 

all the way down its massive Southwest Rift 

Zone. This rugged and remote environment 

offers outstanding opportunities for 

solitude and the potential for high-challenge 

recreational hiking. Nearly all of this mauka 

area of Kahuku is a place where the imprint of 

humans is scarcely noticeable, overpowered 

by the vast lava expanse and aura of wildness. 

The following figure illustrates the NPS 

wilderness review and management process.

IMPLICATIONS OF 

MANAGING LANDS 

PROPOSED FOR WILDERNESS

General Guidance

Any NPS lands that are proposed for 

wilderness designation are to be managed 

as wilderness until such time as Congress 

specifically decides whether or not to include 

them in a formal wilderness designation (NPS 

Management Policies 2006). Management 

activities on lands proposed for wilderness 

cannot diminish the wilderness eligibility 

of those lands.

All management decisions affecting 

wilderness would be consistent with a 

“minimum requirements” analysis. Agencies 

responsible for administration of designated 

wilderness are required by law to preserve the 

wilderness character of the area. Managers 

at the park use a Minimum Requirement 
210 | Chapter 4: WILDERNESS STUDY AND PROPOSAL HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Figure 4.3. NPS Wilderness Review and Management Process
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 4: WILDERNESS STUDY AND PROPOSAL | 211 

Decision Guide (MRDG) to determine 

whether administrative activities affecting 

wilderness resources or visitor experiences 

are necessary in wilderness, and if so, how to 

minimize impacts from such activities. Parks 

are to complete an MRDG for administrative 

actions that have potential to affect wilderness 

character. Where practical alternatives do 

not exist, administrative actions (such as trail 

maintenance or forest restoration) may be 

accomplished through the use of otherwise 

prohibited uses in wilderness, if determined 

necessary through the minimum requirement 

analysis process. A detailed description of 

this process is outlined in Director’s Order 

41 reference manual, “Keeping it Wild in 

the National Park Service: A User Guide to 

Integrating Wilderness Character into Park 

Planning, Management, and Monitoring” and 

may also be obtained on-line at 

www.wilderness.net.

Planning and Management

Once wilderness is designated, a wilderness 

stewardship plan is typically developed 

to guide preservation, management, and 

use of NPS wilderness areas. Such a plan 

is developed with public involvement and 

contains specific, measurable objectives for 

preservation of wilderness values as specified 

in the Wilderness Act and NPS Management 

Policies 2006. Wilderness stewardship plans, 

which are often combined with backcountry 

management plans, articulate management 

actions such as regulations, monitoring, and 

permit systems similar to those currently 

in place for backcountry camping in other 

established park units. Since Congress 

officially designated 123,100 acres (130,950) 

of wilderness at Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park, the park has never developed a 

wilderness stewardship plan to guide the 

protection and management of wilderness 

resources and the wilderness visitor 

experience. It is anticipated that the park will 

begin work on a wilderness stewardship plan 

after completion of the general management 

plan, dependent on funding. The timing 

of any new designated wilderness would 

provide a seamless planning approach to 

the park’s wilderness resources. A parkwide 

trail management plan is also anticipated for 

development after the general management 

plan is completed. As stated above, all 

management decisions affecting wilderness 

would be consistent with Director’s 

Order 41: Wilderness Stewardship and 

reference manual, Wilderness Stewardship 

Plan Handbook 2014, and a “minimum 

requirements” analysis.

Recreational Uses

Recreational uses of NPS wilderness are 

to be of a type and nature that enable the 

areas to retain their undeveloped primeval 

character and influence, protect, and preserve 

natural conditions, leave the imprint of man’s 

work substantially unnoticeable, provide 

outstanding opportunities for solitude or 

primitive and unconfined types of recreation, 

and preserve wilderness in an unimpaired 

condition. Public use of motorized equipment 

or any form of mechanical transport is 

prohibited, except as provided for in specific 

legislation. For example, using a bicycle 

in wilderness is prohibited. However, 

the use of a wheelchair, as defined by the 

Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, is 

allowed in wilderness.

Due to a lack of surface water throughout 

Kahuku, it is assumed that a future wilderness 

stewardship plan would analyze the need for 

water catchment and shelters on any new 

high-elevation trails. This type of system 

is prohibited in wilderness but could be 

possible, after analysis through the wilderness 

planning process and MRDG analysis.

Emergency Services

In emergency situations involving the health 

and safety of people, the use of aircraft and 

other motorized or mechanical equipment 

would likely be allowed for administrative 

use. Wildfires would be controlled as 

necessary to prevent loss of life, damage 

to property, the spread of wildfire to lands 

outside wilderness, or unacceptable loss 

of wilderness values or degradation of 

wilderness character. The use of tool caches, 

aircraft, and motorized firefighting equipment 
212 | Chapter 4: WILDERNESS STUDY AND PROPOSAL HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

would possibly be permitted for such control. 

Prescribed fire and hazard fuel reduction 

programs could be implemented according 

to approved plans. Any actions involving 

motorized use and/or mechanized tools 

could be analyzed programmatically through 

the MRDG process.

Resource Management and Research

Natural resource management activities 

in wilderness are generally undertaken to 

address the impacts of past and current use 

on wilderness lands or remedy influences 

originating outside of wilderness boundaries. 

The use of tool caches, aircraft or mechanical 

equipment would be allowed only as 

consistent with the “minimum requirements” 

(MRDG) analysis. The park is actively 

engaged in long-term restoration activities 

to protect and restore special status species, 

natural conditions, and wilderness character 

throughout the park. Fencing, administrative 

use of helicopters, and nonnative species 

removal are currently permissible in 

wilderness as determined through 

the MRDG analysis.

Wilderness designation does not prevent 

the National Park Service from protecting 

and preserving historic and other cultural 

resources within wilderness areas. Using the 

minimum requirement concept, any cultural 

resources would be protected and preserved 

according to the pertinent laws and policies 

governing cultural resources.

A historic road and two cabins, one of 

which is thought to be eligible for listing on 

the national register, were excluded from 

wilderness-eligible lands in Kahuku. Although 

not included in wilderness eligibility, the road 

and cabins are anticipated to be used by hikers 

to access wilderness-eligible lands located at 

higher elevations.

Scientific research and geologic monitoring 

activities and equipment are allowed in 

wilderness. Even scientific activities (including 

inventory, monitoring, and research) that 

involve a potential impact to wilderness 

resources or values (including access, ground 

disturbance, use of equipment, etc.) are 

allowed when the benefits of what can be 

learned or benefits to health and safety of park 

visitors outweigh the impacts on wilderness 

resources or values. Volcanic research 

and monitoring within Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park provides information of major 

scientific importance and is essential to 

providing an effective early warning to the 

people of Hawaiʻi in the event of potentially 

destructive volcanic activity. Such monitoring 

is equally essential for management of park 

visitors and protection of park resources. In 

past years, the minimum tools and equipment 

necessary to accomplish this have included 

seismic instruments, SO2

 monitoring and 

GPS stations, webcams, and routine use of 

helicopters to remote monitoring stations. 

All such activities have been evaluated and 

approved in the past using the MRDG 

analysis. These activities have been and 

could continue to be accommodated in 

the future within the parameters of future 

wilderness planning as well as through 

the MRDG process.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT | 213 

THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 5

Pāhoehoe lava. NPS photo
214 | Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Halema‘uma‘u Trail. NPS photo by Stephen Geiger.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT | 215 

CHAPTER 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

The “Affected Environment” describes the 

environment of Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park and surrounding lands. This section 

focuses on key park resources, uses, facilities, 

and socioeconomic characteristics that have the 

potential to be affected if any of the alternatives 

were implemented. Some characteristics of 

the park setting are also included because they 

provide context and/or must be considered 

for potential impacts in developing an 

environmental impact statement.

THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Weather and Climate

In general, the park climate is characterized 

by a two-season year. The park exhibits 

mild, fairly uniform temperature conditions 

everywhere except at high elevations and 

is marked by varied geographic differences 

in rainfall. Climate data has been recorded 

at park headquarters (around 4,000 feet 

above sea level) since 1949 and shows that 

temperatures range from an average minimum 

of 59°F to a maximum of 67°F in winter, and 

from 63° to 71°F in summer. Average annual 

temperature from 1949 to 2006 was about 

61°F. The highest recorded temperature was 

89°F in December of 2000, while the lowest 

was 34°F in January of 1978 (WRCC n.d., 

2006). From 2002 to 2007, annual average 

precipitation was 105 inches: the wettest 

months were December (twice), January 

(twice), March (once), and September 

(once). Temperature and precipitation vary 

by elevation, which ranges from sea level 

to 13,679 feet at the summit of Mauna Loa. 

For example, temperatures at the summit 

of Kīlauea can be 12 to 15° ̊cooler than 

coastal lowlands, and mean temperatures in 

alpine areas on Mauna Loa—which include 

elevations of about 8,500 feet to the summit 

and can experience snowfall—range from 43° 

to 48°F. In addition, wet forests in the park 

average 90 to 140 inches of rain per year, while 

precipitation in coastal lowlands ranges from 

20 to 60 inches (Park 2013a; NPCA 2008).

Air Quality

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park is designated 

a Class I area under the Clean Air Act. Class 

I areas are afforded the highest degree of 

protection. The Clean Air Act states that 

managers have a responsibility to protect 

air quality-related values from adverse air 

pollution impacts.

NPS Management Policies 2006 on air quality 

(NPS 2006a) also state that the National 

Park Service will seek to perpetuate the best 

possible air quality in parks to (1) preserve 

natural resources and systems; (2) preserve 

cultural resources; and (3) sustain visitor 

enjoyment, human health, and scenic vistas. 

Vegetation, visibility, water quality, wildlife, 

historic and prehistoric structures and objects, 

cultural landscapes, and most other elements 

of a park environment are sensitive to air 

pollution and are referred to as “air quality 

related values.”

EMISSION SOURCES

Air quality in Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National 

Park is affected by a number of emission 

sources, primarily Kīlauea Volcano. Since 

1983, records of eruption emissions from 

Kīlauea have recorded a range of 1,000 to 

2,000 metric tons of sulfur dioxide (SO2

) each 

day, as well as other gases, including hydrogen 

sulfide, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride, 

and trace metals like mercury. The range of 

SO2 emissions for Kīlauea (combined East Rift 

and summit eruption areas) for September 1, 

2008 to May 7, 2010 is roughly between 950 

to 7,300 metric tons per day. There has been 

an overall decline in total emissions since late 

2008, but it is still approximately five times the 

historic levels.

Sulfur dioxide reacts with sunlight, oxygen, 

small particles, and water in the air to 

form a mixture known as volcanic smog 

or “vog.” The vog not only creates a haze 

which obscures visibility, but it is very acidic, 

causing acid rain and affecting human health 

and natural and cultural resources. Adding 
216 | Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

to the haze are marine aerosols, which can 

further diminish visibility. In addition, when 

hot lava reaches sea water, large clouds 

of mist are formed, often called “laze,” 

which contain hydrochloric acid and other 

airborne contaminants harmful to human 

health. Although the volcano dominates total 

emissions, other emission sources within the 

park include motorized vehicles, generators, 

small mobile combustion engines, helicopters, 

and wildfires, which can also affect air quality 

and visibility, releasing nitrogen oxides, 

particulates, and other pollutants.

MONITORING

Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park is actively 

monitoring volcanic emissions within the 

park related to visitor and employee health 

and safety. This is discussed in more detail in 

the Visitor and Employee Health and Safety 

section of this chapter. In order to protect the 

park’s other air quality values, a monitoring 

program was instituted in 1986. As part of 

the monitoring process, air quality related 

values were identified for Hawaiʻi Volcanoes 

National Park. These include park resources 

potentially sensitive to air pollution such as 

visibility, night skies, vegetation, wildlife, and 

cultural resources. In addition to the volcanic 

emissions monitoring, multiple methods 

are used to monitor air quality at the park, 

including atmospheric deposition, ultraviolet 

radiation, ozone, visibility, and haze. For 

further detail on the specifics of the air quality 

monitoring methods and how the data is used 

to protect visitor and employee safety, see 

“Visitor and Employee Health and Safety” 

later in this chapter.

Volcanoes and Volcanic Processes

and Features

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park is 

encompassed within portions of two active 

shield volcanoes, Mauna Loa and Kīlauea. 

Both volcanoes are world famous: Mauna Loa 

is one of the largest volcanoes in the World, 

while Kīlauea has sustained one of the world’s 

longest continuous eruptions in recorded 

history. The processes that have formed 

and continue to sculpt these two Hawaiian 

Volcanoes are like none other in the world.

Mauna Loa Volcano, the elder of the two, 

has had its share of volcanic eruptions. 

Each eruption has contributed to its overall 

grandeur. Mauna Loa currently rises some 

13,679 feet above sea level and encompasses 

more than half of the island of Hawai‘i. Its 

most recent eruption occurred in 1984, which 

sent a lava flow within several miles of Hilo 

town. Of all the volcanoes in Hawai‘i, Mauna 

Loa best exemplifies what geologists have 

termed a Hawaiian shield volcano. Hawaiian 

shield volcanoes have broad, gently sloping 

sides; with large sections stretching across 

the sea floor, Mauna Loa incorporates a base 

that extends some tens of thousands of feet 

to the seafloor. In total, Mauna Loa occupies 

a volume of approximately 19,000 cubic miles 

and if measured from the depths of its sea 

floor base, rises some 56,000 feet (Trusdell 

2012). Its immense size is attributed to 

centuries of high-volume volcanic eruptions 

that occur approximately every 20 years on 

average. Typical of other Hawaiian volcanoes 

that are in their shield building stage, Mauna 

Loa features one caldera at its summit and 

two active rift zones. From Mauna Loa and 

its subsequent eruptions were born a diverse 

collection of volcanic products and features, 

like a caldera and craters, cones and fissures, 

and lava flows and faults.

Kīlauea has woven a similar yet younger 

history. Sporting a caldera and with two rift 

zones, Kīlauea is much like Mauna Loa in 

structure though not nearly as grand. Unlike 

Mauna Loa, Kīlauea is known for its plethora 

of eruptions, many of which have affected 

the lives of nearby communities. In the last 30 

years, Kīlauea has erupted significant volumes 

of lava along its remote East Rift Zone, 

particularly from Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō and Kūpa‘ianahā 

vents. This eruption, with few interruptions, 

has been ongoing since 1983 and has added 

approximately 500 acres of new land to 

Hawai‘i Island’s southern shore (Orr, Heliker, 

and Patrick 2013). Thanks to this nearly 

constant eruption—plus almost a dozen 

additional summit eruptions in recorded 

history—Kīlauea’s lava flows are among the 

most watched and accessible in the world.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT | 217 

Hotspot volcanism, the source for Hawaiian 

volcanoes, was first theorized in the 1960s. 

This type of volcanism is actively occurring 

beneath Mauna Loa and Kīlauea and is 

believed to cause molten magma, which rises 

from a deep reservoir within the mantle 

layer of the earth (about 25–37 miles beneath 

the ocean floor) (Babb, Kauahikaua, and 

Tilling 2011). Hotspot volcanism fuels the 

nearly continuous eruptions of Mauna Loa 

and Kīlauea. This dynamic process began 

more than 70 million years ago and has since 

formed the entire Hawaiian archipelago, 

which extends 2,000 miles across the Pacific 

Ocean. As with many young Hawaiian Island 

volcanoes, Mauna Loa and Kīlauea erupt 

a basaltic-type lava: basaltic lavas are rich 

in silicon (SiO2

), aluminum (Al

2

O3), irons 

(FeO and Fe2

O3), and calcium (CaO), as well 

as a cadre of other minerals (NPCA 2008). 

Although basaltic-type eruptions occur 

elsewhere in the world, there are few places 

on Earth that allow such intimate observation 

of ancient and current volcanism as the 

Hawaiian Islands and Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park in particular.

Native Hawaiian culture tells us that Kīlauea 

is the home of Pelehonuamea (Pele) and 

her ʻohana (family). Their ancient chants 

chronicle the voyage of Pele to Hawai‘i and 

the great efforts they made in search of a new 

home. These ancient chants along with the 

generations of descendants who comprise this 

living culture have helped us understand the 

intimate relationship the Native Hawaiians 

have with both Mauna Loa and Kīlauea.

The numerous eruptions of Kīlauea Volcano 

have amazed residents and visitors for 

centuries. Since 1956, the average yearly 

volume of lava erupted from Kīlauea Volcano 

is between 110 and 130 million cubic yards. 

By comparison, this is more than four 

times the average rate of lava erupted along 

the Hawaiian-Emperor Chain during its 

70-million-year life. (Tilling, Heliker, and 

Swanson 2010). Kīlauea Volcano is comprised 

of a caldera that is approximately 3 miles in 

length by 2 miles wide. Within the caldera is 

Halema‘uma‘u Crater, the sacred home of 

Pele, and the location of one of two ongoing 

eruptions. This summit eruption began in 

2008 and has since continued to emit elevated 

levels of dangerous gases, resulting in the 

closure of the southern portion of Crater 

Rim Drive. The second actively erupting area 

is away from the summit, on the East Rift 

Zone at Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō and Kūpa‘ianahā. This 

eruption has been ongoing since January 3, 

1983. Approximately 1 cubic mile of lava was 

erupted from vents along the East Rift Zone 

of Kīlauea from the start of this eruption to 

December 2012. This is enough to bury a 

football field with about 560 miles of lava, or 

an amount twice the height of the orbiting 

International Space Station (Babb 2013).

Mauna Loa Volcano, with its gently sloping 

flanks, rises 13,679 feet. Punctuated by its 

caldera Moku‘āweoweo, Mauna Loa is the 

world’s largest volcano. Since 1843, Mauna 

Loa has erupted 33 times. The most recent 

eruption took place in 1984, threatening the 

town of Hilo and blanketing the state with 

volcanic smog or “vog.” Of all the Hawaiian 

volcanoes, Mauna Loa is said to produce the 

largest, most voluminous flows, making it a 

“high priority” volcano for the monitoring 

staff of the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory. 

Like other Hawaiian volcanoes, Mauna Loa is 

composed of a single caldera, two rift zones, 

and numerous other volcanic structures, 

landforms, and products, many of which are 

underground or buried. Mauna Loa often 

receives little attention due to its seemingly 

benign nature. This is deceptive, however, 

as Mauna Loa poses an increased risk of 

inundation due to the fact that it has and 

can produce lava at much higher rates than 

Kīlauea over a shorter period of time, sending 

lava flows as far as the ocean in as little as 

three to four hours.

VOLCANIC STRUCTURES, LANDFORMS, 

AND PRODUCTS

A wide range of geologic features, including 

calderas and rift zones, and an unparalleled 

diversity of volcanic products are formed 

by Mauna Loa and Kīlauea volcanoes and 

can be found within Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park. Each is the result of a specific 

type of volcanic activity that gives volcanic 
218 | Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

structures, landforms, and products a unique 

character—a story revealed (see Figure 5.1. 

Volcanic Flows, Faults, and Cracks).

Different volcanic eruptions have produced 

different volcanic landforms and products. 

Two of the most famous and frequently 

photographed eruptions in the park were 

the lava fountains produced during the 1959 

eruption of Kīlauea Iki and the Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō 

eruption in the early 1980s. These explosivetype eruptions produced cinders and reticulite 

(a form of tephra), Pele’s hair and tears, as 

well as volcanic cones and a crater. Also 

observed during these eruptions were lava 

flows in both pāhoehoe and ‘a‘ā forms. Lava 

flows entered the ocean both in and outside 

of the park, forming new land, as well as 

littoral cones, black sand beaches, dangerous 

benches of varying size, and countless miles of 

sea cliffs, peppered with sea arches. Since the 

beginning of the Kīlauea summit eruption in 

late 2008, volcanic gases and numerous other 

products have amassed in many of the areas 

surrounding the summit. These eruptions, 

along with the elemental forces of wind, rain, 

water, and sun have continuously weathered, 

shaped, and reformed Kīlauea volcano into 

the feature it is today.

GEOLOGIC HAZARDS

Much of the dynamic volcanic activity 

occurring in Hawai‘i is monitored by the 

staff of the United States Geological Survey 

Hawaiian Volcano Observatory. HVO reports 

changes in volcanic activity that necessitate 

park closures and modification of staff and 

visitor activity in park areas. The National 

Park Service has an Emergency Operations 

Plan—Eruption Response Plan (Park 2008a) 

to address potential volcanic eruptions, 

including procedures for notifying staff and 

the public of the evacuation of an area.

VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS— For 30 years, 

Kīlauea Volcano has erupted large volumes 

of lava along its remote East Rift Zone. Over 

the past 150 years, lava flows have inundated 

the Southwest and East Rifts of Mauna Loa 

and Kīlauea. In the past 50 years, both Chain 

of Craters Road and Crater Rim Drive have 

been inundated by lava at various times 

and at various locations. Chain of Craters 

Road through the south section of the park 

remained closed by lava flows near Hōlei 

Sea Arch to the park boundary until 2014. In 

2014, due to the lava threatening access in 

the lower Puna region, the previously lavacovered section was reopened utilizing the 

previous alignment as an unpaved emergency 

access route. Since March 2008, Kīlauea has 

also been erupting at Halema‘uma‘u Crater. 

Because of this ongoing eruption, a nearly 

5-mile portion of Crater Rim Drive beyond 

Jaggar Museum remains closed due air quality 

and safety concerns. The last eruption of 

Mauna Loa occurred in 1984 and resulted in 

lava fountains and lava flows that came within 

4.5 miles of Hilo town.

FAULTS, CRACKS, LAVA TUBES, INFLATION, 

AND COLLAPSE FEATURES— Faults, cracks, 

lava tubes, inflation, and collapse features 

can be found all over Hawaiian shield 

volcanoes: they occur during the shield 

volcanoes’ natural formation and evolution. 

Seismic activity associated with both Kīlauea 

and Mauna Loa volcanoes can trigger both 

extension and contraction, or inflation and 

deflation of these faults, cracks, and collapse 

features. In the case of lava tubes, any ground 

deformation could trigger a collapse of the 

interior wall and/or roof structure of the tube. 

Any number of these features may be visible 

on the ground, at shallow depth, or hidden 

deeply beneath the surface.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 5: THE

AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT | 219 

Figure 5.1. Volcanic Flows, Faults, and Cracks

PU‘U ‘Ō‘Ō

11¬«

Volcano 

Village

Pāhala

Nā‘ālehu

11¬«

K A H U K U

M A U N A L O A

K Ī L A U E A

HALEMA‘UMA‘U

MOKU‘ĀWEOWEO

CRACK

‘ŌLA‘A

P A C I F I C O C E A N

Ocean View

GREAT 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes

National Park

MAP AREA

0 5

Miles μ 0 10 Kilometers

Produced by: PWR - Seattle Planning Office

Date Created: June 2014

Data Sources: USGS - Ash, Lava Flows, Roads,

 Coastline, Faults

 NPS - Park Boundary

Fig. 5.1 VolcFlowsFaultsCracks_060914.mxd

Legend

NPS Boundary

Roads

FaultsCracksRecent Lava Flows

Figure 5.1 Volcanic Flows, Faults, and Cracks

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park GMP/WS/EIS
220 | Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

VOLCANIC EMISSIONS (VOG)— The natural 

volcanic activity of Hawaiian volcanoes 

generates high levels of volcanic gases (vog), 

comprised primarily of carbon dioxide (CO2

), 

water vapor (H2O), and sulfur dioxide (SO2). 

Other smaller amounts of gases generated by 

volcanic activity include carbon monoxide 

(CO), hydrogen (H2), hydrogen chloride 

(HCl), and hydrogen sulfide (H2S). Volcanic 

activity and wind conditions affect volcanic 

gas emission levels at a specific site. Vog 

levels can vary rapidly in a given area, as 

well as between areas. The park has an air 

quality policy governing recommendations 

for restriction of outdoor activities or closure 

of areas due to excess poor air quality (Park 

2009a). The park’s air quality level is regularly 

monitored at the Kīlauea Visitor Center and 

Jaggar Museum, as well as at other locations 

in the park. The NPS air resources section, in 

partnership with HVO, operates an advisory 

program that informs the public of current 

sulfur dioxide levels in the park. A discussion 

of volcanic emissions can be found in the 

Air Quality and Visitor and Employee Safety 

sections of this chapter.

SEISMIC ACTIVITY— Earthquakes are 

commonly associated with actively growing 

volcanoes and are often a precursor to 

volcanic eruptions. They may indicate the 

movement of magma through a network of 

underground volcanic pipes. Earthquakes are 

actively monitored by a network of stations 

throughout the park. These stations detect 

near real-time ground motion across both 

Mauna Loa and Kīlauea. Since 1868, Hawai‘i 

Island has experienced numerous large 

earthquakes above 6.0 magnitude. The largest 

was a 7.9 earthquake in 1868, when more than 

100 homes were destroyed and a tsunami was 

generated (Babb, Kauahikaua, and Tilling 

2011). Ground surface cracks or collapses 

can open up unexpectedly even during 

smaller earthquakes. In 2007, several quakes 

with a magnitude greater than 3.0 caused 

the closure of portions of Chain of Craters 

Road (Park 2007f).

GEOTHERMAL FEATURES— Active subsurface 

geologic formation generates continuous 

vapor emissions (steam) through cracks in 

the ground. The groundwater in these areas 

is hot, reaching as high as 135 degrees near 

the surface. Rainwater continually drains 

into cracks and is heated and released as 

steam: these cracks are referred to as steam 

vents. The greatest concentration of vapor 

emissions in the park is along Crater Rim 

Drive and includes the Steam Flats area and 

Steam Vents Interpretive Site. A second site 

is located at Puhimau along Chain of Craters 

Road. It is estimated that almost 90% of 

all visitors visit the Steam Flats area. At the 

Steam Vents parking area, two steam vents 

are easily accessible to visitors. Both vents are 

rimmed with railings.

TSUNAMIS— A tsunami is generated when 

a large mass of land is displaced in or near 

the ocean. Waves of water emanate from 

that source of disturbance and travel across 

the ocean as fast as 600 miles per hour. As 

these waves hit reefs or other shallow land 

masses, they grow to great heights and can 

cause massive destruction along shorelines. 

In 1975, a localized earthquake caused a 

locally generated tsunami with a wave 45 feet 

in height along the southeast coast of the 

island of Hawai‘i, which killed two people 

and caused widespread damage along the 

Kalapana coast (USGS 1997).

VOLCANIC MONITORING—Volcanic 

monitoring is continuously carried out 

through a network of more than 100 

permanent and temporary instrument 

stations deployed inside and outside the 

park. The instruments are mostly out of 

sight of park visitors and remote from 

roads. These important instruments include 

Global Positioning Station (GPS) receivers, 

seismic sensors, tilt meters, gas sensors, 

radio repeaters, and webcams. Many of the 

instruments are telemetered, with batteries, 

solar panels, and radio antennae to provide 

near real-time monitoring of all five volcanoes 

on Hawai‘i Island and elsewhere.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT | 221 

Soils

In Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, soil does 

not dominate the land surface of the park. 

Only about 40% of the park has soils covering 

portions of the surface. The remaining 

60% of the park is composed of various 

lava flows, cinderland, badlands, and some 

geothermal areas.

In Hawai‘i Volcanoes and on much of the rest 

of the island, volcanic ash and cinder deposits 

serve as the predominant parent material of 

the soils, which are generally very shallow. 

The underlying lava flow material appears 

to contribute little to soil formation, with 

the exception of sand and gravel fragments 

chipping from ‘a‘ā clinkers and minor 

weathering of surfaces in areas of high rainfall. 

Since Hawai‘i Volcanoes represents most of 

the youngest areas on the island, many of the 

soils in the park have not had enough time 

either for the formation of thick ash deposits 

or for weathering of the primary ash minerals 

into various secondary clays.

Accumulations of organic matter in the soil 

and ground litter are the most important 

factors in soil development on these relatively 

young sites. Pāhoehoe, ‘a‘ā, cinders, and 

weathered ash provide differing contributions 

of minerals and drainage characteristics, and 

soil age and composition have considerable 

influence over plant community composition 

and hydrology (TMA 2007).

On many of the younger landscapes, 

organic soils appear to be the first stage of 

soil formation as a result of fern and ‘ōhi‘a 

colonization in pāhoehoe fractures and 

between ‘a‘ā clinkers. In Hawai‘i Volcanoes, 

the Kahaluu, Kiloa, Lalaau, Malama, and 

Mawae soils are all classified as organic 

soils and are unique in that they are all welldrained and typically exhibit a very minor 

degree of decomposition of organic matter. 

In contrast, the more traditional organic soils 

found on the mainland tend to be poorly or 

very poorly drained soils with peat or muck 

textures. The organic soils in the park can 

also be hydrophobic, or water repellent, after 

a fire. This occurs when the waxy material 

created by the combustion of plants coats 

the sand and silt grains of the underlying 

mineral soil. The hydrophobicity can impede 

infiltration and increase runoff, especially on 

pāhoehoe landforms, and this characteristic 

is accentuated if vegetation is removed. 

These organic soils are found in the upper 

Kahuku area of the park, which are not being 

considered for development. Another soil 

that also displays some unique ecological 

characteristics is the Lithic Ustipsamment 

soil found in many areas in the Ka‘ū Desert 

(USDA-NRCS 2008). These soils have a thin 

cemented layer at the surface, which severely 

impedes water infiltration and results in 

excess runoff. This cementation is caused by 

the acidity of the rainfall (due to vog) which 

converts the silica in the basaltic rock into 

a solution which is then redeposited on the 

surface as a varnish-like substance (see photo, 

“Profile of Lithic Ustipsamments”).

Soil formation in the park is episodic. The 

ability of primary minerals to transform into 

secondary minerals (primarily in clay-size 

fractions) is affected by the amount and 

seasonality of rainfall. Puaulu soils are a 

good example of this. These soils have been 

leached of base cations and silica. They are 

a good example of soils that form and then 

are buried by subsequent deposits, which 

then form a new soil. This soil type is found 

predominantly in the ‘Ōla‘a Forest area 

(USDA-NRCS 2008).

The Heake soil series is an example of soils in 

which only a thin ash layer has accumulated 

thus far. Heake soils consist of very shallow 

and shallow well-drained soils that form in 

ash deposits over pāhoehoe lava. They are 

highly susceptible to erosion if vegetation is 

removed. This soil type is found in the area 

of Jaggar Museum.

Shallow and very shallow soil depth is a 

major issue, contributing to the severe 

limitation of the use of soils for building sites 

and recreational development in Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park 

(USDA-NRCS 2008).
222 | Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Profile of Lithic Ustipsamments, which have a thin cemented 

surface crust. On the tape, depth is marked in centimeters. 

NPS Photo

Vegetation

Vegetation in the park varies with the 

climates found at different elevations. The 

fire management plan for Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park identifies seven ecological 

zones, each with differing plant communities: 

alpine/aeolian, subalpine, mesic/wet forest, 

montane seasonal, mid-elevation seasonal, 

coastal lowland, and Kahuku pasture/mesic 

forest. The plant communities supported 

in these zones are home to more than 400 

native species of plants, as well as 600 

nonnative plant species that threaten the 

native ecosystems in the park. These plant 

communities are described in the following 

sections, which include discussions of climatic 

and geographic factors that affect their 

composition, as well the nonnative species 

present (see Figure 5.2. Ecological Zones).

ALPINE/AEOLIAN 

The upper portions of the Mauna Loa and 

Kahuku units are in this zone, which varies in 

elevation from 8,500 feet to the 13,679-foot 

summit of Mauna Loa (2,591 to 4,169 meters). 

This zone experiences average temperatures 

ranging from 43°F to 48°F and rainfall from 

20 to 28 inches, with frequent nightly frost 

in the winter months. Most of the alpine 

zone is characterized by nearly barren lava 

flows with sparse, low, vegetation consisting 

of small patches of stunted native shrubs, 

mostly pūkiawe (Leptecophylla tameiameiae) 

and ‘ōhelo (Vaccinium reticulatum). Grasses, 

sedges, lichens, and mosses comprise the 

rest of the plant life (Park 2007a). This zone 

also contains isolated kīpuka, which are large 

and small areas untouched by recent lava 

flows that are “islands” of plant and animal 

life surrounded by a “sea” of lava (NPCA

2008; Park 2007a). There is very little or no 

vegetation in the areas above 11,000 feet.

SUBALPINE

This zone extends from 6,500 to 8,500 feet 

(1,981 to 2,591 meters) and higher. The 

average annual temperature ranges from 49°F 

to 54°F, with occasional winter frost. In the 

Mauna Loa Unit, rainfall averages between 30 

and 40 inches per year (summers are dry, and 

most precipitation occurs in the winter). Lowlying clouds cause fog-drip from trees and 

shrubs, which contributes to precipitation. 

The climate of the Kahuku subalpine 

environment is decidedly moister, with nearly 

daily cloud cover and light precipitation on 

the southeast slope, upslope of the Ka‘ū 

and Kapāpala forest reserves (Doty and 

Mueller-Dombois 1966).

In the Mauna Loa Unit, much of the subalpine 

vegetation is concentrated in two major 

kīpukas on older pāhoehoe lava flows. 

Sparsely vegetated lava flows dominate many 

areas of this zone. The most widespread 

plant community in the subalpine zone is 

‘ōhi‘a (Metrosideros polymorpha) scrub, with 

an understory of open native shrubs and 

grasses. Scrub is characterized by scattered, 

short ‘ōhi‘a with native shrub and grasses. 

‘Ōhelo, pūkiawe, and ‘a‘ali‘i (Dodonaea 

viscosa) are the most abundant native 

shrubs, while the most abundant grass is the 

native bunchgrass Deschampsia nubigena. 

Vegetation on the extensive, younger ‘a‘ā 

flows consists of scattered and very scattered 

native ‘ōhi‘a trees and native shrubs. In the 

Mauna Loa Unit, where ungulates have 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 5: THE

AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT | 223 

Figure 5.2. Ecological Zones

11¬«

11¬«

Pāhala

Nā‘ālehu

Ocean View

Volcano

Village

M A U N A L O A

K A H U K U

‘ Ō L A ‘ A

K Ī L A U E A

P A C I F I C O C E A N

Hawai‘i Volcanoes

National Park

MAP AREA

Figure 5.2 Ecological Zones

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park GMP/WS/EIS

μ

Produced by: PWR - Seattle Planning Office

Date Created: June 2014

Data Sources: USGS - Lava Flows, Roads, 

 Coastline

 NPS - Park Boundary, 

 Wilderness Boundary, 

 Ecological Areas

Fig. 5.2 EcologicalZones_060914.mxd

0 5

Miles

0 10

Kilometers Legend

NPS BoundarySpecial Ecological Areas

Ecological Zones

AlpineSub-AlpineMesic/Wet ForestKahuku Ranch PasturesMid-Elevation SeasonalMontane SeasonalCoastal Lowland
224 | Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

been removed, native plants dominate the 

vegetation, māmane (Sophora chrysophylla) 

is regenerating, and recovery of rare plants 

(including the endangered Mauna Loa 

silversword [Argyroxiphium kauense]) through 

active restoration has begun (Park 2007a). 

Vegetation is similar in Kahuku, but four 

decades of browsing by nonnative mouflon 

sheep has reduced native species abundance 

and diversity (Benitez et al. 2008; Park 2007a).

MESIC/WET FOREST

Mesic and wet forests grade into each 

other along the sharp rainfall gradients that 

characterize the park. Almost all wet forests, 

which include areas with approximately 90 

to 140 or more inches of rainfall per year, are 

found on the eastern edge of the park, which 

receives nearly daily trade-wind rains. These 

forests are found in four locations: on the 

eastern rim of the summit caldera of Kīlauea 

Volcano, along the East Rift of Kīlauea above 

approximately 2,300 feet (701 meters) in 

elevation, in ‘Ōla‘a Forest, and in Kahuku on 

the eastern edge of the pastures and upslope 

of Ka‘ū and Kapāpala Forest Reserves 

between 3,000 and 5,000 feet (914 and 1,524 

meters) in elevation (Park 2007a).

Wet forests at Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park are characterized by two major plant 

associations: tree fern and uluhe fern 

(Dicranopteris linearis) forests. Tree fern 

forests are multi-layered, dominated by 

‘ōhi’a and tree ferns, and are best developed 

on the older, deep ash soils of ‘Ōla’a Forest 

and some areas of the East Rift. Most of the 

wet forest in ‘Ōla’a is dominated by a dense 

canopy of tree fern, often co-mingled or 

slightly overtopped by open stands of other 

native trees. The relatively young substrates 

of volcanically active areas at Kīlauea Summit 

and the East Rift support closed canopy 

stands of ‘ōhi’a, with a subcanopy of other 

native trees and tree ferns. Ground cover is 

dense and consists of a high diversity of native 

ferns, as well as native shrubs and herbaceous 

plants (Park 2007a).

Uluhe fern forests are found at the summit 

of Kīlauea and along the East Rift, and 

are characteristic of early successional 

communities that occur on younger lava flows 

and in secondary successional communities 

following ‘ōhi’a dieback. Uluhe is a dense 

matted fern that grows three to 20 feet tall 

and suppresses all vegetation, native and 

nonnative. As a result, species diversity is 

lower in uluhe forests when compared to tree 

fern forests (Park 2007a).

Mesic forests, which receive approximately 

60 to 90 inches of rain per year, are found 

primarily east of Chain of Craters Road and 

west of wet forests, makai of wet forests in 

the southeastern section of the park, and 

upslope of Ka’ū and Kapāpala Forest Reserves 

in Kahuku. Mesic forests are dominated 

by closed to open stands of ‘ōhi’a and koa 

(Acacia koa) with highly variable understory 

vegetation. In Kahuku, the understory consists 

of tree ferns and native trees or shrubs. East 

of Chain of Craters Road, the understory is 

similar, but many areas have dense stands of 

introduced faya tree (Morella faya) or native 

uluhe fern. The understory of mesic forest in 

the lower East Rift of Kīlauea is dominated by 

continuous swards of introduced swordfern 

(Nephrolepis sp.) (Park 2007a).

MONTANE SEASONAL

In the Mauna Loa Unit, the montane seasonal 

zone occurs between 4,000 and 6,700 feet 

(1,219 to 2,042 meters) and is dry during the 

summer, with variations in annual rainfall 

depending on elevation (60 inches per year 

at 4,000 feet [1,219 meters] in elevation 

and 40 inches per year at 6,000 feet [1,829 

meters] in elevation). In Kahuku, the area at 

5,000 to 6,000 feet (1,524 to 1,829 meters) 

on the southwest-facing slope can also be 

characterized as montane seasonal. This 

zone in Kahuku is wet in the summer and is 

characterized by frequent afternoon cloud 

buildup and low-lying fog (Park 2007a).

In the Mauna Loa Unit, most of the montane 

seasonal environment is densely vegetated 

and found on 750- to 4,000-year-old lava 

flows, although several massive, more recent 

(late prehistoric or historic) ‘a‘ā flows also 

penetrate this zone. The vegetation of this 

zone varies considerably with soil depth and 

substrate age. For example, the most diverse 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT | 225 

and well-developed forests occur at Kīpuka 

Kī and Kīpukapuaulu—the most biologically 

rich site in the park—which are islands of ash 

soil more 1,500 to 3,000 years old on the lower 

east end of the Mauna Loa Unit (4,000 to 

4,400 feet [1,219 to 1,341 meters] in elevation). 

Although included in the montane seasonal 

fire management unit, these kīpukas support 

a rare mesic forest community characterized 

by mānele (Sapindus saponaria)/koa (Acacia 

koa)/‘ōhi‘a , as well as several threatened, 

endangered, or candidate species, or 

species of concern (discussed later in this 

chapter) (Park 2007a).

Above 5,000 feet (1,524 meters) elevation, 

most soils are shallow, discontinuous ash 

deposits over weathered pāhoehoe. Where 

deeper soils occur, koa dominates the forest 

and contains an understory comprised of 

the native shrubs pūkiawe and ‘a‘ali‘i, sedges, 

and a mixture of alien meadowrice grass and 

native grasses. At lower elevations koa forest 

understory is dominated by alien pasture 

grasses, a legacy of 150 years of cattle grazing. 

Across elevations within this zone, small 

stands of shrubland and grassland persist on 

shallow soils. The shrublands are dominated 

by the native shrubs pūkiawe and ‘a‘ali‘i, with 

a continuous understory of mixed alien and 

native grasses at lower elevations and native 

bunchgrasses above 5,000 feet. Grasslands 

are generally small and are dominated by 

alien grasses at lower elevation and native 

bunchgrasses at upper elevation.

Vegetation in the montane seasonal zone in 

Kahuku is dominated by closed stands of 

‘ōhi‘a forest with a native shrub, fern, and 

mixed native-alien grass understory. Koa may 

or may not be a component in these forests. 

Koa is more prevalent on the west side of 

Kahuku (above The Nature Conservancy 

Kona Hema Preserve). This area was 

impacted by cattle and logging, and much 

of the native understory has been replaced 

by nonnative kikuyu and meadowrice grass. 

Since nonnative ungulate removal efforts 

were initiated, vigorous recruitment of young 

koa has occurred.

Across the Kahuku and Mauna Loa units, 

‘a‘ā flows are characterized by open to sparse 

‘ōhi‘a woodlands with a sparse native shrub 

understory in many areas. Other areas consist 

of very scattered native shrubs, and grass is 

never abundant (Park 2007a).

MID-ELEVATION SEASONAL 

This zone is found between approximately 

1,000 and 4,000 feet (305 and 1,219 meters) 

in elevation in the leeward part of the park. 

As a result, it is sheltered from daily trade 

wind rains, and precipitation varies from 

20 to 60 inches per year. Vegetation of the 

mid-elevation seasonal environment varies 

with substrate and rainfall. For example, 

younger flows, or deep cinder with little 

ash-soil development, typically support 

sparse native shrubs, primarily pūkiawe and 

‘a‘ali‘i and scattered, short ‘ōhi‘a. Flows with 

deeper ash support dry ‘ōhi‘a woodland. 

However, this plant community has been 

altered by the introduction of nonnative 

plants and fire. In many areas, the understory 

is dominated by nonnative bush beardgrass 

(Schizachyrium condensatum), broomsedge 

(Andropogon virginicus), and molasses grass 

(Melinis minutiflora), which form a nearly 

continuous matrix between the open layers 

of native shrubs. In Kahuku, where mouflon 

sheep and other nonnative ungulates remain 

on the landscape, a similar open to sparse 

woodland structure with an understory 

dominated by tall nonnative grasses such as, 

bush beardgrass, broomsedge and barbed 

wire grass (Cymbopogon refractus) prevails. 

The nonnative shrub Christmasberry (Schinus 

terebinthifolius) is also present and dominates 

portions of this zone. Other areas of the park 

(not including Kahuku) have been invaded 

by the nonnative faya tree, which has become 

codominant with ‘ōhi‘a in some areas and 

displaced it in others. In addition, the majority 

of dry ‘ōhi‘a woodlands on Kīlauea have 

burned in the last 40 years, creating savannas 

of scattered ‘ōhi‘a and native shrubs with 

abundant nonnative grass (Park 2007a).
226 | Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

COASTAL LOWLAND

The coastal lowland environment lies below 

the mid-elevation seasonal environment 

and includes the immediate shoreline, the 

coastal plain upland of the large fault scarps 

or pali (cliffs/ridges), and the faces of the pali. 

Typically warm and dry, rainfall varies from 

less than 20 inches per year in the western part 

of the park to about 60 inches per year along 

the eastern boundary. These dry conditions, 

combined with the relatively young age of the 

substrate, limit the development of vegetation 

in this zone (Park 2007a). 

A narrow band of coastal strand vegetation 

is found along parts of the immediate 

shoreline. Vegetation varies from naupaka 

(Scaevola taccada)-dominated scrub to sparse 

salt-tolerant herbs. The endangered grass 

Ischaemum byrone, the endangered loulu 

palm (Pritchardia affinis), and the species of 

concern, Portulaca villosa, grow in a number 

of locations where planted. The endangered 

shrub ‘ōhai (Sesbania tomentosa) grows in 

some coastal strand sites. In the interior, the 

coastal lowlands are now largely dominated 

by grasses. The remains of a coastal shrubland 

persist in the wetter, eastern portions, 

modified by fire. Prior to fire this community 

was dominated by tall ‘ākia (Wikstroemia 

sandwicensis) shrubs, along with other native 

shrubs including ‘a’ali’i and ‘ūlei. Alien 

broomsedge and bush beardgrass, along with 

native pili grass (Heteropogon contortus), 

formed a matrix between the shrubs and 

permitted wildfires to spread. Most of the 

‘ākia shrublands burned in the Pu’u ‘Ō’ō 

eruptions that started in 1983 and only exist 

today in small pockets. The remainder has 

since been buried by lava or converted to low 

open shrubland with scattered ‘a’ali’i and 

‘ūlei, and with broomsedge, bush beardgrass, 

and pili grass growing between the shrubs. 

The drier, western portion of the coastal 

lowlands are dominated by alien grasslands 

with patches of alien shrubs. The dominant 

grasses are alien Natal redtop (Melinis repens), 

thatching grass (Hyparrhenia rufa), molasses 

grass (Melinis minutiflora), bush beardgrass, 

and broomsedge. Native pili grass, a fireadapted species, is an important component 

of the grasslands in some areas. The coastal 

lowlands also contain small scattered stands 

of dry and mesic forests on the faces of the 

pali. Younger flows are dominated by open 

stands of ‘ōhi’a, while older flows support 

stands of the native tree lama (Diospyros 

sandwicensis), with an understory of the 

shrub alahe’e (Psydrax odorata). A number 

of threatened, endangered, and candidate 

species, including kauila (Alphitonia 

ponderosa), hala pepe (Pleomele Hawai‘iensis), 

‘ahakea (Bobea timonioides), and ‘ohe makai 

(Reynoldsia sandwicensis) occur in lama forest. 

Lama forests in the park have been so greatly 

reduced by lava flows in the last 30 years that 

only a few patches remain (Park 2007a).

KAHUKU PASTURE/MESIC FOREST

This zone encompasses 7,200 acres of former 

cattle pasture containing remnants of mesic 

forest located on the lower east end of the 

Kahuku Unit on the south slope of Mauna 

Loa, extending from 2,500 feet to 5,000 feet 

in elevation (762 to 1,524 meters). The area 

stretches east to the mesic forest (where 60 

to 80 inches of rainfall per year), and to the 

west it lies adjacent to seasonally dry ‘ōhi‘a 

woodlands (40 to 60 inches of rain per 

year) (Park 2007a).

Vegetation is generally characterized by 

abundant alien grasses and an open canopy of 

‘ōhi‘a or ‘ōhi‘a/koa. Fragments of native forest 

are scattered across this area and become 

increasingly abundant on the east end of the 

park boundary that lies adjacent to the state 

Ka‘ū Forest Reserve. Vegetation surveys 

conducted in 2007 identified a number of 

rare plants remaining in forest fragments and 

as individuals in the pasture, including the 

only ‘ohe (Tetraplasandra hawaiensis) and 

olonā (Touchardia latifolia) individuals found 

in the Kahuku Unit, and several endangered 

species discovered in a pit crater and ravine 

(Benitez et al. 2008). Until recently, domestic 

cattle, nonnative mouflon sheep, and pigs 

damaged remaining forest fragments and 

suppressed establishment of many native 

seedlings. Domestic cattle were removed in 

2010. Experiments in four 10-acre fenced 

exclosure units are evaluating methods for 

restoring native forest following exclusion 

of all ungulates.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT | 227 

NONNATIVE PLANTS

Over half of the more than 900 vascular 

plant species found at Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park are nonnative, and more than 

100 species are considered highly disruptive 

to native ecosystems inside the park (Smith 

1985; Benitez et al. 2012). The more disruptive 

species reduce native plant diversity and 

abundance and cause the local extinction 

of species. Some nonnative species such 

as faya tree (Morella faya), fountain grass 

(Pennisetum setaceum), and strawberry guava 

(Psidium cattleianum) are able to completely 

replace native plant communities and form 

monospecific stands.

Park staff has been monitoring and managing 

disruptive nonnative (invasive) plants found 

in the park (Park 1999). Based on surveys 

conducted between 2000 and 2010, the park 

detected on average two new plant invaders 

annually (Benitez et al. 2012). Since the 

1980s, strategies for invasive plant control 

implemented at the park have included 

(1) minimizing disturbances to the native 

vegetation such as those caused by nonnative 

ungulates and wildfires, which facilitate the 

spread of invasive plants; (2) monitoring and 

mapping the distribution of invasive plants; 

(3) removing small or localized infestations 

parkwide; (4) focusing control of widespread 

weeds in high priority management units 

called special ecological areas; (5) working 

with other agencies and groups in nonnative 

plant management including development 

of treatment methods and biological control 

for some widespread weeds; (6) supporting 

research on the ecology, seed biology, and 

phenology of disruptive nonnative plant 

pest species; and (7) educating the public 

in disruptive nonnative plant impacts and 

the importance of nonnative plant control 

(Tunison 1991).

Disruptive weeds that are too widespread 

to be managed throughout the park are 

controlled in special ecological areas and 

surrounding buffer units. These high-priority 

areas are selected based on: (1) the biological 

communities representative of a particular 

ecological zone and/or rarity in the park 

or on the islands; (2) manageability and 

intactness so that areas are accessible and 

the potential for native species recovery is 

high; (3) concentrations of species diversity 

and rare species; and (4) value for research 

and interpretation to the public (Tunison and 

Stone 1992; Loh and Tunison 2009). Inside 

each special ecological area, periodic searches 

have been conducted by ground crews or by 

aerial surveys, and target weeds have been 

removed from the area. Methods have varied 

from manual uprooting to chemically treating 

individuals. In 2007, 27 SEAs and buffer units 

covered approximately 66,000 acres. Fountain 

grass is a fire-promoting invasive grass that has 

invaded portions of Kona and South Kohala 

on the island of Hawai‘i and is established in 

the park. Although initially widespread, over 

the last 15 years systematic search (helicopter 

and ground sweeps) and removal efforts for 

fountain grass have prevented the buildup 

of dense populations in the park. In the new 

Kahuku addition, fountain grass is beginning 

to invade young lava flows. Park staff have 

been removing all individuals found in the 

park, and since 2004 have been working 

with the adjacent Ocean View subdivision 

community to remove plants along roadsides 

of the subdivision.

Native Wildlife and Wildlife Habitat

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park protects 

a wide diversity of wildlife and habitat. 

Approximately 90% of all native wildlife in 

Hawai‘i is endemic (found nowhere else on 

earth) (NPCA 2008). This section focuses on 

the native terrestrial wildlife species, including 

mammals, birds, invertebrates, and reptiles 

in the park that could be affected by the 

proposed alternatives. Native wildlife species 

found in marine environments are described 

in the Marine and Estuarine Resources 

section later in this chapter.

MAMMALS

Although Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

supports great biodiversity, the Hawaiian 

hoary bat (Lasiurus cinereus semotus) is the 

only native land mammal in the park and in 

the Hawaiian Islands. Known in Hawai‘i as 

‘ōpe‘ape‘a, the nonmigrant Hawaiian hoary 

bat occurs over a wide range of elevations 
228 | Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

(primarily from sea level to 7,500 feet 

[2,288 meters]). Data regarding the habitat 

and population status of this species are 

very limited, but available documentation 

suggests that the ‘ōpe‘ape‘a appears to be 

most numerous in native dry to mesic forests, 

and is often associated with native forest 

edges (Pratt et al. 2011; USFWS 2009a). The 

Hawaiian hoary bat was first listed as federally 

endangered in 1970 and continues to hold that 

status (USFWS 2009a).

The only native marine mammal associated 

with Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

is the Hawaiian monk seal (Monachus 

schauinslandi), or ‘iīlio-holo-i-ka-uaua. 

This mammal is also federally listed as 

endangered and can be observed occasionally 

swimming offshore or resting at remote 

beaches in the park.

More information regarding these two species 

is provided in Appendix H: Special Status 

Species Descriptions.

The other 12 mammals in Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park are all nonnative (NPCA 2008).

BIRDS

Many bird species survive in and depend 

on the habitat provided within the park 

boundaries, from the seacoast to the alpine/

aeolian zone (Park 2006d). Of the 87 

species of birds present in the park, 41 are 

nonnative (NPCA 2008).

Hawaiian forest birds are an important 

component in native Hawaiian rainforests, 

carrying out vital ecosystem processes such 

as seed dispersal, pollination, and nutrient 

cycling (USGS 2005a). Of the 23 surviving 

endemic Hawaiian songbird species, those 

living in the park include six Hawaiian 

honeycreepers: ‘apapane (Himatione 

sanguinea), ‘amakihi (Hemignathus virens 

virens), ‘i‘iwi (Vestiaria coccinea), ‘ākepa 

(Loxops coccineus), ‘akiapōlā‘au (Hemignathus 

munroi), and the Hawai‘i creeper (Oreomystis 

mana) (NPCA 2008; Park 2006c). In general, 

Hawaiian honeycreepers are now restricted 

to koa and ‘ōhi‘a forests at high elevations, 

generally above 4,000 feet (1,219 meters), 

while some rare species of Hawaiian 

honeycreepers are restricted to forests 

above 5,000 feet (1,525 meters). ‘Apapane, 

‘amakihi, ‘i‘iwi, ‘akiapōlā‘au, and the Hawai‘i 

creeper all rely on tall ‘ōhi‘a trees for nesting 

habitat. The ‘ākepa generally nest in tree 

hollows, rather than on tall branches like 

other Hawaiian honeycreepers (Pratt et al. 

2011). The latter three species are all listed 

as federally endangered (‘i‘iwi is a species of 

special concern) and are further addressed in 

the Rare, Unique, Threatened, or Endangered 

Species section of this chapter. Hawaiian 

honeycreepers, once abundant in the park 

and the Hawaiian Islands, have experienced 

drastic reductions in population size since 

the arrival of Europeans. Factors contributing 

to their demise include loss of forest habitat, 

introduction of small mammals and predators, 

and various avian diseases such as mosquitotransmitted diseases (USGS 2006b).

The pueo, or Hawaiian short-eared owl (Asio 

flammeus sandwichensis), is another bird 

species endemic to Hawai‘i. This species 

can be found on the island from sea level to 

8,000 feet (2,450 meters). While the pueo 

occupies a variety of habitats, including dry 

and wet forests, shrublands, grasslands, and 

montane parklands, many bird species in 

the park are dependent on food resources 

from the forest understory and midcanopy 

(Park 2009d; DLNR 2005). The native thrush 

‘ōma‘o (Mayadestes obscurus) spends much 

time midcanopy eating fruits of subcanopy 

trees, including kāwa‘u (Ilex anomala), kōlea 

(Myrsine spp.), and ‘olapa (Cheirodendron 

trigynum) (Park 2009d; USGS 2006a). Ōma‘o 

is the most common of the Hawaiian thrushes 

and occurs mainly in native ‘ōhi‘a and koa 

forests above 3,280 feet (1,000 meters). This 

species prefers forests with a closed canopy 

80 to 130 feet (25 to 40 meters) in height, 

with many fruiting trees in the understory 

(Audubon 2007). ‘Ōma‘o also occur and 

breed in alpine habitat on Mauna Loa. These 

birds may be a distinct population from forest 

‘ōma‘o (Hawaiʻi Audubon Society 2005). The 

Hawai‘i ‘elepaio (Chasiempis sandwichensis), 

or flycatcher, is an insect feeder that occurs 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT | 229 

in a variety of forest habitat, including dry 

to mesic koa forest on Mauna Loa, and 

‘ōhi‘a wet forest in ‘Ōla‘a and Kīlauea (Stone 

and Pratt 2007).

Three additional endangered species of 

endemic Hawaiian birds found in the park 

include nēnē (Hawaiian goose, Branta 

sandvicensis), ‘ua‘u (Hawaiian petrel, 

Pterodroma sandwichensis), and ‘io (Hawaiian 

hawk, Buteo solitarius) (Park 2008b). Habitat 

for the nēnē is highly variable and ranges from 

sparsely vegetated lava flows to scrubland 

to open grasslands (Park 2009d). Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park’s nēnē flock is the 

best monitored wild nēnē population in the 

world, and the park is considered a leader in 

nēnē restoration among biologists working 

on the species (Hu 2014). ‘Ua‘u utilize 

land only during nesting season and their 

nesting habitat is quite variable statewide, 

ranging from heavily vegetated, forested 

slopes on Lāna‘i and Kaua‘i to subalpine and 

alpine environments on Maui and Hawai‘i 

(Simons and Hodges 1998). In the park, the 

species nests in shallow pits, cracks and lava 

tubes within sparsely vegetated, weathered 

pāhoehoe lava flows on Mauna Loa (Hu et al. 

2001). The ‘io utilizes native and nonnative 

forests, grasslands, and cane fields, and 

generally nests in native ‘ōhi‘a trees (USFWS 

1984). These species are described further in 

Appendix H: Special Status Species Descriptions.

There are 40 nonnative bird species 

documented in the park. These include 

introduced game birds such as the wild 

turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) and Kalij 

pheasant (Lophura leucomelanos), and many 

passerines such as the house sparrow (Passer 

domesticus) and Japanese white eye (Zosterops 

japonicas) (Park 2005).

INVERTEBRATES

Approximately 98% of the native invertebrates 

documented in the park are endemic to 

Hawai‘i (NPS 2003b). The majority of these 

invertebrates are dependent on the health of 

the native plant populations, which they use 

for food and shelter (NPCA 2008).

Among the more than 1,100 documented 

native invertebrate species in the park, 

there are only two native butterflies: the 

Kamehameha butterfly (Vanessa tameamea), 

which is the state insect of Hawai‘i, and 

the Blackburn’s blue (Udara blackburni) 

(Park 2005). Other native invertebrates 

include 200 species of moths; over 150 

beetles (order Coleoptera) that include the 

colorful koa bug (Plagithmysius varians); 

approximately 150 species of bees and 

wasps (order Hymenoptera); and a number 

of hoppers, scales, and insects (order 

Hemiptera); true bugs (order Heteroptera); 

nerve-winged insects (order Neuoptera); 

crickets and katydids (order Orthoptera); 

damselflies and dragonflies (order Odonata); 

spiders (order Araneae); thrips (order 

Thysanoptera); and book and bark lice (order 

Psocoptera). The endemic picture-wing fly 

(family Drosophilidae), of which there are 

approximately 90 species documented in the 

park, is among the most studied endemic 

invertebrate groups and an example of islandhopping speciation (Stone and Pratt 2007).

Other native invertebrates present in the park 

include the giant Hawaiian darner (Anax 

strenuus), the largest native Hawaiian insect 

and largest dragonfly in the United States; 

Hawaiian cave crickets (Thaumatogryllus 

cavicola), which live on the ceilings of lava 

tubes; several carnivorous caterpillars, 

including Hyposmocoma molluscivora, which 

was discovered in 2003 and is remarkable for 

its ability to spin webs similar to spiders; and 

the happy-face spider (Theridion grallator), 

which occurs under plant leaves awaiting its 

prey (NPCA 2008; Rubinoff and Haines 2006; 

UNEP-WCMC 2007). Among the terrestrial 

mollusks or pūpū, the small Hawaiian tree 

snails (subfamily Achatinellinae) are the most 

commonly encountered in the park.

Several invertebrate species, such as the

hammerhead picture-wing (Drosophila 

heteroneura) and flying earwig Hawaiian 

damselfly (Megalagrion nesiotes) are federally 

listed or considered rare, respectively. These 

species are described further in Appendix H: 

Special Status Species Descriptions.
230 | Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

There are approximately 500 species of 

nonnative invertebrates, including species 

of mosquitos, ants, spiders, thrips and slugs 

documented in the park (Park 2005). Many 

of these compete with or prey upon native 

invertebrates. Introduced mosquitos transmit 

avian diseases to native forest birds.

REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS

There are no land-dwelling reptiles native to 

the island of Hawai‘i, but certain species of 

sea turtle occasionally utilize the park’s shore. 

Known as honu‘ea, the hawksbill sea turtle 

(Eretmochelys imbricata) is an endangered 

species that lives in the waters off Hawai‘i 

island (NPCA 2008). The hawksbill sea turtle’s 

nesting season usually occurs between late 

May and December, when females crawl 

ashore at night to find a suitable nest site (Park 

2009e). The green sea turtle or honu (Chelonia 

mydas) is also observed in nearby waters and 

occasionally onshore (NPCA 2008). These 

species are described further in Appendix 

H: Special Status Species Descriptions. Eleven 

nonnative reptiles, including five geckos 

and the Jackson’s chameleon, have been 

documented in the park (Park 2005). No 

amphibians are native to the island of Hawai‘i, 

but several nonnative amphibians have been 

found in the park. These include three frog 

and one toad species (NPS 2005).

INFLUENCE OF NONNATIVE WILDLIFE

Endemic species face decimating threats from 

introduced ungulates such as goats, sheep, and 

pigs, as well as from nonnative feral cats, rats, 

mongoose, ants, wasps, mosquitoes, and coqui 

frogs. The presence of alien ungulate species are 

especially damaging to Hawaiian ecosystems. 

Since the 1970s, the natural resources 

management program at Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park has effectively controlled 

nonnative ungulates in many areas of the 

park through a systematic approach of direct 

reduction and fencing. The control of alien 

ungulates is followed by control of key alien 

plant species, which, in turn, assists the recovery 

of native species and provides conditions for 

active restoration of native plant and animal 

communities. Further information can be 

found about ecosystem impacts and control of 

nonnative ungulates in the Plan and Final EIS 

for Protecting and Restoring Native Ecosystems 

by Managing Nonnative Ungulates (Park 2013b).

Nonnative feral cats, rats, and mongoose have 

a significant impact on native birds, particularly 

endangered species, through the consumption 

of eggs, young, and adult birds. Nonnative ants 

and wasps have significant impacts on native 

plants and native invertebrates. The nonnative 

ants and wasps prey upon native pollinators, 

some of which only pollinate specific plant 

species, thereby contributing to the decline 

or loss of those plant species. Mosquitoes 

transmit avian malaria and other diseases to 

which Hawaiian birds are not adapted, which 

has decimated many bird populations at the 

lower altitudes where mosquitoes survive. 

Coqui frogs pose a threat to native ecosystems 

by devouring unique insects and spiders. They 

compete with endemic birds that rely on insects 

for food. They also reproduce at high rates and 

significantly impact soundscapes with their 

loud persistent calls.

Special Status Species (Rare, Unique, 

Threatened, or Endangered Species)

FEDERALLY LISTED SPECIES

Under the Endangered Species Act (ESA) 

of 1973, the National Park Service has 

the responsibility to address impacts to 

federally listed threatened, endangered, and 

candidate species. The terms “threatened” 

and “endangered” describe the official 

federal status of certain species in the park 

as defined by the ESA. The term “candidate” 

is used officially by the USFWS when 

describing those species for which the 

USFWS has sufficient information on 

biological vulnerability and threats to support 

issuance of a “proposed rule to list,” but 

for which issuance of the proposed listing 

rule is precluded by higher listing priorities. 

While listing actions of higher priorities go 

forward, the USFWS works with several 

private and government agencies to carry 

out conservation actions for these species to 

possibly eliminate the need for listing.

The ESA also requires the designation of 

“critical habitat” for listed species when 

“prudent and determinable.” Critical habitat 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT | 231 

includes geographic areas that contain 

the physical or biological features that are 

essential to the conservation of the species 

and may need special management or 

protection, even if the area is not occupied 

by the species at the time of listing. Critical 

habitat designations affect only federal agency 

actions or federally funded or permitted 

activities. The ESA requires that such actions 

avoid “destruction” or “adverse modification” 

of designated critical habitat (USFWS 2009b).

As of 2013, 409 plant and animal taxa 

in Hawai‘i were listed as endangered or 

threatened by the USFWS, or 29% of all such 

plants and animals listed for the entire United 

States. Based on a review of lists provided by 

the USFWS (Leonard 2008) and the National 

Park Service (Park 2009d) and subsequent 

species listings by USFWS (USFWS 2013d, 75 

FR 35990), 41 plants are listed as threatened, 

endangered, or candidate species under 

the ESA within the park and its vicinity. 

The park is also home to 13 endangered, 

one threatened, and five candidate animal 

species, including birds, insects, crustaceans, 

mammals, and reptiles (see Table 5.1. 

Endangered, Threatened, and Candidate 

Species Of Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

and its Surrounding Areas). These include 

species historically found in the park (e.g., 

Psittirostra psittacea and Zanthoxylum 

Hawai‘iense), nonresident species (e.g., 

Monachus schauinslandi), and outplanted 

individuals (e.g., Kokia drynarioides) 

(Park 2009d).

Descriptions of listed and candidate 

species and their status in the park are 

provided in Appendix H.

SPECIES OF SPECIAL CONCERN 

NPS policy requires that state-listed 

species, and others identified as species of 

management concern by the park, are to 

be managed in parks in a manner similar to 

those that are federally listed. The National 

Park Service is cooperating in the protection 

and enhancement of species of concern 

listed by the states.

Within Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, 

13 animal species, including birds, insects, 

mammals, and reptiles, have been identified as 

rare or sensitive. The park is also home to 69 

plant species considered species of concern 

(including former candidate taxa) or rare. See 

Table 5.2. Species of Special Concern in Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park for the list of species.

The status of species of concern are 

provided in Appendix H.

Table 5.1. Endangered, Threatened, and Candidate Species of Hawai‘i Volcanoes National

Park and Surrounding Areas

Common Name (if available) Scientific Federal Status

MAMMALS

Hawaiian monk seal (nonresident) Monachus schauinslandi Endangered

Hawaiian hoary bat Lasiurus cinereus subsp. semotus Endangered

BIRDS

nēnē, Hawaiian goose Branta sandvicensis Endangered

‘io, Hawaiian hawk Buteo solitarius Endangered

‘akiapōlā’au Hemignathus munroi Endangered

‘akepa Loxops coccineus coccineus Endangered

Hawai’i creeper Oreomystis mana Endangered

‘o’u Psittirostra psittacea Endangered

‘ua’u, Hawaiian petrel Pterodroma sandwichensis Endangered

‘a’o, Newell’s shearwater Puffinus auriculari Threatened

‘ake ‘ake, band-rumped storm petrel Oceanodromo castro Candidate

REPTILES

Honu‘ea, hawksbill turtle (semiresident) Eretmochelys imbricate Endangered

honu, green sea turtle (nonresident) Chelonia mydas Threatened
232 | Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Table 5.1. Endangered, Threatened, and Candidate Species of Hawai‘i Volcanoes National

Park and Surrounding Areas

Common Name (if available) Scientific Federal Status

CRUSTACEANS

shrimp Metabeteus lohena Candidate

INSECTS

pomace fly Drosophila digressa Endangered

pomace flya Drosophila heteroneura Endangered

pomace fly Drosophila mulli Endangered

damselfly Megelagrion nesiotes Candidate

damselfly Megalagrion xanthomela Candidate

PLANTS

pendant kihi fern Adenophorus periens Endangered

Ka‘ū silversworda Argyroxiphium kauense Endangered

ahinahinac Argyroxiphium sandwicense subsp. sandwicense Endangered

Asplenium peruvianum (A. fragile var. insulare) Endangered

uhiuhic Caesalpinia kavaiensis Endangered

‘oha wai Clermontia lindseyana Endangered

‘oha wai Clermontia peleana subsp. peleana Endangered

hāhāb Cyanea hamatiflora subsp. carlsonii Endangered

hāhā Cyanea shipmanii Endangered

hāhāa Cyanea stictophylla Endangered

‘akū Cyanea tritomantha Endangered

ha‘iwalea Cyrtandra giffardii Endangered

ha‘iwale Cyrtandra tintinnabula Endangered

hau kuahiwia Hibiscadelphus giffardianus Endangered

Hilo ischaemuma Ischaemum byrone Endangered

koki‘oc Kokia drynarioides Endangered

Zahlbruckner’s peleaa Melicope zahlbruckneri Endangered

ma‘aloa Neraudia ovata Endangered

‘aiea Nothocestrum breviflorum Endangered

holei Ochrosia kilaueaensis Endangered

many-flowered phyllostegia Phyllostegia floribunda Endangered

small flower phyllostegia Phyllostegia parviflora var. glabriuscula Endangered

kiponaponad Phyllostegia racemosa Endangered

hoawa Pittosporum hawaiiense Endangered

laukahi kuahiwia Plantago hawaiensis Endangered

Hawai‘i hala pepea Pleomele hawaiiensis Endangered

po‘ea Portulaca sclerocarpa Endangered

loulu Pritchardia affinis Endangered

louluc Pritchardia lanigera Endangered

Schiedea diffusa subsp. macraei Endangered

‘ohaia Sesbania tomentosa Endangered

white-bur cucumbera Sicyos alba Endangered

Spermolepis hawaiiensis Endangered

Stenogyne angustifolia Endangered

Hawai’i pricklyash Zanthoxylum hawaiiense Endangered

‘ahinahinac Argyroxiphium sandwicense 

subsp. macrocephalum

Threatened

sheriff’s catchflya Silene hawaiiensis Threatened
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT | 233 

Table 5.1. Endangered, Threatened, and Candidate Species of Hawai‘i Volcanoes National

Park and Surrounding Areas

Common Name (if available) Scientific Federal Status

‘ohe Joinvillea ascendens subsp. ascendens Candidate

holeic Ochrosia haleakalae Candidate

large-flower native buttercup Ranunculus hawaiensis Candidate

largeleaf bur-cucumber Sicyos macrophyllus Candidate

Sources: Leonard 2008; Park 2009d, USFWS 2013d, 75 FR 35990.

Note: Critical habitat in table taken from USFWS list and the Federal Register final rule published December 4, 2008.

a. Species has designated critical habitat within and adjacent to Hawai’i Volcanoes National Park 

b. Species has critical habitat within and adjacent to the park, but species is not known to occur there

c. Outplanted species

d. Not known to occur within Hawai’i Volcanoes National Park, but on USFWS list for the park.

Table 5.2. Species of Special Concern in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park

Common Name (if available) Scientific Name Status

BIRDS

‘i‘iwi Vestiaria coccinea Rare or Sensitive

noio, black noddy Anous minutus melanogenys Rare or Sensitive

‘ou, Bulwer’s petrel Bulweria bulwerii Rare or Sensitive

koa’e-kea,white-tailed tropicbird Phaethon lepturus dorotheae Rare or Sensitive

 INSECTS 

Drosophila engyochracea Rare or Sensitive

Drosophila hawaiiensis Rare or Sensitive

Drosophila silvestris Rare or Sensitive

Koele mountain damselfly Megalagrion koelense Rare or Sensitive

 PLANTS 

kaulia Alphitonia ponderosa Species of Concern

Hawai‘i jewel orchid Anoectochilus sandvicensis Species of Concern

fringed spleenwort Asplenium schizophyllum Species of Concern

akakea Bobea timonioides Species of Concern

native caper Capparis sandwichiana Species of Concern

ha‘iwale Cyrtandra menziesii Species of Concern

Pacific embelia Embelia pacifica Species of Concern

anini Eurya sandwicensis Species of Concern

Gaudichaud’s exocarpus Exocarpos gaudichaudii Species of Concern

Hawai‘i fimbry Fimbristylis hawaiiensis Species of Concern

Chilean strawberry Fragaria chiloensis ssp. sandwicensis Species of Concern

Hawaiian twayblade Liparis hawaiensis Species of Concern

manena Melicope hawaiensis Species of Concern

Maui phyllostegia Phyllostegia stachyoides Species of Concern

Hawaiian pittosporum Pittosporum hawaiiense Species of Concern

hairy purslane Portulaca villosa Species of Concern

ohe Reynoldsia sandwicensis Species of Concern

akala Rubus macraei Species of Concern

tall Hawaiian sanicle Sanicula sandwicensis Species of Concern

Kīlauea naupaka Scaevola kilaueae Species of Concern

Schiedea diffusa ssp. macraei Species of Concern
234 | Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Table 5.2. Species of Special Concern in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park

Common Name (if available) Scientific Name Status

Hawaiian blue-eyed grass Sisyrinchium acre Species of Concern

Hawaiian stenogyne Stenogyne macrantha Species of Concern

large-flower false lobelia Trematolobelia grandifolia Species of Concern

kawa‘u Zanthoxylum dipetalum var. dipetalum Species of Concern

Hawai‘i beggarticks Bidens hawaiensis (B. skottsbergii) Rare

island phyllostegia Phyllostegia vestita Rare

Hawai‘i pokeweed Phytolacca sandwicensis Rare

scroph stenogyne Stenogyne scrophularioides Rare

ohe‘ohe Tetraplasandra kavaiensis Rare

hame Antidesma pulvinatum Rare

Hawaiian jackbean Canavalia hawaiiensis Rare

ekoko Chamaesyce celastroides Rare

papala Charpentiera obovata Rare

oha kepau Clermontia hawaiiensis Rare

Mauna Loa clermontia Clermontia montis-loa Rare

Kauna‘oa Cuscuta sandwichiana Rare

Cyanea pilosa subsp. longipedunculata Rare

wiliwili Erythrina sandwicensis Rare

Menzies’ exocarpus Exocarpos menziesii Rare

Gonocormus prolifer Rare

Jacquemontia ovalifolia subsp. sandwicensis Rare

graceful necklace fern Lindsaea ensifolia Rare

Hawai‘i marattia Marattia douglasii Rare

Lanai colicwood Myrsine lanaiensis Rare

olopua Nestegis sandwicensis Rare

longleaf nothecestrum Nothocestrum longifolium Rare

Hawaiian nototrichium Nototrichium sandwicense Rare

mountain phyllostegia Phyllostegia ambigua Rare

largeleaf phyllostegia Phyllostegia macrophylla Rare

Australian catchbird tree Pisonia brunoniana Rare

umbrella catchbird tree Pisonia umbellifera Rare

ho‘wa Pittosporum confertiflorum Rare

Hosmer’s pittosporum Pittosporum hosmeri Rare

Pittosporum zeylanica Rare

Hudson’s maiden fern Pneumatopteris hudsoniana Rare

Kīlauea pritchardia Pritchardia beccariana Rare

hao Rauvolfia sandwicensis Rare

Rhus sandwicensis Rare

 giant dock Rumex giganteus Rare

wingleaf soapberry Sapindus saponaria Rare

paha Sicyos pachycarpus Rare

sessile stenogyne Stenogyne sessilis Rare

Hawaiian tretraplasandra Tetraplasandra hawaiensis Rare

ohe mauka Tetraplasandra oahuensis Rare

olona Touchardia latifolia Rare

smooth urera Urera glabra Rare

maua Xylosma hawaiiense Rare

Kauai prickly-ash Zanthoxylum kauaense (Z. maviense) Rare
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT | 235 

Water Resources

MARINE RESOURCES 

The Hawaiian Islands are the most isolated 

island chain in the world, located more 

than 2,000 miles (3,200 kilometers) from 

the nearest continent. Because of Hawaiʻi’s 

geographic isolation, rates of endemism are 

high for aquatic fauna, ranging typically from 

15% to 20%. The estimated number of aquatic 

indigenous species is thought to include more 

than 100 freshwater and 6,400 marine animals 

(Meadows et al. 2005).

Because the landform of the Hawaiian Islands 

is actually a series of summits of steep volcanic 

peaks, waters off these islands become 

very deep within a short distance from the 

shoreline. Outside of the park, the shallower, 

nearshore waters are home to some of the 

most desirable game fishes in the Hawaiian 

Islands, including mahi-mahi (Coryphaena 

hippurus), ʻahi (tuna, Thunnus spp.), and 

marlin (Makaira nigricans) (Meadows et al. 

2005). Many unique fish and invertebrate 

species inhabit these deepwater areas and 

provide important food sources for other 

marine animals.

Because the park’s legislated boundary 

ends at the mean high tide, its important 

marine resources are limited to the coastal 

intertidal areas, particularly beaches that 

are used by threatened and endangered sea 

turtles and monk seals (Daniel and Minton 

2006). Intertidal areas at the park include 

large stretches of high coastal basalt cliffs, as 

well as basalt benches, tide pools, and sand 

beaches. Endemic Hawaiian limpets (Cellana

sp., locally known as ʻopihi) occur in some 

intertidal areas. These and other intertidal 

organisms are important traditional foods for 

Native Hawaiian communities near the park 

(Daniel and Minton 2006).

ANCHIALINE POOLS

Brackish anchialine pools occur along the 

coast and represent the only fish habitat 

within park boundaries. Anchialine pools are 

exposed portions of the groundwater table 

that are found in porous lava areas. Because 

these pools are connected to the ocean, the 

water is measurably saline and fluctuates 

with the tides. Most anchialine pools support 

unique biotic communities, although they 

are poorly understood. An inventory of 19 

anchialine pools was conducted in 1988, 

which identified seven species of fishes, nine 

crustacean species, and one mollusk (Chai, 

Cuddihy, and Stone 1989). Subsequent lava 

flows buried the pool at Waha’ula. More 

recently, a total of 28 pools were identified in 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park and nine 

are proposed for monitoring by the NPS 

Inventory and Monitoring Program (Brasher, 

et. al., in press). These pools provide unique 

habitat and niches, and they host a variety 

of endemic species such as the anchialine 

pool shrimp (Metabetaeus lohena), which 

is a candidate for protection under the ESA

(NPCA 2008). Threats to the anchialine pools 

on Hawaiʻi Island include encroachment 

of development, the introduction of 

nonnative aquatic species (Chai, Cuddihy, 

and Stone 1989), and sea level rise. Not 

all of these threats are issues at Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park. Encroachment of 

development is not an issue within the park 

and introduction of nonnative aquatic species 

is not likely because the pools are mostly 

located in the backcountry and are small and 

hard to find. The anchialine pools in the park 

were found to be smaller in size, lower in 

biological diversity, and lower is species rarity 

than other pools on Hawaiʻi Island. However, 

the anchialine pools at Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park have a high natural value due 

to good structural diversity (caves, deep 

cracks, and shallow pools), excellent habitat 

for organisms (such as at Halapē), and great 

management and preservation potential (Chai, 

Cuddihy, and Stone 1989).

Within the park, impacts to the aquifer/ 

groundwater are unlikely because the park is 

the primary watershed owner and does not 

extract any groundwater. The park’s water 

supply is from a rainwater catchment system 

located by the park’s headquarters. There are 

also small rainwater catchment systems for 

visitor use at the campgrounds near the coast. 

The park’s buildings are on septic systems, 

not cesspools, to protect groundwater quality. 
236 | Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Past potential impacts on water quality and 

quantity were caused by large numbers of 

ungulates through soil erosion and vegetation 

loss, but were addressed through animal 

removal and fencing several decades ago. The 

park’s developed areas are small and distant 

from these shoreline resources, so runoff and 

associated pollution is highly unlikely for the 

anchialine pools within the park.

Although the park does not contain true 

marine environments, it is recognized that 

the majority of stressors on the marine 

environment have terrestrial, mostly 

anthropogenic, origins. At Hawai‘i Volcanoes, 

the main stressors identified were fishing, 

due to the harvesting of resources, and 

the potential impact of humans near the 

threatened and endangered turtles (Daniel 

and Minton 2006).

Night Skies

The extreme isolation of the Hawaiian 

Islands allows for excellent air quality at high 

elevations and results in clear night skies 

that provide outstanding opportunities to 

see the stars and constellations. The absence 

of artificial light allows native wildlife to 

navigate without becoming disoriented. The 

quality of the night sky is outstanding for the 

wilderness traveler. Native Hawaiians depend 

upon clear night skies for ocean navigation 

and traditionally celebrate the relationship 

between the summit of Mauna Loa Volcano 

and the moon and stars, which require 

unobstructed vistas and night sky clarity. The 

island of Hawaiʻi is home to an astronomy 

community that operates observatories 

on Mauna Kea, and clear night skies are 

important for researchers and serve as an 

economic resource for island residents.

Dark night skies are so important that Hawai‘i 

County passed lighting ordinances to protect 

the dark night sky (Hawai‘i County Outdoor 

Lighting Ordinance, 1988, Ord. No. 88-122, 

sec. 3; Chapter 14, Article 9). More recently, 

the state of Hawai‘i recently passed an act to 

ensure that the rest of the state is protecting 

night skies (Act 287, Hawai‘i Night Sky 

Protection Act, 2012; Chapter 201—Night Sky 

Protection Strategy, Hawai‘i Revised Statutes 

revision; previously only Hawai‘i and Maui 

counties had ordinances).

Increasingly, night sky values are described 

by the term “natural lightscape,” referring to 

a place or environment characterized by the 

natural rhythm of the sun and moon cycles, 

clean air, and dark nights unperturbed by 

artificial light. Natural lightscapes, including 

dark night skies, are not only considered a 

natural resource unto themselves but are 

also an integral component of countless park 

experiences, in addition to inspiring myths, 

religions, and innumerable works of art 

and literature.

Park wildlife need food, water, shelter, and 

space, but they also need darkness. The 

high quality of the night sky at the park 

makes it particularly susceptible to artificial 

lighting choices: its natural lightscape is 

impacted by both direct light and glare, as 

well as by indirect scattered light. Certain 

meteorological patterns and poor air quality 

can further exacerbate the impact of artificial 

light upon nighttime scenery. Enhancing 

protection of nocturnal habitat is especially 

important in sensitive biomes (such as beaches 

and wetlands) or when listed species known 

to be sensitive to artificial light are present.

NPS Management Policies 2006, Section 4.10 

on Lightscape Management states: “The 

Service will preserve, to the greatest extent 

possible, the natural lightscapes of parks, 

which are natural resources and values that 

exist in the absence of human-caused light...” 

The National Park Service recognizes that 

improper outdoor lighting can impede views 

and visitor enjoyment of the night sky.

Several special status species are known to 

be adversely impacted by artificial lighting, 

including the Hawaiian petrel, Newell’s 

shearwater, hawksbill sea turtle, green sea 

turtle, and Blackburn’s moth. In 2008, the 

grounding of a Hawaiian petrel at the exterior 

of Volcano House prompted the park to audit 

outdoor lighting conditions and develop 

internal draft guidance that is more stringent 

than the Hawai‘i County lighting ordinance.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT | 237 

The park has adopted the following avoidance 

and minimization measures to reduce the 

risk of seabird light attraction due to lights 

and related activities. Avoidance measures 

are those which cease or suspend lighting 

activities posing threats to species. These 

include the following:

• minimize outside lights from dusk 

through dawn, particularly during 

the fledgling period for the nightflying seabirds (September 15 

to December 15)

• permanently remove roof lights or 

other lights that direct light upward 

and horizontally

Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park is concerned 

about protecting natural lightscapes and 

nocturnal wildlife within the park and is 

incorporating new lighting techniques and 

technology in order to reduce light trespass 

and preserve the dark night sky, conserve 

energy, and maintain safety. The park 

minimizes night lighting in administrative 

buildings, on roadways, and within 

commercial concession operations. The 

park is transitioning all outdoor lighting 

to directional lighting and light bulbs that 

improve the quality of the night sky. Recent 

lighting changes to incorporate new night 

sky fixtures at Kīlauea Visitor Center and 

Jaggar Museum have greatly improved the 

lightscapes in those areas.

The park has restricted the use of artificial 

lighting to those areas where security, basic 

human safety, and specific cultural resource 

requirements must be met. Actions include:

• use of minimal-impact 

lighting techniques 

• shielding of artificial lighting where 

necessary to prevent the disruption 

of the night sky, nocturnal cycles, 

and physiological processes of 

living organisms

• requiring park concession or other 

commercial services to minimize use 

of artificial lights; disconnecting lights 

in soda machines and gas pumps

• emphasizing outstanding night sky 

viewing in park interpretive programs 

and backcountry permits, educating 

visitors about their importance, and 

providing red flashlight filters with 

backcountry permits

Future threats could arise from increasing 

development and the proliferation of artificial 

light sources surrounding park boundaries 

and designated wilderness.

Climate Change

Climate change is defined by the United 

Nations Framework Convention on Climate 

Change (UNFCCC) as “a change of climate 

which is attributed directly or indirectly to 

human activity that alters the composition 

of the global atmosphere and which is 

in addition to natural climate variability 

observed over comparable time periods” 

(UNFCCC 1992). In recent years, scientific 

data have shown that human influence on 

climate systems is taking place, and evidence 

of climate change has already presented itself 

(Solomon et al. 2007).

CLIMATE FRIENDLY PARKS 

EMISSIONS INVENTORY 

Climate change has already had noticeable 

impacts on both natural and cultural 

resources within NPS-managed lands 

nationwide. In response to the increasing 

need for understanding and action related 

to climate change impacts in the parks, the 

National Park Service launched the Climate 

Friendly Parks program in 2002. This program 

enables the National Park Service to educate 

its staff about climate change issues, assess 

each park’s contribution to greenhouse 

gas emissions, create short- and long-term 

strategies for reducing emissions, determine 

potential effects of climate change on park 

resources, and develop skills and strategies 

for communicating these effects to the 

public. Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park is 

a participant in the Climate Friendly Parks 

program and developed a long-range Climate 

Action Plan in 2007.
238 | Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

As part of developing the 2007 Climate Action 

Plan, the carbon footprint of the park was 

analyzed using the Climate Leadership in 

Parks (CLIP) tool, a greenhouse gas emissions 

inventory model jointly developed by the 

Environmental Protection Agency and the 

National Park Service. Data used to perform 

the calculations included the amount of 

electricity purchased, waste sent to the 

landfill, and fuels consumed. The baseline 

findings show that transportation was the 

largest contributor to total greenhouse gas 

emissions for the park (73% of emissions). 

Energy was the next highest contributor, 

with 15% of emissions. Solid waste and 

other emission sources (such as stationary 

combustion and refrigeration) contributed to 

overall park emissions. These findings provide 

an initial overview of the carbon footprint 

of Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park. Further 

monitoring and analysis using the CLIP tool 

will track progress in reducing the park’s 

carbon footprint into the future.

REGIONAL PROJECTIONS 

Results of documented temperature changes 

in Hawaiʻi show a fairly rapid rise in surface 

temperature over the past 30 years, with 

more rapid warming occurring at higher 

elevations (Giambelluca et al. 2008). Current 

studies indicate that in the absence of factors 

such as adaptation and migration, tropical 

climates may hold the greatest extinction 

risks from global warming (Deutsch et al. 

2008). Stronger warming trends, especially at 

higher elevations, can have severe ecological 

impacts in Hawai‘i, including consequences 

on water resources and native biodiversity 

(Giambelluca et al. 2008). Temperatures 

are predicted to rise an average of 4°F 

in the Pacific Islands by 2090 (Schramm 

and Loehman 2011).

VEGETATION AND THE ROLE OF 

CLIMATE CHANGE 

Two key climatic features of Hawaiian 

montane forests are the northeast trade winds 

and the associated trade wind inversion, 

which influence humidity and precipitation, 

and as a result influence the distribution of 

forest plant communities. Studies show that 

both local temperature and the elevation 

of the trade wind inversion, which averages 

6,200 feet, have responded substantially to 

past climate changes (Benning et al. 2002). 

If the frequency or height of the trade wind 

inversion is affected by climate warming, 

precipitation throughout Hawaiʻi but 

especially on the upper mountain slopes will 

be substantially impacted. Trends in rainfall 

(lower rainfall) and recent changes in the trade 

wind inversion suggest warming may result 

in drier conditions, which would severely 

affect the highly vulnerable ecosystems found 

in areas above the mean inversion height 

(Giambelluca and Luke n.d.). Increased 

variability of rainfall coupled with potential 

for drought could have profound impacts on 

the cloud forest. For example, results from a 

study of successional vegetation on lava flows 

at Mauna Loa suggest that severe drought is 

a likely mechanism causing or reinforcing a 

shift from dominance by woody species to 

dominance by herbaceous species (Loope 

and Giambelluca 1998). For native plants and 

communities and the wildlife dependent on 

them, population and habitat ranges will shift, 

increase, decrease, or disappear completely 

in accordance with changes in moisture and 

temperature regimes.

As a result of global climate change, variability 

in the occurrence or height of the trade wind 

inversion, carbon dioxide, temperature, 

water availability, nutrient availability, and 

cloud cover can all affect the resistance of 

plants and trees to introduced herbivores. 

For example, increased carbon dioxide can 

reduce leaf nitrogen, and herbivores will 

respond with either decreased growth or 

increased consumption. Herbivores and 

pathogens can alter the species composition 

and size structure of forests, which can in 

turn affect ecosystem processes such as 

evapotranspiration (loss of water from the soil 

by evaporation and transpiration from plants), 

carbon dioxide flux (change in the output and 

intake of carbon dioxide), and heat transfer, 

thereby creating feedbacks to climate (Ayres 

and Lombardero 2000). Anthropogenic 

climate change and shifts in the trade wind 

inversion (changing patterns of cloud cover, 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT | 239 

rainfall, and humidity) can both interact with 

past land use changes and biological invasions 

to drive several native species of Hawai‘i to 

extinction (Benning et al. 2002). In general, 

invasion by a single species combined with 

warming trends can alter the composition and 

dynamics of an entire ecosystem (Simberloff 

2000; Vitousek et al. 1997).

WILDLIFE AND THE ROLE OF 

CLIMATE CHANGE

In addition to the factors associated with 

vegetation, which would also affect wildlife 

habitat, climate change has implications 

unique to wildlife in Hawaiʻi. For example, 

the biogeographic ranges of species like 

mosquitoes are set by climate. Changes 

in climate, including seasonal changes in 

temperature and rainfall, could lead to a 

change in ranges and newly established 

populations of such species (Atkinson and 

LaPointe 2009; Giambelluca et al. 2008). 

Accelerated warming at higher elevations may 

have substantial impacts on Hawaiʻi’s native 

endangered and threatened bird species by 

allowing disease-carrying mosquitoes to 

reach the high-elevation forests in which the 

birds find refuge (Giambelluca et al. 2008). 

Hawaiian honeycreepers, for example, have 

been eliminated from low- and mid-elevation 

forests largely due to introduced predators 

and diseases (Benning et al. 2002). The trade 

wind inversion is likely to have a substantial 

role in determining the upper extent of forest 

bird habitat in the Hawaiian Islands. If the 

trade wind inversion and its effects on rainfall 

prevent expansion of forest bird habitat into 

higher elevations, remaining high-elevation 

forest bird populations may be squeezed 

between expanding disease transmission 

from lower elevations and the upper limits of 

suitable habitat. These changes would likely 

drive remaining populations of honeycreepers 

to extinction (Atkinson and LaPointe 2009). 

This could be exacerbated by feral pigs and 

other nonnative ungulates, which can create 

depressions that allow water to pool, resulting 

in larval mosquito habitat in otherwise welldrained forests like those in the park, where 

there are few natural standing water sources 

(Atkinson and LaPointe 2009).

These conclusions are further supported by 

landscape analyses of three high-elevation 

forest refuges on Hawai‘i, Mau‘i, and Kaua‘i, 

which show that climate change is likely 

to combine with past land-use changes 

and biological invasions to drive several of 

the remaining Hawaiian honeycreepers to 

extinction, especially on the islands of Hawai‘i 

and Kaua‘i (Benning et al. 2002).

ADDITIONAL EFFECTS

Additional potential climate change effects 

identified as management issues for the park 

include increased frequency of wildfire, 

increased spread of nonnative plants and 

animals, rising sea level and inundation in 

coastal areas and increased storm-surge 

events impacting near-shore environments 

and coastal archeological sites, increased 

hurricane frequency, and reduced water 

for park operations. In addition, the aerial 

distribution of hazardous volcanic emissions 

from the summit eruption of Kīlauea and the 

vent at Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō is influenced by the presence 

or absence of trade winds. A change in trade 

winds has the potential to affect air quality 

conditions at the park.

Wilderness

The Wilderness Act of 1964 defines 

wilderness as: 

an area of undeveloped Federal land 

retaining its primeval character and 

influence, without permanent improvements or human habitation, 

which is protected and managed so as 

to preserve its natural conditions and 

which 1) generally appears to have 

been affected primarily by the forces 

of nature, with the imprint of man’s 

work substantially unnoticeable; 2) 

has outstanding opportunities for 

solitude or a primitive and unconfined type of recreation; 3) has at least 

five thousand acres of land or is of 

sufficient size as to make practicable 

its preservation and use in an unimpaired condition; and 4) may also 

contain ecological, geographical, or 

other features of scientific, educational, scenic, or historical value. 
240 | Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Agencies responsible for administration of 

designated wilderness are required by law 

to preserve the wilderness character of the 

area. Managers at the park use a Minimum 

Requirement Analysis to determine if, 

when, and how administrative actions that 

might impact wilderness character can 

be implemented. There are four qualities 

derived from the statutory language of the 

1964 Wilderness Act that are used to describe 

wilderness character:

Untrammeled: wilderness is essentially 

unhindered and free from modern human 

control or manipulation.

Natural: wilderness ecological systems 

are substantially free from the effects of 

modern civilization.

Undeveloped: wilderness is essentially 

without permanent improvements or modern 

human occupation.

Outstanding opportunities for solitude 

or a primitive and unconfined type of 

recreation: wilderness provides outstanding 

opportunities for people to experience natural 

sights and sounds, solitude, freedom, risk, and 

the physical and emotional challenges of selfdiscovery and self-reliance.

Other unique components that reflect the 

character of the wilderness: in addition 

to the four required qualities of wilderness 

listed above, the Wilderness Act says these 

areas “may also contain ecological, geological, 

or other features of scientific, educational, 

scenic, or historical use.”

DESIGNATED WILDERNESS

As a requirement of the 1964 Wilderness Act, 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park conducted 

a study, held public hearings, and wrote an 

environmental impact statement for possible 

wilderness designation of roadless areas 

within the park. In 1978, under Title IV, 

Section 401(6) of Public Law 95-625 (92 Stat. 

3467), approximately 123,100 acres were 

designated wilderness within the boundary of 

Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park (see Figure 

4.1. Wilderness and Backcountry Areas).

As stated in the final EIS for the initial 

wilderness proposal, the designated 

wilderness area for Hawaiʻi Volcanoes 

National Park would:

preserve diverse segments of the island 

of Hawai‘i in an undeveloped state—

from the 13,680-foot summit of Mauna Loa to the Puna and Kau Coasts, 

and landscape[s] ranging from barren 

lava to dense tropical forests and dry 

coastal reaches with numerous archeological sites (Park 1975).

Park areas that are formally designated as 

wilderness include the following:

• Mauna Loa wilderness unit

• Kaʻū Desert wilderness unit

• East Rift wilderness unit

• ʻŌlaʻa wilderness unit

The Mauna Loa wilderness unit preserves 

the upper reaches and summit of Mauna Loa 

Volcano, including the entire Moku‘āweoweo 

Caldera. The forces of nature predominate 

within this wilderness area, affording visitors 

primitive wilderness solitude and scientists an 

undisturbed outdoor laboratory. Within this 

wilderness area are two historic cabins, Red 

Hill and Mauna Loa summit. These existing 

shelters provide protection from extreme 

weather conditions and have been deemed 

necessary for backcountry management and 

protection of park resources.

The Ka‘ū Desert wilderness unit preserves 

shoreline and the lands between the 

ocean and the palis. The shoreline is 

dramatic, rugged, and the longest stretch of 

undeveloped coastline on Hawai‘i Island. 

There are dramatic views of the Puna and 

Ka‘ū coastline from the palis. Most of 

the park’s backcountry use occurs in this 

wilderness area and primarily on the coastline. 

There are two historic shelters (Halapē and 

Footprints) and one historic cabin (Pepeiao) 

in this wilderness area. The shelters at Halapē 

and Pepeiao include a water catchment 

system to provide freshwater in a park where 

surface water is rare. Backcountry use is 

relatively light and greater use is discouraged 

by the lack of freshwater and shade along the 

severe coastline.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT | 241 

The East Rift wilderness unit includes 

a segment of the Chain of Craters and 

includes native ‘ōhia and tree fern forest. 

This wilderness unit experiences frequent 

volcanic eruptions, which cover portions of 

forest, leaving bare lava on which immediate 

regeneration of rainforest vegetation often 

occurs. This area is known for its scenic lava 

landscapes and receives higher amounts of 

visitation due to the volcanic activity.

The ‘Ōla‘a Forest wilderness unit is one of 

the finest examples of native Hawaiian ‘ōhi‘a/

fern forest. This area has no development and 

is surrounded by similar state forest lands. 

Fences have been constructed in this area to 

control invasive animals, particularly feral 

pigs, and approximately half of the area is 

now ungulate free.

An additional two tracts of land bordering 

the park, totaling 7,850 acres, were also 

mentioned in the 1974 legislation as 

“potential” wilderness additions. These two 

tracts were destined to become designated 

wilderness if acquired by the park in the 

future (92-Stat.3467, P.L. 95-625, Sec.301). 

This includes an area known as Tract 

22 on the park’s east boundary, recently 

designated a new Natural Area Reserve (2009) 

administered by the state Department of 

Land and Natural Resources (DLNR), and 

an area on the lower Ka‘ū boundary of the 

park, known as the Great Crack. Neither has 

been acquired by the park, and subsequently 

neither was designated wilderness.

Although not included in the final 1978 

legislation language, special provisions 

were included in NPS recommendations 

for wilderness designation within Hawaiʻi 

Volcanoes National Park. These special 

provisions included allowing shelters with 

water collection systems; the continuation of 

geologic instrumentation (by US Geological 

Survey scientists) and the use of helicopters for 

resource management, research, and volcanic 

monitoring; and the use of fences, tools, and 

equipment necessary to accomplish feral 

animal control (Park 1974). These provisions 

were all consistent with the DOI guidelines 

for wilderness proposals promulgated in June 

1972. There is a continued need for these 

special provisions due to the extremely rugged 

terrain, lack of surface water, need for volcanic 

research and monitoring for human health and 

safety, and need for nonnative invasive species 

control to restore and preserve native Hawaiian 

ecosystems. These needs are addressed through 

the application of the Minimum Requirement 

Analysis to ensure wilderness values are 

considered during management actions.

WILDERNESS ELIGIBILITY OF THE 

KAHUKU UNIT

Current NPS policy, as stated in Management 

Policies 2006, requires that any major additions 

to units of the national park system be 

assessed for their eligibility for inclusion in 

the national wilderness preservation system. 

In July 2003, an area of 150,865 acres (GIS), 

known as “Kahuku,” was purchased from 

the estate of Samuel M. Damon and added 

to Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park. This 

parcel straddles dramatic lava flows and 

volcanic features along the Southwest Rift 

Zone of Mauna Loa, an active volcano and the 

largest mountain in the world. Over the past 

century, Mauna Loa has erupted frequently, 

roughly every 20 years, and is known for 

the voluminous lava flows. The Southwest 

Rift Zone of Mauna Loa is in Kahuku. The 

Kahuku area stretches from alpine, at 12,600 

feet in elevation, down to 2,000 feet, into the 

lowland dry woodlands.

The Kahuku Unit Wilderness Eligibility 

Assessment addresses these requirements 

and criteria and is the result of an inventory 

conducted in 2010. Of the 150,865 acres (GIS) 

assessed, 121,015 acres (GIS) of the Kahuku 

Unit meet the eligibility criteria (see Figure 4-2. 

Eligible Wilderness Kahuku) and requirements 

necessary to qualify for the congressionally 

designated National Wilderness Preservation 

System. The remaining 29,848 acres (GIS) 

are not recommended for eligibility at this 

time, because of the need for long-term 

intensive restoration activities to restore 

natural conditions. These activities include 

fencing and the extensive use of helicopter, 

motorized vehicles, mechanical tools, and 
242 | Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

heavy construction equipment to restore 

areas altered by bulldozers, ranching, roads, 

feral ungulates, and other harmful invasive 

nonnative plants and animals. It is anticipated 

that eligibility would be possible after 

forest restoration activities are completed. 

Management of Kahuku will be managed 

in accordance with the GMP/WS/EIS 

(see “Chapter 3: Alternatives”). A detailed 

description of the eligibility analysis can be 

found in Appendix D of this document.

Soundscapes and the 

Acoustic Environment

The acoustic environment, defined as the 

combination of all the acoustic resources 

(physical sound sources, including both 

natural sounds and cultural and historic 

sounds) within a given area, is an inherent 

component of “the scenery and the natural 

and historic objects and the wild life” 

protected by the Organic Act of 1916. While 

the acoustic environment includes sound 

vibrations made by geological processes, 

biological activity, and even sounds that 

are inaudible to most humans, such as bat 

echolocation calls, the soundscape is the 

component of the acoustical environment 

that can be perceived and comprehended 

by humans. NPS Management Policies 

2006 require the National Park Service to 

preserve the park’s soundscape and acoustic 

environment which refer to the combination 

of all of the natural sounds occurring within 

the park, absent the human-caused sounds, as 

well as the physical capacity for transmitting 

those natural sounds and the interrelationships among park natural sounds of different 

frequencies and volumes (NPS 2006a). 

The National Park Service will preserve 

soundscapes and the acoustic environment 

to the greatest extent possible and will restore 

these resources to their natural condition 

wherever they have become degraded by noise 

(unwanted sounds which either effect humans 

and wildlife or interfere with the perception 

or detection of other sounds).

The soundscape and acoustic environment 

at Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park includes 

both natural and human components. Some 

common acoustic resources in Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes are surf action at the shoreline, 

winds spilling across volcanic flows or 

rustling leaves, native Hawaiian birds calling 

and singing, rain falling on tree and tree 

fern canopies, and crickets vocalizing in the 

rain forest. Some of the park’s most notable 

acoustic resources include those related 

to volcanic activity such as the hissing and 

crackling of new lava flows, clinking of glasslike surfaces of active lava flows, booming 

methane explosions or, more rarely, the roar 

of fountaining events. These sounds may be 

heard as a composite of sound, or individually.

Human components of the soundscape and 

acoustic environment in Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

are Native Hawaiian ceremonies and chants, 

park maintenance activities, visitors talking, 

vehicles on roads, helicopter overflights, etc.

Noise is generally defined as unwanted sounds 

which either effect humans and wildlife or 

interfere with the perception or detection 

of other sounds. Noise can adversely affect 

park resources or values, including but not 

limited to the soundscape and acoustic 

environment, wildlife, wilderness, traditional 

cultural uses, and visitor experience. It 

can directly impact them by modifying or 

intruding upon soundscapes and the acoustic 

environment, masking the natural sounds 

that are an intrinsic part of the environment. 

Sounds can also be perceived as noise because 

of loudness, pitch, duration, or occurrence 

at unwanted times or from an unwanted 

source. Sound that is consistent with the 

purpose of a particular region of the park, 

such as that caused by ocean surf, is less 

likely to be perceived as unwanted noise. The 

presence of loud noises—such as motorized 

sounds—where visitors expect to experience 

the tranquility and serenity of the natural 

environment would detract from the visitor’s 

park experience.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT | 243 

Table 5.3. Common Sound Levels and their Effects on the Human Ear

Sources Decibel Level (dBA) Qualitative Perception

Normal breathing 10 Very low

Leaves rustling 20 Very low

Soft whisper, quiet library (at 15 feet) 30 Low

Crickets (at 15 feet) 40 Low

Light auto traffic (at 100 feet) 50 Medium

Hughes 500D helicopter overflight (at 500 feet) 54 Medium

Conversational speech (at 3 feet) 60 Medium

Vacuum cleaner 70 High

Off-road vehicles 70–90 High

Heavy truck or motorcycle (at 25 feet) 90 High

Military jet (at 330 feet) 120 High

Sources: Park 2013b and Lee 2012

In addition to its effect on humans, noise 

can adversely affect wildlife communities 

within parks by interrupting important 

communication networks for survival and 

reproduction between insects, birds, and 

mammals. For example, certain wildlife 

communications may signify a desire to 

mate, danger from predators, and territorial 

claims (NPS 2009d).

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND

The magnitude of sound is usually described 

by its sound pressure level. The A-weighted 

decibel scale is commonly used to describe 

sound levels because it reflects the frequency 

range to which the human ear is most 

sensitive. Sound levels measured using 

an A-weighted decibel scale are generally 

expressed as dBA. Throughout this section, 

all sound levels are expressed in dBA. Several 

examples of sound pressure levels in the 

A-weighted (dBA) scale are listed in Table 5.3. 

Common Sound Levels and their Effects on the 

Human Ear. Normal speech has a sound level 

of approximately 60 dBA.

ACOUSTICAL CONDITIONS IN 

THE PARK

The commercial air tour industry has greatly 

increased on Hawaiʻi Island since the start 

of Kīlauea Volcano’s East Rift eruption at 

Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō. Dozens of flights took to the air 

and buzzed at low elevations across the park. 

Since the start of the eruption in 1983 and 

continuing today, air tours at park eruptionsites can routinely exceed over 60 flights per 

day. Due to a growing number of air tours 

and subsequent air tour crashes nationwide, 

congressional legislation was passed to 

minimize the impacts of air tours over 

national parks. An initial report to Congress, 

Effects of Aircraft Overflights on the National 

Park System, included documentation of 

the impacts of air tours on park resources 

at Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park. In 

2000 congressional legislation known as the 

National Parks Air Tour Management Act 

(Public Law 106-181) created a partnership 

between the Federal Aviation Administration 

and the National Park Service to create an 

air tour management plan/environmental 

impact statement (ATMP/EIS) related to 

the impacts of air tour overflights on park 

resources. Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park 

was one of the first in a handful of parks to 

begin development of an air tour management 

plan. Since 2000, the FAA has granted air tour 

companies authority to fly up to 28,441 flights 

annually over the park.

In 2002–03, baseline acoustic data was 

collected throughout the park as part of 

the early AT MP/EIS planning process 

and will help to inform soundscape 

management activities in various areas of 

the park (USDOT-FAA 2006). Sound level 
244 | Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

measurements were conducted at 22 site 

locations from October 23, 2002 to June 1, 

2003. Ultimately, ten “acoustic zones” were 

identified to represent regions of the park 

with similar acoustic conditions (see Figure 

5.3. Acoustic Sites and Sampling Areas). The 

baseline data representative of the various 

acoustic zones and acoustic modeling of 

aircraft overflights will be used to further 

characterize soundscapes and determine 

potential impacts to park soundscapes from 

overflights as the AT MP/EIS planning process 

progresses. The results of these data are 

shown in Table 5.4. Ambient Sound Levels 

in Park Acoustic Sampling Areas. Sound 

measurements have not been collected 

in the Kahuku Unit or in the Mauna Loa 

Alpine. Information collected from other 

sections of the park was used to extrapolate 

the natural ambient sound levels in Kahuku 

based on similarity of vegetation and terrain. 

Sound measurements were completed in the 

Kahuku Unit in fall 2013 and the data is being 

analyzed. Additional sound measurements for 

the Mauna Loa Forest zone were collected in 

April 2008 (NPS 2008). Appendix I: Acoustic 

Sampling Areas contains further information 

regarding the ten acoustic zones. 

Table 5.4. Ambient Sound Levels (dBA) In Park Acoustic Sampling Areas

Acoustic Sampling Area Measurement Sites

L50a Natural 

Ambient Sound 

Level (dBA)

Zone 1 (Shoreline)b 1A 54.2

1B 46.6

Zone 2 (Coastal Lowlands) 2A 28.3

2B 32.7

2C 29.1

Zone 3 (Ka‘ū Desert/Kīlauea Summit) 3A 31.4

3B 29.1

3C 32.7

3D 20.4

Zone 4 (‘Ōla‘a Rainforest) 4A 33.5

Zone 5 (Mauna Loa Forest) 5A 35.0

5B 22.1

5C 27.5

HAVO002c 18.1c

Zone 6 (Dry ‘Ōhi‘a Woodlands) 6A 28.0

6B 28.0

6C 32.7

Zone 7 (Mauna Loa Alpine) no data no data

Zone 8 (Young Rain forest) 8A 42.6

8B 38.2

8C 29.7

Zone 9 (New Lava Flows) 9A 28.6

9B 28.6

9C 25.4

Zone 10 (Kahuku Pastures) no data no data

a. L50 refers to the sound level exceeded for 50% of a specific time period (6 a.m. to 6 p.m./7 a.m. to 7 p.m.). L50 data and time 

periods are from USDOT-FAA 2006 and NPS 2008, respectively.

b. Due to strong trade winds, the data for Zone 1 is contaminated with some wind noise and should be used with caution.

c. A single station was deployed in the subalpine zone on Mauna Loa at the 7,300-foot elevation for 41 days in 2008 (NPS 2008). 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT | 245 

Figure 5.3. Acoustic Sites and Sampling Areas

!(

!(

!(

#*

#*

#*

#*

#*

#*

#*

#*

#*

#*

#*

#*

#*

#*

#*

#*

#*

#*

#*

#*

#*

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11¬«

11

¬«

HAVO002

HAVO001

HAVO003

Nā‘ālehu

Pāhala

P A C I F I C O C E A N

Ocean View

Volcano 

Village

M A U N A L O A

‘ŌLA‘A

K Ī L A U E A

K A H U K U

Kahuku Road

2A 1A

1B

2B 2C

3A

3B

3C

3D

4A

5A

5B

5C

6A

6B

6C

8A

8B

8C 9A

9B

9C

Hawai‘i Volcanoes

National Park

MAP AREA

Figure 5.3 Acoustic Sites and Sampling Areas

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park GMP/WS/EIS

μ 0 5

Miles

0 10

Kilometers Legend

Acoustic Measurement Site (2008)

!(

Acoustic Measurement Site (2006)

#*

NPS Boundary

Produced by: PWR - Seattle Planning Office

Date Created: June 2014

Data Sources: USGS - Lava Flows, Roads, 

 Coastline

 NPS - Park Boundary, Acoustic

 Sampling Areas

Fig. 5.3 AcousticSampleSite_060914.mxd

Acoustic Sampling Areas

Zone 1: ShorelineZone 2: Coastal LowlandsZone 3: Sparsely VegetatedZone 4: Montane Rain ForestZone 5: Mauna Loa Montane/ SubalpineZone 6: Dry ‘Ohi‘a WoodlandsZone 7: Mauna Loa AlpineZone 8: Lowland Rain ForestZone 9: New Lava FlowsZone 10: Kahuku Pastures
246 | Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

THE CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT

Initial settlement of Hawai‘i is likely to have 

originated from the Marquesas, Society, and 

Cook islands in Central East Polynesia (Kirch 

1985). Superb sailors, these Polynesians 

migrated to Hawai‘i by navigating with the sun 

and stars and by reading the winds, currents, 

and the flight of seabirds. Sailing across 2,400 

miles of open ocean in large double-hulled 

canoes, they brought with them items to 

ensure their survival: pua’a (pigs), ʻilio (dogs), 

and moa (chickens); the roots of kalo (taro) 

and ʻuala (sweet potato); and the seeds and 

saplings of niu (coconut), maiʻa (banana), ko 

(sugar cane), and other edible and medicinal 

plants (Park 2009b). The time of colonization 

may have occurred in the centuries around 

AD 500, although this is still a topic of 

debate amongst scholars (Kirch 1985; Hunt 

and Holsen 1991; Graves and Addison 

1995). Having carried with them a cultural 

template from their Polynesian homeland, 

they established a religious and sociopolitical 

system that was soon to evolve into a uniquely 

Hawaiian culture (Kirch 1985).

The 1778 arrival of sailing explorer Captain 

James Cook and his crew opened Hawai‘i to 

the western world through their accounts and 

stories. In the next century great change came 

to the island peoples and landscapes with the 

influx of sailors, merchants, missionaries, and 

businessmen, whose alteration of the islands’ 

social and political structure resulted in 

permanent impacts. The islands were already 

environmentally changed from Polynesian 

introductions (plants and animals) and land 

use practices, but the environmental changes 

were even greater with the influx of the sailors, 

merchants, missionaries, and businessman.

There were two classes of people at the time 

of contact in 1778—the chiefly class and 

the commoners. Within the chiefly class on 

Hawai‘i Island was the Kamehameha line. 

Kamehameha’s rise to power was through 

conquest of other island chiefs. Ultimately, 

Kamehameha united the islands in 1810. Once 

Kamehameha had established himself as the 

ruler of the islands, he ruled for nine years 

until his death in 1819; the traditional social 

and political rules of behavior remained. 

After his death, his favorite wife Kaahumanu 

and Kamehameha’s son Liholiho (who 

ruled as Kamehameha II) dismantled the 

traditions. The practice of communal eating 

between men and women— the breaking of 

the ‘ai kapu was the first of these traditions 

to be discarded. Other changes included the 

acceptance of western religious practice by 

some and wearing of western clothing. Once 

westerners were living among Hawaiians in 

greater numbers by the 1830’s, the further 

assimilation of western ideas, dress, and 

attitudes flooded the islands.

For centuries prior to European contact with 

Hawai‘i, the park lands were cared for and 

occupied by Native Hawaiians. There are 

a variety of radiocarbon dates that suggest 

that Hawaiians settled in this region of Puna 

and Ka‘ū by the early 14th century; however, 

earlier dates for the establishment of Waha‘ula 

heiau falls within the 13th century, when the 

landscape—or actual terrain surrounding 

the heiau—was being created from the 

lava (Kane Nui o Hamo flow). Some of the 

earliest evidence of life within the Puna and 

Ka‘ū ahupua‘a have been buried by more 

recent lava activity, since 1983. Archeological 

reports of life on the lava landscape are 

documented through the remnants of house 

platforms with associated living surfaces. 

Caves were often used as water sources and 

shelter. Discovery of more recent animal 

enclosures and excavated pits and rock mulch 

mounds suggest that animal husbandry and 

widespread farming took place on what today 

appears to be barren lava.

The Native Hawaiians who lived in this region 

were linked together by trail systems which 

connected families who lived and fished along 

the coast with families who farmed, lived, and 

worked further inland. The trail systems were 

laid out specifically to provide people with 

access to resources such as volcanic glass and 

basalt used to make their cutting or chopping 

tools, nests where seabirds were caught for 

food, shrines where they worshiped their 

gods, plants collected for medicine and dyes, 

and wood for canoes and houses.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT | 247 

The first Europeans to travel near the area 

now known as Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park arrived in 1794 with Captain George 

Vancouver on the ship Discovery. While 

moored off Hawai‘i Island, Archibald Menzies 

(the ship’s naturalist) ascended Hualālai and 

then Mauna Loa to Moku‘āweoweo Crater. 

Descriptions of Mauna Loa and the adjacent 

lands are provided in Menzies’ journal printed 

in 1920: Hawai‘i Nei 128 Years Ago was a recap 

of his three trips to Hawaiʻi. From the vantage 

point of the Discovery, Menzies described 

the erupting Kīlauea Volcano to their east. 

The next written account of Kīlauea does 

not appear until nearly three decades after 

Menzies’ visit, when the missionary Reverend 

William Ellis and his companions walked 

through the districts of Ka‘ū and Puna over 

a period of two months in 1823. Ellis gives 

detailed accounts of the geology, fauna, flora, 

and cultural history of the area in a personal 

journal. Ellis also recorded the eruptive 

activity visible at Kīlauea Volcano. Between 

1823 and the early 1900s, various reports 

detailed the presence of the lava lake and 

eruptive activity from the summit of Kīlauea 

Volcano (Ellis 2004).

The relative safety and ease of reaching an 

active volcano such as Kīlauea made the 

advantage of establishing a permanent place 

for scientific study in Hawai’i appealing. As 

researchers from Massachusetts Institute 

of Technology (MIT) became interested in 

establishing an observatory at Kīlauea, they 

lent their support for securing lands under the 

control of the federal government. By doing 

so, they would secure rights to access the site. 

In 1912, Dr. Thomas Jaggar, a highly respected 

geologist from MIT, left MIT to become 

the first director of the Hawaiian Volcano 

Observatory, which had been founded in 

1909. Jaggar became a great proponent of 

establishing Kīlauea as a national park and 

lobbied through speeches and written articles 

for its creation.

The establishment of a national park in 

1916 in what was then the Territory of 

Hawai‘i stemmed from an increasing 

trend of American tourism to scenic and 

health-enhancing areas. Between 1872 

(establishment of Yellowstone National Park) 

and 1916 (establishment of the National 

Park Service), the priority within the new 

federal parks was for their use and enjoyment 

through recreational tourism. Thus across 

the United States the creation of parks was 

undertaken to enhance the development of 

resorts near favored health spots or scenic 

areas. Hawai‘i did not escape the influence 

of this national movement; the trend in 

Hawai‘i, and specifically in the volcano area, 

was to focus development around the scenic 

beauty of the setting and the volcanic activity. 

Although early European American interest 

in the Kīlauea region came from naturalists, 

adventurers, and scientists seeking to 

understand and explain the geologically active 

area, later visitors were primarily tourists 

interested in seeing the spectacular volcanic 

activity and enjoying the natural steam baths.

In the 1930s, Franklin D. Roosevelt’s Civilian 

Conservation Corps played a major role in 

the early development of park infrastructure, 

including rock walls and road features that 

visitors can still see and use today (Park 

2007c). The historic Kilauea Military Camp 

was developed as a rest and relaxation camp 

in 1916 for military personnel and that use 

continues today. During World War II, it 

served various roles including a temporary 

Japanese internment camp and, later, a 

prisoner of war camp (Park 2009f, 2012a).

The boundaries of the park have been 

modified through the years to add culturally 

rich areas (see “Chapter 1: Introduction and 

Background” for a full description of these 

changes). Specifically related to cultural 

resources, the park acquired the Footprints 

and Ka‘ū Desert areas in 1922, which contain 

significant archeological resources. In 

addition, in 1938 a proposal for the park to 

acquire lands near Kalapana originated with 

several citizens of the Hawaiian Territory 

and was eventually passed in legislation, 

authorizing the addition of 42,000 acres to 

the park. It includes provisions for Native 

Hawaiian fishing access and short-term leases 

for homesites for Native Hawaiians.
248 | Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Description of the Park’s 

Cultural Resources

NATIONAL REGISTER OF HISTORIC PLACES 

AND PROPERTIES ELIGIBLE FOR INCLUSION 

IN THE NATIONAL REGISTER AT HAWAI‘I 

VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK

Cultural resources within Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park are varied and reflect 500 to 

600 years of history through to the present. 

Properties at the park that are listed or found 

eligible for listing in the National Register of 

Historic Places and that may be affected by 

potential actions in the general management 

plan include districts, sites, buildings, 

structures, and objects, the categories 

defined in 36 CFR Part 60 (National Register 

of Historic Places). Many of the historic 

resources that are within the protection of 

the park are not listed on the register but 

are treated as if they would be listed. Many 

properties have been determined eligible 

(36CFR 63) for inclusion on the national 

register but are not yet listed.

Eight properties (sites, structures, and 

buildings) and one historic district in the park 

are listed on the National Register of Historic 

Places (see Figure 5.4. Listed Properties on 

the National Register of Historic Places). The 

Puna-Ka‘ū Historic District includes eleven 

site complexes and one general category for 

eligible sites within the district. These national 

register listings were part of an effort to 

identify properties that were locally, state, or 

nationally significant in accordance with the 

National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 

as amended. Sites identified with the district 

may be added to the district as contributing 

features. A number of sites in the park ASMIS 

(Archeological Sites Management Information 

System) files are identified as “listed/

documented” in the NRHP as contributing 

members to the district, but many more exist 

that are eligible for listing.

PUNA-KA‘Ū HISTORIC DISTRICT (NRHP# 

74000294)— This nationally significant 

district covers about 127,000 acres and 

constitutes primarily the lowland portion 

of the park, extending beyond both its 

southeastern and southwestern boundaries. 

Included in this district are hundreds of 

sites and thousands of subfeatures including 

several petroglyph fields, village complexes, 

historic trails, and caves. Most of this historic 

district is in designated wilderness. Several 

sites are described on the nomination, but 

the nomination included all known and 

unknown (unrecorded) archeohistorical 

resources (Ladd 1973).

‘AINAPŌ TRAIL (NRHP# 74000290)— This 

nationally significant trail is also known 

as the Menzies Trail, approximately five 

miles of which exist within the park, from 

12,560 to 13,240 feet in elevation, with an 

additional mile of trail going down to 11,650 

feet elevation after which point the trail is 

no longer visible and was not included in 

the nomination. The original trail continued 

down to 2,000 feet elevation, according to the 

NRHP nomination of 1973. Boundaries of 

the NRHP extend 200 feet on either side of 

the trail of the nominated length. (Note: the 

original nomination listed a total of 11 miles, 

but recent mapping shows that it is actually 

only 6 miles). This is a prehistoric trail that 

gained further significance when it became the 

route used by visiting westerners who wished 

to explore Mauna Loa.

WILKES CAMPSITE (NRHP# 74000295)— 

This is the only remaining campsite within 

the Pacific Islands region attributed to the 

first US Exploration Expedition to the South 

Seas, which set out to map the Pacific in 

1841. The site is at 13,240 feet at the edge of 

Moku’āweoweo Crater on Mauna Loa. It has 

been determined to have national significance.

1790 FOOTPRINTS (NRHP# 74000351)—

This area in the Ka‘ū Desert wilderness unit 

includes 3,500 individual fossil footprints 

within 8,000 acres. It is anticipated that 

approximately 711 archeological features will 

be added to amend its original listing. This 

property has state significance.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 5: THE

AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT | 249 

Figure 5.4. Listed Properties In The National Register Of Historic Places

11¬«

11¬«

Volcano 

Village

M A U N A L O A

K A H U K U

‘ Ō L A ‘ A

‘Āinapō Trail

(structure)

1790 Footprints

(site)

Wilkes

Campsite

(site)

‘Āinahou Ranch House 

and Gardens

(building)

Puna-Ka‘ū Historic District

K Ī L A U E A

SEE INSET

Ocean View

Nā‘ālehu

Pāhala

MAP AREA

Hawai‘i Volcanoes

National Park

Figure 5.4 Listed Properties on the National Register of Historic Places

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park GMP/WS/EIS

Produced by: PWR - Seattle Planning

 Office

Date Created: June 2014

Data Sources: USGS - Roads, Coastline

 NPS - Park Boundary,

 Footprints and Ka‘ū 

 Historic District 

 boundaries

Fig. 5.4 HistProp_060914.mxd

K Ī L A U E A

1877 

Volcano House

(building)

Whitney 

Seismographic Vault

(building)

INSET

Kilauea Crater

(site)

NOTE: This map does not depict individual objects, structures, sites 

or landscapes that are eligible and

not yet listed, or that contribute to 

the significance of historic districts. 

μ

0 5

Miles

0 10

Kilometers

Roads

Legend

NPS Boundary

Historic Districts
250 | Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

KĪLAUEA CRATER (NRHP# 74000291)— 

The caldera (a.k.a. Ka Lua o Pele) is listed 

for its cultural and scientific values, and 

has been determined to have national 

significance. The frequent, almost continual 

centering of volcanic activity at Kīlauea 

Crater in prehistoric and historic times has 

affected human life, cultures, religions, and 

undertakings in the area. In historic times 

it has also attracted local and worldwide 

governmental, tourist, and scientific 

interests. Kīlauea Crater is and has been both 

worshipped and studied (Apple 1973a). It 

remains a focal point for many Hawaiians 

and within the larger context of the Hawaiian 

culture—Pelehonuamea, more widely 

known as Pele, is the deity of the volcano 

and is a central figure in the explanation 

of volcanic activity. The literal meaning of 

Pelehonuamea is ‘lava earth matter’; hence 

lava is a manifestation of the deity. She is 

the creative force that provides the land that 

we need to live.

‘ĀINAHOU RANCH (NRHP# 94001619)—

ʻĀinahou Ranch is a locally significant historic 

vernacular landscape with a craftsman/ 

bungalow style of architecture. Its period 

of significance is 1941 to 1971, based on its 

association with Herbert C. Shipman and 

what remains of its vernacular landscape. 

The ‘Āinahou Ranch House and the 

surrounding one-acre area are significant for 

the architecture and for agriculture, including 

raising cattle and nēnē (Park 2004).

OLD VOLCANO HOUSE NO. 42 (NRHP# 

74000293) (A.K.A. 1877 VOLCANO 

HOUSE)— This nationally significant property 

is the first western structure to provide 

shelter and visitor accommodations at the 

edge of Kīlauea Crater. The 1877 building is 

significant as a representation of early 19th 

century architecture in Hawai‘i and because 

it served as a hotel for visitors to the volcano. 

It remains very much in keeping with the 

original design (Apple 1973b).

WHITNEY SEISMOGRAPH VAULT NO. 29 

(NRHP# 74000292)— Built in 1912, the vault 

represents the beginnings of the continuous 

and resident study by American scientists 

of the earth’s volcanic and seismic activity 

at Kīlauea and Mauna Loa volcanoes. 

The Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, a US 

government facility since 1917, used the 

vault from 1912 through 1961, when more 

sophisticated instrumentation made the 

seismometers and tiltmeters it was designed to 

house obsolete (Apple 1973c).

NATIONAL REGISTER-ELIGIBLE HILINA PALI 

ROAD— The Hilina Pali Road is a paved 

one-lane spur road measuring approximately 

12 feet wide and dating from the early 1930s. 

It extends southwest from the Chain of 

Craters Road for 8.54 miles to a historic 

shelter that provides a view of the Pacific 

Ocean and Ka’ū Desert wilderness unit . The 

Hilina Pali Road is significant for its 

association with NPS road design and 

construction principles, as well as NPS Rustic 

Architecture (1916–42). Its period of 

significance is 1928 to 1950, which 

encompasses the design, construction, and 

alteration of the road (Park 2007d).

NATIONAL REGISTER-ELIGIBLE MAUNA LOA 

ROAD— The Mauna Loa Road, completed 

in 1936, extends northwest from Highway 

11 (Mamalahoa Highway), a distance of 

approximately 11.2 miles, partially up the 

side of Mauna Loa to 6,662 feet in elevation. 

Mauna Loa Road is a secondary road 

providing backcountry access to Mauna Loa 

and is part of the road system planned by 

NPS officials for Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park. The road is significant for its association 

with the history of NPS road design and 

construction principles as well as NPS Rustic 

Hilina Pali Overlook shelter depicting NPS Rustic Architecture. 

NPS photo
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT | 251 

Architecture. It is also significant for its 

association with volcanology. The period of 

significance is from 1915 to 1937 (Park 2007e). 

There is also a historic shelter at the end of 

Mauna Loa Road that overlooks the East 

Rift of Kīlauea.

NATIONAL REGISTER-ELIGIBLE CRATER RIM 

ROAD— Crater Rim Drive is the primary 

park road. The 10.6-mile, two lane, paved 

loop road circles the rim of Kīlauea Caldera, 

providing views and access not only to 

Kīlauea but also to smaller craters, spectacular 

lava flows, the Jaggar Museum, the Southwest 

Rift, steam vents, native vegetation, and 

Thurston Lava Tube. The road’s design and 

construction spans a considerable period of 

time (1916–83): in the 1930s and early 1940s, 

park personnel incorporated already existing 

roads into a loop road around Kīlauea Crater 

as outlined in the 1931 and 1939 general 

development plans for the park. By 1942, 

Crater Rim Drive and its associated structures 

were in place, but they were periodically 

reconstructed and rerouted in response to 

natural disasters like volcanic eruptions and 

earthquakes, notably from 1959–62, 1975–76, 

and 1982–83 (Park 2007c).

NATIONAL REGISTER-ELIGIBLE KAHUKU 

RANCH BASE CAMP— This historic site 

is approximately 5-6 acres and is part of 

the larger Kahuku Ranch. The US military 

leased part of the ranch from 1939-1947 

and utilized a portion of Kahuku Ranch for 

strategic operations during World War II. 

It is this particular use and legacy, as part 

of the World War II era of military building 

design and advancing radar communications 

technology that are of primary significance 

for this historic site. Current research 

indicates the radar installation at the Kahuku 

Ranch was constructed and active from 

1942–44, the current period of significance, 

but continued research may provide 

information that extends the period of 

significance (Park 2012b).

NATIONAL REGISTER-ELIGIBLE 

TRADITIONAL CULTURAL PROPERTY—

Pelehonuamea and family – This traditional 

cultural property would include the 

identification of landscape features that are 

revealed in traditional songs, dances, and 

chants that relate to Pele and her family. 

Through the existing documentation of 

specific locations, place names within the park 

boundaries will be identified. Although the 

complexities of this story of Pelehonuamea’s 

life go beyond the park boundaries, her home 

is here at Kīlauea, and more specifically at 

Halema‘uma‘u, which is already a property 

in the national register of Historic Properties. 

The continued association of current Native 

Hawaiians to the landscapes within the 

park boundary provided the basis for the 

TCP (Park 2013c).

NATIONAL REGISTER-ELIGIBLE KILAUEA 

MILITARY CAMP HISTORIC DISTRICT— The 

historic Kilauea Military Camp was developed 

as a rest and relaxation camp in 1916 for 

military personnel. During World War II, it 

served various roles including a temporary 

Japanese internment camp and, later, a 

prisoner of war camp.

ARCHEOLOGICAL RESOURCES

Archeological resources in the park document 

the Native Hawaiian way of life (ka noho ʻana) 

in traditional land divisions, or ahupua‘a, 

extending from the uplands to the sea. Sites 

and features associated with day-to-day 

activities are essential to understanding the 

rich and living Hawaiian heritage.

Archeological resources are the physical 

evidence of past human activity, including 

evidence of the effects of that activity on the 

environment (NPS 1998). An archeological 

overview and assessment of the park was 

prepared in 2008 (Tuggle and TomonariTuggle 2008). Although only 13% of the 

acreage at Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

has been surveyed for cultural resources, the 

coverage has been such that samples of most 

of the regions of the park have been obtained, 

and a general understanding of occupational 

patterns has been developed. However, there 

is no doubt that cultural resources exist within 

undocumented or unsurveyed areas.

The archeological resources at Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park encompass a 

range of prehistoric Native Hawaiian and 
252 | Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Euro-American historic sites. Ruins extend 

from the coast to the upland alpine regions. 

Radiocarbon data suggest that Hawaiians 

settled in this region by the early 15th century.

Across the entire park, more than 300 

archeological sites and more than 14,000 

features have been identified, evaluated, 

and recorded in the Archeological Sites 

Management Information System (ASMIS), 

the NPS database of archeological 

information (NPS 2009b). The recent addition 

of the Kahuku region has contributed to the 

park database of sites. More archeological 

sites are expected to be found, as only 

a portion of the Kahuku Unit has been 

systematically surveyed (Quiseng 2008).

While Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

contains a vast number of archeological sites, 

only a few areas are actively interpreted to 

the public by the park, or have been in the 

recent past. One of the highest-profile and 

most heavily visited archeological sites in the 

park is the Pu‘u Loa Petroglyph Field, part 

of the Puna-Ka‘ū Historic District. This site 

contains more than 23,000 petroglyphs that 

depict people, canoes, geometric shapes, and 

cupules (also referred to as a puka or a hole 

carved in the volcanic rock)—where babies’ 

umbilical cords were placed in a hope of 

long life (NPCA 2008). While petroglyphs 

are found throughout the Hawaiian Islands, 

the Pu‘u Loa Petroglyph Field is the largest 

concentration of petroglyphs in the state.

A second interpreted site within the park 

boundary is the “1790 Footprints Area,” 

which is listed in the National Register of 

Historic Places. “Footprints” is located within 

the Ka’ū Desert and is one of the most unique 

sites in the park. It is a field of fossilized 

human footprints, impressed in layers of 

hardened desert ash that were deposited 

by explosive eruptions over the course of 

several centuries. A major trail system crosses 

through the footprints area, connecting the 

villages of Ka‘ū with Kīlauea Crater, upper 

Puna, and Hilo. Along the trail are hundreds 

of temporary shelter sites, presumably used by 

travelers who accessed the area during or after 

the large volcanic ash explosion of 1790 or 

later (Moniz-Nakamura 2003).

In addition to these two important sites, the 

park contains several religious sites such 

as shrines, and it once possessed at least 

two prominent visible heiau. Archeological 

surveys have evaluated some of these heiau, 

specifically detailing the Waha’ula Heiau 

(Masse et al. 1991). This heiau was covered 

by the Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō lava flows in the late 1990s, 

but prior to that it was the premier location 

for interpretation of cultural resources in the 

park. Waha’ula Heiau was built in the 13th 

century and is significant for its connection 

to Pa’ao, a priest who appeared on the island, 

ushering in the second massive migration 

wave of Polynesians (NPCA 2008). The 

beginning of heiau luakini—human sacrifice—

and ceremonial worship of Hawaiian gods is 

traced to this temple.

A portion of the Ala Kahakai National 

Historic Trail, a 175-mile trail corridor with 

cultural and historical significance, is located 

within the park. The trail skirts the southern 

and western perimeters of the island. The 

Ala Kahakai National Historic Trail was 

established in 2000 for the preservation, 

protection, and interpretation of traditional 

Native Hawaiian culture and natural resources 

(NPS 2009a). It can be accessed through 

four national park units, including Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park, and traverses 

through hundreds of ancient Hawaiian 

settlement sites and over 200 ahupuaʻa, or 

traditional sea-to-mountain land divisions. 

Much of the designated alignment within 

the park has no trail. It is in the very remote 

southwestern area of the park in designated 

wilderness. The existing coastal trail within 

this route extends from Elemakule to the 

end of the pavement at Chain of Craters 

Road. Beyond that the historic trail and road 

(about five to 7 miles of the trail) is now 

under lava flows from the current Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō 

eruption. Although the trail segment through 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park is not yet 

actively interpreted, it is expected that it will 

be in the future.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT | 253 

Many archeological sites can also be found 

throughout the park, associated with such 

events as World War II and ranching. World 

War II features include physical landscape 

features (access road at Kahuku, bulldozed 

areas created to deter Japanese landings, 

strafed buildings and lava flows, unexploded 

ordnance) and buildings (radar installation at 

Kahuku, buildings at Kilauea Military Camp 

that housed internees, buildings in the park 

that were used by the military). Ranching 

features include houses, ranch walls, animal 

enclosures, and trails, including the Kahuku-

‘Ainapō Trail that was used to drive cattle 

across the island from as early as 1918 into 

the 1930s (Quiseng 2008). Families once used 

lands in Ka’ū and Puna to tend goats and 

cattle. These lands are now included in the 

park boundary and only the Puna sections 

were part of the Kalapana Extension. Most 

of the physical remains of these activities 

were covered by lava after the 1983 eruption 

of Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō. The park also contains the 

first airfield ever built on the island (1923) 

and the only physical remnant in the Pacific 

region of the 1841 US Exploring Expedition, 

led by Lieutenant Charles Wilkes from the 

Smithsonian Institution and the National 

Museum of Natural History (Dougherty 

2004). The only archeological remains of the 

Wilkes campsite are located at the summit of 

Mauna Loa and were listed in the National 

Register of Historic Places in 1974. Another 

site frequented by visitors is an impressive 

example of an early Hawai‘i industry: the site 

of a factory for processing pulu for export. 

Pulu is the soft, glossy, yellow wool on the 

base of tree-fern leaf stalks. It was used to 

stuff mattresses and pillows and in the mid1800s was exported to California.

The numerous archeological sites located 

within Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

are threatened by a number of natural and 

human-induced elements. These include 

lava flows, fire, earthquakes, tsunamis, 

inappropriate visitor uses, nonnative 

ungulates, and time. The threat is greatest 

from lava flows, earthquakes, and tsunamis.

CULTURAL LANDSCAPES

Cultural landscapes are geographic areas 

associated with specific cultures or historical 

events, and they help illustrate how 

humans have adapted to and altered their 

surroundings (NPS 1998). The National Park 

Service recognizes four cultural landscape 

categories: historic designed landscapes, 

historic vernacular landscapes, historic sites, 

and ethnographic landscapes. Polynesian 

colonizers employed their own traditional 

fishing and agricultural techniques where 

possible, and they adapted new techniques 

to fit the unique conditions of Hawai‘i. 

They used local resources, including a wide 

range of indigenous plants and animals, and 

shaped their surroundings (NPCA 2008). 

Although not specifically identified within 

the current list of cultural landscapes, 

several ethnographic landscapes that relate 

to the origin myth, or Kumulipo, have been 

considered for the park.

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park has 

an abundance of cultural resource sites 

distributed across the larger geographic 

landscape, a characteristic that is fairly 

typical of Hawaiian cultural landscapes: for 

example, villages are usually scattered along 

the coastline, and their density is generally 

correlated with inland agricultural intensity, 

with agricultural fields sited according to 

average rainfall. Cultural boundaries (districts, 

ahupua‘a, and ‘ili, or political subdivisions) 

segregate these villages and fields, and 

transportation infrastructure (trails and 

canoe landings) integrates them (Tuggle and 

Tomonari-Tuggle 2008).

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park has 

identified 19 individual cultural landscapes 

within its boundaries, including trails, ranches, 

roads, historic districts, landing strips, and a 

military camp. The list of landscapes is not 

exhaustive. To date, 113 landscapes have been 

identified that include specific landscapes 

presented in table 5.5.
254 | Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Three of the park’s identified cultural 

landscapes—Crater Rim Historic District, 

Kīlauea Historic District (formally the Kīlauea 

Administration and Employee Housing 

Historic District), and ʻĀinahou Ranch and 

Gardens—have been documented through 

cultural landscape inventories (Park 2004, 

2006a, 2006b) and have been determined 

eligible for listing in the National Register 

of Historic Places. ‘Āinahou Ranch House 

and Gardens is on the national register. The 

Crater Rim Historic District is approximately 

5,000 acres in size, located in and around 

the Kīlauea Caldera, and is significant for its 

association with the CCC program and for 

its distinctive design, which represents the 

predominant NPS architectural style between 

the two world wars (known as the NPS rustic 

style). The cultural landscape inventory for 

Crater Rim Historic District, a traditional 

scenic auto tour area that provides visitor 

access to Kīlauea Volcano, notes that the 

landscape is in “good” condition because 

it retains the integrity of its original design 

and aesthetic properties, with no immediate 

action required to maintain it at this 

level (Park 2006a).

The cultural landscape inventory for the 

Kīlauea Historic District—the administration 

and employee housing district—retains 

integrity relating to the original plan and is in 

“good” condition. The period of significance 

for the Kīlauea Historic District extends 

from 1927 to 1942, and it is significant for its 

association with the development of the park 

and the original designed landscape for the 

park, referred to as “Early Park Planning,” and 

its association with the Civilian Conservation 

Corps (CCC) and other public work 

groups, and because it embodies distinctive 

characteristics of the NPS rustic style as 

expressed during the early development of the 

park (Park 2006b).

‘Āinahou Ranch is associated with Herbert 

C. Shipman, who leased land from Bishop 

Estate in the late 1930s to establish the ranch 

Table 5.5. Cultural Landscapes at Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park

Primary Landscape Cultural Landscape 

Inventory Name NRHP Status Documentation Status

‘Āinahou Ranch and Gardens ‘Āinahou Ranch Listed Yes

‘Āinahou Ranch ‘Āinahou Ranch Listed Yes

Chain of Craters Road Hilina Pali Road and Shelter Eligible Yes

Crater Rim Historic District

Crater Rim Historic District

Halema‘uma‘u Overlook

Hawaiian Volcano Observatory 

and Jaggar Museum

Kīlauea Iki Overlook

Sulphur Banks 

Thurston Lava Tube 

All Eligible Yes

Chain of Craters Road Chain of Ca Eligible No

Crater Rim Trail Crater Rim Trail Eligible No

Kahuku Ranch Kahuku Ranch Eligible (portions) No

Kaʻū Desert Trail Kaʻū Desert Trail Eligible No

Kīlauea Administration and 

Employee Housing Historic District 

(a.k.a. Kīlauea Historic District)

Kīlauea Administration and 

Employee Housing Historic District 

(a.k.a. Kīlauea Historic District)

Eligible Yes

Kilauea Military Camp Kilauea Military Camp Eligible Yes

Landing Fields Landing Fields Eligible No

Mauna Loa Road Kīpukapuaulu (Bird Park) Eligible Yes

Wilkes Campsite and ʻAinapō Trail Wilkes Campsite and ʻAinapō Trail Listed 

(Nationally Significant) No
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT | 255 

before it was acquired by the park. Shipman 

maintained a captive flock of nēnē at the 

ranch, and in 1949 and 1950 he donated 

several birds to territorial government and 

British captive breeding programs thus 

contributing to efforts to conserve the species. 

Shipman’s captive nēnē were not left behind 

to live in the wild when he left Ainahou. The 

13.3-acre site of the ranch house and gardens 

(a small portion of the ranch’s approximately 

6,324 acres) is located within a native, 

seasonally dry woodland at an elevation of 

3,000 feet. The period of significance begins 

in 1941, when Shipman first constructed 

his house as a safe haven from a possible 

Japanese invasion during World War II, 

and it ends in 1944, however subsequent 

research has expanded the date for the 

period of significance to 1971. Shipman’s 

lease agreement was purchased by the federal 

government based on the appraised value 

of the structures and infrastructure on the 

ranch. The cultural landscape inventory for 

the ‘Āinahou Ranch states that it is in “fair” 

condition, with structural repairs needed 

(Park 2004). The Ranch was purchased by 

the National Park Service from the B. P. 

Bishop Estate under the authority of the 

Endangered Species Conservation Act of 

1969 for the purpose of protecting, restoring, 

and propagating endangered bird species. 

Since then, the greater ‘Āinahou area has 

served an important role in the conservation 

and reestablishment of endangered 

nēnē on the island.

Additional cultural landscapes that focus on 

Polynesian or Hawaiian land use patterns 

have been identified through archeological 

inventory and analysis (Tuggle and TomonariTuggle 2008) but have not been added to the 

current park list. The list will be finalized 

through consultation with individuals and 

organizations from the community. Such 

studies also routinely include extensive 

cultural history studies. Examples of other 

potential cultural landscapes within the 

park associated with historic activities and 

alteration of the environment could include 

CCC programs, Mission 66, and the use of the 

island during World War I and World War II.

ETHNOGRAPHIC RESOURCES 

Ethnographic resources are variations of 

natural resources and standard cultural 

resource types. They include subsistence 

and ceremonial sites, structures, objects, 

and rural and urban landscapes assigned 

cultural significance by traditional users 

in the present day. The decision to call 

resources “ethnographic” depends on 

whether associated peoples perceive them as 

traditionally meaningful to their identity as a 

group and the survival of their lifeways (NPS 

1998). A broader group of people may also 

have a connection to the park for its scientific, 

historic, and scenic values.

Ethnographic resources abound in Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park. The volcanic 

landscape, the summits, and the vegetation 

connect the Hawaiian people to the park. 

Volcanic landscapes and all active flows and 

products of eruptive events such as steam 

and vog are believed to be the representation 

of Pelehonuamea. The word Pelehonuamea 

literally means “lava earth matter.” Native 

Hawaiians understand that the function of 

Pelehonuamea is to build land, land that is 

essential for all life. The active volcanism 

demonstrates the presence of Pelehonuamea. 

Kīlauea Volcano is currently the only place 

where you can find active lava flows in the 

Hawaiian Islands, hence the sacredness of this 

place for many Native Hawaiians.

A Native Hawaiian elder discusses the 

significance of the kanawai (laws) that are 

present in the vicinity of an active volcano:

These are the basic natural laws we 

expect when living near and around 

a live volcano. The energy of growth, 

whether it is volcanism or vegetation, 

is the process of gods, those natural 

forces that create life. These kanawai 

are laws of protection and expectations for us, for the land and for the 

volcano. These are old, traditional, simple, sensible, yet substantial 

kanawai. These are determined from 

centuries of wisdom and experiences. 

1) He ki ho’iho’i kanawai or a law 

of quick restoration. This means that 
256 | Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

when there is destruction of land by 

volcano, that this land must also have 

the nurturing factors for vegetation to 

begin growing very soon after. It was 

known that the natural movement 

for growth is as dynamic as that of 

a volcano. Restoration must happen 

quickly, this is what we expect. 2) He 

kua a kanawai or a burning, hot back 

law. When the land is hot it is part of 

that process of developing, sulphur 

indicates that this is the threshold of a 

live volcano, steam is also an indicator of a live volcano, and magma 

is the live volcano. Unlike volcanoes 

on continents, our volcano here is 

the primary source for our land. It is 

sacred to us because land is limited 

and acknowledging the indicators is 

respecting the process of growth or acknowledging the gods of land building 

(Kanahele 2010).

Pelehonuamea is given a very high degree of 

respect because the land that is created by lava 

flows becomes the foundation for all natural 

cycles, including those of fresh water, plants, 

animals, and human life. Native Hawaiians, 

like other native people, have a very close 

familial relationship to the natural world. This 

relationship requires reciprocity: for example 

they share the belief that if they take care of 

the land then the land will take care of them, 

and that if they keep the forest healthy the 

forest will attract rain, which will fill aquifers 

and provide fresh water. Traditional ho‘okupu 

(offerings) are often left at the edge of the 

crater, illustrating the reciprocal relationship 

that exists between the Native Hawaiians and 

Pelehonuamea. Native Hawaiians, as cultural 

practitioners, recognize the interconnection 

of their environment and appreciate the value 

of their elemental deities. Kīlauea and Mauna 

Loa Volcanoes are especially sacred because 

they are the birthplaces of new land.

Native Hawaiian practitioners continue 

to perpetuate traditional practices and 

knowledge related to these sacred lands. 

This is an integral part of the lifeways of 

many Hawaiians. Sacred or religious sites 

within the park include natural features such 

as active lava flows, Kīlauea Caldera and 

Summit areas, and constructed features such 

as shrines, heiau, or burial sites. Kīlauea is 

used for rituals to Pelehonuamea, or to her 

relatives (Kamohoali‘i, Hi‘iakaikapoliopele, 

and others). Of these, the sites dedicated to 

Pelehonuamea are by far the most important 

(Langlas 2003a). Native Hawaiians from the 

entire island, and even from off-island, go to 

Kīlauea Caldera periodically to give ho‘okupu 

(offerings) to Pelehonuamea and to ask for her 

help with their lives. Those religious activities 

have their roots in the Hawaiian past, from 

well before the time of European contact. 

Other subsistence or traditionally used 

resources include marine resources such as 

fish, crab, shellfish, and others.

The Puna coastline located in the park is 

another important resource for Native 

Hawaiians who live in the Kalapana extension 

area and continue to practice their fishing 

rights along the coastal areas of the park. The 

extension area extends from Kupapa’u Point 

on the east to Keauhou on the west. According 

to 36 CFR 7.25(3):

Kalapana extension area; special 

fishing privileges. (i) Pursuant to the 

act of June 20, 1938 (52 Stat. 781; 16 

U.S.C. 391b and 396a) Native Hawaiian residents of the villages adjacent to 

the Kalapana extension area added to 

the park by the above act and visitors 

under their guidance are granted the 

exclusive privileges of fishing or gathering seafood from parklands (above 

the high waterline) along the coastline 

of such extension area. These persons 

may engage in commercial fishing 

under proper State permit.

This special regulation was written to assure 

that Hawaiians living in adjacent villages 

could continue their subsistence lifestyle. Also 

mentioned in the Hawai‘i National Park Act of 

June 20, 1938 is the following:

SEC. 3. (a) That the Secretary of the 

Interior is authorized to lease, under 

such rules and regulations as he may 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT | 257 

deem proper, land ascertained by him 

to be suitable for home site purposes in 

the Kalapana extension as described 

herein, to Native Hawaiians when 

such occupancy does not encroach on 

or prevent free access to any points of 

historic, scientific, or scenic interest or 

in any manner obstruct or interfere 

with protection and preservation of 

said area as a part of the Hawai‘i 

National Park: Provided, however, 

That occupants of home sites shall 

reside on the land not less than six 

months in any one year: And provided further. That fishing shall be 

permitted in said area only by native 

Hawaiian residents of said area or of 

adjacent villages and by visitors under 

their guidance. 

A wide group of Native Hawaiians use the 

sacred sites and plant resources of the park 

today (Langlas 2003a). Many of the Hawaiians 

who visit Kīlauea are there to make offerings 

to Pelehonuamea as many are associated 

with various hālau hula (dance schools) 

that focus on Kīlauea and Pele chants or 

mele (Langlas 2003b). This ancient form of 

Hawaiian hula is directly related to the forest 

and other elements in nature. The beauty 

of nature is mimicked in hula. The park 

makes accommodations for many hālau hula 

by temporarily restricting public access in 

specific areas so that hālau may make offerings 

undisturbed by others.

Ongoing ethnographic work continues at 

the Kahuku Unit of the park. Interviews 

with retired cowboys are conducted to learn 

about the cattle ranching operation that 

once occupied the land. Kahuku has over a 

hundred years of ranching history. Kahuku 

also has a military history. During World 

War II, Pu‘u o Lokuana was chosen as the site 

for the secret Kahuku radar station. There 

is no record of any archeological work done 

in Kahuku prior to the park’s acquisition of 

the unit in 2003. The park has since begun 

archeological investigations on the ‘Ainapō 

Trail and other places.

Hawaiʻi Volcanoes has a strong commitment 

to include native voices in park planning and 

interpretive materials. The park acknowledges 

its “living culture” and embraces the 

sacredness of the summit areas of Kīlauea and 

Mauna Loa volcanoes. Additionally, the park 

maintains a good relationship with a number 

of elders, or kupuna, from the adjacent 

communities of Puna and Ka’ū. Native 

Hawaiian Organizations such as the Office of 

Hawaiian Affairs and the Edith Kanaka‘ole 

Foundation are also included in ongoing 

consultation for the protection of cultural 

resources within the park.

Examples of recent ethnographic studies can 

be found in Native Hawaiian Use of Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park: A Historical and 

Ethnographic Overview (Langlas 2003a) and 

Ethnographic Studies at Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park (2003b). Other work continues 

with research on the greater cultural 

landscapes found within the park lands.

OTHER POTENTIAL CULTURAL LANDSCAPES

Today considered a traditional Hawaiian 

activity, ranching began in the islands in the 

1830s, first on Maui and then on Hawai‘i 

at the Parker Ranch near Waimea (Avery 

2009). The Kahuku Unit of the park has a 

long tradition of cattle ranching. Starting in 

the 1860s, ranching activities on the island 

were dispersed, with most cattle descending 

from the remnant population brought to 

Kealakekua Bay for Kamehameha by George 

Vancouver in 1793 (Bergin 2004). The idyllic 

open pasturelands that currently define cattle 

ranching in Hawai‘i, particularly at Kahuku, 

developed initially between 1912 and 1947, 

when Parker Ranch owned Kahuku. Although 

fencing in the form of dry-laid walls was 

typical, wire fences were also introduced to 

this landscape in 1912.

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park is host 

to many other important human stories, 

relating to such subjects as contact, 

conflict, and integration of Hawaiians with 

foreigners; the scientific exploration and 

investigation of volcanoes, earthquakes, 

and adaptation to a changing landscape; 
258 | Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

the impact of feral animals on the island 

ecosystem; the significance of ranching in 

Hawai‘i; and military history, including the 

establishment of the Kilauea Military Camp, 

the occupation of the park during World 

War II at both the Kīlauea and the Kahuku 

units, buffalo soldiers, and the JapaneseAmerican internment (NPCA 2008). Each of 

these histories is linked to at least one group 

of people who could connect its cultural 

significance to their present way of life.

MUSEUM COLLECTIONS 

The park collection houses a repository of 

many irreplaceable items that can be studied 

and used for research, interpretation, and 

education. These items provide critical 

evidence of a chronology of events, actions, 

and decisions, and contribute to a critical 

understanding and appreciation of human 

activity and interaction in the park. The park 

is currently managing over 1.9 million objects, 

including cultural collections (archives, 

archeology, art, history) and natural history 

collections (geology, paleontology, biology).

The Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

museum collections are composed of both 

natural and cultural artifacts. The cultural 

collection currently includes 518,765 

catalogued objects and is likely to expand in 

the foreseeable future. The purpose of the 

cultural collection is to increase knowledge 

and inspiration in present and future 

generations through exhibits, research, and 

interpretive programs; support research, 

resource management, and education; provide 

baseline data of park natural and cultural 

resources; document changes these resources 

are undergoing because of internal park 

conditions and external effects; and guarantee 

the protection of important cultural objects 

whose in situ preservation cannot be assured.

The majority of the museum collection 

is stored in the basement of the park 

headquarters building. Currently 0.04% of the 

park’s museum collection is stored off-island 

in one NPS and two non-NPS facilities. Due 

to limited facilities and space, only eight items 

from the park’s collection are currently on 

display in the park. There are other buildings 

with museum storage, including the Kīlauea 

Field Station and Magma House. None of 

these facilities was built to accommodate 

the special needs of museum collections in 

regards to security, access, or preservation. 

The park museum program has been able 

to correct many storage and preservation 

deficiencies over the years, however there are 

many deficiencies that will never be able to be 

corrected due to the nature of the facilities. 

There is also a critical shortage of collections 

work and storage space, although there is 

significant potential for collections growth, 

especially in the archival and biological 

collections. The proper administration, 

preservation, and utilization of the existing 

collections are hampered due to this lack of 

adequate work, storage, and study space. As 

a result, these primary park resources are 

not contributing to park operations at their 

full potential. The park maintains emergency 

response plans for the collections, including 

evacuation and mitigation plans.

There are many types of collections within the 

museum collection, including natural history, 

biology, geology, paleontology, archeology, 

ethnology, history, archives, and art. The 

park also has a resource library for staff and 

public use that is managed by the Cultural 

Resources Division.

THREATS TO CULTURAL RESOURCES 

Cultural resources are the nonrenewable 

legacy of the human experience and a people’s 

adaptation to their landscape. Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park contains some of 

the last remaining vestiges of the adaptation 

of native people to their environment. For 

centuries Pacific Islanders have lived and 

worked from the mountains to the sea, 

building their house sites, their temples, and 

accessing the abundant resources that were 

available to them. The coming of Westerners 

changed their culture dramatically—disease 

killed off large numbers and continues to 

disproportionately affect them. Many of the 

native island people who are left are slowly 

being cut off from their traditional lands, 

access to the sea, mountains, and former 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT | 259 

farming sites, and the resources within and 

around the ocean. The park is very important 

because it preserves the entire landscape.

Today, Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park lands 

are virtual refuges, housing the last vestiges of 

a traditional lifestyle. Overlaying this story of 

colonization, adaptation, and survival is the 

history of contact with European adventurers, 

whalers, sailors, and scientists. All of these 

stories are worthy of noting, understanding, 

preserving, and sharing, however it is also 

the mandate of the National Park Service to 

preserve and perpetuate them.

Climate change poses a threat to cultural 

resources (see the Climate Change section 

earlier in this chapter for a description of 

the impacts of climate change on natural 

resources). One of the known threats of 

climate change is a rise in sea level. Along with 

sea level rise will come an increase in high 

waves, seasonal increases in storm intensity, 

and increased frequency of hurricanes and 

severe tsunamis. For the coastal area within 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park these threats 

are of great concern. Cultural resources within 

the park will be disproportionately impacted, 

as the ocean will be able to penetrate further 

inland with the ever-rising tide. Impairment 

of these cultural resources will be severe and 

permanent. Sites along the coast and cliffs 

will become inundated, damaged, and in 

some cases completely destroyed. The onset 

of global climate change threatens to wash 

away what remains of these cultural resources, 

many of which will not even be documented 

for future generations.

Climate change poses another threat to all 

cultural resources, including landscapes and 

buildings, with the potential for increased 

flooding in areas that are already susceptible 

to erosion, such as the Footprints area 

and Hilina Pali. Climate change will also 

dramatically affect the forest and its birds, 

both of which are crucial to traditional 

Hawaiian practices and cultural practitioners 

to connect with the land.

VISITOR USE AND EXPERIENCE

Visitation

Visitors to Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

have the opportunity to visit two of the 

world’s most active volcanoes, take in views 

of volcanic landscapes, and learn about the 

geologic origins of the Hawaiian Islands 

and the distinct Native Hawaiian culture 

(Park 2009b). Between 1998 and 2012, an 

average of 1,367,266 people visited the 

park annually. Over this period, the largest 

decline in visitation was experienced from 

2001 to 2002, when the annual number of 

visitors decreased by approximately 17%. 

By contrast, the largest increase in visitation 

was experienced from 2003 to 2004, when 

the annual number of visitors increased by 

approximately 32%. From 1998 to 2012, an 

average of approximately 114,000 people 

visited the park per month (see Table 5.6. 

Visitor Use Statistics for Hawai‘I Volcanoes 

National Park, 1998–2012). July and August 

represent slightly busier months overall, with 

approximately 140,000 visitors. April and 

December are, on average, the lightest months 

in terms of park visitation with roughly 99,000 

visitors to the park.

Table 5.6. Visitor Use Statistics for Hawai‘i

Volcanoes National Park, 1998–2012

Year Visitation % Change from 

Previous Year

1998 1,352,373 —

1999 1,502,855 +11%

2000 1,514,636 +< 1%

2001 1,343,286 −11%

2002 1,110,998 −17%

2003 991,875 −11%

2004 1,307,391 +32%

2005 1,661,196 +27%

2006 1,612,246 −3%

2007 1,467,779 −9%

2008 1,270,538 −13%

2009 1,233,104 -3%

2010 1,304,666 +6%

2011 1,352,122 +4%

2012 1,483,930 +10%

Average 1,367,266 —

Source: Park 2012a
260 | Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Figure 5.5. Average Monthly Visitation For Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, 2000–13

0 

20,000 

40,000 

60,000 

80,000 

100,000 

120,000 

140,000 

160,000 

January February March April May June July August September October November December 

Source: NPS 2013

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park is a yearround park with little seasonal variation 

in visitation. There are slight fluctuations, 

but overall the park sees steady levels of 

visitation. The park has a high commercial to 

recreational visitation ratio. Most recreational 

vehicle traffic enters the park between 

10:00 a.m. and 2:00 p.m. each day. Between 

2006 and 2008, 23% of paying visitors entered 

the park as passengers of a commercial tour 

vehicle. The average length of stay in the park 

for commercial tour passengers is less than 

one day (Miskimins 2010).

Historically, visitation numbers and visitor 

length of stay can change dramatically in 

response to the presence of volcanic activity. 

In the months following the Mother’s Day 

Eruption of 2002, for example, visitation to 

the eruption-site on the East Rift at the end of 

pavement on Chain of Craters Road—where 

visitors can hike out to view lava spilling 

into the ocean—increased from an average 

of 650 visitors per day to between 2,000 and 

6,000 per day. A large portion of visits to view 

any lava activity present in the park occur 

during the evening, outside of the park’s 

normal operating hours. In 2007, lava flows 

shifted outside park boundaries and became 

a popular destination operated by Hawai‘i 

County on lands adjacent to the park. This 

shift in lava flows caused a decrease in the 

length of stay as park visitors shortened their 

visit to incorporate lava viewing opportunities 

outside the park. Since the summit eruption 

of Kīlauea in March 2008, a growing number 

of visitors are now drawn to Jaggar Museum 

during the evening to witness the glow from 

lava rising within Halema‘uma‘u Crater.

While visitor activities are generally 

available at all times of the year, the park 

superintendent may restrict use of any area 

or trail in order to protect visitors and the 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT | 261 

park’s resources. Volcanic eruptions and 

high levels of volcanic gases occasionally 

warrant closing an area of the park for short 

periods of time. Elevated SO2 emissions from 

the March 2008 summit eruption of Kīlauea 

Volcano have caused the indefinite closure of 

a section of Crater Rim Drive and trails near 

the caldera. Short-term closures of Jaggar 

Museum have also occurred when needed 

to protect park visitors and staff. Visitation 

is expected to continue to vary over time in 

response to opportunities for lava viewing or 

other eruptive activity and in response to the 

presence of elevated levels of SO2

 emissions.

VISITOR USE DEMOGRAPHICS, PATTERNS, 

AND TRENDS

The NPS Cooperative Park Studies Unit at the 

University of Idaho routinely conducts visitor 

use surveys for the National Park Service to 

obtain information about park visitors and 

visitation patterns. A visitor use study was 

last conducted at Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National 

Park from March 11–17, 2007 (Holmes 

and Hollenhorst 2008). At the time of this 

visitor survey, lava flows from Kīlauea were 

entering the ocean, offering spectacular lavaviewing opportunities for visitors able to hike 

approximately 0.5 mile over rough terrain.

The study profiled a random sample of 

visitors, and results indicated that visitors 

were often in family groups (68%). Groups 

often consisted of two people (44%) or four 

or more people (40%). Most visitors were 

between the ages of 41 and 65 years (51%), 

and 10% were aged 15 years or younger—72% 

were first-time visitors. United States visitors 

comprised a majority of total respondents 

(85%), and significant numbers were from 

California (12%), Hawai‘i (9%), and Texas 

(9%), though the other 47 states were also 

represented. International visitors were 

predominantly from Canada (40%), Japan 

(36%), and Germany (7%).

A majority of visitor groups (57%) indicated 

that viewing active lava flows at the eruptionsite on Chain of Craters Road was a primary 

reason for visiting the park. Park sites that 

received the most visitation also included 

the Kīlauea Visitor Center (84%), Steam 

Vents (76%), Thurston Lava Tube (68%), and 

Kīlauea Overlook (66%). The park’s most 

popular trail is Kīlauea Iki. Most visitors 

learned about the park through travel guides 

or tour books (57%), friends or relatives 

(46%), other printed materials (34%), and 

previous visits (30%).

The average length of stay among visitor 

groups spending fewer than 24 hours in 

the park was 6.1 hours. Of those visitor 

groups who were in the park for more than 

24 hours, the average length of stay was 3.7 

days. The average length of stay for all visitors 

was 22.5 hours.

Visitors said that the most common activities 

that they expected to experience were viewing 

active lava flow sites (80%), driving Crater 

Rim Drive (75%), and visiting Kīlauea Visitor 

Center (65%). The most common activities 

included driving Crater Rim Drive (83%), 

visiting Kīlauea Visitor Center (76%), driving 

Chain of Craters Road (66%), viewing lava 

(54%), day hiking (41%), and shopping in the 

bookstore (37%) and gift shops (33%).

VISITOR USE AT THE KAHUKU UNIT

In the years immediately following the 2003 

acquisition of the Kahuku Unit, public 

access was initially restricted to open houses, 

special events, and service-based resource 

management programs (collection of seeds, 

sowing of native plants, removal of nonnative 

weeds, and cleaning up of trash and other 

debris). Increased public entry to the Kahuku 

Unit began in 2010 with fee-free access for 

weekend day-use by visitors who picnic, hike, 

or participate in ranger-led hikes or service 

projects for invasive species removal and 

planting of native plants. In 2013, visitor use of 

Kahuku averaged 48 visitors per day (Saturday 

and Sunday only). To date, no commercial 

uses have been allowed.

Visitor Opportunities 

and Experiences

The park is open to visitors at all times of 

the year, however the presence of active 

volcanoes and numerous endangered species 
262 | Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

can cause periodic closures or restrictions. 

Volcanic eruptions and high levels of volcanic 

emissions may warrant closing an area or 

the entire park. The presence of endangered 

species, such as the nēnē, can also limit visitor 

use in certain areas. The park superintendent 

may restrict use of any area or trail in order to 

protect visitors and park resources.

LAVA/ERUPTION-RELATED

The varied landscape within the park 

contains the active caldera of Kīlauea 

Volcano, fragile lava features, craters, and rift 

zones. Exceptional landscape experiences 

are created by the interplay of natural 

forces including volcanism, weather, exotic 

endangered birds, native rainforests, vistas, 

smells, color and shape of landform, air 

quality, and changing light. The opportunity to 

witness volcanic activity is a once-in-a-lifetime 

experience for park visitors. Visitor surveys 

and GMP public scoping comments continue 

to echo the importance of the park’s volcanic 

landscapes to visitors (Park 2010). In 2007, a 

majority of visitor groups (80%) indicated that 

the expectation of viewing active lava flows 

at the eruption-site on Chain of Craters Road 

was one of the primary reasons for visiting 

the park (Holmes and Hollenhorst 2008). In 

this setting, visitors engage in a wide spectrum 

of activities including hikes, nature walks, 

photography, scenic driving, interpretive trails, 

and ranger-led talks and walks.

SCENIC DRIVING

Sixty-five miles of scenic roadway in the park 

offer outstanding views and opportunities 

to explore active volcanic landscapes, 

particularly via the two popular main roads, 

Crater Rim Drive and Chain of Craters Road. 

Interpretive media for scenic roads and views 

include wayside exhibits, interpretive guides, 

and educational books. There are several 

picnic areas that can be utilized driving the 

park roads. Those visitors with more time 

or who wish to get off the beaten path can 

choose to drive Mauna Loa Road, Hilina Pali 

Road, or Kahuku Road.

HIKING AND CAMPING

FRONTCOUNTRY HIKING— A majority of 

visitors utilize many segments of the park’s 63 

miles of frontcountry hiking/interpretive trails 

in order to experience the park’s key features, 

which include sites such as Thurston Lava 

Tube, Steam Vents, Sulphur Banks Interpretive 

Trail, Kīlauea Iki Interpretive Trail, Pu‘u Loa 

Petroglyphs, and the Footprints Trail.

WILDERNESS/BACKCOUNTRY HIKING— 

Over 92 miles of backcountry trails wind 

across every park ecosystem from coastal 

beaches to the summit of Mauna Loa. Few 

places on Earth offer such an outstanding 

diversity of hiking experiences, from coastal 

lowland to mid-elevation rainforests to the 

alpine environment on Mauna Loa. Most of 

the trails are historic and were in use prior 

to the park’s existence, both prehistoric and 

historic. The condition of the trails varies, 

with constant maintenance required due to 

plant overgrowth, weathering, erosion, and 

seismic damages. Several of the trails were 

constructed, repaired, or improved during 

the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) era. 

Several historic trails in the park have been 

partially covered by lava and segments have 

not been reestablished.

DEVELOPED/FRONTCOUNTRY CAMPING—

NĀMAKANIPAIO CAMPGROUND

This campground is located off Highway 

11, to the northwest of park headquarters, 

and includes ten cabins and 18 designated 

campsites, six of which are walk-in sites. This 

is a developed site with running water and 

flush toilets. The campground is managed 

by the park’s concession, Hawaiʻi Volcanoes 

Lodge Company (see “Commercial Visitor 

Services” for more details).

KŪLANAOKUAIKI CAMPGROUND

This NPS-managed campground is located 

off Chain of Craters Road along the Hilina 

Pali Road. It offers free camping at designated 

campsites, some of which are along a paved 

path and some are further away from the 

developed area. This is a less-developed site 

with no potable water and vault toilets. This 

campground experiences temporary closures 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT | 263 

deviate), must ride single-file while bicycling, 

and are not allowed to tour at night or when 

visibility in the park is limited. Commercial 

bicycle tours are not allowed on Chain of 

Craters Road below Kealakomo due to safety 

concerns with the shared roadway. Like most 

tours in the park, cyclists stop at overlooks 

and parking lots to view park resources. An 

average of one bike tour visits the park per 

day. Congestion on park roads due to large 

groups of bicycles blocking vehicle lanes 

is a problem on narrow historic roadways. 

Riders are known to leave the road and use 

nearby walking paths due to lack of a defined 

bike lane and the congestion of cars, buses, 

and pedestrians.

Cyclists using park roads may ride in groups 

comprised of families and friends. A few 

riders choose to use trails illegally or may 

choose to ride in the park early in the morning 

or late in the day, when there is less traffic. 

Others are content to ride on park roads. 

Some park employees and nearby residents 

cycle regularly in the Kīlauea Unit of the 

park. Prior to the closure of part of Crater 

Rim Drive in March 2008, a ride around 

Halema‘uma‘u Crater was a popular riding 

loop for bicyclists.

FISHING

Fishing is popular along the park’s coastal 

shores. In the park’s coastal wilderness, 

fishing is open to all park visitors with no 

restrictions except those specific to season, 

size, and method of take. Fishing in the 

nonwilderness coastal areas of the park is 

restricted to Native Hawaiian residents of 

Kalapana. Cross-country hikers enter the park 

from the east in lower Puna to fish along the 

coastal edge near Kalapana.

NATURE APPRECIATION, EXPLORATION, 

AND BIRD-WATCHING

The park’s seven ecological zones harbor 

distinct plant and animal communities, 

sheltering an array of Hawaiian native species 

including birds, carnivorous caterpillars, the 

largest dragonfly in the United States, crickets 

that inhabit new lava flows, endangered 

sea turtles, and the Hawaiian hoary bat. 

due to high fire danger and the presence of 

nēnē (endangered Hawaiian goose). 

BACKCOUNTRY AND WILDERNESS CAMPING

Primitive camping opportunities are available 

for free at small designated backcountry 

campsites along the coast at ‘Āpua Point, 

Keauhou, Halapē, Ka‘aha, and Pepeiao 

Cabin; on Mauna Loa at the Mauna Loa 

Summit Cabin and Red Hill Cabin; and near 

Puʻu ‘Ō‘ō at Nāpau Crater. Kaʻaha, Halapē, 

and Keauhou have composting toilets, small 

shelters, and a limited supply of water that 

requires treatment. There are three cabins 

for camping at the Mauna Loa Summit, 

Red Hill, and Pepeiao. Cabin sites have a 

composting toilet and a limited supply of 

water that requires treatment. All campsites 

are available on a first-come, first -served 

basis. Backcountry permits are required for 

all overnight stays in the park’s backcountry 

campgrounds and cabins.

BICYCLING 

Park roads are considered shared roadways. 

This means bicycles use the same roads that 

are open to cars. In some places pedestrians 

also share the road with bicyclists, due to a 

lack of connecting trails. Park roads do not 

have designated bike lanes or pedestrian 

walkways to separate uses on park roads, 

and bicyclists are subject to the same 

laws and restrictions that govern vehicles. 

Bicyclists are allowed on some dirt and gravel 

administrative roads, including the Escape 

Road and along the main road in Kahuku 

from the park entrance and up to the Upper 

Palm Trailhead (approximately 3 miles). At 

Kahuku, bicycles are also allowed on Palm 

Trail (approximately 2 miles), which is an 

administrative access road.

Bicycle users in the park are comprised 

primarily of individual riders with some 

commercial tour groups. Commercial bicycle 

tours operate in the park via a commercial 

use authorization. They ride in groups of 

no more than 14, led by a bicycle tour guide 

and followed by a support van. Commercial 

bicycle groups are required to submit a typical 

tour route to the park (but are allowed to 
264 | Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

The Hawaiian Islands are renowned in 

the scientific world for evolving the most 

spectacular land bird assemblage on a 

remote oceanic archipelago (Park 2009c). 

Birdwatchers are drawn to the park’s most 

frequently seen seven native bird species along 

the Mauna Loa Road and in the rainforest 

trails that rim Halema‘uma‘u Crater.

Interpretation, 

Education, and Outreach

This section provides information 

on the park’s methods for providing 

information, orientation, and education to a 

variety of audiences.

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park is open to 

visitors 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. Due 

to a lack of significant seasonal variation in 

visitation levels, the park maintains a constant 

level of visitor services throughout the year. 

The changing nature of the park’s active lava 

flows and landscape requires flexibility and 

continuous adaptation of programs and media 

by park staff to ensure visitors have a safe, 

educational, and enjoyable experience.

VISITOR CENTERS 

The park has two small visitor centers, Kīlauea 

Visitor Center and the Jaggar Museum. A third 

portable visitor contact station is open during 

periods of lava viewing at the end of Chain 

of Craters Road. Another small visitor center, 

Waha‘ula Visitor Center, housed Native 

Hawaiian cultural exhibits and was located on 

lower Chain of Craters Road. It was covered 

by lava flows during eruptions in June 1989.

KĪLAUEA VISITOR CENTER— Kīlauea Visitor 

Center is the main park visitor center in 

Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park and is one 

of the most heavily visited locations in the 

park. This visitor center was remodeled in 

2005 and offers visitors a staffed information 

desk, small exhibit space, daily air quality 

monitoring stations, a Hawaiʻi Pacific 

Parks Association sales area and a 193-seat 

auditorium for ongoing interpretive films and 

special programs. A lighted outdoor lanai 

offers 24-hour trip planning information and 

a 3D map of the park and Hawaiʻi Island. 

It is an essential spillover space for crowds 

when visitor capacity is exceeded in the 

1,700-square-foot visitor center. A nearby hula 

platform is used for hula performances, which 

can attract crowds of 200 people or more.

This facility is designed primarily for 

orientation and trip planning and briefly 

introduces the park’s significant natural 

stories through a rich pallet of original 

art, wood carvings, custom photographs, 

dioramas, sound sticks, and touchable tactile 

displays related to natural and cultural 

resources. These exhibits are intended to 

serve as a “spring board” to launch the visitor 

out into the park. The in-depth displays 

are linked to sales items and books in the 

bookstore. Exhibits indoors and on the lanai 

emphasize safe lava viewing and the current 

status of volcanic smog (vog) in the park. 

The park film, “Born of Fire . . . Born of the 

Sea,” shown regularly throughout the day, 

conveys a holistic story of life on the island 

and documents the arrival of ungulates 

and other nonnative species. The film also 

addresses the NPS role as guardian of the 

park. Exhibits share the story of generations 

of park employees who have fought to 

remove nonnative species. The conservation 

of park resources is an integral topic in most 

of the park’s interpretive programs, such as 

ranger walks and stewardship walks with the 

public (Gale 2009).

The visitor center can only accommodate 

moderate visitation loads. In times of peak 

visitation (typically 10:00 a.m. to 2:00 p.m.) 

and during periods of elevated SO2

 emissions 

when visitors are forced indoors, the parking 

lot as well as the interior of the building fills 

to capacity and becomes overcrowded. The 

visitor center does not have any heating, 

cooling, or ventilation, so on most days even 

moderate visitation loads result in a hot and 

stuffy environment. Park visitation levels also 

exceed visitor center capacity, resulting in 

crowding on a daily basis.

The parking lot that adjoins park headquarters 

and the Kīlauea Visitor Center is the only 

parking location for visitors accessing multiple 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT | 265 

activities in this area. It is used by visitors 

participating in daily scheduled interpretive 

walks and programs and by those using the 

Sulphur Banks Interpretive Trail or any of the 

trails which lead off the rim. Visitors accessing 

food and beverage services at the Volcano 

HouseSMHotel or retail and program offerings 

at the Volcano Art Center park in this location 

as well. Visitor length of stay at Kīlauea Visitor 

Center averages 31 minutes (Prevedouros and 

Abrishamkar 2010).

JAGGAR MUSEUM— Jaggar Museum was the 

first park museum and is located on the rim of 

Kīlauea Caldera overlooking Halema‘uma‘u 

Crater. The Jaggar Museum is operated by 

the National Park Service and the Hawaiʻi 

Pacific Parks Association and shares a place 

on the rim with a second facility, the Hawaiian 

Volcano Observatory, which is operated 

by the US Geological Survey and houses 

scientists, laboratories, offices, and monitoring 

equipment. A small uncovered observation 

deck offer views of Halema‘uma‘u Crater 

and outdoor exhibits. The summit eruption 

has increased the number of evening visitors 

to the site, which is a designated historic 

property as part of the Crater Rim Historic 

District. There are public restrooms in a 

separate structure constructed in 1986.

Jaggar Museum is one of the premiere 

locations for visitors to learn about past 

volcanic eruptions and experience current 

volcanic activity, and it is one of the most 

heavily visited locations in the park. Almost all 

commercial tour buses stop at Jaggar Museum. 

The 3,000-square-foot building houses 

geologic and cultural exhibits including rock 

samples, a series of visible seismographs that 

record seismic signatures in various locations 

of the park, and paintings by the late Herb 

Kane illustrating the Native Hawaiian deity 

Pelehonuamea and her interaction with her 

brothers and sisters. These exhibits were 

designed and installed during the initial stages 

of the 1980 Pu‘u ‘O‘ō–Kūpa‘ianahā eruption. 

Additional displays at Jaggar Museum exhibit 

the volcanoes of Kīlauea and Mauna Loa, 

including the eruptions on the East Rift and 

summit of Kīlauea.

Interaction with millions of visitors has 

taken its toll on the initial 1986 displays and 

all subsequent exhibits. Annual repairs are 

made to a varying combination of exhibits. 

The interpretive infrastructure has a dated 

and worn appearance and does not reflect 

a unified design or communicate the park’s 

interpretive themes. The Native Hawaiian 

images and text are inaccurate and inadequate 

to portray the culture. There are many public 

comments and complaints about the current 

state of interpretation at the museum.

LOWER CHAIN OF CRATERS ROAD 

PORTABLE CONTACT STATION— A portable 

visitor contact station at the end of Chain of 

Craters Road serves as a visitor orientationsite during periods when lava from East 

Rift eruptions of Kīlauea Volcano is visible. 

Exhibits in this location are focused on 

safe lava viewing with some interpretation 

of lava flows; additional facilities include a 

law enforcement station and restroom. A

new replacement structure is anticipated 

that would remain a moveable building but 

would generate all its power from the sun. It 

would house exhibits to interpret the Pu‘u 

‘Ō‘ō eruption, the coastal life of Hawaiians, 

ocean stewardship, and sustainable 

building construction.

ORIENTATION INFORMATION/WAYSIDE 

EXHIBITS/BROCHURES

In the 1970s, approximately 60 to 70 waysides 

were posted throughout the park. Kīlauea 

Volcano’s episodic and continuous eruptions 

over 40 years have impacted many of these, 

creating a weathered or absent interpretive 

infrastructure. In 2000, projects funded by 

entrance fees included the replacement of 

waysides. Many of the signs had become 

illegible due to acidic etching of the volcanic 

gases. Four self-guided trail brochures and 

two interpretive trails are enjoyed by visitors. 

These represent some of the key themes of 

the park but do not fully depict the breadth 

of rich cultural and natural features that 

could spark the curiosity of visitors. Site 

bulletins are translated into over 13 languages 

and are available in large print and Braille. 

Orientation/information signage throughout 
266 | Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

the park is updated quarterly with current 

volcanic conditions.

GUIDED INTERPRETIVE PROGRAM 

The role of guided interpretation is to inspire 

and inform visitors through formal programs 

and informal ranger interaction. Formal 

interpretation includes talks, walks or hikes, 

evening programs, cultural demonstrations, 

Junior Ranger programs, and special events. At 

Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park, interpretive 

staff is also actively engaged in communicating 

volcanic hazards and air quality information 

to ensure safe and successful park visits. 

The Interpretive Division depends upon the 

Volunteers in Parks program to meet the 

staffing needs of park programs.

GUIDED EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS AND 

PUBLIC OUTREACH

Educational programs are very popular 

with local residents and students, as well as 

general park visitors who participate in family 

programs or Junior Ranger activities. The 

programs are targeted for grades K through 

ten and are designed to meet state and federal 

Department of Education standards. The 

dissemination of educational programs 

connecting students with nature is currently 

limited by a lack of funding for staff and 

curriculum materials.

The park is also host to a diversity of webbased virtual education programs related to 

Native Hawaiian culture, biology, and geology. 

Students of all ages participate in electronic 

field trips offered on the park website. The 

park also hosts service-based learning trips 

for groups, which has provided students 

with hands-on experience in projects such 

as endangered silversword planting and 

invasive plant removal.

Many visitors consult the park’s official 

website prior to visiting the park. The website 

serves national and international audiences, 

including people who may never have the 

opportunity to visit. The park also posts 

information using social media (such as 

Facebook) to provide additional avenues for 

visitors and the general public to learn about 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes.

Commercial Visitor Services

Commercial visitor services are an important 

aspect of daily operations. The park welcomes 

an average of 1.4 million visitors annually, 

and an estimated 23% of those visit with 

tour-based commercial services providers. 

Commercial services for visitors to Kīlauea 

Volcano and the present-day park evolved in 

step with changing modes of travel to Hawai‘i 

Island. Prior to 1877, most people reached the 

volcano after sailing into the town of Hilo and 

then riding on horseback over a very rugged 

trail for 30 miles, through forest and barren 

lava fields. Very early on there was a need 

for lodging at the caldera, and early travelers 

stayed at a grass hut constructed in 1846 on 

the northeast side of the crater which became 

the first Volcano House. At $1.00 per person 

for lodging, visitors could also purchase foods 

such as fowl for $0.37 and a small calabash of 

potatoes for $0.25. Thus began a succession 

of visitor accommodations, with various 

iterations of Volcano Houses built over time. 

A more modern hotel was built in 1877 (the 

existing relocated 1877 Volcano House) and 

by the mid-1880s two steamship companies 

began providing other routes to the volcano 

(Moniz-Nakamura 2010). Although visitation 

counts were not kept, records from the early 

Volcano House registry, as well as testimonials 

and articles written in local newspapers and 

popular magazines, show that scientists, 

researchers, politicians, businessmen, artists, 

and the general public were all willing to 

take the long, arduous, expensive trip to the 

brink of the caldera in hopes of viewing a 

once in a lifetime event—an active eruption. 

It is this popularity of Kīlauea that eventually 

spurred citizens familiar with the volcano 

to lobby Congress in the early 1900s for the 

establishment of a national park in Hawai‘i 

(Moniz-Nakamura 2009).

Over the past several decades, visitor needs 

for food and overnight lodging within the 

park have been provided by a single park 

concession, which operates the Volcano 

HouseSM. The historic hotel, snack bar, and 

dining room offer overnight accommodations, 

meals, and services for park visitors. Retail 

sales operations within the park are available 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT | 267 

at several venues: souvenirs and gifts at the 

Volcano House gift shop, operated by the 

park concessioner; books and educational 

items at the Kīlauea Visitor Center and 

Jaggar Museum, operated by the Hawaiʻi 

Natural History Association; and fine art and 

handmade items at the Volcano Art Gallery. 

The park’s neighboring communities are 

easily accessed by State Highway 11 and 

include Volcano, Pāhala, Nā‘ālehu, and Ocean 

View, all of which offer a more extensive 

array of services including grocery stores, gas 

stations, restaurants, and overnight lodging in 

small hotels or bed and breakfasts.

EXISTING CONDITIONS FOR 

COMMERCIAL SERVICES 

As of spring 2013, Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park offers a variety of commercial services 

through two concession contracts (lodging, 

campground, food and beverage, and retail), 

approximately 143 CUAs (primarily tours), 

and two cooperating association agreements. 

The park also issues a number of special use 

permits for commercial services; however, 

none of the permittees provide visitor 

services. There are no commercial services in 

the park that operate under a lease.

LODGING, CAMPGROUND, AND FOOD 

AND BEVERAGE SERVICE— In 2012, 

approximately 1.48 million people visited 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park (Park 

2012a). While the majority of park visitors are 

day-use only, according to a 2009 visitor use 

survey, approximately 20% of visitors choose 

to spend the night in the park (averaging 

two nights per visitor) (NPS 2009c). While 

some of these overnight visitors camp at 

one of the backcountry campgrounds, 

commercial services also provide lodging at 

the following facilities.

VOLCANO HOUSESM

Located on the rim of Kīlauea Caldera, the 

historic 1941 Volcano HouseSM provides 

overnight accommodations, food and 

beverage service, and retail to park visitors. 

Since 1969, the services provided in this 

location have been authorized under a 

concession contract with the Secretary of the 

Interior. Between 2010 and 2012, a number 

of renovations were made by the National 

Park Service to the Volcano House concession 

facilities, including deferred maintenance 

projects, seismic and fire suppression retrofits, 

and other upgrades related to life, health, 

and safety. Due to the extensive nature of 

this work as well as a concession facility 

improvement program implemented by a 

new concessioner, the National Park Service 

closed the Volcano House concession facilities 

to the visiting public beginning January 1, 

2010 and did not re-open it until August 

2012.1 The Volcano HouseSM now has 33 

hotel rooms, an approximate 219-seat dining 

room with additional outdoor seating, an 

approximate 58-seat snack bar, a cocktail 

lounge, and a retail sales operation. In 2012, 

the CC-HAVO001-12 concession contract 

for operations at the Volcano HouseSM

was awarded to Hawai‘i Volcanoes Lodge 

Company, LLC. That concession contract will 

expire in 2025.

The Volcano HouseSM is also the only 

location for visitors to obtain food and 

beverage service within the park. Under the 

concession contract with Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

Lodge Company, LLC, visitors can purchase 

breakfast, lunch, and dinner at the restaurant 

in the Volcano HouseSM, as well as grab 

and go food during the day. In a survey 

conducted in 2007, 20% of all park visitors 

ate at the concession-operated restaurant 

during their stay at the park, 53% of whom 

valued the Volcano HouseSM as extremely 

important to their visit (Park 2007b).Under 

CC-HAVO001-12, Hawai‘i Volcanoes Lodge 

Company, LLC also operates a retail shop in 

the Volcano HouseSM and at Nāmakanipaio 

Campground and is able to provide an 

occasional mobile retail enterprise during 

eruptive events. These retail services are 

authorized to sell convenience items (such 

as bottled water, raincoats, and sunscreen), 

interpretive items, and souvenirs tied to park 

themes to visitors. See the “Volcano 

1 Reopening occurred in phases. The retail store 

reopened on August 18, 2012. The Annex reopened on 

March 22, 2013, and the full hotel operations, along with the 

restaurant, bar, and gift shops reopened on May 23, 2013.
268 | Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

HouseSM and Nāmakanipaio Campground” 

subheading under the next section, “Retail,” 

for more information.

NĀMAKANIPAIO CAMPGROUND

Nāmakanipaio is a developed campground 

located off Highway 11, to the northwest of 

park headquarters. It includes ten cabins 

and 18 designated campsites and provides 

running water and flush toilets to visitors, 

as well as showers in a separate restroom 

building located in the cabin area. In 2007, 

the cabins were filled to an occupancy rate 

of 65%, while the campground ran at a 

51% occupancy rate (NPS 2009c). The CCHAVO001-12 concession contract awarded 

to Hawai‘i Volcanoes Lodge Company, LLC 

also authorizes concession operations at 

Nāmakanipaio consisting of lodging and 

retail services for visitors. See the “Volcano 

HouseSM” subheading above and the “Volcano 

HouseSM and Nāmakanipaio Campground” 

subheading under the next section, “Retail,” 

for more information about the retail 

services provided. 

KILAUEA MILITARY CAMP

The United States Army operates this 54-acre 

historic recreational complex under a special 

use permit with Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park that will expire in 2021. The Special Use 

Permit, among other things, states that Kilauea 

Military Camp is not open to the general 

public; its use is restricted to certain categories 

of users including Department of Defense 

personnel by Morale, Welfare, and Recreation 

patronage authority and eligibility published 

in Army Regulation 215-1. The KMC 

complex includes 90 rooms for overnight 

accommodations, a cafeteria, bar, grocery 

store, gas station, bowling alley, recreation 

room, exercise facility, conference rooms, and 

bus and van tours, as well as other support 

programs and facilities.

RETAIL— There are three general types of 

retail service in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park: (1) visitor convenience items, (2) 

interpretive items that have the potential 

to enhance a visitor’s understanding of the 

park and its resources, and (3) souvenirs tied 

to park themes. Convenience items include 

bottled water and sunscreen. Interpretive 

items include field guides and books about 

the history of the park, and souvenirs include 

items like coffee mugs that feature the name 

of the park or a recognized resource in the 

park. In a NPS survey conducted in 2007, 21% 

of visitors to the park spent a portion of their 

visit in one of the following retail outlets in the 

park (Park 2007b).

VOLCANO HOUSESM AND 

NĀMAKANIPAIO CAMPGROUND 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes Lodge Company, LLC 

is authorized by the CC-HAVO001-12 

concession contract to operate a retail shop 

in the Volcano HouseSM and Nāmakanipaio 

Campground and an occasional mobile retail 

enterprise during eruptive events. These retail 

services are authorized to sell convenience 

items (such as bottled water, raincoats, and 

sunscreen), interpretive items, and souvenirs 

tied to park themes, which includes a broader 

scope of items in comparison to other 

retail services in the park. See the “Volcano 

HouseSM” subheading under the previous 

section, “Lodging and Food and Beverage 

Service,” for additional information. 

KĪLAUEA VISITOR CENTER AND 

JAGGAR MUSEUM BOOKSTORES 

Hawai‘i Pacific Parks Association (HPPA) 

operates the bookstores at Kīlauea Visitor 

Center and Jaggar Museum under the 

authority of a cooperating association 

agreement (for interpretive items) and 

concession contract CC-HAVO002-06 (for 

convenience items) which both expire in 

2015. HPPA is a nonprofit organization 

dedicated to supporting the interpretive, 

educational, scientific, and historic mission of 

the National Park Service through the sale of 

educational items. 

VOLCANO ART CENTER GALLERY

The Volcano Art Center Gallery is operated 

under a cooperating association agreement 

by the Volcano Art Center (VAC), a 

501(c)3 nonprofit organization dedicated 

to environmental education and art that 

perpetuates the artistic and cultural heritage 

of the people and environment of Hawai‘i 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT | 269 

through activities in the visual, literary, and 

performing arts. The gallery occupies an 1877 

historic building (called 1877 Volcano House) 

that was the first Volcano HouseSM Hotel on 

the rim of Kīlauea and now sits adjacent to 

the Kīlauea Visitor Center. In accordance with 

their cooperative agreement, VAC interprets 

the park through the sales of handmade art 

and crafts that are inspired by and pertain to, 

or reflect, Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park or 

the traditional Hawaiian culture. The VAC also 

sponsors and/or produces park educational 

activities, demonstrations, and exhibits on 

the park’s behalf, such as dance presentations 

at the nearby Pa Hula platform and Hale. 

VAC’s cooperative agreement with Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park will expire in 2014.

TOURS AND GUIDED EXCURSIONS— In 

addition to the above visitor facilities 

within Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, 

approximately 143 private businesses are 

currently authorized under CUAs to provide 

small-scale, recreational services to visitors 

within the park every year (see Table 5.7. 

Total Commercial Use Authorizations in 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, 2012). 

These businesses provide a range of services 

to the public, such as bus and auto-based 

tours, guided bike tours, hiking tours, and 

other guided excursions including birding 

and lava viewing.

AUTO-BASED TOURS

Approximately 4% of the 429,327 recreationbased vehicles that entered the main part 

of the park in 2011 were commercial tour 

vehicles, 20% of which were motor coaches 

carrying, on average, 39 passengers and, at 

maximum, up to 81 passengers in one vehicle. 

Although representing a small percentage 

of the park’s total traffic, these tour buses 

and the smaller cars and vans associated 

with these CUAs transported approximately 

19% (259,354 people) of all paying visitors 

to Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park in 2011. 

This was up from 250,560 people in 2010. 

Of the 17,583 CUA vehicles that entered the 

park in 2011, 54% entered the park within a 

span of three hours, between 12:00 p.m. and 

2:59 p.m. (see Figure 5.6. Timing of Daily CUA 

Visitation to Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, 

2011). Due to traffic restrictions on Chain 

of Craters Road, motor coaches with the 

capacity of more than 26 passengers can only 

go as far as Kealakomo Overlook on Chain 

of Craters Road.

BICYCLE TOURS

In 2012, commercial service providers guided 

approximately 8,400 visitors on 660 bike tours 

in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, averaging 

roughly 13 people per tour and 13 tours a 

week (up from 11 per week in 2011). Most of 

these tours now stage at the Kīlauea Overlook 

and Picnic Area. Due to resource and safety 

concerns, the park places a number of 

restrictions on bicycle tours. For example, all 

bike tours are limited to 14 bicycles, including 

the guide, and must provide an escort vehicle 

for each trip. Similarly, bike tours in the 

park must stay on a park road and are not 

allowed below Muliwai a Pele on Chain of 

Craters Road or above Kīpukapuaulu on 

Mauna Loa Road.

HIKING TOURS AND OTHER 

GUIDED EXCURSIONS

In 2012, approximately 60,000 visitors to 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park (4.5% of 

the park’s annual visitation) participated 

in a guided tour with a commercial service, 

including hiking tours and tours associated 

with birding and lava viewing. Due to natural 

and cultural resource concerns, the park 

places some restrictions on CUA operators 

that provide hikes within the park. For 

example, while all CUAs adhere to a standard 

set of park-specific conditions, all CUA

operations in Mauna Ulu are additionally 

restricted to a group size of 15, and only one 

tour is allowed in the area at one time. In 

addition, all guides that take visitors to Mauna 

Ulu must go through a certification course 

before guiding tours in the area.

EQUESTRIAN TOURS

As of spring 2013, there are no equestrian 

tours authorized to operate in Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park.
270 | Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Table 5.7. Total Commercial Use Authorizations in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, 2012

Recreational Service Number 

of CUAs

Road-based Scenic Tours 

(Motorized vehicle use for transport of passengers on guided tours)

77

Nonroad-based tours 

(Tours of the park that are not on the park roads such as hiking, birding, and tours on bicycles)

43

Combination road and nonroad based permits 23

TOTAL CUAs 143

Source: NPS files

INTERPRETATION AND EDUCATION— In 

addition to the lodging/campground, food 

and beverage, retail, and guided services 

described above, commercial visitor service 

entities in the park also provide interpretive 

and education services to the public, both 

through the primary service they offer (such 

as a guided tour in the park) and through 

the provision of additional programs, as 

in the case of the concession operation at 

the Volcano HouseSM and Nāmakanipaio 

Campground These interpretive services 

include, among others, presentations, printed 

materials, and guided services that are 

primarily educational in nature.

OTHER USES— In 2012, the park issued 71 

Special Use Permits for activities such as 

filming, ash scattering, and weddings. As these 

permits are issued on a case by case basis, are 

of relatively short duration, and have minimal 

impacts on resources and visitor use, this CSS 

0	
  

500	
  

1000	
  

1500	
  

2000	
  

2500	
  

3000	
  

3500	
  

4000	
  

4500	
  

7:00	
   8:00	
   9:00	
   10:00	
   11:00	
   12:00	
   1:00	
   2:00	
   3:00	
   4:00	
   5:00	
   6:00	
   7:00	
  

Figure 5.6. Timing of Daily CUA Visitation to Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, 2011
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT | 271 

does not address SUPs associated with these 

types of activities.

VISITOR SERVICES PROVIDED OUTSIDE OF 

HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK

There are three small communities that are 

surrounded by Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park: Volcano Village (which borders the 

east entrance to the park), Pāhala (which 

is near the west entrance to the park), and 

Nā’ālehu (which is close to the Kahuku Unit). 

The populations of these communities range 

from 1,000 to 4,500 residents, and each offers 

lodging at hotels, vacation rentals, and bed 

and breakfast accommodations. The Volcano 

Community alone has at least one hotel and 

nearly 100 bed and breakfast facilities. These 

include studios, cabins and single bedroom 

rentals, plantation cottages, and traditional 

bed and breakfasts. The community also has 

a diversity of small restaurants that serve 

American, Asian/Pacific Rim, pizza and deli 

food. Each community has at least one gas 

station and a grocery store/market.

COMMERCIAL SERVICES PLANNING

The purpose of a commercial services 

strategy is to develop implementation 

guidance for managing commercial services 

at Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park. Under 

the guidance of NPS Management Policies 

2006, this CSS is both an analytical document 

that identifies the necessary and appropriate 

commercial services within Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park and articulates the park’s 

goals associated with such services. The CSS 

prepared in conjunction with this general 

management plan can be found in Appendix 

F: Commercial Services Strategy for Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park.

VISITOR AND EMPLOYEE

HEALTH AND SAFETY

A diversity of federal laws, NPS management 

policies, and park-level protocols exist to 

protect visitor and employee safety. These 

policies and regulations contain specific 

guidelines to ensure public health and safety 

within areas of NPS jurisdiction, and specify 

when appropriate certifications related to 

public health and safety are required.

Volcanic Emissions

The natural volcanic activity of Kīlauea 

Volcano generates high levels of volcanic 

gases and small particles (locally referred to 

as volcanic smog, or vog) comprised primarily 

of carbon dioxide (CO2

), water vapor 

(H2O), and sulfur dioxide (SO2). Other gases 

generated in smaller amounts include carbon 

monoxide (CO), hydrogen (H2), hydrogen 

chloride (HCl), and hydrogen sulfide (H2S). 

Volcanic activity and trade wind conditions 

affect volcanic gas emission levels on a siteby-site basis, and areas downwind of the 

activity are the most susceptible to volcanic 

gases. Vog levels can vary rapidly within a 

specific area as well as between areas. The 

park has an Air Quality Policy that governs 

when the park recommends limiting outdoor 

activities or closing areas because of poor air 

quality (Park 2009a).

Monitoring for SO2 began in the park in 1986. 

In 2008, Kīlauea Volcano began to emit more 

SO2

, particularly from the Halema’uma’u 

Crater vent, going from about 150 tonnes/day 

of SO2

 to over 2,000 tonnes/day. The park’s 

air quality level is regularly monitored at two 

primary monitoring stations that meet EPA

protocols (at Kīlauea Visitor Center and Jaggar 

Museum), plus a network of low-resolution 

SO2

 sensors that serve the visitor SO2 alert 

system. As of 2013, emissions are five times 

higher than historic average levels. At times, 

the SO2 concentrations are measured at levels 

that may affect even healthy individuals. The 

presence of sulfur dioxide from volcanic 

emissions is a significant health concern 

for visitors and employees working within 

Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park as well as for 

downwind communities.

The National Park Service, in partnership 

with USGS HVO, operates an advisory 

program that informs the public of current 

sulfur dioxide levels in the park. In addition, 

since 2008 park visitors, employees, and island 

residents have been able to access a website 

of current sulfur dioxide concentrations 

within the park that is updated every 15 

minutes. The park has instituted an air quality 

protocol to guide employee response during 

temporary periods of poor air quality. Field 
272 | Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

staff members wear gas badges to monitor 

SO2

. Ranger protection staff members carry 

and use respirators for emergency outdoor 

activities during poor air quality, such as 

directing traffic during site closures.

TRANSPORTATION AND ACCESS 

(TO AND WITHIN THE PARK)

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park is on the 

southern portion of Hawaiʻi Island. Access 

to the island is almost entirely by air. Most 

park visitors fly into the island’s two major 

airports, on the east side of the island in Hilo 

or on the west side in Kailua-Kona. Both 

Hilo and Kailua-Kona airports are served 

by several interisland air carriers that make 

numerous daily flights from Honolulu and 

Maui, and by international and mainland 

United States air carriers. A smaller number 

of visitors arrive on Hawaiʻi Island as cruise 

ship passengers, docking at Hilo Bay or at the 

harbor in Kailua-Kona. There is no interisland 

auto ferry system.

Approximately 1.4 million visitors enter the 

park by bicycle, rental car, private vehicle, 

or via commercial tour vehicles. Vehicles 

travel from Hilo, 30 miles to the southeast 

of the park on Highway 11, or from the 

Kailua-Kona area, located approximately 96 

miles southwest of the park on Highway 11, 

as well as from other island communities. 

In 2011, 78% of park visitors entered the 

park in private vehicles with 23% entering 

as passengers on commercial tour buses, 

vans, and taxis.

Road Users/Travel Patterns

In 2011, approximately 45,000 vehicles 

entered the park via Crater Rim Drive. 

Vehicles are classified as either recreationbased (carrying park visitors) or nonrecreation-based (e.g., employees working in 

the park, vendors, and post office traffic). In 

2011, 80% of these vehicles were recreationbased. Approximately 96% of recreationbased traffic consisted of personal vehicles 

(cars, trucks, and SUVs), and 4% of the 

recreation-based vehicles were commercial 

tour vehicles (taxis, 12–15-passenger vans, and 

tour buses). Bicyclists and pedestrians also use 

Crater Rim Drive.

HIGHWAY 11

Road access to the main entrance of 

Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park is reached 

via Highway 11, a state highway that 

circumnavigates the island, connecting 

with Highway 19 to make a long loop. This 

route traverses through towns and smaller 

communities, providing access for commercial 

and visitor services. A 12-mile stretch of this 

highway passes through park boundaries and 

receives about three million travelers annually. 

Approximately half of those visitors actually 

pay to come into the park.

CRATER RIM DRIVE

Crater Rim Drive is an historic two-lane 

road that circles Kīlauea Caldera, offering 

spectacular views of volcanic craters and lava 

flows and features. The road begins at the 

junction with State Highway 11 and extends 

for 10.6 miles, through the park entrance 

gate, past the developed area surrounding the 

Kīlauea Visitor Center and Volcano HouseSM

Hotel, and continuing on to Jaggar Museum, 

Halema‘uma‘u Crater, and Thurston Lava 

Tube to circle back to the park entrance gate. 

Most visitors tour Crater Rim Drive and also 

drive down Chain of Craters Road, especially 

when hot lava is visible.

Since March 2008, the summit eruption of 

Kīlauea Volcano has resulted in the closure of 

4.72 miles of road or approximately 40% of 

Crater Rim Drive, which is the road section 

from Jaggar Museum to the junction with 

Chain of Craters Road.

The Crater Rim Drive corridor and the 

majority of its associated features remain 

intact and still convey its heritage as the 

“rim road” from which visitors historically 

and currently view the vast Kīlauea Caldera 

and associated volcanic features. In 2006 

the Hawaiʻi State Historic Preservation 

Division concurred with documentation 

of Crater Rim Drive’s eligibility for listing 

on the National Register of Historic Places 

(national register) as a contributing feature 

within a broader historic district. Since the 

end of its construction in 1942, segments of 

the road have been realigned and modified 

to repair damage from weathering, lava 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT | 273 

flows, and earthquakes. Crater Rim Drive is 

a Class 1 Public Use Park Road (NPS 1984), 

a road “which constitute[s] the main access 

route, circulatory tour or thoroughfare for 

park visitors.”

CHAIN OF CRATERS ROAD

Chain of Craters Road descends 18.65 miles, 

dropping nearly 4,000 feet in elevation from 

its junction with the south end of Crater 

Rim Drive to its lava-forced terminus at the 

coast. The road winds through miles of lava 

flows, offering visitors access to pit craters, 

tree molds, and native Hawaiian petroglyphs. 

Chain of Craters Road provides access to the 

East Rift Zone of Kīlauea Volcano, site of the 

most recent lava flows in the park (ongoing 

since 1983). The road pavement ends at a 

temporary visitor information facility along 

the coast. Lava flows routinely inundate this 

area, occasionally forcing the park to move 

its temporary interpretive and operational 

facilities in response. Visitors to the recent 

lava flows park along the southbound lane 

and walk one-quarter mile past the portable 

visitor contact site, along the closed section of 

road to the lava field. The park has proposed 

various plans to construct a parking area 

in this location but have not been able to 

implement any of the plans due to advancing 

lava. Plans to improve the visitor contact 

station include methods to allow easy 

movement of the building if and when lava 

advances again.

Due to its location on the East Rift of Kīlauea 

Volcano, lower Chain of Craters Road has 

been inundated by numerous lava flows over 

several decades. Prior to closure by the Pu‘u 

‘Ō’ō flows, Chain of Craters Road was a 

popular scenic drive, known as the Golden 

Triangle, which linked Hilo to Kalapana and 

Kīlauea Volcano in a driving loop. This road is 

designated a National Scenic Byway.

Eruptive flows during the 1969–74 Mauna 

Ulu eruption closed the road from the Mauna 

Ulu parking area for a distance of about ten 

miles. In 1979, the park reopened a rerouted 

section of this road reconnecting the upper 

and lower portions of Chain of Craters Road. 

Flows in 1986 closed the Chain of Craters 

Road just outside the park and subsequent 

flows covered approximately 5.5 miles of this 

road west from the eastern park boundary. 

In 2014, due to the lava threatening access in 

the lower Puna region, the previously lavacovered section was reopened utilizing the 

previous alignment as an unpaved emergency 

access route. This route will only be used 

when other viable access routes are cut off in 

the Lower Puna region. When not needed for 

emergency access, the route will be used as a 

non-motorized multi-purpose trail.

HILINA PALI ROAD

In 1931, the road from Devil’s Throat on 

upper Chain of Craters Road to the Hilina Pali 

Overlook was improved and made passable 

for “large cars with a reasonable load” (Park 

2007d). This 8.5-mile section of road is often 

closed during dry spells when fire hazards 

are high. Four miles into the Hilina Pali Road 

is the Kūlanaokuaiki Campground. At the 

end of the road is a historic rock shelter/

lookout designed by early NPS landscape 

architect Thomas Vint.

MAUNA LOA ROAD

Mauna Loa Road extends 11.42 miles from 

Crater Rim Drive, across Highway 11 and to 

an elevation of nearly 6,700 feet. The segment 

between Crater Rim Drive and Highway 11 is 

only used for administrative purposes due to 

sensitive resources in the area. From Highway 

11 north, a two-lane road leads 1.59 miles to 

a large cul-de-sac at the Kīpukapuaulu (Bird 

Park) Nature Trail. Two historic stone pillars 

mark the entrance to the upper section of 

road. The first 2.16 miles of the upper section 

is a narrow two-lane segment, approximately 

16 to 17 feet wide. For the next 7.67 miles, 

the road narrows to one lane, approximately 

ten to 11 feet wide, and continues to the 

Mauna Loa Lookout parking area. The 

original concept was documented in 1916 

and the actual alignment of loose gravel was 

completed in 1936.

Along the lower section of Mauna Loa Road 

are several spur roads to the Tree Molds Area, 

Kīpukapuaulu Picnic Area, Kīpukapuaulu 
274 | Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Nature Trail, and the park gravel storage area. 

The road ends at a historic Thomas Vintdesigned stone lookout shelter, the Mauna 

Loa Observatory Building. The road is closed 

at times due to high fire hazard.

ESCAPE ROAD

The Escape Road is popular with off-road 

bicyclists, hikers, and horseback riders, 

offering a dirt/gravel route from Highway 11 

near the junction with Old Volcano Highway, 

past Thurston Lava Tube and down to Mauna 

Ulu on Chain of Craters Road. This gated 

unpaved road is approximately 6 miles in 

length and is made up of two historic routes, 

the upper section of Keauhou Trail/Road and 

Lee’s Short Cut, and has primarily been used 

as a multi-purpose trail for nonmotorized use. 

It has been maintained as an escape route in 

the event that road access on Chain of Craters 

Road is cut off due to volcanic, seismic, or 

other natural disaster. It is used routinely by 

educational groups and local residents who 

walk, bicycle, or ride horseback.

KAHUKU ROADS

The entrance to Kahuku Unit is just west of 

milepost 70 on State Route 11 (43 miles past 

the main entrance to the park at milepost 

28). The existing entrance is a safety concern 

due to its location on a curve with limited 

line-of-sight, so a study was completed by 

the Federal Highway Administration in 2007 

to examine alternatives (USDOT-FHWA

2007). Information from this study was taken 

into consideration in the development of the 

alternatives in this GMP/WS/EIS.

The lower 3 miles of the main road in 

the Kahuku Unit is an unimproved gravel 

surface, typically passable for two-wheeldrive vehicles, from the park entrance to 

Upper Palm parking area. The road beyond 

Upper Glover is very rough with four-wheeldrive access only. The road splits at Upper 

Glover, with the west branch continuing 

for an additional 7 miles along the western 

boundary and above the Hawaiian Ocean 

View Estates subdivision. The eastern branch 

parallels the eastern boundary and continues 

an additional 11 miles until its terminus at the 

Nēnē Cabin. The main Kahuku road and the 

eastern branch of the road appear to follow 

the historic Kahuku-‘Ainapō Trail alignment 

in many places.

Public Transit

Hawai‘i County Mass Transit Agency provides 

public transportation around the island on the 

Hele-On bus. The Hele-On bus stops several 

times a day at the Kīlauea Visitor Center on 

the route between Ocean View and Hilo. 

Public transportation to the park is primarily 

utilized by park employees and park partners’ 

employees, but a small number of visitors also 

arrive at the park on the Hele-On bus. Data 

is not collected for the number of visitors 

arriving specifically by public transportation, 

but it is estimated to be between zero to five 

visitors a day.

Alternative Transportation

HYDROGEN SHUTTLE PROGRAM

A project to test two electric battery/

hydrogen fuel cell hybrid shuttles within the 

park is scheduled for 2014–15. The project 

is a multiagency partnership including the 

National Park Service, the University of 

Hawai‘i– Hawai’i Natural Energy Institute, 

the US Department of Energy, the Office 

of Naval Research, the Hawai‘i Center for 

Advanced Transportation Technologies, and 

Kilauea Military Camp. With many partners, 

there are multiple objectives for the project. 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park will serve as 

an NPS test center for hydrogen technology 

over a wide range of climate zones, elevations, 

and grades. The shuttles will allow the park 

to test small-scale shuttle service and visitor 

response. The shuttles will also help alleviate 

traffic congestion on Crater Rim Drive and 

provide service between Kīlauea Iki, Thurston 

Lava Tube, Pu‘u Pua‘i, and Devastation Trail. 

If this project proves successful, the shuttle 

operations could be extended under the 

preferred alternative to include other stops 

along Crater Rim Drive, such as Kīlauea 

Visitor Center, Steam Vents, Kilauea Military 

Camp, and Jaggar Museum.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT | 275 

The shuttle operation could also extend to 

the end of Chain of Craters Road to provide 

service mauka to makai. Routes and schedules 

would be flexible, and shuttle buses would 

primarily be used for scheduled interpretive 

tours and small circular routes. All tours and 

visitor stops would be located within existing 

visitor areas only. No new trailheads, routes, 

or locations would be opened or promoted in 

conjunction with this pilot project.

For user comfort, safety, and ease of driving 

on the park’s narrow, historic roads, the 

vehicles purchased do not exceed 35 feet in 

length and 8 feet in width and can carry 19 

passengers, including up to two wheelchairs.

The hydrogen is expected to be produced 

off-site and delivered to the fueling station at 

Kilauea Military Camp. In addition to hosting 

the hydrogen fueling station, it is anticipated 

that Kilauea Military Camp will provide 

shuttle drivers and the electric charging 

station, storage, and maintenance space 

at KMC base yard.

IDENTIFIED ISSUES—The cost of electricity 

in Hawai‘i is very high, at least four times 

more than on the mainland; therefore the 

cost of hydrogen, produced with electricity, is 

extreme in comparison to a gallon of gasoline 

or diesel. Hydrogen technology has yet to 

emerge in the Hawaiʻi or US economies, but 

state and federal governments are currently 

working to reduce cost and technological 

hurdles by promoting a hydrogen economy in 

Hawaiʻi that utilizes local geothermal energy.

Additionally, the sulphur dioxide (SO2) 

present in volcanic emissions poses a 

challenge for hydrogen fuel cells, which it 

can disable immediately. The volcanic plume, 

which usually blows south into the desert, 

can turn toward the visitor areas in the park 

when the trade winds stop blowing. This can 

happen for a few minutes, a day, or a week or 

more on occasion. The University of Hawaiʻi 

is currently researching the development of 

SO2

 filters for fuel cells, funded in part by the 

Office of Naval Research.

SOCIOECONOMIC CONDITIONS

AND TRENDS

Hawaiʻi County, Hawaiʻi is the primary 

area of influence for economic and social 

considerations associated with this GMP/WS/

EIS. Hawai‘i County shares its borders with 

the island of Hawai‘i, a 4,028-square-mile 

island on the southern end of the Hawaiian 

Archipelago. In comparison to the four other 

counties in the state, Hawaiʻi County is by far 

the largest in area, surpassing the total area of 

the four other counties combined.

Located on the southeastern half of the island 

of Hawai‘i, the closest communities to Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park are Volcano Village 

(3 miles to the east of the main entrance) and 

Na‘alehu (approximately 7 miles to the east 

of the entrance to Kahuku). The communities 

of Kea‘au, Mountain View, Pāhala, and Ocean 

View are also near the park along State Route 

11, and the two largest cities on the island, 

Hilo and Kailua-Kona, are within a 30- and 

94-mile drive of the park’s main entrance, 

respectively. Another community, Kalapana, 

is just east of park along the coast but is no 

longer directly accessible from the park due 

to the 1986 and subsequent lava flows that 

covered the connecting scenic byway.

Demographic Conditions and Trends

POPULATION

According to last two dicentennial censuses, 

Hawai‘i County’s population grew twice as 

fast as that of the state between 2000 and 

2010, averaging a 2.4% annual growth rate 

over the course of those 10 years. As of 2010, 

the county has a population of approximately 

185,079 people, making it the second-most 

populous county in the state (see Table 5.8. 

Population Growth and 2010 Urban and 

Rural Demographics, Hawaiʻi State Counties, 

2010) (US Census Bureau 2000a, 2010). That 

same year, based on census county divisions 

(CCDs), Hilo and its surrounding area had a 

population of approximately 45,714 people; 

the Kona area had a population of 37,875; 

the Kea‘au and Mountain View communities 
276 | Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

had a combined population of 34,266; Pahoa 

and Kalapana had a combined population 

of 11,060; and the Ka‘ū District (including 

Pāhala, Na‘alehu, and Ocean View) had a 

population of 8,451 (US Census Bureau 2010).

Despite its relatively large population (the 

county has the highest population in the 

state), Hawai‘i County is the most rural county 

in the state, with approximately 50 persons 

per square mile.2

 While 38% of Hawai‘i 

County’s residents live in a rural community, 

only 8.1% of the statewide population is rural. 

In comparison, less than 15% of residents 

in Maui, Kaua‘i, and Honolulu counties are 

rural (US Census Bureau 2010). See Table 5.8. 

Population Growth and 2010 Urban and Rural 

Demographics, Hawaiʻi State Counties, 2010.

AGE

Figure 5.7. Age Demographics in Hawaiʻi 

County by Age Group, 2010, shows Hawaiʻi 

County’s age distribution across gender. As 

shown in this figure, the county’s population 

is evenly distributed between males and 

females (approximately 50% for both genders) 

and is weighted toward a large middle-aged 

adult population (ages 45–64; 31% of the 

total population) (US Census Bureau 2010). 

The median age of Hawaiʻi County’s 2010 

population was 41, up from 39 in 2000, 

and it is higher than that of the state of 

Hawaiʻi (39) and the nation (37) (US Census 

Bureau 2000a, 2010).

As of 2010, approximately 15% of Hawai‘i 

County’s population is 65 or older, and 

38% of the workforce (ages 18–64) is within 

15 years of retirement, compared to 30% 

nationwide (US Census Bureau 2010).

2 According to the US Census Bureau, 100% of Kalawao 

County’s residents live rurally, making it factually, the most 

rural county in the state. However, with a population of only 

90 residents, this county does not have a county government 

(with the exception of a sheriff) and is administered by the 

State Department of Health. The county is on Moloka‘i Island, 

and is administered by Maui County for most functions (e.g., 

elections, state representation), but not for others (e.g., 

sheriff, Department of Health), Kalawao is usually not shown 

as a separate county on maps. 

RACE

The racial composition of Hawaiʻi County is 

predominantly non-white. More than a third 

of the population is of Asian, Native Hawaiian, 

or Other Pacific Islander descent (34.3%), 

and another 29.5% of the population is of 

two of more races. The 2010 census records 

33.7% of the county’s population as white, 

compared to 24.7% in the state and 72.4% in 

the nation; 11.6% of the county is Hispanic 

or Latino (US Census Bureau 2010). See Table 

5.9. Demographic in the Nation, State, and 

County, 2010.

HOUSING

At the time of the 2010 Census, Hawaiʻi 

County reported a total of 82,324 housing 

units, a 31.4% increase from 2000. In 

comparison, with a reported 519,508 housing 

units in 2010, housing in the state of Hawaiʻi 

experienced a much slower growth rate of 

12.8% during the same time period (US 

Census Bureau 2000a, 2010).

Perhaps due to this fast growth rate in 

housing, Hawaiʻi County’s 2010 vacancy rate 

is slightly higher, at 18.5%, than the state’s 

12.4% vacancy rate. Of these vacant units, 

almost half are used for seasonal, recreational, 

or occasional use (46.9%), and almost a fifth 

are for rent (19.7%); the remaining 33.4% 

are for sale or sold but not occupied or 

are otherwise deemed vacant (US Census 

Bureau 2010). Similarly, while the occupancy 

and vacancy rates in the state of Hawaiʻi 

remained stable between 2000 and 2010, 

Hawaiʻi County experienced a 3% increase 

in the vacancy rate during this time frame 

(US Census Bureau 2000a, 2010). See Figure 

5.8. Occupancy in Housing Units in Hawai‘i 

County, 2000–10.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT | 277 

Table 5.8. Population Growth and 2010 Urban and Rural Demographics, Hawai‘i State Counties, 2010

Area Total Population 2010 Urban 2010 Rural

2000 2010 ANNUAL % 

CHANGE POPULATION PERCENT POPULATION PERCENT

Hawai‘i 1,211,537 1,360,301 1.2% 1,250,489 91.9% 109,812 8.1%

Hawai‘i County 148,677 185,079 2.4% 114,766 62.0% 70,313 38.0%

Honolulu County 876,156 953,207 4.4% 944,982 99.1% 8,225 0.9%

Kalawao County 147 90 (3.9%) 0 0.00% 90 100.00%

Kaua‘i County 58,463 67,091 1.5% 58,463 87.1% 8,628 12.9%

Maui County 128,094 154,834 2.1% 132,278 85.4% 22,556 14.6%

Source: US Census Bureau 2000a, 2010

Figure 5.7. Age Demographics in Hawai�i County by Age Group, 2010

	
  (10,000.00)	
   	
  (8,000.00)	
   	
  (6,000.00)	
   	
  (4,000.00)	
   	
  (2,000.00)	
   	
  -­‐	
  	
  	
  	
   	
  2,000.00	
  	
   	
  4,000.00	
  	
   	
  6,000.00	
  	
   	
  8,000.00	
  	
   	
  10,000.00	
  	
  

0-­‐4	
  years	
  

5-­‐9	
  years	
  

10-­‐14	
  years	
  

15-­‐19	
  years	
  

20-­‐24	
  years	
  

25-­‐29	
  years	
  

30-­‐34	
  years	
  

35-­‐39	
  years	
  

40-­‐44	
  years	
  

45-­‐49	
  years	
  

50-­‐54	
  years	
  

55-­‐59	
  years	
  

60-­‐64	
  years	
  

65-­‐69	
  years	
  

70-­‐74	
  years	
  

75-­‐79	
  years	
  

80-­‐84	
  years	
  

85-­‐89	
  years	
  

90+	
  years	
  

Male	
  

Female	
  
278 | Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

0	
  

10,000	
  

20,000	
  

30,000	
  

40,000	
  

50,000	
  

60,000	
  

70,000	
  

80,000	
  

90,000	
  

2000	
   2010	
  

Vacant	
  Housing	
  Units:	
  For	
  Seasonal,	
  Recrea@onal,	
  or	
  

Occasional	
  Use	
  

Vacant	
  Housing	
  Units:	
  Other	
  

Occupied	
  Housing	
  Units	
  

Source: US Census Bureau 2000a, 2010

Figure 5.8. Occupancy in Housing Units in Hawai�i County, 2000–10

Table 5.9. Demographic in the Nation, State, and County, 2010

One Race Alone

AREA TOTAL WHITE

BLACK & 

AFRICAN 

AMERICAN

AMERICAN 

INDIAN & 

ALASKA 

NATIVE

ASIAN

NATIVE 

HAWAIIAN 

& PACIFIC 

ISLANDER

OTHER

TWO OR 

MORE 

RACES

HISPANIC OR 

LATINO (OF 

ANY RACE)

USA 97.1% 72.4% 12.6% 0.9% 4.8% 0.2% 6.2% 2.9% 16.3%

Hawaiʻi 76.4% 24.7% 1.6% 0.3% 38.6% 10.0% 1.2% 23.6% 8.9%

Hawaiʻi 

County

70.5% 33.7% 0.6% 0.5% 22.2% 12.1% 1.5% 29.5% 11.6%

Source: US Census Bureau 2010
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT | 279 

Of the occupied units in Hawaiʻi County, 

66% are owned by the occupant and 34% are 

rented. In comparison, the state of Hawaiʻi 

had an owner-occupancy rate of 57.7% in the 

2010 census and a renter-occupancy rate of 

42.3%. Between 2000 and 2010, the owneroccupancy rate in the state and county both 

increased, by 1.2% and 1.5% respectively (US 

Census Bureau 2000a, 2010).

According to the 2011 American Community 

Survey (one-year estimates), median housing 

values in the state of Hawaiʻi and Hawaiʻi 

County are estimated at almost twice that of 

the national average. While only 9% of the 

housing units in Hawaiʻi County are valued 

at less than $100,000, 14.6% of the housing 

units are valued at $500,000 or more. In the 

state, 48.3% of the units are valued at more 

than $500,000 (see Table 5.10. Value of OwnerOccupied Units, 2011). For those

who rent, the median rent in the state of 

Hawaiʻi’3, at $1,308/month, is 50% higher 

3 The American Community Survey defines gross 

rent as “the [monthly] contract rent plus the estimated 

average monthly cost of utilities (electricity, gas, and water 

and sewer) and fuels (oil, coal, kerosene, wood, etc.) if these 

are paid by the renter (or paid for the renter by someone else). 

Gross rent is intended to eliminate differentials that result 

from varying practices with respect to the inclusion of utilities 

and fuels as part of the rental payment.” The median gross 

rent “divides the gross rent distribution into two equal parts: 

one-half of the cases falling below the median gross rent and 

one-half above the median” (US Census Bureau 2011b).

than the national average of $871/month, 

while Hawaiʻi County’s median gross rent is 

only $920/month in comparison. Despite the 

lower cost in the county, renters are more 

likely to spend a higher percentage of their 

income on rent in Hawaiʻi County than those 

elsewhere in the state or nation. An estimated 

62.6% of Hawaiʻi County renters spend more 

than 30.0% of their household income on 

housing, compared to 58.9% of renters in the 

state and 53.4% of renters in the nation (US 

Census Bureau 2011a).

Economic Conditions and Trends

EMPLOYMENT

According to the US Bureau of Economic 

Analysis (BEA), Hawaiʻi County experienced 

a 16.3% job growth rate between 2001 and 

2011, increasing from 81,611 jobs in 2001 to 

94,907 jobs within 10 years. In comparison, 

the state job growth rate was lower, at 10.1%, 

or a 1% annual growth, during this same 

time period. Despite positive growth over the 

past decade, the number of jobs in both the 

county and state reached their high in 2007, 

dipping below 2006 levels in 2009 and 2010 

due to the national recession. Neither region 

has regained this job loss, despite job growth 

between 2010 and 2011 in both the state and 

county (see Figure 5.9. Employment Growth by 

Area, 2001–11) (BEA 2011).

Table 5.10. Value of Owner-Occupied Units, 2011

Value 

United States Hawai‘i Hawai‘i County

NUMBER PERCENT NUMBER PERCENT NUMBER PERCENT

Less than $50,000 6,538,986 8.8% 2,818 1.1% 1,138 2.7%

$50,000 to $99,999 11,916,860 16.0% 5,140 2.0% 2,689 6.3%

$100,000 to $149,999 12,230,945 16.5% 6,632 2.6% 4,029 9.5%

$150,000 to $199,999 11,437,518 15.4% 8,734 3.4% 4,035 9.5%

$200,000 to $299,999 13,511,178 18.2% 29,500 11.6% 10,230 24.1%

$300,000 to $499,999 11,306,069 15.2% 79,071 31.0% 14,119 33.3%

$500,000 to $999,999 5,850,178 7.9% 102,778 40.4% 5,151 12.1%

$1,000,000 or more 1,472,701 2.0% 20,027 7.9% 1,071 2.5%

Total 74,264,435 (X) 254,700 (X) 42,462 (X)

Median (dollars) $173,600 (X) $487,400 (X) $290,400 (X)

Source: US Census Bureau 2011a
280 | Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Figure 5.9. Employment Growth by County, 2001-11

0	
  

100000	
  

200000	
  

300000	
  

400000	
  

500000	
  

600000	
  

700000	
  

2001	
   2002	
   2003	
   2004	
   2005	
   2006	
   2007	
   2008	
   2009	
   2010	
   2011	
  

Hawaii	
  

Honolulu	
  

Kauai	
  

Maui	
  +	
  Kalawao	
  

Table 5.11 Growth in Median Household Income, 1999–2011

Area 1999 2011 Percent 

Change

Hawaiʻi County $39,805 $46,479 16.8%

Honolulu County $51,914 $66,146 27.4%

Kaua‘i County $45,020 $60,751 34.9%

Maui County $49,489 $60,147 21.5%

Hawaiʻi $49,820 $61,821 24.1%

USA $41,994 $50,502 20.3%

Source: US Census Bureau 2000b, 2011a

Due in part to the national recession and 

drop in number of jobs in 2009, employment 

rates in the county and state also decreased 

between 2007 and 2011. While 2007 

unemployment rates in the state and county 

were 4.5% and 5.4% respectively, they jumped 

to 7.7% and 11.2% in 2011. As of 2011, the US 

Census Bureau estimates that Hawaiʻi County 

has an unemployment rate that is nearly 1% 

higher than that of the nation (US Census 

Bureau 2011a).
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PAR K GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT | 281 

INCOME 

Between 1999 and 2011, the US Census 

Bureau estimates that Hawaiʻi County’s 

median household income grew by 16.8% 

or 1.4% annually, yet remained the lowest in 

the state. While the 2011 median household 

income in Hawaiʻi County was estimated 

at $46,479 in 2011, both the state median 

income ($61,821) and national median income 

($50,502) were higher (US Census Bureau 

2000b, 2011a).

INDUSTRIES 

As the most rural county in Hawaiʻi, Hawaiʻi 

County accounts for 62.6% of the farm 

employment in the state (BEA 2011). Fruits, 

nuts, and coffee are the island’s principal 

agricultural products. The Kona district in 

the western part of Hawaiʻi is the coffee belt 

of the United States and is also known for its 

health resorts and offshore deep-sea fishing 

(Columbia Encyclopedia 2003).

Despite the importance of agriculture in the 

county and its national prominence, this 

industry accounts for only 4% of the total jobs 

in Hawaiʻi County (BEA 2011). According to 

the state of Hawai‘i Department of Business 

and Economic Development and Tourism, the 

largest sources of employment in the county 

are in service-based industries (retail trade, 

13.6%, and health care and social assistance, 

10.5%) and with the government (20.3%). 

In fact, while employment in manufacturing 

decreased by 50% between 1990 and 2010, 

employment in education services; arts, 

entertainment, and recreation; and healthcare 

and social assistance grew by over 160% 

during the same time period, averaging at 

least an 8.0% annual growth rate over the 

past two decades. Jobs in professional and 

business services, information services, and 

other services have also grown significantly 

(State of Hawaiʻi Department of Business and 

Economic Development and Tourism n.d.).

Economic Benefits from Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park 

Based on analysis from Michigan State 

University using the Money Generation 

Model (MGM2)4

 and analysis from the 

National Park Service using a more recently 

developed visitor spending effects (VSE) 

model, Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

plays an important role in Hawai‘i County’s 

local economy.

First, as an employer the park provides jobs to 

park employees, including seasonal, term, and 

permanent full- or part-time positions. Park 

employees spend their income and wages in 

the local communities, which in turn create 

other opportunities for work in the county. 

In 2010 Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

employed 148 employees, who supported an 

additional 46 jobs in the local economy based 

on MGM2 estimates. This payroll spending 

resulted in added value5 of over $12.1 million 

to the local economy (Stynes 2011). In 

4 The money generation model study is based on 

recreational visits and overnight stays as reported by the NPS. 

Visitors are broken down into local day-trip visitors, nonlocal 

day-trip visitors, and visitors on overnight trips staying in 

motels or campgrounds inside or outside the recreation area 

based on previous visitor surveys. Visitor spending is estimated 

based on visitor-use survey data from selected parks where 

studies have occurred and extrapolated to parks without 

studies. Spending does not include expenditures on durable 

goods that cannot be attributed to a single trip (Stynes 2008). 

Payroll information (wages and salaries plus benefits) was also 

obtained from the National Park Service.

To account for different park settings, there are different 

multipliers for large urban, small urban, and rural areas. 

The multipliers are derived from IMPLAN, a federal land 

management agency standard used to evaluate economic 

impacts. IMPLAN was developed by the US Forest Service to 

calculate economic impacts generated by national forests. 

The multipliers are for the following activities: construction 

sand and gravel, industrial and commercial construction, 

maintenance and repair of facilities, local transportation 

services, water transportation, air transportation, hotels and 

lodging places, eating and drinking places, automobile repair 

and services, recreation-related retail trade, amusement and 

recreation services, and government-federal. 

The model does not include park operations expenses or 

construction activities, only base annual salaries. It also does 

not include the impacts of employees in regional offices 

or other administrative divisions, where visitation is not 

reported. Commercial service providers are also not included 

in the model

5 “Value added is the sum of labor income, profits and 

rents, and indirect business taxes. It can also be defined as 

total sales net of the costs of all nonlabor inputs. Value added 

is the preferred economic measure of the contribution of an 

industry or activity to the economy” (Stynes 2011).
282 | Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PAR K GMP/WS/EIS

addition to these expenditures and benefits, 

the park also supports the local economy 

when utilizing local vendors or awarding 

contracts to local businesses; for example, 

through contracted lawn maintenance 

services or purchases of office supplies. 

This economic activity is not included 

in this analysis.

Second, over the past 40 years Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park has attracted, on 

average, 1.38 million visitors to the area every 

year who contribute to the local economy 

through tourism spending (Park 2012a). 

Traveling from around the globe to visit 

this World Heritage Site and International 

Biosphere Reserve, visitors spend money 

on transportation (including gas and public 

transit), lodging, food (restaurants and 

grocery stores), retail, and recreation (Stynes 

2011). Based on the almost 1.5 million 

recreational visitors to the park in 2012, the 

VSE model estimates that total spending 

associated with Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park amounted to over $140.5 million in 2012, 

most ($138.6 million; 98.6%) of which was 

spent by nonlocal visitors. Considering this 

impact, the total labor income generated by 

this spending was over $53.2 million, which 

supported 1,353 jobs and added a value of 

approximately $91.8 million to the local 

economy (Cullinane et al 2014).

PARTNERSHIPS AND AGREEMENTS

In working to preserve and restore the 

park’s resources unimpaired for future 

generations, the park will continue to build 

on the legacy of the many partnerships that 

have extended its ability to protect resources 

and serve the public since the park was 

established. Park managers will establish 

and maintain cooperative relationships with 

managers of adjacent public and private 

lands; state and local governments; Native 

Hawaiians and community organizations. 

The park will collaborate to ensure that 

watersheds, ecosystems, endangered species, 

cultural resources, viewsheds, and trail and 

transportation systems that extend beyond 

park boundaries are considered holistically.

Through mutual collaboration, shared, 

values and learning, partnerships create 

outcomes beyond any one organization’s 

individual capacity. Partnerships will continue 

to be an important way to accomplish the 

park’s mission.

The park participates in partnerships and 

agreements through a variety of methods, 

such as concession contracts, interagency 

agreements, cooperative agreements, 

memorandums of understanding, and rights 

of way. A wide range of organizations and 

agencies partner with the park, such as the 

Three Mountain Alliance, USGS-HVO, Big 

Island Invasive Species Council, Volcano Art 

Center, and many others. Hawai‘i County 

Fire Services operates a small fire station at 

Kilauea Military Camp under a mutual aid 

agreement with the park, to provide 24-

hour fire and paramedic level emergency 

medical services to the park and surrounding 

communities. The park also maintains two 

sister park agreements between the National 

Park Service and Jeju Volcanic Island and 

Lava Tubes, World Natural Heritage Site, 

Republic of Korea and Wudalianchi National 

Park, People’s Republic of China to promote 

international cooperation and collaboration 

for mutual benefit of the common ideals of 

stewardship and preservation of resources.

ADJACENT LAND MANAGEMENT

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park is 

surrounded by federal, state, and privately 

held lands. The large agencies and 

organizations that own or manage these lands 

include the state of Hawai‘i, Kamehameha 

Schools, and The Nature Conservancy. These 

entities are also part of a consortium of 

partner organizations and land management 

agencies known as the Three Mountain 

Alliance (TMA). The TMA is the largest of 

the eleven Hawai‘i Association of Watershed 

Partnerships (HAWP) in the State of Hawai`i. 

The purpose of the HAWPs is to promote 

coordination among private and public 

landowners and land managers to maintain 

healthy forested watersheds. Lands owned or 

administered by other alliance partners have 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PAR K GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT | 283 

the potential to be affected by any potential 

actions proposed in the general management 

plan, especially as they relate to removal of 

nonnative species as well as species recovery 

at Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park.

State of Hawai‘i

The state manages natural area reserves, forest 

reserves, and game management areas on 

the island of Hawai‘i, several of which share 

boundaries with or are located near Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park. Areas within the 

state system have different management 

objectives. Protection of native ecosystems 

is the primary objective of natural area 

reserves, while game management is the 

primary objective in game management areas. 

Forest reserves balance several objectives 

that include providing mixed recreational 

use (including hunting) and protecting native 

plant communities and watersheds.

Kamehameha Schools

Kamehameha Schools (Bishop Estate) is 

the largest private landowner in the state 

of Hawai‘i. These lands were inherited by 

Princess Bernice Pauahi Bishop as the last 

royal descendant of the Kamehameha line 

and today total 365,800 acres of land across 

the state. In her will, she left her estate to 

Kamehameha Schools and mandated that 

her real estate be leased, sold, or managed 

to help generate revenue that would support 

the schools’ educational programs and 

services (Kamehameha Schools n.d.). Today 

these lands are managed to derive an overall 

balance of economic, educational, cultural, 

environmental, and community returns as well 

as to protect and enhance native ecosystems 

(TMA 2007). As part of their involvement with 

the Three Mountain Alliance, Kamehameha 

Schools is involved in protection of the 

watershed through fencing and nonnative 

ungulate removal on portions of their lands. 

They have recently ceased cattle operations 

and removed feral nonnative ungulates from 

portions of the Keauhou Ranch designated for 

native forest restoration. The Keauhou Ranch 

is adjacent to the Mauna Loa area of the park.

The Nature Conservancy

The Nature Conservancy mission is to 

preserve the plants, animals, and natural 

communities that represent the diversity 

of life on Earth by protecting the lands 

and waters they need to survive (TMA

2007). The Nature Conservancy of Hawai‘i 

partners with indigenous communities, 

businesses, governments, multilateral 

institutions, and other nonprofits to address 

threats to conservation including those 

concerning climate change, fire, freshwater, 

forests, nonnative species, and marine 

ecosystems (TNC 2009).

On the island of Hawai‘i, The Nature 

Conservancy owns and manages two 

preserves: the Kona Hema Preserve (8,061 

acres in three contiguous units) and the Ka‘ū 

Preserve (3,548 acres in four noncontiguous 

units) (TNC 2006). The Nature Conservancy 

is involved with fencing and nonnative 

ungulate removal on their lands. For example, 

the Kona Hema units are fenced and are free 

of nonnative ungulate species. Within the 

Ka’ū Preserve, The Nature Conservancy is 

managing the land to reduce populations 

of nonnative animals and prevent new 

weed invasions. They are also working with 

neighboring landowners, local communities, 

state agencies, the National Park Service, and 

neighboring private landowners to protect the 

larger Ka’ū Forest (TNC 2009)

PARK MANAGEMENT 

AND OPERATIONS

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park is divided 

into two management units – Kīlauea and 

Kahuku. The park is administered by a 

superintendent and the park headquarters 

is in the Kīlauea Unit near Volcano. 

Management of the park is organized into the 

following divisions: Administration, Cultural 

Resources, Interpretation, Maintenance and 

Facilities Management, Natural Resources, 

Visitor and Resource Protection, Kahuku 

Unit staff, Planning and Compliance, and Fire 

Management. The total number of full-time 

employees was 139 in fiscal year 2012.
284 | Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Administrative Division

The Administrative Division oversees 

all human resources, budget operations, 

contracting, concessions, information 

technology, telecommunications, property, 

and cost of collections within the park. The 

division is responsible for the park’s revenues, 

which are collected from the entrance station, 

air tour fees, special use permits, CUAs, and 

donations. Additionally, the Administrative 

Division provides support to other NPS units 

on Hawaiʻi Island. This includes a newly 

developed Servicing Human Resources 

Office (SHRO) at Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park, which will assist all of the Pacific Island 

Network (NPS) parks in staffing.

Cultural Resources 

Management Division

The Cultural Resources Management 

Division is responsible for compliance with 

sections 106 and 110 of the National Historic 

Preservation Act. This includes surveying 

park property for archeological and cultural 

resources. The division also manages the 

park’s museum, which contains approximately 

300 library, archeological, natural, and artistic 

items. The division additionally manages 

contracts with individuals who enter into 

the park to work on resource inventory 

documentation projects.

Interpretation Division

The Interpretation Division is responsible 

for public communication, outreach, 

publications, and permits related to films or 

other communications. Interpretation and 

outreach activities are conducted to convey 

key park messages to the visiting public, 

to school groups, and to the surrounding 

community. This division utilizes ranger-led 

interpretive hikes, walks, and talks; cultural 

demonstrations; environmental education 

programs for school groups; and servicebased learning projects; as well as informal 

contacts with visitors. The Interpretive 

Division annually initiates new or existing 

outreach programs that are relevant and 

meaningful to the underserved communities 

surrounding the park.

Maintenance and Facilities 

Management Division

The Maintenance and Facilities Management 

Division is responsible for the maintenance 

of buildings and facilities within the park; 

fleet vehicles and equipment; utilities; and 

all roads and trails, including front- and 

backcountry trails. They are also responsible 

for maintenance of the park’s front- and 

backcountry campgrounds, four cabins, three 

shelters, and custodial services for all park 

facilities. The park livestock program (horse 

and mule pack animals) is the responsibility 

of the maintenance division. The park’s 

fencing program is managed by the Natural 

Resources Management Division, and not by 

the Maintenance and Facilities Management 

Division, as would be typical in most 

national  parks. 

Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park has 492 

maintained locations (sites) that are composed 

of a variety of man-made features and include 

buildings, roads, trails, landscapes, and 

archeological sites. These maintained facilities 

extend in elevation from the Hōlei Sea Arch at 

sea level to the Summit Cabin on Mauna Loa.

Natural Resources 

Management Division

The Natural Resources Management Division 

is responsible for the protection of native 

ecosystems and native species to ensure their 

continued existence. This includes restoration 

activities pertaining to native species and the 

preservation of biological diversity. Many of 

the division’s programs focus on nonnative 

species management, preservation of rare 

species, and habitat generation for extirpated 

or at-risk (threatened and endangered) 

species. This division does not do any work 

directly related to coastal marine resources.

This Division includes programs related to 

endangered species monitoring and recovery, 

habitat restoration, nonnative plant and 

animal management, fire ecology, and air 

quality monitoring. This division is also 

responsible for implementing the park’s 

wilderness program and has an assigned 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT | 285 

wilderness coordinator. The division also 

coordinates all research conducted in the park 

through the web-based NPS Research Permit 

and Reporting System.

This division has several formal and informal 

partnerships with external institutions. 

These include the local universities (through 

the Cooperative Ecosystem Studies Unit), 

USGS Pacific Ecosystem Research Center 

(PIERC), the USDA quarantine facility, all 

with offices based at the park that provide 

valuable monitoring and research services. 

Other partnerships are maintained with 

the Big Island Invasive Species Council, 

a partnership among federal, state, and 

county agencies to coordinate nonnative 

species management activities on Hawaiʻi 

Island; and the Three Mountain Alliance, 

which coordinates conservation and 

watershed management activities among 

several federal and state agencies and private 

landowners (e.g., Kamehameha Schools and 

The Nature Conservancy) and with offices 

based at the park.

Visitor and Resource 

Protection Division

The Visitor and Resource Protection 

Division’s responsibility is to ensure 

protection of the visiting public and the 

park resources. This division has exclusive 

jurisdiction for all law enforcement within 

the park. As a result, local, county, or state 

law enforcement agencies are unable to enter 

the park and enforce any laws unless they 

are invited by the Protection Division or are 

in pursuit of or investigating a crime that 

occurred within their own jurisdiction.

This division’s responsibilities include frontand backcountry patrols to enforce criminal 

codes, traffic codes, state and federal laws, 

conducting search-and-rescue operations, 

and assisting with wildland firefighting. 

Additionally, the division is responsible for 

managing public safety and education as it 

relates to the unique volcanic hazards in the 

park, structural fire protection, emergency 

medical services, and security; and managing 

the Pacific Islands Network Pacific Area 

Communications Center for routine, law 

enforcement, and emergency dispatching 

and communications.

Kahuku Unit Work Group

The Kahuku Unit work group is responsible 

for the management of the Kahuku Unit, 

particularly with respect to visitor services 

and facilities maintenance. This work group 

consists of the site manager / management 

assistant, as well as administrative, 

maintenance, and visitor services staff. The 

staff coordinates activities within the unit to 

provide basic visitor services for weekend 

visitation, as well as maintenance of facilities, 

trails, and grounds. They also coordinate 

with other park work groups and park 

partners for natural and cultural resources 

management, and on an as needed basis for 

implementation of projects.

Fire Management Division

The Fire Management Division is responsible 

for fire management at all of the ten Pacific 

Island park units. This includes responding 

to wildland fires, preparing fire management 

plans, conducting fire management activities, 

managing hazardous fuels projects, 

and maintaining the qualifications and 

certification program for wildland firefighters. 

The division also oversees the park’s aviation 

program, which is a certification and 

qualification program for aviation personnel 

and which uses contract helicopters to 

conduct administrative operations. The 

division also maintains seven remote weather 

stations. The Fire Management Division 

spends approximately 70% of its time in 

Hawai’i Volcanoes National Park.

Planning and Compliance Division

This division is responsible for all planning 

and compliance activities within Hawaiʻi 

Volcanoes National Park and assists other 

parks within the Pacific Island NPS units as 

time and funding allow. Activities include 

ensuring park compliance with the National 

Environmental Protection Act, as well as 

with ESA and NHPA for all projects, as well 

as developing and/or assisting with park 

planning documents. 
286 | Chapter 5: THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Lava trees on the Mauna Ulu flow. NPS photo
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES | 287 

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES 6

Kamehameha butterfly on ama‘u fiddlehead. NPS photo by Jay Robinson
288 | chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Endangered native hāhā flowers. NPS photo
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES | 289 

CHAPTER 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

INTRODUCTION

The National Environmental Policy Act 

requires that environmental assessments 

disclose the environmental impacts of 

a proposed federal action and feasible 

alternatives to that action. In addition, 

compliance with NEPA is also based on other 

federal laws, including effects on historic 

properties considered in accordance with 

the National Historic Preservation Act. In 

this case, the proposed federal action is the 

adoption of a general management plan for 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park.

The alternatives in this general management 

plan provide broad management direction. 

Thus, this environmental impact statement 

should be considered a programmatic 

document. If and when specific developments 

or actions are proposed for implementation 

subsequent to this general management plan, 

appropriate detailed environmental and 

cultural compliance documentation would 

be prepared in accord with NEPA and NHPA

requirements. Those actions that implement 

guidance provided in the general management 

plan may tier from this EIS.

This chapter begins with a discussion on 

terms and definitions used for determining 

environmental consequences, followed by 

a discussion on policy related to cumulative 

impacts, a description of the projects that 

make up the cumulative impact scenario, 

and finally a discussion on impairment. The 

second part of this chapter describes the 

methods and assumptions used for analyzing 

each impact topic. The impacts of each 

alternative are then analyzed by impact topic. 

Each impact topic includes a description of 

the impact of the alternative, a discussion 

of cumulative effects, and a conclusion for 

each alternative. Where data are limited, 

professional judgment has been used to 

project environmental impacts. Professional 

judgment was based, in part, on observation, 

analysis of conditions, and responses 

in similar areas.

At the end of the impact analysis of the 

alternatives, there is a brief discussion of 

unavoidable adverse impacts, irreversible 

and irretrievable commitments of resources, 

and the relationship of short-term uses of 

the environment and the maintenance and 

enhancement of long-term productivity. The 

impacts of each alternative are also briefly 

summarized in the “Summary of Impacts” 

chart at the end of “Chapter 3: Alternatives.”

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

The following section defines the terms 

used for determining the environmental 

consequences of the actions in the 

alternatives. The environmental consequences 

to each impact topic are defined based on 

impact type, intensity, and duration, and 

whether the impact would be direct or 

indirect. Cumulative effects are also identified.

Impact Type

The effects that an alternative would have on 

an impact topic could be either adverse or 

beneficial. Adverse impacts involve a change 

that moves the resource away from a desired 

condition or detracts from its appearance or 

condition. Beneficial effects are those that 

involve a positive change in the condition 

or appearance of a resource or a change 

that moves the resource toward a desired 

condition. In some cases, the action could 

result in both adverse and beneficial effects for 

the same impact topic.

Intensity

Defining the intensity or magnitude on an 

impact is taken directly from Director’s Order 

12: Conservation Planning, Environmental 

Impact Analysis and Decision-making (NPS 

2001). Impact intensity is the magnitude 

or degree to which a resource would be 

beneficially or adversely affected. Each impact 

was identified as negligible, minor, moderate, 

or major. Because definitions of intensity 

vary by topic, separate intensity definitions 
290 | chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

are provided for each impact topic in the 

methodology section. Due to the broad 

nature of actions called for in this general 

management plan, most intensity findings 

were expressed qualitatively.

Duration

Duration refers to how long an impact would 

last. The planning horizon for the general 

management plan is approximately 15 to 

20 years. Unless otherwise stated, in this 

document the following terms are used to 

describe the duration of the impacts:

Short-term: The impact would be 

temporary in nature, such as the impacts 

associated with construction.

Long-term: The impact would last more 

than one year and could be permanent 

in nature, such as the loss of soil due to 

construction of a new facility. Although 

an impact may only occur for a short 

duration at one time, if it occurs regularly 

over a longer period of time the impact 

may be considered to be a long-term 

impact. For example, the noise from a 

vehicle driving on a road would be heard 

for a short time and intermittently, but 

because vehicles would be driving the 

same road throughout the 20-year life of 

the plan, the impact on the soundscape 

and acoustic environment would be 

considered to be long term.

Direct versus Indirect Impacts

Direct effects would be caused by an action 

and would occur at the same time and place 

as the action. Indirect effects would be 

caused by the action and would be reasonably 

foreseeable but would occur later in time, at 

another place, or to another resource.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

Cumulative impacts result from the 

incremental impact of an action when 

added to other past, present, and reasonably 

foreseeable future actions, regardless of what 

agency or person undertakes such other 

action. Cumulative impacts can result from 

individually minor, but collectively significant 

actions taking place over a period of time.

Cumulative impacts are considered for all 

impact topics and alternatives. The National 

Park Service assumes the types of use that 

are occurring now would continue, but there 

may be new or different future uses. These 

actions are evaluated in conjunction with 

the impacts of each alternative to determine 

if they have any cumulative effects on a 

particular resource. For most of the impact 

topics, the geographic area defined for the 

analysis was Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park. 

In some cases, the area of consideration was 

Hawai‘i Island.

To determine potential cumulative impacts, 

projects in the area surrounding the park were 

identified. Projects included in this analysis 

were identified by examining other existing 

plans. Projects identified for the purposes of 

cumulative impact analyses are past actions, 

plans or actions that are currently being 

implemented, and reasonably foreseeable 

future plans or actions. These projects 

were considered regardless of what agency, 

organization, or person undertakes them. 

Projects included in the cumulative impact 

analysis do not affect all resources equally.

The following land uses, operations and 

management actions make up the cumulative 

impact scenario:

• Past development of infrastructure, 

roads, trails, and facilities in the park

• Implementation of park plans, such 

as Protecting and Restoring Native 

Ecosystems by Managing Nonnative 

Ungulates Plan/EIS, Mission Critical 

Administrative Aviation Plan / EA, 

Fire Management Plan, Crater 

Rim Drive Rehabilitation EA, Land 

Protection Plan, etc. 

• Routine park management activities, 

such as facilities maintenance, natural 

resources management, cultural 

resources management, etc.

• Commercial air tour overflights

• Air Tour Management 

Plan/EIS (future)
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES | 291 

• Implementation of the management 

and implementation plans outside 

park boundaries, such as the Ka‘ū 

Forest Reserve Management Plan, 

Ala Kahakai National Historic Trail 

Final Comprehensive Management 

Plan/EIS, Pu‘u Maka‘ala Natural 

Area Reserve Management 

Plan, Three Mountain Alliance 

Management Plans, USFWS 

Recovery Plans, Hawai‘i 2014 

Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor 

Recreation Plan, etc.

• Ka‘ū Community Development 

Plan (in progress)

• Puna Community Development 

Plan (amended 2010)

• Volcano Long Range Plan 2012

• Development and population growth 

in surrounding communities

• Human-caused climate 

change scenarios 

METHODS AND ASSUMPTIONS FOR 

ANALYZING IMPACTS

The planning team based the impact analysis 

and the conclusions in this chapter largely on 

the review of existing literature and studies, 

information provided by experts in the 

National Park Service and other agencies, 

and park staff insights and professional 

judgment. The team’s method of analyzing 

impacts is further explained below. Impacts 

have been assessed assuming that mitigation 

measures, as described in Chapter 3, would 

be implemented. If mitigation measures 

were not applied, the potential for resource 

impacts and the magnitude of those impacts 

would increase.

The impact analyses for the no-action 

alternative compare resource conditions 

throughout the life of the plan to existing 

conditions, based on the continuation of 

current management. The impact analysis 

for the action alternatives (Alternatives 2 

and 3) compare the action alternative to the 

no-action. In other words, the impacts of the 

action alternatives describe the difference 

between no action and implementing the 

action alternatives. To understand a complete 

“picture” of the impacts of implementation 

any of the action alternatives, the reader must 

also take into consideration that impacts 

would occur under the no-action alternative.

Natural Resources

The natural resource impact topics analyzed 

in this document are geologic resources, 

vegetation, wildlife and wildlife habitat, special 

status species (which include both federally 

listed species and those listed by the state as 

threatened and endangered), wilderness, and 

soundscapes and the acoustic environment. 

Information about known resources was 

compiled and compared with the locations 

of proposed developments and other actions. 

The impact analysis was based on the 

knowledge and best professional judgment 

of planners, and biologists; data from park 

records; and studies of similar actions and 

effects, when applicable. The planning team 

qualitatively evaluated the intensities of effects 

on all the natural resource impact topics.

GEOLOGIC RESOURCES, INCLUDING SOILS 

The area of consideration for this topic is 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park. Available 

information on surface geologic resources 

and processes, including soils and volcanic 

products, in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

was compiled. This impact topic includes 

soils, volcanic landforms and products, and 

geologic processes that would continue to 

be adversely affected by NPS management 

and operations and visitor use of the 

area. Potential impacts from management 

actions are based on professional judgment 

and experience with similar actions. The 

thresholds of change for the intensity of an 

impact are as follows.

Negligible: Actions could change aspects 

of a geologic feature or process but the 

change would not be detectable. Effects 

to soils would be generally undetectable. 

Any effects to soil productivity or fertility 

would be slight.

Minor: Actions would change a geologic 

feature or process, with the change 

measurable but localized. Effects to soils 
292 | chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

would be detectable and could include 

loss of organic surface horizons. Effects 

to soil productivity or fertility and the 

area affected would be small.

Moderate: Actions would change a 

geologic feature or process, with the 

change measurable and localized or 

widespread. The effect on soils would 

be readily apparent and likely long-term 

and could include loss of subsurface 

soil horizons. Impacts would result in a 

change to the character of the resources 

over a relatively wide area or in changes 

to a rare or sensitive soil.

Major: Actions would change a key 

geologic feature or process, with the 

change measurable and widespread. The 

effect on soils would be readily apparent, 

affecting size, continuity, productivity, 

and/or fertility. Soil erosion would be 

affected over a large area (or over small 

areas if a sensitive soil is affected).

ALTERNATIVE 1 (NO ACTION)— New 

facilities and infrastructure changes 

would be limited, primarily occur in 

previously disturbed areas, and focused 

on increasing visitor services at Kahuku 

and Kealakomowaena under the no-action 

alternative. There would also be impacts to 

geologic resources from the maintenance 

of existing facilities and minor changes to 

those facilities as necessary to respond to 

periodic damages from natural events such as 

earthquakes and severe weather. This could 

result in long-term negligible to minor adverse 

impacts to geologic resources and soils.

Routine maintenance and park operations 

would have a negligible impact on surficial 

geologic resources because the facilities would 

generally remain in the same locations. Some 

additional localized short-term negligible 

impacts to geologic resources and soils may 

occur from restoration and fencing activities, 

with long-term moderate beneficial impacts 

from the restoration and protection of 

geologic resources and soils from nonnative 

invasive species.

Visitor use of the park would likely lead to 

further social trail development in certain 

areas. Expansion of social trails would cause 

negligible to minor adverse impacts to soils. 

Unintentional and/or incidental disturbance 

of geologic features from off-trail hiking, 

particularly to view volcanic landforms and 

products would cause negligible to moderate 

damage to geologic resources and soils. 

Intentional removal of geologic features 

or specimens could adversely impact the 

geological story of that area. Parking in nondesignated areas would impact soils and 

potentially volcanic landforms or products, 

resulting in negligible to minor impacts.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

A variety of past, present, and reasonably 

foreseeable actions have affected and will 

continue to affect geologic resources and 

soils in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park. 

The soils and geologic resources of Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park have been variously 

modified over the past century by human 

activities such as highway construction 

and construction of various facilities 

within the park. In more recent times, best 

management practices and mitigations have 

been implemented to minimize impacts to 

resources, resulting in negligible to moderate 

adverse impacts, depending on the project 

scope and location. The implementation of 

the various plans and projects, such as the Fire 

Management Plan and the Crater Rim Drive 

Rehabilitation Environmental Assessment 

has had and will continue to have negligible 

to moderate adverse impacts on soils and 

geologic resources, but also long-term 

beneficial impacts such as through closure of 

unauthorized turnouts during the Crater Rim 

Drive rehabilitation.

CONCLUSION 

The no-action alternative would result in 

long-term negligible to moderate adverse 

impacts to geologic resources and soils 

locally within the park, primarily from the 

maintenance of the existing infrastructure of 

roads, trails, campgrounds, and facilities, as 

well as from visitor use in areas without formal 

trails and turnouts. Cumulative impacts would 

remain negligible to moderate and long-
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES | 293 

term. Beneficial impacts would be long-term 

and be minor to moderate in intensity from 

restoration activities.

ALTERNATIVE 2 (PREFERRED)— Under the 

preferred alternative, there would be some 

new facilities, such as education pavilions 

in various locations throughout the park, 

campgrounds and picnic areas at Kahuku, 

etc., as well as expansion of parking in some 

areas and formalizing roadside turnouts 

in other areas. These changes would have 

localized but moderate adverse impacts 

to geologic resources. There would also 

be impacts to geologic resources from the 

routine maintenance of existing facilities 

and minor changes to those facilities as 

necessary to respond to periodic damages 

from natural events such as earthquakes and 

severe weather. This could result in longterm negligible to minor adverse impacts to 

geologic resources and soils, as well as longterm beneficial impacts to geological resources 

due to the reduction of unauthorized parking 

by improving and expanding formalized 

areas in strategic locations. Various best 

management practices would be employed 

to minimize soil erosion during construction 

and maintenance. New or expanded facilities 

would be sited when possible in areas that 

have been previously disturbed and/or are not 

located near geologically unstable areas.

New trails would be constructed in a few 

locations, such as connector trails and the 

shared trail between Kīlauea Visitor Center 

and Jaggar Museum; however, most of the 

new trails would be following historic routes 

or existing unpaved roads. The increase in 

trail connections and loop trails would reduce 

further social trail development in those areas 

which will be beneficial for geologic resources.

Routine maintenance and park operations 

would have a negligible impact on surficial 

geologic resources. Some additional localized 

short-term negligible adverse impacts to 

geologic resources and soils may occur from 

restoration and fencing activities, however 

there would be long-term beneficial impacts 

from the restoration and protection of 

geologic resources and soils from nonnative 

invasive species.

The proposed boundary modifications 

could have beneficial and adverse impacts 

on geologic resources and soils, depending 

on level of development and use that is 

determined during future planning, as well 

as potential restoration activities that could 

occur. Any proposed uses and development 

would need to consider mitigations to ensure 

geologic resources and soils are protected, to 

the extent feasible.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

The cumulative impacts would be the same as 

those identified for the no-action alternative.

CONCLUSION 

The preferred alternative would result in 

long-term minor to moderate adverse impacts 

to geologic resources and soils locally within 

the park, primarily from the new facilities 

and trails in some areas. Cumulative impacts 

would remain negligible to moderate and 

long-term. Beneficial impacts from restoration 

activities, as well as from management of 

visitor traffic through enhanced parking 

and trails, would be long-term and minor to 

moderate in intensity.

ALTERNATIVE 3— The impacts from 

Alternative 3 would be similar to those 

described for the preferred alternative with 

the following exceptions.

Alternative 3 would not expand parking areas 

and would develop less new trails and trail 

connections. In addition, turnouts would be 

formalized on Mauna Loa and Hilina Pali 

Roads, but not on Chain of Craters Road; 

therefore, the impacts would be slightly less 

than Alternative 2 from disturbance related to 

development, but would be slightly higher due 

to disturbance from visitors where turnouts 

and trail connections are not created.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

The cumulative impacts would be the same as 

those identified for the no-action alternative.

CONCLUSION

Alternative 3 would result in long-term 

negligible to moderate adverse impacts to 

geologic resources and soils locally within the 

park, primarily from the new facilities and 

trails in some areas, but the impacts would 
294 | chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

be less than under the preferred alternative 

due to reduced facilities, infrastructure, and 

trails. Cumulative impacts would remain 

negligible to moderate and long term. Adverse 

impacts to soils and geologic resources 

from the general management plan would 

be short and long term and range from 

negligible to moderate in intensity. Beneficial 

impacts from restoration activities, as well as 

from management of visitor traffic through 

increased turnouts and some new trails/trail 

connections, would be long-term and minor 

to moderate in intensity.

VEGETATION

The area of consideration for this topic is 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park. Available 

information on vegetation in Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park was compiled. 

Potential impacts from management 

actions are based on professional judgment 

and experience with similar actions. The 

thresholds of change for the intensity of an 

impact are as follows.

Negligible: The impact of vegetation 

(individuals or communities) would 

not be measurable. The abundance or 

distribution of individuals would not be 

affected or would be slightly affected. 

Ecological processes and biological 

productivity would not be affected.

Minor: An action would not necessarily 

decrease or increase an area’s overall 

biological productivity. An action would 

affect the abundance or distribution of 

individuals in a localized area but would 

not affect the viability of local or regional 

populations or communities.

Moderate: An action would result in a 

change in overall biological productivity 

in a small area. An action would affect 

a local population sufficiently to cause 

a change in abundance or distribution, 

but it would not affect the viability of 

the regional population or communities. 

Changes to ecological processes would 

be of limited extent.

Major: An action would result in a 

change in overall biological productivity 

in a relatively large area. An action would 

affect a regional or local population of a 

species sufficiently to cause a change in 

abundance or in distribution to the extent 

that the population or communities 

would not be likely to return to its/their 

formal level (adverse), or would return 

to a sustainable level (beneficial). Key 

ecological processes would be altered.

ALTERNATIVE 1 (NO ACTION)— Impacts 

to vegetation from continued current 

management would result from management 

actions that directly or indirectly disturb 

vegetation communities. These management 

actions would generally include maintenance 

of roads, trails, campgrounds, vegetation 

management such as invasive plant 

management, site rehabilitation/restoration, 

fencing, and wildland fire management.

Adverse impacts to vegetation would vary 

according to location and activity, with 

minor impacts expected in the visitor use 

and park support zones with concentrated 

development and human use, particularly the 

visitor use zone. Negligible to minor adverse 

impacts to vegetation would be expected in 

the less developed areas of the park, such as 

the transitional/semi-primitive zone, as well as 

the wild/primitive zone because management 

actions would be limited to trail and 

backcountry facility maintenance, and fence 

installation and maintenance.

Human impacts from recreation and visitor 

use of these areas would continue to be 

correlated most closely with the quantity 

and intensity of recreation and visitor use of 

a given area. Adverse impacts from visitor 

use would primarily include social trail 

development, trampling, and soil compaction, 

and inadvertent introduction of weeds.

New facilities and infrastructure changes 

would be limited and focused on increasing 

visitor services, interpretation, and education 

over time at Kahuku and Kealakomowaena 

under the no-action alternative. These 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES | 295 

changes would be primarily in previously 

disturbed areas and surveys would be 

completed to minimize impacts on native 

vegetation so the impact would be negligible 

to minor, long-term, and adverse.

Beneficial impacts from restoration activities 

would include native revegetation projects, 

planting of locally extirpated species, 

monitoring and control of detrimental 

nonnative plants and animals. Impacts 

to vegetation from these activities would 

generally range from minor to major and 

long-term, depending on location and type 

of restoration.

Impacts to vegetation from alternative 1 would 

generally range from negligible to moderate, 

long-term and adverse with long-term 

minor to moderate, beneficial impacts from 

restoration activities.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

Vegetation within Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park has been cumulatively and adversely 

affected from many different types of human 

activity, such as development over time of 

visitor services and park operations facilities 

and infrastructure, and from the introduction 

of nonnative species. Vegetation has also been 

adversely affected from sources outside the 

park through introduction of nonnative plants 

and animals that then become established in 

the park. Development adjacent to the park 

can impact native vegetation through loss of 

native seed sources and also by an increased 

risk of colonization by invasive nonnative 

plants. Any development would involve 

soil disturbance and movement of vehicles, 

materials, and people. Thus the conditions 

for establishment of nonnative plants would 

be created, and the seeds or plant fragments 

of nonnative plants would be likely to be 

transported into the park from adjacent lands. 

Many invasive nonnative plants have been 

or continue to be popular ornamental plants 

which results in a greater chance of spread of 

invasive nonnative plant species into the park.

Implementation of management plans by 

adjoining public landowners will result in 

long-term beneficial impacts to vegetation. 

Partnerships with groups such as Three 

Mountain Alliance has resulted in long-term 

moderate to major beneficial impacts to 

vegetation through invasive nonnative plant 

management, fencing to exclude nonnative 

ungulates, and planting native species.

Removal of nonnative species and restoration 

of native plant species and communities 

would help to counteract the potential 

pressures of global climate change on 

vegetation. Changes in temperature and 

moisture regimes may result in dramatic 

shifts in habitat range for a number of native 

plant and animal species and vegetation 

types and the movement of invasive species. 

Management of nonnative species would 

remove a key stressor on native ecosystems, 

thereby increasing the capacity of native 

species to adapt to changes in climate. 

Restoration of fragmented communities 

would restore habitat continuity and allow for 

the local migration of species in response to 

climate change.

The overall effect of the cumulative actions 

would be moderate and adverse from impacts 

related to development adjacent to park 

and potential spread of invasive nonnative 

species, and will have moderate to major 

beneficial impacts from the implementation 

of management plans and on the ground 

management through partnerships.

CONCLUSION 

Alternative 1 would continue to result in 

negligible to moderate direct and indirect 

impacts to vegetation, primarily from 

maintenance-related activities associated 

with roads, trails, and campgrounds and 

impacts from visitor use. Beneficial impacts 

would continue from restoration activities 

and would be minor to major, depending on 

location and action.

ALTERNATIVE 2 (PREFERRED)— Activities 

such as the maintenance of roads, trails, 

and campgrounds, vegetation management 

such as invasive plant management, site 

rehabilitation/restoration, fencing, and 

wildland fire management would continue 

to impact vegetation under the preferred 
296 | chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

alternative. Adverse impacts to vegetation 

would vary according to location and activity, 

with minor impacts expected in the visitor use 

and park support zones with concentrated 

development and human use, particularly the 

visitor use zone. Negligible to minor impacts 

to vegetation would be expected in the less 

developed areas of the park, such as the 

transitional/semi-primitive zone, as well as 

the wild/primitive zone because management 

actions would be limited to trail and 

backcountry facility maintenance, and fence 

installation and maintenance.

Human impacts from recreation and visitor 

use of these areas would continue to be 

correlated most closely with the quantity 

and intensity of recreation and visitor use of 

a given area. Adverse impacts from visitor 

use would primarily include social trail 

development, trampling, and soil compaction, 

and inadvertent introduction of weeds. Due 

to management strategies proposed in the 

preferred alternative, it is anticipated that 

these impacts would be less than in the noaction alternative.

New facilities would be developed in the 

preferred alternative, particularly at Kahuku 

Unit (campgrounds, picnic areas, trails, etc.), 

but also to a lesser extent in the rest of the 

park (education pavilions, trails, expanded 

parking, etc.). Most of the new development 

would be primarily in previously disturbed 

areas and surveys would be completed to 

minimize impacts on native vegetation so the 

impact in those areas would be negligible to 

moderate, long-term, and adverse, depending 

on location and type of improvements. New 

development in previously undisturbed 

areas could have a greater impact on native 

vegetation, depending on location and species 

present. Site-specific planning and compliance 

would need to be completed to ensure the 

impacts are minimized, particularly with the 

new development and additional recreational 

access (e.g., equestrian) at the Kahuku Unit.

Beneficial impacts from restoration activities 

would include native revegetation projects, 

planting of locally extirpated species, 

monitoring and control of detrimental 

nonnative plants and animals. Impacts 

to vegetation from these activities would 

generally range from minor to major and 

long-term, depending on location and type 

of restoration.

The proposed boundary modifications 

could have beneficial and adverse impacts 

on vegetation, depending on level of 

development and use that is determined 

during future planning, as well as potential 

restoration activities that could occur. Any 

proposed uses and development would need 

to incorporate best management practices 

and mitigations to ensure native vegetation is 

protected and invasive species are prevented, 

to the extent feasible.

Impacts to vegetation from the preferred 

alternative would generally range from 

negligible to moderate, long-term and adverse, 

depending on location and action, with longterm minor to moderate, beneficial impacts 

from restoration activities. Future site-specific 

planning and compliance would be necessary 

to minimize impacts from development 

in some areas, such as the proposed trail 

from KVC to Jaggar.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS 

The cumulative impacts would be the same as 

those identified for the no-action alternative.

CONCLUSION

The preferred alternative would result 

in negligible to moderate direct and 

indirect impacts to vegetation, primarily 

from development of new facilities and 

maintenance-related activities associated with 

roads, trails, and campgrounds and visitor 

use. Beneficial impacts would continue from 

restoration activities would be minor to major, 

depending on location and action.

ALTERNATIVE 3— The impacts from 

Alternative 3 would be similar to those 

described for the preferred alternative with 

the following exceptions.

Under Alternative 3, parking at Jaggar 

Museum would be expanded for increased 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES | 297 

shuttle operations, which may result in greater 

adverse impacts due to sensitive vegetation 

found in the area, depending on where the 

expansion occurs. The proposed trail at 

‘Ōla‘a small tract would be a flagged route in 

Alternative 3, which has the potential to result 

in greater adverse impacts to vegetation due 

to trampling and social trails. The proposed 

conversion of Volcano House to energy 

independence may have impacts on vegetation 

if, for example, the photovoltaic system needs 

to be installed off-site. Site-specific planning 

and mitigations would need to be conducted 

to ensure potential impacts are minimized.

Alternative 3 has less new facility and trails 

development as compared to the preferred 

alternative which would result in decrease in 

adverse impact to vegetation; however some 

areas may receive more impact to vegetation 

from visitor use because of the decrease 

in visitor facilities and trails, therefore 

the overall impact level is similar to the 

preferred  alternative.

Overall, the impacts to vegetation from 

Alternative 3 would generally range from 

negligible to moderate, long-term and 

adverse with long-term minor to moderate, 

beneficial impacts from restoration activities. 

Future site-specific planning and compliance 

would be necessary to minimize impacts 

from development in some areas, such 

as the proposed expansion of parking 

at Jaggar Museum.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

The cumulative impacts would be the same as 

those identified for the no-action alternative.

CONCLUSION

Alternative 3 would result in negligible to 

moderate direct and indirect adverse impacts 

to vegetation, primarily from development 

of new facilities and maintenance-related 

activities associated with roads, trails, and 

campgrounds and visitor use. Beneficial 

impacts would continue from restoration 

activities and would be minor to major, 

depending on location and action.

NATIVE WILDLIFE AND NATIVE 

WILDLIFE HABITAT

The area of consideration for this topic is 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park. This impact 

topic addresses only native wildlife and native 

wildlife habitat. The impacts of nonnative 

wildlife on native wildlife species and their 

habitat has been addressed thoroughly by 

other management and planning documents, 

such as the Final Plan/EIS for Restoring and 

Protecting Native Ecosystems by Managing 

Nonnative Ungulates (Park 2013b), so is not 

addressed in depth in this document.

Impacts on native wildlife are closely related 

to the impacts on habitat. The evaluation 

considered whether actions would be likely 

to displace some or all individuals of a 

species in the park or would result in loss 

or creation of habitat conditions needed for 

the viability of local or regional populations. 

Available information on wildlife and wildlife 

populations was considered. Predictions 

about short- and long-term impacts were 

based on previous studies of impacts to 

natural resources and recent monitoring data 

from the park. The thresholds of change for 

the intensity of an impact are as follows.

Negligible: Effects on wildlife would be 

at or below the level of detection, would 

be short-term, and the changes would be 

so slight that they would not be of any 

measurable or perceptible consequence 

to the species’ population.

Minor: Effects on wildlife would be 

detectable, but localized, small, and 

of little consequence to the species’ 

population. Mitigation measures, if 

needed to offset adverse effects, would be 

simple and successful.

Moderate: Effects on wildlife would be 

readily detectable but localized, with 

consequences at the population level. 

Mitigating measures, if needed to offset 

adverse effects, would be extensive and 

likely successful.
298 | chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Major: Effects on wildlife would be 

obvious and would result in substantial 

consequences to the wildlife populations 

at the regional level. The change 

would result in a severely adverse or 

major beneficial impact, and possible 

permanent consequence on the species. 

Extensive mitigating measures would be 

needed to offset any adverse effects and 

their success would not be guaranteed.

ALTERNATIVE 1 (NO ACTION)— Few of 

the actions of implementing the no-action 

alternative would further affect the park’s 

wildlife populations or habitats. Wildlife 

populations and habitat already have been 

altered by development and nonnative species, 

and wildlife habits and movement may be 

altered by visitors and employees particularly 

in high visitor use areas. The use of the park by 

visitors is concentrated mostly in developed 

areas and in areas near lava activity and in 

some areas is not well managed, which has a 

negligible to minor impact on native wildlife 

and wildlife habitat. The presence of hikers 

and park staff in the wilderness threshold 

and backcountry zones would continue to 

disturb some sensitive wildlife occasionally, 

but this disturbance would be temporary 

and would not affect the health or viability of 

the park’s wildlife populations. The primary 

impact to wildlife would be the continued 

fragmentation of habitat within and outside 

the park boundaries.

Continued restoration activities, including 

revegetation of degraded wildlife habitat, 

monitoring and control of detrimental 

nonnative plants and animals, light- and 

soundscape management, as well as specific 

actions for population recovery, would 

have short-term negligible to minor adverse 

impacts due to disruption of wildlife, but 

long-term moderate to major beneficial 

impacts on wildlife populations and habitats.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

Native wildlife and wildlife habitat within 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park has been 

cumulatively and adversely affected from 

many different types of human activity, such as 

development over time of visitor services and 

park operations facilities and infrastructure, 

and from the introduction and/or colonization 

of nonnative species.

Development surrounding the park would 

continue to alter the types and distribution of 

habitat available to wildlife. The impacts from 

development can be due to direct impacts 

causing loss or change of habitat, impacts 

through fragmentation of habitat, and from 

the introduction of nonnative plant and 

animal species that escape cultivation and 

colonize the park. These impacts would cause 

long-term adverse moderate impacts to the 

area’s native wildlife and wildlife habitat.

Implementation of management plans by 

adjoining public landowners would result in 

long-term beneficial impacts to native wildlife 

and wildlife habitat. Partnerships with groups 

such as Three Mountain Alliance has resulted 

in long-term moderate to major beneficial 

impacts to native wildlife and wildlife habitat 

through invasive nonnative plant and animal 

management, and planting native vegetation to 

restore wildlife habitat.

Removal of nonnative species and restoration 

of native species would help to counteract 

the potential pressures of global climate 

change on native wildlife and wildlife habitat. 

Changes in temperature and moisture 

regimes may result in dramatic shifts in 

habitat range for a number of native plant and 

animal species and vegetation types and the 

movement of invasive species. Management of 

nonnative species would remove a key stressor 

on native ecosystems, thereby increasing 

the capacity of native species to adapt to 

changes in climate. Restoration of fragmented 

communities would restore habitat continuity 

and allow for the local migration of species in 

response to climate change.

CONCLUSION

The no-action alternative would have 

negligible to minor long-term adverse effects 

on wildlife and wildlife habitat near and 

within developed areas, including roads and 

trails. Moderate to major long-term beneficial 

impacts would result from mitigation 

measures and restoration activities. Moderate 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES | 299 

long-term adverse cumulative effects would 

be expected on the area’s wildlife and wildlife 

habitat from development and nonnative 

species colonizing from nearby developed 

areas, with beneficial impacts from restoration 

activities by neighboring public landowners. 

The portion of this impact from Alternative 1 

would be relatively small.

ALTERNATIVE 2 (PREFERRED)— A few of the 

actions implementing the preferred alternative 

may affect the park’s wildlife populations or 

habitats. Of the actions proposed, the actions 

most likely to impact native wildlife or wildlife 

habitat are the new trails proposed at the 

Kīlauea Unit, trail connections, and parking 

lot expansions, in addition to the proposed 

development at the Kahuku Unit. These 

actions would have localized negligible to 

moderate impacts on native wildlife or wildlife 

habitat with appropriate site-specific planning 

and mitigations to minimize potential impacts.

Improved management of visitor traffic and 

impacts, particularly in high visitor use areas 

such as Thurston Lava Tube and the 1974 

flows by Lua Manu Crater, would have minor 

beneficial impacts to native wildlife and 

wildlife habitat.

Wildlife populations and habitat have already 

been altered by development and nonnative 

species, and wildlife habits and movement 

may be altered in the future by visitors and 

employees, particularly in high visitor use 

areas. The use of the park by visitors is 

concentrated mostly in developed areas and in 

areas near lava activity. The presence of hikers 

and park staff would continue to disturb 

some sensitive wildlife occasionally, but this 

disturbance would be temporary and would 

not affect the health or viability of the park’s 

native wildlife populations. The primary 

impact to wildlife would be the continued 

fragmentation of habitat within and outside 

the park boundaries.

Continued restoration activities, including 

revegetation of degraded wildlife habitat, 

monitoring and control of detrimental 

nonnative plants and animals, light- and 

soundscape management, as well as specific 

actions for population recovery, would 

have short-term negligible to minor adverse 

impacts due to disruption of wildlife, but 

long-term moderate to major beneficial 

impacts on wildlife populations and habitats.

The proposed boundary modifications could 

have beneficial and adverse impacts on native 

wildlife and wildlife habitat, depending 

on level of development and use that is 

determined during future planning, as well 

as potential restoration activities that could 

occur. Any proposed uses and development 

would need to incorporate best management 

practices and mitigations to ensure native 

wildlife and wildlife habitat is protected 

and invasive species are prevented, to the 

extent feasible.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

The cumulative impacts would be the same as 

those identified for the no-action alternative.

CONCLUSION

The preferred alternative would have 

negligible to moderate long-term adverse 

effects on wildlife and wildlife habitat near 

and within developed areas, including 

roads and trails, with proper planning 

and mitigations. Minor to major longterm beneficial impacts would result from 

mitigation measures and restoration activities. 

Moderate long-term adverse cumulative 

effects would be expected on the area’s 

wildlife and wildlife habitat from development 

and nonnative species colonizing from nearby 

developed areas, with long-term moderate 

to major beneficial impacts from restoration 

activities by neighboring public landowners. 

The portion of this impact from Alternative 2 

would be relatively small

ALTERNATIVE 3 — The impacts from 

Alternative 3 would be similar to those 

described for the preferred alternative with 

the following exceptions.

The proposed conversion of Volcano House 

to energy independence may have adverse 

impacts on native wildlife and wildlife habitat 

if, for example, the photovoltaic system needs 

to be installed off-site. Site-specific planning 
300 | chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

and mitigations would need to be conducted 

to ensure potential impacts are minimized.

The proposed flagged route-style trail for 

‘Ōla‘a small tract may have greater impacts 

on native wildlife and wildlife habitat due to 

the greater potential for trampling and social 

trails, which would disturb the wildlife and 

impact the wildlife habitat.

Alternative 3 has less new facility and trails 

development as compared to the preferred 

alternative which would result in decrease in 

adverse impact to wildlife and wildlife habitat; 

however some areas may receive more impact 

to wildlife and wildlife habitat from visitor 

use because of the decrease in visitor facilities 

and trails. Therefore the overall impact level is 

similar to the preferred alternative.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

The cumulative impacts would be the same as 

those identified for the no-action alternative.

CONCLUSION

Alternative 3 would have negligible to 

moderate long-term adverse effects on 

wildlife and wildlife habitat near and within 

developed areas, including roads and trails, 

with proper planning and mitigations. 

Minor to major long-term beneficial impacts 

would result from mitigation measures and 

restoration activities. Moderate long-term 

adverse cumulative effects would be expected 

on the area’s wildlife and wildlife habitat 

from development and nonnative species 

colonizing from nearby developed areas, 

with long-term moderate to major beneficial 

impacts from restoration activities by 

neighboring public landowners. The portion 

of this impact from Alternative 3 would be 

relatively small.

SPECIAL STATUS SPECIES

The area of consideration for this topic is 

suitable and known occupied habitat in 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park. Information 

on threatened, endangered, candidate 

species, and species of general concern was 

gathered from responsible agencies, research, 

and specialists. Known locations of habitat 

associated with threatened, endangered, 

candidate species, and species of special 

concern were compared with locations of 

development and facilities, and modifications 

of existing facilities. In accordance with 

standard terminology used to describe effects 

on threatened and endangered species under 

the federal Endangered Species Act (USFWS 

and NMFS 1998), potential effects on special 

status species are categorized as follows:

No effect: The proposed actions would 

not affect special status species or 

critical habitat.

May affect / not likely to adversely 

affect: The effects on special status 

species would be extremely unlikely to 

occur and could not be meaningfully 

measured, detected, or evaluated or they 

would be completely beneficial.

May affect / likely to adversely affect:

Any adverse effect to listed species that 

might occur as a direct or indirect result 

of proposed actions, and the effect would 

not be discountable.

Is likely to jeopardize proposed 

species / adversely modify proposed 

critical habitat: The appropriate 

conclusion when the National Park 

Service or the USFWS identifies 

situations in which an action could 

jeopardize the continued existence of a 

proposed species or adversely modify 

critical habitat to a species within or 

outside park boundaries.

The thresholds of change for the intensity of 

an impact are defined as follows.

Negligible: The action would have no 

measurable effect to a listed species, 

suitable, potential, or critical habitat, 

resulting in a no effect determination.

Minor: The effects of the alternative 

would be discountable (extremely 

unlikely to occur), insignificant (not 

able to be meaningfully measured, 

detected, or evaluated), or completely 

beneficial. Any change would be small 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES | 301 

and localized and of little consequence, 

and result in a “not likely to adversely 

affect” determination.

Moderate: An action that would result 

in some change to a population or 

individuals of a species or designated 

critical habitat. The change would be 

measurable and of consequence but 

would most likely result in a “not likely 

to adversely affect” determination. 

Insignificant effects would not 

result in take.

Major: An action that would result in 

a noticeable change to a population or 

individuals of a species or designated 

critical habitat. Any adverse effect to 

the species that may occur as a direct or 

indirect result of the alternative and the 

effect is not discountable, insignificant, 

or completely beneficial. Incidental take 

is anticipated to occur as a result of the 

action. The change would result in a 

“likely to adversely affect” determination.

ALTERNATIVE 1 (NO ACTION)—The noaction alternative would continue the current 

management of the park’s special status 

species, such as monitoring, mitigating 

disturbance from visitors and park operations, 

and cooperating with various agencies and 

organizations to improve recovery efforts. 

The beneficial impacts from the protection 

of sensitive species and their habitat within 

the park would continue under the noaction alternative, primarily through invasive 

species management, revegetation of altered 

plant communities, and individual species 

recovery actions.

Impacts of ongoing park operations and 

recreational use would continue to be 

monitored and appropriate mitigation 

measures would be implemented along with 

continued restoration activities. Mitigation 

measures could include items such as, 

minimizing incompatible human activities 

near sensitive wildlife, rerouting trails or 

restoring social paths to restore and protect 

plant communities and sensitive species, or 

conforming to Dark Sky Policy to protect 

nocturnal wildlife. To mitigate potential 

impacts, the National Park Service would 

continue to conduct plant and wildlife surveys 

in advance of taking management actions. 

Should species be present, the timing and 

location of management activities would be 

adjusted to eliminate or minimize disturbance. 

Impacts from the no-action alternative would 

be negligible to minor and adverse.

Seasonal closure of certain areas would also 

be implemented as necessary to prevent 

disturbance. For example, to prevent 

disturbance to breeding nēnē, Devastation 

or Pu‘u Pua‘i parking areas may be closed, 

or sections of beach at ‘Āpua, Keauhou, and 

Halapē may be closed during hawksbill turtle 

nesting season.

Special status species within Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park would continue to 

benefit from continued restoration of habitat 

through fencing and removal of detrimental 

nonnative plants and animals, ongoing 

recovery actions and by virtue of the area’s 

protected status as a unit of the National 

Park Service, including the large quantity 

of relatively undisturbed habitat within and 

surrounding the unit. These beneficial impacts 

to special status species and their habitats 

would be moderate to major and long-term.

The no-action alternative “may affect, but 

is not likely to adversely affect” the park’s 

60 federally listed plant and animal species. 

This “may affect, but is not likely to adversely 

affect” determination is based upon the 

conclusion that effects would be limited to 

inadvertent, short-term, and insignificant 

disturbance to listed species, the wide variety 

of undisturbed habitats available throughout 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, and no 

anticipated changes in current management 

and operations.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

Development surrounding the park would 

continue to alter the types and distribution 

of habitat available to special status species. 

The impacts from development can be due 

to direct impacts causing loss or change 

of habitat, impacts through fragmentation 
302 | chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

of habitat, and from the introduction of 

nonnative plant and animal species that 

escape cultivation and colonize the park. 

These impacts would cause long-term adverse 

moderate impacts to special status species, but 

are occurring outside the park.

Implementation of management plans, 

including USFWS Recovery Plans, by 

adjoining public landowners will result in 

long-term moderate to major beneficial 

impacts to special status species. Partnerships 

with groups such as Three Mountain Alliance 

has resulted in long-term moderate to major 

beneficial impacts to special status species 

through invasive nonnative plant and animal 

management and planting native vegetation to 

restore habitat.

Removal of nonnative species and restoration 

of native species would help to counteract 

the potential pressures of global climate 

change on special status species. Changes 

in temperature and moisture regimes may 

result in dramatic shifts in habitat range for a 

number of native plant and animal species, as 

well as vegetation types and the movement of 

invasive species. Management of nonnative 

species would remove a key stressor on native 

ecosystems, thereby increasing the capacity of 

native species to adapt to changes in climate. 

Restoration of fragmented communities 

would restore habitat continuity and allow for 

the local migration of species in response to 

climate change.

CONCLUSION

The continuing actions under the no-action 

alternative would have negligible to minor 

adverse impacts on special status species, 

which is equivalent to a determination of 

“may affect, but are not likely to adversely 

affect”. There would also be long-term 

moderate to major beneficial impacts to 

special status species from activities such as 

restoration of habitat and individuals species 

recovery actions. Cumulative effects would be 

long-term moderate adverse and long-term 

moderate to major beneficial. The portion 

of this impact from Alternative 1 would be 

relatively small.

ALTERNATIVE 2 (PREFERRED)—Under 

the preferred alternative, the park would 

continue to manage the park’s special status 

species, including monitoring, mitigating 

disturbance from visitors and park operations, 

and cooperating with various agencies and 

organizations to improve recovery efforts. 

The beneficial impacts from the protection 

of sensitive species and their habitat within 

the park would continue under the preferred 

alternative, primarily through continued 

invasive species management, revegetation 

of altered plant communities, and individual 

species actions.

Impacts of ongoing park operations and 

recreational use would continue to be 

monitored and appropriate mitigation 

measures would be implemented along with 

continued restoration activities. Mitigation 

measures could include items such as, 

minimizing incompatible human activities 

near sensitive wildlife, rerouting trails or 

restoring social paths to restore and protect 

plant communities and sensitive species, or 

conforming to Dark Sky Policy to protect 

nocturnal wildlife. To mitigate potential 

impacts, the National Park Service would 

continue to conduct plant and wildlife surveys 

in advance of taking management actions. 

Should species be present, the timing and 

location of management activities would be 

adjusted to eliminate or minimize disturbance. 

The impacts of the ongoing park operations 

and recreational use would be negligible to 

minor and adverse.

Seasonal closure of certain areas would also 

be implemented as necessary to prevent 

disturbance. For example, to prevent 

disturbance to breeding nēnē, Devastation 

or Pu‘u Pua‘i parking areas may be closed, 

or sections of beach at ‘Āpua, Keauhou, and 

Halapē may be closed during hawksbill turtle 

nesting season.

Special status species within Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park would continue to 

benefit from continued restoration of habitat, 

management of detrimental nonnative species, 

and by virtue of the area’s protected status as 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES | 303 

a unit of the National Park Service, including 

the large quantity of relatively undisturbed 

habitat within and surrounding the unit. 

These beneficial impacts to special status 

species and their habitats would be moderate 

to major and long term.

New facility proposals, including trails, are 

conceptual in nature and illustrate the desired 

condition for visitor services and facilities in 

particular areas. New construction described 

in the preferred alternative would require 

site-specific planning, siting, and design, 

including further environmental analysis, 

to ensure any potential impacts to listed 

species are minimized, such as the shared trail 

between Kīlauea Visitor Center and Jaggar 

Museum, the boardwalk in ‘Ōla‘a, or visitor 

development in the Kahuku Unit.

The proposed boundary modifications could 

have beneficial and adverse impacts on special 

status species and their habitat, depending 

on level of development and use that is 

determined during future planning, as well 

as potential restoration activities that could 

occur. Any proposed uses and development 

would need to consider mitigations to 

ensure special status species are protected 

and invasive species are prevented, to the 

extent feasible.

If during future planning it was determined 

that impacts cannot be kept to negligible 

to minor, the National Park Service 

would consult with the USFWS to ensure 

that potential impacts were identified, 

avoided where feasible, and mitigation 

measures developed.

Enhanced management of nēnē and 

associated habitat at ‘Āinahou would have 

short-term and long-term moderate beneficial 

impacts on the species. The boardwalk at 

‘Ōla‘a small tract would have long-term 

beneficial impacts for listed species due to 

visitors staying on the trail, experiencing 

the mature rain forest, and the potential for 

enhanced protection and support as a result 

of the visitors’ experience.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

The cumulative impacts would be the same as 

those identified for the no-action alternative.

CONCLUSION

The preferred alternative “may affect, but 

is not likely to adversely affect” the park’s 

60 federally listed plant and animal species. 

This “may affect, but is not likely to adversely 

affect” determination is based upon the 

conclusion that effects would be limited to 

inadvertent, short-term, and insignificant 

disturbance to listed species, the wide variety 

of undisturbed habitats available throughout 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, and the 

changes proposed for management and 

operations are designed to better protect 

resources. There would also be long-term 

moderate to major beneficial impacts to 

special status species from activities such as 

restoration and nonnative species control. 

Site-specific planning would be conducted 

for projects to ensure that the adverse 

impacts of proposed projects would be 

negligible to minor.

ALTERNATIVE 3— The impacts from 

Alternative 3 would be similar to those 

described for the preferred alternative with 

the following exceptions.

If an off-site location is needed to make the 

Volcano House energy independent, the 

site selected would have to be a location 

that would not adversely affect special 

status species. Certain actions, such as the 

expansion of the parking at Jaggar Museum, 

picnic opportunities at the end of Chain 

of Craters Road, flagged route-style trail at 

‘Ōla‘a, and visitor development at the Kahuku 

Unit, may need to include mitigations and 

best management practices to ensure the 

actions would not impact special status 

species. Actions in alternative 3 would 

require site-specific planning, siting, and 

design, including further environmental 

analysis, to ensure any potential impacts to 

listed species are minimized. If during future 

planning it was determined that impacts 

cannot be minimized, the National Park 

Service would consult with the USFWS to 

ensure that potential impacts were identified, 
304 | chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

avoided where feasible, and mitigation 

measures developed.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

The cumulative impacts would be the same as 

those identified for the no-action alternative.

CONCLUSION

Alternative 3 “may affect, but is not likely to 

adversely affect” the park’s 60 federally listed 

plant and animal species. This “may affect, but 

is not likely to adversely affect” determination 

is based upon the conclusion that effects 

would be limited to inadvertent, short-term, 

and insignificant disturbance to listed species, 

the wide variety of undisturbed habitats 

available throughout Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park, and the changes proposed for 

management and operations are designed to 

better protect resources. Site-specific planning 

would be conducted for projects to ensure 

that the adverse impacts of proposed projects 

would be negligible to minor.

WILDERNESS

Working from definitions included in 

the Wilderness Act, and included in NPS 

Management Policies 2006, and the tradition 

of wilderness preservation and management 

at Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, the 

following wilderness characteristics have been 

identified for consideration in this analysis.

• The earth and its community of 

life are untrammeled by humans, 

where humans are visitors 

and do not remain.

• The area is undeveloped and retains 

its primeval character and influence 

without permanent improvements or 

human habitation.

• The area generally appears to 

have been affected primarily 

by the forces of nature, with 

the imprint of humans’ work 

substantially unnoticeable.

• The area is protected and managed so 

as to preserve its natural conditions. 

• The area offers outstanding 

opportunities for solitude or 

a primitive and unconfined 

type of recreation.

Impacts on natural and cultural resources, 

visitor access, soundscapes and the acoustic 

environment, night sky, and other resources 

are evaluated elsewhere in the environmental 

consequences section. The analysis for this 

topic focuses on wilderness character and 

wilderness experience, which are integrally 

related because much of wilderness character 

can only be subjectively determined by the 

visitor’s experience (for example, solitude or 

freedom of movement).

The thresholds of change for the intensity of 

an impact are as follows:

Negligible: Impacts would not be 

detectable to most wilderness visitors 

and would have no discernible effect on 

wilderness character or experience.

Minor: Impacts would be slightly 

detectable to some wilderness 

visitors but would not be expected to 

have an overall effect on wilderness 

character or experience.

Moderate: Impacts would be clearly 

detectable by many wilderness visitors 

and could have an appreciable effect on 

wilderness character or experience.

Major: Impacts would have a substantial 

and noticeable effect for most wilderness 

visitors on wilderness character or 

experience and could permanently alter 

various aspects of the visitor experience.

ALTERNATIVE 1 (NO ACTION)— 

Under Alternative 1, the park’s designated 

wilderness would continue to be managed 

as it is now. In accordance with NPS 

Management Policies 2006, eligible lands 

in the park would continue to be managed 

to preserve its wilderness character and 

maintain its potential eligibility for wilderness 

designation, however eligible lands within the 

park would not be proposed for designation. 

The minimum requirement analysis would 

continue to be used to determine if, when, 

and how actions that might impact wilderness 

character could be implemented. The 

backcountry permit system would remain 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES | 305 

in place and would continue to be used to 

manage overnight use. Opportunities for 

visitors to experience wilderness character 

would continue to be abundant.

Current management actions that manipulate 

wilderness include removal of invasive plants 

and animals, restoration of native species, 

and fire suppression. Since these actions 

would only be slightly detectable (after the 

action is taken) to some visitors and would 

not have an overall effect on wilderness values 

or recreational opportunities, the impact of 

these actions to the untrammeled character of 

wilderness would be adverse and minor.

There are a number of natural resource 

issues that currently have an impact on the 

natural quality of wilderness character. These 

issues include invasive species issues, habitat 

loss, and climate change impacts. Although 

most of these impacts would only be slightly 

detectable to most visitors, the potential 

for landscape-scale changes could occur, 

especially as a result of vegetation changes 

due to invasive species, wildfires, and climate 

change. However, through restoration of 

native species and control of nonnative 

species, there would be long-term beneficial 

effects to the natural quality of wilderness. 

Therefore impacts to the natural quality of 

wilderness character would be short-term 

minor to moderate adverse (unintentional 

impacts to plants or animals during 

restoration or invasive control activities) and 

long-term beneficial and minor to major due 

to restoration activities.

Infrastructure and facilities within wilderness 

include the historic shelters and cabins on 

the coast and on Mauna Loa, volcanic and 

seismic monitoring equipment at locations 

throughout the park, and the internal fencing 

required to protect areas from nonnative 

ungulates. Motorized equipment, including 

helicopters and chainsaws, is used by park 

employees for emergency activities and 

non-emergency administrative purposes 

throughout the wilderness. Examples of 

emergency operations include volcanic and 

seismic activity response, fire suppression, and 

search and rescue operations while examples 

of non-emergency operations include 

trail maintenance, resource management 

projects, volcanic and seismic monitoring, 

and some fire management activities. The 

non-emergency work that uses motorized 

equipment is evaluated using the minimum 

requirement analysis, and, when appropriate, 

found to be the minimum tool necessary to 

administer the area. However, these features 

impact the undeveloped quality of wilderness 

as well as opportunities for solitude. Although 

trails and other developments would be 

clearly detectable by most visitors, the use 

of motorized equipment would be more 

locally noticeable and of a short-term 

duration. Therefore, adverse impacts to the 

undeveloped quality of wilderness character 

would range from minor to moderate and 

would be both short-term (for activities) and 

long term (for infrastructure and facilities).

Opportunities for solitude become more 

abundant with distance from the roads, as 

the majority of visitors are here for a short 

duration and do not venture far from the 

roads and developed areas. For visitor safety 

and resource reasons, permits are required for 

all backcountry camping, however campers 

are not required to stay in a designated 

campground, which provides opportunities 

for unconfined recreation. Campgrounds 

and cabins have use limits, but there are no 

restrictions on where campers stay within 

those areas, which may provide campers 

more opportunity for achieving solitude. As 

described above, the occasional administrative 

use of helicopters and motorized equipment 

would also impact the opportunities for 

solitude and primitive and unconfined 

recreation. Since these conditions would only 

be slightly detectable to some visitors and 

clearly detectable to others, adverse impacts 

on opportunities for solitude or primitive 

and unconfined recreation would range from 

minor to moderate.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

Development along the park boundary 

would be visible from eligible wilderness at 

Kahuku and would cause adverse impacts 

to the wilderness character. The wilderness 

units in the Kīlauea Unit of the park are 
306 | chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

mostly adjacent to state owned lands, so are 

not likely to be developed for residential 

or commercial use, but some of these areas 

are subject to landscape manipulation for 

grazing and agricultural purposes. This 

landscape manipulation would be visible 

from the park’s designated wilderness 

and would be an adverse impact to the 

natural and undeveloped character of the 

wilderness. The potential for landscape-scale 

changes, especially from invasive species, 

fire suppression, and climate change would 

continue to exist.

In some places in the wilderness, vehicles 

can be heard, such as the upper part of the 

Ka‘ū Desert wilderness unit. This would 

have a minor to moderate adverse impact on 

wilderness character and experience.

Noise intrusions occur from aircraft 

throughout the wilderness and commercial 

air tour overflights would continue to 

have moderate to major impacts to the 

wilderness character in the park. The Air Tour 

Management Plan/EIS, when completed, will 

provide guidelines and mitigations to reduce 

the impacts to the wilderness character and 

experience in the park.

The cumulative impacts described would 

result in minor to major adverse impacts to the 

wilderness character and experience.

CONCLUSION

The no-action alternative would not change 

the current conditions related to wilderness 

character and experience. Adverse impacts 

would be short- and long-term and range from 

minor to moderate, resulting from natural 

resource issues, maintenance of infrastructure 

and facilities, and administrative aviation 

noise. Long-term minor to major beneficial 

impacts would result from restoration of 

native species and control of invasive species. 

Cumulative adverse impacts would range from 

minor to major, this alternative would not 

contribute significantly to those impacts.

ALTERNATIVE 2 (PREFERRED)— 

Under the preferred alternative, the park’s 

designated wilderness would continue to 

be managed as it is now. In addition, the 

portion of upper Kahuku that was determined 

eligible in June 2012 would be recommended 

for wilderness designation. The minimum 

requirement analysis would continue to be 

used to determine if, when, and how actions 

that might impact wilderness character 

could be implemented. The backcountry 

permit system would remain in place and 

would continue to be used to manage 

overnight use. Opportunities for visitors to 

experience wilderness character would be 

expanded under the preferred alternative 

with the opening of upper Kahuku to foot 

travel by visitors.

Current management actions that manipulate 

wilderness include removal of invasive plants 

and animals, restoration of native species, 

and fire suppression. Since these actions 

would only be slightly detectable (after the 

action is taken) to some visitors and would 

not have an overall effect on wilderness 

values or recreational opportunities, the 

impact of these actions to the untrammeled 

character of wilderness would be adverse and 

minor to moderate.

There are a number of natural resource 

issues that currently have an impact on the 

natural quality of wilderness character. These 

issues include invasive species issues, habitat 

loss, and climate change impacts. Although 

most of these impacts would only be slightly 

detectable to most visitors, the potential 

for landscape-scale changes could occur, 

especially as a result of vegetation changes 

due to invasive species, wildfires, and climate 

change. However, through restoration of 

native species and control of nonnative 

species, there would be long-term beneficial 

effects to the natural quality of wilderness. 

Therefore, impacts to the natural quality of 

wilderness character would be short-term 

minor to moderate adverse (unintentional 

impacts to plants or animals during 

restoration or invasive control activities) and 

long-term beneficial and minor to major due 

to restoration activities.

Infrastructure and facilities within wilderness 

include the historic shelters and cabins located 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES | 307 

on the coast and on Mauna Loa, volcanic and 

seismic monitoring equipment at locations 

throughout the park, and the internal fencing 

required to protect areas from nonnative 

invasive animals. These would continue to be 

maintained under the preferred alternative. In 

addition, small primitive campgrounds would 

be considered for upper Kahuku, which may 

also include a small water catchment system 

to provide water in an otherwise waterless 

expanse. This would be highly beneficial for 

visitor use and experience of the area, but 

would be a moderate adverse impact to the 

undeveloped quality of wilderness character.

Motorized equipment, including 

helicopters and chainsaws, is used by park 

employees for emergency activities and 

non-emergency administrative purposes 

throughout the wilderness. Examples of 

emergency operations include volcanic and 

seismic activity response, wind damage, 

fire suppression, and search and rescue 

operations while examples of non-emergency 

operations include trail maintenance, resource 

management projects, volcanic and seismic 

monitoring, and some fire management 

activities. The non-emergency work that uses 

motorized equipment is evaluated using the 

minimum requirement analysis, and, when 

appropriate, found to be the minimum tool 

necessary to administer the area. However, 

these features impact the undeveloped 

quality of wilderness as well as opportunities 

for solitude. Although trails and other 

developments would be clearly detectable 

by most visitors, the use of motorized 

equipment would be more locally noticeable, 

and of a short-term duration. Therefore, 

adverse impacts to the undeveloped quality 

of wilderness character would range from 

minor to moderate and would be both 

short term (for activities) and long term (for 

infrastructure and facilities).

Opportunities for solitude become more 

abundant with distance from the roads, as 

the majority of visitors are here for a short 

duration and do not venture far from the 

roads and developed areas. Under the 

preferred alternative, there will be increased 

opportunities for solitude and primitive and 

unconfined recreation. Backcountry permits 

would still be required for all overnight use 

and for day use in some areas; however, 

visitors are not restricted to camping or 

hiking in specific areas which provides 

more opportunity for achieving solitude. As 

described above, the occasional administrative 

use of helicopters and motorized equipment 

would also impact the opportunities for 

solitude and primitive and unconfined 

recreation. Since these conditions would only 

be slightly detectable to some visitors and 

clearly detectable to others, adverse impacts 

on opportunities for solitude or primitive 

and unconfined recreation would range from 

minor to moderate.

The proposed boundary modifications 

could have beneficial impacts to the park’s 

wilderness character and experience. 

One of the proposed parcels is designated 

wilderness already (‘Ōla‘a). Another parcel 

is adjacent to the Kā‘u Desert wilderness 

unit (Great Crack) and was designated as 

potential wilderness in the 1978 wilderness 

legislation. Any lands acquired would be 

analyzed for their wilderness eligibility as 

required by NPS policy.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

The cumulative impacts would be the same as 

those identified for the no-action alternative.

CONCLUSION

This alternative would expand opportunities 

for visitors to experience wilderness character. 

Adverse impacts would be short- and longterm and range from minor to moderate, 

resulting from natural resource issues, 

maintenance of infrastructure and facilities, 

development of primitive campground(s) in 

upper Kahuku, and administrative aviation 

noise. Long-term minor to major beneficial 

impacts would result from restoration of 

native species and control of invasive species. 

Cumulative adverse impacts would range 

from minor to major, however, the preferred 

alternative would not contribute significantly 

to those impacts.

ALTERNATIVE 3— The impacts from 

Alternative 3 would be similar to those 
308 | chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

described for the preferred alternative with 

the following exception. There would be no 

primitive campgrounds in upper Kahuku 

under Alternative 3, so there would be 

no additional impact to the undeveloped 

character. However, there could be additional 

impacts to the natural character due to more 

dispersed use over the landscape.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

The cumulative impacts would be the same as 

those identified for the no-action alternative.

CONCLUSION

Alternative 3 would expand opportunities for 

visitors to experience wilderness character. 

Adverse impacts would be short- and longterm and range from minor to moderate, 

resulting from natural resource issues, 

maintenance of infrastructure and facilities, 

and administrative aviation noise. Longterm minor to major beneficial impacts 

would result from restoration of native 

species and control of invasive species. 

Cumulative adverse impacts would range 

from minor to major, however, the preferred 

alternative would not contribute significantly 

to those impacts.

SOUNDSCAPES AND THE 

ACOUSTIC ENVIRONMENT

The area of consideration for this topic is 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park. Context, 

time, and intensity together determine the 

level of impact for an action or activity. Noise 

for a certain period and intensity would be a 

greater impact in a highly sensitive context, 

and a given intensity would be a greater 

impact if it occurred more often, or for longer 

duration. For example, in very low level 

ambient soundscapes, like the wilderness, 

noises can be much more audible, thereby 

having greater impact intensities. It is usually 

necessary to evaluate all three factors together 

to determine the level of noise impact.

Negligible: Noise would rarely be greater 

than natural ambient sound levels, and/

or there would usually be lengthy periods 

of time each day between noise events. 

Noise in a specific area would rarely 

result in a value for any noise metric 

that is more than a very small increment 

above the value for natural ambient 

sounds in the same area. Natural sounds 

would predominate.

Minor: Noise would be greater than 

natural ambient sound levels for a small 

portion of the day, and/or there would 

often be substantial periods of time each 

day between noise events. Noise in a 

specific area would rarely result in a value 

for any noise metric that is more than 

a small increment above the value for 

natural ambient sounds in the same area.

Moderate: Noise would be greater 

than natural ambient sound levels for 

an intermediate portion of the day, 

and/or there would rarely be more 

than intermediate periods of time each 

day between noise events. Noise in a 

specific area would rarely result in a 

value for any noise metric that is more 

than an intermediate increment above 

the value for natural ambient sounds 

in the same area.

Major: Noise would be greater than 

natural ambient sound levels for a large 

portion of the day, and/or there would 

rarely be more than short periods of time 

each day between noise events. Noise 

in a specific area would often result in 

a value for a noise metric that is more 

than an intermediate increment above 

the value for natural ambient sounds 

in the same area.

ALTERNATIVE 1 (NO ACTION)— Under the 

no-action alternative, human-caused sounds 

associated with park operations would be 

sporadically mitigated on a case-by-case basis. 

No additional restrictions or enforcement 

of noise associated with visitor use would be 

anticipated. Soundscapes in primary use and 

wilderness threshold zones would continue 

to be affected by human-caused noise from 

park operations, vehicular traffic, and visitor 

use. Even though there would be some noise 

in these areas, the adverse impacts would be 

short- and long-term and negligible to minor, 

because some noise is expected and accepted 

in developed areas.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES | 309 

Soundscapes in wilderness threshold and 

backcountry zones would continue to be 

impacted in specific areas from humanrelated noise from park maintenance and 

operational activities and visitor use. These 

include activities that use mechanized tools 

and helicopters as the minimum tool, such 

as backcountry facilities maintenance, radio 

repeater maintenance and repairs, cultural 

and natural resources management projects, 

and trail maintenance. These functions occur 

periodically in the park, resulting in localized, 

short-term, moderate adverse impacts to the 

park’s soundscape and acoustic environment. 

In very low-level ambient soundscapes, like 

the wild/primitive zones, noises are much 

more audible, and have greater impacts on 

the soundscape.

The level of human-related noise in some 

areas of the park might change from existing 

levels as a result of anticipated slight increases 

in park visitation under the no-action 

alternative. The expanded visitor services 

at Kahuku and Kealakomowaena under the 

no-action alternative may increase impacts 

from human-caused noise in those areas. 

These conditions would result in long-term 

negligible to moderate adverse impacts to the 

soundscape in the park’s frontcountry areas, 

since some level of noise is expected, and 

natural sounds can still be heard depending 

on location and time-of-day.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

Other past, present, or future actions could 

impact the soundscapes and acoustic 

environment including ongoing highway 

and road traffic. Potential increases in 

visitation to lands surrounding the park could 

further impact the soundscape and acoustic 

environment. Depending on the action, the 

duration of each activity, and the location of 

the activity, these actions could result in minor 

to moderate adverse impacts.

There would be adverse impacts from 

commercial air tour overflights in the 

primary use and wilderness threshold and 

backcountry zones, which would result in 

minor to major adverse impacts, depending 

on location. Within the primary use and 

wilderness threshold zones, short- and 

long-term impacts would occur in areas with 

high concentrations of air tours, such as the 

East Rift wilderness unit. In those areas, the 

impacts to the soundscapes and acoustic 

environment would be moderate to major and 

adverse. The Air Tour Management Plan/EIS, 

when completed, would provide guidelines 

and mitigations to reduce the impacts to the 

soundscapes and acoustic environment in the 

park across all management zones.

The cumulative impacts to the soundscape 

and acoustic environment would be shortand long- term, minor to major, and adverse.

CONCLUSION

The existing conditions and activities included 

under the no-action alternative would result in 

short-term moderate and long-term negligible 

to moderate adverse impacts on the park’s 

soundscapes and acoustic environment. The 

level of impact is dependent on the action/

noise, the duration of each activity, and the 

location of the activity. Cumulative impacts 

would be minor to major and adverse. This 

alternative’s contribution to these effects 

would be small.

ALTERNATIVE 2 (PREFERRED)— Under the 

preferred alternative, the park would expand 

active management practices to reduce 

human-caused sounds associated with park 

operations and visitor use. Soundscapes 

in the visitor services and transitional/

semi-primitive zones would continue to be 

affected by human-caused noise from park 

operations, vehicular traffic, and visitor 

use, consistent with the desired conditions 

described for these zones. The expanded 

visitor services and visitation levels at Kahuku 

under the preferred alternative would increase 

impacts from human-caused noise, but the 

park would implement best management 

practices and educational tools to reduce the 

noise associated with park operations and 

visitor use. These conditions would result 

in negligible to minor adverse impacts to 

the soundscape in the park’s frontcountry 

areas, since some level of noise is expected 

and accepted in developed areas, best 

management practices and educational tools 
310 | chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

would reduce human-caused noise, and 

natural sounds could still be heard regularly.

Soundscapes in wild/primitive zones would 

continue to be impacted in specific areas by 

park maintenance and operational activities 

and by visitor use. As in the visitor services 

and transitional/semi-primitive zones, 

mitigations and educational tools would be 

used to reduce the human-caused sounds. 

The human-caused sounds include visitorcaused noise as well as activities that use 

mechanized tools and helicopters as the 

minimum tool, such as backcountry facilities 

maintenance, radio repeater maintenance 

and repairs, cultural and natural resources 

management projects, and trail maintenance. 

These sources of human-caused noise result 

in localized, short-term, minor to moderate 

adverse impacts to the park’s soundscapes 

and acoustic environment. In very low-level 

ambient soundscapes, like the wild/primitive 

zones, noises are much more audible, and 

have greater impacts on the soundscape. The 

best management practices and educational 

tools would help reduce the amount of 

human-caused noise and allow natural 

sounds to dominate.

Under the preferred alternative, the park 

would implement a soundscape monitoring 

program and subsequently develop a 

soundscape management plan. This would 

have long-term minor to moderate beneficial 

impacts to the park’s soundscapes and 

acoustic environment.

If lands are acquired as described under 

the proposed boundary modifications, 

future planning would determine what, if 

any, impacts there would be on the park’s 

soundscapes and acoustic environment.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

The cumulative impacts would be the same as 

those identified for the no-action alternative.

CONCLUSION

The actions included under the preferred 

alternative would result in short-term minor 

to moderate and long-term negligible to 

minor adverse impacts, and long-term minor 

to moderate beneficial impacts on the park’s 

soundscapes and acoustic environment. The 

level of impact is dependent on the action, 

the duration of each activity, and the location 

of the activity. Cumulative adverse impacts 

would be minor to major and adverse. This 

alternative’s contribution to these effects 

would be very small.

ALTERNATIVE 3— The impacts from 

Alternative 3 would be similar to those 

described for the preferred alternative.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

The cumulative impacts would be the same as 

those identified for the no-action alternative.

CONCLUSION

The activities and conditions included under 

Alternative 3 would result in short-term minor 

to moderate and long-term negligible to 

minor adverse impacts, and long-term minor 

to moderate beneficial impacts on the park’s 

soundscapes and acoustic environment. 

The level of impact is dependent on the 

action, the duration of each activity, and the 

location of the activity. Cumulative impacts 

would be minor to major and adverse. This 

alternative’s contribution to these effects 

would be very small.

Cultural Resources

ARCHEOLOGICAL RESOURCES / HISTORIC 

STRUCTURES / CULTURAL LANDSCAPES

Potential impacts to those resources listed or 

eligible for listing in the National Register of 

Historic Places (NRHP) were identified and 

evaluated. The cultural resources considered 

include archeological resources, cultural 

landscapes, traditional cultural properties, 

museum collections, and historic structures. 

Evaluation was done in accordance with the 

Advisory Council on Historic Preservation’s 

regulations implementing Section 106 of the 

National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, as 

amended (36 CFR 800, Protection of Historic 

Properties). This evaluation was done by (1) 

determining the area of potential effects; (2) 

identifying cultural resources in the area of 

potential effects that are listed in or eligible for 

listing in the national register; (3) applying the 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES | 311 

criteria of adverse effect to affected resources; 

and (4) considering ways to avoid, minimize 

or mitigate adverse effects. Information 

used in this assessment was obtained from 

relevant literature and documentation, maps, 

and consultation with cultural resource 

professionals, as well as from interdisciplinary 

team meetings, field trips, and site visits.

Under the regulations of the Advisory Council 

on Historic Preservation, a determination 

of adverse effect or no adverse effect must be 

made for affected national register-listed or 

national register-eligible cultural resources. 

An adverse effect occurs whenever an 

action alters, directly or indirectly, any of 

the characteristics of a cultural resource 

that qualify it for inclusion in the national 

register; that is, the action diminishes the 

integrity of the resource’s location, design, 

setting, materials, workmanship, feeling, 

or association. Adverse effects also include 

reasonably foreseeable effects caused by the 

alternative that would occur later in time, be 

farther removed in distance, or be cumulative 

(36 CRF 800.5(a)(1)). A determination of no 

adverse effect means there is an effect, but the 

effect would not meet the criteria of adverse 

effect (36 CFR 800.5(b)).

The thresholds of change for the intensity of 

an impact are defined as follows.

Negligible: The effects on cultural 

resources would be at the lowest 

levels of detection, barely measurable 

without any perceptible consequences, 

either beneficial or adverse to cultural 

landscape resources, traditional cultural 

properties, historic structures, or 

archeological resources. For the purposes 

of Section 106 and the National Historic 

Preservation Act, the determination of 

effect would be no adverse effect.

Minor: The effects on cultural resources 

would be perceptible or measurable, but 

would be slight and localized within a 

relatively small area. The action would 

not affect the character or diminish 

the character-defining features of 

a national register-eligible or listed 

cultural landscape, historic structure, or 

archeological site, and it would not have 

a permanent effect on the integrity of 

any such resources. For the purposes of 

Section 106 and the National Historic 

Preservation Act, the determination of 

effect would be no adverse effect.

Moderate: The effects would be 

perceptible and measurable. The action 

would change one or more characterdefining features of a cultural resource, 

but would not diminish the integrity of 

the resource to the extent that its NRHP

eligibility would be entirely lost. For the 

purposes of Section 106 and the National 

Historic Preservation Act, the cultural 

resources’ NRHP eligibility would be 

threatened and the determination of 

effect would be adverse effect.

Major: The effects on cultural resources 

would be substantial, discernible, 

measurable, and permanent. For NRHP

eligible or listed cultural landscapes, 

traditional cultural properties, historic 

structures, or archeological sites, the 

action would change one or more 

character-defining features, diminishing 

the integrity of the resource to the 

extent that it would no longer be eligible 

for listing in the national register. For 

purposes of Section 106, national 

register eligibility would be lost and the 

determination of effect would be adverse 

effect. If an adverse effect was anticipated, 

an appropriate mitigation strategy would 

be developed in consultation with the 

park’s Kūpuna Consultation Group 

and Hawai‘i State Historic Preservation 

Division. In addition, a memorandum 

of agreement, in accordance with 36 

CFR Part 800.6 Resolution of Adverse 

Effects, would be negotiated between 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park and 

the Hawai‘i State Historic Preservation 

Division (and/or the Advisory Council 

on Historic Preservation, if necessary). 

The memorandum of agreement 

would stipulate how the adverse effects 

would be mitigated.
312 | chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

The relationships between definitions 

of effects, including beneficial effects, 

and treatments of cultural resources, are 

analyzed in the impact analysis for each 

of the alternatives. Levels of beneficial 

effect are not directly linked to specific 

types of treatments; rather they depend on 

the particular treatment of given cultural 

resources. All treatments proposed under all 

of the alternatives would be in accordance 

with the Secretary of the Interior’s Standards 

for the Treatment of Historic Properties. 

All treatments proposed under all of the 

alternatives would have no adverse effect on 

known cultural resources.

ALTERNATIVE 1 (NO ACTION)— The noaction alternative is required by the National 

Environmental Policy Act and provides the 

baseline from which to compare the other 

alternatives. Under Alternative 1, current 

management practices would continue, as 

funding allows. The emphasis in the no-action 

alternative would be to protect the values of 

the park without substantially increasing staff, 

programs, funding support, or facilities.

ARCHEOLOGICAL RESOURCES

Under the no-action alternative new 

archeological surveys would continue to 

be completed primarily in response to 

specific actions which trigger Section 106 

(NHPA) compliance. Ongoing assessment 

of known and recorded sites would 

continue to meet legal requirements by park 

staff as time permits, but the backlog of 

condition assessment documentation would 

continue to grow.

Resources adjacent to or easily accessible 

from trails, roads, campgrounds, and picnic 

areas would continue to be vulnerable to 

surface disturbance, inadvertent damage, 

and vandalism. Loss of surface archeological 

materials, alteration of artifact distribution, 

and a reduction of contextual evidence 

could result in loss of site integrity. However, 

continued ranger patrol and staff presence 

in the park would discourage inadvertent 

destruction of cultural remains and vandalism, 

and no adverse effects would be anticipated. 

The greatest threat to cultural resources is 

lava flows. If documentation of sites is not 

completed prior to lava flows, the information 

will be lost forever. Active volcanism also 

threatens the park’s ability to document 

resources due to earth cracks, hazardous 

fumes, and dangerous terrain.

The implementation of the Archeological 

Preservation Plan for Kealakomo Ahupua‘a 

would improve the interpretation and 

preservation of the archeological resources 

found there. The plan includes sites to be 

interpreted, site preparation to mitigate 

impacts to sensitive resources, and guidance 

for managing the natural and cultural 

resources in the area. The implementation 

of this plan would have long-term 

negligible to minor beneficial impacts to 

archeological resources.

As appropriate, additional archeological 

surveys and/or monitoring would precede 

any ground disturbing activities, such as 

road and trail maintenance, consistent with 

the mitigation measures outlined in this 

plan as well as any project specific measures 

necessary. National register-eligible or listed 

archeological resources would be avoided to 

the greatest extent possible and no adverse 

effects would be anticipated.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

Because much of the park has not been 

surveyed and inventoried, it is possible that 

archeological sites have been disturbed by 

past development, construction, management 

actions, and natural processes. Past, present, 

and future actions and processes include past 

grazing and land clearing, the construction of 

facilities, prescribed burns, trail rehabilitation 

and relocation, rehabilitation of park roads, 

effects of climatic conditions, visitor use, 

unintentional disturbance, vandalism, and 

artifact hunting.

Land clearing, grazing, and the development 

and expansion of communities near the park 

have also disturbed archeological resources 

outside the park boundaries. Lava flows 

have resulted in the loss of archeological 

and historic resources, such as the cultural 

resources covered by the Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō flows 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES | 313 

since 1983. In addition, changing climate 

patterns, such as projected sea-level rise 

and increased storm surges could impact 

archeological resources near the coast. The 

above factors have had and may continue 

to have adverse effects on archeological 

resources. Implementation of the no-action 

alternative would contribute very little to 

the overall adverse cumulative effects on 

archeological resources.

CONCLUSION

Under the no-action alternative, the 

continuation of current management to 

preserve and document archeological 

resources in keeping with NPS responsibilities 

as they pertain to NHPA, would result in 

beneficial impacts. There would be negligible 

to minor adverse impacts due to limited 

understanding of the extent of archeological 

resources and current planned actions, 

resulting in a determination of no adverse 

effect under Section 106. The implementation 

of the Archeological Preservation Plan 

for Kealakomo Ahupua‘a would result in 

negligible to minor beneficial impacts. The 

overall cumulative impacts would be adverse; 

however, the actions proposed in this 

alternative would be a very small component 

of that cumulative impact. 

HISTORIC STRUCTURES AND 

CULTURAL LANDSCAPES

Historic structures and cultural landscapes 

would continue to be surveyed, inventoried, 

and evaluated under National Register of 

Historic Places criteria to determine their 

eligibility for listing in the national register, 

as funding is available. Current preservation 

maintenance would continue on historic 

structures and cultural landscapes within the 

park. Designed park landscapes including 

park road systems, developed areas, park trail 

systems, and associated features would be 

stabilized and preserved consistent with the 

Secretary of the Interior’s Standards for the 

Treatment of Historic Properties (1995).

The no-action alternative would be expected 

to have no adverse effects on historic 

structures and cultural landscapes. The 

continued program of cultural resources 

management in the park, including 

preservation and maintenance activities, 

would have negligible to minor beneficial 

impacts on these resources. Volcanic 

and seismic activity would continue to 

threaten historic structures and cultural 

landscapes in the park.

The park would continue to develop baseline 

inventories for historic buildings, structures, 

and cultural landscapes. The completion of 

these baseline inventories would directly 

benefit the public by providing new 

information to supplement the interpretive 

program at the park, resulting in long-term, 

beneficial impacts on historic buildings, 

structures, and cultural landscapes.

The park would carry out preservation 

maintenance on historic structures. Those 

historic structures and cultural landscapes 

located in wilderness would be stabilized and 

preserved according to the pertinent laws 

and policies governing cultural resources 

and wilderness, using management methods 

that are consistent with the preservation of 

wilderness character and values and with the 

Secretary of the Interior’s Standards for the 

Treatment of Historic Properties (1995).

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

In the no-action alternative, the park would 

continue to follow current management 

objectives, preserving and maintaining 

cultural resources in the park. To 

appropriately preserve and protect historic 

buildings, structures, and cultural landscapes 

that are listed or eligible for listing on the 

National Register of Historic Places, all 

stabilization, preservation, and rehabilitation 

efforts, as well as daily, cyclical, and seasonal 

maintenance, would be undertaken in 

accordance with the Secretary of Interior’s 

Standards for the Treatment of Historic 

Properties (1995). Stabilization, preservation, 

and rehabilitation would have negligible to 

minor beneficial impacts on historic buildings, 

structures, or cultural landscapes which 

would be equivalent to no adverse effect.

Over the years historic structures and cultural 

landscapes in the park have been adversely 
314 | chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

affected by natural processes, volcanic events, 

and wear and tear associated with visitor 

access, administrative use, and deferred 

maintenance. In some instances placement 

and location of campgrounds, trails, parking 

lots, and other visitor use and administrative 

facilities have also adversely affected historic 

structures and cultural landscapes resulting 

in moderate cumulative adverse effects. In 

addition, some structures were removed 

or modified in the past that may have been 

considered historic today. Under climate 

change projections, these resources will also 

likely be affected by changes in vegetation that 

could impact the integrity of historic buildings 

and surrounding cultural landscapes.

Overall, the cumulative effects would be 

long-term, minor to moderate, adverse, 

and beneficial. Alternative 1 would provide 

beneficial effects to historic structures and 

cultural landscapes and would not contribute 

to the adverse cumulative effects.

CONCLUSION

The implementation of the no-action 

alternative would have no adverse effect 

on the historic structures and cultural 

landscapes of Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park. The continued program of cultural 

resources management in the park, including 

preservation and maintenance activities, 

would have negligible to minor beneficial 

impacts on these resources. The cumulative 

effects from past activities could have 

adversely affected these resources. Ongoing 

cultural resource management, such as the 

identification, preservation, and maintenance 

of historic structures and cultural landscapes, 

has resulted in minor beneficial cumulative 

effects, resulting in no adverse effect. This 

alternative would contribute modestly to 

the overall beneficial cumulative effects, 

and would not contribute to the adverse 

cumulative effects. There would be no 

impairment to this resource or value as a result 

of implementing this alternative.

ALTERNATIVE 2 (PREFERRED)—

ARCHEOLOGICAL RESOURCES

Under the preferred alternative, the park 

would expand the cultural resource program 

to include a permanent archeology program 

which would result in long-term moderate 

beneficial impacts due to the enhanced ability 

to document, monitor, and protect resources 

overall and not just for specific projects.

Under this alternative most of the park 

roads, trails, and facilities would be kept in 

their current locations. In the Kīlauea Unit, 

some new trails would be developed, some 

facilities would be relocated, and some 

parking areas would be expanded. In the 

Kahuku Unit, new trails and visitor facilities 

would be developed following a future DCP. 

Known archeological resources would be 

avoided to the greatest extent possible, 

and as appropriate, archeological surveys, 

monitoring, and/or mitigations would precede 

any ground disturbance associated with 

construction or demolition.

The implementation of the Archeological 

Preservation Plan for Kealakomo Ahupua‘a 

would improve the interpretation and 

preservation of the archeological resources 

found there. The plan includes sites to be 

interpreted, site preparation to mitigate 

impacts to sensitive resources, and guidance 

for managing the natural and cultural 

resources in the area. The implementation 

of this plan would have long-term beneficial 

impacts to archeological resources.

The proposed boundary adjustments under 

the preferred alternative would have longterm beneficial impacts on archeological 

resources due of the protection of significant 

archeological resources in the proposed lands.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

The cumulative impacts would be the same as 

those identified for the no-action alternative.

CONCLUSION

Under the preferred alternative, there would 

be long-term moderate beneficial impacts 

from the enhanced ability to document and 

protect archeological resources. Through 

proper planning and mitigations, the proposed 

actions, such as new trails and visitor facilities, 

would have negligible to minor adverse 

impacts on archeological resources.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES | 315 

HISTORIC STRUCTURES AND 

CULTURAL LANDSCAPES

Keeping historic road alignments and 

associated corridors would ensure the 

preservation of elements of the road that are 

historic, which would have beneficial impacts 

on historic structures and landscapes.

The improvement proposed for Hilina 

Pali and Mauna Loa Roads could change 

the character of these historic roads if the 

turnouts and interpretive improvements are 

not carefully designed. Similarly, planning 

and mitigation would be necessary for 

other improvements proposed such as at 

the Footprints area, Kahuku, sites along 

Chain of Craters Road, and so on, to ensure 

historic structures and cultural landscapes 

were protected. Prior to implementing the 

preferred alternative, proper site-specific 

planning would be conducted to ensure any 

improvements do not impact the integrity of 

the historic roads, trails, and other cultural 

resources found in these areas.

Reuse of cultural resources, like historic trails 

and routes, such as the Kahuku-‘Ainapō 

Trail or the Kalapana Trail, Native Hawaiian 

agricultural fields in lower Kahuku, and the 

historic water system at Kahuku would be a 

beneficial impact through the preservation 

and maintenance of the historic resources.

Historic structures and cultural landscapes 

would continue to be surveyed, inventoried, 

and evaluated under National Register of 

Historic Places criteria to determine their 

eligibility for listing in the national register 

as funding is available. Current preservation 

maintenance would continue on historic 

structures and cultural landscapes within 

the park. Preservation and maintenance of 

historic structures and cultural landscapes 

would follow Historic Structure Reports and 

Cultural Landscape Reports, when available. 

Designed park landscapes including park road 

systems, developed areas, park trail systems, 

and associated features would be stabilized 

and preserved consistent with the Secretary 

of the Interior’s Standards for the Treatment of 

Historic Properties (1995).

The park would carry out preservation 

maintenance on historic structures. Those 

historic structures and cultural landscapes 

located in wilderness would be stabilized and 

preserved according to the pertinent laws 

and policies governing cultural resources 

and wilderness, using management methods 

that are consistent with the preservation of 

wilderness character and values, consistent 

with the Secretary of the Interior’s Standards 

for the Treatment of Historic Properties (1995).

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

The cumulative impacts would be the same as 

those identified for the no-action alternative.

CONCLUSION

Upon implementation of the preferred 

alternative, additional site-specific planning 

would be conducted to ensure any 

improvements do not impact the integrity of 

the historic roads, trails, and other cultural 

resources found in these areas. Impacts 

from the preferred alternative would be both 

beneficial and adverse, and negligible to minor 

impacts to historic resources and cultural 

landscapes, with proper site-specific planning 

and implementation of mitigations where 

necessary. This alternative would contribute 

modestly to the overall beneficial cumulative 

effects, and would contribute very little to the 

adverse cumulative effects.

ALTERNATIVE 3—

ARCHEOLOGICAL RESOURCES

Alternative 3 proposes less development of 

visitor facilities, therefore the potential to 

impact archeological resources would be 

less than under the preferred alternative. 

However, the same strategies for avoidance 

and mitigation would apply to Alternative 

3, resulting in similar impact levels to those 

described under Alternative 2.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

The cumulative impacts would be the same as 

those identified for the no-action alternative.

CONCLUSION

Under Alternative 3, there would be long-term 

negligible to minor beneficial impacts from 

the enhanced ability to document and protect 
316 | chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

archeological resources. Through proper 

planning and mitigations, the proposed 

actions, such as new trails and visitor facilities, 

would have negligible to minor adverse 

impacts on archeological resources. This 

alternative would contribute modestly to 

the overall beneficial cumulative effects, and 

would contribute very little to the adverse 

cumulative effects.

HISTORIC STRUCTURES AND 

CULTURAL LANDSCAPES

The impacts to the historic structures and 

cultural landscapes are the same as described 

under Alternative 2, except for the following.

To make the Volcano House energy 

independent through a photovoltaic system, 

an off-site location may need to be selected 

to avoid an adverse effect to the historic 

structure or the cultural landscape. However, 

this may depend on what technology is 

available when the conversion is completed; 

therefore further planning and compliance 

would need to be completed in the future to 

ensure the impacts are minimized.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

The cumulative impacts would be the same as 

those identified for the no-action alternative.

CONCLUSION

Prior to implementing Alternative 3, proper 

site-specific planning would be conducted 

to ensure any improvements do not impact 

the integrity of the historic roads, trails, 

and other cultural resources found in these 

areas. Impacts from Alternative 3 would be 

beneficial and adverse. With proper sitespecific planning and implementation of 

mitigations where necessary, the adverse 

impacts from Alternative 3 would be negligible 

to minor. This alternative would contribute 

modestly to the overall beneficial cumulative 

effects, and would contribute very little to the 

adverse cumulative effects. There would be no 

impairment to this resource or value as a result 

of implementing this alternative.

ETHNOGRAPHIC RESOURCES 

The intensity of potential impacts on 

ethnographic resources is described below:

Negligible: Impacts would be at the 

lowest levels of detection and would 

neither alter resource conditions, such 

as traditional access or site preservation, 

nor the relationship between the resource 

and the affiliated group’s body of 

practices and beliefs. For the purposes 

of Section 106 of the National Historic 

Preservation Act, the determination of 

effect would be no adverse effect.

Minor: Impacts would be perceptible 

or measurable, but would be slight and 

localized within a relatively small area 

and would neither appreciably alter 

resource conditions, such as traditional 

access or site preservation, nor the 

relationship between the resource and 

the affiliated group’s body of practices 

and beliefs. For the purposes of Section 

106 of the National Historic Preservation 

Act, the determination of effect would be 

no adverse effect.

Moderate: Impacts would be apparent 

and would alter resource conditions. 

Something would interfere with 

traditional access, site preservation, or the 

relationship between the resource and 

the affiliated group’s practices and beliefs, 

even though the group’s practices and 

beliefs would survive. For the purposes 

of Section 106 of the National Historic 

Preservation Act, the determination of 

effect would be adverse effect.

Major: Impacts would alter resource 

conditions. Something would block 

or greatly affect traditional access, 

site preservation, or the relationship 

between the resource and the affiliated 

group’s body of practices and beliefs, to 

the extent that the survival of a group’s 

practices and/or beliefs would be 

jeopardized. For the purposes of Section 

106 of the National Historic Preservation 

Act, the determination of effect would 

be adverse effect. A memorandum 

of agreement, in accordance with 36 

CFR Part 800.6 Resolution of Adverse 

Effects, would be negotiated between 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park and 

the Hawai‘i State Historic Preservation 

Division (and/or the Advisory Council 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES | 317 

on Historic Preservation, if necessary). 

The memorandum of agreement 

would stipulate how the adverse effects 

would be mitigated.

Beneficial impact: Would allow access 

to and/or accommodate a group’s 

traditional practices or beliefs. For 

the purposes of Section 106 of the 

National Historic Preservation Act, the 

determination of effect would be no 

adverse effect.

ALTERNATIVE 1 (NO ACTION)— 

The park would continue to promote 

and encourage Native Hawaiians to 

participate in the development and/or 

execution of interpretive programs and the 

development of exhibits.

Inadvertent visitor use and park-related 

actions could potentially impact ethnographic 

resources resulting in negligible to minor 

long-term adverse impacts. However, the 

National Park Service would continue 

ongoing consultation and coordination with 

affiliated Native Hawaiians (such as through 

the Kūpuna Consultation Group) to address 

matters of mutual concern on parklands.

The National Park Service would continue 

to allow Native Hawaiian access to culturally 

important sites to promote traditional 

practices and beliefs. Under provisions of 

the Native American Graves Protection and 

Repatriation Act, the National Park Service 

would facilitate repatriation of cultural 

materials and remains to Native Hawaiians. 

Although there are some beneficial effects 

associated with this alternative, overall, 

actions under this alternative would have 

negligible to minor long-term adverse impacts 

on ethnographic resources in the park.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

Park development and administrative/

maintenance operations, as well as increasing 

visitor use of the national park since its 

establishment, have had and are continuing 

to have cumulative minor long-term 

adverse impacts on ethnographic resources. 

Under climate change projections, these 

resources may be affected by changes in 

vegetation that could impact the integrity of 

ethnographic resources.

There would be a continuing loss of 

ethnographic resources outside of the park 

due to development of private lands. As the 

sacred sites outside the park are lost over time, 

those remaining in the park have become 

more important to Native Hawaiians.

The no-action alternative’s contribution to 

these minor long-term cumulative adverse 

impacts on ethnographic resources would be 

small. NPS staff would continue consultation 

with affiliated Native Hawaiians (such as 

through the Kūpuna Consultation Group) to 

address matters of mutual concern.

CONCLUSION

Actions under the no-action alternative 

would generally have negligible to minor 

long-term adverse impacts on ethnographic 

resources in the national park. The noaction alternative would also contribute a 

small and adverse increment to the minor 

long-term adverse cumulative impacts on 

ethnographic resources.

ALTERNATIVE 2 (PREFERRED)—In addition 

to the actions discussed under the noaction alternative, the following would 

apply to Alternative 2. Under the preferred 

alternative, the park would enhance 

knowledge, management, and protection of 

ethnographic resources, resulting in a minor 

to moderate beneficial long-term impact to 

those resources.

New trails would need to carefully consider 

ethnographic resources when determining 

alignment, width, and tread to avoid 

impacting resources. Even with proper 

alignment, there could be negligible to 

minor adverse impacts on ethnographic 

resources in some areas.

The proposed boundary adjustments under 

the preferred alternative would have longterm beneficial impacts on ethnographic 

resources due to the protection of significant 
318 | chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

ethnographic resources in the proposed 

land acquisition.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

The cumulative impacts would be the same as 

those identified for the no-action alternative.

CONCLUSION

Actions under the preferred alternative would 

have minor to moderate long-term beneficial 

impacts and negligible to minor long-term 

adverse impacts on ethnographic resources 

in the park. The preferred alternative would 

also contribute very little to the minor 

long-term adverse cumulative impacts on 

ethnographic resources.

ALTERNATIVE 3— The impacts would be 

similar as those described under the preferred 

alternative with the following differences.

To make the Volcano House energy 

independent through a photovoltaic system, 

an off-site location may need to be selected 

to avoid an adverse effect to the historic 

structure or the cultural landscape. Any 

off-site location would need to be evaluated 

for ethnographic resources to ensure any 

impacts are minimized.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

The cumulative impacts would be the same as 

those identified for the no-action alternative.

CONCLUSION

Actions under Alternative 3 would have minor 

to moderate long-term beneficial impacts and 

negligible to minor long-term adverse impacts 

on ethnographic resources in the park. 

Alternative 3 would also contribute very little 

to the minor long-term adverse cumulative 

impacts on ethnographic resources.

Visitor Use and Experience

This impact analysis considers various aspects 

of visitor use and experience at Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park, including the effects 

on the range of recreational opportunities 

and opportunities for orientation, education, 

and interpretation.

Impacts on visitor use and experience were 

determined considering the best available 

information regarding visitor use and 

experience. Information on visitor use and 

visitor opinions was taken from a survey of 

visitors conducted by the University of Idaho 

in March 2007 and compiled by Holmes 

and Hollenhorst (2008). This information 

was supplemented by data gathered during 

the planning process for this management 

plan, including opinions from national park 

visitors and neighbors and information 

provided by park staff.

The analysis is primarily qualitative rather 

than quantitative due to the conceptual nature 

of the alternatives. Professional judgment 

was used to reach reasonable conclusions 

regarding the intensity, duration, and type of 

potential impact.

The thresholds of change for the intensity of 

an impact are defined as follows.

Negligible: Visitors would likely be 

unaware of any effects associated with 

implementation of the alternative.

Minor: Changes in visitor use and/

or experience would be slight but 

detectable, would affect few visitors, and 

would not appreciably limit or enhance 

experiences identified as fundamental to 

the park’s purpose and significance.

Moderate: Some characteristics of visitor 

use and/or experience would change, and 

many visitors would likely be aware of the 

effects associated with implementation 

of the alternative; some changes to 

experiences identified as fundamental 

to the park’s purpose and significance 

would be apparent.

Major: Multiple characteristics of visitor 

experience would change, including 

experiences identified as fundamental 

to park purpose and significance; most 

visitors would be aware of the effects 

associated with implementation of 

the alternative.

ALTERNATIVE 1 (NO ACTION)—

RANGE OF RECREATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES

In the no-action alternative, visitor 

experiences of the park’s resources would 

continue to be mostly positive. Visitors 

would continue to have access to highquality recreational opportunities, including 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES | 319 

experiencing the park’s world treasures, 

iconic landscapes, and wide range of 

ecosystems. Visitors would continue to have 

a menu of options for experiencing the park 

depending on the length of stay, interests, and 

capabilities. Therefore, continuing to provide 

these high-quality opportunities would result 

in a continued long-term moderate beneficial 

impact for visitors.

During scoping, most respondents 

acknowledged their enjoyment of the 

park’s recreational opportunities and 

suggested that the amount of opportunities 

should be maintained close to current 

levels. This alternative would increase the 

opportunities slightly, with the increase 

in visitor opportunities at Kahuku and 

Kealakomowaena, resulting in long-term 

moderate beneficial impacts. However, 

during scoping, some respondents mentioned 

the need for increased opportunities for 

bicyclists and additional picnic areas. 

Bicycling opportunities and picnic sites would 

remain the same in this alternative, resulting 

in a continuing long-term minor, adverse 

impact for visitors seeking these types of 

recreational opportunities.

OPPORTUNITIES FOR ORIENTATION, EDUCATION, 

AND INTERPRETATION

The visitor survey in 2007 (Holmes and 

Hollenhorst 2008) indicated the most 

important services related to orientation 

and interpretation were the ranger-led walks 

and talks, exhibits and signs along roads and 

trails, active lava flow staff, and information 

desk staff. There are two visitor centers in the 

park that provide numerous programs and 

services for visitor orientation, education, and 

interpretation. The Kīlauea Visitor Center 

is small for the visitation it receives (2,500 

visitors per day average in 2012) and has poor 

ventilation, which can result in moderate 

adverse impacts to visitors. Jaggar Museum is 

larger and receives more visitors (4,000 visitors 

per day average in 2012), but the exhibits 

are outdated and worn resulting in a minor 

adverse impact to visitors. The park would 

continue to provide a variety of interpretive 

and educational programs, events, and guest 

speakers to engage park visitors and diverse 

audiences resulting in a moderate beneficial 

impact to visitors.

Under the no-action alternative, opportunities 

for orientation, education, and interpretation 

would continue to be offered throughout the 

park via wayside exhibits, signs, interpretive 

trails and trail guides, and visitor contact 

stations, such as at the end of Chain of 

Craters Road. In general these would 

provide moderate beneficial impacts, but 

in the case of areas that are overcapacity 

during peak periods (such as Thurston Lava 

Tube), the impacts to opportunities for 

orientation, education and interpretation 

would be moderate and adverse during peak 

periods. Off-site orientation, education, 

and interpretation would continue to be 

provided through the park’s website and 

publications. Curriculum-based programs 

would help educate students about Native 

Hawaiian ecosystems and history, resulting 

in a moderate beneficial impact to visitor 

experience as they generate curiosity, 

passion, and respect for park resources 

among students. However, the park would 

continue to not meet the demand for on-site 

educational program requests, as well as the 

on-site requests for in-person orientation 

and interpretation, so the impacts of the 

no-action alternative would also be adverse 

and moderate for those visitors that could 

not access orientation, interpretation, or 

educational programs.

The continuing use of partnerships to 

help interpretive messages reach a broader 

audience through programs, additional 

interpretive displays, and distribution of 

interpretive material and media, including 

retail, would have a minor beneficial 

impact on visitor experience through 

expanded stewardship.

During scoping, the most frequently 

mentioned education and interpretation 

need was a place or facility dedicated to 

interpreting Native Hawaiian culture and 

other cultural resources. Under the noaction alternative, the park would improve 
320 | chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

the interpretation and preservation of 

Kealakomowaena and its resources, as 

funding allows, including primary messages 

and themes for interpretive trails and signage. 

Also dependent on adequate funding, visitor 

opportunities would expand at Kahuku 

to include a visitor contact station with 

interpretive exhibits and educational material, 

as well as providing public access seven days a 

week. The improvements at Kealakomowaena 

and Kahuku would result in a long-term 

moderate beneficial impact to visitors upon 

implementation.

COMMERCIAL SERVICES AND FACILITIES

Under the no-action alternative, commercial 

services and facilities would continue at 

present levels. The concession operation 

would continue to operate as authorized 

under the existing contract. Commercial use 

authorizations would continue to be given 

to tour companies (such as bus, automobile, 

and biking tours) on a case-by-case basis 

but not by following a formal commercial 

services strategy.

Impacts under the no-action alternative 

would be long-term, minor to moderate, and 

beneficial for those uses that would continue 

at present levels, or minor to moderate 

adverse where there is more demand than 

capacity in the existing facilities. Impacts 

to services provided by CUAs would be 

beneficial to those who use the services but 

potentially adverse if these services grow to 

the point that public use is displaced.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

Ample recreational opportunities, visitor 

services, and recreation facilities would 

continue to be available both across the 

island and in areas adjacent to or in close 

proximity to the park that complement those 

available in the park.

Commercial services and facilities, including 

lodging, food services, and additional types 

of recreation, cultural, and educational 

opportunities would continue to be provided 

in the area, complementing what is available in 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park.

Climate change may influence park visitation 

and associated needs over the next two 

decades. Extreme heat events or storm events 

could also pose elevated risks to visitors 

and require adjustments in park operations 

and infrastructure (e.g. installation of 

shade structures along trails or increases in 

emergency response).

Taken as a whole, the reasonably foreseeable 

past, present and future cumulative actions 

would continue to provide diverse and 

expansive visitor experiences, recreational 

opportunities, and visitor services and 

facilities within the region, resulting in longterm moderate benefits to visitors, although 

some adverse effects would be experienced 

due to the effects of global climate change. 

The impacts above, in combination with 

the impacts of implementing the no-action 

alternative, would result in moderate longterm beneficial cumulative impacts with 

localized adverse impacts at the visitor 

centers and other high visitation areas 

during peak periods.

CONCLUSION

The full spectrum of visitor opportunities 

would continue to provide for visitor 

enjoyment and recreation activities. 

Continuing current management practices 

under the no-action alternative, little would 

change in the array of opportunities in the 

area or in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

and impacts would be minor to moderate, 

long-term, and both beneficial and adverse. 

Beneficial impacts would be from the 

continuation of existing opportunities to 

serve the needs of most visitors, as well as the 

expansion of opportunities at Kahuku and 

Kealakomowaena. Adverse impacts could 

occur from insufficient visitor orientation 

and interpretation facilities in the park, 

overcrowding in at some locations, as well as 

from limited opportunities for some modes of 

recreation (e.g., bicycling).

There would be moderate long-term 

beneficial cumulative impacts and 

localized adverse cumulative impacts on 

visitors in the park and surrounding areas. 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES | 321 

Implementation of the no-action alternative 

would have a modest contribution to these 

cumulative effects.

ALTERNATIVE 2 (PREFERRED)—

RANGE OF RECREATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES

The preferred alternative would increase 

opportunities for bicyclists and picnicking, 

which were identified as needs during 

scoping. However, some of the strategies 

that may be used to increase bicycling 

opportunities, including day-of-week or timeof-day road closures to vehicles, may result 

in an adverse impact to the visitors traveling 

only in vehicles and not able to access those 

areas. Most visitors to the park are here for a 

short duration, but education and outreach 

could reduce the adverse impact of road 

closures by enabling visitors to be prepared 

and plan for their trip accordingly. Overall, 

the impact to visitors from enhanced bicycling 

opportunities would be minor beneficial for 

those participating in bicycling opportunities, 

and potentially moderate adverse to visitors 

in vehicles, due to potential temporary road 

closures as described earlier.

There would be increased hiking 

opportunities through trail connections 

and some new trails throughout the park 

which will result in moderate beneficial 

impacts to visitors. Visitor experience 

would be enhanced through new waysides, 

informational signage, and turnouts in 

different areas.

The improvements in visitor opportunities at 

Kahuku such as campgrounds, picnic areas, 

trails, and interpretive signage would have 

moderate to major beneficial impacts on 

visitor use and experience.

Under the preferred alternative, ABA/

ADA access to visitor facilities (including 

overlooks and viewpoints) would be 

improved, where feasible. If ABA/ADA access 

cannot be accommodated for an area, other 

opportunities will be considered, such as 

large print brochures and virtual tours. The 

enhanced access would result in moderate 

beneficial impact to visitors.

The proposed boundary modifications 

would likely be beneficial for visitor use and 

experience, however the extent of the impacts 

would be determined through subsequent 

planning for use of those lands, if the 

lands are acquired.

OPPORTUNITIES FOR ORIENTATION, EDUCATION, 

AND INTERPRETATION

Under the preferred alternative, the two 

visitor centers in the park would undergo 

improvements that would enhance the 

programs, services, and conditions for visitor 

orientation, education, and interpretation. 

Rehabilitation and conversion of the Ohia 

Wing to a cultural museum would be 

beneficial for visitors because this type of 

facility and service has not been available 

to visitors since the Waha‘ula Visitor Center 

was taken by lava. There would be beneficial 

impacts from the addition of educational 

pavilions, enhancement of ranger-led and 

live programs, as well as increased self-guided 

opportunities. The park would also engage 

visitors in resource management activities for 

hands-on interpretation and stewardship. The 

improvements to visitor facilities and increase 

in opportunities for visitor orientation, 

interpretation, and education would result 

in a moderate to major beneficial impact to 

opportunities for orientation, education, 

and interpretation.

The increase in opportunities for orientation, 

education, and interpretation at the Kahuku 

Unit would have moderate to major beneficial 

impacts on visitor use and experience.

COMMERCIAL SERVICES AND FACILITIES

Under the preferred alternative, any new 

commercial services would be evaluated 

under the commercial services strategy before 

authorizing any new activities or significant 

changes to existing activities. The strategy 

would prevent commercial activities or use 

levels from impacting the general public’s 

enjoyment of the park resources, which would 

result in no adverse impact to visitors use or 

experience. The concession operation would 

continue to operate as authorized under the 

existing contract, with any potential changes 

occurring under the next contract.
322 | chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

The cumulative impacts would be the same as 

those identified for the no-action alternative.

CONCLUSION

The full spectrum of visitor opportunities 

would provide for visitor enjoyment and 

recreational activities. Under the preferred 

alternative, there would be an increase in 

opportunities to serve the needs of visitors, 

as well as the expansion of opportunities, 

such as at the Kahuku Unit, which would have 

minor to major, long-term beneficial impacts. 

Moderate adverse impacts could occur from 

time-of-day/day-of-week restrictions on 

vehicles in the Kīlauea Unit of the park.

There would be moderate long-term 

beneficial cumulative impacts and 

localized adverse cumulative impacts on 

visitors in the park and surrounding areas. 

Implementation of the preferred alternative 

would have a greater contribution to these 

cumulative effects when compared to the noaction alternative.

ALTERNATIVE 3—

RANGE OF RECREATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES

The range of recreational opportunities 

would be similar to those described under 

the preferred alternative, therefore the 

impact levels would also be similar with the 

following differences.

Under Alternative 3, no private vehicles 

would be allowed on Crater Rim between 

Jaggar Museum and Chain of Craters Road. 

However, shuttles and commercial vehicles 

would be allowed, so visitor access would 

be provided if future conditions allow the 

road to be reopened. Similarly, at Thurston 

Lava Tube, private vehicle parking would 

be prohibited, but other parking areas and 

shuttles would be available. Therefore, all 

visitors will still be able to experience these 

areas, but would need to access them without 

a private vehicle. Since the majority of the park 

visitors come in a private vehicle, the impact 

would be moderate to major and adverse. 

This impact may be lessened with extensive 

outreach and education to assist visitors in 

appropriate trip planning.

A similar range of recreational opportunities 

would also be found at Kahuku except there 

would be less developed areas (smaller and 

fewer campgrounds, no trailhead off Old 

Mamalahoa Highway), therefore the reduced 

recreational opportunities would be less 

beneficial than the preferred alternative.

OPPORTUNITIES FOR ORIENTATION, EDUCATION, 

AND INTERPRETATION

The opportunities for orientation, education, 

and interpretation would be similar to 

those described under the preferred 

alternative; therefore the impact levels would 

also be similar.

COMMERCIAL SERVICES AND  FACILITIES

Any new commercial services would be 

evaluated under the commercial services 

strategy before authorizing any new activities 

or significant changes to existing activities. 

The strategy would prevent commercial 

activities or use levels from impacting the 

general public’s enjoyment of the park 

resources. The concession operation would 

continue to operate as authorized under the 

existing contract, with any potential changes 

occurring under the next contract.

Under Alternative 3, there would be no 

commercial services at Kahuku which would 

result in minor to moderate adverse impact 

for those visitors that would have otherwise 

visited Kahuku with a commercial service, 

such as an auto or hiking tour.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

The cumulative impacts would be the same as 

those identified for the no-action alternative.

CONCLUSION

The full spectrum of visitor opportunities 

would provide for visitor enjoyment and 

recreational activities. Under Alternative 3, 

there would be an increase in opportunities 

to serve the needs of visitors, as well as the 

expansion of opportunities, such as at the 

Kahuku Unit which would result in minor to 

major, long-term beneficial impacts. Moderate 

to major adverse impacts could occur from 

restrictions on private vehicles on a section 

of Crater Rim Drive and time-of-day/day-
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES | 323 

of-week restrictions for vehicles on Mauna 

Loa and Hilina Pali Roads, as well as the 

prohibition of commercial services at the 

Kahuku Unit of the park.

There would be moderate long-term 

beneficial cumulative impacts and localized 

adverse cumulative impacts on visitors in 

the park and surrounding areas. Alternative 

3 would have a greater contribution to 

the cumulative effects, particularly the 

adverse impacts, when compared to the 

preferred alternative.

Transportation and Access

The impact analysis evaluates how each 

alternative would change access and visitation 

and the capacity of roads and facilities 

in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park to 

accommodate that change. Access addresses 

the distribution of visitors in Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park as well as access 

points and access options (motorized and 

non-motorized) to areas in Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park. Beneficial impacts would be 

associated with a decrease in the level of 

visitor congestion. Adverse impacts would be 

associated with the actions that reduce access 

to an area or increase the level of congestion.

The thresholds of change for the intensity of 

an impact are as follows:

Negligible: The effects would not be 

detectable and would have no discernible 

effect on the condition of roads and trails 

and/or traffic flow.

Minor: The effect would be slightly 

detectable, but there would not be an 

overall effect on the condition of roads 

and trails and/or traffic flow.

Moderate: Impacts would be clearly 

detectable, and the action could have an 

appreciable effect on the condition of 

roads and trails and/or traffic flow.

Major: Impacts would be substantial, 

with a highly noticeable influence, and 

the condition of roads and trails and/or 

traffic flow could be permanently altered.

ALTERNATIVE 1 (NO ACTION)— Under this 

alternative, access to the park for visitors 

would not change from current levels or 

conditions; however, based upon continuation 

of existing trends in the annual visitation, the 

number of visitors to the park is expected to 

increase slightly over the long term. 

The increase in annual visitation is likely to 

result in more visitors during peak use period 

(between 10:00 a.m. and 2:00 p.m.). Most of 

the additional visitors are expected to travel 

to the most popular destinations such as the 

two visitor centers, Thurston Lava Tube, and 

the end of Chain of Craters Road. The pilot 

project for the hydrogen shuttle would be 

implemented in the no-action alternative. This 

may result in a slight decrease in crowding 

and congestion at Thurston Lava Tube. The 

potential increase in crowding and congestion 

due to the increase in visitation would result 

in minor to moderate adverse impacts, 

depending on time-of-day and location. 

Overall, the transportation system would be 

affected by increased annual visitation and 

its influence on access to the park, roadway 

capacity, parking capacity, alternative 

transportation, and health and safety.

The park roads and parking lots would be 

maintained with no major new or expanded 

parking areas. The park would continue to 

provide safe access to the volcanic features, 

as well as natural and cultural resources, and 

would continue to rely on education of the 

visitors to manage congestion. There would 

continue to be disturbance from visitors’ 

parking in undesignated areas on road 

shoulders and natural areas. This situation 

creates safety and access problems for 

visitors, and resource protection issues for 

park resources.

At Kahuku, there would be no change to 

the transportation system, except for safety 

improvements at the park entrance. Vehicle 

access to Upper Glover would continue, 

but the road would be most suitable for 

high clearance vehicles beyond the upper 

Palm Trailhead. There would continue to 

be no public access beyond Upper Glover. 

Due to the limited access at Kahuku, the 
324 | chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

impact would be long-term, minor to 

moderate, and adverse.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

Potential on-going and future actions could 

include general road, trail, or parking lot 

maintenance and various types of work 

on Highway 11 by Hawai‘i Department 

of Transportation. Although traffic delays 

may occur during road projects, there is no 

planned expansion of roadway capacity, and 

visitors would not likely alter their travel 

destinations. Occasional road, trail, or parking 

lot closures due to fire, lava flows, air quality, 

or seismic activity may occur. Overall impacts 

to access due to these cumulative impacts 

would be negligible.

CONCLUSION

The impacts on continuing current 

management on access and transportation 

would result in adverse, minor to moderate 

impacts parkwide and negligible beneficial 

impacts for the Thurston Lava Tube area due 

to the shuttle pilot program. Access would 

be most impacted during the peak period of 

visitation (mid-day) at popular destinations. 

The cumulative impacts would contribute 

a small amount to the impacts of the noaction alternative.

ALTERNATIVE 2 (PREFERRED)— Under 

the preferred alternative, there would be 

improved access to the park for visitors, 

including compliance with ADA/ABA

standards, where feasible. The pilot project for 

the hydrogen shuttle would be implemented 

and expanded in the preferred alternative. 

This may result in a decrease in crowding 

and congestion at Thurston Lava Tube. In 

addition, a pilot program may be tested to 

further reduce congestion by restricting 

access for large commercial vehicles on the 

southern portion of Crater Rim Drive to 

one-way traffic. 

Overall, the transportation system would 

be affected by potential increased annual 

visitation and its influence on access to the 

park, roadway capacity, parking capacity, 

alternative transportation, and health and 

safety. To further reduce crowding and 

congestion, demand management strategies 

would be implemented, which would 

reduce the adverse impacts of crowding 

and congestion.

There would be expansion of some of the 

parking areas, such as at Kīlauea Visitor 

Center, and reconfiguration of other parking 

areas, such as Kīlauea Iki. There would be 

no major new parking areas. There would 

be fewer disturbances from visitors’ parking 

in undesignated areas on road shoulders 

and natural areas due to the creation and/or 

formalizing of turnouts in key locations.

At Kahuku, there would be changes to the 

transportation system, including increased 

safety improvements at the park entrance, 

two-wheel-drive access to Upper Glover, and 

four-wheel-drive access northeast to the 1916 

flows. Access beyond the 1916 flows and west 

of Upper Glover would be for foot traffic 

only. The improved transportation and access 

at Kahuku would be long-term, moderate 

and beneficial.

Pedestrian and bicycle access in the park 

would be improved in the preferred 

alternative. New trails would be created in 

some areas, such as at Kahuku and ‘Ōla‘a. 

New trails to link key visitor areas would be 

developed, such as between Nāmakanipaio 

and Kīpukapuaulu. Shared trails to allow 

bicycle access off the roadways would be 

created, such as between Kīlauea Visitor 

Center and Jaggar Museum. Connections 

between trails would be developed to provide 

loop trail opportunities. Time-of-day or 

day-of-week restrictions for vehicles would 

be considered on roads such as Hilina Pali 

or Mauna Loa to provide better access for 

bicycles and pedestrians. These restrictions 

would increase safe access for pedestrians 

and bicyclists resulting in a long-term minor 

to moderate beneficial impact, but may have 

a moderate adverse impact on those visitors 

traveling only by vehicle.

The proposed acquisitions, particularly the 

Pōhue Bay parcel, would increase access 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES | 325 

to natural and cultural resources but the 

magnitude of the beneficial impact would 

depend on what is determined in future 

planning should the areas be acquired.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

The cumulative impacts would be the same as 

those identified for the no-action alternative.

CONCLUSION

Overall, implementing the preferred 

alternative would have long-term minor to 

moderate, beneficial impacts to access for 

park visitors. Some visitors may consider 

some changes as minor to moderate and 

adverse impacts, such as restrictions on 

private vehicles if time-of-day or day-of-week 

restrictions are implemented. The cumulative 

impacts would contribute a small amount to 

the impacts of the preferred  alternative.

ALTERNATIVE 3— Impacts to access and 

transportation would be similar to Alternative 

2, with the following differences. Under 

Alternative 3, there are restrictions on where 

private vehicles can drive and park, such as 

no private vehicles parking at Thurston Lava 

Tube and no private vehicles driving on Crater 

Rim Drive from Jaggar Museum to Chain of 

Craters Road. There are also differences in 

level of access at the Kahuku Unit, such as 

no commercial guided access. The restriction 

of parking for private vehicles and the 

consideration of a mandatory shuttle in the 

future would be both beneficial and adverse. 

Reduced congestion and increased safety due 

to the changes in access for private vehicles 

would be beneficial and moderate. The 

visitors in private vehicles may consider the 

restrictions a moderate adverse impact to their 

access, but there would be a shuttle for access 

to areas where private vehicles are restricted 

and visitor outreach and education to assist 

them in trip planning which may alleviate 

some of the impact. The other impacts 

described under the preferred alternative 

would be similar for this alternative.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

The cumulative impacts would be the same as 

those identified for the no-action alternative.

CONCLUSION

Overall, implementing Alternative 3 would 

have long-term minor to moderate, beneficial 

impacts to access for park visitors. Some 

visitors, particularly those in private vehicles, 

may consider some changes as a moderate 

adverse impact, such as restrictions on private 

vehicles at Thurston Lava Tube and for a 

section of Crater Rim Drive, and the limits on 

pedestrian access only for upper Kahuku. The 

cumulative impacts would contribute a small 

amount to the impacts of Alternative 3.

Socioeconomics

Economic effects are commonly expressed 

in terms of the number and types of jobs 

supported, changes in income, the number of 

visitors to the park, and the resulting changes 

in local tourism spending. Less well-defined 

economic effects include the indirect effects 

from ongoing NPS operations and the 

effects on local government fiscal conditions. 

Examples of social impacts include effects on 

regional population growth and land use.

Socioeconomic impacts were determined 

based on applied logic, professional expertise, 

and professional judgment. The approach to 

these issues was based on the following factors 

directly related to implementation of the 

general management plan:

• estimated costs of building new 

facilities and infrastructure;

• changes in the number of NPS 

staff and federal spending to 

operate the park;

• changes in the number of visitors 

to the park; and

• changes in park boundaries.

Indirect consequences of these four 

factors, such as impacts on traffic, were 

also considered.

Costs were estimated using the best available 

tools for this level of detail, including 

estimates based on comparable projects and 

cost estimating calculators using RS Means 

data. Future staffing levels and operating costs 

were estimated by the project team.
326 | chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Actual future costs could be different than the 

estimates in this analysis because they would 

be based on future NPS policies, operations 

and maintenance policies adopted at the park, 

and budgets approved by Congress for the 

National Park Service in general, or Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park specifically.

Projected visitor use was generally estimated 

as increasing or decreasing based on proposed 

visitor opportunities for each alternative.

Economic impacts associated with the general 

management plan alternatives are assessed in 

terms of type/character of impact, duration, 

and scale/intensity. These three parameters 

are defined below.

This analysis relies on qualitative analysis 

of the impacts of each alternative, as actual 

visitor numbers are not estimated, spending 

values are for comparison only, and influence 

area data was mainly available at the broader 

county and state level. Hawai‘i County and the 

State of Hawai‘i were defined as the influence 

area for this analysis.

Beneficial impacts result in generally 

recognized improvements to established 

social and economic environment, or 

can be recognized as improvements to 

specific sectors and stated as such. Adverse 

impacts are those effects that are generally 

recognized to diminish the established social 

and economic environment, or diminish 

the environment for particular sectors and 

stated as such.

Indeterminate effects are those for which 

the size, timing, location, or individuals 

or groups that would be impacted cannot 

be determined, or those that include both 

beneficial and negative effects—in some 

instances affecting different communities—

such that the net effect is indeterminate.

Short-term effects are those that occur 

during and in response to the planning, 

design, construction, and major maintenance 

of buildings, trails, parking lots, and other 

improvements associated with federal 

spending. These effects diminish or disappear 

after the project is completed. “Short-term” 

may also describe the first or early response 

in social or economic conditions to more 

fundamental changes in park management 

and operations and to changes in visitor use, 

but which give way to broader changes over 

time. Generally, “short-term” describes those 

effects that may last up to five years.

Long-term effects are those that last longer 

than five years, including some that may not 

begin until after completion of direct activities 

associated with the initial federal government 

spending or changes in management.

The thresholds of change for the intensity of 

an impact are defined as follows:

Negligible: Negligible effects would be 

below detectable levels or detectable only 

through indirect means and would have 

no discernible effect on the character of 

the social and economic environment.

Minor: Minor effects would be 

detectable, but localized in geographic 

extent or size of population affected 

and would not be expected to alter the 

character of the established social and 

economic environment.

Moderate: Moderate effects would 

be readily detectable across a broad 

geographic area or segment of the 

community and could have an 

appreciable effect on the social and 

economic environment.

Major: Major effects would be readily 

apparent, affect a large segment of the 

population, extend across an entire 

community or influence area and likely 

would have a substantial effect on the 

social and economic environment.

ALTERNATIVE 1 (NO ACTION)— The 

economic impacts related to park visitors 

vary from year to year and depend on the 

number of visitors, their participation 

in various activities, particularly day-use 

versus overnight activities, their expenditure 

patterns, prices of goods and services, 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES | 327 

and changes in the park and surrounding 

communities that may affect visitor 

use of the park.

The facilities, park operations, and 

recreational uses of the park would remain 

essentially unchanged, unless there is a 

significant change in volcanic activity. Without 

a long-term, comprehensive management 

plan, park managers would accommodate 

changing visitor use patterns, uses, and 

volumes, and changes in resource conditions, 

as they occur, in response to pressure from 

various interest groups, or in response 

to future budget availability. Although 

visitation can and does fluctuate from year 

to year, modest long-term growth in annual 

visitor use is assumed over the life of this 

plan, primarily in response to continued 

increased visitor growth in the state and in 

particular, on the island.

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park would 

continue to be an important contributor to the 

regional economy and gateway communities 

because of employee jobs and wages 

supported and operational expenditures by 

the National Park Service. In addition, the 

park would continue as the primary local 

and regional tourism attraction. The visiting 

public would generate tourism-related 

spending within the regional economy, 

benefiting local businesses and individuals 

by generating income and providing 

employment opportunities.

Based upon 1.35 million recreation visits per 

year (2011), the economic contributions of 

the park within the region include $96.99 

million spending by nonlocal visitors, which 

generated $40.2 million in direct personal 

income (wages and salaries) for area residents 

and supported approximately 1,177 jobs in 

tourism and related service-sector businesses 

(Stynes 2011). The economic contributions of 

the park are anticipated to increase modestly 

over time due to increases in visitation linked 

to continued population growth on the 

island and in the state, as well as increased 

tourism to the region.

Under the no-action alternative, there 

would be about $7.1 million in additional 

expenditures for specific improvements as 

described in the alternative, such as the Ohia 

Wing renovation and fencing park boundaries. 

Many of these projects are funded from park 

entrance fees. These projects would not occur 

all at the same time but rather over a number 

of years. The impacts of these projects, 

including increases in business volume and 

support for jobs and incomes, on individual 

firms and employees would be short-term, 

minor, and beneficial for individuals and 

affected firms. However, impacts on the 

regional economy as measured by economic 

indicators such as changes in unemployment 

or poverty would be negligible due to the size 

and diversity of the regional economy.

LOCAL ECONOMIES

Continuing visitor use at the park, as well 

as the amenity value of the park and other 

public lands in the area, would provide 

continued impetus for development in 

adjacent communities. Private sector tourism 

and outdoor recreation development would 

be attracted to travel corridors leading to the 

park. Individual gateway communities might 

be affected by specific projects occurring in 

the park. Because this alternative continues 

current policies and programs, no changes 

in the types or amounts of impacts would 

be anticipated to occur as the result of 

this alternative.

STAFFING AND BUDGET

In fiscal year 2013, the park had an authorized 

employment level of 143 full-time equivalent 

employees (FTEs). If the park were able to 

fund additional authorized FTEs, a slight 

change in the local population would occur. 

However, the staffing levels of the park over 

the past few years have been experiencing 

reductions and it is anticipated that reductions 

or no increase will continue for an unknown 

period of time, dependent on the economy 

and government fiscal climate.

Beneficial impacts of population increases 

include increased demand for housing, which 

can cause an increase in home values and 
328 | chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

rental rates; and increased government tax 

revenues. Adverse socioeconomic impacts 

of population increases include potential for 

more crowding on roads and in public areas 

and greater demands on government services, 

including schools, sanitation, and water.

Population increases due to the no-action 

alternative would be very small compared 

to the total population of the island, which 

is about 185,000 people; therefore the 

impact would be negligible, long-term, 

and of indeterminate effect since there 

are both adverse and beneficial impacts to 

population growth. 

IMPACTS TO SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS

Increases in the number of visitors would 

impact the traffic in the local area, but since 

increases could be small, the impact to traffic 

would be negligible, long-term, and adverse. 

The pilot shuttle program would improve the 

traffic a small amount, but that improvement 

would be within the park, not within the 

gateway communities.

The presence of a national park is a beneficial 

social impact to the influence area, allowing 

residents and visitors to experience beauty 

and solitude in the outdoors. This benefit 

would continue under the no-action 

alternative and therefore would result in no 

new impact to the social character of the 

influence area.

Because the no-action alternative would 

continue existing trends in the influence 

area, the current baseline socioeconomic 

effects to the influence area economy would 

continue. While there is a mix of beneficial 

and adverse impacts, the overall continuing 

impact of Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park to 

the social characteristics in the influence area 

would be short- and long-term, moderate, 

and beneficial.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park is a primary 

visitor attraction on Hawai‘i Island. As such, 

it is a cornerstone of the regional tourism 

and hospitality industry. Over time, the park, 

the visitors it attracts, and the economic 

contributions of its staff, have supported local 

commerce and community development 

across the island. Many of the secondary 

social and economic effects are spread 

across the island. This symbiotic relationship 

would remain. Local and regional economic 

activity and the no-action alternative would 

continue to interact to have moderate longterm beneficial impact on socioeconomic 

conditions within the gateway communities 

and broader region, with short-term added 

stimulus due to ongoing maintenance of 

facilities and programs and some limited 

development projects. However, the 

influences may become less significant over 

time as the economy of the island continues 

to grow and become more economically and 

socially diverse.

CONCLUSION

Current approved projects to be funded 

under the no-action alternative would amount 

to about $7.1 million (FY 2013). These 

projects would be phased over a number 

of years, so impacts on individual firms and 

employees could be minor to moderate, 

short-term, and beneficial, but the beneficial 

impacts on the regional economy would be 

negligible to minor.

Visitors (1.38 million in 2010) would continue 

to support the local tourism industry. This 

level of impacts from tourism spending on 

adjacent communities and concessioners 

would continue to be beneficial, providing 

income, employment, and business 

opportunities within the gateway communities 

and regional economies, with minor 

changes over time.

Under this alternative the park’s staffing 

level would remain relatively constant or 

decline slightly.

The cumulative impacts would be long-term, 

moderate and beneficial; this alternative’s 

contribution to these effects would be modest.

ALTERNATIVE 2 (PREFERRED)—In the 

preferred alternative, impacts to the 

socioeconomic environment would result 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES | 329 

from changes in operational spending, 

changes in visitor spending, and changes in 

visitor patterns. The impact of the preferred 

alternative is evaluated in comparison with the 

no-action alternative.

Implementation of the preferred alternative 

would occur against the same backdrop of 

economic, demographic, and social changes 

across the influence area described under 

the no-action alternative. The economic and 

social effects of the preferred alternative 

would add to those changes, but would not 

fundamentally change the area’s economic or 

demographic outlook.

The preferred alternative calls for the 

maintenance and expansion of various 

facilities and infrastructure in the park, 

particularly at the Kahuku Unit. Within 

the Kīlauea Unit, only modest facility 

changes are proposed under the preferred 

alternative. At Kahuku, increased visitation 

would be expected due to increased access 

as well as increased visitor facilities and 

services. Moreover, the visitor experience 

could improve because of less crowding 

through implementation of the preferred 

alternative throughout the park. Although 

visitation can and does fluctuate from year 

to year, modest long-term growth in annual 

visitor use is assumed over the life of this 

plan, primarily in response to continued 

increased visitor growth in the state and in 

particular, on the island.

Under the preferred alternative, there 

would be about $38.1 million in additional 

expenditures for specific improvements in 

the park, provided all were completed as 

described in the alternatives chapter, with 

about $16.4 million of this amount for the 

improvements at the Kahuku Unit. These 

projects would be subject to availability of 

funding and would not occur all at the same 

time but rather over a number of years. Many 

of these projects could be funded over time 

from park entrance fees. The impacts of these 

projects, including increases in business 

volume and support for jobs and incomes, 

on individual firms and employees would be 

short-term, minor to moderate, and beneficial 

for individuals and affected firms. However, 

impacts on the regional economy as measured 

by economic indicators such as changes in 

unemployment or poverty would be negligible 

to minor due to the size and diversity of the 

regional economy.

LOCAL ECONOMIES

Continuing visitor use at the park, as well 

as the amenity value of the park and other 

public lands in the area, would provide 

continued impetus for development in 

adjacent communities. Private sector tourism 

and outdoor recreation development would 

be attracted to travel corridors leading to the 

park. Individual gateway communities might 

be affected by specific projects occurring in 

the park. The increased access and visitor 

facilities at the Kahuku Unit would likely 

result in greater visitation, which could have 

a minor to possibly moderate beneficial 

impact on the economies of the neighboring 

communities by the Kahuku Unit. 

STAFFING AND BUDGET

The preferred alternative would have little 

direct impact on the local area’s population 

growth. It is likely that individuals already 

residing in the area would fill many of the 

construction and related jobs. However, new 

staff proposed in the preferred alternative 

likely would come from outside as well 

as from within the local area. Additional 

employees proposed in the preferred 

alternative include 47 permanent full-time 

equivalent positions. Beneficial and adverse 

impacts associated with population increases 

are similar to the no-action alternative.

Population increases due to the preferred 

alternative would be very small compared 

to the total population of the island, which 

is about 185,000 people; therefore the 

impact would be negligible, long-term, 

and of indeterminate effect since there 

are both adverse and beneficial impacts to 

population growth. 

IMPACTS TO SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS

The proposed changes to the entrance at 

Kahuku would cause short-term adverse 
330 | chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

impacts to traffic during construction if turn 

lanes are added to the highway at the entrance. 

In the long-term, the changes would have 

beneficial impacts on the traffic in that area. 

No other projects are anticipated to affect 

traffic in the park or at the park entrances; 

therefore, there would be short-term minor, 

adverse, and long-term minor, beneficial 

impact to traffic.

The presence of a national park is a beneficial 

social impact to the influence area, allowing 

residents and visitors to experience beauty 

and solitude in the outdoors. This benefit 

would increase in the communities near 

Kahuku under the preferred alternative due to 

increased access and visitation.

While there is a mix of beneficial and 

adverse impacts, the overall impact of the 

preferred alternative to the influence area 

socioeconomics would be short- and longterm, moderate, and beneficial.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

The cumulative impacts would be the same as 

those identified for the no-action alternative.

CONCLUSION

Under the preferred alternative, there 

would be about $38.1 million in additional 

expenditures for specific improvements in 

the park, provided all were completed as 

described. These projects would be phased 

over a number of years, so impacts on 

individual firms and employees could be 

minor to moderate, short-term, and beneficial, 

but the beneficial impacts on the regional 

economy would be negligible to minor.

Visitors (1.38 million in 2010) would continue 

to support the local tourism industry. The 

level of impacts from tourism spending on 

adjacent communities and concessioners 

would continue to be beneficial, providing 

income, employment, and business 

opportunities within the gateway communities 

and regional economies, with minor 

changes over time.

Full implementation of the preferred 

alternative would involve the restoration 

to past staffing reductions and increasing 

staffing levels by the equivalent to 47 FTEs. 

Increases in park staff and payroll would 

result in additional secondary jobs and 

income in the region.

The cumulative impacts would be long-term, 

moderate and beneficial; this alternative’s 

contribution to these effects would be greater 

than in the no-action alternative.

ALTERNATIVE 3— Impacts to 

socioeconomics, including local economy, 

staffing and budget, and impacts to social 

characteristics, would be similar to Alternative 

2, with the following differences.

Under Alternative 3, there would be about 

$37.1 million in additional expenditures for 

specific improvements in the park, provided 

all were completed as described in the 

alternatives chapter, with about $16.4 million 

of this amount for the improvements at the 

Kahuku Unit. These projects would be subject 

to availability of funding and would not occur 

all at the same time but rather over a number 

of years. Many of these projects could be 

funded over time from park entrance fees. The 

impacts to these projects, including increases 

in business volume and support for jobs and 

incomes, on individual firms and employees 

would be short-term, minor to moderate, and 

beneficial for individuals and affected firms.

Additional employees proposed in Alternative 

3 include the equivalent to 46 FTEs.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

The cumulative impacts would be the same as 

those identified for the no-action alternative.

CONCLUSION

Under Alternative 3, there would be about 

$37.1 million in additional expenditures for 

specific improvements in the park, provided 

all were completed as described. These 

projects would be phased over a number 

of years, so impacts on individual firms and 

employees could be minor to moderate, 

short-term, and beneficial, but the beneficial 

impacts on the regional economy would be 

negligible to minor.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES | 331 

Visitors (1.38 million in 2010) would continue 

to support the local tourism industry. The 

level of impacts from tourism spending on 

adjacent communities and concessioners 

would continue to be beneficial, providing 

income, employment, and business 

opportunities within the gateway communities 

and regional economies, with minor 

changes over time.

Full implementation of the preferred 

alternative would involve the restoration 

of past staffing reductions and increasing 

staffing levels by the equivalent to 46 FTEs. 

Increases in park staff and payroll would 

result in additional secondary jobs and 

income in the region.

The cumulative impacts would be long-term, 

moderate and beneficial; this alternative’s 

contribution to these effects would be similar 

to the preferred alternative.

Park Operations

Park management and operations refers to the 

current management structure of the park to 

provide policy direction for the protection, 

public use, and appreciation of the park, and 

the ability of the current staff to adequately 

protect and preserve vital resources and 

provide for an effective visitor experience. The 

discussion of impacts on park management, 

operations, and staffing focuses on the type 

of management structure, the amount of 

staff available to ensure public safety, and 

the ability of the staff to protect and preserve 

resources given current funding and staffing 

levels. Staff that are knowledgeable about 

the management of the park were consulted 

to evaluate the impacts of implementing 

each alternative.

The thresholds of change for the intensity of 

an impact are defined as follows:

Negligible: The effect would be at or 

below the lower levels of detection, and 

would not have an appreciable effect on 

park management and operations.

Minor: The effects would be detectable, 

but would be of a magnitude that would 

not have an appreciable adverse or 

beneficial effect on park management 

and operations.

Moderate: The effects would be readily 

apparent and would result in substantial 

adverse or beneficial changes in park 

management and operations in a manner 

noticeable to staff and the public.

Major: The effects would be readily 

apparent and would result in substantial 

adverse or beneficial changes in park 

management and operations in a manner 

noticeable to staff and the public, and 

would be markedly different from 

existing operation.

ALTERNATIVE 1 (NO ACTION)—

FACILITIES AND SUSTAINABILITY

Under the no-action alternative, infrastructure 

and development, including operational 

facilities would increase slightly with the 

addition of the Kahuku visitor contact station 

and the improvements at Kealakomowaena. 

The ongoing routine maintenance of 

park facilities would continue under 

current management and there would be 

little overall change to park operations. 

Incremental changes in green facility 

design, continued maintenance of hybrid 

vehicles in the park’s vehicle fleet, and the 

continued implementation of photovoltaic 

systems at select facilities would have minor 

long-term benefits to the sustainability of 

park operations.

OPERATIONAL EFFICIENCY

Maintenance of the current infrastructure 

in the no-action alternative would result in a 

slight change to the distribution of staff and 

work areas in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park due to the improvements at Kahuku 

and Kealakomowaena.

STAFFING

Funding for staff levels would continue to be 

inadequate to meet the increased resource 

management, interpretation, visitor protection 

and safety, maintenance, and administrative 
332 | chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

needs of Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, 

resulting in long-term minor to moderate 

adverse impacts to park operations.

Implementation of Alternative 1 would 

overall result in minor to moderate adverse 

impacts on park operations, with some minor 

beneficial impacts as facilities are maintained 

and upgraded to improve sustainability 

and efficiency.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

Past and ongoing projects, including road, 

trail, and facility maintenance and repairs 

have had long-term minor beneficial impacts 

on some aspects of park operations. Aging 

facilities and infrastructure, including utilities 

and systems, would continue to be repaired, 

upgraded, or replaced as needed on a case-bycase basis, subject to available funding. Over 

time, more sustainable and efficient facilities 

and infrastructure would replace those that 

are aging or no longer meet the needs of 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, resulting 

in moderate long-term benefits to the park 

by reducing maintenance needs. However, 

projected changes in climate conditions in 

Hawai‘i would likely impact park operations, 

exacerbating any delayed upgrades, lack of 

adequate staffing, and deferred maintenance 

in the park. For example, reliable clean 

water to meet the range of park operational 

and visitor service needs may become an 

increasing challenge as the climate warms and 

as projected reduced rainfall would impact 

the ability of the park to provide enough water 

for park operations solely through rainwater 

catchment. While advances in technology 

may mitigate some of the impacts to park 

operations from global climate change, the 

cumulative impacts to park operation from 

past, ongoing, and future events would be 

moderate and adverse.

CONCLUSION

Under the no-action alternative, there would 

be little overall change to facilities, and 

sustainability of the facilities. Sustainability 

and operations would improve incrementally 

as funding allows, resulting in minor longterm benefits for those facilities that have been 

upgraded. Staffing levels would continue to 

be inadequate to meet the future needs of 

park operations, resulting in moderate longterm adverse impacts to park operations. 

As more projects are completed that repair, 

upgrade, and replace aging facilities and 

infrastructure, and more sustainable systems 

are installed, maintenance needs would be 

reduced, resulting in moderate, long-term 

benefits. However, until those facilities are 

replaced, periodic and extensive maintenance 

would be required. The overall effects of 

implementing the no-action alternative on 

park operations would be long-term, minor to 

moderate and adverse due to the backlog of 

deferred maintenance.

ALTERNATIVE 2 (PREFERRED)—

FACILITIES AND SUSTAINABILITY

Under the preferred alternative, major visitor 

and operational buildings and infrastructure, 

including staff offices and visitor centers, 

would continue to be concentrated in the 

same general areas of Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park as the no-action alternative; 

however, some facilities may be rehabilitated, 

others would be expanded in size or 

services, and new facilities would be added, 

particularly at Kahuku. New facilities would 

include campgrounds and picnic areas at 

Kahuku, new trails and trail connections, 

and educational pavilions at various sites 

throughout the park.

New trails and trail connections would be 

constructed under Alternative 2, resulting 

in short-term moderate adverse impacts to 

park operations while the trails are being 

constructed and moderate long-term adverse 

impacts to park operations if additional 

funding is not obtained for maintenance of 

new trails. Some areas would also require 

additional invasive species monitoring after 

construction of trails, such as the proposed 

trail in ‘Ōla‘a, which could adversely impact 

park operations if additional funding 

is not obtained.

The improvements to the Kahuku Road, 

particularly if the 2WD section is converted 

to a paved road, would have long-term minor 

beneficial impacts on park operations due to a 

decrease in maintenance needs.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES | 333 

The rehabilitation of the Ohia Wing would 

have both beneficial and adverse impacts 

to park operations. Planned improvements 

would decrease the deferred maintenance 

backlog by $3.6 million, but as the building is 

currently unoccupied, there would be a slight 

increase in staff time needed for custodial 

duties once it is occupied again. Actions such 

as the development of educational pavilions 

throughout the park and the campgrounds 

and picnic areas at Kahuku would all increase 

the recurring maintenance and custodial 

needs over what is needed under the noaction alternative.

Overall, the increase in trails, facilities, and 

infrastructure would result in moderate 

adverse impacts to park operations if 

additional funding/staffing is not acquired and 

the preferred alternative is fully implemented.

The impact of the proposed land acquisitions 

on park operations is unknown at this time. 

If the lands were acquired, future planning 

would be completed to determine the type 

and level of visitor services and related park 

operations that would be needed.

OPERATIONAL EFFICIENCY

The rehabilitation of facilities that are 

deteriorating would have long-term minor to 

moderate benefits on operational efficiency by 

reducing the needs for maintenance. 

STAFFING

In the short-term, impacts from staffing are 

the same as Alternative 1 with funding for 

staffing levels continuing to be inadequate 

to meet the increased needs of Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park, resulting in 

minor adverse impacts to park operations. 

In the long-term, staffing increases in 

resource management, interpretation, 

visitor protection, facilities maintenance, 

and administration coupled with expanded 

emphasis on partnerships could have 

long-term moderate benefits to operations 

by increasing the capacity of Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park to meet the needs 

of the operation and the visitors, if the park 

receives additional long-term funding for the 

increased staffing. If no additional funding is 

acquired for staffing, the impacts of the full 

implementation of the preferred alternative to 

park operations would be long-term moderate 

to major and adverse.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

Cumulative impacts are similar to those in the 

no-action alternative.

CONCLUSION

Under the preferred alternative, there would 

be some noticeable changes to facilities, 

such as the rehabilitation of the Ohia Wing, 

other actions such as the expansion of 

parking for Kīlauea Visitor Center, and 

the addition of new facilities such as trails, 

campgrounds, and education pavilions would 

result in both moderate benefits and adverse 

effects. Additional changes to improve the 

environmental sustainability in all aspects 

of facility and infrastructure management 

could have long-term moderate benefits to 

park operations. Changes in staffing and 

operational efficiency would have longterm moderate benefits to park operations 

(provided additional funding is acquired for 

the staffing). As more projects are completed 

that repair and upgrade aging facilities and 

infrastructure, and more sustainable systems 

are installed, maintenance needs would be 

reduced, resulting in moderate, long-term 

benefits. However, until those facilities 

are rehabilitated, periodic and extensive 

maintenance would be required. The 

overall effects of implementing Alternative 

2 on park operations would be long-term, 

moderate, and beneficial, if additional 

funding is acquired, and long-term moderate 

to major adverse impacts if no additional 

funding is acquired and the alternative is 

fully implemented.

ALTERNATIVE 3—Impacts to park operations 

would be similar to Alternative 2, with the 

following differences.

The Volcano House would be retrofitted to be 

energy independent, which would have minor 

beneficial impacts to sustainability. There 

would be less new trails and less campgrounds 

developed under Alternative 3, resulting in 

reduced adverse impacts to park operations 

when compared to the preferred alternative.
334 | chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

Cumulative impacts are similar to those in the 

no-action alternative.

CONCLUSION

Under Alternative 3, there would be some 

noticeable changes to facilities, such as the 

conversion of Volcano House to energy 

independence, and new facilities such 

campgrounds and education pavilions could 

be added, but the overall new development 

would be less than under the preferred 

alternative, resulting in minor to moderate 

beneficial and adverse effects. Additional 

changes to improve the environmental 

sustainability in all aspects of facility and 

infrastructure management could have longterm moderate benefits to park operations. 

Changes in staffing and operational efficiency 

would have long-term moderate benefits to 

park operations (provided additional funding 

is acquired for the staffing). As more projects 

are completed that repair and upgrade 

aging facilities and infrastructure, and more 

sustainable systems are installed, maintenance 

needs would be reduced, resulting in 

moderate, long-term benefits. However, until 

those facilities are rehabilitated, periodic 

and extensive maintenance would be 

required. The overall effects of implementing 

Alternative 3 on park operations would 

be long-term, moderate, and beneficial, if 

additional funding is acquired, and longterm moderate to major adverse impacts if 

not additional funding is acquired and the 

alternative is fully implemented.

Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Climate 

Change, and Sustainability

The area of consideration for this topic is 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park. Potential 

impacts from management actions are based 

on professional judgment. The thresholds 

of change for the intensity of an impact 

are as follows.

Negligible: The proposed actions would 

have no detectable effect on energy use, 

sustainability, or the park’s response to 

climate change.

Minor: Changes in energy use, 

sustainability, or the park’s response 

to climate change would be slightly 

detectable or localized within a small 

area of the park.

Moderate: Impacts would be readily 

apparent and would affect the park’s 

energy use and operations.

Major: Impacts would be substantial and 

highly noticeable for the park’s energy 

use, sustainability, and responses to 

climate change.

ALTERNATIVE 1 (NO ACTION)—Under the 

no-action alternative, existing emissions of 

greenhouse gases from man-made sources 

would initially continue more or less in their 

current form. There would be no increase in 

development under the no-action alternative. 

The pilot program for the shuttle would 

be implemented, but due to the small size 

and limited range, the shuttles would have 

negligible beneficial impacts on greenhouse 

gas emissions. 

The park would continue to implement the 

climate action plan and participate in the 

Climate Friendly Parks program developed 

jointly by the National Park Service and the 

US Environmental Protection Agency. This 

program plans to lower emissions and reduce 

the park’s overall carbon footprint. Under the 

no-action alternative, the park would strive 

to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, would 

continue monitoring and research, increase 

climate change education and outreach, and 

develop climate change adaptation strategies. 

In themselves, impacts from these activities 

would be negligible to minor, direct and 

indirect, long-term and beneficial.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

Actions taken by others in the region, such 

as increased development on Hawai‘i Island 

and in the state of Hawai‘i, the continued 

reliance on fossil fuels for power generation, 

as well as the move toward energy production 

from renewable energy sources, would all 

contribute to both adverse and beneficial 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES | 335 

impacts to sustainable practices and responses 

to climate change in Hawai‘i. NPS actions at 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park would be 

negligible in the context of Hawai‘i Island and 

the state of Hawai‘i. The no-action alternative 

would contribute a negligible amount to the 

adverse and beneficial impacts.

CONCLUSION

Impacts to greenhouse gas emissions, climate 

change, and sustainability from the no-action 

alternative would be negligible to minor, 

long-term, direct and indirect and beneficial. 

The cumulative impacts from actions in the 

region would be both beneficial and adverse, 

depending on the action. The no-action 

alternative would contribute a negligible 

amount to this adverse impact.

ALTERNATIVE 2 (PREFERRED)—Under 

the preferred alternative, the National 

Park Service would continue to implement 

the climate action plan and participate in 

the Climate Friendly Parks program. The 

park would increase energy efficiency, 

conservation, and sustainability in the 

development of facilities and would give 

priority to green facility design for any new 

construction, retrofitting, and upgrading of 

facilities to the greatest extent possible. 

Sustainable practices would be used in the 

selection of building materials and sources 

and building location and siting. Projects 

would use sustainable practices and resources 

whenever practicable by recycling and 

reusing materials, by minimizing materials, 

by minimizing energy consumption during 

the project, and by minimizing energy 

consumption throughout the lifespan of 

the facility produced. As required by NPS 

Management Polices 2006, new buildings 

would be designed to meet a minimum silver 

standard for LEED (Leadership in Energy and 

Environmental Design).

The park would promote activities to get 

visitors out of cars, such as hiking, biking, 

and equestrian use, as well as using the 

pilot shuttle program. Employees would 

be encouraged to bicycle to decrease the 

park’s carbon footprint. The park would 

also encourage contractors, partners, 

and concessioners to reduce their own 

greenhouse gas emissions during their 

operations in the park.

There would continue to be emissions 

from commercial vehicle traffic, such as 

bus and auto tours, but implementing the 

demand management system may increase 

their efficiency, which could reduce their 

overall emissions.

The park would support climate changerelated research, adapt management activities 

based on climate forecasts, and build 

resilience among populations of rare native 

species, communities, and ecosystems.

Overall, the impacts from these activities 

would be minor to moderate, direct and 

indirect, long-term and beneficial.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

The cumulative impacts would be the same as 

those identified for the no-action alternative.

CONCLUSION

Impacts to greenhouse gas emissions, climate 

change, and sustainability from the preferred 

alternative would be minor to moderate, 

long-term, direct and indirect and beneficial. 

The cumulative impacts from actions in the 

region would be both beneficial and adverse, 

depending on the action. The preferred 

alternative would contribute a negligible 

amount to this adverse impact.

ALTERNATIVE 3—The impacts from 

Alternative 3 would be similar to those 

described for the preferred alternative with 

the following exception.

Converting the Volcano House to 

energy independence would have a 

moderate beneficial impact on energy use 

and sustainability.

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

The cumulative impacts would be the same as 

those identified for the no-action alternative.
336 | chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

CONCLUSION

Impacts to greenhouse gas emissions, climate 

change, and sustainability from Alternative 

3 would be minor to moderate, long-term, 

direct and indirect and beneficial. The 

cumulative impacts from actions in the 

region would be both beneficial and adverse, 

depending on the action. Alternative 3 

would contribute a negligible amount to this 

adverse impact.

UNAVOIDABLE ADVERSE IMPACTS

The following paragraphs describe the more 

important (moderate and major intensity) 

adverse impacts that would result from 

implementing the alternatives. These are 

residual impacts that would remain after 

mitigation was implemented. The negligible 

and minor impacts are described in the 

foregoing analysis.

Alternative 1

Under the no-action alternative, there would 

be moderate adverse impacts to visitor 

use and experience due to overcrowding, 

existing visitor center conditions, limited 

opportunities for bicycling and picnicking, 

and limited availability of staff to provide 

orientation, interpretation, and education.

There would continue to be moderate adverse 

impacts to wilderness from the presence of 

structures and monitoring equipment in the 

wilderness. The existing structures in the 

wilderness are historic and also provide water 

to visitors in the waterless expanse of the 

park. The volcanic and seismic monitoring 

equipment is essential to the safety of 

visitors and island residents due to the active 

volcanoes in the park.

Under the no-action alternative, there would 

be greater adverse impacts to the soundscapes 

and acoustic environment from park 

operations and visitor use. This impact would 

be less under Alternatives 2 and 3 because the 

park would follow best management practices, 

develop educational tools to reduce visitorcaused noise, and develop a soundscape 

monitoring plan.

Under all alternatives, proposed actions 

would strictly avoid known archeological 

sites. Any such sites that could not be avoided 

because of ground-disturbing activities 

would be mitigated in concurrence with the 

Hawai‘i State Historic Preservation Division. 

Mitigation such as data recovery would 

constitute an unavoidable adverse impact on 

the archeological sites involved.

There will also be moderate to major adverse 

impacts to park operations over time due 

to declining funding, unless additional 

funding is acquired.

Alternative 2

Under the preferred alternative, there would 

likely be moderate localized adverse impacts 

to geologic features, soils, vegetation, and 

native wildlife and wildlife habitat from the 

construction of new facilities, infrastructure, 

and trails. These impacts may be lessened 

through site planning and best management 

practices, but the possibility exists that not all 

impacts could be mitigated.

There would be moderate adverse impacts to 

wilderness from the presence of structures 

and monitoring equipment in the wilderness. 

The existing structures in the wilderness are 

historic and also provide water to visitors in 

the waterless expanses of the park. If small 

primitive campgrounds or structures for 

water catchment are considered for upper 

Kahuku, it would be evaluated through a 

minimum requirement analysis to determine 

what is appropriate. The volcanic and seismic 

monitoring equipment is essential to the safety 

of visitors and island residents due to the 

active volcanoes in the park.

Under all alternatives, proposed actions 

would strictly avoid known archeological 

sites. Any such sites that could not be avoided 

because of ground-disturbing activities 

would be mitigated in concurrence with the 

Hawai‘i State Historic Preservation Division. 

Mitigation such as data recovery would 

constitute an unavoidable adverse impact on 

the archeological sites involved.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES | 337 

Moderate adverse impacts to visitor use and 

experience could occur from the potential 

time-of-day/day-of-week restrictions on 

vehicles on the southern portion of Crater 

Rim Drive, Hilina Pali Road, and Mauna Loa 

Road. Prior to implementation of closures, the 

park would conduct outreach and education 

through various methods, such as commercial 

tour operators, websites, and brochures, to 

reduce the potential impact on visitors.

There would also be moderate to major 

adverse impacts to park operations over time 

due to declining funding, unless additional 

funding is acquired.

Alternative 3

Under Alternative 3, there would likely 

be short-term moderate adverse impacts 

to geologic features, soils, vegetation, and 

native wildlife and wildlife habitat from the 

construction of new facilities, infrastructure, 

and trails. These impacts would be minimized 

to the extent possible through site planning, 

best management practices, and mitigations, 

but the possibility exists that not all impacts 

could be mitigated.

There would continue to be moderate adverse 

impacts to wilderness from the presence of 

structures and monitoring equipment in the 

wilderness. The existing structures in the 

wilderness are historic and also provide water 

to visitors in the waterless expanses of the 

park. The volcanic and seismic monitoring 

equipment is essential to the safety of 

visitors and island residents due to the active 

volcanoes in the park.

Under all alternatives, proposed actions 

would strictly avoid known archeological 

sites. Any such sites that could not be avoided 

because of ground-disturbing activities 

would be mitigated in concurrence with the 

Hawai‘i State Historic Preservation Division. 

Mitigation such as data recovery would 

constitute an unavoidable adverse impact on 

the archeological sites involved.

Moderate adverse impacts to visitor use and 

experience could occur from the potential 

time-of-day/day-of-week restrictions on 

vehicles on Hilina Pali Road, and Mauna 

Loa Road. Adverse impacts would occur 

from the closure to private vehicles along the 

southern portion of Crater Rim Drive. Prior 

to implementation of closures, the park would 

conduct outreach and education through 

various methods, such as commercial tour 

operators, websites, and brochures, to reduce 

the potential impact on the visitors. Additional 

adverse impacts could occur from prohibiting 

commercial use in the Kahuku Unit under 

Alternative 3, however currently there is no 

commercial use allowed in the Kahuku Unit.

There will also be moderate to major adverse 

impacts to park operations over time due 

to declining funding, unless additional 

funding is acquired.

IRREVERSIBLE AND IRRETRIEVABLE 

COMMITMENTS OF RESOURCES

Alternative 1

Irreversible commitments of resources are 

actions that result in the loss of resources 

that cannot be reversed. Irretrievable 

commitments are actions that result in the 

loss of resources, but only for a period of 

time. No actions would be taken as a result of 

the no-action alternative that would result in 

the consumption of nonrenewable resources 

that would preclude other uses for a period 

of time. Thus, there would be no irreversible 

or irretrievable commitments of resources 

in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park by the 

National Park Service.

No actions would be taken that would result 

in irreversible or irretrievable effects on 

historic properties. NPS staff would continue 

to conduct appropriate cultural resources 

management in accordance with the Secretary 

of Interior’s Standards and Policies.

Alternative 2

Irreversible commitments of resources are 

actions that result in the loss of resources 

that cannot be reversed. Irretrievable 

commitments are actions that result in the 

loss of resources, but only for a period of 

time. No actions would be taken as a result of 

the preferred alternative that would result in 
338 | chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

the consumption of nonrenewable resources 

that would preclude other uses for a period 

of time. Thus, there would be no irreversible 

or irretrievable commitments of resources 

in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park by the 

National Park Service.

No actions would be taken that would result 

in irreversible or irretrievable effects on 

historic properties. NPS staff would continue 

to conduct appropriate cultural resources 

management in accordance with the Secretary 

of Interior’s Standards and Policies.

Alternative 3

Irreversible commitments of resources are 

actions that result in the loss of resources 

that cannot be reversed. Irretrievable 

commitments are actions that result in the 

loss of resources, but only for a period of 

time. No actions would be taken as a result 

of Alternative 3 that would result in the 

consumption of nonrenewable resources 

that would preclude other uses for a period 

of time. Thus, there would be no irreversible 

or irretrievable commitments of resources 

in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park by the 

National Park Service.

No actions would be taken that would result 

in irreversible or irretrievable effects on 

historic properties. NPS staff would continue 

to conduct appropriate cultural resources 

management in accordance with the Secretary 

of Interior’s Standards and Policies.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LOCAL 

SHORT-TERM USES AND LONGTERM PRODUCTIVITY

Alternative 1

Under all of the alternatives, most of Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park would be protected 

in a natural state and would continue to be 

used by the public. Under all the alternatives, 

the National Park Service would continue to 

manage Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park to 

maintain ecological processes and native and 

biological communities, and to provide for 

appropriate recreational activities consistent 

with the preservation of natural and 

cultural resources.

Any actions the National Park Service takes 

in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park would 

be taken with consideration to ensure that 

uses do not adversely affect the productivity 

of biotic communities. Under the no-action 

alternative, there would be no appreciable 

loss of ecological productivity because 

there would be little new development. 

Existing developed areas and infrastructure 

within Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park would remain.

Alternative 2

Under all of the alternatives, most of Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park would be protected 

in a natural state and would continue to be 

used by the public. Under all the alternatives, 

the National Park Service would continue to 

manage Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park to 

maintain ecological processes and native and 

biological communities, and to provide for 

appropriate recreational activities consistent 

with the preservation of natural and 

cultural resources.

Any actions the National Park Service 

takes in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

would be taken with consideration to 

ensure that uses do not adversely affect the 

productivity of biotic communities. Under 

the preferred alternative, there would be 

no appreciable loss of productivity because 

the proposed development would largely 

occur in previously disturbed areas. Existing 

developed areas and infrastructure within 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park would 

remain. Some previously disturbed areas 

would be rehabilitated to return these areas 

to productivity.

Alternative 3

Under all of the alternatives, most of Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park would be protected 

in a natural state and would continue to be 

used by the public. Under all the alternatives, 

the National Park Service would continue to 

manage Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park to 

maintain ecological processes and native and 

biological communities, and to provide for 

appropriate recreational activities consistent 

with the preservation of natural and 

cultural resources.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES | 339 

Any actions the National Park Service takes 

in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park would be 

taken with consideration to ensure that uses 

do not adversely affect the productivity of 

biotic communities. Under Alternative 3, there 

would be no appreciable loss of productivity 

because the proposed development would 

largely occur in previously disturbed areas. 

Existing developed areas and infrastructure 

within Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

would remain. Some previously disturbed 

areas would be rehabilitated to return these 

areas to productivity.
340 | chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

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HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS chapter 7: PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT | 341 

PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT 7

Monitoring endangered plants with park partners and volunteers. NPS photo
342 | chapter 7: PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Koa bug on heau plant. Photo by Thomas Bellfield courtesy of USGS-BRD
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS chapter 7: PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT | 343 

CHAPTER 7: PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT

Public involvement and consultation 

efforts were ongoing throughout the process 

of preparing this draft GMP/EIS. Public 

involvement included outreach to Hawaiʻi 

Volcanoes National Park visitors, Native 

Hawaiian groups, Hawaiian communities, 

federal, state, and local agencies, organizations, 

and businesses. Methods to reach the public 

included Federal Register notices, news releases, 

public meetings and workshops, newsletter 

mailings, and website postings. This chapter 

provides information about each public 

involvement period and summarizes public 

comments received by the National Park Service 

during each phase.

PUBLIC SCOPING

The planning process for the Hawai’i 

Volcanoes General Management Plan / 

Environmental Impact Statement was formally 

launched to the public in the spring of 2009. 

The National Park Service initiated an 

official scoping period for submittal of public 

comments on March 30, 2009 and closed 

the first phase of public involvement on July 

30, 2009. A broad scoping effort solicited 

early public comment regarding issues and 

concerns, the nature and extent of potential 

environmental impacts and overall public 

sentiments and priorities regarding the 

future management of the park. Through a 

diverse range of public outreach activities, 

the National Park Service extended an 

invitation to the general public to participate 

in the planning process and welcomed 

suggestions regarding a future park vision for 

resource protection, visitor use, and overall 

park  management.

The National Park Service formally 

announced the public scoping period by 

issuing a notice of intent to prepare a general 

management plan and environmental impact 

statement for Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National 

Park in the Federal Register (74 FR 16888-9) 

that was published on April 13, 2009. 

A GMP page on the park website (www.nps.

gov/havo/parkmgmt/plan.htm) and the NPS 

Planning, Environment, and Public Comment 

(PEPC) website (http://parkplanning.nps.

gov/havo) went live on the first day of public 

scoping to provide public information about 

the general management plan, the timeline 

for completing the plan, and a forum for 

accepting comments from the public. 

Public Outreach

NPS staff produced and mailed the first GMP

Newsletter, Hawai`i Volcanoes National 

Park GMP Newsletter 1: Public Scoping, 

to approximately 710 names on the park 

mailing list. The list consisted of private 

individuals, organizations, federal, state 

and local government agencies, businesses, 

representatives of the natural and cultural 

science community, Native Hawaiian groups 

and individuals, and legislators. 

More than 8,500 newsletters were mailed or 

distributed during initial scoping. Newsletters 

were distributed at 12 Hawaiʻi Island libraries; 

three community centers at Pahoa, Volcano, 

and Oceanview; the Hawaiʻi Civil Defense 

Office; and the Kīlauea General Store; as 

well as park locations including Kīlauea 

Visitor Center, Jaggar Museum, Kilauea 

Military Camp, Volcano House, Volcano Art 

Center, and individually to visitors entering 

the Kahuku Unit during week-end hours. 

Newsletters were also made available in 

Honolulu, Oahu at the NPS Regional Office 

and the East-West Cultural Center and on 

Maui at Haleakala National Park and Maui 

Community College. The public was invited 

to submit comments by regular mail, email, 

online on PEPC, or in person at public open 

house meetings.

Additional communication methods to solicit 

public involvement and comment included 

press releases that were sent to an island- and 

nationwide media list, news articles printed 

in West Hawai‘i Today, Hawai‘i Tribune 

Herald, and the Kaʻu Calendar, as well as 
344 | chapter 7: PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

public service announcements on local radio 

broadcasts. In addition, park staff gave poster 

presentations at local membership meetings 

of the Kaʻu Chamber of Commerce, Volcano 

Community Association, and the 2009 annual 

meeting of the Friends of Hawai’i Volcanoes 

National Park. Park staff also staffed GMP

information tables at the 2009 Kaʻū Coffee 

Festival and Oceanview Community 

Pancake Breakfast. 

NPS staff specifically targeted outreach to 

off-island park visitors by staffing information 

tables at park venues including the Kīlauea 

Visitor Center, Jaggar Museum, and the 2009 

Kīlauea Cultural Festival at the Kahuku Unit. 

A park planner made weekly introductory 

announcements to audiences at the Tuesday 

night “After Dark In the Park” lecture series 

given at the Kīlauea Visitor Center, and 

staffed a table-top display of GMP posters 

set up in the lobby. A short announcement 

was also given several times at the Kahuku 

Unit as an introduction to ranger-led Kahuku 

hikes to generate interest in the upcoming 

GMP planning process. Colorful flyers that 

advertised the GMP public meeting schedule 

were posted on Hawaiʻi Island business, 

community center, and library bulletin boards, 

as well as at all public meeting locations 

on outer islands.

Open House Events and 

Stakeholder Meetings

OPEN HOUSE EVENTS

During the week of April 26 to May 1, 

2009, the National Park Service held seven 

public open house meetings on the islands 

of Hawaiʻi, Oahu, and Maui to provide the 

public with an opportunity to learn about the 

GMP process, to discuss their ideas about 

the future of the park, and to meet members 

of the planning team. The meeting venues 

on Hawaiʻi Island included Kīlauea Visitor 

Center and community and recreation centers 

in Volcano, Kailua-Kona, Naalehu, and Hilo. 

Meetings on Oahu were held at the East-West 

Cultural Center in Honolulu and at Maui 

Community College in Kahului on Maui. 

The meetings began with a brief welcome 

and introduction to the GMP process, 

which transitioned into an open format 

in which attendees could visit six stations 

featuring tabletop poster displays on the 

following topics: Transportation; Visitor 

Experience; Sustainable Operations and 

Facilities; the Vision for Kahuku; Natural 

Resource Preservation, Restoration and 

Research; Partnerships; Cultural Resources 

Management and Preservation; Native 

Hawaiian Significance; the GMP Process and 

Schedule; and Park Foundation Elements. 

An easel flip-chart was set up at each station 

where park staff recorded public comments 

on the various topics.

During this initial scoping phase, the park also 

conducted several stakeholder meetings. 

Invitations to attend stakeholder meetings 

were also extended by letter and e-mail to 

representatives of city, county, and federal 

agencies; business and community 

organizations; and all research permit holders 

to attend one of two different meetings held at 

the federal office building on Oahu and at 

Kilauea Military Camp on Hawaiʻi Island. 

During the 2009 initial scoping period, the 

park planning team spoke with approximately 

400 people at public and stakeholder meetings 

and approximately 1,500 people at park and 

community tabling events. 

Table 7.1. Public Scoping Open Houses 2009

Location Date Attendance

Volcano, HI April 26, 2009 23

Hawai’i Volcanoes 

National Park

April 26, 2009 24

Hilo, HI April 27, 2009 7

Naalehu, HI April 28, 2009 12

Kailua-Kona, HI April 29, 2009 18

Honolulu, Oahu April 30, 2009 9

Kahului, Maui June 1, 2009 2

TOTAL 95
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS chapter 7: PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT | 345 

STAKEHOLDER MEETINGS 

The planning team held the following 

stakeholder meetings (numbers noted are 

total participants at each meeting):

• USGS Hawaiian 

Volcanoes Observatory (13)

• Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park 

Science Community (15)

• Oahu Science Community (10)

• Kalapana Fishing Council (24)

• Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park 

Business Community (15)

• Kaʻu Chamber of Commerce (25)

• Volcano Community Association (20)

• Hawaiʻi County 

Planning Department (3)

• Friends of Hawaiʻi Volcanoes 

National Park Annual 

Meeting/ Retreat (120)

• Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park 

Kupuna Group Meeting (7) 

Written Comments

During public scoping, the public was asked to 

respond to a series of questions including: 

• What do you value most about 

Hawai’i Volcanoes National Park?

• What do you think are the important 

issues facing the park?

• Imagine you are visiting Hawaiʻi 

Volcanoes National Park 20 years 

from now. Describe what you would 

like to experience.

• Do you feel the purpose 

and significance statements 

capture the essence of Hawaiʻi 

Volcanoes National Park?

Respondents submitted a wide range of 

statements about the future of the park. 

To honor the depth of thought that was 

put forward, a narrative was developed 

to summarize both public meeting and 

written comments received by the National 

Park Service. The National Park Service 

received correspondence from more than 

130 individuals and organizations, including 

comment forms, letters, and e-mails that, 

combined with public meeting comments, 

totaled 1,251 specific responses. These 

comments helped shape the park’s foundation 

statement, park purpose and significance 

statements, and guiding principles, and 

further articulated the issues to be addressed 

in the preliminary alternatives for park 

management. The comments covered 

a diverse breadth of topics, ideas, and 

preferences. Many statements or ideas were 

echoed by multiple individuals and were 

grouped under the following categories:

• What people value 

most about the park

• Preservation and protection of the 

park’s natural and cultural resources

• Significance of park resources to 

Native Hawaiian culture

• Research in the park

• Visitor experiences (activities, 

programs, and facilities)

• Commercial services and 

special park uses

• Transportation, roads, and parking 

• Park operations

• Boundary

• Partnerships and collaboration

• Future of the Kahuku Unit

A postcard update on the GMP progress was 

mailed to the park mailing list in December 

2009. A second newsletter, Hawai`i Volcanoes 

National Park GMP Newsletter 2: Results of 

Scoping, was distributed in the winter of 2010. 

This newsletter summarized publics scoping 

comments in narrative format. The summary 

of the public response was also made available 

online at the park GMP webpage and on the 

NPS PEPC site. 

PUBLIC REVIEW OF 

PRELIMINARY ALTERNATIVES

In August 2011 the National Park Service 

solicited public review and comment on 

preliminary alternatives for the Hawaiʻi 

Volcanoes National Park GMP/WS/EIS. The 

goal of this review was to receive feedback 

and encourage public participation in the 

development of preliminary alternatives. 

Another objective of the review was to assist 

the planning team in defining alternatives and 
346 | chapter 7: PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

selecting a preferred alternative for the draft 

plan. This comment period also served as 

official scoping for the wilderness study, which 

was added to the scope of the GMP/EIS in 

2011. A Federal Register Notice of Intent (76 

FR 5557-58), published on December 2, 2011, 

formally extended the preliminary alternatives 

comment period to January 2, 2012 in order to 

gain additional input on wilderness including 

the recently evaluated wilderness eligible 

lands within Kahuku.

Public Outreach

On August 1, 2011, Hawai`i Volcanoes 

National Park GMP Newsletter 3: Preliminary 

Alternatives was published and mailed to a 

GMP mailing list of approximately 955 names. 

The newsletter requested public review and 

comment and was also distributed to 13 

Hawaiʻi Island libraries; community centers in 

Pahoa, Volcano, and Oceanview; and within 

the park at Jaggar Museum, Kīlauea Visitor 

Center, the Kahuku Unit, and Kilauea Military 

Camp. The park also staffed an information 

table at the 2011 Kīlauea Cultural Festival 

using GMP posters to advertise upcoming 

public “talk story” sessions. 

The public was invited to attend a series of 

three gatherings or “talk-story” sessions 

between August 22 and August 24, 2011, at 

Kīlauea Visitor Center, Naalehu Community 

Center, and Pahoa Community Center. The 

public meetings were announced through the 

GMP newsletter, a park press release sent to 

the park media list, and on the park and PEPC

websites. A news article was printed in three 

local papers: the Hawai‘i Tribune Herald, West 

Hawai‘i Today, and the Kaʻu Calendar. A local 

Kaʻū news blog also advertised the Naalehu 

meeting locally. 

Two stakeholder meetings were additionally 

organized by the planning team. One meeting 

was organized for park partners, agency 

representatives, and research permit holders, 

and a second meeting was devoted to the 

park’s commercial use authorizations (CUAs), 

and included commercial drivers and guides, 

and anyone engaged in commercial activities 

in the park. A total of 66 people attended the 

talk story sessions held in Pahoa, Naalehu, 

and at the Kīlauea Visitor Center, and 280 

individual comments were received. All five 

sessions were organized as open forums with 

a series of “stations” that the public could 

visit. The stations focused on the proposed 

alternatives and the wilderness study for 

Kahuku, and each included a poster about the 

preliminary alternative or wilderness study, a 

large notepad for recording responses, and a 

planning team representative who answered 

questions and transcribed comments. 

Additional stations discussed the GMP

process and timeline. 

Further public outreach was also conducted 

on preliminary alternatives during August 

and September 2011, when the park’s GMP

planner gave presentations upon request 

to the Three Mountain Alliance, the park’s 

kupuna group, and one University of Hawaiʻi 

environmental planning class. The park GMP

planner also led a short “planner’s walk” for 

21 elementary school students to discuss park 

issues and the role of the GMP. Tabling was 

conducted during this period for outreach 

to park visitors at the Kīlauea Visitor Center 

and Jaggar Museum.

Table 7.2. Public “Talk Story” on

Preliminary Alternatives

Location Date Attendance

Kīlauea 

Visitor Center

August 22, 2011 26

Pahoa, HI August 23, 2011 7

Naalehu, HI August 24, 2011 21

Stakeholders August 24, 2011 12

TOTAL 66

Public Response

The park received 72 written letters, emails, 

and comment forms from individuals, 

businesses, and organizations. One petition 

was received that was signed by 39 individuals. 

All correspondence was reviewed and 

analyzed by the planning team through the 

NPS PEPC system. Written and “talk story” 

meeting comments provided a total of 709 

specific responses during the public review 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PAR K GMP/WS/EIS chapter 7: PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT | 347 

period for preliminary alternatives. The topics 

that received the most comment during the 

155-day review period included the following 

subject areas, listed in alphabetical order:

•	 ‘Āinahou

•	 Air tours

•	 All alternatives

•	 Alternative concepts

•	 Bikes

•	 Boundaries

•	 Campgrounds

•	 Climate change

•	 Chain of Craters Road

•	 Commercial services

•	 Crater Rim Drive

•	 Cultural resources

•	 Facilities

•	 Hilina Pali

•	 Interpretation

•	 Jaggar Museum and Hawaiian 

Volcano Observatory

•	 Kahuku

•	 Kilauea Military Camp

•	 Kīlauea Visitor Center

•	 Mauna Loa

•	 Natural resources

•	 Ohia Wing

•	 ‘Ōla‘a 

•	 Park entrance

•	 Partners and neighbors

•	 Planning process

•	 Research

•	 Thurston Lava Tube (Nāhuku)

•	 Trails

•	 Transportation and access

•	 Visitor experience

•	 1877 Volcano House

•	 Volcano House

•	 Wilderness

A summary of public comments on the 

preliminary alternatives was created and 

made available to the public in February 2012 

through the GMP park website (http://www.

nps.gov/havo/index.htm) and PEPC website 

(http://parkplanning.nps.gov/havogmp). 

A postcard announcing the availability 

of this summary was mailed on February 

27, 2012, to approximately 830 names on 

the park mailing list, including private 

individuals and organizations; federal, state, 

and local government agencies; businesses; 

representatives of the natural and cultural 

science community; Native Hawaiian groups 

and individuals; and legislators. 

LIST OF DRAFT GMP/

WS/EIS RECIPIENTS

Copies of the draft GMP/WS/EIS (paper 

or CD-ROM) and/or newsletter of the 

Executive Summary were sent to the following 

recipients. Additionally, newsletters were sent 

to private individuals on the mailing list. 

Federal Agencies and Officials:

•	 Advisory Council on Historic 

Preservation, Washington, DC

•	 ‘Ala Kahakai National Historic Trail, 

Kailua-Kona, HI

•	 Environmental Planning Element, 

Hickam Air Force Base, HI

•	 Federal Aviation 

Administration, Honolulu, HI

•	 Federal Aviation Administration, 

Los Angeles, CA

•	 Haleakalā National 

Park, Makawao, HI

•	 Humane Society of the United 

States, Washington, DC

•	 Kalaupapa National 

Park, Kalaupapa, HI

•	 Kilauea Military Camp, Hawaiʻi 

National Park, HI

•	 National Marine Fisheries 

Service, Honolulu, HI

•	 National Park Service, Inventory 

and Monitoring Program, Hawaiʻi 

National Park, HI

•	 National Park Service, Kona Parks, 

Kailua-Kona, HI

•	 National Park Service, Pacific 

West Region-Honolulu 

Office, Honolulu, HI

•	 National Park 

Service, Washington, DC

•	 Pu’ukoholā Heiau National Historic 

Site, Kawaihae, HI

•	 US Army Garrison Hawai’i, Hilo, HI
348 | chapter 7: PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

• US Department of 

Transportation, Federal Highways 

Administration, Lakewood, CO

• USDA Forest Service, Institute of 

Pacific Islands Forestry, Hilo, HI

• USDA Natural Resources 

Conservation Service, Honolulu, HI

• USFWS Hakalau Forest National 

Wildlife Refuge, Hilo, HI

• USFWS Pacific Islands 

Ecoregion, Honolulu, HI

• USGS Biological Resources 

Division - PIERC, 

Hawaiʻi National Park, HI

• USGS Hawaiian 

Volcano Observatory, 

Hawai’i National Park, HI

• USGS Pacific Island Ecosystems 

Research Center, Honolulu, HI

• USGS Pacific Island Ecosystems 

Research Center, Makawao, HI

• USGS Volcano Hazards 

Program, Reston, VA

State and Local Agencies and Officials:

• Bishop Museum, Honolulu, HI

• Ron Whitmore, County of Hawai‘i, 

Kaʻū Community Planner, Hilo, HI

• County of Hawaiʻi Department of 

Parks and Recreation, Hilo, HI

• County of Hawai‘i Mayor, The 

Honorable Billy Kenoi, Hilo, HI

• County of Hawaiʻi Planning 

Department, Hilo, HI

• County Parks and 

Recreation, Hilo, HI

• County Public Works 

Department, Hilo, HI

• County Wastewater 

Division, Hilo, HI

• Department of Health, Honolulu, HI

• Department of Land and Natural 

Resources, Hilo, HI

• Department of Hawaiian Home 

Lands, Kamuela, HI

• Department of Hawaiian Home 

Lands, Honolulu, HI

• Department of Land and 

Natural Resources, Division of 

Conservation and Resources 

Enforcement, Honolulu, HI

• Department of Land and Natural 

Resources, Division of Forestry and 

Wildlife, Hilo, HI

• Department of Land and Natural 

Resources, Division of Forestry and 

Wildlife, Honolulu, HI

• Department of Land and Natural 

Resources, Hawai‘i Watershed 

Partnerships Program, Honolulu, HI

• Department of Land and Natural 

Resources, Hilo, HI

• Department of Land and Natural 

Resources, Honolulu, HI

• Department of Land and Natural 

Resources, Kailua-Kona, HI

• Department of Land and Natural 

Resources, Kapolei, HI

• Department of Land and Natural 

Resources, Natural Area Reserves 

System, Hilo, HI

• Department of Land and Natural 

Resources, Office of Conservation 

and Coastal Lands, Honolulu, HI

• Department of Land and Natural 

Resources, Olinda Endangered 

Species Facility, Kahului, HI

• Department of Land and Natural 

Resources, State Parks, Honolulu, HI

• Division of Forestry and Wildlife - 

DOE-CARE, Captain Cook, HI

• East Hawai‘i Governor’s 

Representative, Hilo, HI

• Hawaiʻi County Council, 1st 

District, Councilman Dominic 

Yagong, Hilo, HI

• Hawaiʻi County Council, 2nd 

District, Councilman Donald 

Ikeda, Hilo, HI

• Hawaiʻi County Council, 3rd District, 

Councilman J. Yoshimoto, Hilo, HI

• Hawaiʻi County Council, 4th District, 

Councilman Dennis Onishi, Hilo, HI

• Hawaiʻi County Council, 5th District, 

Councilwoman Wendy Cortez - 

Botelho, Pahoa, HI
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS chapter 7: PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT | 349 

• Hawaiʻi County Council, 6th 

District, Councilwoman Brittany 

Smart, Hilo, HI

• Hawaiʻi County Council, 7th District, 

Councilwoman Brenda Ford, 

Kailua-Kona, HI

• Hawaiʻi County Council, 8th 

District, Councilman Angel Pilago, 

Kailua-Kona, HI

• Hawaiʻi County Council, 9th 

District, Councilman Pete 

Hoffman, Kamuela, HI

• Hawaiʻi County Fire 

Department, Hilo, HI

• Hawaiʻi Island Burial 

Council, Keaau, HI

• Hawaiʻi State Legislature, 1st 

District, Representative Mark 

Nakashima, Honolulu, HI

• Hawaiʻi State Legislature, 

1st District, Senator Malama 

Solomon, Honolulu, HI

• Hawaiʻi State Legislature, 2nd 

District, Representative Jerry 

Chang, Honolulu, HI

• Hawaiʻi State Legislature, 

2nd District, Senator Gilbert 

Kahele, Honolulu, HI

• Hawaiʻi State Legislature, 3rd 

District, Representative Clifton 

Tsuji, Honolulu, HI

• Hawaiʻi State Legislature, 3rd 

District, Senator Josh Green 

M.D., Honolulu, HI

• Hawaiʻi State Legislature, 4th 

District, Representative Faye 

Hanohano, Honolulu, HI

• Hawaiʻi State Legislature, 5th 

District, Representative Robert 

Herkes, Honolulu, HI

• Hawaiʻi State Legislature, 6th 

District, Representative Denny 

Coffman, Honolulu, HI

• Hawaiʻi State Legislature, 7th 

District, Representative Cindy 

Evans, Honolulu, HI

• Hawaiʻi State Parks, Hilo, HI

• Natural Area Reserve 

Commission, Honolulu, HI

• Office of Environmental Quality 

Control, Honolulu, HI

• Office of Hawaiian 

Affairs, Honolulu, HI

• Office of Planning, Honolulu, HI

• State Highways Division, Hilo, HI

• State of Hawaiʻi Lieutenant 

Governor, Honorable Brian 

Schatz, Honolulu, HI

• State of Hawaiʻi 

Governor, Honorable Neil 

Abercrombie, Hilo, HI

• State Plant Extinction Prevention 

Program, Hilo, HI

• United States Senate, The Honorable 

Daniel K. Akaka, Honolulu, HI

• United States Senate, The Honorable 

Daniel K. Inouye, Honolulu, HI

• United States House of 

Representatives, The Honorable 

Mazie Hirono, Honolulu, HI

Organizations:

• ‘Ahahui Ka‘ahumanu O Kona, 

Kailua-Kona, HI

• 39 Taxi and Tours, Kailua Kona, HI

• AA Hawai‘i Tours, Honolulu, HI

• Aa Tours/Paradise Christian, 

Kailua Kona, HI

• Above It All dba Island Hoppers dba 

Iolani Air, Kailua-Kona, HI

• AECOS, Kaneohe, HI

• Aina Ihi Ecotours/Volcano 

Discovery, Volcano, HI

• Alakai Taxi & Tours, Hilo, HI

• Alii Hilo Tours / Elms Taxi, Hilo, HI

• All Hawai‘i Adventure Tours, Hilo, HI

• Alpengirl, Inc, Manhattan, MT

• America’s Adventure, 

Inc, Golden, CO

• Amy B. H. Greenwell Ethnobotanical 

Garden, Captain Cook, HI

• Arnott’s Lodge, Hilo, HI

• Audubon Naturalist Society - 

Woodend Sanctuary Headquarters, 

Chevy Chase, MD

• Aunty Moana Taxi, Hilo, HI

• Azusa - 4 - U, Kailua Kona, HI 

• Backroads, Berkeley, CA

• Bays Deaver Lung Rose 

Holma, Honolulu, HI
350 | chapter 7: PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

• Bechart Expeditions, 

Inc., Cupertino, CA

• Best Tours of Hawai‘i, 

Kailua Kona, HI

• Bicycle Adventures, Inc., 

Issaquah, WA

• Big Island Air, Kailua-Kona, HI

• Big Island Bow Hunters, Keaau, HI

• Big Island Crest Co, Inc., 

Kailua Kona, HI

• Big Island Field Trial 

Association, Kamuela, HI

• Big Island Gun Club, Hilo, HI

• Big Island Sight Seeing, Hilo, HI

• Big Island Trap Club, Hilo, HI

• Big Island Visitors and Convention 

Bureau, Hilo, HI

• BIISC, Hilo, HI

• Bike Volcano.com, Hilo, HI

• Bishop Museum, Honolulu, HI

• Blue Hawaiian, Kahului, HI

• Call Air, Inc., Honolulu, Hi 

• C-Big Island, Kailua-Kona, HI

• City Cab, Hilo, HI

• Conservation Council of 

Hawai‘i, Honolulu, HI

• D&K Taxi, Keaau, HI

• Da Best Taxi, Hilo, HI

• Daniel’s Taxi, Keaau, HI

• Discover Hawai‘i Tours, Honolulu, Hi

• Ducks Unlimited, Honolulu, HI

• Edith Kanaka’ole 

Foundation, Hilo, HI

• Environment Hawai‘i Inc., Hilo, HI

• Field Guides, Inc, Austin, TX

• Forest Solutions Inc., Paauilo, HI

• Friends of Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park, Honolulu, HI

• Friends of Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park, Volcano, HI

• Friends of Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park, Hilo, HI

• Friends of Puna’s Future, Pahoa, HI

• Fuku Travel, Hilo, HI

• Fun Tours Hawai‘i, Hilo, HI

• Gene’s Taxi, Hilo, HI

• Gold Coast Town Car Service, 

Kailua-Kona, HI

• Green Travel & Tours, Inc., Hilo, HI

• Hawai‘i Community 

College, Kamuela, HI

• Hawai‘i Audubon Society, 

Kailua-Kona, HI

• Hawai‘i Audubon 

Society, Honolulu, HI

• Hawai‘i Eco Safari, Keaau, HI

• Hawai‘i Forest & Trail, 

Kailua Kona, HI

• Hawai‘i Helicopters, Kahului, HI

• Hawai‘i Hunting Advisory 

Council, Kurtistown, HI

• Hawai‘i Hunting Tours, Honokaa, HI

• Hawai‘i Island Archery Club, 

Keaau, HI

• Hawai‘i Island Burial 

Council, Kapolei, HI

• Hawai‘i Island Chamber of 

Commerce, Hilo, HI

• Hawai‘i Kanko, Kailua Kona, HI

• Hawai‘i Loco Tours/Taniwa, 

Kailua Kona, HI

• Hawai‘i Nature Explorers 

/ Taxi, Hilo, HI

• Hawai‘i Outdoor Guides, Hilo, HI

• Hawai‘i Pacific Parks Association, 

Hawai‘i National Park, HI

• Hawai‘i Pacific Parks Association 

Board, Ewa Beach, HI

• Hawai‘i Pacific Parks Association 

Board, Kailua, HI

• Hawai‘i Pacific Parks Association 

Board, Kailua-Kona , HI

• Hawai‘i Pacific Parks Association 

Board, Hawaiʻi National Park, HI

• Hawai‘i Pacific Parks Association 

Board, Hilo, HI

• Hawai‘i Pacific Parks Association 

Board, Kihei, HI

• Hawai‘i Pacific Parks Association 

Board, Volcano, HI

• Hawai‘i Pacific Parks Association 

Board, Wailuku, HI

• Hawai‘i Polonia Tours, Honolulu, HI

• Hawaiian Adventure 

Tours, Kapaau, HI

• Hawaiian Ecosystems at 

Risk, Puunene, HI

• Hawaiian Silversword 

Foundation, Tucson, AZ
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS chapter 7: 

PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT | 351 

•Hawaiian Silversword 

Foundation, Volcano, HI

•Hawaiian Walkways, Honokaa, HI

• HELCO, Hilo, HI

•Helen’s Taxi, Hilo, HI

•Hilo Bay Tours, Hilo, HI

•Historic Hawai`i 

Foundation, Honolulu, HI

•Hokukano Ranch, Ocean View, HI

•Hot Lava Taxi & Tours, Hilo, HI

•Hualalai Archery Club, Holualoa, HI

•Hulihe‘e Palace, Kailua-Kona, HI

• Island Dreams, Waikoloa, HI

• Island R.V., Kailua Kona, HI

• Island Wide Tours, Keaau, HI

• Jack’s Tours, Hilo, HI

• Japanese Chamber of 

Commerce, Hilo, HI

• K & S Helicopters dba Paradise and 

Tropical Helicopters, 

Kailua-Kona, HI

• Ka ‘Ohana O Honu‘apo, Naalehu, HI

• Kahauloa Hunt Club, 

Kailua-Kona, HI

•KAHEA, The Hawaiian 

Environmental Alliance, 

Honolulu, HI

• Kahua Ranch LTD, Kailua-Kona, HI

• Kahua Ranch LTD, Kamuela, HI

• Kai Malino Ranch, Holualoa, HI

• Kai Malino Ranch, Ocean View, HI

• Kalapana Community 

Organization, Pahoa, HI

• Kalapana Community 

Organization, Hilo, HI

• Kalapana Fishing Council, Pahoa, HI

• Kalauonaone O Puna 

Association, Pahoa, HI

• Kapohokine Advance 

Tours, Pepeekeo, HI

• Ka’u Preservation, Naalehu, HI

• Kawaihae Boaters Association, Kamuela, 

HI

•KC’s Taxi, Hilo, HI

• Keahole Airport, Kailua-Kona, HI

• Keahou Beach Resort, 

Kailua-Kona, HI

• Kealia Ranch, Captain Cook, HI

• Keauhou Bird Conservation 

Center, Volcano, HI

• Kīlauea Sporting Skeet Club, Volcano, HI • Kona Crime Prevention 

Comm, 

Kailua-Kona, HI

• Kona Hawaiian Civic Club, 

Kailua-Kona, HI

• Kona Historical Society, 

Captain Cook, HI

• Kona Limousine Service, 

Kailua Kona, HI

• Kona Outdoor Circle, 

Kailua-Kona, HI

• Kool Feva Taxi, Hilo, HI

• Kuakini Hawaiian Civic Club of 

Kona, Holualoa, HI

• La Moda / Tor Tours, 

Kailua Kona, HI

• Laiopia 2020, Captain Cook, HI

• Lanihau Partners / Palani 

Ranch, Honolulu, HI

• Leolani / Hawai‘i Scenic Tours and 

Travel, Hilo, HI

• Luana Limo / 

Laura’s Taxi, Kailua-Kona, HI

• Mabuhay Tours, Hilo, HI

• Mahealani Ranch , Kealakekua, HI

• Makani Kai Helicopters, 

Honolulu, HI

• Manuiwa Airways, Inc. dba Volcano 

Helicopters, Hilo, HI

• Marek’s Taxi & Tours, Hilo, HI

• Marine and Coastal Solutions Intl, 

Inc., Hawai‘i National Park, HI

• Marine and Coastal Solutions Intl, 

Inc., Kamuela, HI

• Marine Science Institute, Port Arkansas, TX • Mario’s Taxi, Mountain View, 

HI

• Marylous Big Island Tours, Keaau, HI

• Maui Island Air dba Volcano Air 

Tours, Kahului, HI

• Mauna Kea Properties, Kamuela, HI

• Maunaloa Outfitters, Holualoa, HI

• McCandless Ranch & Cattle 

Company, Captain Cook, HI

• Meridian HRT, Kailua Kona, HI

• Miranda’s Taxi & Tours, Ookala, HI

• Mokulele Flight Service, 

Inc., Holualoa, HI
352 | chapter 7: PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

• Mountain Travel, Inc, Emeryville, CA

• My Big Island Tours, Waikoloa, HI

• National Parks Conservation 

Association, Washington, DC

• National Wild Turkey Federation, 

Volcano Chapter, Captain Cook, HI

• National Wildlife Federation, 

Reston, VA

• Native Guide Hawai‘i, Keaau, HI

• Natural Resources Defense 

Council, New York, NY

• Naturalist Journeys, Portal, AZ

• Nature Schools, Kailua Kona, HI

• New England Hiking Holidays, 

North Conway, NH

• Nippon Taxi, Kailua Kona, HI

• Noel Taxi, Keaau, HI

• Nui Pohaku, LLC, Pahoa, HI

• & M Taxi, Honokaa, HI 

• Ka’u Kakou, Pahala, HI

• Ocean View Chamber of 

Commerce, Ocean View, HI

• Oceanit, Honolulu, HI

• Office of Hawaiian Affairs, 

Hilo CRC, Hilo, HI

• Office of Mauna Kea 

Management, Hilo, HI

• Na Ohana O Kalapana, Pahoa, HI

• Palika Ranch, Kailua-Kona, HI

• Palika Ranch, Kealakekua, HI

• Paradise Helicopters, Hilo, HI

• Photo Safari Hawai‘i, Kula, HI

• Pig Hunters of Hawai‘i, Keaau, HI

• Pig Hunters of Hawai‘i, Papaikou, HI

• Polynesian Adventure 

Tours, Honolulu, HI

• Queen Liliuokalani 

Trust, Honolulu, HI

• R & A Taxi, Papaikou, HI

• R & M Taxi, Keaau, HI

• Rainbow Pacific 

Helicopters,LTD, Honolulu, HI

• Resorts Limousine Service, 

Kailua-Kona, HI

• Ricky’s Tours, Pepeekeo, HI

• Roberts Hawai‘i, Honolulu, HI

• Rue Mauverney 28, 

Gland, Switzerland

• Rutter Development, Irvine, CA

• Safari Aviation, Inc., Lihue, Kauai, HI

• Shaka! Taxi + Tours, LLC, Hilo, HI

• Shark’s Tours, Papaikou, HI

• Sierra Club, Volcano, HI

• Sierra Club, Moku Loa 

group, Hilo, HI

• Sunshine Helicopters, 

Inc., Kahului, HI

• Taikobo Hawai‘i, Kailua Kona, HI

• The Great Wall Inter. Tour, Hilo, HI

• The Mountain Institute, Berkeley, CA

• The Nature Conservancy of 

Hawai`i, Honolulu, HI

• The Nature Conservancy of 

Hawai‘i, Honolulu, HI

• The Oakland Museum of 

California, Oakland, CA

• The Queen Emma Land 

Co, Honolulu, HI

• The World Outdoors, Boulder, CO

• Three Mountain Alliance, Hawai‘i 

National Park, HI

• Timberline Adventures, Denver, CO

• TREE Hawai‘i, Honolulu, HI

• Vavoom Volcano Tours, Hilo, HI

• VCA, Volcano, HI

• Volcano Community 

Association, Volcano, HI

• Volcano Art Center, Hilo, HI

• Volcano Art Center, Volcano, HI

• Waikiki Beach Mariott 

Hotel, Honolulu, HI

• Wigwam/Naturreisen, 

Waltenhofen, GM

• Wild Orchid Tours, Hilo, HI

• Wilderness Inquiry, 

Minneapolis, MN

• Wilderness Watch, Missoula, MT

• Wildlife Conservation Association of 

Hawai‘i, Kamuela, HI

• Yee Hop Enterprises, Honolulu, HI

• YYY Enterprises Inc., 

Kailua Kona, HI

Native Hawaiian Organizations:

• Hui Malama I Na Kupuna O 

Hawai‘i Nei, Hilo, HI

• Ho’oulu Lahui, Pahoa, HI
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS chapter 7: PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT | 353 

• Kalapana Community 

Organization, Pahoa, HI

• Naki’I Ke Aho, Hilo, HI

• Hale O Na’ali’i, Hilo, HI

• Council for Native Hawaiian 

Advancement, Honolulu, HI

Schools Libraries and Institutions:

• 72 University Pl, 501 Williams 

Hall, VT, 05405

• CA State University, Pomona, CA

• Carnegie Institute Department of 

Global Ecology, Stanford, CA

• Dept. of Zoology, University of 

Hawai‘i, Manoa, Honolulu, HI

• Environmental Policy and 

Culture, Northwestern 

University, Evanston, IL

• Hawai‘i Community 

College, Hilo, HI

• Hawai‘i State Library, Honolulu, HI

• Hilo Public Library, Hilo, HI

• Honoka‘a Public 

Library, Honokaa, HI

• Kailua-Kona Public Library, 

Kailua-Kona, HI

• Kamehameha Schools, Keaau, HI

• Kamehameha Schools, 

Kailua-Kona, HI

• Kamehameha Schools, Paauilo, HI

• Kamehameha Schools, Honolulu, HI

• Kanu o ka ʻAina Charter 

School, Kamuela, HI

• Kea‘au Public Library, Keaau, HI

• Kealakekua Public 

Library, Kealakekua, HI

• Kua o Ka La Public Charter 

School, Pahoa, HI

• Laupahoehoe Public Library, 

Laupahoehoe, HI

• Mountain View Public Library, 

Mountain View, HI

• Naalehu Public Library, Naalehu, HI

• Pacific CESU, University of 

Hawai‘i at Manoa, Botany 

Department, Honolulu, HI

• Pahala Public Library, Pahala, HI

• Pahoa Public Library, Pahoa, HI

• Thelma Parker Public 

Library, Kamuela, HI

• University of Hawai‘i at 

Mānoa, Honolulu, HI

• University of Hawai‘i, Honolulu, HI

• University of Hawai‘i Institute for 

Astronomy, Hilo, HI

• University of Hawai‘i at Hilo, 

Hilo, HI 

• University of Hawai‘i at 

Mānoa, Honolulu, HI

• University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa, 

Botany Department, Ocean View, HI

• University of Vermont, 

Burlington, VT

Consultants

• John and Kathleen Dawson, Hilo, HI

• Allan Deear, Keaau, HI

Media

• Hawai‘i TribuneHerald, Hilo, HI

• Ho‘akea Public Relations 

LLC, Honolulu, HI

• West Hawai‘i Today, Kailua-Kona, HI

Individuals

• 367 private individuals on 

the mailing list 

CONSULTATION

National Historic Preservation 

Act - Section 106

In accordance with the National Historic 

Preservation Act of 1966 and the Advisory 

Council on Historic Preservation regulations, 

the park must consult the Hawaiʻi State 

Historic Preservation Office and related 

organizations regarding any resource 

management proposal that might affect a 

cultural property listed on or found eligible 

for the National Register of Historic Places. 

Formal consultation for Section 106 was 

initiated in 2009 during the initial scoping 

period for the GMP. A certified letter was 

sent to 40 names on the park’s Section 106 

mailing list of agencies, organizations, and 
354 | chapter 7: PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

individuals. The letter included an invitation 

to attend stakeholder and public meetings and 

was accompanied by the first GMP newsletter. 

Two Section 106 meetings were held during 

the 2009 initial scoping; one for kupuna at 

the park and one in Pahoa with the Kalapana 

Fishing Council. During the public scoping 

period, the park received four response letters 

from Section 106-related organizations and 

individuals that were incorporated into the 

alternative development process. 

In 2010, GMP Newsletter 2 was mailed to the 

Section 106 mailing list, providing a summary 

of public comments. During 2011, letters 

and copies of Newsletter 3 were sent to the 

Section 106 mailing list, soliciting review and 

attendance at public “talk-story” meetings on 

Hawaiʻi Island. A presentation was also given 

for park kupuna to discuss GMP preliminary 

alternatives in September 2011. During the 

2011 review of preliminary alternatives, the 

park received one response from an individual 

relating to Section 106.

Endangered Species Act - Section 7

Formal consultation for Section 7 was initiated 

in 2009 with the US Fish and Wildlife Service 

and the National Marine Fisheries Service. 

Each agency was sent a letter and a GMP

newsletter soliciting comment and extending 

an invitation to attend stakeholder or public 

meetings on Oahu or Hawaiʻi islands. A formal 

response was received from each agency that 

identified individual species concerns and 

expressed interest in remaining informed as 

the project progressed. A second letter was 

sent to both agencies in 2011, advising them 

of the review of preliminary alternatives, 

and issuing an invitation to attend a science 

stakeholder meeting at the park on August 24, 

2011. There were no written responses 

from either agency during this informal 

public review period.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix A | 355 

APPENDIXES

‘Ākala berry and flower. NPS photo by Jay Robinson
356 | Appendix A HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Flowers of the endangered Mauna Loa silversword. NPS Photo
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix A | 357 

APPENDIX A: HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL 

PARK LEGISLATION

HAWAI‘I NATIONAL PARK, ACT OF AUGUST 1, 1916

An Act To establish a national park in the Territory of Hawai‘i, approved August 1, 1916 

(39 Stat. 432)

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress 

assembled, That the tracts of land on the island of Hawai‘i and on the island of Maui, in the Territory of 

Hawai‘i, hereinafter described. Shall be perpetually dedicated and set apart as a public park or pleasure 

ground for the benefit and enjoyment of the people of the United States, to be known as Hawai‘i 

National Park. Said tracts of land are described as follows:

First. All that tract of land comprising portions of the lands of Kapapala and Keauhou, in the district of 

Kau, and Kahaualea, Panaunui, and Apua, in the district of Puna, on the island of Hawai‘i, containing 

approximately thirty-five thousand eight hundred and sixty-five acres, bounded as follows: Beginning 

at a point on the west edge of the Keamoku Aa Flow (lava flow of eighteen hundred and twenty-three) 

from which point the true azimuth and distance to Government survey trigonometrical station Ohaikea 

is one hundred and sixty-six degrees twenty minutes, six thousand three hundred and fifty feet, and 

running by true azimuths: (First) Along the west edge of the Keamoku lava flow in a northeasterly and 

northwesterly direction, the direct azimuth and distance being one hundred and ninety-eight degrees 

ten minutes, fourteen thousand seven hundred feet; (second ) two hundred and fifty-six degrees, eleven 

thousand four hundred feet, more or less, across the land of Kapapala and Keauhou to a marked point 

on the Humuula trail; (third) three hundred and twenty-eight degrees fifteen minutes, eight thousand 

seven hundred and twenty-five feet, across the land of Keauhou to the top of the fault north of the Kau 

road; (fourth) along the fault in a northeasterly direction, the direction azimuth and distance being two 

hundred and fifty-one degrees and thirty minutes, four thousand three hundred and thirty feet; (fifth) 

two hundred and forty-five degrees, six thousand feet, to a point near the southwest boundary of the 

land of Olaa; (sixth) three hundred and thirty-seven degrees ten minutes, eight thousand six hundred 

and fifty feet, more or less, to the junction of the Hilo and Keauhou roads: (seventh) three hundred 

and thirty-three degrees and twenty minutes, three thousand three hundred feet, more or less to the 

southwest corner of the land of Keaau; (eighth) three hundred and thirty-two degrees and ten minutes 

seven thousand feet, along the land of Kahaualea; (ninth ) two hundred and eighty-one degrees, thirty 

thousand three hundred and seventy-five feet, more or less, across the land of Kahaualea, passing 

through the north corner of the land of Panaunui. to the north corner of the land of Laeapuki; (tenth) 

thirty-one degrees thirty minutes, thirteen thousand two hundred feet, more or less along the land of 

Laeapuki and across the land of Panaunui; (eleventh) eighty-nine degrees and ten minutes, thirty-two 

thousand nine hundred feet, more or less, across the land of Panaunui, Apua, and Keanhou to “Palileleo-Kalihipaa”, the boundary point of the Keauhou-Kapapala boundary; (twelfth) fifty-one degrees 

and thirty minutes, five thousand and five hundred feet, across the land of Kapapala: (thirteenth) one 

hundred and two degrees and fifty minutes, nineteen thousand one hundred and fifty feet, across 

the land of Kapapala to a small cone about one thousand five hundred feet southwest of Puu Koae 

trigonometrical station; (fourteenth) one hundred and sixty-six degrees twenty minutes, twenty-one 

thousand feet, across the land of Kapapala to the point of beginning.

Second. All that tract of land comprising portions of the lands of Kapapala and Kahuku in the district 

of Kau, island of Hawai‘i; Keauhou second, in the district of North Kona; and Kaohe, in the district 

of Hamakua, containing seventeen thousand nine hundred and twenty acres, bounded as follows: 

Beginning at Pohaku Hanalei of Humuula, a small cone on the brow of Mauna Loa, and at the common 

boundary points of the lands of Humuula, Kapapala, and Kaohe, from which the true azimuth and 
358 | Appendix A HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

distance to Government survey trigonometrica1 station Omaokoili is one hundred and ninetyfive degrees twelve minutes eighteen seconds, seventy-eight thousand two hundred and eighty-six 

feet, and running by true azimuths: First, two hundred and ninety-eight degrees, five thousand two 

hundred and forty feet; second, twenty-eight degrees, thirty-six thousand nine hundred and sixty feet; 

third, one hundred and eighteen degrees, twenty-one thousand one hundred and twenty feet; fourth 

two hundred and eight degrees, thirty-six thousand nine hundred and sixty feet; fifth, two hundred 

and ninety-eight degrees, fifteen thousand eight hundred and eighty feet, to the point of beginning.

Third. A strip of land of sufficient width for a road to connect the two tracts of land on the island of 

Hawai‘i above described, the width and location of which strip shall be determined by the Secretary 

of the Interior. 

Fourth. All that tract of land comprising portions of the lands of Honuaula and Kula in the district 

of Makawao, and Kipahulu Kaupo, and Kahikinui in the district of Hana, on the island of Maui, 

containing approximately twenty-one thousand one hundred and fifty acres, bounded as follows: 

Beginning at a Point called Kolekole, on the summit near the most western point of the rim of the 

crater of Haleakala, and running by approximate azimuths and distances: First, hundred and ninetythree degrees forty-five minutes nineteen thousand three hundred and fifty feet along the west 

slope of the crater of Haleakala to a point called Puu-o-Ili; second, two hundred and sixty-eight 

degrees twenty-three thousand feet up the western slope and across Koolau Gap to the point where 

the southwest boundary of Koolau Forest Reserve crosses the east rim of Koolau Gap; third, three 

hundred and six degrees thirty minutes seventeen thousand one hundred and fifty feet along the 

southwest boundary of Koolau Forest Reserve to a point called Palalia, on the east rim of the crater of 

Haleakala; fourth, along the east rim of the crater of Haleakala, the direct azimuth and distance being 

three hundred and fifty-four degrees fifteen minutes eighteen thousand three hundred feet to a point 

on the east rim of Kaupo Gap, shown on Hawaiian Government survey maps at an elevation of four 

thousand two hundred and eight feet: fifth, eighty-eight degrees forty-five minutes three thousand 

three hundred feet across Kaupo Gap to a point called Kaumikaohu, on the boundary line between 

the lands of Kipahulu and Kahilanui; sixth, one hundred and two degrees and thirty minutes forty 

thousand seven hundred and fifty feet along the south slope of the crater of Haleakala to the point of 

beginning. (U.S. C., title 16. sec. 391.)

SEC. 2. That nothing herein contained shall affect any valid existing claim, location or entry under 

the land laws of the United States, whether for homestead, mineral, right of way, or any other 

purpose whatsoever, or shall affect the rights of any such claimant, locater, or entryman to the full 

use and enjoyment of his land. Whenever consistent with the primary purposes of the park the 

Act of February fifteenth, nineteen hundred and one, applicable to the location of rights of way in 

certain national parks and the national forests for irrigation and other purposes, shall be and remain 

applicable to the lands included within the park. The Secretary of the Interior may, in his discretion 

and upon such conditions as he may deem wise, grant easements or rights of way for steam, electric, 

or similar transportation upon or across the park. (U.S. C., title 16, sec. 393.)

SEC. 3. That no lands located within the park boundaries now held in private or municipal ownership 

shall be affected by or subject to the provisions of this Act. (U.S.C. title 16. sec. 393.)

Sec. 4. That the said park shall be under the executive control of the Secretary of the Interior whose 

duty it shall be, as soon as practicable, to make and publish such rules and regulations as he may 

deem necessary or proper for the care and management of the same. Such regulations shall provide 

for the preservation from injury of all timber, birds mineral deposits, and natural curiosities or 

wonders within said park, and their retention in their natural condition as nearly as possible. The 

Secretary may in his discretion grant leases for terms not exceeding twenty years, at such annual 

rental as he may determine, of parcels of land in said park of not more than twenty acres in all to 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix A | 359 

any one person, corporation, or company for the erection and maintenance of buildings for the 

accommodation of visitors; but no such lease shall include any of the objects of curiosity or interest 

in said park or exclude the public from free and convenient approach thereto or convey, either 

expressly or by implication, any exclusive privilege within the park except upon the premises held 

thereunder and for the time granted therein; and every such lease shall require the lessee to observe 

and obey each and every provision in any Act of Congress and every rule, order, or regulation of 

the Secretary of the Interior concerning the use, care, management or government of the park, or 

any object or property therein, under penalty of forfeiture of such lease. The Secretary may in his 

discretion grant to persons or corporations now holding leases of land in the park, upon surrender 

thereof, new leases hereunder, upon the terms and stipulations contained in their present leases, 

with such modifications, restrictions, and reservations as he may prescribe. All of the proceeds of 

said leases and other revenues that may be derived from any source connected with the park shall be 

expended under the direction of the Secretary, in the management and protection of the same and the 

construction of roads and paths therein. The Secretary may also, in his discretion permit the erection 

and maintenance of buildings in said park for scientific purposes: Provided, That no appropriation 

for the maintenance, supervision, and improvement of said park in excess of $10,000 annually shall 

be made unless the same shall have first been expressly authorized by law: And provided further, 

That no appropriation shall be made for the improvement or maintenance of said park until proper 

conveyances shall be made to the United States of such perpetual easements and rights of way over 

private lands within the exterior boundaries of said park as the Secretary of the Interior shall find 

necessary to make said park reasonably accessible in a1l its parts, and said Secretary shall when such 

easements and rights of way have been conveyed to the United States report the same to Congress. 

(U.S.C., title 16, sec. 394.)

HAWAI‘I NATIONAL PARK, ACT OF 1920

An Act To authorize the governor of the Territory of Hawai‘i to acquire privately owned lands 

and rights of way within the boundaries of the Hawai‘i National Park, approved February 27, 

1920 (41 Stat. 452)

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress 

assembled, That the governor of the Territory of Hawai‘i is hereby authorized to acquire at the 

expense of the Territory of Hawai‘i, by exchange or otherwise, all privately owned lands lying within 

the boundaries of the Hawai‘i National Park as defined by “An Act to establish a national park in the 

Territory of Hawai‘i.” approved August 1, 1916, and all necessary perpetual easements and rights of 

way, or roadways, in fee simple, over or to said land or any part thereof.

SEC. 2. That the provisions of Section 73 of an Act entitled, “An Act to provide a government for the 

Territory of Hawai‘i,” approved April 30, 1900, as amended by an Act approved May 27, 1910, relating 

to exchanges of public lands, shall not apply in the acquisition, by exchange, of the privately owned 

lands herein referred to. (U.S.C., title 16, sec. 392.)

HAWAI‘I NATIONAL PARK, ACT OF 1922 ADDITION

An Act To add a certain tract of land on the island of Hawai‘i to the Hawai‘i National Park, 

approved May 1, 1922 (42 Stat. 503)

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress 

assembled, That the tract of land on the island of Hawai‘i, in the Territory of Hawai‘i, set aside for park 

purposes on the 29th day of October, 1920, by executive order numbered eighty-one of the governor 

of the Territory of Hawai‘i, and hereinafter described, is hereby added to and made a part of the 

Hawai‘i National Park. Said tract of land is described as follows, to wit:
360 | Appendix A HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

All that tract of land comprising a portion of the Kau Desert, Kapapala, in the district of Kau, 

on the island of Hawai‘i, containing forty-three thousand four hundred acres, more or less, 

bounded as follows:

Beginning at a galvanized iron nail driven into the pahoehoe at the northeast corner of this tract of 

land, at a place called Palilele-o-Kalihipaa, and on the boundary between the lands of Kapapala and 

Keauhou, the coordinates of said point of beginning referred to Government survey trigonometrical 

station Uwekahuna, being twenty-six thousand and ten and four tenths feet south and nine thousand 

nine hundred and thirty-two and four tenths feet east as shown on Government survey registered 

map numbered twenty-three hundred and eighty-eight and running by true azimuths: First, three 

hundred and fifty degrees forty-three minutes, thirty thousand and twenty-three feet along the land 

of Kapapala to a point at seacoast; second, thence in a west and southwesterly direction along the 

seacoast to a station on a large flat stone, at a place called Na-Puu-o-na-Elemakule, at the seacoast 

boundary point of the lands of Kapapala and Kaalaala, the direct azimuth and distance being sixtynine degrees thirty-four minutes thirty seconds, thirty-two thousand and forty-three feet; third, 

eighty-nine degrees twenty-seven minutes thirty seconds, thirty thousand six hundred and ninety feet 

along the land of Kaalaala to the main eighteen hundred and sixty-eight lava crack, said point being by 

true azimuth and distance two hundred and ninety-six degrees twenty-seven minutes thirty seconds, 

twenty-one hundred feet from Government survey trigonometrical station Puu Nahala; fourth, 

thence up along the main eighteen hundred and sixty-eight lava crack, along the Kapapala pastoral 

lands to a small outbreak of lava from the eighteen hundred and sixty-eight lava crack, opposite the 

Halfway House, the direct azimuth and distance being one hundred and ninety-eight degrees, thirtytwo thousand five hundred and fifty feet; fifth, two hundred and thirty degrees twenty-five minutes, 

twenty-seven thousand six hundred and fifteen feet along the Kapapala pastoral lands to the west 

boundary of the Kīlauea section, Hawai‘i National Park; sixth, three hundred and forty-six degrees 

twenty minutes, six thousand seven hundred and forty-two feet along said west boundary to a small 

cone; seventh, two hundred and eighty-two degrees fifty minutes, nineteen thousand one hundred 

and fifty feet along the south boundary of said Kalauea section, Hawai‘i National Park; eighth, two 

hundred and thirty-one degrees fifty minutes thirty seconds, five thousand four hundred and thirty 

feet along said south boundary to the point of beginning.

SEC. 2. That the provisions of the Act of August 1, 1916, entitled “An Act to establish a national park 

in the Territory of Hawai‘i”: the Act of August 25, 1916, entitled “An Act to establish a national park 

service, and for other purposes,” and all Acts supplementary to and amendatory of said Acts are made 

applicable to and extended over the lands hereby added to the park: Provided, That the provisions 

of the Act of June 10, 1920, entitled “An Act to create a Federal power commission; to provide for the 

improvement of navigation; the development of water power; the use of the public lands in relation 

thereto; and to repeal Section 18 of the River and Harbor appropriation Act; approved August 8, 1917, 

and for other purposes,” shall not apply to or extend over such lands. (U.S.C., title 16, sec. 391.)

HAWAI‘I NATIONAL PARK, ACT OF 1928 BOUNDARY REVISION

An Act To revise the boundary of a portion of the Hawai‘i National Park on the island of Hawai‘i 

in the Territory of Hawai‘i, approved April 11, l928 (45 Stat. 424)

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress 

assembled, That the boundary of that portion of the Hawai‘i National Park on the island of Hawai‘i 

firstly described in the Act of Congress approved August 1, 1916 (Thirty-ninth Statutes, page 432, 

Section 391, title 16. United States Code), entitled “An Act to establish a national park in the Territory 

of Hawai‘i,” be, and the same is hereby, amended to read as follows:
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix A | 361 

“All that tract of land comprising portion of the lands of Kapapala and Keauhou, in the District 

of Kau, and portions of the lands of Keaau, Kahaualea, Panaunui, and Apua in the District 

of Puna, containing approximately thirty-four thousand five hundred and thirty-one acres, 

bounded as follows:

“Beginning at a point on the west edge of the Keamoku Aa Flow (lava Flow of 1823), the coordinates 

of said point of beginning referred to Government Survey Trigonometry Station ‘Uwekahuna,’ 

being four thousand seven hundred and six and six-tenths feet south and seventeen thousand 

nine hundred and seventy and three-tenths feet west, and the true azimuth and distance from said 

point of beginning to Government Survey Trigonometry Station ‘Ohaikea,’ being one hundred 

and sixty-six degrees and twenty minutes, six thousand three hundred and fifty feet, and running 

by true azimuths—

“1. Along the west edge of the Keamoku Aa Flow in a northeasterly and northwesterly 

direction, the direct azimuth and distance being one hundred and ninety-eight degrees and 

ten minutes fourteen thousand seven hundred feet;

“2. Two hundred and fifty-six degrees, eleven thousand four hundred feet across the land of 

Kapapala and Keauhou to a marked point on the Humuula Trail;

“3. Three hundred and twenty-eight degrees and fifteen minutes eight thousand seven 

hundred and twenty-five feet across the land of Keauhou to the top of the fault north 

and the Kau Road;

“4. Thence along the fault in a northeasterly direction along the remainder of Keauhou to 

a pipe, the direct azimuth and distance being two hundred and fifty-one degrees and thirty 

minutes four thousand three hundred and thirty feet;

“5. Two hundred and eighty-six degrees five hundred and thirty feet along the 

remainder of Keanhou;

“6. Two hundred and ninety-eight degrees nine hundred and sixty feet along same;

“7. Two hundred and eighty-three degrees and forty-eight minutes one thousand one 

hundred and forty-six and five-tenths feet along same to a pipe;

“8. Two hundred and sixty-seven degrees and twenty minutes one thousand and twentyseven and five-tenths feet along same;

“9. Two hundred and ninety-three degrees and ten minutes one thousand and fifty feet along 

same to a pipe;

“10. Three hundred and twenty-one degrees and forty-six minutes one thousand one 

hundred and eleven and three-tenths feet along same;

“11. Three hundred and thirty-three degrees and fifty minutes one thousand one hundred 

feet along same;

“12. Three hundred and twenty-seven degrees and twenty minutes one thousand nine 

hundred and forty feet along same;
362 | Appendix A HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

“13. Two hundred and eighty-three degrees and thirty-nine minutes two thousand and fiftyseven and four-tenths feet along same to a pipe;

“14. Three hundred and thirty-three degrees and twenty minutes two hundred and fifty 

feet along same to a pipe on the north side of Government Main Road at junction with the 

Keauhou Road, said pipe being by true azimuth and distance two hundred and ninety-five 

degrees and twelve minutes six thousand one hundred and sixty-seven and one-tenth feet 

from Government Survey Trigonometry Station ‘Volcano House Flag’;

“15. Three hundred and thirty-three degrees and twenty minutes three thousand two 

hundred and eighty-three and two tenths feet along the remainder of Keauhou to a pipe;

“16. Three hundred and fifty-four degrees and fifty four minutes sixty feet along the 

remainder of Keaau;

“17. Two hundred and thirty-one degrees and thirty-one minutes one thousand six hundred 

and seventy-eight and eight tenths feet along same;

“18. Three hundred and eighteen degrees eight hundred and sixteen and four-tenths feet 

along same to the boundary between the lands of Keaau and Kahaualea;

“19. Seventy-two degrees and forty-five minutes one thousand two hundred and thirty-three 

and three-tenths feet along the land of Kahaualea to a pipe;

“20. Forty-eight degrees six hundred and thirty-four feet along the remainder of Kahaualea 

to a pipe on the Kahaualea- Keauhou boundary;

“21. Three hundred and thirty-two degrees and ten minutes six thousand five hundred and 

fifty-one and four-tenths feet along the Kahaualea-Keaau boundary to a pipe;

“22. Two hundred and eighty-one degrees thirty thousand three hundred and one and seventenths feet along the remainder of Kahaualea to a pipe;

“23. Thirty-one degrees and thirty minutes thirteen thousand and seventy-four and seventenths feet along the remainder of Kahaualea and Panaunui to a pipe, passing over a pipe 

at five thousand nine hundred and twenty-two and two-tenths feet on the KahaualeaPanaunui boundary;

“24. Eighty-nine degrees and ten minutes thirty-two thousand nine hundred feet along the 

remainder of Panaunui, across the lands of Apua and Keauhou to ‘Palilele-o-Kalihipaa,’ at an 

angle in the Keauhou-Kapapala boundary marked by a pile of stones, passing over pipes at 

three thousand five hundred and seventy-two and eight-tenths feet on the Panaunui- Apua 

boundary and eight thousand four hundred and thirty-five and three-tenths feet;

“25. Fifty-one degrees fifty minutes and thirty seconds five thousand four hundred and thirty 

feet across the land of Kapapala;

“26. One hundred and two degrees and fifty minutes nineteen thousand one hundred 

and fifty feet across same to a small cone about one thousand five hundred feet 

southwest of ‘Puu Koai’;
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix A | 363 

“27. One hundred and sixty-six degrees and twenty minutes twenty-one thousand feet 

across the land of Kapapala to the point beginning;” and all of those lands lying within 

the boundary above described are hereby included in and made a part of the Hawai‘i 

National Park subject to all laws and regulations pertaining to said mark. (U.S.C., 6th supp., 

title 16, sec. 391.)

of Hawai‘i to acquire privately owned lands and rights of way within the boundaries of the Hawai‘i 

National Park,” are hereby extended over and made applicable to the lands added to the park and 

included within the boundary established by the preceding section of this Act. (U.S.C., 6th supp., title 

16, sec. 392a.)

HAWAI‘I NATIONAL PARK, ACT OF 1930 JURISDICTION

An Act To provide for the exercise of sole and exclusive jurisdiction by the United States over the 

Hawai‘i National Park in the Territory of Hawai‘i, and for other purposes, approved April 18, 

1930 (46 Stat. 227)

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress 

assembled, That hereafter sole and exclusive jurisdiction shall be exercised by the United States over 

the territory which is now or may hereafter be included in the Hawai‘i National Park in the Territory 

of Hawai‘i, saving, however, to the Territory of Hawai‘i the right to serve civil or criminal process 

within the limits of the aforesaid park in suits or prosecutions for or on account of rights acquired, 

obligations incurred, or crimes committed outside of said park, and saving further to the Territory of 

Hawai‘i the right to tax persons and corporations, their franchises and property on the lands included 

in said park. All the 1aws applicable to places under the sole and exclusive jurisdiction of the United 

States shall have force and effect in said park. All fugitives from justice taking refuge in said park shall 

be subject to the same laws as refugees from justice found in the Territory of Hawai‘i. (U.S.C., 6th 

supp., title 16. sec. 395.)

SEC. 2. That the District Court of the United States in and for the Territory of Hawai‘i shall have 

jurisdiction of all offenses committed within the boundaries of said park. (U.S.C., 6th supp., title 

16. sec. 395a.)

Sec. 3. That if any offense shall be committed in the Hawai‘i National Park, which offense is not 

prohibited or the punishment for which is not specifically provided for by any law of the United 

States, the offender shall be subject to the same punishment as the laws of the Territory of Hawai‘i in 

force at the time of the commission of the offense may provide for a like offense in said Territory and 

no subsequent repeal of any such law of the Territory of Hawai‘i shall affect any prosecution for said 

offense committed within said park: (U.S.C., 6th supp., title 16, sec. 395b.)

SEC. 4. That all hunting or the killing, wounding, or capturing at any time of any wild bird or animal, 

except dangerous animals when it is necessary to prevent them from destroying human lives or 

inflicting personal injury, is prohibited within the limits of said park; nor shall any fish be taken out 

of the waters of the park in any other way than by hook and line, and then only at such seasons and 

in such times and manner as may be directed by the Secretary of the Interior. That the Secretary of 

the Interior shall make and publish such general rules and regulations as he may deem necessary 

and proper for the management and care of the park and for the protection of the property therein, 

especially for the preservation from injury or spoliation of all timber, natural curiosities, or wonderful 

objects within said park, and for the protection of the animals and birds in the park from capture or 

destruction, and to prevent their being frightened or driven from the park; and he shall make rules 

and regulations governing the taking of fish from the streams or lakes in the park. Possession within 

said park of the dead bodies, or any part thereof, of any wild bird or animal shall be prima facie 
364 | Appendix A HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

evidence that the person or persons having the same are guilty of violating this Act. Any person or 

persons, or stage or express company, or railway company, who knows or has reason to believe that 

they were taken or killed contrary to the provisions of this Act and who receives for transportation 

any of said animals, birds, or fish so killed, caught, or taken, or who shall violate any of the provisions 

of this Act or any rule or regulation that may be promulgated by the Secretary of the Interior with 

reference to the management and care of the park or for the protection of the property therein, for 

the preservation from injury or spoliation of timber, natural curiosities. or wonderful objects within 

said park, or for the protection of the animals, birds, or fish in the park, or who shall within said 

park willfully commit any damage, injury, or spoliation to or upon any building, fence, hedge, gate, 

guidepost, tree, wood, underwood, timber, garden, crops, vegetables, plants, land, springs, natural 

curiosities, or other matter or thing growing or being thereon or situated therein, shall be deemed 

guilty of a misdemeanor and shall be subject to a fine of not more than $500 or imprisonment not 

exceeding six months, or both, and be adjudged to pay all costs of the proceedings. (U.S.C., 6th supp., 

title 16, sec. 395c.) 

SEC. 5. That all guns, traps, teams, horses, or means of transportation of every nature or description 

used by any person or persons within said park limits when engaged in killing, trapping, ensnaring, or 

capturing such wild beasts, birds or animals shall be forfeited to the United States and may be seized 

by the officers in said park and heId pending the prosecution of any person or persons arrested under 

charge of violating the provisions of this Act, and upon conviction under this Act of such person or 

persons using said guns, traps, teams, horses, or other means of transportation, such forfeiture shall 

be adjudicated as a penalty in addition to the other punishment provided in this Act. Such forfeited 

property shall be disposed of and accounted for by and under the authority of the Secretary of the 

Interior. (U.S.C., 6th supp., title 16, sec. 395d.)

SEC. 6. That upon the recommendation and approval of the Secretary of the Interior of a qualified 

candidate the United States District Court for the Territory of Hawai‘i shall appoint a commissioner 

who shall reside in the park and who shall have jurisdiction to hear and act upon all complaints made 

of any violations of law or of the rules and regulations made by the Secretary of the Interior for the 

government of the park and for the protection of the animals, birds, and fish, and objects of interest 

therein, and for other purposes, authorized by this Act. (U.S.C., 6th supp., title 16, sec. 395e.)

Such commissioner shall have power, upon sworn information, to issue process in the name of the 

United States for the arrest of any person charged with the commission of any misdemeanor, or 

charged with a violation of the rules and regulations, or with a violation of any of the provisions of this 

Act prescribed for the government of said park and for the protection of the animals, birds, and fish in 

said park, and to try the person so charged, and, if found guilty, to impose punishment and to adjudge 

the forfeiture prescribed. (U.S.C., 6th supp., title 16, sec. 395e.)

In all cases of conviction an appeal shall lie from the judgment of said commissioner to the United 

States District Court for the Territory of Hawai‘i, and the United States district court in said district 

shall prescribe the rules of procedure and practice for said commissioner in the trial of cases and for 

appeal to said United States district court. (U.S.C., 6th Supp., title 16, sec. 395e.)

SEC. 7. That such commissioner shall also have power to issue process as hereinbefore provided 

for the arrest of any person charged with the commission within said boundaries of any criminal 

offense not covered by the provisions of Section 4 of this Act to hear the evidence introduced, and if 

he is of opinion that probable cause is shown for holding the person so charged for trial shall cause 

such person to be safely conveyed to a secure place of internment within the jurisdiction of the 

United States District Court for the Territory of Hawai‘i, and certify a transcript of the record of his 

proceedings and the testimony in the case to said court, which court shall have jurisdiction of the 

case: Provided, That the said commissioner shall grant bail in all cases bailable under the laws of the 

United States or of said Territory. (U.S.C., 6th supp., title 16, sec. 395f.)
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix A | 365 

SEC. 8. That all process issued by the commissioner shall be directed to the marshal of the United 

States for the district of Hawai‘i, but nothing herein contained shall be so construed as to prevent the 

arrest by any officer or employee of the Government or any person employed by the United States in 

the policing of said reservation within said boundaries without process of any person taken in the act 

of violating the law or this Act or the regulations prescribed by the said Secretary as aforesaid. (U.S.C., 

6th supp., title 16. sec. 395g.)

SEC. 9. That the commissioner provided for in this Act shall be paid an annual salary as appropriated 

for by Congress, payable quarterly: Provided, That the said commissioner shall reside within exterior 

boundaries of said Hawai‘i National Park at a place to be designated by the Secretary of the Interior: 

And provided further, That all fees, costs, and expenses collected by the commissioner shall be 

disposed of as provided in Section 11 of this Act (U.S.C., 6th supp., title 16., sec. 395h.)

SEC. 10. That all fees, costs, and expenses arising in cases under this Act and properly chargeable 

to the United States shall be certified, approved and paid as are like fees, costs, and expenses in the 

courts of the United States ( U.S.C., 6th supp., title 16. sec. 395i.)

SEC. 11. That all fines and costs imposed and collected shall be deposited by said commissioner of 

the United States, or the marshall of the United States collecting the same, with the clerk of the United 

States District court for the Territory of Hawai‘i. (U.S.C., 6th supp., title 16, sec. 395j)

SEC. 12. That the Secretary of the Interior shall notify, in writing, the Governor of the Territory of 

Hawai‘i of the passage and approval of this Act and of the fact that the United States assumes police 

jurisdiction over said park.

HAWAI‘I NATIONAL PARK, ACT OF 1930 JURISDICTION AMENDMENT

To amend an Act entitled “An Act to provide for the exercise of sole and exclusive jurisdiction 

by the United States over the Hawai‘i National Park in the Territory of Hawai‘i, and for other 

purposes,” approved April 19, 1930.

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress 

assembled, That Section 6 of the Act entitled “An Act providing for the exercise of sole and exclusive 

jurisdiction by the United States over Hawai‘i National Park in the Territory of Hawai‘i, and for other 

purposes”, approved April 19, 1930 (46 Stat. 228; U. S. C., title 16, sec. 395e), be amended by adding at 

the end thereof the following:

“That during such time or times as the office of the Commissioner for the Hawai‘i National Park shall 

be or remain unfilled, or when the presence of such Commissioner cannot be conveniently procured, 

any United States commissioner duly appointed by the United States District Court for the Territory 

of Hawai‘i and residing in such district shall have full power, authority, and jurisdiction to hear and act 

upon all complaints made with respect to offenses or violations of law or regulations occurring within 

the limits of the Hawai‘i National Park, as the United States Commissioner for the Hawai‘i National 

Park may now act with respect to offenses or violations of law or regulations occurring within the 

limits of said park.”

SEC. 2. That Section 9 of the said Act of April 19, 1930 (46 Stat. 229; U. S. C., title 16, sec. 395h), be 

amended by adding at the end thereof the following:

“That any United States commissioner in and for the Territory of Hawai‘i, while acting in such 

capacity as United States Commissioner for the Hawai‘i National Park as authorized by Section 6 

hereof, shall be allowed the fees prescribed by Section 21 of the Act of May 28, 1896 (29 Stat. 184), 

upon the rendition of an itemized account.”
366 | Appendix A HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

SEC. 3. All laws or parts of laws, either Federal or Territorial, in conflict herewith are hereby repealed.

Approved June 25, 1938.

HAWAI‘I NATIONAL PARK, ACT OF 1938 ADDITION

An Act To add certain lands on the island of Hawai‘i to the Hawai‘i National Park, and for other 

purposes. H.R. 1995. June 20, 1938

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress 

assembled, That when title to all or any of the following-described lands on the island of Hawai‘i, 

in the Territory of Hawai‘i, shall be vested in the United States, such lands shall be, and the same 

are hereby, added to and made a part of the Hawai‘i National Park: Kalapana extension (being 

portions of the lands of Kahaualea, Panaunui, and Apua and all of the lands of Poupou, Pulama, 

Kamoamoa, Laeapuki, Panauiki, Kealakomo, and Kahue, in the district of Puna, and portion of the 

land of Keauhou, in the district of Kau): Beginning at the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey 

triangulation station Kupapau (marked by a survey tablet set in large rock), the true azimuth and 

distance from said point of beginning to the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey triangulation 

station Hakuma (marked by a United States Coast and Geodetic Survey tablet set in smooth lava 

outcrop and surrounded by a circular patch of cement near edge of sea pali) being two hundred 

and forty-four degrees forty minutes and fifty seconds exactly fourteen thousand four hundred and 

thirteen feet and running as follows, all azimuths being measured clockwise from true south (note 

azimuths of courses 1 to 4, inclusive, are referred to Hakuma meridian):

Along the seacoast at high-water mark, in a general southwesterly direction for the first five courses, 

the true azimuths and distances between points on said seacoast being1. Exactly sixty-six degrees and fifteen minutes twenty-six thousand three hundred and thirty-six 

and six-tenths feet to United States Coast and Geodetic Survey station Laeapuki, marked by a survey 

tablet set in mound and covered by a small cairn;

2. Exactly sixty degrees and ten minutes eighteen thousand seven hundred feet to Kaena Point;

3. Exactly seventy-one degrees and fifty-six minutes, twenty-one thousand three hundred and fifty 

feet to Apua Point;

4. Exactly ninety-eight degrees and forty-five minutes seven thousand four hundred feet to a pipe 

in concrete at a place called Okiokiahu (note: azimuths of courses 5 to 1l, inclusive, are referred to 

Uwekahuna meridian);

5. One hundred and nine degrees fifty-seven minutes and twenty-two seconds ten thousand seven 

hundred and seventeen and nine tenths feet to a pipe in concrete at a place called Makaloa; thence

6. One hundred and seventy degrees four minutes and thirty-nine seconds exactly six thousand eight 

hundred feet along Hawai‘i National Park, Kīlauea section, to the foot of the Puueo pali;

7. Two hundred and forty-three degrees five minutes and thirty seconds exactly one thousand nine 

hundred and seventy-three feet along the foot of Puueo pali along portion of the land of Keauhou;

8. Exactly two hundred and eighty-six degrees fifty minutes exactly nine thousand seven hundred feet 

along portion of the land of Keauhou;

9. One hundred and seventy-eight degrees thirty-eight minutes and twenty-five seconds exactly 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix A | 367 

twelve thousand five hundred feet along portion of the land of Keauhou to a pipe in concrete at top of 

the Poliokeawe pali;

10. One hundred and sixty-six degrees twenty-two minutes and twenty-four seconds twelve thousand 

four hundred and sixty-seven and nine-tenths feet along portion of the land of Keauhou to a pipe in 

concrete on the south boundary of Hawai‘i National Park, Kīlauea section;

11. Exactly two hundred and sixty-nine degrees and ten minutes twenty-one thousand one hundred 

forty-six and five-tenths feet along Hawai‘i National Park, Kīlauea section, to a pipe (note: azimuths of 

courses 12 and 13 are referred to Puu Huluhulu meridian);

12. Exactly two hundred and eleven degrees and thirty minutes thirteen thousand seventy-four and 

seven-tenths feet along Hawai‘i National Park, Kīlauea section, to a pipe;

13. Exactly two hundred and eighty-one degrees exactly two thousand nine hundred and thirty-one 

feet along portion of the land of Kahaualea (note: azimuths of courses 14 to 24, inclusive, are referred 

to Hakuma meridian);

14. Exactly two hundred and twelve degrees and thirty minutes exactly eight thousand and fifteen feet 

along the land of Kahaualea;

15. Exactly two hundred and ninety-seven degrees and fifteen minutes exactly twenty-four thousand 

five hundred and fifty-two feet along the land of Kahaualea;

16. Exactly two hundred and forty-five degrees and fifty-eight minutes exactly six thousand one 

hundred and sixty-eight feet along the land of Kahaualea;

17. Exactly three hundred and twenty-six degrees and thirty-one minutes exactly five thousand two 

hundred and forty-eight feet along the land of Kahaualea;

18. Exactly three hundred and fifty-nine degrees and fifteen minutes exactly four hundred and fortyfive feet along the land of Kahaualea;

19. Exactly three hundred and twenty-nine degrees exactly two thousand two hundred and eleven 

feet along the land of Kahaualea

20. Two hundred and thirty-four degrees thirty-nine minutes and forty seconds exactly three 

thousand two hundred and eighty-three feet across portion of the land of Kahaualea;

21. Exactly three hundred and thirty-eight degrees and twelve minutes three thousand nine hundred 

and twenty-seven and five-tenths feet along the land of Kapaahu;

22. Exactly three hundred and thirty-four degrees and thirty minutes exactly one thousand seven 

hundred and eighty feet along the land of Kapaahu to the south corner of grant 3208 to West Kaloi;

23. Exactly three hundred and thirty-one degrees and thirty minutes five thousand and ninety-seven 

and eight-tenths feet along the land of Kapaahu to a point near seacoast; thence

24. To and along the seacoast at high-water mark to the point of beginning, the true azimuth and 

distance being: Exactly fifty-three degrees and eighteen minutes three thousand three hundred and 

sixty-four feet. 

Area, forty-nine thousand three hundred and forty acres.
368 | Appendix A HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Footprint extension: Beginning at the northeast corner of this tract of land, at a point on the west 

edge of the Keamoku Aa Flow (lava flow of 1893), and on the westerly boundary of Hawai‘i National 

Park, Kīlauea section, as described in Governor’s Executive Order 86, the coordinates of said point 

of beginning referred to Government survey triangulation station Uwekahuna, being four thousand 

seven hundred and six and six-tenths feet south and seventeen thousand nine hundred and seventy 

and three-tenths feet west, and the true azimuth and distance from said point of beginning to 

Government survey triangulation station Ohaikea being one hundred and sixty-six degrees and 

twenty minutes exactly six thousand three hundred and fifty feet, as shown on Government survey 

registered map 2388, and running by azimuths measured clockwise from true south—

1. Three hundred and forty-six degrees and twenty minutes exactly fourteen thousand two hundred 

and fifty-eight feet along Hawai‘i National Park, Kīlauea section, as described in Governor’s 

Executive Order 86;

2. Fifty degrees and twenty-five minutes exactly twenty-seven thousand six hundred and fifteen feet 

along Hawai‘i National Park, Kīlauea section, as described in Governor’s Executive Order 81, thence 

along the remainder of the Government land of Kapapala to the point of beginning as follows:

3. One hundred and ninety-one degrees no minutes and twenty seconds thirteen thousand five 

hundred and forty-four and five-tenths feet to a pipe at fence corner a little southwest of the old 

halfway house and about twenty feet southeast of the edge of the Government main road;

4. Two hundred and thirty-four degrees and twenty-five minutes one thousand three hundred and 

seventy-seven and five tenths feet to a pipe on a mound of pahoehoe about ninety feet southeast of 

the Government main road;

5. Two hundred and twenty degrees and forty minutes exactly one thousand seven hundred and 

eighty-seven feet crossing the Government main road to a spike in large boulder in stone wall about 

one hundred and twenty-five feet north of the Government main road; thence

6. Along stone wall over the lava flows, the boundary following the wall in its turns and windings the 

direct azimuth and distance being: two hundred and nineteen degrees twenty-two minutes and fortyfive seconds exactly eighteen thousand one hundred and twenty-one feet to a point in said stone wall;

7. Two hundred and thirty-eight degrees and seven minutes exactly two hundred and fifty feet partly 

along stone wall to a pipe in the middle of a corral;

8. Two hundred and thirty-four degrees and two minutes exactly two hundred feet, across corral and 

along stone wall to a point in said wall;

9. Two hundred and thirty-nine degrees and thirty minutes exactly three hundred and fifteen feet 

along stone wall to a pipe at end of wall and on the south side of the old Peter Lee Road;

10. One hundred and eighty-five degrees and thirty minutes exactly three hundred and eighty 

feet crossing old Peter Lee Road and along fence to a pipe at fence corner on the west bank of a 

ravine; thence 

11. Following along the west bank of ravine, the direct azimuth and distance being: two hundred and 

three degrees and twenty-three minutes four hundred seventy-five and seven-tenths feet to a pipe on 

the west bank of the ravine;

12. Two hundred and twenty degrees and fifty-four minutes exactly two hundred and forty-five feet 

across ravine and along fence to a spike in stone pile;
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix A | 369 

13. Two hundred and twelve degrees and forty-four minutes exactly two hundred feet along fence to a 

spike in stone pile;

14. Two hundred and twenty-two degrees and fifty-three minutes exactly two hundred and forty feet 

along fence to a spike in stone pile;

15. Two hundred and twenty-five degrees and forty-six minutes three hundred and forty and sixtenths feet to the point of beginning and containing an area of five thousand seven hundred and thirty 

acres, more or less; and, in addition, any lands adjacent or contiguous to the Hawai‘i National Park as 

hereby extended which, in the discretion of the Secretary of the Interior, are necessary for the proper 

rounding out of the boundaries of the park: Provided, That the United States shall not purchase, by 

appropriation of public moneys, any land within the aforesaid area, but such lands shall be secured by 

the United States only by public and private donations.

SEC.2. The Secretary of the Interior is hereby authorized, in his discretion and upon submission 

of evidence of satisfactory title to him, to accept, on behalf of the United States, title to the lands 

referred to in the previous section hereof as may be deemed by him necessary or desirable for 

national-park purposes.

SEC. 3. (a) That the Secretary of the Interior is authorized to lease, under such rules and regulations 

as he may deem proper, land ascertained by him to be suitable for home site purposes in the Kalapana 

extension as described herein, to Native Hawaiians when such occupancy does not encroach on or 

prevent free access to any points of historic, scientific, or scenic interest or in any manner obstruct 

or interfere with protection and preservation of said area as a part of the Hawai‘i National Park: 

Provided, however, That occupants of homesites shall reside on the land not less than six months 

in any one year: And provided further, That fishing, shall be permitted in said area only by native 

Hawaiian residents of said area or of adjacent villages and by visitors under their guidance.

(b) The term “native Hawaiian”, as used in this section, means any descendant of not less than onehalf part of the blood of the races inhabiting the Hawaiian Islands previous to 1778.

SEC. 4. That the provisions of the Act of August 1, 1916 (39 Stat. 432), entitled “An Act to establish 

a national park in the Territory of Hawai‘i”; the Act of August 25, 1916 (39 Stat. 535). entitled “An 

Act to establish a. National Park Service, and for other purposes”; the Act of February 27, 1920 (41 

Stat. 452), entitled “An Act to authorize the Governor of the Territory of Hawai‘i to acquire privately 

owned lands and rights-of-way within the boundaries of the Hawai‘i National Park”; and all Acts 

supplementary to and amendatory of said Acts are made applicable to and extended over the lands 

hereby added to the park: Provided, That the provisions of the Act of June 10, 1920 as amended, 

entitled “An Act to create a Federal Power Commission; to provide for the improvement of navigation; 

the development of water power; the use of the public lands in relation thereto; and to repeal Section 

18 of the River and Harbor Appropriations Act, approved August 8, 1917, and for other purposes,” 

shall not apply to or extend over such lands (U. S. C., title 16, sec. 391): And provided further, That the 

Governor of the Territory of Hawai‘i is authorized to convey to the United States any and all lands and 

interests in lands acquired by the Territorial Government under the provisions of this Act.
370 | Appendix A HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

HAWAI‘I NATIONAL PARK, ACT OF 1948

An Act To provide that appointments of United States commissioners for the Isle Royale, 

Hawai‘i, Mammoth Cave, and Olympic National Parks shall be made by the United States 

district courts without the recommendation and approval of the Secretary of the Interior, 

approved April 21, 1948 (62 Stat. 196)

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress 

assembled, That the first sentence of Section 5 of the Act entitled “An Act to accept the cession by the 

State of Michigan of exclusive jurisdiction over the lands embraced within the Isle Royale National 

Park, and for other purposes”, approved March 6, 1942 (U.S.C., 1940 edition, Supp. V, title 16, sec. 

408m), is amended by striking out “upon the recommendation and approval of the Secretary of the 

Interior of a qualified candidate”.

SEC. 2. The first paragraph of Section 6 of the Act entitled “An Act to provide for the exercise of sole 

and exclusive jurisdiction by the United States over the Hawai‘i National Park in the Territory of 

Hawai‘i, and for other purposes,” approved April 19,1930, as amended (U.S.C., 1940 edition, title 16, 

sec. 395e), is amended by striking out “upon the recommendation and approval of the Secretary of 

the Interior of a qualified candidate”.

SEC. 3. The first sentence of Section 5 of the Act entitled “An Act to accept the cession by the 

Commonwealth of Kentucky of exclusive jurisdiction over the lands embraced within the Mammoth 

Cave National Park; to authorize the acquisition of additional lands for the park in accordance with 

the Act of May 25, 1926 (44 Stat. 635); to authorize the acceptance of donations of land for the 

development of a proper entrance road to the park; and for other purposes,” approved June 5,

1942 (U.S.C., 1940 edition, Supp. V, title 16, sec. 404c-5), is amended by striking out “Upon the 

recommendation and approval of the Secretary of the Interior of a qualified candidate, the” and 

inserting in lieu thereof “The”.

SEC. 4. The first sentence of Section 5 of the Act entitled “An Act to accept the cession by the State 

of Washington of exclusive jurisdiction over the lands embraced within the Olympic National Park, 

and for other purposes”, approved March 6, 1942 (U.S.C., 1940 edition, Supp. V, title a6 sec 256d), is 

amended by striking out “upon the recommendation and approval of the Secretary of the Interior of a 

qualified candidate”. (See 28 U.S.C. § 631 note.)

HAWAI‘I NATIONAL PARK, ACT OF 1959

Excerpt from “An Act To provide for the admission of the State of Hawai‘i into the Union” 

approved March 18, 1959 (73 Stat. 4, 11)

SEC. 16. (a) Notwithstanding the admission of the State of Hawai‘i into the Union, the United States 

shall continue to have sole and exclusive jurisdiction over the area which may then or thereafter be 

included in Hawai‘i National Park, saving, however, to the State of Hawai‘i the same rights as are 

reserved to the Territory of Hawai‘i by Section 1 of the Act of April 19,1930 (46 Stat. 227), and saving, 

further, to persons then or thereafter residing within such area the right to vote at all elections held 

within the political subdivisions where they respectively reside. Upon the admission of said State all 

references to the Territory of Hawai‘i in said Act or in other laws relating to Hawai‘i National Park 

shall be deemed to refer to the State of Hawai‘i. Nothing contained in this Act shall be construed to 

affect the ownership and control by the United States of any lands or other property within Hawai‘i 

National Park which may now belong to, or which may hereafter be acquired by, the United States. (48 

U.S.C. prec. § 491 note.)
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix A | 371 

HAWAI‘I NATIONAL PARK, ACT OF 1960

An Act To designate and establish that portion of the Hawai‘i National Park on the island of 

Maui, in the State of Hawai‘i, as the Haleakala National Park, and for other purposes, approved 

September 13, 1960 (74 Stat. 881) 

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress 

assembled, That, effective July 1, 1961, the detached portion of the Hawai‘i National Park which lies 

on the island of Maui is hereby established as a separate unit of the national park system to be known 

as Haleakala National Park. The park so established shall be administered in accordance with the 

Act entitled “An Act to establish a National Park Service, and for other purposes”, approved August 

25, 1916 (39 Stat. 535), as amended and supplemented, and in accordance with any other applicable 

provision of law relating to the Maui portion of Hawai‘i National Park. (16 U.S.C. § 396b [Supp. II].)

HAWAI‘I NATIONAL PARK, ACT OF 1961

An Act To change the designation of that portion of the Hawai‘i National Park on the island 

of Hawai‘i, in the State of Hawai‘i, to the Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, and for other 

purposes, approved September 22, 1961 (75 Stat. 577)

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress 

assembled, That, effective upon the enactment of this Act, the portion of the Hawai‘i National Park 

situated on the island of Hawai‘i, established and administered pursuant to the Act of August 1, 1916 

(39 Stat. 432), as amended and supplemented, shall be known as the Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park. 

(16 U.S.C. § 391d.)

HAWAI‘I NATIONAL PARK, ACT OF 1978

An Act to authorize additional appropriations for the acquisition of lands and interests in lands 

within the Sawtooth National Recreation Area in Idaho. (92 Stat. 3467) (P.L. 95-625)

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in 

Congress assembled,

Title III – Boundary Changes

SEC. 301. The boundaries of the following units of the National Park System, are revised as follows, 

and there are authorized to be appropriated such sums as may be necessary, but not exceed the 

amounts specified in the following paragraphs for acquisitions of lands and interests in lands within 

areas added by reason of such revisions:

(10) Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, Hawai‘i: To add approximately two hundred-sixty-nineacres as generally depicted on the map entitled “Boundary Map, Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, 

Hawai‘i”, numbered 80,000, and dated August 1975: $562,000.

SEC. 302. Within twelve months after the date of the enactment of this Act, the Secretary shall publish 

in the Federal Register a detailed map or other detailed description of the lands added or excluded 

from any area pursuant to Section 301.

SEC. 303. (a) Within the boundaries of the areas as revised in accordance with Section 301, the 

Secretary is authorized to acquire lands and interests therein by donation, purchase with donated or 

appropriated funds, exchange, or transfer from any other Federal agency. Lands and interests therein 

so acquired shall become part of the area to which they are added, and shall be subjected to all laws, 

rules, and regulations applicable thereto. When acquiring any land pursuant to this title, the Secretary 
372 | Appendix A HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

may acquire any such land subject to the retention of a right of use and occupancy for a term not to 

exceed twenty-five years or for the life of the owner or owners. Lands owned by a State or political 

subdivision thereof may be acquired only by donation.

(b)(l) Lands and interests therein deleted from any area pursuant to Section 301 may be exchanged for 

non-Federal lands within the revised boundaries of such area, or transferred to the jurisdiction of any 

other Federal agency or to a State or political subdivision thereof, without monetary consideration, or 

be administered as public lands by the Secretary, as the Secretary may deem appropriate.

(2) In exercising the authority contained in this section with respect to lands and interests therein 

deleted from any such area which were acquired from a State, the Secretary may, on behalf of the 

United States, transfer to such State exclusive or concurrent legislative jurisdiction over such lands, 

subject to such terms and conditions as he may deem appropriate, to be effective upon acceptance 

thereof by the State.

(c) It is the established policy of Congress that wilderness, wildlife conservation, and park and 

recreation values of real property owned by the United States be conserved, enhanced, and 

developed. It is further declared to be the policy of Congress that unutilized, underutilized, or excess 

Federal real property be timely studied as to suitability for wilderness, wildlife conservation, or 

park and recreation purposes. To implement this policy, the Secretary, the Administrator of General 

Services, and the Director of the Office of Management and Budget shall establish a system with 

appropriate procedures to permit the Secretary full and early opportunity to make - such studies and 

propose appropriate recommendations to disposing agencies for consideration in connection with 

determinations of further utilization or disposal of such property under existing law. Each affected 

executive agency is authorized and directed to provide to the Secretary such advice and information 

relating to such studies as the Secretary may request.

SEC. 304. The authorities in this title are supplementary to any other authorities available to the 

Secretary with respect to the acquisition, development, and administration of the areas referred to 

in Section 301.

Title IV – Wilderness

(6) Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, Hawai‘i, wilderness comprising approximately one hundred 

and twenty-three thousand one hundred acres and potential wilderness additions comprising 

approximately seven thousand eight-hundred and fifty acres, depicted on a map entitled “Wilderness 

Plan, Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, Hawai‘i,” numbered 124- 20,020 and dated April 1974, to be 

known as the Hawai‘i Volcanoes Wilderness. 

SEC. 402. A map and description of the boundaries of the areas designated in this title shall be on 

file and available for public inspection in the office of the Director of the National Park Service, 

Department of the Interior, and in the Office of the Superintendent of each area designated 

in this title. As soon as practicable after this Act takes effect, maps of the wilderness areas and 

descriptions of their boundaries shall be filed with the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs 

of the House of Representatives arid the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources of the 

United States Senate, and such maps and descriptions shall have the same force and effect as if 

included in this Act: Provided, That correction of clerical and typographical errors in such maps and 

descriptions may be made.

SEC. 403. Any lands which represent potential wilderness additions in this title, upon publication in 

the Federal Register of a notice by the Secretary that all uses thereon prohibited by the Wilderness 

Act have ceased, shall thereby be designated wilderness. Lands designated as potential wilderness 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix A | 373 

additions shall be managed by the Secretary insofar as practicable as wilderness until such time as said 

lands are designated as wilderness.

SEC. 404. The areas designated by this Act as wilderness shall be administered by the Secretary of 

the Interior in accordance with the applicable provisions of the Wilderness Act governing areas 

designated by that Act as wilderness, except that any reference in such provisions to the effective date 

of the Wilderness Act shall be deemed to be a reference to the effective date of this Act, and, where 

appropriate, any reference to the Secretary of Agriculture shall be deemed to be a reference to the 

Secretary of the Interior.

Approved November 10, 1978.

HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 

2000 (P.L. 10-510)

An Act To eliminate restrictions on the acquisition of certain Land contiguous to Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park, and for other purposes.

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in 

Congress assembled,

SECTION 1. SHORT TITLE.

This Act may be cited as the “Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park Adjustment Act of 2000”.

SEC. 2. ELIMINATION OF RESTRICTIONS ON LAND ACQUISITION.

The first section of the Act entitled “An Act to add certain lands on the island of Hawai‘i to the 

Hawai‘i National Park, and for other purposes”, approved June 20, 1938 (16 U S.C. 391b), is 

amended by striking “park: Provided,” and all that follows and inserting “park Land (including the 

land depicted on the map entitled ‘NPS-PAC 1997HW’) may be acquired by the Secretary through 

donation, exchange, or purchase with donated or appropriated funds.”.

SEC. 3. CORRECTIONS IN DESIGNATIONS OF Hawaiian NATIONAL PARKS.

(a) HAWAI’I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK

(1) IN GENERAL.-Public Law 87-278 (75 Stat. 577) is amended by striking “Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park” each place it appears and inserting “Hawai’i Volcanoes National Park.”

(2) REFERENCES.-Any reference in any law (other than this Act), regulation, document, record, 

map, or other paper of the United States to “Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park” shall be considered a 

reference to “Hawai’i Volcanoes National Park”

(b) HALEAKALĀ NATIONAL PARK

(1) IN GENERAL.-Public Law 86-744 (74 Stat. 881) is amended by striking “Haleakala National 

Park” and inserting “Haleakalā National Park”.

(2) REFERENCES.-Any reference in any law (other than this Act), regulation, document, record, 

map, or other paper of the United States to “Haleakala National Park” shall be considered a reference 

to “Haleakalā National Park.”
374 | Appendix A HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

(c) KALOKO-HONOKŌHAU

(1) IN GENERAL.--Section 505 of the National Parks and Recreation Act of 1978 (16 U.S.C. 

396d) is amended-

(A) in the section heading, by striking “KALOKO-HONOKOHAU” and inserting 

“KALOKO-HONOKŌHAU”; and

(B) by striking “Kaloko-Honokohau” each place it appears and inserting “Kaloko-Honokōhau.”

(2) REFERENCES.-Any reference in any law (other than this Act), regulation, document, record, 

map, or other paper of the United States to “Kaloko-Honokohau National Historical Park” shall be 

considered a reference to Kaloko-Honokōhau National Historical Park.”

(d) PUUHONUA O HONAUNAU NATIONAL HISTORICAL PARK

(1) IN GENERAL.-The Act of July 21, 1955 (chapter 385; 69 Stat. 376), as amended by Section 305 

of the National Parks and Recreation Act of 1978 (92 Stat. 3477), is amended by striking “Puuhonua 

o Honaunau National Historical Park” each place it appears and inserting “Pu’uhonua o Hōnaunau 

National Historical Park.”

(2) REFERENCES.--Any reference in any law (other than this Act), regulation, document, record, 

map, or other paper of the United States to “Puuhonua o Honaunau National Historical Park” shall be 

considered a reference to “Pu’uhonua o Hōnaunau National Historical Park.”

(e) PU’UKOHOLA HEIAU NATIONAL HISTORIC SITE

(1) IN GENERAL.-Public Law 92-88 (86 Stat. 562) is amended by striking “Puukohola Heiau 

National Historic Site” each place it appears and inserting “Pu’ukoholā Heiau National Historic Site.”

(2) REFERENCES.-Any reference in any law (other than this Act), regulation, document, record, 

map, or other paper of the United States to “Puukohola Heiau National Historic Site” shall be 

considered a reference to “ Pu’ukoholā Heiau National Historic Site.”

SEC. 4. CONFORMING AMENDMENTS.

(a) Section 401(8) of the National Parks and Recreation Act of 1978 (Public Law 96~25; 92 Stat. 3489) 

is amended by striking “Hawai‘i Volcanoes” each place it appears and inserting “Hawai’i Volcanoes”.

(b) The first section of Public Law 94?667 (90 Stat. 2692) is amended in subsection (e) by striking 

“Haleakala” each place it appears and inserting “Haleakalā.”

Approved November 13, 2000.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix B | 375 

HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/EIS/WS APPENDIX B: ACQUISTION OF ‘ŌLA‘A - EO 1540 | 375 

APPENDIX B: ACQUISITION OF ‘ŌLA‘A – 

HAWAI‘I TERRITORIAL EXECUTIVE ORDER 1540
376 | Appendix B HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

376 | APPENDIX B: ACQUISTION OF ‘ŌLA‘A - EXECUTIVE ORDER 1540 HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/EIS/WS 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix B | 377 

HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/EIS/WS APPENDIX B: ACQUISTION OF ‘ŌLA‘A - EO 1540 | 377 
378 | Appendix B HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

378 | APPENDIX B: ACQUISTION OF ‘ŌLA‘A - EXECUTIVE ORDER 1540 HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/EIS/WS 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix B | 379 HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/EIS/WS APPENDIX B: ACQUISTION OF ‘ŌLA‘A - EO 1540 | 379 
380 | Appendix B HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

380 | APPENDIX B: ACQUISTION OF ‘ŌLA‘A - EXECUTIVE ORDER 1540 HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/EIS/WS 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix C | 381 

APPENDIX C: PERTINENT LAWS, POLICIES, AND PROCEDURES

The federal laws, executive orders, and 

policies and procedures applicable to the 

National Park System and preparation of this 

general management plan are listed in the 

following table.

FEDERAL LAWS APPLICABLE TO 

THE NATIONAL PARK SYSTEM

Abandoned Shipwreck Act of 1987

Acid Precipitation Act of 1980

Act amending the act of October 2, 1968 

(commonly called the Redwoods Act)

Act of August 8, 1953

Act of February 21, 1925

Act of June 30, 1864

Act of June 5, 1920

Act of March 1, 1872

Act of May 26, 1930

Administrative Dispute Resolution Act

Administrative Procedures Act

Airport and Airway Development Act of 1970

Airports In or Near National Parks Act

Alaska National Interest Lands 

Conservation Act of 1980

Alternative Dispute Resolution Act

American Battlefield Protection Act of 1996

American Folklife Preservation Act of 1976

American Indian Religious Freedom Act

Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990

Antiquities Act of 1906

Archeological and Historic 

Preservation Act of 1974

Archeological Resources 

Protection Act of 1979

Architectural Barriers Act of 1968

Arizona Desert Wilderness Act (contains NPS 

boundary study provisions)

Bald and Golden Eagles Protection Act

Clean Air Act

Coastal Barrier Resources Act

Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972

Comprehensive Environmental Response 

Compensation and Liability Act (commonly 

referred to as CERCLA or the Superfund Act)

Department of Transportation Act of 1966

Disposal of Materials on Public Lands 

(Material Act of 1947)

Emergency Planning and Community Rightto-Know Act of 1986

Endangered Species Act of 1973

Endangered Species Conservation Act of 1969

Energy Independence and 

Security Act of 2007

Energy Supply and Environmental 

Coordination Act of 1974

Estuary Protection Act

Farmland Protection Policy Act

Federal Advisory Committee Act

Federal Aviation Act of 1958

Federal Cave Resources 

Protection Act of 1988

Federal Coal Leasing 

Amendments Act of 1976

Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and 

Rodenticide Act

Federal Land Policy and Management Act

Federal Power Act of 1920

Federal Water Pollution Control Act 

(commonly referred to as Clean Water Act)

Federal Water Power Act

Federal Water Project Recreation Act

Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act

Flood Disaster Protection Act of 1973

Food Security Act of 1985 (Sodbuster Law)

Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources 

Planning Act of 1974

Freedom of Information Act

General Authorities Act, October 7, 1976

General Mining Act of 1872

Geothermal Steam Act Amendments

Geothermal Steam Act of 1970

Grand Canyon National Park Enlargement Act

Historic Sites Act of 1935

Intergovernmental Cooperation Act of 1968
382 | Appendix C HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Lacey Act of 1900

Land and Water Conservation 

Fund Act of 1965

Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation 

and Management Act

Management of Museum 

Properties Act of 1955

Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972

Marine Protection, Research, and 

Sanctuaries Act of 1972 (commonly known as 

Ocean Dumping Act

Migratory Bird Conservation Act

Migratory Bird Treaty Act

Mineral Leasing Act for Acquired Lands

Mineral Leasing Act of 1920 (commonly 

referred to as Mineral Leasing Act or Mineral 

Lands Leasing Act)

Mining in the Parks Act

National Environmental Policy Act of 1969

National Flood Insurance Act of 1968

National Historic Preservation Act

National Park Service Concession 

Management Improvement Act of 1998

National Park Service Omnibus 

Management Act of 1998

National Park System Concessions Policy Act

National Park System General Authorities 

Act (Act to Improve the administration of the 

national park system), August 18, 1970

National Park System New Areas Studies Act

National Parks Air Tour 

Management Act of 2000

National Parks and Recreation Act, 1978

National Parks Overflights Act of 1987

National Trails System Act

National Trust Act of 1949

National Wildlife Refuge System 

Administration Act of 1966

Native American Grave Protection and 

Repatriation Act of 1990

Negotiated Rulemaking Act of 1990

Noise Control Act of 1972

NPS Organic Act, 1916

Outdoor Recreation Coordination Act of 1963

Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act

Park System Resource Protection Act

Parks, Parkways, and 

Recreational Programs Act

Payment in Lieu of Taxes Act

Public Buildings Cooperative Use Act of 1976

Rehabilitation Act of 1973

Reorganization Act of March 3, 1933

Reservoir Salvage Act of 1960

Resource Conservation and 

Recovery Act of 1976

Revised Statute 2477, Right-of-Way 

across Public Lands

Rivers and Harbors Appropriation Act of 1899

Safe Drinking Water Act

Soil and Water Resources 

Conservation Act of 1977

Surface Mining Control and 

Reclamation Act of 1977

Surface Resources Use Act of 1955

Surface Transportation Assistance Act of 1982

Tax Reform Act of 1976

Toxic Substances Control Act

Uniform Relocation Assistance and Real 

Property Acquisition Policies Act of 1970

Urban Park and Recreation 

Recovery Act of 1978

Water Resources Planning Act of 1965

Watershed Protection and 

Flood Prevention Act

Wild and Scenic Rivers Act

Wilderness Act

Wildfire Disaster Recovery Act of 1989
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix C | 383 

EXECUTIVE ORDERS APPLICABLE 

TO THE NATIONAL PARK SYSTEM

Executive Order 11514, “Protection and 

Enhancement of Environmental Quality”

Executive Order 11593, “Protection and 

Enhancement of the Cultural Environment”

Executive Order 11644

Executive Order 11987, “Exotic 

Organisms,” 42 FR 26949, Revoked by 

Executive Order 13112

Executive Order 11988, 

“Floodplain Management”

Executive Order 11990, 

“Protection of Wetlands”

Executive Order 12003, “Energy Policy 

and Conservation”

Executive Order 12088, “Federal Compliance 

with Pollution Control Standards”

Executive Order 12372, “Intergovernmental 

Review of Federal Programs”

Executive Order 12898, “General Actions to 

Address Environmental Justice in Minority 

Populations and Low-Income Populations”

Executive Order 13006, “Locating Federal 

Facilities on Historic Properties in our 

Nation’s Central Cities”

Executive Order 13007, “Indian Sacred Sites”

Executive Order 13089, “Coral 

Reef Protection”

Executive Order 13112, “Invasive Species”

Executive Order 13158, “Marine 

Protected Areas”

Executive Order 13175, Consultation 

and Coordination with Indian 

Tribal Governments”

Executive Order 13186, “Responsibilities of 

Federal Agencies to Protect Migratory Birds”

Executive Order 13352, “Facilitation of 

Cooperative Conservation”

Executive Orders 11989 (42 FR 26959) 

and 11644 (37 FR 2877), “Offroad Vehicles 

on Public Lands”

Executive Order 13514, “Federal 

Leadership in Environmental, Energy, and 

Economic Performance”

POLICIES AND PROCEDURES 

APPLICABLE TO THE 

NATIONAL PARK SYSTEM

Analysis of Impacts on Prime or Unique 

Agricultural Lands in Implementing the 

National Environmental Policy Act

Historic Preservation Certifications Pursuant 

to the Tax Reform Act of 1976, the Revenue 

Act of 1978, the Tax Treatment Extension 

Act of 1980, and the Economic Recovery 

Tax Act of 1981

National Park Service 

Management Policies 2006

Policies on Construction of Family Housing 

for Government Personnel

Procedures for Interagency Consultation to 

Avoid or Mitigate Adverse Effects on Rivers in 

the Nationwide Inventory
384 | Appendix C HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

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HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix D | 385 

APPENDIX D: 2011 KAHUKU UNIT WILDERNESS 

ELIGIBILITY ASSESSMENT
386 | Appendix 

D HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

388 | APPENDIX D: WILDERNESS ELIGIBILITY HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/EIS/WS 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/EIS/WS APPENDIX D: WILDERNESS ELIGIBILITY | 389 Appendix D | 387 
388 | Appendix D HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

390 | APPENDIX D: WILDERNESS ELIGIBILITY HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/EIS/WS 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix 

D | 389 

HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/EIS/WS APPENDIX D: WILDERNESS ELIGIBILITY | 391 
390 | 392 | APPENDIX D: WILDERNESS ELIGIBILITY Appendix D HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/EIS/WS 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/EIS/WS Appendix 

D | 391 APPENDIX D: WILDERNESS ELIGIBILITY | 393 
392 | Appendix D HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS 394 | APPENDIX D: WILDERNESS ELIGIBILITY HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/EIS/WS 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix E | 393 

APPENDIX E: ANALYSIS OF BOUNDARY MODIFICATION 

AND LAND PROTECTION

NPS Management Policies 2006 state that the 

National Park Service will conduct studies 

of potential boundary adjustments and may 

make boundary revisions:

• that include significant resources or 

opportunities for public enjoyment 

related to the purposes of the park

• that address operational and 

management issues such as boundary 

identification by topographic or other 

natural features

• that protect park resources critical to 

fulfilling park purposes

NPS policies also instruct that any 

recommendation to expand park boundaries 

be preceded by determinations that the 

added lands will be feasible to administer 

considering size, configuration, ownership, 

cost and other factors, and that other 

alternatives for management and resource 

protection have been considered and 

are not adequate.

The following is a review of the criteria for 

boundary adjustments as applied to Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park. This analysis is 

included as supporting documentation for 

Alternative 2 (Preferred Alternative), which 

proposes several boundary changes to the 

park. In addition to seeking legislation to 

include ‘Ōla‘a (which is already owned 

by the federal government and managed 

under the National Park Service) within the 

official park boundary, Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park would also propose that 

the following three areas be acquired and 

added to the park boundary (see Figure E.1. 

Boundary Adjustments):

• Great Crack parcels (1,951 acres) 

and Ala Wai‘i Holdings property 

(2,750 acres) located west of 

the Great Crack

• a private parcel (223 acres) at the 

southern tip of Kahuku (west of 

present entrance off Highway 11)

• Pōhue Bay parcel (16,457 acres) 

that extends from lower Kahuku on 

Highway 11 south to the coast

No legislation would be needed for 

acquisition of these parcels contiguous to the 

boundary as the Act of June 20, 1938 (Public 

Law 75-680, 52 Stat. 781) authorizes the 

acquisition, by public or private donations, 

of lands adjacent or contiguous to Hawai‘i 

National Park and determined to be necessary 

for proper rounding out of the park boundary. 

However, acquisition by the National Park 

Service would be restricted to a willing seller 

purchase only. This means that the seller 

would be willing to sell and adequate funds 

would be available to support the purchase.

‘ŌLA‘A

Significant Resources or 

Opportunities for Public Enjoyment 

Related to the Purposes of Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park

‘Ōla‘a is composed of two tracts of land 

totaling 9,679 acres that are noncontiguous to 

the park boundary. Donated to the National 

Park Service in 1952 via Hawai‘i Territorial 

Executive Order 1540, this area, though not 

officially within the boundary of Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park, is managed by 

the park’s administration for its wilderness 

character, valuable old growth rainforest 

habitat, and presence of endemic rare and 

endangered species. The larger of the two 

tracts of land (“large tract”) was designated 

by Congress as part of the Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

Wilderness in 1978. 

Since assuming management of the area, the 

park has taken measures to remove nonnative 

ungulates from a large portion of the tract 

by fencing and excluding animals from 

approximately half of it. This has resulted in 

regeneration of native understory species and 

tree seedlings and has allowed managers to 

begin recovery efforts for rare, threatened, and 

endangered species (Loh and Tunison 1999; 
394 | Appendix 

E HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Figure E.1. Boundary Adjustments

11¬«

Volcano 

Village

K A H U K U

M A U N A L O A

K Ī L A U E A

‘ŌLA‘A

Ocean View

Nā‘ālehu

Pāhala

11¬«

Parcel # 392001072

P A C I F I C  O C E A N

Parcel # 392001074

UPPER

LOWER

Kahuku

Road

Parcel # 319001006,

319001007

SEE INSET

Hawai‘i Volcanoes

National Park

MAP AREA

Figure E.1 Boundary Modifications

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park GMP/WS/EIS

Legend

Produced by: PWR - Seattle Planning 

 Office

μ 0

Date Created: June 2014

Data Sources: USGS - Lava Flows, 

 Roads, Coastline

 NPS - Park Boundary

 State of Hawaii - TMK

10

Kilometers

0 5

Miles

Proposed Boundary 

Additions

Fig. E.1 Boundary Mod_060914.mxd

11¬«

Parcel #

396013006

Parcel #

396013010

Parcel #

396013003

Parcel #

396013009

Parcel #

396013007396013008 0 1

Miles INSET

‘Ōla‘a: 9,679 acres

Great Crack: 1,951 acres

(1,983 GIS acres)

(9,684 GIS acres)

P

Private: 222 acres

(221 GIS acres)

ōhue Bay: 16,457 acres

NPS Boundary

Roads

Ala Wai‘i Holdings: 3,475

acres (3,478 GIS acres)

(16,387 GIS acres)
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix E | 395 

Pratt et. al. 1999). Over time, the remainder 

of the area will be fenced to allow removal 

of ungulates so that recovery actions can be 

completed throughout the tract. 

Although the National Park Service does 

not currently provide formal public access 

to ‘Ōla‘a in order to protect the area’s fragile 

plant communities, visitors can access the 

small tract via an informal turnout along 

Wright Road in Volcano Village. 

The formal inclusion of ‘Ōla‘a within the 

park boundary would provide permanent 

protection for these lands as part of a unit 

of the national park system. This boundary 

adjustment would also substantiate the park’s 

efforts to restore the unique fern and ‘ōhi‘a 

forest within these tracts and provide more 

structured and substantial public access to 

and interpretation of the area’s valuable 

rainforest habitat. The location of ‘Ōla‘a and 

its proximity to Volcano Village also presents 

a unique opportunity for the National Park 

Service to explore partnership opportunities 

with adjacent land managers such as the Pu‘u 

Maka‘ala Natural Area Reserve managed 

by the Department of Lands and Natural 

Resources (DLNR). 

Operational and Management 

Issues related to Access and 

Boundary Identification 

by Topographic or other 

Natural Features

Pu‘u Maka‘ala Natural Area Reserve and 

‘Ōla‘a Forest Reserve, owned and managed 

by the State of Hawai‘i, border the ‘Ōla‘a large 

tract to the north, west, and southeast, and the 

State Department of Hawaiian Home Lands 

owns property that abuts the large tract at 

its most eastern corner. A number of private 

parcels, located within Volcano Village, 

border the large tract to the southwest and 

southeast and surround the small tract to the 

north, southwest, and southeast. The small 

tract’s northeastern boundary is separated 

from the large tract by the only public access 

road to ‘Ōla‘a: Wright Road. 

Currently, a small, informal turnout provides 

vehicular access to the small tract along 

Wright Road, but there are no official trails 

in ‘Ōla‘a. Public access to the large tract, 

which is physically limited due to the lack of 

infrastructure and abundance of protected 

lands surrounding this tract, is discouraged 

at this time to protect the area’s fragile 

plant communities. However, this parcel 

can be accessed from the main road across 

from small tract and from a trail in Pu‘u 

Maka‘ala NAR (along the north/mauka side 

of large tract) which is accessible at the end 

of Amaumau Road. 

Fencing has been completed around all of 

small tract and half of large tract. The park 

is planning to continue fencing and crossfencing to remove the ungulates found in the 

currently unfenced section.

Protection of Park Resources and 

Fulfillment of Park Purposes

As one of the finest and most intact treefern and ‘ōhi‘a rainforests in Hawai‘i, ‘Ōla‘a 

provides vital habitat for species endemic to 

the Hawaiian archipelago, and therefore its 

official protection as a part of a unit of the 

national park system would complement and 

enhance the park’s purpose and significance 

in protecting, restoring, and studying “unique 

and diverse ecosystems and endemic species 

that are the result of over 30 million years 

of evolution in an isolated environment 

characterized by its active volcanic landscape 

and wide climatic variation.” Inclusion of the 

large tract, specifically, in the park boundary 

would also substantiate the protection of 

designated wilderness within ‘Ōla‘a as a 

valuable resource on the Hawaiian Islands 

that exhibits the natural, untrammeled, 

undeveloped qualities of wilderness character.

Due to the area’s proximity to Volcano 

Village, ‘Ōla‘a also provides the park with 

unique opportunities to interpret rainforest 

ecosystems and the role they play in 

supporting endemic species on the Hawaiian 

Islands. Although access may remain limited 

in the future in order to protect this fragile 

ecosystem, this GMP calls for development of 
396 | Appendix E HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

a trail to provide visitors on-site interpretation 

of the rainforest within the small tract and 

encourages partnering with adjacent land 

managers to create interpretive media 

off-site as well.

Feasibility to Administer 

the Lands Added through 

Boundary Adjustment

‘Ōla‘a was donated to the National Park 

Service in 1952 via Hawai‘i Territorial 

Executive Order 1540 with the intent of 

including the two ‘Ōla‘a tracts within the park. 

Both parcels were formally accepted by the 

Secretary of Interior at that time, stating to the 

Governor of the Territory that the National 

Park Service would “assume protective 

custody ... pending their inclusion in the 

park.” Although the National Park Service has 

managed these lands since acquisition, ‘Ōla‘a 

has never been included within the official 

boundary of Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park. 

Congress has never officially modified the 

park’s boundary to include these tracts, and 

while the Hawai‘i National Park Act of June 

20, 1938 allows “any [acquired] lands adjacent 

or contiguous” to Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park to be added to the park, ‘Ōla‘a has never 

met the test of this “adjacent or contiguous” 

clause as it is separated from the park by 

Volcano Village and other private lands. 

The boundary adjustment for ‘Ōla‘a would 

be feasible for the National Park Service to 

manage and would not substantially add to 

NPS workloads because park administrators 

are already managing the 9,679 acres within 

the small and large tract of ‘Ōla‘a. 

Summary

Given the above discussion, ‘Ōla‘a meets 

the boundary adjustment criteria for 

official incorporation within Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park:

1. ‘Ōla‘a protects one of the finest 

and most intact tree-fern and ‘ōhi‘a 

rainforests in Hawai‘i, providing vital 

habitat for species endemic to the 

Hawaiian archipelago. The unit also 

contains designated wilderness.

2. ‘Ōla‘a is already owned and managed 

by the National Park Service and is 

accessible to visitors from a public 

road. There are no operational and 

management issues related to access 

and boundary identification.

3. ‘Ōla‘a’s official protection as a 

part of a unit of the national park 

system would complement and 

enhance the park’s purpose and 

significance in protecting, restoring, 

and studying “unique and diverse 

ecosystems and endemic species 

that are the result of over 30 million 

years of evolution in an isolated 

environment characterized by its 

active volcanic landscape and wide 

climatic variation.” Inclusion of the 

large tract, specifically, in the park 

boundary would also substantiate 

the protection of designated 

wilderness within ‘Ōla‘a as a 

valuable resource on the Hawaiian 

Islands that exhibits the natural, 

untrammeled, undeveloped qualities 

of wilderness character.

4. ‘Ōla‘a is already owned and managed 

by the National Park Service. As 

demonstrated by over 50 years of 

management, the National Park 

Service has the capacity to administer 

‘Ōla‘a if officially included within 

the park boundary.

GREAT CRACK PARCELS AND ALA 

WAI‘I HOLDINGS PROPERTY

Significant Resources or 

Opportunities for Public Enjoyment 

Related to the Purposes of Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park

The Great Crack parcels (tracts 26 and 27) 

and Ala Wai‘i Holdings property, totaling 

approximately 4,701 acres, encompass the 

lower end of the southwest rift zone of 

Kīlauea Volcano, an area rich in geological 

and archeological resources. The Great Crack, 

stretching up to 49 feet (15 meters) wide and 

66 feet (20 meters) deep in places, is a superb 

example of the geologic dynamism of Kīlauea 

and is one of a series of cracks, eruptive 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix E | 397 

fissures, and cones that outline the southwest 

rift zone of Kīlauea in this area. Acquisition 

of these parcels and inclusion within the park 

boundary would prevent the possibility of 

future development, including residential 

and an “energy park” for geothermal, solar, 

and wind power generation (Park 2013d) 

in this area, protect these valuable geologic 

resources, and provide public access to 

and interpretation of the resources. The 

park’s 1975 Master Plan recommended 

acquisition of these parcels, as did the 1986 

Land Protection Plan. In addition, the 

legislation authorizing the park’s wilderness 

(1978) included the Great Crack parcels as 

potential wilderness that would become 

wilderness upon acquisition. Acquisition of 

these parcels would provide access to park 

lands that are currently not accessible except 

with private landowner permission. As this 

boundary adjustment would also extend the 

park boundary further along the coast, these 

parcels would also provide linkage to the Ala 

Kahakai National Historic Trail, existing park 

trails, and foot access to nearly three and a 

half miles of shoreline.

The lands included in the Ala Wai‘i Holdings 

property, adjacent to the Great Crack parcels, 

provide a critical link to the past and contain 

irreplaceable archaeological and cultural 

resources that are currently threatened by 

uncontrolled access and use, vandalism, and 

looting. Little is known about the cultural and 

natural history of this site since the lands have 

been in private ownership. However, the site 

is believed to contain extensive archeological 

resources that include early Polynesian/ 

Hawaiian features. These resources reflect 

the significance and sacredness of the site 

and provide an opportunity to expand our 

knowledge of how the land was used, what 

the resources were, and how early inhabitants 

of this expanse of lava survived.

Operational and Management 

Issues related to Access and 

Boundary Identification 

by Topographic or other 

Natural Features

The Great Crack parcels were recently 

officially subdivided into four developable lots 

at which time the County may have required 

official surveys. 

The Great Crack parcels are located adjacent 

to the southwest corner of the park and makai 

of the Great Crack, a major geologic feature 

lying along the park’s western boundary. 

These parcels were formerly identified for 

acquisition by the park service (Park 1975, 

Park 1986). Bordered by the park to the north, 

these parcels abut the Pacific Ocean to the east 

and the Ala Wai‘i Holdings property to the 

south and west. 

The Ala Wai‘i Holdings property, which is 

adjacent to public lands to the north (stateowned) and the Great Crack parcels to the 

east, is primarily surrounded by private 

lands to the south and west, separated from 

the Mamalahoa Highway by only a sliver of 

private land. While hikers and cavers regularly 

trek to the Great Crack from neighboring 

lands, including the park, the only vehicular 

access to these parcels is off of the Mamalahoa 

Highway near Pāhala, utilizing a road that 

requires private landowner permission. This 

road is part of the proposed acquisition.

If acquired, resources would need to be 

inventoried and managed to protect natural 

and cultural resources found in the area.

Protection of Park Resources and 

Fulfillment of Park Purposes

Evaluated for inclusion within the national 

park system in the 2006 NPS Reconnaissance 

Survey for the Ka‘ū Coast and proposed 

for additional evaluation through a NPS 

Special Resource Study under the Ka‘ū Coast 

Preservation Act (S.1432), the relatively 

undisturbed Great Crack parcels and Ala Wai‘i 

Holdings property include significant geologic 

and archeological resources that illustrate the 
398 | Appendix E HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

violent geologic forces that formed the island 

and the human response and adaptation to 

these forces. Because of these resources, these 

lands are also of exceptional interpretive 

and educational value—affording a “visual 

and physical experience of the inextricable 

link between landscape and culture for the 

native people of Hawai‘i” and “[enriching 

our] understanding of our country’s 

complex natural and cultural heritage” 

(NPS 2006b). These lands also provide 

options for active and passive recreation, 

nature study, and cultural experiences, and 

“the native vegetation, geologic...features, 

and archeological sites and complexes 

offer untapped opportunities for scientific 

study” (NPS 2006b). 

All of these elements align with the purposes 

for which Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

was established and contribute to the park’s 

significance. Furthermore, this proposal to 

protect the remaining portions of the Kīlauea 

southwest rift zone is consistent with the 

park’s international designation as a World 

Heritage Site and incorporation into the 

Man and the Biosphere (MAB) program, an 

element of the park’s guiding principles. 

Feasibility to Administer 

the Lands Added through 

Boundary Adjustment

As contiguous tracts on the southwest corner 

of the park, the Great Crack parcels and Ala 

Wai‘i Holdings property represent logical and 

important additions to Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park and have previously been 

determined to meet the NPS standards for 

feasibility for inclusion in the national park 

system (NPS 2006b). 

The Great Crack parcels, currently in private 

ownership, have previously been identified 

for acquisition and inclusion within the park 

boundary through the park’s Master Plan 

(1975) and Land Protection Plan (1986) and 

were initially identified in the Master Plan 

and again in 1978 (PL 95-625) for potential 

wilderness designation (PL 95-625 allows for 

administrative wilderness designation through 

a notice published in the Federal Register). 

Although the Ala Wai‘i Holdings property has 

not previously been considered for legislation, 

Congress has already authorized acquisition 

of one of the Great Crack parcels, and the 

National Park Service previously sought to 

buy this property in 1998. Both parcels are 

also being considered for NPS designation 

through a special resource study. Contiguous 

to the park boundary and with no existing 

through roads to other destinations, these 

parcels could be readily delineated as part 

of Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park and, 

following acquisition and designation, could 

be managed with relative ease. 

Summary

Given the above discussion, the Great Crack 

parcels and Ala Wai‘i Holdings property 

meet the boundary adjustment criteria for 

acquisition and incorporation within Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park:

1. The Great Crack and Ala Wai‘i 

holdings contain rich geological 

and irreplaceable archeological and 

cultural resources. Acquisition of 

these parcels and inclusion within 

the park boundary would prevent the 

possibility of future development, 

including residential and an “energy 

park” for geothermal, solar, and 

wind power generation (Park 2013d) 

in this area, protect these valuable 

geologic resources, and provide 

public access to and interpretation of 

the resources. 

2. Official surveys have recently been 

completed for the Great Crack 

Parcels. Considering that the 

private road accessing these parcels 

is included within this boundary 

adjustment proposal, there are no 

operational and management issues 

related to access and boundary 

identification.

3. The resources within the Great 

Crack and Ala Wai‘i holdings align 

with the purposes for which Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park was 

established and contribute to the 

park’s significance. Furthermore, this 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix E | 399 

proposal to protect the remaining 

portions of the Kīlauea southwest 

rift zone is consistent with the park’s 

international designation as a World 

Heritage Site and incorporation into 

the Man and the Biosphere (MAB) 

program, an element of the park’s 

guiding principles. 

4. As contiguous tracts located on the 

southwest corner of the park, the 

Great Crack parcels and Ala Wai‘i 

Holdings property represent logical 

and important additions to Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park and have 

previously been determined to meet 

the NPS standards for feasibility 

for inclusion in the national park 

system (NPS 2006b). 

PRIVATE PARCEL OFF 

MAMALAHOA HIGHWAY

Significant Resources or 

Opportunities for Public Enjoyment 

Related to the Purposes of Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park

A private parcel (223 acres) located at the 

southern tip of Kahuku (west of present 

entrance off Highway 11) currently separates 

Kahuku from the Mamalahoa Highway 

and limits NPS management of visitor use 

and access to this unit. Acquisition of this 

property would essentially connect the entire 

Kahuku parcel with Highway 11 and protect 

a section of lower Kahuku from incompatible 

development on its boundary, as well as 

provide access to a historic trail. 

Operational and Management 

Issues related to Access and 

Boundary Identification 

by Topographic or other 

Natural Features

The boundary of the parcel off the 

Mamalahoa Highway is clearly delineated by 

Highway 11, which runs along the southern 

border of this parcel, and the Old Mamalahoa 

Highway (now a mostly abandoned roadway), 

which surrounds the northern section of 

this parcel and connects with Highway 11 

to the east and west of the parcel. Due to its 

proximity to these major roads and Kahuku, 

this parcel is easily accessible by the public. 

Safety and traffic concerns, however, would 

dictate the design of this access and would 

likely need to be provided through close 

coordination with the State of Hawai‘i 

Department of Transportation. 

If acquired, the area may need to be fenced 

to allow ungulate removal and prevent 

future ingress, to protect natural and cultural 

resources found in the area.

Protection of Park Resources and 

Fulfillment of Park Purposes

As the parcel off the Old Mamalahoa Highway 

is privately owned and is physically the only 

barrier between a portion of Kahuku and 

Highway 11, acquisition of this property 

would protect the area from incompatible 

development, protect rare dryland forest 

habitat, provide access to a historic trail, and 

expand the interpretive opportunities and 

information provided in this location.

Feasibility to Administer 

the Lands Added through 

Boundary Adjustment

As a relatively small parcel of land, located 

between a highway and an abandoned 

roadway, the private parcel off the Old 

Mamalahoa Highway would likely decrease 

NPS administrative burdens as it would 

eliminate any threat of incompatible uses near 

this entry point. Managing this parcel could 

also provide the park with greater flexibility 

in providing a safe and scenic access to this 

unit of the park.

Summary

Given the above discussion, the Private 

Parcel off Mamalahoa Highway meets 

the boundary adjustment criteria for 

acquisition and incorporation within Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park:

1. Acquisition of this property would 

connect the entire Kahuku parcel 

with Highway 11 and protect a 
400 | Appendix E HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

section of lower Kahuku from 

incompatible development on its 

boundary, as well as provide access to 

a historic trail. 

2. The boundaries of the parcel are 

clearly delineated by public roads; 

therefore, there are no operational 

and management issues related to 

access and boundary identification.

3. Acquisition of this property would 

protect the area from incompatible 

development along the park 

boundary, protect rare dryland forest 

habitat, provide access to a historic 

trail, and expand the interpretive 

opportunities and information 

provided in this location.

4. As a relatively small parcel of land, 

located between a highway and an 

abandoned roadway, acquiring this 

small parcel would likely decrease 

NPS administrative burdens and 

provide the park with greater 

flexibility in providing a safe and 

scenic access to the Kahuku unit. 

PŌHUE BAY PARCEL

Significant Resources or 

Opportunities for Public Enjoyment 

Related to the Purposes of 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park

The addition of the 16,457 acre Pōhue 

Bay parcel to Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park would protect and preserve important 

resources related to the natural, archeological, 

cultural, and scenic resources of the park and 

would provide a significantly new range of 

opportunities for public use and enjoyment by 

extending the public lands along the southwest 

rift zone of Mauna Loa mauka to makai. 

This parcel extends from lower Kahuku 

on Highway 11 south to the Ka‘ū Coast 

at Pōhue Bay. This bay is among the most 

productive nesting sites for the endangered 

hawksbill turtle, the rarest sea turtle in the 

Pacific Ocean. The area is also used by the 

threatened green sea turtle and endangered 

Hawaiian monk seal. Rare anchialine ponds 

that host endemic and native shrimp species 

and insects, and intertidal pool complexes 

that provide nursery habitat for marine 

invertebrates and fish are present as well. 

Many other endemic and/or threatened and 

endangered invertebrate plant and animal 

species, such as the Hawaiian hoary bat, the 

Halapepe tree, and endemic cave crickets 

are located on these lands. In addition to this 

abundance of natural resources, the Pōhue 

Bay property is the location of the original 

Polynesian landing over 1,500 years ago 

and contains important archeological sites, 

petroglyphs, ancient Hawaiian mauka-makai 

and lateral trails, and other coastal resources 

that are still used traditionally, including the 

Ala Kahakai National Historic Trail. Pōhue 

Bay is the only white sand beach in Ka‘ū 

(within a 40 mile radius), the coastline along 

this parcel (from Miloli‘i to Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park) represents “the largest area of 

natural and undeveloped shoreline in the State 

of Hawai‘i” and “is largely pristine, unspoiled, 

uninhabited and undeveloped” (DNLR 2007). 

In addition to protecting these natural, 

archeological, and cultural resources from 

private development, acquisition of this parcel 

would expand the recreational opportunities 

in lower Kahuku to include access to the 

ocean and would diversify the interpretation 

and educational opportunities in this 

area of the park.

Due to the abundance and importance 

of these resources, Sen. Mazie Hirono 

introduced the Ka‘ū Coast Preservation 

Act of 2013 on August 1, 2013, directing the 

National Park Service to assess the feasibility 

of designating certain coastal lands on the 

Ka‘ū Coast as units of the National Park 

System (S. 1432). According to the Library 

of Congress, the bill has been assigned to the 

Senate committee on Energy and Natural 

Resources to consider before sending it to 

the House or Senate (Library of Congress, 

n.d.). Sen. Brian Schatz introduced the Pacific 

Islands Parks Act of 2013 (S.618) to conduct 

resource studies on the Ka‘ū Coast and 

several other Hawaiian Islands, which could 

to acquisition of this parcel. Hawai‘i County 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix E | 401 

passed a resolution to enter into negotiations 

to acquire the parcel either in its entirety, 

portions thereof, or a conservation easement 

for this parcel (Resolution 265-12, 2012), 

therefore it may also be possible to protect this 

land through partnerships.

Operational and Management 

Issues related to Access and 

Boundary Identification 

by Topographic or other 

Natural Features

The Pōhue Bay parcel is located directly makai 

of the western half of Kahuku and is separated 

from the park by the Mamalahoa Highway. 

Although primarily surrounded by private 

lands to the east and west, a Hawai‘i County 

parcel that is zoned for open space is located 

adjacent to the parcel. Privately owned, 

public access to this parcel is currently limited 

despite the 250-350 foot wide conservation 

corridor along the parcel’s coastline. There are 

a few roads that access Pōhue Bay from the 

north (off the Mamalahoa Highway) and the 

west. The Ala Kahakai National Historic Trail 

also runs through this parcel.

If acquired, the area would need to be 

resources would need to be inventoried and 

managed to protect natural and cultural 

resources found in the area.

Protection of Park Resources and 

Fulfillment of Park Purposes

The acquisition of the Pōhue Bay parcel for 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park would 

protect and preserve important resources 

related to the natural, archeological, cultural, 

and scenic resources of the park and 

would provide a significantly new range of 

opportunities for public use and enjoyment 

by extending the park’s portion of Kahuku 

mauka to makai, thereby completing the 

connection between the coast and the 

summit of Mauna Loa along the volcano’s 

southwest rift zone. As mentioned previously, 

this land is used by several threatened and 

endangered species, contains rare anchialine 

ponds and intertidal pool complexes, and 

includes numerous archeological sites 

and other cultural resources, all of which 

complement the purpose of the park to 

perpetuate endemic Hawaiian ecosystems and 

the traditional Hawaiian culture connected 

to these landscapes. While acquisition and 

designation as part of Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park would protect these natural, 

archeological, and cultural resources from 

private development, it would also expand the 

recreational opportunities in lower Kahuku 

to include access to the ocean and the Ala 

Kahakai National Historic Trail and would 

diversify the interpretation and educational 

opportunities in this area of the park.

Feasibility to Administer 

the Lands Added through 

Boundary Adjustment

The acquisition of the Pōhue Bay parcel 

would also represent a logical and important 

addition to Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park and could be feasibly managed by staff 

overseeing operations in Kahuku, particularly 

in the interim until planning for the 

protection of resources and developing visitor 

access is completed. 

Summary

Given the above discussion, the Pōhue Bay 

Parcel meets the boundary adjustment criteria 

for acquisition and incorporation within 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park:

1. The addition of the 16,457 acre 

Pōhue Bay parcel to Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park would 

protect and preserve important 

resources related to the natural, 

archeological, cultural, and scenic 

resources of the park and would 

provide a significantly new range 

of opportunities for public use and 

enjoyment by extending the public 

lands along the southwest rift zone of 

Mauna Loa mauka to makai. 

2. Pōhue Bay is accessible from the 

Mamalahoa Highway and the Ala 

Kahakai National Historic Trail. 

The parcel is privately owned, and 

there are no known operational and 
402 | Appendix E HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

management issues related to access 

and boundary identification.

3. Pōhue Bay is used by several 

threatened and endangered species, 

contains rare anchialine ponds 

and intertidal pool complexes, and 

includes numerous archeological 

sites and other cultural resources, 

all of which complement the 

purpose of the park to perpetuate 

endemic Hawaiian ecosystems and 

the traditional Hawaiian culture 

connected to these landscapes.

4. If acquired and included within 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, 

the Pōhue Bay Parcel could be 

feasibly managed by staff overseeing 

operations in Kahuku. 

PROTECTION 

ALTERNATIVES CONSIDERED

All of the action alternatives considered in this 

general management plan propose legislation 

to include ‘Ōla‘a in the park boundary as 

consistent with previous plans; however, 

Alternative 1, the no-action alternative, 

proposes no other boundary modifications to 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park.

Without acquisition and protection by 

the National Park Service, the Great 

Crack parcels, the Ala Wai‘i Holdings 

property, the private parcel off Mamalahoa 

Highway, and the Pōhue Bay property, and 

the resources therein, are threatened by 

proposed subdivisions and development. In 

1998, the owner of the Great Crack parcels 

proposed to subdivide approximately 

2,000 acres into 90 parcels of 20-31 acres, 

which would have impacted the 8-mile long 

volcanic fissure known as the Great Crack, 

numerous archeological sites, pockets of 

endangered plant communities, and two 

miles of oceanfront. The Ala Wai‘i Holdings 

property has also been subdivided recently, 

and Hawai‘i County has received a proposal 

to rezone the Pōhue Bay property (that was 

previously called Nani Kahuku Aina) from 

conservation to medium density urban and 

resort development, including golf course 

and airport, for a master-planned community 

called Kahuku Village. At least for Pōhue Bay, 

the local community, nonprofit organizations, 

and elected officials joined forces to propose 

acquisition of the property “in its entirety, 

certain portions thereof, or a conservation 

easement” in 2012 (Resolution 265-12) to 

protect this parcel and the valuable natural 

and cultural resources therein, and the 

NPS currently works with these partners to 

monitor threatened and endangered species 

on this land. Partnerships with organizations 

such as the Trust for Public Lands or The 

Nature Conservancy could be used to assist 

the NPS with acquisition, as was done for 

the Kahuku Unit.

Due to the land’s valuable resources, the 

Great Crack parcels, the Ala Wai‘i Holdings 

property, and the Pōhue Bay property are also 

being considered for NPS designation through 

a special resource study.

PROPOSED ADDITIONS TO 

THE PARK BOUNDARY AND 

OTHER ADJUSTMENTS

Under the preferred alternative, Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park would seek 

legislation to include ‘Ōla‘a within the official 

park boundary. Donated to the NPS in 1952 

via the Hawai‘i Territorial Executive Order 

1540, ‘Ōla‘a is geographically separated from 

the rest of the park by Volcano Village and 

has therefore never been formally designated 

as part of Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park. 

Language in the 1938 legislation for the park 

stated that Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

could acquire lands only if “adjacent and 

contiguous” to park boundaries. Early plans 

had been to acquire lands between the park 

and ‘Ōla‘a to make it contiguous, but that was 

not completed. However, the unit is managed 

by the park for its valuable rainforest habitat 

and presence of endemic and/or rare and 

endangered species. 

The preferred alternative also proposes to add 

the following three contiguous parcels to the 

park boundary. 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix E | 403 

The park would seek to acquire the Great 

Crack parcels (1,951 acres) and the Ala Wai‘i 

Holdings parcel (2,750 acres), which is west of 

the Great Crack. Both properties are in private 

ownership and contain excellent geology and 

important archeological sites. Acquisition 

of the Great Crack parcels was proposed in 

the park’s 1975 master plan, the 1986 Land 

Protection Plan, and was also referred to in 

the 1974 wilderness recommendation and 

subsequent legislation (1978).

The park would also pursue acquisition 

of a private parcel (223 acres) at the 

southern boundary of Kahuku (west of 

present entrance off Highway 11), which 

would essentially connect the entire south 

boundary of the Kahuku parcel with Highway 

11. Acquisition of this property would 

protect lower Kahuku from incompatible 

development and protect rare dryland 

forest habitat. 

Finally, the park would pursue acquisition of 

a parcel at Pōhue Bay that has been proposed 

to the county as a development called Kahuku 

Village. This privately owned parcel is 16,457 

acres and extends from lower Kahuku on 

Highway 11 down to the coast. The local 

community, nonprofit organizations, elected 

officials, and the developers have approached 

the park to acquire it. The site is used by 

the endangered hawksbill turtle for nesting. 

The threatened green sea turtle and the 

endangered Hawaiian monk seal are both 

known to bask on the beaches during the day. 

The area also contains many other endemic 

and endangered invertebrate plant and animal 

species. In addition, there are important 

archeological sites and coastal resources 

that are still used traditionally. Acquisition 

of this parcel would extend the park’s 

portion of Kahuku from mauka to makai and 

give the park a wider range of options for 

recreation improvements, interpretation, and 

environmental education in lower Kahuku. 

Community partnerships have proven to be 

effective thus far and could assist with longterm protection of these lands.

No legislation would be needed for 

acquisition of these parcels contiguous to 

the boundary; however, acquisition by the 

National Park Service would be restricted 

to a willing seller purchase only. This means 

that the seller would be willing to sell 

and adequate funds would be available to 

support the purchase. 

There would be no significant property tax 

implications for Hawai‘i County as a result 

of the proposed boundary change to Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park. Additionally, the 

payment in-lieu of taxes or PILT program 

would provide property tax income to Hawai‘i 

County for a five-year period following the 

willing seller acquisition of the private land 

parcels by the United States of America.
404 | Appendix E HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

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HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix F | 405 

APPENDIX F: COMMERCIAL SERVICES STRATEGY FOR

HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK

INTRODUCTION

This commercial services strategy (CSS) 

has been prepared in conjunction with the 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park General 

Management Plan/Wilderness Study/

Environmental Impact Statement (GMP/WS/

EIS) in order to provide additional guidance 

for managing commercial services in the 

park. This document is intended to stand 

alone, independent of the GMP/WS/EIS, as 

a commercial services strategy required by 

Section 10.2.2 of NPS Management Policies 

2006 and provides the following types of 

information within five related sections.

1. “Purpose and Scope” identifies 

the goals and scope of this strategy 

and includes a discussion of why 

this CSS is needed for Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park.

2. “Introduction to Commercial 

Services” explains the purpose of 

and management concerns related 

to commercial service operations of 

the National Park Service, provides 

a definition of the various types of 

commercial services in the park 

service, and outlines the laws and 

policies that govern this use within 

the National Park Service.

3. “Background of Commercial Services 

in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park” 

outlines the history and existing 

conditions of commercial services 

specific to the park and describes 

previous planning efforts at the park 

related to this use. 

4. “Commercial Services Strategy for 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park” 

contains the primary substance 

of this document. It defines the 

necessary and appropriate criteria 

for commercial services in the 

park, identifies the goals and 

provides management guidance 

for these services, and outlines 

the process for addressing future 

requests for commercial services at 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes. 

5. “Next Steps / Future Planning 

Needs” describes how this strategy 

will be implemented.

PURPOSE AND SCOPE

The purpose of this CSS is to develop 

implementation guidance for managing 

commercial services at Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park. Under the guidance of NPS 

Management Policies 2006, this CSS is an 

analytical document that identifies the 

necessary and appropriate commercial 

services within Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park and articulates the park’s goals 

associated with these services. This CSS 

additionally serves as a guidance document 

associated with the Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park General Management Plan / 

Wilderness Study/Environmental Impact 

Statement and will assist park decision-makers 

in responding to future inquiries related to 

commercial services. This document also 

contains descriptions of commercial services 

and their associated authorities, a description 

of existing conditions of commercial services 

at Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, and a 

summary of previous planning efforts for 

commercial services at the park. 

For the purposes of this CSS, a service is 

generally considered commercial if it involves 

the selling of goods or services or the granting 

of a right to use government land or facilities 

other than for governmental purposes. 

Commercial services may take place within a 

unit of the national park system only under 

certain defined and limited circumstances. 

Examples of commercial services addressed 

in this CSS include lodging, campground 

operations, food and beverage service, retail, 

road-based tours (auto and bike), equestrian 

tours, and hiking and other guided excursions. 
406 | Appendix F HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Among other issues, this strategy addresses 

entities that the NPS has the discretion to 

authorize to provide commercial services, 

including concessioners, commercial use 

authorization (CUA) holders, cooperative 

associations, lease holders, and special use 

permittees. This CSS applies only to those 

areas of Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park that 

are not designated as wilderness or potential 

wilderness. Any determinations about 

commercial services in wilderness will be 

addressed in a future wilderness stewardship 

plan.1

 Also excluded from the CSS are air tour 

services, which will be addressed in a separate 

air tour management plan.2

A CSS is not a compliance document in 

that it does not evaluate alternatives or 

assess environmental impacts, and it alone 

does not result in any actionable decisions. 

Rather, this CSS provides general guidance 

for future decisions involving commercial 

services at Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park. 

Any future decisions that require additional 

analysis and compliance with the National 

Environmental Policy Act, National Historic 

Preservation Act, Wilderness Act, and/or 

other laws and policies will be analyzed and 

documented as necessary. 

Once finalized through the Record of 

Decision for the associated Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park General Management Plan / 

Wilderness Study/Environmental Impact 

Statement, this strategy will provide broad 

guidance for future decisions associated 

with commercial services at the park; in 

the meantime, previous plans and other 

NPS and park policy documents allow for 

continuing commercial services, as well as 

other actions necessary for the management 

of the park. This CSS, when complete, will 

1 While a wilderness study is included in this 

document as part of the GMP/EIS, a wilderness stewardship 

plan for Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park will need to be 

completed subsequent to this GMP/WS/EIS. A wilderness study 

formally studies the feasibility and effects of recommending to 

Congress for wilderness designation NPS lands that have been 

found to possess the characteristics and values of wilderness. 

In comparison, a wilderness stewardship plan identifies a 

plan for managing a specific wilderness unit once it has been 

designated as wilderness. 

2 Consequently, all references in the CSS to tour 

services are to ground services, alone.

influence future decisions but will not apply 

retroactively to previously made decisions. 

Thus it will not affect the terms and conditions 

of existing concessions contracts, cooperative 

agreements, CUAs, or special use permits that 

have been issued prior to the completion of 

this document. 

This CSS is intended to provide management 

guidance to Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, 

and it should be reviewed periodically to 

ensure it is providing effective, relevant, and 

meaningful direction for park managers.

Need for Commercial 

Services Strategy

This strategy is needed to provide general 

guidance for establishing the types of 

commercial activities that are appropriate and 

meet the eligibility criteria for authorizations 

under available legal authorities (for example, 

whether “necessary and appropriate” if a 

concession contract) for Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park, including recommendations 

for any commercial services in Kahuku. 

Criteria for evaluating the appropriateness of 

commercial services needs to be developed 

and applied to commercial services in the 

park; goals for future commercial services 

need to be identified; and a process for 

evaluating future commercial services 

needs to be outlined. This guidance for the 

future management of commercial services 

within the park will help to ensure the 

protection of park resources and provision 

of a quality visitor experience within Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park.

In light of the 2008 closure of a portion 

of Crater Rim Drive (which was closed 

because of increased sulfur dioxide levels 

and hazardous conditions and hazardous 

conditions near Halema‘uma‘u Crater), 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park has 

experienced a dramatic increase in congestion 

around the sections of Crater Rim Drive 

remaining open, particularly at the park’s 

two visitor centers (Kīlauea Visitor Center 

and Jaggar Museum) and Thurston Lava 

Tube (Nāhuku). The combination of private 

vehicular traffic, large commercial buses 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix F | 407 

(which require infrastructure to turn around), 

and an increasing number of bicycle tours 

on this narrow road prism has not only led 

to more congestion in what were already 

congested areas, but has also created 

safety hazards in particularly tight areas. 

This additional congestion has increased 

the likelihood of user conflicts, and has 

contributed to adverse impacts to the visitor 

experience and to the park’s natural and 

cultural resources. Increased impacts to a 

significant archeological site (eligible for the 

national register) have been documented. 

Soil degradation, excessive erosion, trampling 

of vegetation, and disturbance of endemic 

and sensitive species and sites have occurred 

in localized areas; and crowding and 

inappropriate behavior have contributed to 

a loss of sense of place, interference with 

traditional cultural uses, and increased 

negative perceptions of the park by Native 

Hawaiians and the general visiting public.

While the congestion and documented 

impacts are attributable to general high 

visitor use and limited capacity, they are also 

compounded and complicated by commercial 

visitor services in the area. An estimated 23% 

of visitors to Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

visit through a tour-based commercial service 

provider, and another large contingent of 

visitors utilize the retail, food and beverage, 

and lodging services provided by commercial 

service providers in the park. Thus, the types 

and levels of commercial uses in the park 

affect visitor experiences, natural and cultural 

resources, and park operations at Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes. A commercial services strategy, 

with the accompanying general management 

plan, is needed to address adverse effects 

that may be occurring due to commercial 

services and provide guidance for the future 

management of commercial services to 

ensure the protection of both natural and 

cultural resources and to provide for a quality 

visitor experience.

A variety of legal authorities and NPS policies 

apply to commercial services depending 

upon the type and kind of specific service 

involved (e.g., concessions are regulated 

under different authorities than are special 

use permits). This strategy was prepared in 

accordance with and is consistent with the 

following laws and policies as applicable to 

specific services addressed within the CSS: 

park-specific legislation, including 16 USC 

394; the National Park Service Concessions 

Management Improvement Act of 1998, 

16 USC 5951 et seq.; various provisions of 

16 USC pertaining to the National Park 

Service, including 16 USC §§1-5, 79, 460l-6d, 

and 470h-3; various implementing regulations, 

including 36 CFR Parts 1–7, 14, 18, and 51; 

Chapters 8 and 10 of NPS Management 

Policies 2006; and Director’s Orders 32, 

38, 48A, and 53. 

INTRODUCTION TO 

COMMERCIAL SERVICES

Commercial Services and the

National Park Service

National parks are special places, saved by the 

American people so that all may experience 

the country’s natural and cultural heritage. 

The national parks movement of the mid-19th 

century was fueled by a determination to save 

beautiful and historic spots in America, in 

part to keep them from being populated with 

hotels, curio shops, and amusements. Overcommercialization and development can 

spoil the very character of the places visitors 

come to see. Yet some kinds of commercial 

activities are appropriate in national parks 

and sometimes necessary. These services 

may help visitors enjoy natural and cultural 

wonders to which they might not otherwise 

have access, and they often help protect park 

resources as well.

Commercial services involve the selling of 

goods or services or the granting of a right 

to use government land or facilities other 

than for governmental purposes. They are 

a business activity. Within the national park 

system, there are two general categories of 

commercial services: (1) those offered to the 

public (as visitor services); and (2) those that 

provide a specific benefit to an identifiable 

beneficiary and to the government but not to 

the public at large. There are different legal 

prerequisites for and different legal conditions 

that apply to commercial services depending 
408 | Appendix F HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

on the purpose and type of the activity 

involved. However, all commercial service 

legal authorizations share one common 

attribute—a fee or charge is assessed for the 

services involved.

Commercial services are authorized by 

law and policy within units of the national 

park system; however, they may take place 

only under certain defined and limited 

circumstances. The national park system 

has been established and is preserved and 

managed for the benefit and inspiration of 

the people of the United States. The NPS 

Organic Act and the NPS General Authorities 

Act of 1970, as amended (16 USC 1, 1a-1), 

mandate that park resources and values be 

conserved and provided for in such manner 

and means as will leave them unimpaired for 

the enjoyment of future generations (unless 

a particular law directly and specifically 

provides otherwise). 

Consistent with these fundamental principles 

regarding management of the national 

park system, it is unlawful to engage in 

or to solicit any business in an area of the 

national park system, except in accordance 

with the provisions of a permit, contract, 

or other written agreement with the United 

States (unless specifically authorized under 

special regulations applicable to a park 

area) (36 CFR 5.3). 

Authorization for 

Commercial Services

Commercial activities may be authorized 

through a range of legal authorities using a 

variety of different permits, contracts, and 

other authorizations, depending on the type 

and location of the activity involved. Examples 

of authorizations used for visitor services (that 

is, accommodations, facilities, and services 

for public use and enjoyment of units of the 

national park system) include concession 

contracts, CUAs, and cooperative agreements.

Concession contracts may be used 

to authorize concessioners to provide 

accommodations, facilities, and 

services that the National Park Service 

has determined are necessary and 

appropriate for public use and enjoyment 

of a park unit and are consistent to 

the highest practicable degree with 

the preservation and conservation of 

the resources and values of that unit. 

Authorized accommodations, facilities, 

and services are provided for a fee or 

charge to the visitor by the concessioner, 

and the concessioner’s rates and charges 

to the public are subject to approval by 

the National Park Service. The contracts 

must provide a reasonable opportunity 

for profit for concession operators. The 

concessioner pays the government, 

through the vehicle of a franchise fee, for 

the privilege of operating the concession 

business. In addition, the concessioner 

is required to maintain, as an expense 

of its business, the government-owned 

facilities, land, and equipment that have 

been assigned to it for use in providing 

services to the visiting public. Under very 

limited circumstances, a concessioner 

may be authorized to construct capital 

improvements. A public solicitation 

process is used to award concession 

contracts, generally for terms of 10 years 

or less. Lodges and restaurants within 

parks are examples of commercial 

services that typically operate under 

concession contracts. Pertinent laws 

and regulations and NPS policies 

(discussed in more detail below) include 

the National Park Service Concessions 

Management Improvement Act of 1998, 

16 USC 5951 et seq.; 50 CFR Part 51; and 

NPS Director’s Order 48A.3

Commercial use authorizations may 

be used to authorize visitor services 

under somewhat different criteria than 

a concession contract. For a CUA, the 

visitor service must be determined by the 

National Park Service to have minimal 

impact on resources and values of the 

park unit and be consistent with the 

purpose for which the unit was 

3 All laws and regulations cited in this CSS are 

available at http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/. NPS policies and 

Director’s Orders are available at http://www.nps.gov/policy.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix F | 409 

established and with all applicable 

management plans and park policies 

and regulations. Additionally, the 

National Park Service is prohibited 

by law from issuing more CUAs than 

are consistent with the preservation 

and proper management of park 

resources and values. 

Only three types of operations are eligible 

for CUAs: (1) commercial operations 

generating not more than $25,000 

annually from services originating and 

provided solely within the national park 

system unit; or (2) commercial operations 

originating or terminating outside of 

the boundaries of the national park 

system unit; or (3) uses by an appropriate 

children’s camp, an outdoor club, or 

a nonprofit institution not deriving 

taxable income from the authorized use. 

A fee must be paid to the government 

for issuance of a CUA, at a minimum 

to cover associated management and 

administrative costs. The term of a CUA 

may not be more than two years in 

duration. Under no circumstances may a 

CUA holder construct any real property 

improvements within a park unit. 

Examples of CUAs include bus, bicycling, 

and birding tours in the park. Pertinent 

laws and regulations and NPS Policies 

(discussed in more detail below) include 

16 USC 5966 and 50 CFR 51.1.

Cooperating Association Agreements

may be used to authorize private, 

nonprofit organizations to sell 

interpretive materials and conduct 

interpretive programs (including 

incidental visitor services necessary 

for the conduct of that interpretive 

program) for a fee or charge in park areas. 

Cooperating associations also may be 

authorized separately to sell convenience 

items for the benefit of the visitor.

Cooperating associations are missiondriven nonprofit organizations that help 

connect individuals to the nation’s parks 

by selling educational and interpretive 

materials, providing information 

services, and conducting educational 

programs and field institutes. A nonprofit 

organization may perform other 

functions to support the National Park 

Service, such as raising contributions to 

support the interpretive and educational 

mission of the parks, when authorized 

by a legal instrument other than a 

Cooperating Association Agreement. An 

example of a cooperating association 

would be a nonprofit that sells books 

and other educational and interpretive 

materials in the park. Pertinent laws 

and regulations and NPS Policies 

(discussed in more detail below) include 

16 USC 1a-2(g); 50 CFR 51.1; and NPS 

Director’s Order 32.

Services providing a specific benefit to 

an identifiable beneficiary and to the 

government but not to the public at large may 

be authorized, for example, by leases and 

special use permits.

Leases may be granted by the National 

Park Service for the use of buildings, 

lands associated with such buildings, 

and historic land located within the 

boundaries of units of the national park 

system under certain conditions. A lease 

may be used only for activities consistent 

with the purposes of the park area; may 

not result in degradation of the purposes 

and values of that park area; and must be 

compatible with NPS programs. Leases 

may not authorize activities subject to 

authorization through a concession 

contract, CUA, or similar instrument. 

A public solicitation process is used 

to award leases other than for certain 

nonprofit or governmental use of the 

property contributing to the purposes 

and programs of the park area or for 

certain less than 60 days in duration 

leases. Regardless of whether the lease 

is competitively awarded, it must require 

payment of rent to the government equal 

to or higher than the property’s fair 

market value rent, taking into account 

any restrictions the National Park Service 
410 | Appendix F HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

may place on the use of the leased 

property and any requirements for its 

rehabilitation and maintenance. The term 

of a lease may be up to 60 years. Pertinent 

laws and regulations and NPS Policies 

(discussed in more detail below) include 

16 USC §§1a-2(k), 470h-3; 50 CFR Part 

18; and NPS Director’s Order 38.

Special use permits may be used to 

authorize activities that provide a benefit 

to an individual or group rather than 

to the public at large and require some 

degree of management by the National 

Park Service to protect park resources 

and the public interest. Special use 

permits are, in effect, a license and, 

as such, are revocable. Additionally, 

special use permits may not violate or 

circumvent any relevant law and may 

not be issued for a visitor service or 

for activities subject to authorization 

by a lease. The National Park Service, 

depending on the circumstances, may 

recover costs related to special park uses 

or charge fees for the use of park lands 

and facilities. Special use permits typically 

are used to authorize activities such 

as rights-of-way, commercial filming, 

weddings, festivals, and other special 

events. Pertinent laws and regulations 

and NPS policies (discussed in more 

detail below) include 16 USC §§1-5, 79, 

460l-6d; 50 CFR Parts 1-7, 14; and NPS 

Director’s Order 38.

The National Park Service must determine 

what types and levels of commercial activities 

are permissible under applicable laws and 

regulations. At a minimum, all commercial 

activities must operate in a manner that is 

consistent with the mission of the park and 

should provide high quality visitor experience 

while protecting important natural, cultural, 

and scenic resources. Other requirements may 

also apply. For example, the NPS Concessions 

Management Improvement Act of 1998 limits 

the development of concession services to 

those that are necessary and appropriate for 

public use and enjoyment of the park unit and 

that are consistent to the highest practicable 

degree with the preservation and conservation 

of the resources and values of the unit. More 

information concerning the concepts of 

necessary and appropriate, and how they 

relate to the commercial services strategy, 

is presented in the section, “Appropriate” 

Commercial Services and “Necessary and 

Appropriate” Commercial Services.

Laws, Regulations, and NPS Policies

Numerous laws, regulations, and policies 

guide the management of commercial 

services in units of the national park system. 

Fundamentally, a commercial service may 

not be authorized within a NPS-administered 

area unless it meets the eligibility criteria 

for authorization under the applicable legal 

authority. In addition, general management 

principles set in the National Park Service 

Organic Act of 1916 and the National Park 

Service General Authorities Act of 1970 

must be met in authorizing and managing 

commercial services. Additionally, parkspecific legislation informs decisions 

regarding commercial services as do the 

various policies, directives, and other written 

guidance issued by the National Park Service 

regarding its authorization and management 

of commercial services in units of the national 

park system. Commercial services strategies 

must comply with applicable laws, regulations, 

and policies and must be consistent with the 

management philosophies found in the park’s 

general management plan. Examples of the 

primary legal and regulatory mandates are 

summarized below.

NPS ORGANIC ACT

In the National Park Service Organic Act, 

Congress directed the National Park Service 

to manage parks 

to conserve the scenery and the 

natural and historic objects and the 

wild life therein and to provide for the 

enjoyment of the same in such manner and by such means as will leave 

them unimpaired for the enjoyment of 

future generations.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix F | 411 

Congress supplemented and clarified 

these provisions through enactment of the 

NPS General Authorities Act and through 

enactment of an amendment to the act, which 

states, in part,

[t]he authorization of activities . . . 

shall not be exercised in derogation 

of the values and purposes for which 

these various areas have been established, except as may have been or 

shall be directly and specifically provided by Congress (16 USC 1a-1).

The NPS Organic Act is silent as to the 

specifics of park management and leaves the 

NPS broad discretion in determining which 

management approaches best achieve the NPS 

Organic Act mandate. Simply put, the NPS is 

“empowered with the authority to determine 

what uses of park resources are proper and 

what proportion of the park resources is 

available for each use” (Bicycle Trails Council 

of Marin v. Babbitt, 82 F.3d 1445, 1454 

(9th Cir. 1996)).

While the National Park Service has 

management discretion to allow impacts 

within parks, that discretion is limited by the 

statutory requirement that the National Park 

Service must leave park resources and values 

unimpaired unless a particular law directly 

and specifically provides otherwise. These 

congressional mandates ensure that park 

resources and values will continue to exist in a 

condition that will allow the American people 

to have present and future opportunities to 

enjoy them. Consistent with the NPS Organic 

Act and other applicable laws, any commercial 

services, including those offered at Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park, must be compatible 

with the park’s natural resources, cultural 

resources, threatened and endangered species, 

and wilderness values. 

NPS CONCESSIONS MANAGEMENT 

IMPROVEMENT ACT OF 1998

The National Park Service Concessions 

Management Improvement Act of 1998 (1998 

Concessions Act) (Title IV of PL 105-391; 

16 USC 5901 note, 5951 et seq.) contains two 

separate types of authority for commercial 

visitor services in units of the national park 

system—concession contracts and CUAs. 

The attributes of each of these means of 

authorizing commercial services are discussed 

above, in the section, “Authorization for 

Commercial Services”. 

The National Park Service has been awarding 

and administering concession contracts in 

various forms since 1916. Initially contracts 

were issued under the authority of the 

National Park Service Organic Act. In 1965, 

Congress “put into statutory form” various 

long standing concessions policies of the 

National Park Service through the enactment 

of the National Park Service Concessions 

Policy Act, Public Law No. 89-249 (1965). 

These policies later were substantially revised 

by Congress through the 1998 Concessions 

Act. Concession contracts are a unique form 

of government contract that differs from 

other government contracts, particularly 

procurement, in significant ways: for example, 

NPS concession contracts (1) provide for 

services to be given directly to the visiting 

public rather than to the federal government; 

(2) the contractor pays (through the vehicle 

of a franchise fee) the federal government for 

the privilege of operating; (3) facilities may be 

used and even constructed by the contractor 

on federal land for the direct benefit of the 

visiting public; and (4) the contractor is given 

protection against loss of investment (through 

the vehicle of leasehold surrender interest).

CUAs are available for certain qualifying 

commercial services that are more limited in 

scope and impact than concession operations 

and as a consequence may be authorized 

under less restrictive controls and conditions 

than those available to concession contracts.

CODE OF FEDERAL REGULATIONS

The national park system has been established 

and is preserved and managed for the benefit 

and inspiration of the people of the United 

States. Congress has mandated that park 

resources and values are to be conserved 

and are to be provided for enjoyment in 

such manner and means as will leave them 
412 | Appendix F HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

unimpaired for the enjoyment of future 

generations, unless a particular law directly 

and specifically provides otherwise.

To enforce these fundamental management 

principles, the National Park Service has 

adopted a number of regulations that apply 

to activities within NPS-administered 

areas, including business activities. These 

regulations are published in 36 CFR 1–199 

and are available at http://www.gpo.gov/

fdsys/. The regulations include a number 

of general restrictions that may affect 

business activities, including for example a 

prohibition on engaging in business except 

in accordance with a permit, contract, or 

other written agreement unless specifically 

authorized under special regulations (36 

CFR 5.3) and significant restrictions on 

the display and distribution of commercial 

notices or advertisements (in 36 CFR 5.1). In 

addition, the regulations set out a number of 

specific requirements for NPS concessioners, 

including applicable labor standards (in 36 

CFR 8) and provisions for the solicitation, 

award, and administration of concession 

contracts (in 36 CFR 51).

NPS MANAGEMENT POLICIES 2006

The NPS Management Policies 2006 is the 

basic service-wide policy document of the 

National Park Service. It provides information 

on NPS policy including for park planning, 

natural and cultural resource management, 

wilderness stewardship, use of the parks, 

and park facilities, among other topics. NPS 

Management Policies 2006 are intended solely 

as guidance to employees of the National Park 

Service and does not create rulemaking and 

may not be relied upon to create a right or 

benefit, substantive or procedural, enforceable 

at law or equity by any persons.

Section 10 of the NPS Management Policies 

2006 addresses commercial visitor services 

authorized through concession contracts 

(§10.2) and CUAs (§10.3). The policies state 

(among other things):

[p]ublic accommodations, facilities, 

and services must be consistent to 

highest practicable degree with the 

preservation and conservation of 

park resources and values.

NPS Management Policies 2006 also provide 

several other directions of relevance to this 

commercial services strategy. Sections 5.3.2 

and 8.5 address use of national park system 

units by traditionally associated groups such 

as Native Hawaiians. Park managers are 

directed to protect sacred resources to the 

extent practicable and in a manner consistent 

with the goals of traditionally associated 

groups. To the extent feasible and allowable 

by law, accommodations will also be made for 

access to and the use of sacred places when 

interest is expressed by Native Hawaiians.

Section 7.5.7 addresses sales by cultural 

demonstrators of self-made handicrafts. 

Section 8.12 provides guidance on leases for 

the use of park property.

DIRECTOR’S ORDERS

Director’s Orders are one level of the NPS 

Directives System, which provides internal 

instructions and guidance documents to 

ensure that NPS managers and staff have clear 

information on NPS policy and on required 

and/or recommended actions. Director’s 

Orders provide more detailed interpretation 

of management policies, delegate specific 

authorities and responsibilities, and may 

articulate new or revised policy on an interim 

basis between publications of management 

policies. The following Director’s Orders 

provide guidance for various commercial 

services: Director’s Order 32: Cooperating 

Associations; Director’s Order 38: Real 

Property Leasing; Director’s Order 53: 

Special Park Uses; and Director’s Order 48A: 

Concession Management. Director’s Order 

48B: Commercial Use Authorizations is 

under development.

NPS COMMERCIAL USE AUTHORIZATIONS: 

INTERIM GUIDELINES

In 2005, the National Park Service issued 

interim guidelines regarding implementation 

of the statutory requirements for CUAs. 

(These guidelines are intended solely as 

guidance for employees of the National 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix F | 413 

Park Service. They are not rulemaking and 

do not create or confer any legal rights, 

privileges, or benefits that may be enforced 

in any way by private parties.) Among other 

things, these guidelines provide for use of a 

competitive process if the number of CUAs to 

be issued for a particular type of commercial 

service is limited. 

HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK 

ENABLING LEGISLATION

Congress established Hawai‘i National 

Park (later to become, separately, Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park and Haleakalā 

National Park4) on August 1, 1916, declaring:

“The tracts of land on the Island of 

Hawai‘i and the Island of Maui, in 

the Territory of Hawai‘i ... shall be 

perpetually dedicated and set apart 

as a public park or pleasuring ground 

for the benefit and enjoyment of the 

people of the United States ... [and 

provide for] ... the preservation from 

injury of all timber, birds, mineral 

deposits, and natural curiosities or 

wonders within said park, and their 

retention in their natural condition as 

nearly as possible.”

This enabling legislation, along with 11 other 

acts that amend and/or supplement the initial 

legislation, identifies the park’s key purposes 

and provides the basis for management of 

this NPS unit. Unique to Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park, this enabling legislation 

also includes authority to grant leases for 

the erection and maintenance of buildings 

for the accommodation of visitors subject 

to certain restrictions as to location, nonexclusive privileges, use, size, and duration 

(16 USC 394). Additionally, the enabling 

legislation authorizes the leasing under 

certain circumstances and subject to certain 

restrictions of land suitable for home site 

purposes in the Kalapana extension to Native 

Hawaiians (16 USC 396a). The full enabling 

4 The Maui portion of the park was established as 

a separate national park unit in July 1961 (74 Stat. 881; 16 

USC §396b) and effective September 22, 1961, the Hawai‘i 

portion was re-named Hawai’i Volcanoes National Park (16 

USC 391d).

legislation for Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park can be found in Appendix A of the 

Draft GMP/WS/EIS.

BACKGROUND OF COMMERCIAL 

SERVICES IN HAWAI‘I 

VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK

History of Commercial Services

Commercial services for visitors to Kīlauea 

Volcano and the present-day park evolved 

along with the entire history of travel to 

Hawai‘i Island. Prior to 1877, most people 

reached the volcano after sailing into the 

town of Hilo and then riding on horseback 

over a very rugged trail for 30 miles through 

forest and barren lava fields. Very early on 

there was a need for lodging at the caldera, 

and early travelers stayed at a grass hut 

constructed in 1846 on the northeast side of 

the crater which became the first Volcano 

House. At a dollar per person for lodging, 

visitors could also purchase foods such as 

fowl for 37.5 cents and a small calabash of 

potatoes for 25 cents. Thus began a succession 

of visitor accommodations, with various 

iterations of Volcano Houses built over time. 

A more modern hotel was built in 1877 (the 

existing relocated 1877 Volcano House) and 

by the mid-1880s two steamship companies 

began providing other routes to the volcano. 

Although visitation counts were not kept, 

records from the early Volcano House 

registry, as well as testimonials and articles 

written in local newspapers and popular 

magazines, show that scientists, researchers, 

politicians, businessmen, artists, and the 

general public were all willing to take the 

long, arduous, expensive trip to the brink 

of the caldera in hopes of viewing a once 

in a lifetime event—an active eruption. It is 

this popularity of Kīlauea that eventually 

spurred citizens familiar with the volcano 

to lobby Congress in the early 1900s for the 

establishment of a national park in Hawai‘i 

(Moniz-Nakamura 2009).

Existing Conditions for 

Commercial Services

As of spring 2014, Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park offers a variety of commercial services 

through two concession contracts (lodging, 
414 | Appendix F HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

campground, food and beverage, and 

retail), approximately 143 CUAs (primarily 

tours), and two cooperating association 

agreements. The park also issues a number of 

special use permits for commercial services; 

however, none of the permittees provide 

visitor services. There are no commercial 

services in the park that operate under a 

lease at this time.

LODGING, CAMPGROUND, AND FOOD AND 

BEVERAGE SERVICE

In 2012, approximately 1.48 million people 

visited Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park (Park 

2012a). While the majority of park visitors are 

day-use only, according to a 2009 visitor use 

survey, approximately 20% of visitors choose 

to spend the night in the park (averaging 

two nights per visitor) (NPS 2009c). While 

some of these overnight visitors camp at 

one of the backcountry campgrounds, 

commercial services also provide lodging at 

the following facilities.

VOLCANO HOUSESM5— Located on the rim 

of Kīlauea Caldera, the historic 1941 Volcano 

HouseSM provides overnight accommodations, 

food and beverage service, and retail to park 

visitors. Since 1969, the services provided in 

this location have been authorized under a 

concession contract with the Secretary of the 

Interior. Between 2010 and 2012, a number 

of renovations were made by the National 

Park Service to the Volcano House concession 

facilities, including deferred maintenance 

projects, seismic and fire suppression retrofits, 

and other upgrades related to life, health, 

and safety. Due to the extensive nature of 

this work as well as a concession facility 

improvement program implemented by a 

new concessioner, the National Park Service 

closed the Volcano House concession facilities 

to the visiting public beginning January 1, 

2010 and did not re-open it until August 

2012.6

 Volcano HouseSM now has 33 hotel 

5 The service mark (SM) inserted after “Volcano 

House” is associated with a legally registered name or 

designation used in the manner of a trademark to distinguish 

an organization’s services from those of its competitors.

6 Re-opening occurred in phases. The retail store 

reopened on August 18, 2012. The Annex reopened on 

March 22, 2013, and the full hotel operations, along with the 

restaurant, bar, and gift shops reopened on May 23, 2013.

rooms, an approximately 219-seat dining 

room with additional outdoor seating, an 

approximately 58-seat snack bar, a cocktail 

lounge, and a retail sales operation. In 2012, 

the CC-HAVO001-12 concession contract for 

operations at Volcano HouseSM was awarded 

to Hawai‘i Volcanoes Lodge Company, LLC. 

That concession contract will expire in 2025.

The Volcano HouseSM is also the only place 

for visitors to obtain food and beverage 

service within the park. Under the concession 

contract with Hawai‘i Volcanoes Lodge 

Company, LLC, visitors can purchase 

breakfast, lunch, and dinner at the restaurant 

in Volcano HouseSM, as well as grab and go 

food during the day. In a survey conducted 

in 2007 in preparation for the concessions 

contract bidding process, 20% of all park 

visitors ate at the concession-operated 

restaurant during their stay at the park, 53% of 

whom valued Volcano HouseSM as extremely 

important to their visit (Park 2007b).

Under CC-HAVO001-12, Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

Lodge Company, LLC, also operates a 

retail shop in Volcano HouseSM and at 

Nāmakanipaio Campground and is able 

to provide an occasional mobile retail 

enterprise during eruptive events. These retail 

services are authorized to sell convenience 

items (such as bottled water, raincoats, and 

sunscreen), interpretive items, and souvenirs 

tied to park themes to visitors. See “Volcano 

HouseSM and Nāmakanipaio Campground” 

subheading under the next section, “Retail,” 

for more information.

NĀMAKANIPAIO CAMPGROUND—

Nāmakanipaio is a developed campground 

off Highway 11, to the northwest of park 

headquarters. It includes 10 cabins and 18 

designated campsites and provides running 

water and flush toilets to visitors, as well as 

showers in a separate restroom building in the 

cabin area. In 2007, the cabins were filled to an 

occupancy rate of 65%, while the campground 

ran at a 51% occupancy rate (NPS 2009c). 

The CC-HAVO001-12 concession contract 

awarded to Hawai‘i Volcanoes Lodge 

Company, LLC, also authorizes concession 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix F | 415 

operations at Nāmakanipaio consisting of 

lodging and retail services for visitors. See 

the “Volcano HouseSM” subheading above 

and “Volcano HouseSM and Nāmakanipaio 

Campground” subheading under the next 

section, “Retail,” for more information about 

the retail services provided.

KILAUEA MILITARY CAMP— The United 

States Army operates this 54-acre historic 

recreational complex under a special use 

permit with Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park that will expire in 2021. The Special 

Use Permit, among other things, states that 

Kilauea Military Camp(KMC) is not open 

to the general public; its use is restricted 

to certain categories of users including 

Department of Defense personnel by Morale, 

Welfare, and Recreation patronage authority 

and eligibility published in Army Regulation 

215-1. The KMC complex includes 90 rooms 

for overnight accommodations, a cafeteria, 

bar, grocery store, gas station, bowling alley, 

recreation room, exercise facility, conference 

rooms, and bus and van tours, as well as other 

support programs and facilities.

RETAIL

There are three general types of retail service 

in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park: (1) visitor 

convenience items, (2) interpretive items 

that have the potential to enhance a visitor’s 

understanding of the park and its resources, 

and (3) souvenirs tied to park themes. 

Convenience items include bottled water and 

sunscreen. Interpretive items include field 

guides and books about the history of the 

park, and souvenirs include items like coffee 

mugs that feature the name of the park or a 

recognized resource in the park. In a NPS 

survey conducted in 2007, 21% of visitors 

to the park spent a portion of their visit in 

one of the following retail outlets in the 

park (Park 2007b).

VOLCANO HOUSESM AND NĀMAKANIPAIO 

CAMPGROUND— Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

Lodge Company, LLC, is authorized by the 

CC-HAVO001-12 concession contract to 

operate a retail shop in Volcano HouseSM

and Nāmakanipaio Campground and an 

occasional mobile retail enterprise during 

eruptive events. These retail services are 

authorized to sell convenience items (such 

as bottled water, raincoats, and sunscreen), 

interpretive items, and souvenirs tied to park 

themes, which includes a broader scope of 

items in comparison to other retail services 

in the park. See the “Volcano HouseSM” 

subheading under the previous section, 

“Lodging and Food and Beverage Service,” for 

additional information.

KĪLAUEA VISITOR CENTER AND JAGGAR 

MUSEUM BOOKSTORES— Hawai‘i Pacific 

Parks Association (HPPA) operates the 

bookstores at Kīlauea Visitor Center and 

Jaggar Museum under the authority of a 

cooperating association agreement (for 

interpretive items) and concession contract 

CC-HAVO002-06 (for convenience 

items), which both expire in 2015. HPPA 

is a nonprofit organization dedicated to 

supporting the interpretive, educational, 

scientific, and historic mission of the 

National Park Service through the sale of 

educational items.

VOLCANO ART CENTER GALLERY— The 

Volcano Art Center Gallery is operated 

under a cooperating association agreement 

by the Volcano Art Center (VAC), a 

501(c)3 nonprofit organization dedicated 

to environmental education and art that 

perpetuates the artistic and cultural heritage 

of the people and environment of Hawai‘i 

through activities in the visual, literary, and 

performing arts. The gallery occupies an 1877 

historic building (called 1877 Volcano House) 

that was the first Volcano House Hotel on the 

rim of Kīlauea and now sits adjacent to the 

Kīlauea Visitor Center. In accordance with 

their cooperative agreement, VAC interprets 

the park through the sales of handmade art 

and crafts that are inspired by and pertain to, 

or reflect, Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park or 

the traditional Hawaiian culture. The Volcano 

Art Center also sponsors and/or produces 

park educational activities, demonstrations, 

and exhibits on the park’s behalf, such 

as dance presentations at the nearby pā 

hula platform and hale. VAC’s cooperative 

agreement with Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park will expire in 2014. 
416 | Appendix F HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

TOURS AND GUIDED EXCURSIONS

In addition to the above visitor facilities within 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, 

approximately 143 private businesses are 

currently authorized under CUAs to provide 

small-scale, recreational services to visitors 

within the park every year (see Table F.1. Total 

Commercial Use Authorizations in Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park, 2012). These 

businesses provide a range of services to the 

public, such as bus and auto-based tours, 

guided bike tours, hiking tours, and other 

guided excursions including birding and 

lava viewing. 

AUTO-BASED TOURS— Approximately 4% 

of the 429,327 recreation-based vehicles 

that entered the main part of the park in 

2011 were commercial tour vehicles, 20% 

of which were motor coaches carrying, on 

average, 39 passengers and, at maximum, up 

to 81 passengers in one vehicle. Although 

representing a small percentage of the park’s 

total traffic, these tour buses and the smaller 

cars and vans associated with these CUAs 

transported approximately 19% (259,354 

people) of all paying visitors to Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park in 2011. This was 

up from 250,560 people in 2010. Of the 

17,583 CUA vehicles that entered the park 

in 2011, 54% entered the park within a span 

of three hours, between 12:00 p.m. and 

2:59 p.m. (see Figure F.1. Timing of Daily CUA 

Visitation to Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, 

Table F.1. Total Commercial Use Authorizations

in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, 2012

Recreational Service Number 

of CUAs

Road-based Scenic Tours (Motorized 

vehicle use for transport of 

passengers on guided tours)

77

Nonroad-based tours (Tours of 

the park that are not on the park 

roads such as hiking, birding, and 

tours on bicycles)

43

Combination road and 

nonroad based permits 

23

TOTAL CUAs 143

Source: NPS files 

2011). Due to traffic restrictions on Chain 

of Craters Road, motor coaches with the 

capacity of more than 26 passengers can only 

go as far as Kealakomo Overlook on Chain 

of Craters Road.

BICYCLE TOURS— In 2012, commercial 

service providers guided approximately 

8,400 visitors on 660 bike tours in Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park, averaging roughly 13 

people per tour and 13 tours a week (up from 

11 per week in 2011). Most of these tours 

now stage at the Kīlauea Overlook and Picnic 

Area. Due to resource and safety concerns, 

the park places a number of restrictions on 

bicycle tours. For example, all bike tours are 

limited to 14 bicycles, including the guide, and 

must provide an escort vehicle for each trip. 

Similarly, bike tours in the park must stay on a 

park road and are not allowed below Muliwai 

a Pele on Chain of Craters Road or above 

Kīpukapuaulu on Mauna Loa Road.

HIKING TOURS AND OTHER GUIDED 

EXCURSIONS— In 2012, approximately 

60,000 visitors to Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park (4.5% of the park’s annual 

visitation) participated in a guided tour with 

a commercial service, including hiking tours 

and tours associated with birding and lava 

viewing. Due to natural and cultural resource 

concerns, the park places some restrictions 

on CUA operators that provide hikes within 

the park. For example, while all CUAs adhere 

to a standard set of park-specific conditions, 

all CUA operations in Mauna Ulu area are 

additionally restricted to a group size of 15, 

and only one tour is allowed in the area at one 

time. In addition, all guides that take visitors 

to Mauna Ulu must go through a certification 

course before guiding tours in the area.

EQUESTRIAN TOURS— As of spring 2013, 

there are no equestrian tours authorized to 

operate in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park.

INTERPRETATION AND EDUCATION

In addition to the lodging/campground, food 

and beverage, retail, and guided services 

described above, commercial visitor service 

entities in the park also provide interpretive 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix F | 417 

and education services to the public, both 

through the primary service they offer (such 

as a guided tour in the park) and through 

the provision of additional programs, as 

in the case of the concession operation at 

the Volcano HouseSM and Nāmakanipaio 

Campground. These interpretive services 

include, among others, presentations, printed 

materials, and guided services that are 

primarily educational in nature.

OTHER USES

In 2012, the park issued 71 Special Use 

Permits (SUPs) for activities such as filming, 

ash scattering, and weddings. As these permits 

are issued on a case by case basis, are of 

relatively short duration, and have minimal 

impacts on resources and visitor use, this CSS 

does not address SUPs associated with these 

types of activities.

Previous Planning Efforts Associated 

with Commercial Services

Throughout its almost 100 years of 

management, Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park has embarked on a number of planning 

efforts that have addressed commercial 

services. They include the following:

HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK 

MASTER PLAN, 1975

The 1975 Master Plan for Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park provides the following guidance 

for managing and operating commercial 

services within the park:

• Provide meal service, other day-use 

visitor needs, and limited overnight 

accommodations in the park through 

an authorized concessioner.

• Provide only enough overnight 

facilities (lodging and campground) 

for some visitors to experience an indepth enjoyment of park resources, 

but within the estimated overnight 

carrying capacity for the park. The 

extent of campground development 

may be influenced by the availability 

of campsites outside the park.

• Depend on the gateway communities 

and private enterprise to develop any 

additional lodging facilities needed 

for park visitors.

Numerous conditions in the park have 

changed since this plan was completed. 

The Final Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

General Management Plan / Wilderness 

Study / Environmental Impact Statement 

0	
  

500	
  

1000	
  

1500	
  

2000	
  

2500	
  

3000	
  

3500	
  

4000	
  

4500	
  

7:00	
   8:00	
   9:00	
   10:00	
   11:00	
   12:00	
   1:00	
   2:00	
   3:00	
   4:00	
   5:00	
   6:00	
   7:00	
  

Figure F.1. Timing of Daily CUA Visitation to Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, 2011
418 | Appendix F HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

will supersede the 1975 master plan once 

completed and approved.

COMMERCIAL SERVICES PLAN, 2005 

(PUBLIC SCOPING ONLY)

In 2005, Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

initiated a commercial services planning 

process to further define commercial 

development and services that are necessary 

and appropriate within the park. At the time, 

a public scoping newsletter was mailed to 

contacts on the park mailing list, and the 

public was invited to comment about a vision 

for commercial services. This public scoping 

process reinforced the public’s interest in 

continued lodging and dining operations 

at the Volcano HouseSM, one of the longest 

continuously operated establishments in 

Hawai‘i, and identified the following issues 

related to commercial services in Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park:

• Facilities: Are facilities currently 

assigned to commercial operations 

being used in the most effective and 

efficient manner? Are there deferred 

maintenance needs to be addressed? 

Are there existing facilities that could 

be used for other park purposes?

• Operations: Do current concession 

operations related to general 

maintenance, hours of operation, 

flexibility, accessibility, reliability, 

and health and safety meet the needs 

of the NPS and park visitors? If not, 

how could these be improved?

• Interpretation: Are all opportunities 

to enhance visitor education and 

appreciation being met? Can 

misinformation be reduced?

• Coordination: Can all commercial 

operations in the park be coordinated 

to provide a better range of services 

for all visitors?

• Unauthorized/Inappropriate 

Commercial Activity: Are all 

commercial activities in the park 

in compliance with federal law and 

the stipulations in their permitting 

authorities? Is inappropriate behavior 

occurring? If so, how can the park 

improve compliance, monitoring, 

and enforcement?

• New Services: What new, expanded, 

and/or consolidated commercial 

visitor services are appropriate 

in the park and in new expanded 

areas in the park?

• Cultural Sensitivity: How can 

commercial operations respect 

and remain sensitive to cultural 

traditions surrounding sacred sites 

and activities?

After the public scoping process, this plan 

was postponed to correspond with the 

general management plan in order to make 

commercial services decisions in concert 

with other decisions about Kahuku and the 

rest of the park.

HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK 

DRAFT GENERAL MANAGEMENT PLAN / 

WILDERNESS STUDY / ENVIRONMENTAL 

IMPACT STATEMENT

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park Draft 

General Management Plan / Wilderness 

Study / Environmental Impact Statement

proposes several actions that, if finalized 

and approved, may affect future concession 

contracts, CUAs, and other commercial 

services in the park. The full scope of 

proposed actions is included in Chapter 3: 

Alternatives of this Draft GMP/WS/EIS, 

but many of those that relate to commercial 

services have been tied directly to this strategy 

and are summarized in the “Managing 

Commercial Services at Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park” section at the end of this 

CSS. The Draft GMP/WS/EIS also outlines 

monitoring strategies for managing user 

capacity in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

in order to proactively protect resources 

and ensure high quality visitor experiences. 

Information on user capacity is included 

in Chapter 3: Alternatives in the “User 

Capacity” section.

HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK 

FOUNDATION DOCUMENT

The foundation document for Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park provides basic 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix F | 419 

guidance for decision-making and 

management of this unit of the national 

park system. It was completed as part of the 

planning process for the general management 

plan, is included in Chapter 2: Foundation 

for Planning and Management of this Draft 

GMP/WS/EIS, and will be printed separately 

as a stand-alone document following the 

release of the Final GMP/WS/EIS. In its 

totality, this document presents a shared 

understanding of Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park’s purpose, significance, fundamental 

resources and values, interpretive themes, 

and special mandates. It also documents the 

desired conditions for the park, providing the 

broadest level of direction for management of 

the park based on laws and policies that guide 

the National Park Service.

COMMERCIAL SERVICES 

STRATEGY FOR HAWAI‘I 

VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK

Based on federal laws, NPS policies, and 

former planning efforts described above, 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park developed 

the following necessary and/or appropriate 

criteria and goals for commercial services 

in order to achieve desired conditions 

within the park.

“Appropriate” Commercial Services 

and “Necessary and Appropriate” 

Commercial Services

Commercial services may take place within a 

unit of the national park system only under 

certain defined and limited circumstances. 

The national park system has been established 

and is preserved and managed for the benefit 

and inspiration of the people of the United 

States. The NPS Organic Act and the NPS 

General Authorities Act mandate that park 

resources and values be conserved and 

provided for in such manner and means as 

will leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment 

of future generations unless a particular law 

directly and specifically provides otherwise. 

NPS Management Policies 2006 provides 

guidance on how park resources and values 

are to be provided so as to meet these 

fundamental management principles of the 

acts. The only uses that are to be allowed 

are those that (1) are appropriate to the 

purposes for which the park was established; 

and (2) can be sustained without causing 

unacceptable impact (unless otherwise 

required by law). A process has been set 

out in chapter 8 of the NPS Management 

Policies 2006 for determining whether a use is 

appropriate. That process includes evaluating 

a proposed park use for:

• consistency with applicable 

laws, executive orders, 

regulations, and policies

• consistency with existing plans for 

public use and resource management

• actual and potential effects on park 

resources and values

• total costs to the 

National Park Service

• whether the public 

interest will be served

In addition, parks are to continually 

monitor and examine all park uses to 

ensure that unanticipated and unacceptable 

impacts do not occur.

To assist in applying this process to 

commercial uses within Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park, two sets of more specific 

evaluation criteria were developed and are 

provided in Table F.2. Commercial Services 

Evaluation Criteria. 

All commercial services must meet the 

“appropriate” criteria described in Table F.2 

in order to be considered appropriate to the 

purposes for which the park was established. 

If a commercial service meets the appropriate 

criteria, then its impacts will be assessed and, 

if acceptable, the commercial service will 

be evaluated under any other legal eligibility 

criteria set out in the specific legal authority 

to authorize that service within Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park (for example, the 

requirements of 16 USC 5966, if a CUA) 

(see “Process for Addressing Requests for 

Commercial Visitor Services”).
420 | Appendix F HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Table F.2 also includes a set of specific 

evaluation criteria for determining whether 

a commercial service is necessary. These 

necessary criteria were developed to 

provide park-specific criteria for one of the 

screening elements of the NPS Concessions 

Management Improvement Act. A public 

accommodation, facility, or service, among 

other things, must be both appropriate and 

necessary for public use and enjoyment of 

the unit of the national park system in which 

it is located in order to be authorized under 

a concession contract (16 USC 5951(b), 

5952). All commercial services that meet 

the “appropriate” and “necessary” criteria 

described in Table F.2 will be considered to 

meet the 1998 Concessions Act screening 

criteria. If its impacts are acceptable, then 

the commercial service will also be evaluated 

under the other legal eligibility criteria set out 

in the 1998 Concessions Act (see “Process 

for Addressing Requests for Commercial 

Visitor Services”). 

The park-specific evaluation criteria in Table 

F.2 were applied to the following specific 

commercial services: (1) lodging; (2) food and 

beverage service; (3) retail; (4) road-based 

tours (auto); (5) road-based tours (bike); (6) 

hiking tours and other guided excursions; 

and (7) equestrian tours. Each of these 

commercial service types were determined to 

be appropriate for park purposes if managed 

properly. In addition, the legal authority of a 

CUA was determined to be the most suitable 

form of legal authorization for road-based 

tours (auto and bike), hiking tours and other 

guided excursions, and equestrian tours in 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park. Lodging, 

food and beverage service, and retail services 

were determined to meet at least one of the 

evaluation criteria for necessary services, 

and concession contracts were identified as 

the most suitable form of legal authorization 

for these services, with one exception. For 

retail associated with the sale of interpretive 

items, cooperating association agreements 

were determined to be another appropriate 

form of legal authorization. Other commercial 

services (for example commercial filming) 

will be evaluated on a case-by case basis using 

the criteria in Table F.2 and other applicable 

criteria, including impacts and eligibility for 

authorization under available legal authorities 

(for example, special use permits).

Several potential commercial service activities 

have been determined to be neither necessary 

nor appropriate in the park. The following list 

of activities determined to be inappropriate/ 

unnecessary is not exhaustive; the park will 

evaluate new and proposed uses as they arise 

following the process outlined under “Process 

for Addressing New Requests for Commercial 

Visitor Services.”

Table F.2. Commercial Services Evaluation Criteria

Necessary Appropriate

A SERVICE THAT IS NECESSARY ACCOMPLISHES ONE OR 

MORE OF THE FOLLOWING:

A SERVICE THAT IS APPROPRIATE ACCOMPLISHES ALL OF 

THE FOLLOWING:

The service contributes to visitor understanding and 

appreciation of park purpose and significance.

The service is consistent with laws, 

regulations, and policies.

The service enhances visitor experiences consistent 

with park area philosophies.

The service does not compromise public health and safety.

The service assists the park in managing visitor use 

and educating park visitors.

The service does not significantly impact or impair park 

resources or values.

The service is an essential service or facility not 

available within a reasonable distance from the park

The service does not unduly conflict with other park uses 

and activities.

The service is consistent with the purpose and 

significance of Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park.

The service does not exclude the public from participating 

in similar recreational opportunities.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix F | 421 • Hunting: Hunting is prohibited 

by law in national park units (36 

CFR 2.4), and the Superintendent’s 

Compendium re-affirms this 

prohibition (Park 2012c). This use 

conflicts with other park uses and 

activities and poses safety concerns. It is also inconsistent with park 

regulations and is therefore not an 

appropriate use in the park.

• Cattle and other livestock:

Cattle and other livestock are not 

appropriate in the park for several 

reasons. Cattle are prohibited 

by law from running-at-large, 

herding, driving across, allowing on, 

pasturing, or grazing park lands (36 

CFR 2.60). In addition, the use of a 

park area for agricultural purposes 

is prohibited (36 CFR 2.60). The use 

of these animals does not contribute 

to public use and enjoyment of 

the park. Additionally, cattle and 

other livestock have the potential 

to adversely affect soils and native 

vegetation through browsing and 

nonnative species introductions, 

and their use is inconsistent with 

protection of park natural and 

cultural resources.

• Mountain biking: Bicycling is 

prohibited on trails in the park, 

except for a few designated areas, 

under the Superintendent’s 

Compendium (bicycles regulated 

in 36 CFR 4.30 which also refers 

to 36 CFR 1.5 and 1.7) (Park 

2012c). In addition, bicycle use is 

prohibited in designated and eligible 

wilderness, which encompasses many 

areas of the park.

• Skateboarding, rollerblading, 

segues, and similar devices: Under 

the Superintendent’s Compendium, 

these activities are prohibited in 

all public use areas of the park 

other than the paved area of the 

Waldron Ledge Road and paved 

and untraveled portions of parking 

lots (36 CFR 2.20) (Park 2012c). 

Skateboarding and rollerblading 

pose safety concerns and do 

not contribute to public use and 

enjoyment of the park. 

• Hang gliding, paragliding, ultralight aircraft, base jumping, bungee 

jumping, and hot air balloons: The 

use of parachutes or other airborne 

means is prohibited by 36 CFR 2.17 

(3). In addition, these uses pose 

safety and user conflict concerns and 

do not contribute to public use and 

enjoyment of the park.

• Rock climbing and rappelling:

Although not specifically 

prohibited in the Superintendent’s 

Compendium, these activities 

have never occurred in the park 

commercially and do not contribute 

to public use and enjoyment of 

the park (Park 2012c). They are 

inconsistent with protection of park 

natural and cultural resources and 

pose safety concerns due to loose, 

fragile rocks and limited anchoring.

• Snowmobiling: This activity is 

prohibited in the park under the 

Superintendent’s Compendium (36 

CFR 2.18) (Park 2012c). This use 

conflicts with other park uses and 

activities, poses safety concerns, and 

could significantly impact or impair 

park resources. Snowmobiling is 

also inconsistent with park laws and 

regulations and is therefore not an 

appropriate use in the park.

• All-terrain and utility-terrain 

vehicles (ATVs and UTVs): ATVs/

UTVs are not allowed in the park 

in accordance with State and park 

regulations. Under Hawai‘i state 

law (HRS 286-291), these vehicles 

cannot be registered, do not 

possess the necessary equipment 

to allow on roadways in the State, 

and are therefore not street legal in 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

(36 CFR 4.2). In addition, all offroad vehicle travel is prohibited in 

the park (36 CFR 4.10) because of 

potential adverse effects to soils 

and native vegetation, conflicts with 

other park uses and activities, and 

safety concerns. 
422 | Appendix F HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

• Boat tours: The waters bordering 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park are 

outside NPS jurisdiction. However, 

all boats must conform to State 

and US Coast Guard regulations 

for private or commercial vessels, 

and persons entering the park must 

follow all NPS regulations (including 

paying the entrance fee, having a 

CUA or special use permit, and 

obtaining a backcountry permit for 

overnight stays and following all 

wilderness regulations). Although 

permitted under state and federal 

laws and regulations, boat tours 

are an inappropriate commercial 

service in Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park due to the limited 

capacity for the park to manage and 

regulate this use and thereby mitigate 

safety concerns, user conflicts, and 

potential impacts to fundamental 

resources and values in the park 

(such as impacts to species listed 

as threatened or endangered that 

inhabit the marine environment in 

and surrounding the park).

The park did not assess air tours under the 

necessary and appropriate criteria. This issue 

is being analyzed and discussed as part of the 

Air Tour Management Plan/EIS.

Goals for Commercial Services

In addition to the above criteria for 

commercial services, Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park developed the following goals 

for commercial services in the park. Staff 

developed this list from information and 

input following the public scoping phase 

for the commercial services plan in 2005, at 

alternatives development and refinement 

workshops during the planning phase of 

the general management plan/wilderness 

study/environmental impact statement, and 

from public comments received during both 

planning efforts. Goals related to specific 

commercial services that have been identified 

as appropriate and/or necessary follow the list 

of general goals below.

Goal 1: Commercial operations at Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park are run efficiently 

and effectively and in accordance with NPS 

law and policy. This means that:

• Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park has 

the staff, funding, and management 

tools to allow efficient and effective 

management of the commercial 

services program.

• Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park is 

meeting its fiduciary responsibility for 

fair return to the government.

• Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

is able to manage the impact of all 

commercial activity in the park.

• Partnerships to provide compatible 

commercial recreational activities 

and services that enhance visitor 

experience are used to the maximum 

extent possible.

• All commercial services comply with 

NPS law and policy in type, location, 

and authorization.

Goal 2: All commercial visitor services 

enhance visitor understanding and 

appreciation of park mission and values. 

This means that:

• All visitors who use commercial 

services in the park are made 

aware of being in a national park 

and understand the mission of the 

park. All commercial operators 

are made aware of, participate 

in, and educate visitors about the 

mission and significance of Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park.

• Commercial operators 

provide visitors with accurate 

interpretation of the park and its 

resources, including promoting 

sensitivity to cultural traditions 

around sacred sites. 

• Commercial operators provide 

visitors with an understanding of 

the park from the perspective of 

the host culture. 

Goal 3: All commercial visitor services 

facilitate or complement the fundamental 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix F | 423 

desirable experiences of park visitors. 

This means that:

• The range of commercial services 

at Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

is diverse and provides a variety of 

experiences, opportunities, and 

interpretive messages to the public.

• Commercial services promote 

enjoyment of the park and visitor 

understanding and appreciation of 

the park through a direct association 

with, interaction with, or relation to 

park resources.

• Commercial services maintain 

and protect traditional park 

uses, experiences and/or historic 

structures (for example, ongoing 

lodging in a structure historically 

used for lodging).

• Commercial services, alone or in 

conjunction with the NPS or other 

commercial services, provide a 

seamless experience for visitors.

• A high level of quality exists for all 

commercial facilities and services.

• Commercial operators provide 

affordable, high-quality 

visitor experiences.

• Commercial operators provide 

outstanding customer service.

Goal 4: All commercial visitor services assist 

the park in managing visitor use and educating 

park visitors in appropriate safe and minimum 

impact techniques. This means that:

• Commercial services improve the 

park’s ability to reach the conditions 

described in parkwide management 

policies and in the park’s 

foundation document.

• Commercial operators help the 

park reduce impacts from visitors to 

resources by managing location and 

distribution of visitors between high 

and low visitor use areas.

• Safety is a top priority for all 

commercial operators. Commercial 

operators help provide safe visitor 

access within the park, particularly 

to eruptive activities and/or sensitive 

resources. Commercial operators 

have appropriate certifications, 

permits, and equipment to ensure 

safe operations within Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park. 

• All commercial facilities 

utilize sustainable 

technologies when feasible.

• All commercial operations provide 

services in an environmentally 

responsible manner.

• All commercial recreational activities 

are compatible with the resources of 

the park. All commercial operators 

reduce or mitigate impacts of 

proposed activity on natural and 

cultural resources when feasible. 

LODGING AND CAMPGROUNDS

In addition to the general goals articulated 

above, Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

would like to achieve the following goals with 

relation to lodging in the park:

• Provide visitors with a convenient 

and unique opportunity to extend 

their visit in the park in order 

to become further immersed 

in the resource.

• Provide clean, safe, quality overnight 

accommodations that provide 

amenities of the same, if not higher, 

caliber as historically offered.

• Continue the traditional use 

of a historic property while 

ensuring its ongoing maintenance 

and preservation.

• Provide a range of overnight lodging 

experiences that serve a variety 

of public audiences at differing 

cost levels, while providing some 

lower cost options.

• Provide access to Volcano HouseSM

for general visitors.

FOOD SERVICE

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park would 

also like to achieve the following goals with 

relation to food service in the park:
424 | Appendix F HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

• Provide visitors with convenient food 

and beverage service for all meal 

periods, allowing them to extend 

their stay within the park.

• Provide a safe, clean, and 

professional service. 

• Provide a range of healthy 

food options and at prices that 

accommodate the general range 

of area visitors (for example, 

international visitors, vegetarians, 

light eaters, and children).

• Support local food producers, 

suppliers, and culture. 

• Provide a service that complements 

the area’s interpretive themes and 

is sensitive to cultural icons (for 

example, not naming items after 

Hawaiian sacred people or places).

RETAIL

Below are the park’s specific goals tied to retail 

services at Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park:

• Create a premier resource for 

educational, interpretive, and 

inspirational materials specifically 

relevant to park-related themes 

and NPS values.

• Provide retail items that expand 

visitors’ appreciation of the park 

beyond their visit and deepen the 

connection of visitors to the park (or 

introduce and create a connection 

to the park for nonvisitors). These 

items could be related to the park’s 

significant values, fundamental 

resources, and/or interpretive themes.

• Provide a compelling diversity of 

products and services based on 

interpretive value, theme/topics, sales 

category, target audiences, quality, 

and price point.

TOURS

In addition to the general goals outlined 

above, Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park has 

identified the following goals for managing 

guided tours in the park:

• Provide alternative modes of 

transportation within the park, 

including a variety of opportunities 

and alternatives for multi-modal 

transportation.

• Provide access to unique 

opportunities in the park.

• Effectively manage crowding and 

congestion and visitor use conflicts at 

high-use areas in the park.

Managing Commercial Services at 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park

Based on law and policy and the necessary 

and/or appropriate criteria and goals 

identified above, Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park has identified the following management 

guidance for commercial services. While 

much of the guidance below is tied to a 

specific type of service or facility in the park, 

all future actions associated with commercial 

services at Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

would be in compliance with federal law and 

policy and would adhere to guidance outlined 

in this Draft GMP/WS/EIS. 

Where this strategy does not provide 

guidance, law, policy, and park plans would 

be used to inform future decisions about 

commercial services at the park. All future 

proposals for commercial services at Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park, whether for the 

main unit of the park or Kahuku, would 

be evaluated under the process outlined in 

“Process for Addressing New Requests for 

Commercial Visitor Services” in this strategy.

This strategy does not apply retroactively to 

previously made decisions; it will not affect the 

terms of ongoing contracts or authorizations 

previously signed or issued prior to the 

completion of the Final GMP/WS/EIS. 

Current contracts, authorizations, agreements, 

and permits would be reevaluated in light of 

this strategy at the time they expire in order 

to assess the appropriateness and/or necessity 

of the commercial service, its alignment 

with the goals and strategies identified by 

this CSS and the general management plan, 

and to determine or reaffirm the appropriate 

legislative authority by which the commercial 

service should operate.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix F | 425 

GENERAL GUIDANCE

The following management directions would 

continue to apply to all commercial service 

providers to the extent directed by federal 

statutes and regulations, NPS Management 

Policies 2006, the Superintendent’s 

Compendium, and past NPS practices:

• This strategy would continue to 

allow the range of concession 

operations and commercial services 

that presently exist. In addition, 

commercial services would continue 

to operate in the existing developed 

area around Crater Rim Drive and 

would extend to the end of Chain of 

Craters Road when necessary, such as 

to provide access to eruptive events 

in that area. Commercial use would 

also continue at current levels along 

Hilina Pali and Mauna Loa Roads. 

Any proposed significant increases 

in use due to eruptive events, or even 

due to increased ecotourism or other 

type of tour not related to an eruptive 

event, would need to be evaluated 

due to safety concerns, natural and 

cultural resource concerns, and 

limited infrastructure in these areas. 

Any necessary environmental and/or 

cultural compliance would also need 

to be completed.

• All commercial services in the 

park would be managed in a way 

that protects the fundamental 

resources and themes and meets 

the desired conditions identified in 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park’s 

Foundation Document. 

• All commercial services would 

operate according to NPS laws and 

policies (see “Laws, Regulations, and 

NPS Policies”). 

• The conduct of the providers and 

of their patrons would be guided by 

park rules and regulations and by a 

specific set of special conditions that 

are included as part of the contract/

authorization/agreement/permit that 

allows the service to be conducted in 

the park. The special conditions of 

contracts/authorizations/agreements/

permits would be reviewed by the 

park as needed, and provisions 

relevant to the service would be 

made as needed. 

• Commercial service providers 

would be required to demonstrate 

a commitment to their patron and 

staff safety, including maintenance 

of safe and reliable vehicles, stock, 

and equipment. Concessioners and 

CUA holders would be required to 

comply with all applicable federal, 

state, and local agency requirements 

for food service, transportation, 

liability insurance, and other required 

inspections, permits, training 

certifications, and licenses. 

• The National Park Service would 

encourage, and in some cases require, 

commercial service providers 

to incorporate environmentally 

sustainable practices in their business 

plan, such as providing recycling 

facilities for guests and offering 

reusable or compostable utensils at 

meals. The National Park Service 

would encourage commercial service 

providers to employ Native Hawaiian 

guides and interpreters who can 

demonstrate knowledge of Hawaiian 

natural and cultural history. 

• In managing commercial services, 

the park would continue to balance 

access to resources for commercial 

service providers and clients with 

access granted to the general 

public, ensuring that the public 

is not displaced from high use 

areas in the park. 

• The park would also engage 

commercial service providers in 

managing visitor use and providing 

valuable information to the public, 

including general park visitor 

information, safety updates, 

and interpretation of the park’s 

fundamental resources and values. 
426 | Appendix F HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

In addition to the current general 

management practices listed above, Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park would consider, 

and if appropriate, implement the actions 

identified in the Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park General Management Plan / Wilderness 

Study / Environmental Impact Statement (see 

“Chapter 3: Alternatives” in the GMP/WS/

EIS). These actions include the following:

• Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

would monitor those indicators 

identified in the user capacity strategy 

in the general management plan. 

If thresholds are reached, the park 

would consider implementing the 

following strategies to protect natural 

and cultural resources in the park and 

ensure quality visitor experiences (list 

is not inclusive):

» Increase education for commercial 

service providers and users on 

threatened and endangered 

species and other park resources.

» Expand permit conditions 

for commercial users to 

decrease impacts. 

» Implement infrastructure changes 

to accommodate commercial 

service uses such as adding 

parking and staging areas and 

limiting large commercial bus 

traffic to one-way traffic on 

Crater Rim Drive (if closed 

section is reopened).

» Develop limits on the number 

and/or size and capacity of 

commercial tours in the park at 

one time and/or within certain 

areas if infrastructure and 

operational tools are unsuccessful 

at managing congestion and 

visitor conflicts. 

• The park would also continue to 

conduct visitor use studies to (1) 

better understand the impacts 

of commercial services and how 

their use complements and/or 

conflicts with general park use by 

the public and (2) develop strategies 

for improving both public and 

commercial service use in the 

park to mitigate any observed and 

documented impacts.

MANAGEMENT GUIDANCE FOR 

CONCESSION CONTRACTS

The following management directions 

would continue to apply to all concession 

contracts and concessioners to the extent 

directed by federal statutes and regulations, 

NPS Management Policies 2006, the 

Superintendent’s Compendium, and past NPS 

practices:

• Lodging, food and beverage service, 

and some retail would continue to 

be authorized through concession 

contracts. Retail associated with the 

sale of interpretive items would also 

continue to be authorized under 

cooperating association agreements. 

Any changes in the provider of 

retail services and any expansion of 

cooperating association operations 

would be approved only if in 

accordance with the provisions of 

Director’s Order 32: Cooperating 

Associations and all applicable laws 

and other polices. 

• All concession contracts would 

continue to be issued through a 

competitive process, as outlined in 

the 1998 Concessions Act.

• All concession contracts, as required 

under law and policy, would continue 

to include the following standards:

» Concessioners would continue 

to be responsible for the 

care and maintenance of the 

facilities they use.

» All concessioners would be 

required to prepare and maintain 

a risk management plan.

» Commercial service providers 

under concession contract would 

be charged franchise fees in 

accordance with 36 CFR 51. 

In addition to the current management 

practices listed above, Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park would consider, and if 

appropriate, implement those actions 

identified in the Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix F | 427 

Park General Management Plan / Wilderness 

Study / Environmental Impact Statement (see 

“Chapter 3: Alternatives” in the GMP/WS/

EIS) that apply to concession contracts. This 

includes the following:

• All concession employees would 

be required to attend a NPScertified training course on park 

operations and policies, safety, and 

park resources, with an emphasis 

on interpreting those resources and 

minimizing impacts to them.

MANAGEMENT GUIDANCE FOR 

COMMERCIAL USE AUTHORIZATIONS

The following management directions would 

continue to apply to all CUA holders to 

the extent directed by federal statutes and 

regulations, NPS Management Policies 2006, 

the Superintendent’s Compendium, and 

past NPS practices:

• All auto-based, biking, hiking, 

and other guided excursions 

would continue to be 

authorized under CUAs.

• For activities that are permitted 

under a CUA, all of the requirements 

specified in applicable sections 

of the 1998 Concessions Act (in 

particular 16 USC 5966) and NPS 

Management Policies 2006 would be 

followed. For example, provisions 

would be included in the CUAs for 

the protection of visitors and the 

resources and values of the park.

• CUAs would be issued on a yearly 

or biennial basis—existing holders 

of CUAs would continue to reapply 

for their authorization annually or 

biennially. Consistent with statutory 

restrictions, there would be no 

preferential right to renewal. Relevant 

conditions of authorization may be 

placed on providers, based on the 

nature of the service and type of 

impact the activity could have on 

park resources and operations.

• All employees of CUA holders 

who operate in the park would be 

required to attend a NPS-certified 

training course on park operations 

and policies, safety, and park 

resources, with an emphasis on 

interpreting those resources and 

minimizing impacts to them. 

• When they are permitted to operate, 

commercial tours would be allowed 

the same access as general visitors to 

all facilities, roads, and designated 

public use, nonwilderness trails.

• NPS staff would encourage 

commercial service providers to work 

together to spatially distribute their 

tours in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park. They would also be encouraged 

to schedule tours of popular sites 

/ congested areas to times of day 

known to have less congestion.

• All nonauto-based tours would be 

limited to daylight hours only.

• Due to traffic restrictions on Chain 

of Craters Road, motor coaches 

with the capacity of more than 26 

passengers would be prohibited 

beyond Kealakomo Overlook on 

Chain of Craters Road.

• All bike tours would continue to 

be limited to 14 bicycles, including 

the guide. These tours would be 

authorized to operate on designated 

park roads only, and would not be 

allowed below Muliwai a Pele on 

Chain of Craters Road or above 

Kīpukapuaulu on Mauna Loa Road.

• While guided hiking tours would 

continue to be permitted on 

designated public-use, nonwilderness trails, tours to Mauna 

Ulu would continue to be limited 

to a group size of 15, and only one 

tour would be allowed in the area 

at one time. All guides who take 

visitors to Mauna Ulu would attend 

an additional certification course 

before guiding tours in the area due 

to cultural resources concerns.

• Guided equestrian tours would 

continue to be limited in size 

(maximum 6 stock per party and/or 

destination) and location (stock use 
428 | Appendix F HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

is prohibited on a number of trails 

and some campgrounds in the park 

due to wilderness concerns and user 

conflicts). The park also has limited 

capacity for equestrian use. For 

example, rainforest trail widths and 

heights that accommodate hikers do 

not meet standards for stock use. 

• Commercial guides would continue 

to be required to accompany 

tours at all times within the park. 

Guides would continue to have 

an understanding of the Leave No 

Trace Program and have current 

certifications in first aid and CPR. 

All guides would continue to ensure 

proper safety equipment is available 

and used when appropriate (for 

example, bike helmets).

• Commercial tours would continue 

to be required to reduce and/or 

mitigate impacts to threatened and 

endangered species. For example, 

CUA holders would be required 

to inspect and clean all vehicles 

prior to entrance to reduce the 

introduction of nonnative species 

and ensure visitors maintain a 60-foot 

distance from all nēnē.

• Commercial service providers 

under CUAs would be charged 

fees sufficient to recover 

associated management and 

administrative costs. 

In addition to the current management 

practices listed above, Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park would consider, and if 

appropriate, implement those actions 

identified in the Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park General Management Plan / Wilderness 

Study / Environmental Impact Statement

(see “Chapter 3: Alternatives” in the GMP/

WS/EIS) that apply to CUAs. These actions 

include the following:

• Large commercial buses would be 

able to load and unload at Thurston 

but would be required to park at 

nearby underutilized lots such 

as Devastation Trail, Pu‘u Pua‘i, 

or Kīlauea Iki. The park would 

continue to evaluate implications 

of implementing one-way traffic on 

Crater Rim Drive between Jaggar 

Museum and Chain of Crater Road 

junction for large commercial 

buses and requiring buses to only 

load and unload at Thurston as 

conditions change.

MANAGEMENT GUIDANCE FOR 

SPECIFIC LOCATIONS

As stated above, this strategy does not apply 

retroactively to previously made decisions; it 

will not affect the terms of ongoing contracts 

or authorizations previously signed or issued 

prior to the completion of the final GMP/

WS/EIS. Current contracts, authorizations, 

agreements, and permits would be reevaluated 

in light of this strategy at the time they expire 

in order to assess the appropriateness and/

or necessity of the commercial service, 

its alignment with the goals and strategies 

identified by this CSS and the general 

management plan, and to determine 

or reaffirm the appropriate legislative 

authority by which the commercial service 

should operate.

For specific locations in the park, decisions 

related to commercial services would 

adhere to federal statutes and regulations, 

NPS Management Policies 2006, the 

Superintendent’s Compendium, past NPS 

practices, and actions identified in the 

preferred alternative of the Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park General Management Plan 

/ Wilderness Study / Environmental Impact 

Statement (see “Chapter 3: Alternatives” 

in the GMP/WS/EIS). These actions 

include the following:

VOLCANO HOUSESM AND NĀMAKANIPAIO—

• Lodging and retail, as provided 

at Volcano HouseSM and 

Nāmakanipaio, would continue in 

order to provide a range of unique 

overnight lodging experiences 

in the park that serve a variety of 

public audiences at differing cost 

levels. The concession contract 

for Volcano HouseSM would also 

continue to provide retail and food 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix F | 429 

and beverage service, and a mobile 

venue during eruptive events would 

continue to be authorized. Under 

authorization that is appropriate 

and separate from the concession 

contract, interpretive services such 

as educational programs and cultural 

demonstrations at Volcano HouseSM

would also continue to be offered 

by entities such as the Volcano 

Art Center, tour operators, and 

other park partners.

• The developed footprint of the 

Concession Facilities for Volcano 

HouseSM and 

Nāmakanipaio 

would not expand to increase 

capacity. There is no room to 

extend the footprint of lodging 

due to the historic nature of the 

Volcano HouseSM and its location 

on/near sensitive natural and 

cultural resources. The existing 

character of this historic structure 

would be maintained.

•In order to expand capacity and 

address demand for amenities, 

concession operations could 

expand at Nāmakanipaio under the 

preferred alternative to include the 

construction and operation of an 

indoor lodging opportunity such as a 

dormitory style or hostel-like facility. 

The construction and operation 

of such facility could be included, 

if feasible and appropriate, in the 

park’s concession contract covering 

operations at Nāmakanipaio.

• General visitors would continue to 

be able to access public spaces in 

Volcano HouseSM

.

• All contracts, as required under law 

and policy and in accordance with 

park goals for managing commercial 

services, would continue to include 

the following standards: » Accommodations would 

continue to be clean, safe, and 

of high-quality.

» Food and beverage served at 

Volcano HouseSM would continue 

to be convenient, varied, locally 

sourced (when feasible), and 

offered throughout the day at a 

variety of price points.

» The food and beverage served at 

Volcano HouseSM would continue 

to be sensitive to cultural icons 

(for example, items would not 

be named after Hawaiian sacred 

people or places) and could reflect 

the park’s interpretive themes.

» The National Park Service 

would continue to require 

that commercial service retailproviders carry diverse sale items 

that (1) expand appreciation of 

park beyond the visit and deepen 

the connection of visitors to 

the park (2) target a variety of 

audiences, and (3) are sold at a 

range of costs.

» Commercial service employee 

training would continue to be 

required so that front line staff, 

in addition to being courteous 

and friendly, are able to describe 

in detail the source, quality, and 

authenticity of each piece of 

Hawaiian handicraft to visitors.

» The National Park Service 

would continue to encourage 

the commercial service provider 

to seek local, handcrafted 

items representing the park 

and regional theme, focusing 

particularly on local artists with 

ancestral affiliation with the park. 

American-made merchandise 

would continue to be encouraged.

» Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

would continue to ensure all retail 

meets the requirements of the 

gift shop mission statement and 

approved merchandise plan.

•If concession operations do not 

continue in the future for any reason, 

Volcano HouseSM could be adaptively 

reused for other park visitation and/

or administrative functions.
430 | Appendix F HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

KĪLAUEA VISITOR CENTER AND JAGGAR 

MUSEUM BOOKSTORES—

• Retail sales for interpretive items 

would continue to be authorized 

under a cooperating association 

agreement at Kīlauea Visitor Center 

and Jaggar Museum.

• Retail sales for convenience items 

would continue to be authorized 

under a concession contract 

at Kīlauea Visitor Center and 

Jaggar Museum. 

• The retail sales at Kīlauea Visitor 

Center and Jaggar Museum 

bookstores would remain within the 

existing developed footprint. 

• All contracts/agreements, as 

required under law and policy and 

in accordance with park goals for 

managing commercial services, 

would continue to include the 

following standards:

» The National Park Service 

would continue to require 

that commercial service retail 

providers carry diverse retail items 

that (1) expand appreciation of 

park beyond the visit and deepen 

the connection of visitors to 

the park, (2) target a variety of 

audiences, and (3) are sold at a 

range of costs.

» Commercial service employee 

training would continue to be 

required for front line staff.

» Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

would continue to review new 

product proposals through an 

evaluation process.

KILAUEA MILITARY CAMP—

• Kilauea Military Camp would 

continue to operate as a military 

recreation facility using park-owned 

historic structures and land for the 

duration of the existing special use 

permit. The site would maintain 

its current function as a military, 

morale, welfare, and recreation 

center—a self-supporting operation 

under a Non-Appropriated Funding 

Instrument (NAFI), primarily for 

active duty military, military retirees, 

and their guests.

• The park would continue to 

coordinate with Kilauea Military 

Camp on resource protection, 

particularly historic resources on 

the List of Classified Structures 

and those that are eligible for the 

National Register of Historic Places. 

The park would also coordinate 

with Kilauea Military Camp to 

expand interpretation of the park’s 

military history and KMC history, 

including the World War II Japanese 

internment and prisoner of war 

(POW) history. This interpretation 

could include the placement of 

additional waysides and guided tours.

• Kilauea Military Camp would 

continue to be an important 

component of the hydrogen 

shuttle pilot project. The hydrogen 

produced off-site would continue to 

be delivered to the fueling station at 

Kilauea Military Camp. In addition 

to hosting the hydrogen fueling 

station, it is anticipated that Kilauea 

Military Camp would provide shuttle 

drivers and the electric charging 

station, storage, and maintenance 

space at the KMC base yard. The 

buses would be refueled, recharged, 

and stored overnight at this facility. 

Kilauea Military Camp could also 

be a shuttle stop for the hydrogen 

shuttle pilot program.

• Kilauea Military Camp may continue 

to be used for parking during special 

events at the park.

• When the special use permit expires, 

the National Park Service would 

review existing laws, policies, 

authorities, and park goals to (1) 

assess the appropriateness and/or 

necessity of the commercial services 

provided by Kilauea Military Camp 

and their alignment with the goals 

and strategies identified by this CSS 

and the GMP, and (2) to determine 

or reaffirm the appropriate authority 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix F | 431 

by which these commercial services 

should be authorized to operate, 

such as whether or not the operation 

could occur under a special use 

permit or lease or some other legal 

instrument. If the permitted military 

recreation operations at Kilauea 

Military Camp are discontinued, 

the park would prepare a plan and 

explore future options for the site, 

such as: (1) adaptively reusing the site 

as the park’s main visitor center, (2) 

adaptively reusing the site as a multiagency and partner research and 

education campus, (3) converting the 

site to a commercial visitor services 

operation under a concession 

contract, and (4) leasing to or 

otherwise authorizing the use of the 

facilities by a noncommercial visitor 

service tenant, such as a nonprofit.

1877 VOLCANO HOUSE—

• The 1877 Volcano House would 

continue, for the duration of the 

existing cooperating association 

agreement with the Volcano Art 

Center, to be assigned for use by that 

cooperating association. 

• The 1877 Volcano House would 

continue to be maintained in line 

with its historic character.

• The National Park Service would 

increase historic interpretation of 

the 1877 Volcano House and the 

historic campus.

• All contracts/agreements, as 

required under law and policy and 

in accordance with park goals for 

managing commercial services, 

would continue to include the 

following standards:

» Commercial service employee 

training would continue to be 

required so that front line staffs, 

in addition to being courteous 

and friendly, are able to describe 

in detail the source, quality, and 

authenticity of each piece of 

Hawaiian handicraft to visitors.

» The National Park Service 

would continue to encourage 

the commercial service provider 

to seek local, handcrafted 

items representing the park 

and regional theme, focusing 

particularly on local artists with 

ancestral affiliation with the park. 

American-made merchandise 

would continue to be encouraged.

• When the cooperating association 

agreement with the Volcano Art 

Center expires in 2014, the National 

Park Service would review existing 

laws, policies, authorities, and park 

goals to (1) assess the appropriateness 

and/or necessity of the commercial 

service and its alignment with the 

goals and strategies identified by this 

CSS and the general management 

plan, and (2) to determine or reaffirm 

the appropriate legislative authority 

by which the commercial service 

should operate. If Volcano Art 

Center were to relocate, the National 

Park Service would consider (1) 

continuing to maintain and adaptively 

reuse the building for continued 

visitor services, (2) evaluating the 

restoration of the building to its 

original function, (3) examining 

adaptively reusing the building for 

additional self-guided interpretive 

visitor services, and (4) leasing or 

otherwise authorizing the use of the 

facility by a noncommercial visitor 

service tenant, such as a nonprofit to 

provide commercial services.

KAHUKU—

• Commercial services would also be 

allowed in lower Kahuku, similar to 

access granted to the general public, 

but would be restricted from upper 

Kahuku, including all areas eligible 

for wilderness designation.

• Any commercial services in 

wilderness will be evaluated 

and determined in a wilderness 

stewardship plan, subsequent to 

the GMP/WS/EIS.
432 | Appendix F HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

• The park would manage the amount 

of commercially guided recreation 

in lower Kahuku primarily through 

vehicle size limits and CUAs. 

The road would be evaluated 

to determine final vehicle size 

limits; however, based on current 

knowledge it is likely that commercial 

services would be limited to vehicles 

no greater than 22 feet in length or 

15,000 pounds maximum GVWR in 

lower Kahuku, and large commercial 

vehicles would be restricted to 

the developed area around the 

existing visitor contact area due 

to the constraints of existing road 

infrastructure.

• The park would encourage 

commercial service groups to provide 

environmental or conservationfocused messages while sightseeing 

and/or recreating in lower Kahuku. 

• Due to concerns about the 

introduction of invasive species 

and difficulty in managing use, 

the park would implement a small 

pilot program for equestrian use in 

lower Kahuku pastures that would 

be allowed by special permit and 

potentially through a CUA for 

guided trips. Best management 

practices (BMPs), such as weed-free 

protocols, would be implemented for 

resource protection, and use would 

be authorized only on designated 

trails or in designated sites. If

impacts to resources are found to be 

acceptable and manageable, limited 

equestrian use could be allowed in 

lower Kahuku pastures in the longterm under similar conditions of the 

pilot program. 

• No commercial services or 

commercially guided recreation 

would be permitted in upper Kahuku.

Process for Addressing Requests for 

Commercial Visitor Services

If new commercial services are proposed 

that are not considered in this strategy, if an 

applicant wants to make significant changes to 

a previously approved commercial activity, or 

if some aspects of a new activity have not been 

evaluated before, the proposed commercial 

services would have to meet the criteria set 

forth by applicable legal authorities and meet 

the necessary and/or appropriate criteria 

outlined in this commercial services strategy 

prior to any issuance of a concession contract, 

CUA, or other legal authority. 

The following section outlines the process 

for evaluating requests for commercial visitor 

services, and the final section, “Evaluation 

Criteria for Reviewing New/Additional 

Commercial Visitor Services,” outlines criteria 

that the park will use to evaluate whether or 

not to approve that request.

APPLICATION AND REVIEW PROCESS

While all concession contracts, with extremely 

limited exception, must be initiated by the 

park and undergo an open and competitive 

process, businesses may request, via writing 

and submission of an application fee, a CUA, 

cooperative agreement, special use permit, 

or lease from the park at any time. Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park reviews these 

requests on a case-by-case basis. 

Applicants seeking to provide a commercial 

service at Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

must submit a written application to the 

park, using any application forms the park 

reasonably may require and providing detailed 

information about the proposed service 

including type and description of service, 

how the service aligns with the mission of the 

park, how the provider is qualified and able to 

provide the service, the number of anticipated 

patrons per visit, and anticipated frequency 

of the service. 

After a request in writing is received and any 

required fees paid, the park would follow 

the steps outlined below. In some instances, 

additional environmental compliance may 

be required as directed by the National 

Environmental Policy Act and NPS 

Director’s Order 12. 

If new services are proposed that are not 

considered in this plan, if an applicant wants 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix F | 433 

to make significant changes to a previously 

approved commercial activity, or if some 

aspects of a new activity have not been 

evaluated before, the proposed services 

would have to meet the criteria set forth by 

applicable legal authorities, and must be 

necessary and/or appropriate in meeting the 

mission of the park. Due to the complexities 

of some proposals and the limited amount 

of staff time that could be dedicated to the 

review process, an application for such new 

or changed commercial service may require a 

year or more to review, depending on the level 

of potential impact.

Step 1: Initial Screening

The park concession specialist or designee 

would conduct an initial review of the 

written request to verify completeness and 

to determine if the proposal is similar to 

other permits or authorizations issued in the 

past (Existing Service) or if it is a request for 

new services or changes to previous services 

for which authorizations have been issued 

(New Service). All completed requests, 

once initially reviewed, would proceed to 

Step 2: Evaluation.

Step 2: Evaluation

If the proposal is an application for an 

Existing Service, the park concession 

specialist or designee would assess the 

proposal in accordance with the management 

strategies outlined in “Managing Commercial 

Services” above and the “Evaluation 

Criteria” outlined below. If the request is 

for a New Service, the park management 

interdisciplinary team would complete this 

assessment, which would:

• determine whether or not the 

service meets the criteria set forth 

by applicable legal authorities and 

the necessary and/or appropriate 

criteria outlined in this commercial 

services strategy;

• assess the service’s alignment 

with the park’s goals for 

commercial services;

• identify potential impacts from 

the service on park resources 

and visitation (particularly those 

identified in the park’s purpose and 

significance); and 

• evaluate the park’s ability to 

effectively manage the service in 

order to meet the park’s desired 

future conditions.

If environmental analysis is required to 

complete the evaluation, costs for compliance 

with the National Environmental Policy 

Act may be borne by the applicant. Costs 

may include surveys, specialist staff time, 

contractors, and administrative work. The 

amount would depend on the complexity of 

the proposal, and could range from minimal to 

over $40,000. Once all necessary environment 

compliance is complete, and if the park 

concession specialist and/or park management 

interdisciplinary team has determined that 

the request meets the evaluation criteria 

listed below and aligns with the management 

strategies outlined above in this CSS, the 

request would proceed to Step 3: Decision.

Step 3: Decision

The park superintendent would make the 

final decision as to whether the activity is 

appropriate and/or necessary and could 

be authorized based on the evaluation 

process. If the service is determined to be 

appropriate, the park superintendent would 

determine which kind of authorization is 

most appropriate—CUA, concession contract, 

cooperative agreement, lease, or special use 

permit. If the activity is determined to be 

more appropriately reviewed as a concession 

operation, an evaluation would be made 

through the provisions listed under the 

concession regulation (36 CFR 51) rather than 

through the completion of the commercial 

services authorization process.

EVALUATION CRITERIA.

The park would use the following criteria to 

evaluate proposals for commercial services at 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park.
434 | Appendix F HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Criteria Yes No N/A

Service meets the criteria set forth by applicable legal authorities (those associated with 

commercial services).

Service complies with Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park policies and goals as outlined in 

management documents such as the general management plan, strategic plan, commercial 

services strategy, and other plans or studies that exist or that might exist in the future.

Service can be accomplished in a manner consistent to the highest practicable degree with the 

preservation and conservation of park resources and values.

Service meets all of the appropriate criteria for commercial services.

The service is consistent with laws, regulations, and policies.

The service does not compromise public health and safety.

The service does not significantly impact or impair park resources or values.

The service does not unduly conflict with other park uses and activities.

The service does not exclude the public from participating in similar recreational opportunities.

Service meets at least one of the necessary criteria for commercial services.*

The service contributes to visitor understanding and appreciation of park purpose 

and significance.

The service enhances visitor experiences consistent with park area philosophies.

The service assists the park in managing visitor use and educating park visitors.

The service is an essential service or facility not available within a reasonable distance 

from the park.

The service is consistent with the purpose and significance of Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park.

Service assists the park in meeting the identified goals associated with commercial services.

Commercial operations at Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park are run efficiently and effectively and 

in accordance with NPS law and policy.

All commercial visitor services enhance visitor understanding and appreciation of park 

mission and values.

All commercial visitor services facilitate or complement the fundamental desirable experiences of 

park visitors. 

All commercial visitor services assist the park in managing visitor use and educating park visitors 

in appropriate safe and minimum impact techniques. 

Service complies with applicable federal, state, and local laws, rules, codes, and regulations 

(associated with commercial service goal #1).

Service includes an educational component appropriate to the activity (associated with 

commercial service goal #2).

Service provides and documents staff training, particularly for quality educational services 

(associated with commercial service goal #3).

Service incorporates measures to ensure safe visitor experiences (associated with commercial 

service goal #4).

Service creates no unacceptable impacts on natural, cultural, or aesthetic resources (particularly 

those identified in the park’s purpose, significance and fundamental values).

Service creates no unacceptable impacts on visitor experience, such as increased use in crowded 

or congested areas.

Service cannot be adequately met outside the park boundary.

The park is able to effectively monitor and manage service in a manner that will meet the park’s 

desired future conditions (see “Staffing Needs” below).

The support facilities (such as parking spaces, restrooms, and picnic areas) for the proposed 

service are adequate and are not exceeded by the demand for the commercial service.

Service does not include capital improvements within the park boundary.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix F | 435 

Criteria Yes No N/A

Service does not require facilities within the park in order to operate (if yes, the proposal would 

most likely be reviewed through the concession process).

THE STAFFING NEEDS ASSOCIATED WITH THIS SERVICE ARE (CHECK ONE OF THE FOLLOWING):

High: Successful monitoring of the activity would include documented impacts to park resources related to 

CUA use; annual administrative review; frequent permit compliance reviews; and, whenever possible, regular 

on-site contact with the operation when the activities are occurring.

Medium: Successful monitoring of the activity would include documented impacts to park resources related 

to CUA use; annual administrative reviews, intermittent permit compliance reviews, and intermittent on-site 

contact with the operation.

Low: Successful monitoring would include documented impacts to park resources related to CUA use; annual 

administrative review, annual permit compliance review, and an annual on-site review of the areas used for the 

activity. Contact with CUA holders may or may not occur during scheduled activities.

*Applicable only to services authorized by a concession contract

ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS 

AND REQUIREMENTS—

SUPPORT FACILITIES/SERVICES

Many commercial activities require support 

facilities and/or services, such as parking 

spaces, restrooms, and picnic areas. Such 

support activities have an impact on park 

budgets, staff, noncommercial visitors, and 

facilities. When the demand for commercial 

services exceeds the supply of support 

facilities and services, park managers may 

either request a modification of the activity or 

deny the proposed commercial activity.

STAFFING NEEDS

The process of monitoring individual CUAs 

and concession contracts would be examined 

to determine NPS staff requirements. The 

amount of staff time required is often dictated 

by the complexity of the operation and the 

potential impact on resources. To assess the 

amount of staff time needed for processing an 

application, for the evaluation and approval 

process, and for subsequent authorization 

and monitoring requirements, the following 

definitions of complexity would apply (see 

“Evaluation Criteria” above):

• High: Successful monitoring 

of the activity would include 

documented impacts to park 

resources related to CUA use; annual 

administrative review; frequent 

permit compliance reviews; and, 

whenever possible, regular on-site 

contact with the operation when the 

activities are occurring.

• Medium: Successful monitoring 

of the activity would include 

documented impacts to park 

resources related to CUA use; annual 

administrative reviews, intermittent 

permit compliance reviews, 

and intermittent on-site contact 

with the operation.

• Low: Successful monitoring would 

include documented impacts to park 

resources related to CUA use; annual 

administrative review, annual permit 

compliance review, and an annual 

on-site review of the areas used 

for the activity. Contact with CUA 

holders may or may not occur during 

scheduled activities. 

CUA holders, at a minimum, would bear the 

expense of management and administrative 

costs for these activities on a cost recovery 

basis. Costs (application/administrative and 

management/ utility/monitoring costs) to 

CUA holders would be based on applicable 

Director's Orders and would be noted on 

a fee schedule. A list of administrative and 

management fees would be developed and 

updated annually for each activity once the 

strategy is implemented. 

Concession contract holders pay a franchise 

fee to the NPS that is determined according to 

the requirements of the 1998 Concessions Act 

instead of cost recovery.
436 | Appendix F HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

OTHER ISSUES

Local situations and conditions that are not 

anticipated would be identified on a caseby-case basis. These issues might include the 

effects of proposed activities on neighboring 

communities, agencies, organizations, 

individuals, and park partners. They might 

also include unforeseen and adverse 

cumulative effects caused by new commercial 

services along with already approved services.

NEXT STEPS/

FUTURE PLANNING NEEDS

After distribution of the draft GMP/WS/

EIS, there will be a 60-day public review 

and comment period after which the NPS 

planning team will evaluate comments from 

federal agencies, Native Hawaiian groups, 

organizations, businesses, and individuals 

regarding the draft plan. The planning team 

will then incorporate appropriate changes to 

produce a final commercial services strategy 

to accompany the final GMP/WS/EIS. 

Many of the actions in this strategy can be 

implemented immediately following the 

completion of the planning process. However, 

some actions will be phased in, depending on 

future NPS funding and staff workloads. The 

approval of a strategy does not guarantee that 

the funding and staffing needed to implement 

the strategy will be forthcoming. Other NPS 

management actions will depend on visitor 

use patterns; unanticipated environmental 

changes; actions of commercial services 

providers, such as how many providers apply 

for various CUAs; and monitoring of visitor 

experiences and resource conditions. 

Once the CSS and accompanying final GMP/

WS/EIS have been approved, additional 

planning and compliance will be completed, 

as appropriate, before some of the proposed 

actions could be carried out. For example, the 

park will need to complete an environmental 

assessment for increasing capacity at 

Nāmakanipaio, and a wilderness stewardship 

plan is still needed to guide decision-making 

about commercial services in wilderness.

To be useful, the commercial services strategy 

must be flexible. To protect park resources 

and the quality of the visitor experience, 

changes may be made to this strategy after 

its publication. Group size limits, area 

restrictions, client-to-guide ratios, and other 

specifications may be developed in response 

to new information, such as volcanic/seismic 

events, assessments of impacts to resources, 

and changes in park programs. Approved 

activities, if found incompatible with resource 

protection, visitor enjoyment, and/or safety, 

may be suspended or terminated.

Adaptive management will be employed 

by park staff in response to changes that 

occur during the life of this strategy. This 

consists of the following incremental steps: 

(1) collect information on an existing 

problem, (2) analyze it, (3) propose 

appropriate interventions, (4) implement the 

interventions, (5) monitor the interventions, 

and, if needed, (6) propose and implement 

additional interventions to address the 

problem. Depending on the nature of changes 

that occur, the National Park Service would 

either take additional actions consistent with 

the management directions in this strategy or, 

if necessary, amend or replace the strategy. 

Possible adjustments might include, but are 

not limited to:

• Developing a cap on the 

number of CUAs or concession 

contracts in the park;

• Developing a cap on the 

number and/or types of trips 

associated with CUAs;

• Changing or eliminating the locations 

where activities could occur; and/or

• Eliminating an activity entirely.

In all cases, appropriate environmental 

compliance would occur before new 

actions are taken.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix G | 437 

APPENDIX G: USER CAPACITY INDICATORS AND STANDARDS

Table G.1. Indicators, Standards, Management Strategies, and Monitoring Strategies

Indicator 

Topic Indicator Indicator Rationale Zone Standard Standard Rationale Management Strategies Monitoring Strategies and Timeline

NATURAL

Informal trails

Number of informal trails leaving designated trail (measured every mile)

This indicator measures multiple issues of concern including vegetation trampling, soil compaction, spread of invasives, habitat fragmentation, safety concerns, visitor experience, degradation of cultural resources, wilderness character, and contact with sensitive resources. Also relates to impacts on threatened and endangered species habitat.

Wild/ Primitive Zone

No more than one informal trail leaving designated trail per 1-mile measurement.

The standard would be based on sensitivity of resource, amount of use, and tolerance of impact. There would be a range of acceptance depending upon-site, area, or zone.

• Educate visitors regarding sensitive 

resources and staying on trails.

• Improve trail identification 

and signage.

• Rehabilitate informal trails as 

soon possible.

• Evaluate informal trails 

to determine appropriate management action.

• Formalize informal trails as 

designated trails, if appropriate. 

• Use site management/ design such 

as constructing boardwalks, rails, borders, and pavement to improve delineation of designated trails.

• Restrict off-trail travel in particularly 

sensitive areas.

• Potential area closures that may be 

temporary or longer duration.

The monitoring effort would follow the frequency prescribed for all front and backcountry facilities by the Facility Management Software System (FMSS) for annual condition assessments and five-year comprehensive condition assessments.

Number of informal trails leaving designated trail (measured every 0.5 mile)

This indicator measures multiple issues of concern including vegetation trampling, soil compaction, spread of invasives, habitat fragmentation, safety concerns, visitor experience, degradation of cultural resources, wilderness character, and contact with sensitive resources. Also relates to impacts on T&E species habitat.

Park Support, Transitional and Visitor Services zones

No more than one informal trail leaving designated trail per 0.5 mile measurement.

There is generally a higher tolerance of visitor impact in this zone than in the Wilderness/Primitive Zone but not in specific sensitive sites within these zones.

• Educate visitors regarding sensitive 

resources and staying on trails.

• Improve trail identification 

and signage.

• Rehabilitate informal trails as 

soon possible.

• Evaluate informal trails 

to determine appropriate management action.

• Formalize informal trails as 

designated trails, if appropriate. 

• Use site management/ design such 

as constructing boardwalks, rails, borders, and pavement to improve delineation of designated trails.

• Restrict off-trail travel in particularly 

sensitive areas.

• Potential area closures that may be 

temporary or longer duration.

The monitoring effort would follow the frequency prescribed for all front and backcountry facilities by the Facility Management Software System (FMSS) for annual condition assessments and five-year comprehensive condition assessments.
438 | Appendix G HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Table G.1. Indicat

ors, Standards, Management

Strategies, and

M

onit

oring

Strategies

Indicator 

Topic Indicator Indicator Rationale Zone Standard Standard Rationale Management Strategies Monitoring Strategies and Timeline

Informal trails— sensitive sites

Number of informal trails leaving designated trail (measured every 0.5 mile)

This indicator measures multiple issues of concern including vegetation trampling, soil compaction, spread of invasives, habitat fragmentation, safety concerns, visitor experience, degradation of cultural resources, wilderness character, and contact with sensitive resources. Also relates to impacts on T&E species habitat.

Sensitive sites regardless of zone (‘Ōla‘a, Sulfur Banks, Steam Vents, Ka‘ū Footprints, Puhimau, upper Kahuku) 

No informal trails leaving designated trail per mile measurement

The standard applies to the park’s most sensitive resources, so there is very low tolerance for impact.

• Educate visitors regarding sensitive 

resources and staying on trails.

• Improve trail identification 

and signage.

• Rehabilitate informal trails as 

soon possible.

• Evaluate informal trails 

to determine appropriate management action.

• Formalize informal trails as 

designated trails, if appropriate. 

• Use site management/ design such 

as constructing board walks, rails, borders, pavement to improve delineation of designated trails.

• Restrict off-trail travel in particularly 

sensitive areas.

• Potential area closures that may be 

temporary or longer duration.

The monitoring effort would follow the frequency prescribed for all front and backcountry facilities by the Facility Management Software System (FMSS) for annual condition assessments and five-year comprehensive condition assessments.

Invasive plant and animal species

Number of present and abundant invasive species measured at each individual site (e.g., specific species along a segment of road corridor)

This indicator would vary depending upon landscape type, habitat, and transportation mode. This indicator would identify new species being brought into the park.

All zones Detection of new 

species occurrences or spread of invasive species would trigger a management response (depends upon species).

Early detection requires early intervention.

• Increase visitor and staff education 

and awareness.

• Implement existing protocols 

for eradication.

• Continue monitoring.• Use/encourage sanitation 

protocols, boot cleaning stations, etc.

• Regulate the type and amount 

of activities.

Future comprehensive monitoring for invasive plant species would occur every 3–5 years, as park capacity permits.In most cases, park staff does not have the capacity to monitor for invasive invertebrates and reptiles. 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix G | 439 

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Topic Indicator Indicator Rationale Zone Standard Standard Rationale Management Strategies Monitoring Strategies and Timeline

Human-wildlife interactions

The number of incompatible interactions between humans and wildlife: see overview paragraph for species-specific indicators selected for monitoring.

Required by law and the resources are highly sensitive to impact (vulnerable given low numbers). Also related to park purpose and significance.

All zones Every observation 

of interaction would trigger a management response.

Need to meet law and policy requirements, and given the sensitivity of these resources, the threshold for impact is very low.

• Educate visitors.• Evaluate each incident.• Modify or reduce artificial 

light sources.

• Use of signage and/or traffic 

calming devices

• Reduce speed limits.• Reduce the number or duration of 

visitors and staff to an area.

• Temporary or permanent 

rerouting, relocation, or closure of trails, roads, campsites, and picnic facilities

• Appropriate notification and/or 

consultation with USFWS

Monitoring would continuously occur via observations, and routine staff monitoring. For most species, population numbers are too low or unknown for routine monitoring to be feasible. Therefore documentation would be opportunistic.Annual monitoring is done for two endangered species throughout their breeding seasons, the nēnē (Hawaiian goose) and honu‘ea (Hawksbill turtle).

Damage or theft of threatened or endangered plant and animal species

Incidences of damage or theft of T&E plant and animal species tracked through incident reports or staff monitoring

Required by law and the resources are highly sensitive to impact (vulnerable given low numbers); also related to park purpose and significance

All zones Every incident of 

damage or theft would trigger a management response.

Need to meet law and policy requirements, and given the sensitivity of these resources, the threshold for impact is very low.

• Educate visitors on the sensitively 

of plant and animal species. 

• Increase monitoring.• Increase enforcement.• Use protective barriers and other 

site management. 

• Area closures (temporary 

or permanent)

• Relocate, if appropriate• Appropriate notification and /

or consultation with US. Fish and Wildlife Service

Monitoring would continuously occur via incident reports and staff monitoring. Given the large number of listed species and limited available resources, monitoring is currently done infrequently (occurring sporadically or every few years) for most species with the exception of four flagship species (nēnē, honu‘ea, ‘ua‘u, Ka`ū silversword).
440 | Appendix G HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Table G.1. Indicat

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Indicator 

Topic Indicator Indicator Rationale Zone Standard Standard Rationale Management Strategies Monitoring Strategies and Timeline

Damage or loss of geologic resources

Observations and reports of damage or loss of significant geologic features, such as cave features, volcanic features, and products (e.g., sulfur crystals, tree molds, tree casts, etc.)

Nonrenewable (renewable in some instances) resource and related to the park purpose and significance; can be vulnerable to visitor use.

All zones Standard will vary 

depending on the rarity and fragility of the features and also on the level of visitation for a given area. Threshold for impact would be low in pristine areas, especially for those features that are particularly rare or fragile, but may be higher in areas already impacted.

Potential for repeated damage once it occurs, so threshold for initial impact is low in a pristine area. Threshold may be higher in previously disturbed areas.

• Increase education and outreach. • Initiate monitoring and 

photo documentation.

• Provide barriers, trail and 

overlook realignment, and other site management.

• Area closures (temporary 

or permanent)

Park staff would continue to track incident reports of damage and would review log quarterly. Written reports of damage from staff would also be reviewed.

Campsite conditions

Percent of campsite expansion beyond designed campground size.

This indicator is important for protection of vegetation, soils, invasive species, habitat destruction, and visitor experience.

All zones No more than 15% 

expanded footprint beyond designed campground size.

Standard based on desired backcountry campsite size and baseline conditions, but can be replicated in frontcountry campsites. Since some impact is expected given regular use of a site, it was determined that 15% above designed campsite size would allow for an acceptable amount of impact to sites of varying sizes.

• Educate visitors.• Better delineate 

campsite boundaries.

• Designate campsites.• Restore disturbed areas.• Regulate use levels.• Close or relocate campsite 

(temporarily) with presence of T&E species.

• Evaluate the ability to add an 

additional campsite option. 

Monitoring on a two-year interval would be ideal, but no less frequently than every five years.

Fire risk Number of 

human-caused fires reported

Use data on existing fire occurrences. 

All zones No increase in the 

five-year average of human-caused fire incidents.

Some accidents will occur, but the goal is that fire is not increasing.

• Improve fire prevention with 

increased information, education, and signage particularly during times of very high or extreme fire danger.

• Expand the types of media used to 

communicate fire risk.

• Limit campfires.• Implement area closures.

Continue to monitor weather conditions on a daily basis, fuel conditions on a monthly basis, and catalog fire occurrence with the Wildlife Fire Management Information program. Review humancaused fire trends every five years. 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix G | 441 

Table G.1. Indicators, Standards, Management Strategies, and Monitoring Strategies

Indicator 

Topic Indicator Indicator Rationale Zone Standard Standard Rationale Management Strategies Monitoring Strategies and Timeline

Fire risk Fire is a significant 

concern at Kahuku given the landscape, pastures, and resource and visitor concerns

Kahuku Management 

action would be taken with the first report of humancaused fire.

There is no historic data for Kahuku, and we are about to introduce regular visitation to the area, so there is a need to be highly proactive in minimizing fire risk.

• Increase fire prevention.• Consider fire breaks especially 

around high-use areas.

• Stage a wildland fire engine in 

Kahuku for quick response.

• Ensure that enough staff at 

Kahuku are red-card-trained to staff an engine. 

• Increase information, education, 

and signage particularly during times of high or extreme fire danger.

• Expand the types of media used to 

communicate fire risk.

• Implement area closures.• Prohibit campfires during high 

risk times. 

• Enforce smoking restrictions (in 

vehicles only). 

Continue to monitor weather conditions on a daily basis, fuel conditions on a monthly basis, and catalog fire occurrence with the Wildlife Fire Management Information program. Review humancaused fire trends every five years.

Artificial light Presence of 

artificial light at night without the appropriate mitigation.

This indicator is important because of the continuation of dark night sky, orientation for species, visitor experience, and wilderness experience.

All zones No artificial light 

sources without the appropriate mitigation

Would be mitigated as needed.

• Educate visitors and staff on 

importance of night sky.

• Mitigation could include use of 

different wave lengths, shielding, and redirection of artificial light.

• Include artificial light guidance in 

permit conditions for commercial, special use, and back country.

• Conduct night sky monitoring.• Give campers red cellophane to 

cover flashlights. 

Park staff would continue to monitor incidentally when in the field. Specific monitoring strategies to be determined.

CULTURAL

Damage to archeological sites

Number of incident reports of vandalism or theft per year 

Damage to archeological sites can occur through both intentional and unintentional means. Both can impact the integrity of these resources.

All zones, including Kahuku

No incidents of vandalism or theft 

Archeological sites are nonrenewable and the threshold for acceptable impact is zero tolerance.

• Prioritize documentation of 

resources in high visitor use areas.

• Continue monitoring.• Educate visitors on the sensitivity of 

resources and the need to protect archeological sites, including the use of signage.

• Target education to groups 

that are accessing areas with archeological sites.

• Increase ranger presence or patrol.• Increase enforcement and 

documentation.

• Reroute trails.• Create physical barriers.• Area closures

Continue to record incidences of vandalism or theft. Review incident reports on a yearly basis. 
442 | Appendix G HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

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Indicator 

Topic Indicator Indicator Rationale Zone Standard Standard Rationale Management Strategies Monitoring Strategies and Timeline

Damage to archeological sites

Documented changes to archeological site conditions from visitorcaused actions and disturbances, as defined in NPS Archeological Site Management Information System (ASMIS). This system includes a rating system of “good, fair, poor, and destroyed.”

Damage to archeological sites can occur through both intentional and unintentional means. Both can impact the integrity of these resources.

All zones, prioritize Visitor Services Zone and Transitional Zone.

Maintain sites in a “good” condition, according to the Archeological Site Management Information System(ASMIS), with the following specific standards:Impacts directly associated with visitor use should not be a significant contributor of changing overall site condition to a lesser condition (i.e., good to fair, fair to poor, etc.) with an emphasis on maintaining sites in good condition.At sites in less than good condition, management actions should seek to improve condition at least one level.

Archeological sites are a nonrenewable resource so there is a zero tolerance for degradation based on human activity.Need to prioritize in areas of high visitor use, along trails, and along coastal areas.

• Continue condition assessments 

on an interval basis and increase frequency of condition assessments if necessary.

• Prioritize documentation of 

resources in high visitor use areas. 

• Continue monitoring.• Educate visitors on the sensitivity 

of resources and the need to protect arch sites, including the use of signage.

• Target education to groups 

that are accessing areas with archeological sites.

• Increase ranger presence or patrol.• Increase enforcement 

and documentation.

• Reroute trails, if appropriate.• Create physical barriers.• Area closures• Formalize access or take a design 

action to correct the problem. 

Continue condition assessments on the predetermined basis designated in ASMIS. 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix G | 443 

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Indicator 

Topic Indicator Indicator Rationale Zone Standard Standard Rationale Management Strategies Monitoring Strategies and Timeline

Lack of understanding of Native Hawaiian culture

Number of actions observed at active lava flows that interfere with the natural flow of lava or create an unsafe environment (such as: trash in the area, poking sticks in lava, throwing rocks in lava, cooking marshmallows over lava).

These actions observed demonstrate a lack of understanding of Native Hawaiian culture and the significance of lava.

All zones No more than two 

observed instances of behavior within an eruption ranger shift.

This is a safety concern as well, so there is a very low tolerance for this indicator. In addition, once these types of behaviors occur, other visitors are more likely to engage in these types of activities, leading to increased impact.

• Increase ranger presence and 

staffing and visitor education.

• Use visitor management strategies, 

such as orientation before traveling to the site.

• Educate visitors about 

expected behaviors.

• Increase information on the web 

about how to visit the park.

• Direct Native Hawaiian 

practitioners to areas where visitors are not present. 

• Consider guided-only access to 

some areas (very staff- intensive).

• Keep visitors further away from 

active lava so they can see it but not be too close.

Monitoring would occur during eruption ranger shifts. 

Instances of non-traditional offerings that are left on the landscape

Some offerings are considered litter and incidences of these offerings is upsetting to cultural practitioners. The offerings can also have effects on natural resources, including endangered species (nēnē eating trash, rice, etc.).

All zones, but emphasis on Visitor Services and Transitional zones

Finding no more than 10 pounds of non-traditional offerings per area per patrol over the course of a month.Nontraditional offerings are removed and recorded in terms of total pounds per patrol.

There is some tolerance and expectation for this type of impact, but it becomes more significant from a cultural resource protection and operational basis once it happens on a recurring basis. In addition, once these types of behaviors occur, other visitors are more likely to engage in these types of activities, leading to increased impact.Concerns exist about staff time and hazards associated with cleanup.

• Suggest and/or designate sites 

that are recommended for leaving all offerings; for example consider constructing a lele (altar) for offerings.

• Offer traditional or culturally 

appropriate offerings for people to leave for Pele at the park (e.g., provide packets of salt or awa).

• Increase visitor education— publish 

traditional offerings on the web (which can simply be a voice in prayer and leave no trace)

Monitoring would be conducted weekly according to existing park protocols. 

Visitors impacting access for cultural practitioners (causing displacement)

Number of reports of practitioners being displaced (in visitor comments, oral reports at Kupuna meetings, third-party reporting)

Significance of the park to Native Hawaiian culture and the perpetuation of the living Hawaiian culture and place-specific cultural practices

All zones, but emphasis on Visitor Services and Transitional zones

No more than one complaint received quarterly in a given location 

Need for immediate action because of the sensitivity of the park relations to the Native Hawaiian community

• Increase visitor education about 

Native Hawaiian cultural protocols.

• Be proactive about asking if 

people have adequate space for cultural practices.

• Offer temporary site closures for 

periods of time on a regular basis to ensure practices continue. 

Park staff are currently tracking visitor complaints. Park staff would continue to track visitor complaints, and would review the complaint log quarterly.
444 | Appendix G HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

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Indicator 

Topic Indicator Indicator Rationale Zone Standard Standard Rationale Management Strategies Monitoring Strategies and Timeline

Soundscapes and the Acoustic Environment

Complaints related to human-caused noise/sounds affecting a park experience (cultural practice, visitor experience)

Significance of natural sounds to the cultural landscape and Native Hawaiian significance of the land

Visitor Services and Transitional zones

No more than five complaints received quarterly in a given location

Complaints don’t necessarily come in often so examining quarterly is reasonable.Concern about repeated noise disrupting people in a given location

• Strategies may vary depending on 

source of noise.

• Increase educational messages and 

information.

• Increase enforcement of 

idling limits.

• Implement time restrictions for 

different locations to ensure there are times of day for quiet hours and natural sounds to prevail.

Park staff are currently tracking visitor complaints. Park staff would continue to track visitor complaints, and would review complaint log quarterly. 

Complaints related to human-caused noise/sounds affecting a park experience (cultural practice, visitor experience)

Significance of natural sounds to the cultural landscape and Native Hawaiian significance of the land

Wild/ Primitive Zone 

No more than two complaints received quarterly in a given location

Complaints don’t necessarily come in often so examining quarterly is reasonable.Concern about repeated noise disrupting people in a given locationLower tolerance in the wild zone than other zones but still want more than one to establish a problem.

• Strategies may vary depending on 

source of noise.

• Increase education and 

outreach about importance of quiet as part of solitude and wilderness character.

• Increase educational messages and 

information, especially at trailhead signs.

• Increase enforcement of 

idling limits.

Park staff are currently tracking visitor complaints. Park staff would continue to track visitor complaints, and would review complaint log quarterly.

VISITOR EXPERIENCE/SOCIAL

Soundscapes and the Acoustic Environment

Decibel level (dBA) of human-caused sounds

Since this is a Park Support Zone, the indicator is different than other zones.

Park Support Zone 

Permanent noise sources should not exceed sleep dBA thresholds (35dBA) at the receptor site at nighttime.

Sounds from park activities and visitors dominate during daytime hours. Natural sounds are more prevalent in the evening. 

• Educate visitors about soundscapes 

in the park.

• Limit idling of buses and 

larger vehicles.

• Limit size of vehicles.• Implement Temporary 

Flight Restrictions (TFRs) when appropriate. 

• Enforce quiet hours at the 

campground.

• Enforce noise ordinances 36 CFR 

Section 2.12.

In addition to impacts from visitor-caused noise, it is important to reduce noise caused by administrative activities. • Limit administrative use of aircraft.

Acoustic monitoring would occur at specific intervals, to be determined. Park staff would incidentally monitor throughout the year, particularly related to projects or permits issued.
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Indicator 

Topic Indicator Indicator Rationale Zone Standard Standard Rationale Management Strategies Monitoring Strategies and Timeline

Soundscapes and the Acoustic Environment

dBA levels which cause speech interference L10 (the sound 

level would exceed the specified value for no more than 10% of the time)

Wildlife behavior and the visitor experience are impacted by the duration and intensity of humancaused noise, but it should not negatively impact visitor experience.

Visitor Ser vices Zone 

If dBA levels which cause speech interference occur, management strategies will be triggered.L10 does not exceed 

45 dBA.

According to desired conditions set for this zone, this standard was set to ensure that natural sounds are generally audible in this zone. However, sounds from visitors and park activities can be heard and may dominate during daylight hours in certain areas, but levels that cause speech interference rarely occur. 

• Educate visitors about soundscapes 

in the park.

• Educate visitors about noise they 

are making at nighttime near eruptive areas.

• Implement quiet times during 

specific times or in specific locations for particular sites. 

• Limit idling of buses and 

larger vehicles.

• Limit size of vehicles.• Implement TFRs.• Enforce quiet hours at 

the campground.

• Enforce noise ordinances 36 CFR 

Section 2.12

In addition to impacts from visitor-caused noise, it is important to reduce noise caused by administrative activities. • Limit administrative use of aircraft.

Acoustic monitoring would occur at specific intervals, to be determined. Park staff would incidentally monitor throughout the year, particularly related to projects or permits issued.

Difference between existing and natural ambient sound levels – Mean L50

Impact (dBA)

Wildlife behavior and the visitor experience are impacted by the duration and intensity of humancaused noise. Human-caused noises reduce the opportunities for solitude.

Transitional Zone

Mean difference between natural and ambient dBA (L50) is not more 

than 1.5 dBA.

Based on desired conditions, this standard is set to ensure that natural sounds dominate the soundscape. Sounds from visitor and park operations may be heard. However, sounds from visitor and park operations do not mask natural sounds or very seldom mask natural sounds. If human-caused noise is present, it occurs mostly during the daytime and does not cause speech interference. Noise sources would be distant. 

• Educate visitors about soundscapes 

in the park.

• Implement quiet times during 

specific times or location for particular sites.

• Limit size of vehicles.• Enforce standards on idling.• Enforce noise ordinances 36 CFR 

Section 2.12.

• Implement TFRs.In addition to impacts from visitor caused noise, it is important to reduce noise caused by administrative activities. • Limit administrative use of aircraft.

Acoustic monitoring would occur at specific intervals, to be determined. Park staff would incidentally monitor throughout the year, particularly related to projects or permits issued.
446 | Appendix G HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Table G.1. Indicat

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Indicator 

Topic Indicator Indicator Rationale Zone Standard Standard Rationale Management Strategies Monitoring Strategies and Timeline

Soundscapes and the Acoustic Environment

Difference between existing and natural ambient sound levels – Mean L50 Impact 

(dBA)

Wildlife behavior and the visitor experience are impacted by the duration and intensity of humancaused noise. Human-caused noises reduce opportunities for solitude.

Wild/ Primitive Zone

Mean difference between natural and ambient dBA (L50) is not more 

than 1.0 dBA.

This standard is set to ensure that natural sounds dominate the soundscape. Distant artificial sounds may be heard in some areas of this zone. Humancaused noise should be rare or very infrequent in occurrence and in limited areas of the zone. Pristine soundscapes should occur in some areas of this zone. 

• Educate visitors about soundscapes 

in the park.

• Educate visitors about self-noise at 

nighttime near eruptive areas.

• Enforce noise ordinances 36 CFR 

Section 2.12.

• Implement TFRs.• In addition to impacts from 

visitor-caused noise, it is important to reduce noise caused by administrative activities. 

• Limit administrative use of aircraft.

Acoustic monitoring would occur at specific intervals, to be determined. Park staff would incidentally monitor throughout the year, particularly related to projects or permits issued.

Crowding Level of service

(m2 /pedestrian) OR (persons / feet2) 

For the following:

• Walkways• Viewing 

platforms/ areas

• Stairs / 

steep areas 

Crowding may displace visitors or negatively impact visitor experience in high-use areas (including eruptive sites)

The level of service indicator used for monitoring would vary by location and need. (For example, at Jaggar Museum we may only use the level of service indicator for viewing platforms)

Walkway: not to exceed level of service E. Take immediate action if level of service F is reached.Viewing platforms / areas:Level of service E. View would not be impeded. Visitor conflicts and arguments should not occur as a result of crowding. Stairs / steep areas: Level of service D would be acceptable (when no interpretive signs are there). Flow would not be impeded at any time. See Itami, 2002 for visual examples of level of service indicators. 

This standard is set to allow highest access to features of the park while still allowing for flow of visitors through key areas.

• Inform visitors about crowding 

issues to create awareness, and to adjust expectations. 

• Increase staffing at high-use areas 

to keep people moving. 

• Talk to commercial service 

providers and ask them to shorten their length of stay or alter their schedule to avoid known congested periods. 

• Offer interpretive programs in 

locations at low-use times to offset some of the use that occurs at busy times. 

• Open alternative sites to offer 

alternative attractions and to disperse use.

• Disperse visitor use elsewhere by 

offering other choices (information at the gate, social media, radio, website, electrical signs).

• Expand trails and areas to allow for 

more use where appropriate.

• Regulate number of tour buses 

in the parking lot or size of tour buses.

• Regulate shuttle schedule.• Expand shuttle service.

Park staff would continue to track number of visitors at specific locations (e.g., Jaggar Museum area) during peak times as part of their daily log and the logs would be reviewed quarterly.Park staff would continue to track visitor complaints and would review complaint log quarterly. 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix G | 447 

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Topic Indicator Indicator Rationale Zone Standard Standard Rationale Management Strategies Monitoring Strategies and Timeline

Crowding Number of 

visitor-reported complaints and written staff reports of user conflicts on trails between different types of uses (hikers, bicycles, horses)

Concerns about mixed use on trails and a desire to promote positive trail-based experiences

Visitor Services and Transition zones

Four similar complaints received in the same area (single location or segment of trail) quarterlyComplaints (visitor-related or staff reports) 

Low standard given that the number of reports of conflicts has historically been low, and the park wants to promote a positive visitor experience on trails

• Implement better signage and 

education about trail etiquette.

• Separate trail uses.• Change the design of a trail 

to accommodate multiple user groups.

• Limit a particular type of use. Managers may also choose to adopt the following 12 principles for minimizing conflicts on multiple use trails: 1) recognize conflict as goal interference, 2) provide adequate trail opportunities, 3) minimize the number of contacts in problem areas, 4) involve users as early as possible, 5) understand user needs, 6) identify the actual source of conflict, 7) work with the affected users, 8) promote trail etiquette, 9) encourage positive interaction among different users, 10) favor light-handed management, 11) plan and act locally, 12) monitor progress (USDOT 2012). For more information on the aforementioned principles, please see the full synthesis of literature and state of practice for addressing user conflicts on multipleuse trails (USDOT 2012).

Number of complaints would be tracked at park office

Trail-based user conflicts

Concerns about mixed use on trails and a desire to promote positive trail-based experiences

Wild/ Primitive Zone

Two similar complaints received in the same area (single location or segment of trail) quarterly

We have a relatively low standard given the historically low number of reports of conflicts, and we want to promote a positive visitor experience on trails.

Number of complaints would be tracked at park office

Parking and traffic congestion (including bikes)

Concerns about mixed use on trails and a desire to promote positive trail-based experiences: this may be of particular concern at Kahuku

Kahuku Standard TBD No baseline data to 

establish a standard.Need to prioritize monitoring of trail user conflicts on Kahuku because we are opening this up to new uses and possibly mixed uses on trails.

Number of complaints would be tracked at park office
448 | Appendix G HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

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Indicator 

Topic Indicator Indicator Rationale Zone Standard Standard Rationale Management Strategies Monitoring Strategies and Timeline

Parking and traffic congestion (including bikes)

Number of incidents of illegal parking (when parking lots are full) 

This informs management on frequency of full-capacity parking lots, which could also lead to other parking issues. 

All zones Focus efforts in Visitor Services Zone and Transition Zone

Standard will be determined once baseline monitoring is completed.

A traffic study has been proposed and will provide baseline data for acceptable parking conditions and potentially will provide additional management strategies that can be implemented to achieve acceptable conditions. 

• Educate visitors about other areas 

of the park to visit. 

• Use sign boards, AM radio 

stations, or social media to give transportation updates (direct traffic). 

• Advertise opportunities in a 

variety of areas to divert use to other areas.

• Promote the use of underutilized 

parking areas and either have visitors walk to attractions or be shuttled.

• Communicate with large 

tour companies about taking turns (different days or different locations).

• If visitors choose to ride a provided 

shuttle, drop them off before reaching the prime locations to offer an additional walking experience and to disperse crowding, when practicable. 

• Have rangers divert traffic at 

congested areas and direct parking during peak times.

• Enforce parking stall capacity.• Send volunteer or interpreter to 

help direct traffic.

• Move bicycle staging areas to 

other locations.

• Have bicycles use alternate routes 

(e.g. from Steam Vents to Jaggar). 

• Have bicycles utilize the Escape 

Road off of Crater Rim Drive.

• Increase parking lot capacity.• Open access to another area of 

the park.

• Limit the number of commercial 

tour buses that are allowed to park in the area.

• Restrict private parking access.• Enact mandatory shuttle system for 

high-use attraction-sites. 

Currently this threshold is exceeded regularly during peak periods. As management strategies are implemented, monitoring will be conducted to determine if additional management strategies are needed to bring this to a level under the threshold.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix G | 449 

Table G.1. Indicators, Standards, Management Strategies, and Monitoring Strategies

Indicator 

Topic Indicator Indicator Rationale Zone Standard Standard Rationale Management Strategies Monitoring Strategies and Timeline

Parking and traffic congestion (including bikes)

Amount of time a traffic lane is blocked

This informs management of when traffic congestion is occurring. Once congestion occurs, other issues could begin to occur as well. During monitoring, observer would want to capture the source of congestion (bikes, cars, buses, etc.). 

Visitor Services Zone 

Standard will be determined once baseline monitoring is completed.

A traffic study has been proposed/planned and will provide baseline data for acceptable levels for traffic flow and potentially will provide additional management strategies that can be implemented to achieve acceptable levels

Currently this threshold is exceeded regularly during peak periods. As management strategies are implemented, monitoring will be conducted to determine if additional management strategies are needed to bring this to a level under the threshold.
450 | Appendix G HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

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HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix H | 451 

APPENDIX H: SPECIAL STATUS SPECIES DESCRIPTIONS

MAMMALS

Endangered

HAWAIIAN MONK SEAL 

(Monachus schauinslandi)

The endangered Hawaiian monk seal is silvery 

gray to brownish in color with yellowishbrown ventral pelage, reaching an average 

length of approximately 7 feet by adulthood 

(NMFS and NOAA 2007). Within the park, 

Hawaiian monk seals have been known 

to haul out and bask along the shoreline 

(Pratt et al. 2011). Monk seal births are most 

common between February and August, 

peaking in March and April (NMFS and 

NOAA 2007). The beach areas used by the 

seal for hauling out, pupping, and nursing 

are critical to the well-being of the species. 

This critical area also includes the first 

line of vegetation bordering the beaches, 

which provides shelter from wind and other 

elements. The Hawaiian monk seal population 

is in a decline that has lasted over 20 years 

(NMFS and NOAA 2007). Threats to this 

species include food limitation, entanglement, 

predation, infectious disease, habitat loss, and 

human disturbance (NMFS and NOAA 2007).

HAWAIIAN HOARY BAT (Lasiurus 

cinereus semotus)

The Hawaiian hoary bat is a medium-sized, 

nocturnal, insectivorous bat with brown and 

gray, white-tinged fur. This subspecies is a 

solitary bat that roosts among foliage in trees. 

The Hawaiian hoary bat has been observed 

foraging in a variety of both open and more 

vegetated habitats, including over open water 

and near the edges of native forests. The 

Hawaiian hoary bat is widely distributed on 

the island of Hawai‘i and within the park; 

most frequently observed between sea level 

and 7,500 feet (USFWS 1998d). The breeding 

season for this species typically occurs from 

April to August when bats seem to shift into 

the lowlands of the island (Fraser et al. 2007). 

The largest populations of the Hawaiian 

hoary bat are thought to occur on Kaua‘i and 

Hawai‘i. Population numbers are not fully 

known; however, the bat is believed to have 

declined in number over the last 100 years 

(USFWS 1998c). Threats to the Hawaiian 

hoary bat include habitat destruction 

(elimination of roosting sites), and possibly 

the direct and indirect effects of pesticides, 

introduced insects, and disease (USFWS 

1998c; Fraser et al. 2007).

BIRDS

Endangered

HAWAIIAN GOOSE; NĒNĒ 

(Branta sandvicensis)

The Hawaiian goose has a black head and 

nape and buff cheeks and neck with black 

furrows. It is heavily barred above and lighter 

underneath (Pratt et al. 2011). Nēnē are widely 

distributed throughout the park and range 

from sea level to over 8,000 feet. Habitat for 

this species is highly variable, and ranges from 

sparsely vegetated lava flows to scrubland to 

open grasslands. At the park, nēnē typically 

nest on lava flows concealed in patchy 

vegetation, however nest site selection varies 

widely across the state. Nests are constructed 

on the ground and contain up to four eggs. 

The nesting season is primarily from October 

through March. Goslings are particularly 

vulnerable to nutritional inadequacies 

and severe weather; nēnē of all ages, from 

eggs to adults, are vulnerable to predation 

by introduced mammals. During the 

nonbreeding season, the Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park nēnē flock typically moves 

to higher elevations in search of seasonally 

available forage (including berries) and a 

wetter climate, as lower-elevation breeding 

areas often dry out during summer months.

The total population of Hawaiian geese in 

the park is small (approximately 200 birds), 

but is slowly increasing as a result of habitat 

management, predator control, and temporary 

access restrictions. Threats include predation 

by nonnative predators, habitat loss, and 

human interactions (e.g. vehicle collisions).
452 | Appendix H HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

HAWAIIAN HAWK; ‘IO (Buteo solitarius)

The Hawaiian hawk is small and broadwinged with dark or a combination of dark 

and light plumage. Habitat includes most 

native and nonnative forests (including 

papaya, guava, and macadamia orchards), 

grasslands, and cane fields. The Hawaiian 

hawk is more abundant in windward than 

in leeward forests, avoids dry scrub areas, 

and prefers either open savanna or denser 

rainforest (Audubon 2007; USFWS 1984). 

Nesting occurs March through September, 

and eggs are typically laid in late April and 

early May. Clutch size generally varies from 

one to three eggs (USFWS 1984), and nests are 

found in the high branches of trees of various 

kinds and heights, ranging from 32 to 78 feet 

(10 to 24 meters). In a recent survey, native 

‘ōhi‘a trees were selected for nesting 80% of 

the time (Audubon 2007). The Hawaiian hawk 

can be found anywhere from near sea level to 

8,500 feet in elevation (USFWS 1984). This 

species is widespread within the park and is 

known to occur in mesic and wet koa/‘ōhi‘a 

forest, ‘ōhi‘a/māmane/naio subalpine 

woodland, and open pasture with remnant 

stands of native forest (Tweed et al. 2007). 

Threats include destruction or disturbance 

of nesting habitat, predation, avian diseases, 

and extensive modification and reduction 

of native forest habitat (USFWS 1984). The 

Hawaiian hawk is currently proposed for 

delisting from the Federal List of Endangered 

and Threatened Wildlife (74 FR 27004-05).

HONEYCREEPER; ‘AKIAPŌLĀ‘AU 

(Hemignathus munroi)

The ‘akiapōlā‘au is a medium-sized (5.5 

inches), stocky, short-tailed Hawaiian 

honeycreeper with a long, sickle-shaped 

upper mandible and a short, straight lower 

mandible. The birds are olive-green with 

yellow heads and abdomens, black bills, and 

black legs, with the females being duller in 

color than the males. All recent observations 

of this species have occurred in montane 

mesic and wet forest dominated by koa and 

‘ōhi‘a, or in subalpine dry forest dominated 

by māmane and naio. ‘Akiapōlā‘au often 

join mixed-species foraging flocks, possibly 

to reduce predator detection. Historically 

this species was much more common and 

widespread than it is today and was found in 

native forests island-wide. Forests at higher 

elevations are now critical to the ‘akiapōlā‘au, 

as these are locations where mosquitoes are 

absent or occur only seasonally. Introduced 

mosquitoes transmit avian malaria and avian 

pox to which ‘akiapōlā‘au is highly susceptible. 

‘Akiapōlā‘au can be found breeding during 

any month of the year; however, breeding and 

molting occur primarily from February to July. 

Nests are most often found in the branches of 

tall ‘ōhi‘a trees (USFWS 2006a).

Within the park, ‘akiapōlā‘au have been 

detected in the northeastern portion of the 

Ka‘ū Forest between 5,000 and 6,400 feet 

in elevation. Detections were made within 

the boundaries of Kahuku above Ka‘ū 

Forest Reserve (Tweed et al. 2007). Threats 

to this species include habitat loss and 

degradation, predation, introduced diseases, 

and introduction of nonnative species. This 

species is particularly vulnerable to these 

threats and slow to recover due to its low 

reproductive rate (USFWS 2006a).

HONEYCREEPER; ‘AKEPA (Loxops 

coccineus coccineus)

The Hawai‘i ‘akepa is a red-orange (male) 

or grayish-green (female), 4-inch songbird 

with an asymmetrical bill. Highest densities 

of ‘akepa are found in old-growth forests 

with large, canopy-emergent ‘ōhi‘a or koa 

trees. Foraging occurs primarily among ‘ōhi‘a 

leaves and occasionally among koa leaves and 

seedpods. Large ‘ōhi‘a trees are particularly 

important to ‘akepa, because they provide 

both nest sites and the preferred foraging 

substrate, whereas large koa trees provide 

primarily cavities (USFWS 2006a). ‘Akepa are 

believed to nest exclusively within tree cavities 

(Tweed et al. 2007). The ‘akepa has a clearly 

defined breeding season, with nest-building 

from early March to late May, egg-laying 

from mid-March to late May, hatching in late 

March to early June, and fledging from the 

beginning of April to the end of June 

(USFWS 2006a).

Within the park, ‘akepa have been detected 

within the boundaries of Kahuku above 

the Ka‘ū Forest Reserve. All observations 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix H | 453 

of this species in Ka‘ū occurred within 

forest habitat between 5,085 and 7,215 feet 

in elevation. ‘Akepa have been observed 

foraging in subalpine woodland in the Ka‘ū 

area. Although suitable nesting trees do not 

occur in the subalpine woodland within 

the park, potential nesting trees do occur 

downslope in mature montane forest (Tweed 

et al. 2007). The historical range of this 

species once included much of the island, 

but their distribution has changed, resulting 

in a complete loss of birds from the lower 

elevations (below 4,300 feet). Threats include 

habitat loss and degradation, introduced 

predators, competitors, and diseases. ‘Akepa 

are not found below 4,300 feet presumably 

because of the distribution of introduced 

mosquitoes that transmit avian malaria and 

avian pox (USFWS 2006a).

HAWAI‘I CREEPER (Oreomystis mana)

The Hawai‘i creeper is an olive-green to 

gray honeycreeper with a white chin and 

throat. Hawai‘i creepers travel in family 

groups and are most common in mesic and 

wet forests above 5,000 feet. The species 

prefers undisturbed, old-growth forests with 

large, canopy-emergent ‘ōhi‘a or koa trees, 

and foraging primarily takes place on the 

branches, trunks, and foliage of these live 

trees. Nests have been found from January 

to August, but peak breeding for this species 

occurs from February to May. Hawai‘i 

creepers apparently build open cup nests 

(though a small percentage are cavity nests) 

at mid-canopy, or approximately 43 feet high. 

The reproductive potential for the Hawai‘i 

creeper appears to be low due to its small 

clutch size (usually two eggs), relatively long 

developmental period, and limited breeding 

areas (USFWS 2006a). Within the park, 

honeycreepers occur in Kahuku above the 

Ka‘ū Forest Reserve. All observations of this 

species in Kahuku have occurred within forest 

habitat between 5,000 and 6,400 feet (1,525 

and 1,950 meters) (Tweed et al. 2007). Threats 

include modification and loss of habitat, 

avian diseases, competition with introduced 

birds, and predation by introduced 

mammals (USFWS 2006a).

‘Ō‘Ū (Psittirostra psittacea)

‘Ō‘ū is a heavy-bodied, 7-inch Hawaiian 

honeycreeper with a thick hooked bill. Its 

upper and lower parts are colored in varying 

shades of olive-green; a bright yellow head 

distinguishes the male and an olive-green head 

denotes the female. ‘Ō‘ū historically occupied 

a wide range of forest habitats, extending 

from sea level to alpine areas, however their 

range was reduced to mid-elevation (3,000 

to 5,000 feet [900 to 1,500 meters]) mesic 

and wet ‘ōhi‘a forests with 47 to 98 inches of 

annual rainfall. It has been suggested that a 

peak in ‘ō‘ū nesting occurs during April and 

May, but nesting of this species has never been 

described and little is known of its breeding 

habits (USFWS 2006a).

‘Ō‘ū were once found on the islands of Kaua‘i, 

O‘ahu, Moloka‘i, Lāna‘i, Maui, and Hawai‘i, 

but the last verified sighting of the species 

was in 1989 on Kaua‘i. Within the park this 

honeycreeper is thought to be extirpated, and 

it may be extinct on the island of Hawai‘i. A 

few ‘ō‘ū were noted within ‘Ōla‘a Forest and 

near Nāhuku (Thurston Lava Tube) between 

1959 and 1961, but none were detected at 

Makaopuhi and Nāpau. Later detections in 

the park were in ‘Ōla‘a Forest in 1975 and 

1978, southeast of park headquarters in 1977, 

and in the eastern lowland forests (Kalapana 

area) in 1979. The last confirmed sighting of 

‘ō‘ū in the park was in ‘Ōla‘a Forest in 1987 

(Pratt et al. 2011).

Threats include modification and loss of 

habitat, avian malaria and other diseases, 

and predation. Introduced ungulates have 

caused forest degradation by reducing or 

eliminating forest habitat and food resources, 

and they have additionally created mosquito 

breeding sites, all of which threaten ‘ō‘ū and 

other forest birds (USFWS 2006a). Although 

a widespread and adaptable species, the 

‘ō‘ū may have been particularly susceptible 

because it favored lower elevations where 

these threats were (and continue to be) more 

severe (Pratt et al. 2011).
454 | Appendix H HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

HAWAIIAN PETREL; ‘UA‘U 

(Pterodroma sandwichensis)

The Hawaiian petrel is a pelagic seabird 

that ranges thousands of miles over the 

central tropical Pacific and nests only on 

the Hawaiian Islands (Audubon 2007). The 

‘ua‘u averages 16 inches in length, and has 

dark gray upperparts with a white forehead 

and underparts. When ‘ua‘u are not at 

open sea, their nesting habitat includes bare 

rock, talus slopes, or the edges of lava flow 

(USFWS 1983). In the park, Hawaiian petrels 

nest in colonies primarily above 8,000 feet 

elevation on Mauna Loa at several sites. At 

the Kahuku Unit on the western slope of 

Mauna Loa, nesting may extend down to 

5,500 feet elevation (Pratt et al. 2011). ‘Ua‘u 

are long-lived and lay only a single egg per 

year, making this species very susceptible 

to population declines. ‘Ua‘u return to the 

same nesting burrows every year, entering 

and exiting their burrows only at night. In 

the park, nesting season begins typically in 

April and extends into December. Monitoring 

for nesting activity is not comprehensive, 

but approximately 30 to 60 active nests 

are estimated annually for the Mauna Loa 

Unit. Nesting activity occurs at Kahuku, 

but the number of nests is unknown. Young 

birds, identified by traces of natal down, 

occasionally are found in November on roads 

or near lighted buildings. These individuals 

were on their nocturnal fledgling journey to 

the sea and collided with some obstruction or 

became disoriented by artificial lighting. Once 

at sea, Hawaiian petrels are rarely sighted 

from shore. The primary threat is predation 

by introduced feral cats and mongooses (Pratt 

et al. 2011). Habitat destruction by nonnative 

ungulates outside the park and disorientation 

by artificial lights are additional limiting 

factors for this species.

Threatened 

NEWELL’S SHEARWATER; ‘A‘O (Puffinus 

auricularis newelli)

Ranging from 12 to 14 inches in length, this 

small- to medium-sized seabird has black 

upperparts, which sharply contrast with its 

white undersides (USFWS 1983). Newell’s 

shearwater is a highly pelagic species that 

forages over deep water east and south of 

Hawai‘i (Audubon 2007; Holmes et al. 2011). 

Colonies are typically located in areas of open 

native forest dominated by ‘ōhi‘a, with a dense 

understory of uluhe fern (Holmes et al. 2011). 

Newell’s shearwater typically requires an 

open, downhill flight path to become airborne 

and thus favors ridge crests or embankments 

for its nesting habitat (USFWS 1983). Nesting 

occurs from April through November, during 

which time the shearwater lays a single egg 

(Holmes et al. 2011). Nests can be found in 

burrows or in deep crevices of high-elevation 

forests (Audubon 2007). Pushed to extremes 

to avoid predation by pigs, mongooses, and 

cats, they now nest almost entirely on slopes 

that exceed 65 degrees (Audubon 2007; 

Holmes et al. 2011), such as at Makaopuhi 

Crater in the park. In the past this species was 

documented nesting at the crater, until the site 

was overrun by lava in 1972 (USFWS 1994b). 

In summer 2005, researchers were unable to 

document nesting by ‘a‘o in the park, though 

several incidental auditory detections by 

park staff in 2003 and 2005 suggest that this 

species still occurs in the park (Swift and BurtToland 2009). Threats include depredation 

by introduced predators, collision with 

powerlines, disorienting artificial lights, and 

degradation of habitat by feral ungulates 

(Audubon 2007; Holmes et al. 2011).

Candidate

BAND-RUMPED STORM PETREL; ‘AKE‘AKE 

(Oceanodroma castro)

This small seabird is dark sooty-brown in 

color with a distinctive white band across the 

rump. Listed as endangered by the state of 

Hawai‘i, the species is uncommon in Hawai‘i, 

seen only during the breeding season of 

April through November (Pratt et al. 2011). 

Breeding habitats are not known, but breeding 

is suspected on Hawai‘i, Kaua‘i, and possibly 

Maui. Within the park, high-elevation (greater 

than 8,000 feet) nesting is suspected on 

Mauna Loa. Birds have been identified in the 

area and at least two predated carcasses have 

been recovered, however nest sites have not 

been documented. The band-rumped storm 

petrel is threatened by introduced predators 

as well as disorienting artificial lights and 

powerlines (Pratt et al. 2011). 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix H | 455 

REPTILES

Endangered

HAWKSBILL TURTLE; HONU‘EA 

(Eretmochelys imbricata)

This endangered sea turtle is largely 

recognized by its small size (carapace 

length is less than 37 inches), narrow head 

with distinctive hawk-like beak, and thick, 

overlapping shell scutes on the carapace 

(NMFS and USFWS 1998b). Hawksbill turtles 

occur along the shoreline and surrounding 

waters of the island (Seitz et al. 2012). They 

are typically found feeding in the vicinity of 

rock or reef habitats in shallow tropical waters 

with little turbidity (NMFS and USFWS 

1998b). Preferred nesting habitat consists 

primarily of low-energy sandy beaches 

within the cover of woody vegetation; in 

these situations the condition of the substrate 

appears to be less important for successful 

nesting than the proximity of the vegetative 

cover to the water’s edge (NMFS and USFWS 

1998b). Hawksbill nests are monitored 

and protected at ‘Āpua Point, Halapē, and 

Keauhou within the park (Seitz et al. 2012). 

Nesting season begins in late May and extends 

to December, with peak nesting activity 

occurring from late July to early September. 

During nesting, a female hawksbill crawls 

ashore at night to search for suitable habitat. 

Primary threats to the hawksbill on the main 

Hawaiian Islands include human development 

and activities (artificial lights, vehicles driving 

in nesting habitat), nonnative predators (e.g., 

rats, mongoose, and cats), and beach erosion 

(NMFS and USFWS 1998b).

Threatened

GREEN SEA TURTLE; HONU 

(Chelonia mydas)

The green turtle is the largest of the 

cheloniids: adults can exceed three feet (one 

meter) in carapace length and 220 pounds 

(100 kilograms) in body mass. This turtle 

is characterized by its green subdermal fat, 

smooth carapace with four pairs of lateral 

scutes, a single pair of prefrontal scales, and 

a lower jaw-edge that is coarsely serrated 

(NMFS and USFWS 1998a). Green turtles 

are most commonly found in fairly shallow 

waters (except when migrating) inside reefs, 

bays, and inlets. They prefer lagoons and 

shoals with an abundance of marine grass 

and algae and require open beaches with a 

sloping platform and minimal disturbance 

for nesting (USFWS 2009h). Nesting season 

varies with the locality but is typically April 

through October in Hawai‘i, with peak nesting 

from June to early August (Neithammer et 

al. 1997). The green sea turtle may forage 

offshore and occasionally haul out to bask on 

the park’s beaches, but there are no known 

nesting sites at the park (Pratt et al. 2011). 

Threats to the green sea turtle include nest 

predation and destruction/degradation of 

nesting and foraging habitats by pollution and 

development (NMFS and USFWS 1998a). 

CRUSTACEANS

Candidate

ANCHIALINE POOL SHRIMP 

(Metabetaeus lohena)

This pale pink to brilliant red shrimp grows 

up to 0.7 inches (18 millimeters) in length 

(USFWS 2012). Within the Hawaiian Islands, 

this species is known to occur in low- to 

high-salinity anchialine pools. Anchialine 

pools are rare and localized brackish waters 

along coastal lava flows that are subject 

to tidal fluctuations but are not openly 

connected to the ocean (USFWS 2012; 

USGS 2005b). Recent surveys (2004–09) for 

Metabetaeus in the national parks in Hawaiʻi 

have documented that it is widespread within 

this unique habitat type (Pratt et al. 2011). 

Identified threats to this species include 

coastal development (filling/destroying pools, 

groundwater withdrawal, and groundwater 

pollution), introduction of nonnative fish and, 

possibly, sea level rise associated with climate 

change (USGS 2005b).

INSECTS

Endangered

Drosophila digressa

The proposed common name for this species 

is the “Pāpala picture-wing,” because of 

its close association with the plant named 

Pāpala, Charpentiera obovata. D. digressa
456 | Appendix H HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

generally occurs in mesic to wet forests 

ranging in elevation from 4,200 to 4,600 feet 

and is endemic to the island of Hawai‘i (78 

FR 64638-64690). In the park, host plants of 

suitable size to provide breeding habitat are 

limited to ‘Ōla‘a Forest but, like Clermontia 

Hawai‘iensis, Pāpala once grew large in 

montane mesic kipuka of the park (Pratt et 

al 2011). Park staff have been replanting it in 

mesic sites over the last several decades, but 

the trees have not yet reached the stature as 

those in ‘Ōla‘a Forest, where D. digressa has 

been found. Feral pigs degrade and destroy 

host plants and habitat in ‘Ōla‘a Forest by 

directly trampling plants and spreading 

nonnative plant seeds (78 FR 64638-64690). In 

addition, feral pigs probably eat young plants 

and uproot them while digging in the soil for 

invertebrates, and nonnative plants degrade 

host plant habitat and compete for light, space, 

and nutrients (Federal Register [Vol. 73, No 

238:75176-75244], published on December 

10, 2008). The greatest threat to this species 

is loss of host plants (Federal Register [Vol. 

78, No 209:64638-64690], published on 

October 29, 2013): in areas where pigs have 

been removed, the black twig-borer can 

also cause serious damage to Charpentiera. 

Direct predation by nonnative social insects, 

particularly yellowjacket wasps, is also a 

serious threat (Federal Register [Vol. 73, No 

238:75176-75244], published on December 

10, 2008). Drosophila digressa has been 

known to occur in the park but is currently 

only known from the Manukā Natural 

Area Reserve and the ‘Ōla‘a Forest Reserve. 

(Federal Register [Vol. 78, No 209:64638-

64690], published on October 29, 2013).

Drosophila heteroneura

The picture-wing Drosophila have been 

referred to as the “birds of paradise” of the 

insect world, due to their relatively large 

size (0.17 to 0.25 inches), colorful wing 

patterns, and the territorial behaviors and 

elaborate courtship displays of males (USFWS 

2006b). This species breeds predominantly 

in Clermontia species (‘oha) and other 

lobelioids. Breeding normally occurs yearround, but egg-laying and larval development 

increase following the rainy season as the 

availability of decaying matter, which the flies 

feed on (USFWS 2008a). D. heteroneura is 

considered endemic to the island of Hawai‘i 

where it was once known to be relatively 

widely distributed between 3,400 and 6,000 

feet above sea level. Its historical range in the 

park includes Kahuku Ranch, in addition to 

‘Ōla‘a and Thurston Lava Tube area (Pratt 

et al. 2011). In the 1930s, visitors to the park 

were directed to montane mesic forest kipuka 

to see one of the species’ major host plants, 

Clermontia Hawai‘iensis. These mesic kipukas 

were used as cattle paddocks as recently as the 

1940s, and loss of these plants in many areas 

of the park can likewise be directly attributed 

to ungulate activity. There currently appear 

to be three documented extant populations: 

one on private land at Hualālai Volcano where 

the species was last observed in 1993; a site at 

approximately 4,436 feet above sea level near a 

host plant species, Clermontia clermontioides, 

last observed in 1998; and at the Kona Unit of 

the Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge, 

last observed in 2001 (USFWS 2006b). 

The historical distribution of Drosophila 

heteroneura in the park is probably limited 

by decreased forest cover or loss of suitable 

food material as a result of past and current 

feral ungulate activity. In addition, fire and the 

resulting invasion of fire-adapted nonnative 

plants threaten habitat of this species in dry 

to mesic grassland, shrubland, and forests on 

the island (USFWS 2008a). Critical habitat 

for this species has been designated on 4,582 

acres on Hawai‘i Island, 687 acres of which 

are in the park.

FLYING EARWIG; HAWAIIAN DAMSELFLY 

(Megalagrion nesiotes)

This insect is a large and elongated damselfly, 

endemic to Hawai‘i. Males are up to five 

centimeters long and are a silvery blue-grey 

color. Females are predominantly brownish 

in color (Pratt et al. 2011). The species is 

currently known to occur in streambanks in 

moist to wet montane forest from about 1,000 

to 3,000 feet on East Maui; it was last observed 

here in 2005. The most recent observations 

have come from dense banks of uluhe fern 

mats (Dicranopteris linearis). Its habits suggest 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix H | 457 

that immatures may inhabit damp fern litter, 

similar to a related species (Megalagrion 

oahuense) on the island of O‘ahu. Extensive 

tracts of uluhe fern habitat in the park have 

not yet been surveyed for this damselfly, and 

without such surveys it is premature to state 

that the species is extirpated from Hawai‘i 

Island and the park. Threats to this species 

include agriculture, urban development, and 

habitat modification by pigs and nonnative 

plants (Federal Register [Vol. 74, No 

129:32490-32510], published on July 8, 2009).

Threatened

Drosophila mulli

The proposed common name for Drosophila 

mulli is Mull’s picture-wing. This species has 

very few markings on its thorax and wings 

compared to most other picture-wings. 

Similar to D. heteroneura, this species is 

restricted to the island of Hawai‘i. D. mulli has 

only been observed on or under Pritchardia 

beccariana, which occurs in the park at ‘Ōla‘a 

Forest Reserve at approximately 3,200 feet 

above sea level (Pratt et al. 2011). There are 

several concentrations of this palm in adjacent 

state forest reserves, and the USFWS has 

identified at least two separate populations of 

the fly based on collections from Pritchardia. 

Rats and nonnative beetles are both 

unchecked seed predators of the palm, and no 

fencing or rat control has been implemented 

in the state reserve. The last recorded 

observation at the ‘Ōla‘a Forest Reserve site 

occurred in 2001 (USFWS 2006b). Similar to 

other picture-wing fly species, primary threats 

include nonnative wasp predation and loss 

of host plants. Many hosts of drosophilids 

are extremely susceptible to damage from 

nonnative ungulates, especially when 

combined with competition from nonnative 

plants. In addition, microclimate alteration, 

such as opening of the canopy or understory, 

may adversely affect the flies, either directly 

through increased desiccation or by causing 

host plants to dry more rapidly and rot 

differently (Magnacca et al. 2008).

Candidate

ORANGE-BLACK DAMSELFLY 

(Megalagrion xanthomelas)

Megalagrion xanthomelas is called the 

“orange-black” Hawaiian damselfly because 

males of this species are duller and more 

orange in color compared to many other 

species in this genus. M. xanthomelas is 

generally most abundant at sea level and can 

develop large populations in spring-fed and 

even brackish coastal wetlands (Jordan et 

al. 2005). This endemic Hawaiian damselfly 

historically existed within the park (Pratt et 

al. 2011), and most of the present-known 

populations of this species are associated with 

anchialine pools. This species suffers from the 

same threats as those listed for Metabetaeus 

lohena (above). The fresh and brackish 

pools used for breeding are commonly 

threatened by development, and very few of 

these habitats are protected. In Hawai‘I, only 

three national park units contain suitable 

breeding habitat for this species, all of which 

are located on the west coast of Hawai‘i 

Island (USGS 2005b).

PLANTS

Endangered

PENDANT KIHI FERN; PALAI LĀ‘AU 

(Adenophorus periens)

Palai lā‘au is a small to medium-sized 

epiphytic (not rooted on the ground) fern. Its 

yellowish green fronds taper at each end and 

are usually between 4 to 16 inches long and 

covered with hairs (Pratt et al. 2011; USFWS 

1999). Currently, palai lā‘au is restricted to 

Hawai‘i, Moloka‘i, and Kaua‘i at 2,300 to 

4,260 feet in elevation. The largest Hawai‘I

Island population is in Kahauale‘a Natural 

Area Reserve, adjacent to the park (Pratt 

et al. 2011). It is possible that this species is 

extirpated from the park (Pratt et al. 2011). 

Historically, this species was found growing 

on trees in wet forests in the East Rift near 

or on Kane Nui o Hamo as late as the 1980s 

(Pratt et al. 1999). Unconfirmed reports 

also indicate this species may have been 

found in the ‘Ōla‘a Forest area of the park 

(Higashino et al. 1988). On the island of 

Hawai‘i, the primary threat to this species is 
458 | Appendix H HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

habitat degradation by pigs, which damage 

the understory plants, altering the moist, 

shady conditions apparently required by 

the fern. Other threats include infestation 

and replacement of native wet forest with 

nonnative plant species (namely strawberry 

guava), habitat destruction by fires, and fumes 

from volcanic eruptions. As of 1999, it is 

estimated that the total number of individuals 

in the state may be less than 2,000 (USFWS 

1999). Park recovery efforts have included 

fencing to exclude feral ungulates and 

controlling nonnative plants from portions of 

wet forest in the East Rift and ‘Ōla‘a areas.

KA‘Ū; MAUNA LOA SILVERSWORD 

(Argyroxiphium kauense)

Ka‘ū is a single stemmed or sparingly 

branched rosette shrub that reaches 

approximately eight feet tall when flowering, 

and is topped by a rosette of silvery hairy 

leaves. Flowering generally occurs in August 

to September (Pratt et al. 2011). Endemic 

to the island of Hawai‘i, Ka‘ū is known 

from three sites on Mauna Loa from 5,330 

to 6,230 feet (1,625 to 1,900 meters) in 

elevation: Kahuku Unit, Kapāpala Forest 

Reserve, and Upper Waiākea Forest Reserve 

(Pratt et al. 2011). The only naturally 

occurring population in the park contains 

approximately 700 individuals in a fenced 

exclosure at Kahuku at approximately 6,000 

feet (1,829 meters) in a woodland transition 

between closed forest and subalpine. Ka‘ū 

was introduced to the park’s Mauna Loa 

Unit in 1975, and in 1999–2005 thousands of 

seedlings were planted in two exclosures on 

the Mauna Loa Strip near 7,000 feet (2,135 

meters) in elevation. Plantings have also been 

made in three new ungulate-proof exclosures 

at Kahuku (Pratt et al. 2011). In total, over 

15,000 individuals have been planted inside 

protected fenced units in the park.

Individuals were first documented at Kahuku 

in the 1950s and were originally named A. 

sandwicense var. kauense. The named variety 

was elevated to its own species in 1957 

and listed as endangered in 1993. Surveys 

conducted by Jacobi and Warshauer in the 

1970s indicated more plants were present 

30 years ago than today. Jacobi estimated the 

extent of Ka‘ū occurrence to be at least 10 

times the current range at Kahuku (Jacobi 

and Warshauer 2006, as cited in Benitez et al. 

2008). The small population sizes and possible 

inbreeding depression may pose threats to the 

species (USFWS 1996b). The most immediate 

threats, however, are nonnative ungulates, 

primarily sheep, mouflon sheep, goats, and 

pigs (Pratt et al. 2011; USFWS 1996b). Critical 

habitat was designated for this species in four 

units totaling 35,657 acres on the island of 

Hawai‘i (USFWS 2009d). Part of its critical 

habitat is found in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park (Leonard 2009). The primary constituent 

elements for Ka‘ū are as follows:

• Landform/forest type: moist, open 

forest; subalpine mesic shrubland; 

bogs; and weathered, old pāhoehoe 

or ‘a‘ā lava with well-developed 

pockets of soil.

• Plant community: Asplenium 

peruvianum var. insulare, Carex 

alligata, Carex sp., Coprosoma 

ernodeoides, Coprosoma montana, 

Deschampsia nubigena, Dodonaea 

vascosa, Dubautia ciliolata, Gahnia 

gahniiformis, Geranium cuneatum, 

Leptecophylla tameiameiae, 

Metrosideros polymorpha, Plantago 

hawaiensis, Rhynchospora 

chinensis, Silene Hawai‘iensis, or 

Vaccinium reticulatum.

• Elevation: from 5,193 to 

8,024 feet (1,583 to 2,246 

meters) (USFWS 2003).

AHINAHINA; MAUNA KEA SILVERSWORD 

(Argyroxiphium sandwicense 

subsp. sandwicense)

Ahinahina, Argyroxiphium sandwicense 

subsp. sandwicense is a tall, tap-rooted plant 

that produces a dense cluster of basal leaves 

preceding the formation of a flowering stalk 

some time later in its life cycle. An individual 

typically flowers only once during its life, or 

more infrequently it can form branches from 

near the base, each of which flowers and 

subsequently dies back (Wagner et al. 1999; 

USFWS 1993). Currently, the only known 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix H | 459 

natural populations of this plant are on the 

slopes of Mauna Kea on the island of Hawai‘i. 

In addition, a small number of individuals 

have been planted at other places, including 

in the park. This species in vulnerable to 

any substantial habitat alteration, and faces 

the present threat of elimination through 

grazing and trampling by feral animals, and 

the potential threat of damage by insect larvae 

(USFWS 1986). There is no critical habitat 

designated for this species.

Mauna Kea silversword is not native to 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park. A small 

number of Mauna Kea silverswords were 

planted at Pu`u `Ula`ula, the end of the Mauna 

Loa Road, and within 2 exclosures along the 

Mauna Loa Trail in 1973-1975. Plantings were 

also made at Kilauea Military Camp and the 

Uwekahuna/Kīlauea Overlook area. Most died 

or were removed as inappropriate plantings in 

the 1970s (N. Zimmer, unpublished data), and 

it is unlikely that plants of this species persist 

in the park (Pratt et. al. 2011).

Asplenium peruvianum var. insulare 

Asplenium fragile var. insulare, a member 

of the spleenwort family (Aspleniaceae), is 

an endangered fern with a short suberect 

stem and leaf stalks from 2 to 6 inches long 

(USFWS 1998b). This species is currently 

known to occur in eight populations on 

Hawai‘i between elevations of 5,250 and 

7,800 feet; those nearest to the park are Kūlani 

Correctional Facility, Kapāpala, and Ka‘ū 

Forest Reserves (Pratt et al. 2011; USFWS 

1998b). A. fragile var. insulare was historically 

collected at additional sites on Mauna Kea, 

Mauna Loa, Hualālai, and near Hilo (Pratt 

et al. 2011). The Mauna Loa Unit above 5,500 

feet (1,680 meters) in elevation and Kahuku 

Unit above 6,030 feet (1,840 meters) contain 

the only known populations of this fern in 

the park. One lava tube in the Mauna Loa 

Unit has supported a population of A. fragile

var. insulare since 1943 (Pratt et al. 2011). 

At Kahuku, this species was found at four 

subalpine sites above Ka‘ū Forest Reserve 

(Benitez et al. 2008; Pratt et al. 2011). In 

the park, this species is known to occur in 

subalpine, montane seasonal, and alpine/

aeolian environments, which are described 

in the Chapter 5 (NPS 2005; USFWS 1998b). 

It is generally restricted to large-diameter, 

moist lava tubes at high elevation (Benitez et 

al. 2008; Pratt et al. 2011). The fern is typically 

found on tube walls and ceilings in the lighted 

zone near the opening, but some individuals 

have been found in deep, dark recesses of 

lava tubes. The fern has also been observed 

growing in lava cracks and on cliffs (Pratt 

et al. 2011). Feral goats and mouflon sheep 

are potential threats to Asplenium fragile

var. insulare, although it seems to persist in 

lava tubes (Pratt et al. 2011; USFWS 1998b). 

Additional threats may include nonnative 

plant species that infest lava tubes, such as 

common mullein (Verbascum thaspus) (Pratt et 

al. 2011). Park recovery efforts have included 

fencing to exclude feral ungulates and control 

of mullein in the Mauna Loa Unit.

Uhiuhi (Caesalpinia kavaiensis)

Uhiuhi is a medium-sized tree up to 35 

feet (10 meters) tall with rough, dark bark 

and a spreading crown. The wood is highly 

valued for its color, grain and density. Early 

Hawaiians took advantage of the wood’s high 

density to make a fishing implement that sinks 

rather that floats (USFWS 1994a). About 50 

individuals of uhiuhi are known on the islands 

of Hawai‘i, O‘ahu, and Lana‘i, as of 2010. This 

species is found on the dry leeward side of the 

island. Wildfire, the black twig borer insect, 

and nonnative ungulate are the main threats to 

this species (USFWS n.d.).

Uhiuhi is not native to Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park, but was planted at several 

localities between 1924 and 1979. More than 

18 trees were planted around Kīpukapuaulu, 

Old Volcano House near Park Headquarters, 

Nāmakanipaio, Kīpuka Nēnē, and Hilina Pali 

between 1924 and 1958; these had all died 

by 1967 (Morris 1967). An additional 125 

seedlings were out-planted at upper `Āinahou 

Ranch in 1974-1979 from material collected at 

Pu`uwa`awa`a. Surviving plants were removed 

to arboreta in 1980 (N. Zimmer, unpublished 

data). This species is likely no longer present 

at the park (Pratt et. al. 2011).
460 | Appendix H HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

LINDSEY’S ‘ŌHĀ WAI 

(Clermontia lindseyana)

Lindsey’s ‘ōhā wai is a perennial tree that 

grows from approximately eight to 20 feet tall. 

It can be either terrestrial or epiphytic, living 

on the surface of other plants (Pratt et al. 

2011; USFWS 1996a). The extant populations 

of Lindsey’s ‘ōhā wai grow on Hawai‘i Island 

and the leeward slopes of Haleakalā, East 

Maui (Pratt et al. 2011). On the island of 

Hawai‘i, plants have been reported from 

eastern Mauna Kea and eastern, southeastern, 

and southwestern Mauna Loa at elevations 

above 4,300 feet (Benitez et al. 2008; USFWS 

1996a). In 1996, there were 12 known 

populations and 86 individuals thought to 

persist on the island. In the park, this species 

is known to occur naturally in several sites 

in the Kahuku Unit. These sites were found 

in mesic to wet ‘ōhi‘a forest adjacent to the 

Ka‘ū Forest Reserve at 5,905 to 6,234 feet in 

elevation (Benitez et al. 2008; Pratt et al. 2011). 

The major threats to Lindsey’s ‘ōhā wai are 

trampling and grazing by cattle, trampling 

and browsing by goats, and rooting and 

trampling by pigs (USFWS 1996a). A 2008 

survey indicated extensive damage from pig 

activity and either feral cattle or mouflon 

sheep browsing in the areas of Kahuku where 

‘ōhā wai were observed (Benitez et al. 2008). 

Currently the species is protected in ungulatefree exclosures only in Hakalau Forest, Kūlani, 

and Kīlauea Forest Reserves and as planted 

individuals inside fenced exclosures in the 

Mauna Loa and Kahuku Units of the park. 

A 2008 survey indicated extensive damage 

to naturally occurring individuals from pig 

activity and either feral cattle or mouflon 

sheep browsing in the areas of Kahuku where 

‘ōhā wai were observed (Benitez et al. 2008).

PELE’S ‘ŌHĀ WAI (Clermontia peleana 

SUBSP. peleana)

Pele’s ‘ōhā wai is an epiphytic shrub or small 

tree that grows between five and 20 feet tall on 

large ‘ōhi‘a, koa, and ‘olapa trees (Pratt et al. 

2011; USWFS 1996a). Endemic to the islands 

of Maui and Hawai‘i, plants have been found 

in rainforests of East Maui, and windward 

Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa between 1,740 

to 3,770 feet elevation (Pratt et al. 2011; 

USFWS 1996a). In 1996, there were four 

known populations on the island of Hawai‘i, 

consisting of a total of eight individuals (Pratt 

et al. 2011). This species was thought to be 

extinct in the wild when the last individual 

died by 2000. Recently, six individuals were 

discovered along the Wailuku River. Major 

habitat destruction resulting from nonnative 

ungulates, particularly pigs, is a primary cause 

of the decline of this taxon. Slugs are also 

thought to be a limiting factor. Since 2001, 

the park has planted nearly 400 individuals 

in protected sites in the park’s ‘Ōla‘a Forest 

from which feral pigs have been removed 

(Pratt et al. 2011).

HĀHĀ (Cyanea hamatiflora SSP. carlsonii)

This species is a palm-like tree that grows 

to a height of approximately 10 to 26 feet 

tall. It is typically found in ‘ōhi‘a-dominated 

montane wet forests at elevations between 

4,000 and 5,700 feet (USFWS 1996a). There 

are only two known extant populations, 

both on the island of Hawai‘i, located on 

privately and state-owned land at Honuaula 

Forest Reserve and Keokea. At the time of 

federal listing, the two populations contained 

approximately 19 individuals. The declining 

Honuaula population currently has only 

2 individuals, and the Keokea population 

contains 15 individuals (USFWS 2009e). Two 

subpopulations were planted in 1995 and 

1996 in the native range: 45 individuals at 

Honuaula Forest Reserve and 6 individuals 

at Pu‘uwa‘awa‘a (USFWS 1996a). In 

addition, two individuals were outplanted 

in a fenced area in South Kona in 2006 and 

one in Kīpāhoehoe Natural Area Reserve in 

2008. The current status of the outplanted 

individuals, however, is not known (USFWS 

2009e). Nonnative plants are a serious threat 

to the long-term survival of this species. In 

addition, grazing and trampling by cattle and 

uprooting by feral pigs degrade habitat and 

open major sites for nonnative plant invasion 

(USFWS 1996a). Although no plants have 

been documented in the park, designated 

critical habitat for hāhā lies adjacent to 

the park (Leonard 2009). As mentioned 

previously, the ESA requires that such actions 

avoid “destruction” or “adverse modification” 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix H | 461 

of designated critical habitat (USFWS 2009b). 

The primary constituent elements for this 

species on the island of Hawai‘i are as follows:

• Landform/forest type: Mesic 

montane forest dominated by Acacia 

koa or Metrosideros polymorpha.

• Plant community: Athyrium

sp., Cibotium spp., Clermontia 

clermontioides, Coprosma sp., 

Dryopteris sp., Hedyotis sp., Ilex 

anomala, Myoporum sandwicense, or 

Sophora chrysophylla.

• Elevation: 4,482 to 5,759 feet (1,366 

to 1,755 meters) (USFWS 2003).

HĀHĀ (Cyanea shipmanii)

C. shipmanii is a small unbranched or sparsely 

branched shrub that grows to a height of 

eight to 13 feet (2.5 to 4 meters). This species 

is distinguished by its small flowers, slender 

stems, and stalked and divided leaves. 

Preferred habitat includes montane mesic 

forest dominated by ‘ōhi‘a on the windward 

slopes of Hawai‘i, at elevations between 5,400 

and 6,200 feet. At the time of federal listing 

in 1994, only four populations were known, 

containing fewer than 10 individuals (USFWS 

1996a). By 2007, the species had declined 

to only 2 extant wild individuals in Upper 

Waiākea Forest Reserve and Pu‘u Kipu Unit 

of the Kīlauea Forest Reserve (USFWS 2009f). 

Just outside the park, a lone individual of C. 

shipmanii was recently discovered along the 

Kahuku boundary (PEPP 2009). Major threats 

to this species include nonnative ungulates 

and nonnative plant species (USFWS 1996a; 

USFWS 2009f). In particular, the remaining 

wild individual in the Upper Waiākea Forest 

Reserve is threatened from habitat destruction 

due to pigs and herbivory or disturbance by 

sheep. The Kīlauea populations are at risk 

from fruit and seed predation by rats 

(USFWS 2009f).

HĀHĀ; HA‘IWALE; KANAWAO KE‘OKE‘O 

(Cyanea stictophylla)

C. stictophylla is a small tree or shrub 

approximately 2 to 20 feet in height. The 

stems are sparsely branched and occasionally 

equipped with sharp outgrowths. Hāhā is 

distinguished from other taxa in the genus 

by its large, deeply lobed flowers and small 

calyx lobes (USFWS 1996a). This species 

is endemic to the island of Hawai‘i, and 

is known from Kona and Ka‘ū districts at 

elevations of 4,590–6,400 feet (Pratt et al. 

2011). Preferred habitat of hāhā is generally 

lowland to montane, mesic to wet forest 

dominated by ‘ōhia‘a and koa (USFWS 

1996a). In Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, 

two plants were discovered inside a pit crater, 

which is not accessible to ungulates, located 

in the Kahuku pasture/mesic forest zone 

at 3,281 feet elevation (Benitez et al. 2008; 

Pratt et al. 2011). In 1996, there were three 

known populations and fewer than 20 known 

individuals on the island of Hawai‘i, with 46 

outplanted individuals persisting in exclosures 

on Pu‘uwa‘awa‘a and Ka‘ū Forest Reserves. 

The primary reasons for decline of this species 

are destruction of habitat by cattle grazing 

and feral pigs (USFWS 1996a). Feral goats and 

mouflon sheep are also threats to this softwooded species (Pratt et al. 2011). The park is 

currently propagating and planting individuals 

inside protected exclosures. Critical habitat 

for this species is found in Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park (Leonard 2009). The primary 

constituent elements for C. stictophylla on the 

island of Hawai‘i are as follows:

• Landform/forest type: Acacia koa or 

wet Metrosideros polymorpha forests.

• Plant community: Cibotium sp., 

Melicope spp., Urera glabra.

• Elevation: 3,466 to 6,288 feet (1,056 

to 1,917 meters) (USFWS 2003).

‘AKŪ (Cyanea tritomantha)

Cyanea tritomantha (‘akū), a palm-like shrub 

in the bellflower family (Campanulaceae), 

is known only from the island of Hawai‘i 

(Pratt and Abbott 1997; Lammers 2004). 

Historically, this species was known from 

the windward slopes of Mauna Kea, Mauna 

Loa, Kīlauea, and the Kohala Mountains, 

in the lowland wet, montane wet, and wet 

cliff ecosystems (Pratt and Abbott 1997, p. 

13). Currently, there are 16 occurrences of 

Cyanea tritomantha totaling fewer than 400 

individuals in the lowland wet, montane wet, 
462 | Appendix H HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

and wet cliff ecosystems. In Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park, a survey conducted between 

1992 and 1994 documented six plants ‘Ōla‘a 

Tract (Pratt and Abbott 1997). At least two 

of these individuals have died. An additional 

five plants were mapped between 2009 and 

2010, two of which have since died or could 

not be re-located. Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park also likely contains suitable habitat for 

Cyanea tritomantha in the East Rift forests. 

There is a published record of an individual 

in Puna Forest Reserve (Lamoureux et al. 

1985). In 2001 and 2002, 68 individuals 

were outplanted in Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park’s ‘Ōla‘a Tracts; however, by 

2010, less than one third of these individuals 

remained. Cyanea tritomantha produces 

few seeds, and their viability tends to be 

low (Moriyasu 2009, in litt.). This species is 

threated by the destruction of habitat from 

nonnative ungulates.

HA‘IWALE (Cyrtandra giffardii)

Cyrtandra giffardii is a small shrubby tree 

that grows from 10 to 20 feet in height with 

opposite leaves positioned on the upper 

nodes of the stem. The habitat for this species 

is found in mesic/wet forest environments 

dominated by tree fern at elevations between 

2,400 and 4,900 feet. In 1996, there were 11 

known populations and more than 1,000 

known individuals on the island of Hawai‘i. As 

of 1994, 90 known individuals occurred in the 

Koa and Pu‘u fenced units of ‘Ōla‘a Forest in 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park. Subsequent 

surveys identified several plants in adjacent 

fenced units (Pratt et al. 2011). The major 

threat to Haʻiwale is rooting and trampling 

by pigs and competition from invasive plants 

Known plants in the park are in areas that 

have been fenced and managed to exclude 

pigs and control of nonnative plants are 

carried out in portions of these units (USFWS 

1996a). Critical habitat for this species is 

found in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

(Leonard 2009). The primary constituent 

elements for C. giffardii on the island of 

Hawai‘i are as follows:

• Landform/forest type: wet montane 

forest dominated by Cibotium sp. 

or Metrosideros polymorpha, and 

Metrosideros polymorpha–Acacia koa

lowland wet forests.

• Plant community: Astelia 

menziesiana, Diplazium 

sandwichianum, Hedyotis terminalis, 

Perrottetia sandwicensis, or other 

species of Cyrtandra.

• Elevation: 2,146 to 4,723 feet (654 to 

1,440 meters) (USFWS 2003).

HA‘IWALE (Cyrtandra tintinnabula)

This endangered small shrub grows from 

approximately three to seven feet in height. 

Its papery, toothed leaf blades are moderately 

covered with yellow-brown hairs. C. 

tintinnabula grows in lowland wet/mesic 

forest environments dominated by dense koa, 

‘ōhi‘a, and tree fern (USFWS 1996a). This 

species is endemic to the island of Hawai‘i 

and generally occurs between 2,390 and 3,410 

feet elevation (Pratt et al. 2011). In 1996, 

there were three known populations and 18 

known individuals on the island of Hawai‘i 

(USFWS 1996a).In the park, C. tintinnabula

was discovered in July 2001 growing on the 

lower walls of a prominent geological feature 

(‘Ōla‘a Trench) and two adjacent craters in 

the northeast quarter of ‘Ōla‘a Forest at 3,609 

feet elevation (Pratt et al. 2011). Rooting and 

browsing by feral pigs directly damage and 

disturb the habitat of this species, breaking its 

weak and delicate stems. Because much of the 

native habitat is lost, appropriate pollinators 

may also be absent (USFWS 1996a).

HAU KUAHIWI 

(Hibiscadelphus giffardianus)

Hau kuahiwi is an endangered tree species 

that can grow up to 39 feet tall. Endemic to 

the island of Hawai‘i, this species occurs 

naturally only at Kīpukapuaulu near 4,000 

feet elevation (Pratt et al. 2011). When it was 

discovered in 1911, there was only one tree 

remaining, which was found on the edge of 

a collapsed lava tube on the southwestern 

edge of the kīpuka (Pratt et al. 2011). At the 

time of federal listing in 1996, hau kuahiwi 

was extinct in the wild and known only from 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix H | 463 

11 reintroduced individuals at Kīpukapuaulu 

in the park. Planted individuals are also 

found at Kīpuka Kī and a handful of sites 

in the montane seasonal environment of 

the Mauna Loa area, which is described in 

Chapter 5 (NPS 2005, 2009e; Pratt et al. 2011). 

As of 2008, the number of known planted 

individuals is estimated at over 400 (USFWS 

2008d). In the past, habitat degradation and 

predation by cattle and feral pigs, as well as 

goats, were major threats to hau kuahiwi. 

These threats have been controlled by the 

park, and all naturally occurring and planted 

individuals are in fenced areas. Current 

threats include competition from nonnative 

plant species, fire, and rats that strip the bark 

and eat the seeds (Pratt et al. 2011; USFWS 

2008d). In addition, the recently introduced 

two-spotted leaf hopper attacks the foliage 

of the plant species and may contribute to 

drought damage (Pratt et al. 2011). Critical 

habitat for this species is found in Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park (Leonard 2009). The 

primary constituent elements for hau kuahiwi 

on the island of Hawai‘i are as follows:

• Landform/forest type: mixed 

montane mesic forest.

• Plant community: Acacia 

koa, Coprosma rhynchocarpa, 

Dodonaea viscosa, Melicope spp., 

Metrosideros polymorpha, Myoporum 

sandwicense, Nestegis sandwicensis, 

Pipturus albidus, Psychotria sp., 

Sapindus saponaria.

• Elevation: 3,914 to 4,181 feet (1,193 

to 1,274 meters) (USFWS 2003).

HILO ISCHAEMUM (Ischaemum byrone)

This perennial grass is distinguished from 

other native Hawaiian grasses by its tough 

outer flower bracts and dissimilar basic flower 

units. It contains creeping underground stems 

and erect stems that grow from 16 to 31 inches 

in height (USFWS 1996a). This perennial 

grass is found in scattered locations on the 

windward coastlines of Maui, Moloka‘i, 

and Hawai‘i islands. In 1996, there were 17 

known populations and several thousand 

known individuals on the island of Hawai‘i 

(USFWS 1996a). In the park, Hilo ischaemum 

was found naturally along the immediate 

shoreline among boulders and rocks or in 

cracks in the pāhoehoe surface in the eastern 

coastal lowlands from Kamoamoa to Lae 

‘Apuki (Pratt et al. 2011). All of these sites 

were covered by lava flows from 1993 through 

2006. Plants were salvaged from the largest 

population at Kamoamoa, propagated ex situ, 

and their progeny were planted at Lae ‘Apuki, 

Hōlei Sea Arch, Kealakomo, Kahue, Ka‘aha, 

and Kalue in more western and drier locations 

than the naturally occurring populations. In 

2010, less than 1% of the planting survived, 

one of these plantings was at the eastern-most 

site at Hōlei Sea Arch. The most immediate 

threat to Hilo ischaemum in the park is lava 

flows. Feral goats may also be a potential 

threat (Pratt et al. 2011). Critical habitat for 

this species is found in Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park (Leonard 2009). The primary 

constituent elements for Hilo ischaemum on 

the island of Hawai‘i are as follows:

• Landform/forest type: coastal wet to 

dry shrubland; near the ocean; rocks 

or pāhoehoe lava in cracks and holes.

• Plant community: Fimbristylis 

cymosa, Scacevola taccada.

• Elevation: 0 to 91 feet (0 to 28 

meters) (USFWS 2003).

KOKI‘O (Kokia drynarioides) 

This small tree is endemic to the leeward 

slopes of Hualālai in North Kona on the 

island of Hawai‘i between 1,510 and 2,950 

feet elevation (Pratt et al. 2011; USFWS 

1994a). It reaches up to approximately 26 

feet tall and has shallowly lobed leaves with 

large, ornamental, scarlet flowers (Pratt et 

al. 2011). This tree inhabits dry forests on 

rough, relatively unweathered lava flows 

and is found in mid-elevation and montane 

seasonal environments (NPS 2005; USFWS 

1994a). Koki‘o is not historically known 

in the park; individuals were outplanted at 

Kīpukapuaulu, Kīpuka Kī, Kīpuka Nēnē, 

Hilina Pali, and ‘Āinahou Ranch between 

1924 and 1958, but only the Kīpuka Nēnē 

planting persists (Pratt et al. 2011). Currently, 

two populations exist: the first at Ka‘ūpūlehu, 

located outside the park, containing one 
464 | Appendix H HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

mature individual; and the second population 

at Kīpuka Nēnē, containing a single surviving 

individual. Seventy-five outplanted individuals 

at Ka‘ūpūlehu appear to be reproducing 

(USFWS 2009g). Fire is a serious threat to the 

remaining trees due to the invasion of fireprone nonnative grasses. Past threats included 

domestic cattle and feral goats, which browsed 

and damaged native trees of the dry forests 

of North Kona, and interfered with tree 

reproduction and recruitment. Insects such as 

Chinese rose beetle are also reported to attack 

koki‘o leaves (Pratt et al. 2011).

ZAHLBRUCKNER’S PELEA; ALANI 

(Melicope zahlbruckneri)

This endangered tree is endemic to the 

southeastern portion of the island of Hawai‘i 

and reaches approximately 33 to 39 feet tall. 

This tree is known from few sites, including 

Kīpukapuaulu and Moa‘ula in Ka‘ū District; 

Glenwood in Puna District; and recently 

reported from Laupāhoehoe Natural Area 

Reserve in Hamākua District (Pratt et al. 

2011). In Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, 

only one naturally occurring population of 

20 trees is known (Pratt et al. 2011) from 

montane seasonal forest in Kīpukapuaulu 

(Pratt et al. 2011). Four plants of alani have 

also been successfully planted at Kīpuka Kī 

(Pratt et al. 2011). Inside the park, ungulate 

threats have been controlled (USFWS 2008d). 

Current threats include seed predators, such 

as rats and insects; loss of natural pollinators; 

the recently introduced two-spotted leaf 

hopper; and competition from nonnative 

plant species (Pratt et al. 2011; USFWS 

2008d). Critical habitat for this species is 

found in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

(Leonard 2009). The primary constituent 

elements for alani on the island of Hawai‘i 

are as follows:

• Landform/forest type: Acacia koa–

Metroideros polymorpha dominated 

montane mesic forest.

• Plant community: Coprosma 

rhynchocarpa, Melicope spp., 

Myoporum sandwicense, Nestegis 

sandwicensis, Pipturus albidus, 

Pisonia brunoniana, Psychotria 

Hawai‘iensis, Sapindus saponaria, 

Zanthoxylum dipetalum.

• Elevation: 3,476 to 4,383 feet (1,060 

to 1,336 meters) (USFWS 2003).

MA‘ALOA (Neraudia ovata)

This endangered sprawling shrub is endemic 

to the leeward side of the island of Hawai‘i 

between 980 and 4,820 feet. Its stems can 

reach approximately three to nine feet long 

and male and female flowers are borne on 

separate plants. This shrub inhabits dry 

forests, open lava flows, and subalpine forest. 

Currently remaining natural populations of 

ma‘aloa include 14 to 18 mature individuals 

and up to 125 immature individuals. At the 

time of federal listing, the species was known 

from 11 individuals in two populations. In 

addition, plantings at various locations on the 

island, have resulted in approximately 327 

individuals (USFWS 2008b). While the natural 

population of ma‘aloa was extirpated from the 

park, individuals were recently planted near 

the presumed original site, as well as at Kīpuka 

Kī and several sites along Hilina Pali Road 

(Pratt et al. 2011). The plantings of ma‘aloa 

in the park are all in fenced units managed to 

exclude goats and mouflon sheep. Threats to 

this species include browsing by ungulates, 

competition with nonnative shrubs and 

grasses, and insects (particularly the spiraling 

whitefly) (Pratt et al. 2011).

‘AIEA (Nothocestrum breviflorum)

Endemic to the island of Hawai‘i at elevations 

of 1,800 to 6,000 feet, this tree species grows 

from approximately 33 to 39 feet in height. 

The trunk, about 18 inches in diameter, has 

a soft, sappy wood with dark brown bark. 

Habitats where ‘aiea are found include 

montane seasonal environments, lowland dry 

forest, montane dry forest, and montane mesic 

forest (USFWS 1996a). Individuals generally 

occur on ‘a‘ā lava substrates at elevations 

ranging from 260 to 6,000 feet. In 1996, there 

were six known populations on the island of 

Hawai‘i. In the park, this species was reported 

from dry forest near 1,804 feet to mesic forest 

at 4,300 feet (Pratt et al. 2011). The species was 

lost from these historical sites and exists in the 

park today only as plantings in Kīpukapuaulu 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix H | 465 

and Nāulu in areas fenced and protected 

from nonnative goats, mouflon sheep and 

cattle (Pratt et al. 2011). On the island, this 

species has been negatively impacted by cattle 

and sheep grazing, and by the introduction 

of nonnative plant taxa such as Brazilian 

peppertree, which may afford enough fuel to 

support a destructive fire (USFWS 1996a).

HŌLEI (Ochrosia kilaueaensis)

Hōlei is a medium-sized tree, endemic to 

the island of Hawai‘i at elevations between 

2,200 and 4,000 feet. It grows to about 50 to 

60 feet in height and contains a milky sap. It is 

found in montane seasonal environments and 

occurs at elevations between 2,200 and 4,000 

feet (USFWS 1996a). In 1996, there was one 

possible extant population at Pu‘uwa‘awa‘a 

on state-owned land; however, the population 

was last collected at an unknown date, and it is 

unknown how many individuals are present in 

the population, if any (USFWS 1996a). In the 

park, hōlei is known only from Kīpukapuaulu, 

where the last tree was observed in 1927. It is 

now considered to be likely extirpated from 

the park, and possibly extinct (Pratt et al. 

2011). If the species is still extant, potential 

threats include goats, domestic cattle, pigs, 

sheep, fire, and nonnative plants. Feral goats 

browse and trample the native vegetation, 

disturbing the substrate and understory. 

Predation of fruits by black rats is also a 

potential threat to the viability of this species 

(Pratt et al. 2011; USFWS 1996a).

MANY-FLOWERED PHYLLOSTEGIA 

(Phyllostegia floribunda)

Also known as many-flowered Hawaiian 

mint, Phyllostegia floribunda is a perennial 

herb with flowers (maroon to red, white on 

base) on short, leafless lateral branches (Pratt 

et al. 2011) that is endemic to the island of 

Hawai‘i at elevations of 1,410 to 3,710 feet. 

Historically, P. floribunda was reported in the 

lowland wet, montane mesic, and montane 

wet ecosystems at scattered sites along the 

slopes of the Kohala Mountains; southeast 

through Hamakua, Laupahoehoe NAR, 

Waiakea FR, and Upper Waiakea FR; and 

southward into Hilo, Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park, and Puna. Currently, there 

are 12 known occurrences of P. floribunda

totaling fewer than 100 individuals 

(Bruegmann 1998, in litt.; Giffin 2009, in litt.; 

HBMP 2010b). At Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park a survey conducted between 1992 and 

1994 documented one plant in ‘Ōla‘a (Pratt 

et al. 1997). In 2000 this individual was not 

found and is presumed dead. However, 

this area has not been re-surveyed recently 

and there may be undetected individuals. 

An additional survey was conducted within 

several East Rift pit craters detected four 

plants within the Nāpau Trail pit crater in 

1995 (Belfield 1998). No recent monitoring 

has been conducted however there is no pig 

disturbance and it is likely that these plants 

have persisted through seedling recruitment. 

Between 2002 and 2004, 258 individuals were 

planted in the ‘Ōla‘a koa and small tract units. 

At the time of last monitoring (2009) 21% had 

survived. In general, endemic mints are highly 

vulnerable to nonnative ungulate impacts 

(Pratt et al. 2011).

KĪPONAPONA (Phyllostegia racemosa)

Kīponapona is in the mint family (Lamiaceae), 

and is a climbing vine with many-branched, 

square stems and spicy-smelling leaves. 

Flower clusters, densely covered with short, 

soft hairs, are composed of 6 to 12 flowers. It 

is typically found epiphytically in disturbed 

koa, ‘ōhi‘a, and hāpu‘u-dominated montane 

mesic or wet forests, at elevations between 

4,650 and 6,070 feet (USFWS 1998a). 

Although individuals were listed by USFWS 

as part of the park flora (Leonard 2009), no 

natural plants have been documented in the 

park. Outplantings of some individuals were 

made in the park, but none survived. Threats 

include habitat disturbance by feral pigs and 

cattle, logging, competition from nonnative 

plant taxa, habitat change due to volcanic 

activity, and risk of extinction from naturally 

occurring events and/or reduced reproductive 

vigor due to the small number of existing 

populations and individuals (USFWS 1998a).

HOAWA (Pittosporum Hawai‘iense)

Pittosporum Hawai‘iense is a small tree in the 

pittosporum family (Pittosporaceae), is known 

only from the island of Hawai‘i (Wagner et 
466 | Appendix H HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

al. 1999). Historically, P. Hawai‘iense was 

known from the leeward side of the island, 

from the Kohala Mountains south to Ka‘ū, 

in the lowland mesic, montane mesic, and 

montane wet ecosystems (Wagner et al. 1999). 

Currently, there are 14 known occurrences 

totaling fewer than 175 individuals, from 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park to Puu O 

Umi NAR, and south Kona, in the lowland 

mesic, montane mesic, and montane wet 

ecosystems. At Hawai‘i Volcanoes National 

Park there are at least 58 individuals in the 

Kahuku Unit. In addition there are several 

individuals adjacent to the ‘Ōla‘a tract in the 

State of Hawai‘i Forest Reserve. Between 2006 

and 2009, 360 seedlings were planted within 

the paddock exclosures at Kahuku. Biologists 

have observed very low regeneration in these 

occurrences, which is believed to be caused, 

in part, by rat predation on the seeds (Bio 

2011). In addition this species is threatened by 

nonnative ungulates.

LAUKAHI KUAHIWI (Plantago hawaiensis)

Laukahi kuahiwi is a perennial herb 

characterized by thick, leathery basal leaves 

and short stem containing red-brown wooly 

hairs (USFWS 1996a). It occurs at elevations 

from 5,900 to 8,040 feet mainly on the leeward 

side of the island, and its habitat is somewhat 

variable (USFWS 1996a). Laukahi kuahiwi 

grows in either montane wet sedgeland with 

mixed sedges and grasses, or in montane 

mesic forest growing with stunted koa and 

‘ōhi‘a; it is sometimes found growing in 

cracks in lava (USFWS 1996a). About 5,000 

individuals are thought to be present in at least 

eight populations on the island of Hawai‘i 

(Benitez et al. 2008; USFWS 1996a). In the 

park, this species has been found naturally 

occurring on Mauna Loa near 7,000 feet 

elevation in subalpine and montane seasonal 

environments of Kahuku and the Mauna Loa 

units (NPS 2005, 2009j, 2009e). Feral goats 

and mouflon sheep have been excluded from 

the two populations that occur on Kīpuka 

Kulalio and Kīpukamauna‘iu in the Mauna 

Loa Unit by protective fencing since the 1970s. 

Populations found in Kahuku are not fenced 

or protected from nonnative ungulates (Pratt 

et al. 2011). Browsing by the ungulates affects 

the viability of this species by precluding the 

establishment of juveniles and damaging the 

habitat, thereby opening suitable sites for the 

establishment of nonnative weeds (USFWS 

1996a). Critical habitat for this species is 

found in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

(Leonard 2009). The primary constituent 

elements for laukahi kuahiwi on the island of 

Hawai‘i are as follows:

• Landform/forest type: montane wet 

sedgeland (often in damp cracks 

of pāhoehoe lava) with mixed 

sedges and grasses, montane mesic 

forest, dry subalpine woodland, 

or Metrosideros polymorpha

and native shrub.

• Plant community: Acacia koa, 

Coprosma ernodeoides, Coprosma 

montana, Dodonaea viscosa, 

Leptecophylla tameiameiae, 

Metrosideros polymorpha, or 

Vaccinium reticulatum.

• Elevation: 5,198 to 8,243 feet (1,584 

to 2,513 meters) (USFWS 2003).

HAWAI‘I HALA PEPE 

(Pleomele Hawai‘iensis)

This tree exhibits long, narrow leaves that 

are borne at the branch tips, and pale yellow 

flowers. It can grow to approximately 21 

feet in height. Hawai‘i hala pepe is endemic 

to dry (or occasionally moist) forests on old 

lava flows on the leeward side of the island 

of Hawai‘i at elevations of 985 to 2,820 feet 

(Pratt et al. 2011). In the park, this species 

has been identified in coastal lowland and 

mid-elevation seasonal forest environments at 

Nāulu Forest, Kealakomo Kīpuka, Poliokeawe 

Pali, the Great Crack, and Kahuku (NPS 2005, 

2009j; Pratt et al. 2011). Fewer than two dozen 

plants have been observed in these areas. 

In 2001–03, Hawai‘i hala pepe was planted 

successfully at the Nāulu and Kealakomo sites. 

The species faces the threats that endanger 

many native plants of the dry lowlands, 

including fire spread by nonnative grasses; 

nonnative animals, including feral goats and 

rats; and nonnative plant species (Pratt et al. 

2011). Feral goats have been eliminated from 

hala pepe habitat in the older section of the 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix H | 467 

park. Critical habitat for this species is found 

in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park (Leonard 

2009). The primary constituent elements for 

Hawai‘i hala pepe on the island of Hawai‘i 

are as follows:

• Landform/forest type: dry and 

mesic lowland forests of lama 

(Diospyros sandwicensis) and ‘ōhi‘a 

(Metrosideros polymorpha).

• Plant community: Bidens micrantha 

ssp. ctenophylla, Bobea timonioides, 

Caesalpinia kavaiensis, Cocculus 

trilobus, Colubrina oppositifolia, 

Diospyros sandwicensis, Dodonaea 

viscosa, Erythrina sandwicensis, 

Kokia drynarioides, Metrosideros 

polymorpha, Myoporum 

sandwicense, Neraudia ovata, 

Nestegis sandwicensis, Nothocestrum 

breviflorum, Nototrichium 

sandwicense,Osteomeles 

anthyllidifolia, Psydrax odorata, 

Reynoldsia sandwicensis, Santalum 

paniculatum, Sida fallax, or

Sophora chrysophylla.

• Elevation: 281 to 2,925 feet (86 to 892 

meters) (USFWS 2003).

PO‘E; ‘IHI MĀKOLE 

(Portulaca sclerocarpa)

Po‘e is an endangered perennial with a fleshy, 

tuberous taproot that becomes woody with 

maturity. It inhabits montane dry shrubland 

and is often found on bare cinder, near 

steam vents, and in open ‘ōhi‘a-dominated 

woodlands at elevations between 3,380 and 

5,340 feet. In 1996, there were 12 known 

populations and more than 1,000 known 

individuals on the island of Hawai‘i (USFWS 

1996a). In the park, this species grows in the 

Puhimau Geothermal Area, along Hilina Pali 

Road, and in Keanakāko‘i (Pratt et al. 2011). 

At the time of the 1996 USFWS report, the 

Puhimau Geothermal Area supported just 

under 1,000 plants, but since that time the 

population of this species has declined to 

fewer than 300 individuals (Pratt et al. 2011). 

In the park, a major threat to this species is 

competition from nonnative grasses such 

as beardgrass and broomsedge, as well as 

potentially feral goats and rats which are seed 

predators. Critical habitat for this species is 

found in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

(Leonard 2009). The primary constituent 

elements for Po‘e on the island of Hawai‘i 

are as follows:

• Landform/forest type: montane dry 

shrubland, often on bare cinder, near 

steam vents, and in open Metrosideros 

polymorpha–dominated woodlands.

• Plant community: Dodonaea 

viscosa, Melanthera venosa, 

Sophora chrysophylla.

• Elevation: 3,380 to 5,340 feet (1,030 

to 1,630 meters) (USFWS 1996a).

LOULU (Pritchardia affinis)

Loulu is a palm tree that grows from 33 to 82 

feet in height. It inhabits coastal lowland forest 

environments and coastal mesic forest on the 

leeward side of the island of Hawai‘i, possibly 

near or in brackish water, at elevations of 0 to 

2,000 feet. In 1996, there were eight known 

populations and between 50 and 65 known 

individuals on the island of Hawai‘i (USFWS 

1996a). Until recent fires and lava flows in the 

park, there was one group of trees (probably 

planted) on the Kalapana Trail at 985 feet 

elevation (Pratt et al. 2011). More recently, this 

tree has been planted in coastal talus slopes 

behind the shoreline at Kālu‘e and in coastal 

strand vegetation at Keauhou in the park 

(Pratt et al. 2011). Continued development 

and human disturbance are serious threats to 

the viability of this species, as are feral pigs, 

which root and destroy seedings, preventing 

regeneration island-wide (USFWS 1996a). In 

the park’s coastal lowlands, rat predation on 

seeds is probably the most important threat to 

loulu restoration efforts (Pratt et al. 2011). In 

some coastal lowland location, fire carried by 

alien grasses may be a threat.

LOULU (Pritchardia lanigera)

Pritchardia lanigera (loulu), a medium-sized 

tree in the palm family (Arecaceae), is found 

only on the island of Hawai‘i (Read and Hodel 

1999; Hodel 2007). Historically, P. lanigera

was known from the Kohala Mountains, 

Hamakua district, windward slopes of Mauna 
468 | Appendix H HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Kea, the lowland mesic, lowland wet, montane 

wet, and wet cliff ecosystems (Read and Hodel 

1999; HBMP 2010a). Currently, P. lanigera 

is known from eight occurrences totaling 

fewer than 30 individuals scattered along the 

windward side of the Kohala Mountains, Ka‘ū 

FR, and TNC Ka‘ū Preserve, in the lowland 

mesic, lowland wet, montane wet, and wet 

cliff ecosystems. At Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park this species only occurs from 

plantings. Twenty-one were planted in a 

Kahuku exclosure in March 2011. Survival 

was high (95%) seven months post planting. 

According to field biologists, pollination rates 

appear to be low for this species, and the 

absence of seedlings and juveniles at known 

locations suggests that regeneration is not 

occurring, which they believe to be caused, in 

part, by beetle, rat, and pig predation on the 

fruits, seeds, and seedlings (Bio 2011, pers. 

comm.; Crysdale 2013).

Schiedea diffusa ssp. macraei

Schiedea diffusa ssp. macraei, a perennial 

climbing herb in the pink family 

(Caryophyllaceae), is reported only from 

the island of Hawai‘i (Wagner, Herbst, and 

Sohmer 2005)—Flowering Plants of the 

Hawaiian Islands database; Wagner, Weller, 

and Sakai 2005). Historically, S. diffusa

ssp. macraei was known from the Kohala 

Mountains, the windward slopes of Mauna 

Loa, and the ‘Ōla‘a Tract of Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park, in the montane wet ecosystem 

(Perlman et al. 2001, in litt.; Wagner, Weller, 

and Sakai 2005; HBMP 2010c). At Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes National Park a single individual 

found in 1985 in ‘Ōla‘a at approximately 1250 

m elevation in wet Metrosideros/Cibotium

forest. It persisted for at least 20 years but 

could not be re-located in 2008. In 2003, 136 

individuals were planted in ‘Ōla‘a. Survival 

has been low with only 10 plants surviving in 

2009 (Belfield et al. 2011). One-hundred and 

twelve individuals were also planted within 

the Thurston Special Ecological Area in 

2010. At seven months 81.3% were alive with 

1.1% reproductive. By 24 months survival 

had declined to 51.79% with no evidence of 

reproduction, and in 2013 only 30% were still 

alive. This species is under propagation in the 

park’s native plant nursery.

‘ŌHAI (Sesbania tomentosa)

‘Ōhai is typically a sprawling shrub with 

branches up to 45 feet, but may also be a small 

tree up to 20 feet in height (USFWS 1999). 

This species is found in coastal sites with 

plants growing in sand and ash pockets over 

pāhoehoe in disturbed coastal vegetation 

dominated by naupaka kahakai; coastal 

lowlands vegetated primarily with native 

pili and nonnative grasses; and lowland dry 

woodlands of ‘ōhi‘a, native shrubs, and 

nonnative grasses (Pratt et al. 2011). Less than 

5,000 individuals of this plant are believed to 

exist (USFWS 1999). In Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park, it has been identified in the 

‘Āpua Point, Kīpuka Nēnē, Hilina Pali, 

Kamo‘oali‘i, Kū‘ē‘ē, and Kīpuka Pepeiau areas 

(Pratt et al. 2011). Feral goats and fire are 

major threats to this species. Rats, nonnative 

grasses, and loss of natural pollinators are 

also potential threats to this shrub/tree 

species (Pratt et al. 2011). Critical habitat for 

this species is found in Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park in fenced units that protect it 

from feral goats (Leonard 2009). The primary 

constituent elements for ‘ōhai on the island of 

Hawai‘i are as follows:

• Landform/forest type: open, dry 

Metrosideros polymorpha forest with 

mixed native grasses, Scavevola 

taccada coastal dry shrubland on 

windswept slopes, and weathered 

basaltic slopes.

• Plant community: Dodonaea viscosa, 

Fimbristylis Hawai‘iensis, Ipomoea 

pes-caprae, Jacquemontia ovalifolia

ssp. sandwicensis, Leptecophylla 

tameiameiae, Melanthera integrifolia, 

Myoporum sandwicense, Sida 

fallax, Sporobolus virginicus, 

Waltheria indica.

• Elevation: 0 to 3,025 feet (0 to 922 

meters) (USDA-NRCS 2005).
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix H | 469 

WHITE-BUR CUCUMBER; ‘ĀNUNU 

(Sicyos alba)

White-bur cucumber is a short-lived annual 

vine with black-spotted stems. Its habitat 

includes wet forest of ‘ōhi‘a, hāpu‘u, or tree 

ferns near 4,000 feet elevation (Pratt et al. 

2011). In the park, this species is only known 

in the ‘Ōla‘a Forest (Pratt et al. 2011), but 

is also found in similar habitats just outside 

the park in ‘Ōla‘a Forest Reserve, and Pu‘u 

Maka‘ala Natural Area Reserve (Pratt et al. 

2011). Threats to the survival of this plant 

include feral pigs and nonnative plants (Pratt 

et al. 2011). Critical habitat for this species 

is found in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park 

(Leonard 2009). The primary constituent 

elements for white-bur cucumber on the 

island of Hawai‘i are as follows:

• Landform/forest type: Metrosideros 

polymorpha–Cibotium glaucum–

dominated montane wet forests.

• Plant community: Astelia 

menziesiana, Athyrium microphyllum

and other ferns, Broussaisia 

arguta, Cheirodendron trigynum, 

Coprosma sp., Cyanea tritomantha, 

Cyrtandra lysiosepala, Perrottetia 

sandwicensis, Platydesma spathulata, 

Pritchardia beccariana, Psychotria

sp., Stenogyne sp.

• Elevation: 3,170 to 5,072 feet (966 to 

1,546 meters) (USDA-NRCS 2005).

Spermolepis Hawai‘iensis

Spermolepis Hawai‘iensis is an endangered 

annual herb bearing small white flowers. 

This species is known from open areas in 

the lowland and montane zones, as well as 

cultivated fields at low elevation. On Hawai‘i 

Island, S. Hawai‘iensis is extant at several sites 

in Pōhakuloa Training Area and Pu‘u Anahulu 

(Pratt et al. 2011). In Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park, historical records (1943) 

indicate its existence in coastal lowland and 

mid-elevational woodland environments west 

of Kīpuka Kahali‘i (Pratt et al. 2011). Since last 

documented, this area has been covered by 

lava. There have been unsuccessful attempts 

to establish plants through seed broadcasting 

along the Chain of Craters and Hilina Pali 

Roads. Feral goats may have been a factor in 

the original decline of this species in the park 

(Pratt et al. 2011). Additional threats include 

other nonnative ungulates, nonnative plants, 

fire, and landslides (Pratt et al. 2011).

Stenogyne angustifolia

Stenogyne angustifolia is a sprawling perennial 

vine. Flowers are borne in the leaf axils and 

are maroon to yellow in color (USFWS 1993). 

The extant population of this species is found 

in dry subalpine shrubland, but plants of 

Moloka‘i, Maui, and leeward Hawai‘i formerly 

occurred in lower-elevation dry habitats. All 

known naturally occurring individuals on 

the island of Hawai‘i are at the Pōhakuloa 

Training Area (a military training area) 

between 5,080 and 7,050 feet (Pratt et al. 

2011). In the park, historical records indicate 

its existence between Kīlauea and Kapāpala, 

where it was collected in 1868 (Pratt et al. 

2011). This species has also been planted at 

two sites in the Mauna Loa Strip; however, 

survival of plantings has been poor. Threats to 

the species include fire and competition with 

nonnative plants. Trampling and disruption 

from nonnative ungulates, including goats, 

sheep, and cattle, are also significant threats to 

S. angustifolia (Pratt et al. 2011).

HAWAI‘I PRICKLYASH; A‘E (Zanthoxylum 

Hawai‘iense)

Hawai‘i pricklyash is a medium-sized tree 

with pale, smooth bark that reaches 26 feet 

(8 meters) in height. This species generally 

occurs in lowland dry and mesic forests, and 

montane dry forest, at elevations between 

1,800 and 5,710 feet (550 and 1,740 meters) 

(USFWS 1996a). Individuals occur on 

lava flows and, in the park, prefer forests 

dominated by koa, ‘ōhi‘a, and mānele (Pratt 

et al. 2011). In 1996, five populations of this 

tree were known to occur at Pu‘uwa‘awa‘a 

and Pōhakuloa Training Area on the island 

of Hawai‘i (USFWS 1996a). In the park, 

this species was reported from Kīpuka 

Puaulu in 1921, but the observation was not 

documented by a specimen, and there are no 

reported occurrences of this species between 

Pōhakuloa and the park. Feral goats, sheep, 
470 | Appendix H HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

and pigs as well as domestic cattle are all 

threats to Hawai‘i pricklyash, but are excluded 

from Kīpuka Puaulu. Additional threats may 

include fire and nonnative plants 

(Pratt et al. 2011).

Threatened

HALEAKALĀ SILVERSWORD; HAWAIIAN 

CATCHFLY; ‘AHINAHINA; (Argyroxiphium 

sandwicense SSP. macrocephalum)

This species is a single-stemmed rosette 

shrub that grows up to 10 feet (3 meters) tall 

(Pratt et al. 2011). ‘Ahinahina is endemic to 

the subalpine and alpine deserts of Haleakalā 

on East Maui; however, it was outplanted to 

Mauna Loa, where a few plants persist in the 

alpine environment of the park (Pratt et al. 

2011). In its natural habitat, this species was 

threatened by feral goats until the Haleakalā 

Crater District was fenced and goats were 

removed. Feral goats, mouflon sheep, and pigs 

are potential threats to outplanted individuals 

in the park. Argentine ants (Linepithema 

humile) are a potential threat because of their 

impacts on insect pollinators 

(Pratt et al. 2011).

HAWAIIAN CATCHFLY; SHERIFF’S CATCHFLY 

(Silene Hawai‘iensis)

Hawaiian catchfly is a sprawling shrub 

endemic to the island of Hawai‘i found 

primarily in dry open areas in montane 

seasonal and subalpine environments 

(USFWS 1996a). In the park, plants occur on 

ash flows and dry lava flows and have been 

identified in the Mauna Loa, Kīlauea Crater 

rim, and Ka‘ū Desert areas of the park (Pratt 

et al. 2011). One population in the park near 

5,600 feet elevation lost more than 70% of its 

plants in five years, and a second population 

decreased by more than 50% from 1998 

to 2000 because of browsing by mouflon 

sheep that penetrated a fenced area of the 

park (Pratt et al. 2011). In the Kahuku Unit, 

where mouflon sheep are abundant, only one 

documented and two reported (unconfirmed) 

individuals were discovered in 2005 surveys. 

These individuals were not relocated in 

subsequent surveys. In 1996, there were 

11 known populations and around 11,000 

known individuals on the island of Hawai‘i 

(USFWS 1996a). Fragile branches and stems 

are easily broken or browsed almost to the 

base of the plant. As a result, feral animals 

(goats, pigs, and sheep) are detrimental to 

the survival of this species (USFWS 1996a). 

This plant is preferred forage for mouflon 

sheep, as evidenced by browsing and mortality 

described above resulting from ingress sheep 

on the Mauna Loa Unit. Recovery efforts in 

the park include six foot tall fences to exclude 

mouflon sheep and outplanting at Kahuku in 

fenced silversword exclosures.

Critical habitat for this species is found in 

Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park (Leonard 

2009). The primary constituent elements for 

Hawaiian catchfly on the island of Hawai‘i 

are as follows:

• Landform/forest type: weathered 

lava or variously aged lava flows and 

cinder substrates in montane and 

subalpine dry shrubland.

• Plant community: Dodonaea 

viscosa, Leptecophylla tameiameiae,

Metrosideros polymorpha, Rumex 

giganteus, Sophora chrysophylla,

Vaccinium reticulatum.

• Elevation: 3,352 to 7,915 

feet (1,021 to 2,412 meters) 

(USDA-NRCS 2005).

Candidate

‘OHE (Joinvillea ascendens 

ssp. ascendens) 

‘Ohe is an erect herb that can reach 

approximately 5 to 16 feet tall and contains 

fruits that are reddish orange (Pratt et al. 

2011; USFWS 2013a). It is primarily located 

in wet forest and streambeds at middle 

elevations. Habitat in the park is montane wet 

‘ōhi‘a forest with hāpu‘u understory (Pratt 

et al. 2011). Currently, there are 45 known 

populations (8 on the island of Hawai‘i) 

totaling approximately 200 individuals 

(USFWS 2013a). In the park, there has been 

only one documented collection in Ōla‘a 

Forest, near the middle of the Large Tract, 

south of the trench and crater feature (Pratt 

et al. 2011). Herbivory and disturbance by 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix H | 471 

feral pigs are potential threats in unfenced 

areas of the ‘Ōla‘a Forest, where this 

plant was last observed (Pratt et al. 2011). 

Competition from nonnative plant species is 

a potential threat as well, along with low seed 

germination (USFWS 2013a; Pratt et al. 2011).

HŌLEI (Ochrosia haleakalae)

Hōlei is a tree that can reach seven to 26 feet 

tall, with white flowers and yellow or plumcolored mature fruits (USFWS 2008c). It is 

endemic to East Maui and the northeastern 

portion of the island of Hawai‘i, where it is 

found at elevations between 2,300 and 3,940 

feet (Pratt et al. 2011). There are 11 total 

known populations on Maui and Hawai‘i, 

totaling fewer than 130 wild individuals 

(USFWS 2008c). Hōlei is not native to the 

park. However, it was planted in montane 

mesic forest of koa, ‘ōhi‘a, and mānele in 

Kīpukapuaulu (Pratt et al. 2011). In wet 

forests, hōlei is most threatened by feral 

pigs. In dry and mesic forest habitats, hōlei is 

primarily threatened by feral goats, domestic 

cattle, nonnative grasses, and wildfire (Pratt 

et al. 2011). The threats from nonnative 

ungulates apply to plants in unfenced areas 

located outside the park.

LARGE-FLOWER NATIVE BUTTERCUP; 

MAKOU (Ranunculus hawaiensis)

Large-flower native buttercup is a perennial 

herb reaching 79 inches in height (USFWS 

2013c). Habitat for this species is mesic 

forest, on grassy or rocky slopes, and in open 

pastures. It has been recorded at elevations 

between 5,970 and 6,700 feet on East Maui 

and Hawai‘i Islands (Pratt et al. 2011). On 

Hawai‘i Island, this herb was historically 

wide-ranging in Kona, Hualālai, Mauna Kea, 

and Ka‘ū. Currently this species is known 

from six locations on the island of Hawai‘i, 

with a total of 14 individuals (USFWS 2013c). 

In Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, a single 

population of fewer than 10 plants has been 

identified in the western Kahuku Unit (Pratt 

et al. 2011). Nonnative ungulates, including 

goats, mouflon sheep, and cattle, may impact 

this species. Rats, fire, and nonnative grasses 

are all additional threats to large-flower native 

buttercup (Pratt et al. 2011).

LARGE-LEAF BUR-CUCUMBER; 

‘ĀNUNU; LARGE-LEAVED ‘ĀNUNU 

(Sicyos macrophyllus) 

This species is a perennial vine characterized 

by stems approximately 49 feet long and 

2 inches in diameter (USFWS 2013b). Habitat 

for this species is montane mesic forest of 

koa, māmane, ‘ōhi‘a, and mānele at elevations 

between 3,940 and 6,560 feet. On Hawai‘i, 

it has been recorded in montane wet forest 

and subalpine forest (Pratt et al. 2011). It 

is currently known from approximately 10 

populations totaling fewer than 30 individuals 

(USFWS 2013b). In Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park, ‘ānunu was identified at 

Kīpuka Kī in 2000 (Pratt et al. 2011). Kīpuka 

Kī is in the montane seasonal zone of the 

Mauna Loa Strip, which is fenced to exclude 

nonnative ungulates. Nonnative ungulates, 

domestic cattle, fire, rats, and nonnative 

plants are all potential threats to the species 

(Pratt et al. 2011).
472 | Appendix H HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Species of Special Concern and Rare Species in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park

Table H.1. Species of Special Concern in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park

Scientific Name Common 

Name Status Habitat Description and/or Location in the Park

BIRDS

Anous minutus 

melanogenys

noio, black noddy Rare or 

Sensitive

Nests either on vegetation or on sea cliffs; 

occasionally nests on human-made structures that 

mimic cliff-nesting habitat. Found near the shoreline 

and offshore islets.

Bulweria bulwerii ‘ou, Bulwer’s petrel Rare or 

Sensitive

Nests in rocky holes, on crevices in cliffs, under 

rock overhangs, and on the ground under 

thick vegetation on small oceanic islands and 

offshore islets. In the park it is found adjacent to 

the shoreline. 

Phaethon lepturus 

dorotheae

koa‘ekea, whitetailed tropicbirdRare or 

Sensitive

Found in craters and pit craters. Breeds by laying 

a single egg directly onto the ground or a cliff ledge.

Vestiaria coccinea ‘i‘iwi Rare or 

Sensitive

Found above 4,100 feet (1,250 meters) elevation 

on the islands of Hawai‘i, Maui, and Kaua‘i; occurs 

at reduced densities below 3,300 feet. In the park 

primarily above 5,000 feet and most abundant in 

upper montane seasonal and lower subalpine zones. 

‘I‘iwi occupy mesic and wet forest dominated by 

‘ōhi‘a (Metrosideros polymorpha) and koa (Acacia 

koa) (DLNR 2005). 

INSECTS

Drosophila engyochracea NCN Rare or 

Sensitive

Found in mesic forest kīpuka. Host plant is mānele 

(Sapindus saponaria) (Foote 2009a). In the park, 

found only in two locations in the lower montane 

seasonal zone in the Mauna Loa Unit. 

Drosophila Hawai‘iensis NCN Rare or 

Sensitive

Found in mesic forest kīpuka. 

Drosophila silvestris NCN Rare or 

Sensitive

Found between elevations of approximately 3,280 

to 4,270 feet (1,000 to 1,300 meters) on the wetter 

slopes of the volcanoes. 

Megalagrion koelense Koele mountain 

damselfly 

Rare or 

Sensitive

Often found in the water-filled narrow leaf axils 

of plants in the East Rift and ‘Ōla‘a sections of 

the park. 

PLANTS

Alphitonia ponderosa kauila Species 

of Concern

Found in dry to mesic lowland forest and lower 

mid-elevation woodlands. In the park, they are 

found near Kīpuka Nēnē, along Hilina Pali from 

the road terminus to Pepeiau, Kealakomo Kīpuka, 

Poliokeawe Pali, and in the western lowlands near 

the Great Crack. Plantings have persisted in the 

Nāulu Forest, Kīpukapuaulu, and Kīpuka Ki (Pratt et 

al. 2011). 

Anoectochilus sandvicensis honohono, Hawai‘i 

jewel orchid

Species 

of Concern

Found in wet forests at low to mid-elevations. In 

the park, they have recently been found at the 

‘Ōla‘a Forest (Koa Unit) the East Rift SEA, and in a 

kīpuka west of Nāpau. They have also recently been 

planted in ‘Ōla‘a Koa Unit, Thurston Lava Tube, and 

‘Ōla‘a Small Tract (Pratt et al. 2011).

Antidesma pulvinatum hame Rare In the park, grows in dry to mesic lowland forest in 

Nāulu (one to two trees) (Pratt et al. 2011).

Asplenium schizophyllum fringed spleenwort Species 

of Concern

Found in montane rain forests at 2,461–4,921 feet 

elevation. In the park, they are probably found only 

in the ‘Ōla‘a Forest (Pratt et al. 2011).
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix H | 473 

Table H.1. Species of Special Concern in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park

Scientific Name Common 

Name Status Habitat Description and/or Location in the Park

Bidens hawaiensis 

(B. skottsbergii)

ko‘oko‘olau, 

Hawai‘i beggarticks

Rare Found in mid-elevation ‘ōhi‘a woodland in the park. 

They have been found at the ‘Āinahou Ranch, along 

the upper Hilina Pali Road, and near Kīpukapuaulu 

and Ko‘oko‘olau Craters. They have been planted at 

‘Āinahou, the upper Hilina Pali Road, Kīpuka Nēnē, 

and in ‘ōhi‘a woodland near Kīpukapuaulu (Pratt et 

al. 2011). 

Bobea timonioides ‘ahakea Species 

of Concern

Found in dry to mesic lama (Diospyros sandwicensis) 

forests at low elevations. In the park, they have 

been found in the Nāulu Forest, Kealakomo Kīpuka, 

and planted in the East Rift SEA south of the 

Makaopuhi Crater (Pratt et al. 2011).

Canavalia Hawai‘iensis ‘awikiwiki, 

Hawaiian jackbean

Rare Grows in dry to mesic habitats. Found in 

Kukalau‘ula, Pu‘u Kapukapu, and above the 

Kalapana Trail in the park. 

Capparis sandwichiana pua pilo, maiapilo, 

native caper

Species 

of Concern

Found on rocky coastlines and in dry coastal 

lowlands. They were historically found in the park 

offshore of Halapē, and at low elevations near the 

eastern park boundary. However, recent plantings at 

Kālu‘e near Halapē did not persist (Pratt et al. 2011). 

Chamaesyce celastroides ‘akoko Rare Grows in coastal dry shrubland on windward talus 

slopes and in mid-elevation seasonal environments 

at elevations of 30 to 2,100 feet. Found naturally 

occurring in ‘Āinahou and along Hilina Pali road 

and the Kalapana trail; and as planted individuals in 

Kīpuka Pepeaio.

Charpentiera obovata pāpala Rare Found in wet to mesic ‘ōhi‘a forest on soils over 

rock rubble. In the park, found in the Kahuku Unit, 

in Kīpuka Kī and in Kīpukapuaulu, and the Mānele 

bend area along the Mauna Loa Road (Benitez et 

al. 2008).

Clermontia Hawai‘iensis ‘ōhā kēpau Rare In the park, plants grow in rainforest areas from 

low to high altitudes. Grows in the Kīlauea Crater 

Rim, East Rift, and ‘Ōla‘a areas. Planted in various 

mesic and wet forests on Kīlauea and lower Mauna 

Loa Unit.

Clermontia montis-loa ‘ōhā Rare Found most commonly in ōhi‘a/hāpu‘u (Cibotium 

spp.) forest and less commonly in mesic to wet 

‘ōhi‘a forest. In the park, found primarily in ‘Ōla‘a 

and the Kahuku Unit eastern region (Benitez et 

al. 2008). 

Cuscuta sandwichiana kauna‘oa Rare In the park, plants grow in coastal areas, often in 

sandy soil. Found in Ka‘aha. 

Cyanea pilosa ssp. 

Longipedunculata 

 hāhā Rare Tends to grow in deep forest, often in narrow 

gulches where there is little wind. Grows in ‘Ōla‘a. 

Also found inside the park in the forested pit crater 

in Kahuku (subspecies remains undetermined); 

formerly found in the vicinity of the Thurston Lava 

Tube on Kīlauea (Benitez et al. 2008).

Cyrtandra menziesii ha‘iwale Species 

of Concern

Found in mesic to wet ‘ōhi‘a forests. In the park, 

small populations have been found in the Kahuku 

Unit, in a crater at Pu‘u ‘Akihi, in the southeastern 

section of the central pasture, and in a large 

forested crater surrounded by pasture (Pratt et 

al. 2011).
474 | Appendix H HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Table H.1. Species of Special Concern in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park

Scientific Name Common 

Name Status Habitat Description and/or Location in the Park

Embelia pacifica kilioe, 

Pacific embelia

Species 

of Concern

Grows in montane wet forests dominated by ‘ōhi‘a 

and hāpu‘u and mesic kīpuka forests with a mix of 

koa, mānele and ‘ōhi‘a. Found in the park at the 

‘Ōla‘a Forest, at Kīpukapuaulu, and at Kīpuka Kī 

(Pratt et al. 2011). 

Erythrina sandwicensis wiliwili Rare Grows in lowland dry forests and shrublands. In 

the park, a few trees still remain in the coastal 

lowland and possibly at the Great Crack. There are 

plantings at Pu‘u Kaone, ‘Āpua Point, Kālu‘e, the 

Nāulu Forest, the base of Hōlei Pali near Pali Uli, and 

northeast of the hairpin turn of the Chain of Craters 

Road (Pratt et al. 2011). 

Eurya sandwicensis anini Species 

of Concern

Found in wet to mesic forests and on windswept 

ridges. In the park, they have recently been found 

in the Kahuku Unit near the northern boundary of 

Ka‘ū Forest Reserve, ‘Ōla‘a Small Tract (planted), 

and in the ‘Ōla‘a Forest near the Koa Unit boundary 

(Pratt et al. 2011).

Exocarpos gaudichaudii hulumoa, heau, 

Gaudichaud’s 

exocarpus

Species 

of Concern

Grows in mesic forests, shrublands, and open ‘ōhi‘a 

woodlands. Found in the park at ‘Āinahou Ranch, 

south of the ranch house in mid-elevation woodland 

(Pratt et al. 2011).

Exocarpos menziesii heau, Menzies’ 

exocarpus

Rare Grows in subalpine ‘ōhi‘a woodland and 

shrublands. Found in the park in the Kahuku Unit 

and less frequently in the Mauna Loa Unit (Benitez 

et al. 2008). 

Fimbristylis Hawai‘iensis Hawai‘i fimbry Species 

of Concern

Grows on old lava flows in coastal lowland and midelevation seasonal environments. Grows at Ka‘ena 

Point, Kamo‘oali‘i and other sites. 

Fragaria chiloensis ssp. 

sandwicensis 

‘ōhelo papa, 

Hawaiian 

strawberry

Species 

of Concern

Found on Maui and Hawai‘i Islands at an elevation 

of 3,800–10,070 feet. This plant occurs at scattered 

localities in subalpine shrubland north of the 

boundary with Ka‘ū Forest Reserve in the Kahuku 

Unit (Pratt et al. 2011). 

Gonocormus prolifer  NCN Rare Grow in areas that are damp and shady on rocks or 

trees. In the park, plants are known from ‘Ōla‘a. 

Jacquemontia ovalifolia 

ssp. sandwicensis

pā‘u o hi‘iaka Rare Grows in the coastal strand at ‘Āpua Point, 

Keauhou, Kālu‘e and Ka‘aha.

Pritchardia beccariana loulu Rare In the park, plants are found in tall, wet forests 

at ‘Ōla‘a. 

Liparis hawaiensis ‘awapuhi a 

kanaloa, Hawaiian 

twayblade

Species 

of Concern

Found in wet to mesic forests at mid-elevations and 

more rarely in seasonal woodlands. In the park, they 

have been found in the ‘Ōla‘a Forest, the Kīlauea 

East Rift near Nāpau Crater, and between the Chain 

of Craters Road and Keanakāko‘i Crater. However, 

recent surveys in these areas have yielded no 

sightings, including in the Kahuku Unit (Benitez et 

al. 2008; Pratt et al. 2011).

Marattia douglasii pala, kapua‘ilio, 

Hawai‘i marattia

Rare Found in ‘ōhi‘a/hāpu‘u forest. In the park, found in 

the Kahuku Unit, and less commonly in the ‘Ōla‘a 

Forest (Benitez et al. 2008).
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix H | 475 

Table H.1. Species of Special Concern in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park

Scientific Name Common 

Name Status Habitat Description and/or Location in the Park

Melicope hawaiensis manena Species 

of Concern

Grows in mesic forests dominated by koa, ‘ōhi‘a, 

and mānele as well as dry ‘ōhi‘a forests. Found 

in the park at Kīpukapuaulu and mid-elevation 

woodland along Kapāpala Ranch boundary. Also 

recently planted at Kīpuka Kī (Pratt et al. 2011).

Myrsine lanaiensis kōlea, Lana‘i 

colicwood

Rare Found in dry ‘ōhi‘a woodland on lava substrate. In 

the park, found in the southwestern region of the 

Kahuku Unit and downslope of the ‘Āinahou Ranch 

house (Benitez et al. 2008). 

Nestegis sandwicensis olopua Rare In the park, plants were formerly found in wet/mesic 

forest at 100 feet elevation above Kamoamoa. 

Now found only at 4,250 feet in Kīpukapuaulu and 

Kīpuka Ki in montane mesic forest. 

Nothocestrum longifolium ‘aiea, longleaf 

nothecestrum

Rare Grows in wet/mesic forest. In the park, found 

primarily in wet forest at ‘Ōla‘a and in mesic forest 

at Kīpukapuaulu, Kīpuka Ki, and Kīpuka ‘Aiea.

Nototrichium sandwicense kulu‘ī, Hawaiian 

nototrichium

Rare In the park, plants are found at elevations below 

approximately 750 feet in open dry forests, exposed 

ridges, and lava fields. Found at Poliokeawe Pali, this 

species was extirpated and reintroduced. 

Phyllostegia ambigua NCN Rare Grows in wet montane forests of ‘ōhi‘a and hāpu‘u 

as well as subalpine forests. Found in the ‘Ōla‘a 

Forest Small Tract and the Kahuku Unit (Pratt et 

al. 2011). 

Phyllostegia macrophylla NCN Rare Grows on steep slopes and in gulches in 

diverse mesic to wet forests at an elevation of 

approximately 1,500 to 6,000 feet (457 to 1,829 

meters). Grows in the ‘Ōla‘a region. 

Phyllostegia stachyoides NCN Species 

of Concern

Found in mesic to wet montane forests of koa, 

mānele, and ‘ōhi‘a in the park. One collection was 

found in 1915 at Kīpukapuaulu in the park (Pratt et 

al. 2011). 

Phyllostegia vestita island phyllostegia, 

clothed 

Hawaiian mint

Rare Grows in wet montane forests of ‘ōhi‘a and hāpu‘u 

tree ferns. Found in the park in the ‘Ōla‘a Forest 

Koa and New units, the East Rift SEA, the crater of 

Kane Nui o Hamo, and the ‘Ōla‘a Koa Unit (planted) 

(Pratt et al. 2011). 

Phytolacca sandwicensis pōpolo ku mai, 

Hawai‘i pokeweed

Rare Historically found in mesic montane forests of koa, 

‘ōhi‘a, and mānele as well as wet montane forests 

of ‘ōhi‘a and hāpu‘u. In the park, they have been 

found in the ‘Ōla‘a Forest’s Koa and Pu‘u units, and 

in Kahuku. Recently planted in Kīpukapuaulu and 

Kīpuka Ki (Pratt et al. 2011). 

Pisonia brunoniana pāpala kēpau, 

Australian 

catchbird tree

Rare Found in mesic/wet forest environments and grows 

in Kīpukapuaulu and Kīpuka Ki, where it is localized. 

Pisonia umbellifera pāpala kēpau, 

umbrella 

catchbird tree

Rare Grows in lowland forests. 
476 | Appendix H HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Table H.1. Species of Special Concern in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park

Scientific Name Common 

Name Status Habitat Description and/or Location in the Park

Pittosporum confertiflorum hō‘awa Rare Grows in subalpine ‘ōhi‘a woodland and lowland 

mesic forests, occasionally on old pāhoehoe lava 

flows. Found in the park in the upper region of 

the Kahuku Unit and in the East Rift SEA, and less 

recently in the upper Mauna Loa SEA (Benitez et 

al. 2008).

Pittosporum hosmeri hō‘awa, Hosmer’s 

pittosporum

Rare Grows in koa/‘ōhi‘a woodland forest on soil over old 

lava flows. Less frequently found in ‘ōhi‘a/hāpu‘u 

forest on substrates of soil over old pāhoehoe flows. 

In the park, found in numerous sites throughout the 

Kahuku Unit, and in and around Kīpukapuaulu and 

Kīpuka Ki (Benitez et al. 2008). 

Plumbago zeylanica ‘ilie‘e Rare Grows in coastal lowlands. Extirpated and replanted 

at Lae ‘Apuki, Hōlei. 

Pneumatopteris 

hudsoniana

Hudson’s air 

fern, laukahi

Rare Found in lowland forests.

Portulaca villosa ‘ihi, hairy purslane Species 

of Concern

In the park, known only near the coast in shallow 

ash over pāhoehoe, in a site now covered by lava. 

Recently planted at four sites in the coastal strand 

but no plantings survived (Pratt et al. 2011).

Rauvolfia sandwicensis hao Rare Grows in dry to mesic forests. Found in the park at 

Nāulu and Hōlei Pali. 

Reynoldsia sandwicensis ‘ohe mākai, ‘ohe Species 

of Concern

Grows predominately in dry to mesic lowland forests 

and less commonly in open vegetation on old lava 

flows. Found in the park along Poliokeawe Pali near 

the trail from ‘Āinahou Ranch to coastal Keauhou, 

east of ‘Āinahou, in the Kealakomo kīpuka, and 

recently planted at the Nāulu Forest and Kealakomo 

(Pratt et al. 2011).

Rhus sandwicensis neneleau Rare Grows in disturbed areas, especially along 

roadsides and in pastures from relatively wet to dry 

environments. In the park, plants grow above Nāulu 

and the Kalapana Trail. 

Rubus macraei ‘ākala Species 

of Concern

Found in montane wet forests, bog margins, and 

subalpine shrubland. In the park, they have been 

found in the Kahuku Unit north of Ka‘ū Forest 

Reserve and historically reported in the upper 

Mauna Loa Strip (Pratt et al. 2011). 

Rumex giganteus pāwale Rare Grows in wet ‘ōhi‘a/hāpu‘u forest, and mesic ‘ōhi‘a/

koa woodland. In the park, found in four different 

sites in the Kahuku Unit and less frequently at the 

‘Ōla‘a Forest, Kīpuka ‘Aiea, Mauna Loa SEA, and 

woodlands near Pu‘u Puai (Benitez et al. 2008). 

Sanicula sandwicensis tall Hawaiian 

sanicle, snakeroot

Species 

of Concern

Grows in subalpine shrublands and woodlands, 

specifically ‘ōhi‘a woodland. In the park, a small 

population exists in the western section of the 

Kahuku Unit. 

Sapindus saponaria mānele, ‘ae, 

soapberry

Rare Grows in mesic forests with deep ash soil in and 

near Kīpukapuaulu and Kīpuka Ki. 

Scaevola kilaueae Kīlauea naupaka, 

huahekili uka

Species 

of Concern

Found in the park’s mid elevation woodland and 

scrub in the Ka‘ū Desert, from the upper Chain of 

Craters in the east to the Keā‘moku Flow in the 

west, and along the upper Hilina Pali Road (Pratt et 

al. 2011).
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix H | 477 

Table H.1. Species of Special Concern in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park

Scientific Name Common 

Name Status Habitat Description and/or Location in the Park

Sicyos pachycarpus paha, kūpala Rare Grows in moist to wet forests at elevations of 

approximately 500 to 2,600 feet. Probably occurred 

in Nāulu, but now extirpated. 

Sisyrinchium acre mau‘u lā‘ili, 

Hawaiian blueeyed-grass

Species 

of Concern

Grows in dry subalpine shrubland of scattered ‘ōhi‘a 

trees and native shrubs or bogs. In the park, plants 

are found in Kīpukamauna‘iu, in Kīpuka Kulalio, 

and in the subalpine shrubland at Kahuku (Pratt et 

al. 2011).

Stenogyne macrantha Hawaiian 

stenogyne

Species 

of Concern

Found in montane ‘ōhi‘a/hāpu‘u rain forests. Found 

in the park in the ‘Ōla‘a Forest, Koa and Ag units, 

and planted in the Koa Unit and Small Tract. 

Stenogyne scrophularioides scroph 

stenogyne, mōhihi

Rare Grows in montane ‘ōhi‘a/hāpu‘u rain forests. Found 

in the ‘Ōla‘a Forest’s Koa Unit (planted), New Unit, 

and Small Tract (planted and natural populations) 

(Pratt et al. 2011).

Stenogyne sessilis sessile stenogyne Rare In the park, plants were historically documented 

in Mauna Loa and recently discovered in Kahuku 

(Benitez et al. 2008).

Tetraplasandra hawaiensis ‘ohe Rare Typically found in mesic to wet lowland forest. In 

the park, plants are known from Kīlauea’s East Rift, 

formerly near Nāulu, and Kamoamoa, and as a half 

dozen scattered individuals in pasture in Kahuku 

(Benitez et al. 2008; Wagner et al. 1999).

Tetraplasandra kavaiensis ‘ohe‘ohe Rare Grows in montane ‘ōhi‘a/hāpu‘u rain forests. Found 

in the park in the ‘Ōla‘a Forest near its boundary 

with Pu‘u Maka‘ala Natural Area Reserve (Pratt et 

al. 2011). 

Tetraplasandra oahuensis ‘ohe mauka Rare Grows in mesic valleys and wet forests. In the park, 

trees are found in ‘Ōla‘a.

Touchardia latifolia olonā Rare Plants are typically found in mesic valleys and wet 

forest from 230 to 3,937 feet elevation. In the park, 

plants are known from ‘Ōla‘a and from a single 

individual in Kahuku (Benitez et al. 2008; Wagner et 

al. 1999).

Trematolobelia grandifolia koli‘i, large-flower 

false lobelia

Species 

of Concern

Found in the exposed areas of montane and midelevation rain forests. Often grows on fallen logs 

and tree ferns in closed wet ‘ōhi‘a/hāpu‘u forests 

and occasionally on cliff tops near bogs. In the 

park, they are found in all of the fenced units of the 

‘Ōla‘a Forest as well as in the unfenced Koa Kīpuka, 

the Kīlauea Caldera rim rain forest, the East Rift 

SEA, the forested pit crater at Kahuku, and on Kāne 

Nui o Hamo (Pratt et al. 2011). 

Urera glabra ōpuhe Rare Typically found on slopes and gulch bottoms in 

mesic to wet forest. In the park, plants are found in 

wet forest of ‘Ōla‘a and Kīlauea’s East Rift, in mesic 

forest on Mauna Loa and as a single individual in 

Kahuku (Benitez et al. 2008).

Xylosma Hawai‘iense maua Rare In the park, plants occur in mesic forest at 

Kīpukapuaulu, ‘Ōla‘a, and Nāulu. 
478 | Appendix H HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Table H.1. Species of Special Concern in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park

Scientific Name Common 

Name Status Habitat Description and/or Location in the Park

Zanthoxylum dipetalum 

var. dipetalum

kāwa‘u Species 

of Concern

Grows in montane mesic forests of koa, ‘ōhi‘a, and 

mānele. Found naturally growing and planted in 

the park at Kīpukapuaulu and Kīpuka Ki (Pratt et 

al. 2011). 

Zanthoxylum kauaense (Z. 

maviense)

a‘e Rare Grows in mesic dry or wet forests, often composed 

of koa/’ōhi‘a and montane wet ‘ōhi‘a/hāpu‘u. 

Found in Kīpukapuaulu and the ‘Ōla‘a Forest (Pratt 

et al. 2011). 

Sources: NatureServe 2009; Park 2009d.

NCN = no common name.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Appendix I | 479 

APPENDIX I: ACOUSTIC SAMPLING AREAS

See Figure 5.3. Acoustic Sites and Sampling 

Areas in Chapter 5 for a map of the acoustic 

sampling areas. The following is the general 

description of these areas.

Zone 1 (Shoreline). Sounds from surf 

and waves as well as birds are prominent 

natural sound characteristics of this zone. 

This zone is also comprised of strong trade 

winds, bluffs, and low shoreline vegetation 

with elevations ranging from sea level to 

approximately 100 feet. Additional sounds 

within this zone include aircraft overflights, 

vehicles, and hikers, especially in the vicinity 

of measurement site1B, which is nearest to 

the lava eruption viewing area. L50 natural 

ambient sound levels range between 50 to 55 

dBA in the southwestern portion of this zone 

and 45 to 50 dBA in the northeastern portion 

of this zone. Variability within the zone may 

be attributed to differences in visitor activity 

(USDOT-FAA 2006).

Zone 2 (Coastal Lowlands). This zone 

extends over an elevation range of 100 to 

1,500 feet, has strong trade winds like the 

shoreline due to the mountains, contains low 

grass or scrub vegetation as well as widespread 

barren lava flows, and has natural animal 

sounds (i.e., compared to pets brought by 

park visitors) that are negligible. Near the 

measurement site locations (2A, 2B, and 2C), 

sound sources include wind noise through 

the grass, insect noise, and vehicle noise. L50 

natural ambient sound levels within this zone 

range between 25 to 35 dBA, where variability 

may be attributed to differences in visitor uses 

throughout the zone (USDOT-FAA 2006).

Zone 3 (Sparsely Vegetated). Elevations 

within this zone range between 700 and 3,800 

feet, with recent lava flows and low vegetative 

cover. The predominant natural sound source 

in this zone is the trade winds. In the vicinity 

of the measurement locations, winds, insect 

noises and aircraft activity also contribute 

to sound levels. L50 natural ambient sound 

levels range between 30 to 35 dBA in the 

northernmost tip and southern portion of 

this zone and between 20 and 30 dBA in 

other portions of this zone. Variations may 

be attributed to differences in visitor activity 

and higher wind speeds in some locations 

(USDOT-FAA 2006). Data was extrapolated 

to areas of similar vegetation and topography 

for Kahuku, since no ambient data was 

collected for this area of the park.

Zone 4 (Montane Rain Forest). This zone 

encompasses the tree fern rain forest on 

slopes of Mauna Loa, with elevations between 

3,300 and 4,400 feet in ‘Ōla‘a, and from 

5,000 to 6,200 feet elevation in Kahuku. The 

dominant natural sounds include rain on the 

tree canopy, crickets, and some bird sounds 

within specific locations. L50 natural ambient 

sound levels within this zone range between 

30 to 35 dBA (USDOT-FAA 2006). Data was 

extrapolated to areas of similar vegetation and 

topography for Kahuku, since no ambient data 

was collected for this area of the park until 

fall 2013 and analysis of the new data is not 

yet completed.

Zone 5 (Mauna Loa Montane/Subalpine).

This zone covers an elevation range between 

4,000 and 8,500 feet on the Mauna Loa 

slopes. It contains forest, shrublands, 

grasslands, and lava flows. Wind speeds are 

less than along the coast and bird sounds are 

heard in the forested portions of the zone. 

Additional sounds sources observed near 

the measurement locations within this zone 

include vehicle noise from the nearby Mauna 

Loa Strip Road and aircraft activity. L50 

natural ambient sound levels range between 

20 to 25 dBA in the western portion of this 

zone, 25 to 30 dBA in the central portion, 

and 30 to 35 dBA in the easternmost portion. 

Based on the measurement data collected at 

sites 5A, 5B, and 5C, variations in sound level 

ranges may be attributable to differences in 

air tour activities within the zone (USDOTFAA 2006). Data was collected in 2008 at 

one measurement site in this zone above the 

other sites, but data was expressed as Median 
480 | Appendix I HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

A-weighted, not L50. A-weighting emphasizes 

the frequencies between one kHz and 6.3 kHz 

to simulate the relative response of human 

hearing. L50 uses all frequencies recorded. 

The daytime Median A-weighted natural 

ambient sound levels of this site were 18.1 

dBA. Data was extrapolated to areas of similar 

vegetation and topography for Kahuku, since 

no ambient data was collected for this area of 

the park until fall 2013 and analysis of the new 

data is not yet completed.

Zone 6 (Dry ‘Ōhi’a Woodlands). Elevations 

within this zone range between 1,000 and 

3,300 feet, with forests, woodlands, and 

savannas. The predominant natural sound 

source is the trade winds rushing through the 

forest canopy. Additional sounds observed at 

the measurement locations within this zone 

include insect noise and aircraft events. L50 

natural ambient sound levels range between 

25 to 30 dBA throughout most of this zone 

and between 30 and 35 dBA in the portion 

adjacent to zones 2, 8, and 9. Variability in 

the sound levels may be attributed to aircraft 

activities (USDOT-FAA 2006). Data was 

extrapolated to areas of similar vegetation and 

topography for Kahuku, since no ambient data 

was collected for this area of the park.

Zone 7 (Mauna Loa Alpine). This zone 

comprises the barren portion on Mauna Loa 

from approximately 8,500 to 13,677 feet. 

The climate is dry, and although winds are 

not strong, the dominant natural sounds in 

this zone are winds rushing over the lava 

fields, as well as occasional birds. Weather 

and accessibility to this zone proved to be 

issues during the measurement period in 2003 

(USDOT-FAA 2006). Data was collected for 

this zone in fall 2013, but analysis of data is 

not yet completed. 

Zone 8 (Lowland Rain Forest). Located 

along the edge of Kīlauea Caldera and 

the East Rift Zone, elevations within this 

zone range between 2,000 and 4,000 feet. 

Dominant natural sound sources include rain 

on vegetation and a great number of birds in 

the closed canopy forest. Additional sounds 

observed at the measurement site locations 

within this zone include traffic noise from 

Highway 11 at sites 8A and 8B, and aircraft 

activity at site 8C, which is near Nāpau Crater. 

L50 natural ambient sound levels range 

between 25 to 30 dBA in the portion of the 

zone where measurement site 8C is located 

and between 35 to 45 dBA in the remaining 

portion of the zone where measurement sites 

8A and 8B are located. Variability in the sound 

levels within the zone may be attributable to 

human activity, including aircraft sounds and 

traffic noise (USDOT-FAA 2006).

Zone 9 (New Lava Flows). This zone is 

located on the East Rift Zone of Kīlauea, 

where elevations range between 100 and 3,500 

feet, and includes recent lava flows (within 

the past 40 years). Sounds within this zone 

from the newest lava flows include: bench 

collapses, rock fall from cinder cones and pit 

crater edges, crackling of cooling pāhoehoe 

flows and sounds of clinkers falling in moving 

‘a’a flows, gas venting, methane explosions, 

and falling trees on the edge of lava flows 

(USDOT-FAA 2006). Additional sound 

sources observed near the measurement sites 

include birds and insects and aircraft activity, 

especially near measurement site 9A, which 

was along an air tour flight path. L50 natural 

ambient sound levels range between 25 to 30 

dBA throughout the entire zone 

(USDOT-FAA 2006).

Zone 10 (Kahuku Pastures). The Kahuku 

Unit was added to Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

subsequent to data collection in 2002-2003 

and contains woodlands and rainforests, 

lava flows, ancient archaeological sites, and 

Mauna Loa’s Southwest Rift Zone. Since no 

ambient data has been collected for this area 

of the park, vegetative and topographical 

comparisons were used between this zone 

and zones where ambient data was collected 

to characterize the acoustics of Zone 

10. Knowing this zone contains rare and 

endangered plant, bird, and insect species, the 

predominant natural sound sources expected 

include bird and insect sounds. L50 natural 

ambient sound levels were estimated between 

25 to 30 dBA. Variations may be attributable to 

traffic noise from Highway 11 (USDOT-FAA 

2006). Data was collected for this zone in fall 

2013, but analysis of data is not yet completed.
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Preparers and Consultants | 481 

PREPARERS AND CONSULTANTS

US DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, 

NATIONAL PARK SERVICE

Hawai‘i Volcanoes 

National Park | Hawai‘i

Keola Awong

Cultural Anthropologist and Native 

Hawaiian Liaison

David Benite

Ecologist

Ron Borne

Facilities Maintenance Manager (Relocated to 

Yosemite National Park)

John Broward

Park Ranger, Law Enforcement/Emergency 

Operations Coordinator

Bobby Camara

Budget Assistant (Retired)

Jessica Ferracane

Public Information Specialist

Danielle Foster

Environmental Protection Specialist

Lora Gale

Outdoor Recreation Planner (Relocated to 

position with BLM) 

Jim Gale

Chief of Interpretation (Retired)

Dean Gallagher

Park Ranger, Interpretation

Howard Hoshide

Wildlife Biologist (Retired)

Faelyn Jardine

Revenue and Fee Business Manager

Andrea Kaawaloa-Okita

Geologist and Supervisory Park 

Ranger, Interpretation

Nainoa Keanaaina

Park Ranger, Law Enforcement/Backcountry 

Patrol Coordinator

Mardie Lane

Public Information Officer (Retired) 

Bill Leek

Landscape Architect

Tracy Laqua

Museum Curator

Rhonda Loh

Chief of Natural Resources Management

Talmadge Magno

Chief Ranger, Visitor and Resource Protection

Joni Mae Makuakane-Jerrell

Chief of Interpretation

Kupono McDaniel

Volunteers-In-Parks (VIP) 

Coordinator, Interpretation

Sierra McDaniel

Botanist

Gail Minami-Judd

Supervisory Park Ranger, Law Enforcement/

Protection Operations Supervisor (Retired)

Kathleen Misajon

Wildlife Biologist

Joe Molhoek

Fire Management Officer (Retired)

Jadelyn Moniz-Nakamura

Integrated Resources Manager/Archeologist

Cindy Orlando

Superintendent

Walt Poole

Concessions Management Specialist

Rita Pregana

Kahuku Site Manager

Jay Robinson

Park Ranger, Visual Information Specialist

Laura Schuster

Chief of Cultural Resources Management

Helen Wong-Smith

Archivist (previous)

Leanette Yoshida

Chief of Administration and 

Business Resources
482 | Preparers and Consultants HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

Pacific West Regional Office | 

Multiple Locations

HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK

Darcy Hu

Senior Science Advisor

SAN FRANCISCO

Anne Dubinsky Altman

Commercial Service Program Manager

Debbie Campbell

Line Item Construction Program Manager

Martha Crusius

Program Chief, Park Planning and 

Environmental Compliance

Kimberley Gagliolo

Commercial Services Specialist

Trung-Son Nguyen

Architect/Project Manager

SEATTLE

Elizabeth Anderson

Planning Intern

Elizabeth Boerke

Environmental Protection Specialist/Planner

Amanda Kaplan

Environmental Planner

Cheryl Teague

Landscape Architect (Retired)

Denver Service Center | 

Lakewood, Colorado

Kerri Cahill

Branch Chief, Denver Service Center 

Planning Division

Ericka Pilcher

Visitor Use Specialist/Planner

Washington Support Office| 

Fort Collins, Colorado

Vicki McCusker

Overflights Program Manager, Natural Sounds 

and Night Sky Division

US DEPARTMENT OF THE 

INTERIOR, UNITED STATES 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

Hawaiian Volcano 

Observatory | Hawai‘i

Jim Kauahikaua 

Scientist-in-Charge

US DEPARTMENT OF 

TRANSPORTATION, FEDERAL 

HIGHWAY ADMINISTRATION

Central Federal Lands Highway 

Division | Lakewood, Colorado

Laurie Miskimins

Transportation Planner
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Glossary | 483 

GLOSSARY

‘A‘ā: ‘A‘ā is a type of basaltic lava flow. It is 

characterized by its rough and jagged textures. 

Acoustic environment: The acoustic 

environment is the combination of all the 

acoustic resources within a given area – 

natural sounds as well as human-caused 

sounds. The acoustic environment includes 

sound vibrations made by geological 

processes, biological activity, and even sounds 

that are inaudible to most humans, such as bat 

echolocation calls. 

Acoustic resources: Acoustic resources 

are physical sound sources, including 

both natural sounds (wind, water, wildlife, 

vegetation) and cultural and historic sounds 

(battle reenactments, tribal ceremonies, 

quiet reverence). 

Archeological Site: An archeological site 

is defined as the physical remains of human 

activity, such as old villages, rock shelters, 

abandoned gardens, artifact scatters, and 

petroglyphs (and including deteriorated 

buildings, structures, and objects, i.e., 

other categories of property that have 

become ruins).

Badlands: Badlands are a landscape that is 

intricately dissected and is characterized by a 

very fine drainage network with high drainage 

density and short, steep slopes with narrow 

interfluves. Badland develops on surfaces 

that have little, if any, vegetative cover, and 

are underlain by unconsolidated or poorly 

cemented material, such as clay, silt, or sand 

(USDA-NRCS 2008). At HAVO badlands 

are associated with geothermal areas, near 

calderas, and near vents.

Beaches: Beaches are a unique process 

occurs where lava meets the ocean. As hot 

lava hits cold water, lava is quickly quenched 

shattering it into small volcanic products—

black sand. There are a few places in the park 

where white and mixed white and black sand 

beaches can be found. White sand beaches 

form due to mechanical weathering of nearby 

coral stands. 

Building: A building is a constructed facility 

intended to shelter human activity. However, 

if a building has lost its basic structural 

elements, it is usually considered a ‘ruin’ 

and is categorized as a site, specifically an 

archeological site (see above).

Calderas: Calderas are large geologic 

depressions that are found only at the very 

summit of volcanoes. A caldera is a large, 

usually circular depression. It forms over 

ten of thousands of years and can change in 

shape with the likes of one large eruption. The 

depression develops following an eruption 

when magma is emptied either by ejection or 

retraction of magma from its underground 

magma reservoir. This removal of large 

volumes of magma often results in loss of 

structural support for the overlying rock. This 

in turn leads to the collapse of the ground and 

formation of a large depression. In the park, 

lone calderas can be found at both summits 

of Mauna Loa and Kīlauea volcanoes. 

Moku‘āweoweo caldera on Mauna Loa sits at 

13,677 feet and is some 9,842 feet by 16,404 

feet across and 600 feet deep. Kīlauea caldera 

is approximately three miles by two miles in 

diameter. Its current elevation is 4,190 feet, 

as determined by recent USGS surveys. Both 

calderas are located with park boundaries. 

Cheloniids: From the family of Cheloniidae, 

which includes green turtles and 

hawksbill turtles.

Cinder Cones: Cinder cones are conicalshaped hills shaped by volcanic products 

(e.g. tephra, cinders, Pele’s hair, Pele’s tears, 

reticulite, etc.). Built from the base up, cinder 

cones grow in height leaving a steep sided 

landform. As magma explodes into the air, 

these products rain out of the sky to build 

the cone—the larger materials falling close to 

the source. The smaller products are carried 

further downwind littering the downwind 

landscape. Cinder cones can also erupt lava in 

either its ‘a‘ā or pāhoehoe forms. Like calderas 

and craters, cinder cones of varied size can 

be found through the park. The Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō 
484 | Glossary HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

cone, which is located on the East Rift zone 

of Kīlauea, is currently the only active cone 

vent in Hawai‘i. Due to its degrading nature, 

it has been closed by the park. Cinder cones 

are sometime referred to as scoria, cinder, or 

spatter vents. 

Craters: Craters are funnel shaped 

depressions from which eruptions occur. 

Unlike calderas, craters are created primarily 

by explosion. Craters are smaller (less than 

a one mile in diameter) geologic depressions 

and can be found scattered at the summit and 

along the rift zones of Hawaiian volcanoes. 

Craters, like calderas, are often circular. In 

the history of both Mauna Loa and Kīlauea, a 

plethora of craters populate the park. 

Cultural soundscape: Cultural soundscapes 

include opportunities for appropriate 

transmission of cultural and historic sounds 

that are fundamental components of the 

purposes and values for which a park 

was established.

District: A district possesses a significant 

concentration, linkage, or continuity of 

sites, buildings, structures, or objects united 

historically or aesthetically by plan or physical 

development.

Fumaroles: A fumarole is a “vent” from 

which hot volcanic gases and other vapors 

are emitted into the atmosphere. Fumaroles 

often form over persistent heat sources and 

in locations where it is not accompanied by 

liquid or solid matter.

Geothermal Features: Geothermal features 

are active subsurface geologic formations. 

These areas are noted for their continuous 

vapor emissions (steam) through cracks in 

the ground. The ground in this area can be 

hot, reaching as high as 135 degrees near the 

surface. Rainwater continually drains into the 

cracks and is heated and released as steam; 

these cracks are referred to as steam vents. 

Hawaiian Shield Volcano: Hawaiian 

volcanoes are shield volcanoes which are 

large broad volcanic mountains composed of 

basalt. These shield-shaped volcanoes grow 

lava flow upon lava flow, on the seafloor and 

rise well above sea level to soaring heights. 

The source of their growth is attributed to 

the “hot spot” some 25–37 miles below the 

Earth’s surface. 

Historic Event Site: An historic event site 

is the geographic location of an historically 

important event or events, regardless of 

whether there are any physical remains 

(archeological sites are also historic 

event sites).

Hornitos: Hornitos are small rootless spatter 

cones. They vary in height and in overall 

dimension. Hornitos typically form over 

lava tubes versus over larger and deeper 

magma source like a rift zone, hence they are 

considered rootless.

Intelligent Transportation System (ITS):

ITS is the use of electronic sensors, cameras, 

or other devices connected to a computer 

program to monitor traffic conditions at 

designated locations.

Kīpuka: Kīpuka is an area of land completely 

surrounded by one or more younger lava 

flows; an island of native forest or plants in the 

middle of a recent lava flow.

L10: This abbreviation represents the sound 

level that would not exceed a specified value 

for more than 10% of the time specified.

Lava Lakes: Lava Lakes form within larger 

volcanic features like craters, and calderas. An 

active lava lake now populates a portion of the 

Halema‘uma‘u Crater.

Lava Trees: Lava trees form as highly-fluid 

lava surrounds a tree and then recedes leaving 

a cooled solidified layer of lava around the 

charred tree.

Lava Tubes: Lava tubes form throughout 

the evolution of a Hawaiian volcano. They 

are natural conduits through which lava is 

transported from its source. Tubes form by 

the crusting over of lava channels. A broad 

lava-flow field can consist of a main lava 

tube and bifurcate into a series of smaller 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Glossary | 485 

tubes that supply lava to the front of one or 

more separate flows. When the supply of 

lava stops or is diverted elsewhere, lava in 

the tube system will often drain downslope 

leaving a partially empty conduit beneath 

the ground. Lava tubes may contain cultural, 

paleontological, and biological resources 

as they were used for shelter, collecting of 

water, and as burial sites by Native Hawaiians. 

The Federal Cave Protection Act of 1988, as 

amended (16 USC 4301–4310) and the NPS 

Management Policies 2006 require the NPS to 

protect cave resources.

Lobelioids: Lobelioids is a group of 

flowering plants in the bellflower family 

Campanulaceae, all of which are endemic to 

the Hawaiian Islands.

Low-energy beach: A low-energy beach is 

a beach typically found within a protected 

environment; waves typically are not as 

powerful and the rate of deposition exceeds 

the rate of erosion. This state can be seasonal 

(e.g. summer low-energy and winter 

high energy).

Mesic: Mesic is an environment characterized 

by a moderate amount of moisture.

Montane: Montane is an environment 

of relatively moist cool upland slopes 

below timberline.

Noise: Noise refers to sound which is 

unwanted, either because of its effects on 

humans and wildlife, or its interference with 

the perception or detection of other sounds.

Pelage: Pelage is the hairy covering of 

a mammal.

Object: An object is a constructed feature that 

is primarily artistic in nature or...relatively 

small in scale and simply constructed. It is 

designed and set in a specific locale, such as a 

monument or a fountain.

Outplant: To outplant is to transplant from 

nursery bed, greenhouse, or other location to 

an outside area, such as a location in the park.

Pāhoehoe: Pāhoehoe is a type of basaltic 

lava flow. It is characterized by its smooth and 

ropy textures.

Pele’s hair: Pele’s hair is fine, fragile strands 

of volcanic glass. They form as molten lava 

is ejected into the air and quickly chilled as 

a thread. Large mats of Pele’s hair can be 

found downwind of the vent that produced it. 

Pele’s hair is a modern term named for Native 

Hawaiian deity, Pelehonuamea (Pele).

Pele’s tears: Pele’s tears are lava fragments 

ejecting into the air in the form of droplets. 

They quickly solidify in the atmosphere in 

an “air-streamlined” spherical shape. Pele’s 

tears are named for Native Hawaiian deity, 

Pelehonuamea (Pele).

Reticulite: A reticulite is a gold-brown foamlike type of glass produced by eruptions and 

often found in considerable quantities.

Rift Zones: A rift zone is an elongate system 

of crustal fractures, typically subsurface, 

associated with an area that is experiencing 

active ground deformation. Each rift zone 

originates at the summit caldera of a Hawaiian 

shield volcano. Mauna Loa and Kīlauea are 

comprised of two rift zones each. Many 

different features are associated with and 

along rift zones such as narrow dikes and 

eruptive fissures, cinder and spatter cones, 

spatter ramparts, pit craters, lava flows, 

ground cracks, and faults to name a few. 

Rift zones play a very important role in the 

dynamics of Hawaiian volcanoes. They are a 

conduit by which magma travels through; a 

subsurface plumbing system that transports 

magma great distances to its point of eruption.

Sea Arches, Stacks, Caves, and 

Headlands: Rock arches form along the lava 

coastal cliffs due to wind and wave erosion. 

These features of various size form over long 

periods of time and eventually collapse into 

the ocean.

Site: A site is the location of a significant 

event, a prehistoric or historic occupation or 

activity, or a building or structure, whether 
486 | Glossary HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

standing, ruined, or vanished, where the 

location itself possesses historic, cultural, or 

archeological value regardless of the value 

of any existing structure. By the NRHP

definition, a site is a place of cultural value 

and significance.

Solfataras: Solfataras are areas where sulfurrich gas is being emitted into the atmosphere. 

They can occur along fault lines or in areas 

where shallow bodies of magma exist. The 

largest solfatara area in the park is located at 

the Sulphur Banks site on the north rim of the 

Kīlauea caldera.

Soundscape: A soundscape is the component 

of the acoustical environment that can be 

perceived and comprehended by humans. 

The character and quality of the soundscape 

influences human perceptions of an area, 

providing a sense of place that differentiates it 

from other regions.

Spatter: Spatter forms as fluid liquid lava is 

ejected into the air. Upon ejection, it cools, 

congeals, and flattens when it hits the ground. 

Spatter fragments are often found near cinder 

and littoral cones.

Spatter Rampart/Cone: Spatter ramparts 

are long “walls” of congealed spatter 

(solidified lava). These fragile features can 

vary in height from a few feet in height to 

tens of feet. They typically form as part of a 

larger fissure eruption, at varied locations. 

As with cinder cones, the features name is 

determined by what it is comprised of; if the 

hill is comprised of primarily cinder fragments 

then it’s called a cinder cone, if spatter then 

it’s called a spatter cone.

Special ecological areas (SEAs): SEAs are 

natural areas located within the park that 

are the focus of intensive management to 

protect and restore native species and habitats 

and selected based on: (1) the biological 

communities representative of a particular 

ecological zone and/or rarity in the park or on 

the islands; (2) manageability and intactness; 

(3) concentrations of species diversity and 

rare species; and (4) value for research and 

interpretation to the public (Tunison and 

Stone 1992; Loh and Tunison 2009).

Stochastic event: A stochastic event is an 

event having a random probability distribution 

or pattern that may be analyzed statistically 

but may not be predicted; frequently referred 

to in terms of a threat for the extinction of 

a species.

Structure: A structure is a constructed 

facility that is not a building or an object. This 

category includes bridges, dams, roads, and 

fences, for example, as well as aircraft and 

ships (although these are often mistakenly 

called objects). Like a deteriorated building, 

a deteriorated structure is categorized as an 

archeological site.

Substrate: Substrate is the base on which an 

organism lives.

Talk Story: Known in Hawai‘i as mo‘olelo, 

is the tradition of personally sharing 

important stories to preserve them for future 

generations. The phrase is also often used 

in Hawai‘i to conotate general chatting, 

gossiping, or “shooting the breeze”. A talk 

story session in the case of this general 

management plan is an open house-style 

meeting, where people can talk to subject 

matter experts, as well as other participants.

Tephra: Tephra are fragments of lava that are 

airborne for at least a short time before being 

deposited on the ground, and can include ash, 

cinders, Pele’s hair, reticulite, etc.

Traditional Ecological Knowledge:

Native Hawaiian Traditional Ecological 

Knowledge is a cumulative body of 

knowledge, beliefs, practices that refer to 

the relationships and effects between living 

things and their environment which passes 

from one generation to the next through 

traditional practice, stories, chants and songs. 

The Native Hawaiian culture was an oral 

culture; therefore the stories, chants, and 

songs documented significant events, and 

documented and perpetuated their scientific 

understanding of the environment. The 
HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Glossary | 487 

traditional land management system of the 

ahupua‘a is an example of the application 

of traditional ecological knowledge, which 

informed individuals of the appropriate 

uses, harvest times, and planting sequences 

from the ocean to the mountain tops. This 

knowledge was applied across each island and 

managed by the people so that the resources 

from all environments within the ahupua‘a 

would be sustainable for future generations.

Traditional Place: A traditional place is a 

legendary place or a place with a traditional 

place name. Such a place may be a natural 

feature and it may or may not have any 

archeological remains. If this is identified 

as a “significant site” to an ethnic group, 

particularly a native population, it has come 

to be called a TCP (traditional cultural 

place or property), as coined by Parker and 

King (1990).

Tree Molds: Tree molds are the physical 

remains of where a tree once stood. As fluid 

lava moves through a forested area, it will 

often surround and ignite trees in its path. 

As the tree burns and the flow cools, the lava 

preserves the shape of the tree trunk that 

once stood.

Tumuli: Tumuli is an artificial hillock or 

mound of earth and stone.
488 | Glossary HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

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HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS Acro nyms | 489 

ACRONYMS

Audubon National Audubon Society

BEA US Bureau of 

Economic Affairs

CEQ Council on 

Environmental Quality

CCC Civilian Conservation Corps

CUA Commercial 

Use Authorization

DCP Development Concept Plan

DLNR Department of Land and 

Natural Resources

DOIUS Department of the Interior

EIS Environmental 

Impact Statement

EPA US Environmental 

Protection Agency

ESA Endangered Species Act

FAA Federal 

Aviation Administration

FHWA Federal 

Highway Administration

FTE Full Time Equivalent

GMP General Management Plan

HABS Historic American 

Buildings Survey 

HAER Historic American 

Engineering Record 

HALS Historic American 

Landscape Survey

HAWP Hawai‘i Association of 

Watershed Partnership

HVO Hawai‘i 

Volcanoes Observatory

IPCC Intergovernmental Panel 

on Climate Change

ITS Intelligent 

Transportation System

KMC Kilauea Military Camp

MRA Minimum 

Requirements Analysis

MRDG Minimum Requirements 

Decision Guide

NEPA National 

Environmental Policy Act

NHPA National Historic 

Preservation Act

NHT National Historic Trail

NMFS National Marine 

Fisheries Service

NOAA National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration

NP National Park

NPCA National Parks 

Conservation Association 

NPS National Park Service

NRHP National Register of 

Historic Places

OUV Outstanding Universal Value

PEPC Planning, Environment 

and Public Comment

PEPP Plant Extinction 

Prevention Program
490 | Acro nyms HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

PIERC Pacific Island Ecosystems 

Research Center

SEA Special Ecological Area

TCP Traditional 

Cultural Property

TEK Traditional 

Ecological Knowledge

TMA Three Mountain Alliance

TNC The Nature Conservancy

UNEP-WCMC United Nations 

Environment Programme 

World Conservation 

Monitoring Centre

UNFCCC United Nations 

Framework Convention 

on Climate Change

USDA US 

Department of Agriculture

USDA-NRCS US Department 

of Agriculture, 

Natural Resource 

Conservation Service

USDOT US Department 

of Transportation

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Hawaiʻi, Period of Record General 

Climate Summary—Temperature. 

Updated July 28, 2006. Available at 

http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/cgibin/cliGCStT.pl?hihawa. 

 
508 | Selected Bibliology HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

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HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS INDEX | 509 

INDEX

I

‘i‘iwi 472

Iliahi 37

‘io 229, 231

K

Ka‘aha 263

Kahauale‘a Natural Area Reserve 457

Kahue 463

Kahuku Unit 454, 458, 459, 460, 466, 470, 

471, 473, 474, 475, 476, 480

Kalapana 453, 467, 473, 476

Kālu‘e 467, 473, 474

Kamoamoa xxviii, 463, 475, 477

Ka‘ū 3, 221, 222, 224, 226, 232, 240, 241, 

244, 246, 247, 248, 252, 276, 283

Ka‘ū District 42

Ka‘ū Forest Reserve 226

kauila 472

Ka‘ū Preserve 283

ka‘ūpūlehu 463, 464

kāwa‘u 478

Kealakomo 263, 269

Kealakomowaena 292, 294, 

309, 319, 320, 331

Keauhou Ranch 3

Kīlauea 3, 6, 7, 13, 17, 21, 29, 35, 36, 41

Kīlauea Crater rim 470

Kīlauea Field Station 258

Kīlauea Iki 218, 254, 261, 262, 274

Kilauea Military Camp 3, 7

Kīlauea summit eruption 218

Kīlauea Visitor Center 220, 237, 261, 264, 

265, 267, 268, 269, 271, 272, 274

Kīlauea Volcano 215, 217, 218, 224, 

243, 247, 254, 255, 261, 262, 265, 

266, 271, 272, 273

Kīpāhoehoe Natural Area Reserve 460

kīpuka 459, 463, 464, 466, 468, 469, 470, 

471, 472, 473, 474, 475, 476, 477, 478

Kīpuka Kī 129

Kipuka Nēnē Campground 98, 108

A

‘a‘ā xiv

‘a‘ali‘i 222, 225

āhinahina xiii

‘Āinahou Ranch xix, xxii, xxiii, xxvi

‘Ainapō Trail 248, 253, 257, 274

‘ākia 226

‘akiapōlā‘au 228

Akihi 473

‘amakihi 228

‘apapane 228

‘Āpua Point 263

C

Chain of Craters Road 218, 220, 224, 250, 

252, 254, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264, 265, 269, 

272, 273, 274, 275

Crater Rim Drive 217, 218, 220, 251, 261, 

262, 263, 272, 273, 274

E

East Rift of Kīlauea Volcano 273

East Rift Zone 480

‘elepaio 228

eruption-site 260, 261, 262

H

hāhā 232

Hakalau Forest 348, 456, 460

Halema‘uma‘u Crater 217, 218, 260, 

263, 264, 265, 272

hāpu‘u 465, 469, 470, 473, 474, 

475, 476, 477, 478

hau kuahiwi 15

Hawai‘i ‘akepa 452

Hilina Pali Overlook 18

Hilina Pali Road 464, 467, 473, 476

Hōlei Pali 474, 476

Hōlei sea arch xv

honu 230, 231

honu‘ea 230

Hualālai 247
510 | INDEX HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

koa 38, 39

Koa Unit 472, 474, 475, 477

Kona district 281

Kona Hema Preserve 225, 283

Kūlanaokuaiki Campground 98, 108, 113, 

128, 142, 184, 194

Kūlani 459, 460

Kūpa‘ianahā 216, 217, 265

L

Lae ‘Apuki 463, 476

lama 467, 473

M

Makaopuhi 453, 454, 473

Makaopuhi Crater 454, 473

Māmalahoa Highway 3, 7, 42

māmane 2, 13

mānele 225

Manukā Natural Area Reserve 456

Mauna Loa Road 250, 251, 

254, 262, 264, 273

Mauna Ulu 269, 273, 274, 286

Moku‘āweoweo caldera 483

N

Nā‘ālehu 3

Nāhuku 21

naio 452

Nāmakanipaio campground 7

Nāpau 107, 126, 183, 453, 

465, 472, 474, 480

Nāpau Crater 107, 126, 183

naupaka 226, 233

nēnē 229, 231, 250, 255, 262, 263

O

‘oha 232

‘ōhelo 474

‘ōhi‘a 33

Ohia Wing xxi

‘Ōla‘a Forest 103

‘Ōla‘a Forest Reserve 456, 457, 469

ōlapa 28

‘ōma‘o 228

‘ōpe‘ape‘a 227, 228

P

pāhoehoe 218, 221, 222, 225, 229, 483

pali 226

Pōhue Bay 137, 189

pueo 228

Puhimau 467

pūkiawe 222, 225

Pu‘u Loa 152

Pu‘u Maka‘ala Natural Area 

Reserve 130, 155

Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō 102, 108, 120, 126, 127

Pu‘u Pua‘i 107, 120, 123, 125, 149, 

152, 153, 154, 182

S

Southwest Rift Zone 109, 110, 111, 130, 

131, 134, 155, 156

Sulphur Banks 486

T

Thomas Vint 273, 274

Thurston Lava Tube 251, 254, 

261, 262, 272, 274

Tree Molds Area 273

U

‘ūlei 226

uluhe fern 224

Upper Waiākea Forest Reserve 458, 461

W

Waiākea Forest Reserve 458, 461
As the nation’s principal conservation agency, the Department of 

the Interior has responsibility for most of our nationally owned 

public lands and natural resources. This includes fostering sound 

use of our land and water resources; protecting our fish, wildlife, 

and biological diversity; preserving the environmental and cultural 

values of our national parks and historical places; and providing for 

the enjoyment of life through outdoor recreation. The department 

assesses our energy and mineral resources and works to ensure 

that their development is in the best interests of all our people by 

encouraging stewardship and citizen participation in their care. 

The department also has a major responsibility for American Indian 

reservation communities and for people who live in island territories 

under U.S. administration.

NPS/HAVO/124/125673 

Printed on Recycled Paper

Lava wolf spider. NPS photo by Jay Robinson
512 | INDEX HAWAI‘I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK GMP/WS/EIS

National Park Service

U.S. Department of the Interior

Prepared by: National Park Service | Pacific West Region-Seattle Office

Park Planning and Environmental Compliance

909 1st Avenue | Seattle, WA 98104

EXPERIENCE YOUR AMERICA

Rainbow over Halema‘uma‘u Vent and Kīlauea Caldera. Photo by Peter Anderson