U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES

National Institutes of Health

NIH Publication No. 06-3517
Schizophrenia

National Institute of Mental Health

With Addendum Schizophrenia January 2007

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES • National Institutes of Health

What is schizophrenia?

Schizophrenia is a chronic, severe, and disabling brain disorder that has

been recognized throughout recorded history. It affects about 1 percent

of Americans.1

People with schizophrenia may hear voices other people don’t hear or

they may believe that others are reading their minds, controlling their

thoughts, or plotting to harm them. These experiences are terrifying and

can cause fearfulness, withdrawal, or extreme agitation. People with

schizophrenia may not make sense when they talk, may sit for hours without moving or talking much, or may seem perfectly fine until they talk

about what they are really thinking. Because many people with schizophrenia have difficulty holding a job or caring for themselves, the burden

on their families and society is significant as well.

Available treatments can relieve many of the disorder’s symptoms, but

most people who have schizophrenia must cope with some residual

symptoms as long as they live. Nevertheless, this is a time of hope for

people with schizophrenia and their families. Many people with the disorder now lead rewarding and meaningful lives in their communities.

Researchers are developing more effective medications and using new

research tools to understand the causes of schizophrenia and to find

ways to prevent and treat it.

This brochure presents information on the symptoms of schizophrenia,

when the symptoms appear, how the disease develops, current treatments, support for patients and their loved ones, and new directions in

research.

National Institute of Mental Health

Schizophrenia
What are the symptoms of 

schizophrenia?

The symptoms of schizophrenia fall into three broad categories:

• Positive symptoms are unusual thoughts or perceptions, including hallucinations, delusions, thought

disorder, and disorders of movement.

• Negative symptoms represent a loss or a decrease

in the ability to initiate plans, speak, express emotion, or

find pleasure in everyday life.These symptoms are harder

to recognize as part of the disorder and can be mistaken

for laziness or depression.

• Cognitive symptoms (or cognitive deficits) are problems with attention,certain types of memory,and the executive functions that allow us to plan and organize.Cognitive

deficits can also be difficult to recognize as part of the

disorder but are the most disabling in terms of leading a

normal life.

Positive symptoms

Positive symptoms are easy-to-spot behaviors not seen in

healthy people and usually involve a loss of contact with

reality. They include hallucinations, delusions, thought disorder,and disorders of movement.Positive symptoms can come

and go. Sometimes they are severe and at other times hardly

noticeable, depending on whether the individual is receiving

treatment.

Hallucinations. A hallucination is something a person sees,

hears, smells, or feels that no one else can see, hear, smell, or

feel.“Voices” are the most common type of hallucination in

schizophrenia. Many people with the disorder hear voices

that may comment on their behavior, order them to do

things,warn them of impending danger,or talk to each other

(usually about the patient).They may hear these voices for a

long time before family and friends notice that something is

wrong.Other types of hallucinations include seeing people or

objects that are not there, smelling odors that no one else

2 N NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF MENTAL HEALTH T ITUTEOF MENTAL HEALTH
SCHIZOPHRENIA 3

“Voices”

ARE THE

MOST COMMON

TYPE OF

HALLUCINATION

I N

SCHIZOPHRENIA

detects (although this can also be a symptom of certain brain

tumors), and feeling things like invisible fingers touching

their bodies when no one is near.

Delusions. Delusions are false personal beliefs that are not part

of the person’s culture and do not change, even when other

people present proof that the beliefs are not true or logical.

People with schizophrenia can have delusions that are quite

bizarre, such as believing that neighbors can control their

behavior with magnetic waves,people on television are directing special messages to them,or radio stations are broadcasting

their thoughts aloud to others.They may also have delusions

of grandeur and think they are famous historical figures.

People with paranoid schizophrenia can believe that others

are deliberately cheating, harassing, poisoning, spying upon, or

plotting against them or the people they care about. These

beliefs are called delusions of persecution.

Thought Disorder. People with schizophrenia often have

unusual thought processes.One dramatic form is disorganized

thinking, in which the person has difficulty organizing his or

her thoughts or connecting them logically. Speech may be

garbled or hard to understand. Another form is “thought

blocking,” in which the person stops abruptly in the middle

of a thought.When asked why, the person may say that it felt

as if the thought had been taken out of his or her head.

Finally, the individual might make up unintelligible words, or

“neologisms.”

Disorders of Movement. People with schizophrenia can be

clumsy and uncoordinated.They may also exhibit involuntary

movements and may grimace or exhibit unusual mannerisms.

They may repeat certain motions over and over or, in

extreme cases, may become catatonic. Catatonia is a state of

immobility and unresponsiveness. It was more common

when treatment for schizophrenia was not available; fortunately, it is now rare.2
Negative symptoms

The term “negative symptoms” refers to reductions in

normal emotional and behavioral states.These include the

following:

• flat affect (immobile facial expression,monotonous voice),

• lack of pleasure in everyday life,

• diminished ability to initiate and sustain planned activity,

and 

• speaking infrequently, even when forced to interact.

People with schizophrenia often neglect basic hygiene and

need help with everyday activities. Because it is not as obvious that negative symptoms are part of a psychiatric illness,

people with schizophrenia are often perceived as lazy and

unwilling to better their lives.

Cognitive symptoms

Cognitive symptoms are subtle and are often detected only when

neuropsychological tests are performed. They include the

following:

• poor “executive functioning” (the ability to absorb and

interpret information and make decisions based on that

information),

• inability to sustain attention,and 

• problems with “working memory” (the ability to keep

recently learned information in mind and use it right away).

Cognitive impairments often interfere with the patient’s ability to lead a normal life and earn a living.They can cause great

emotional distress.

4 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF MENTAL HEALTH
SCHIZOPHRENIA 5

When does it start and who gets it?

Psychotic symptoms (such as hallucinations and delusions)

usually emerge in men in their late teens and early 20s and

in women in their mid-20s to early 30s. They seldom occur

after age 45 and only rarely before puberty, although cases of

schizophrenia in children as young as 5 have been reported.

In adolescents, the first signs can include a change of friends,

a drop in grades, sleep problems, and irritability. Because

many normal adolescents exhibit these behaviors as well, a

diagnosis can be difficult to make at this stage. In young

people who go on to develop the disease, this is called the

“prodromal” period.

Research has shown that schizophrenia affects men and

women equally and occurs at similar rates in all ethnic groups

around the world.3

Are people with 

schizophrenia violent?

People with schizophrenia are not especially prone to violence

and often prefer to be left alone. Studies show that if people

have no record of criminal violence before they develop schizophrenia and are not substance abusers, they are unlikely to

commit crimes after they become ill. Most violent crimes are

not committed by people with schizophrenia, and most people with schizophrenia do not commit violent crimes.

Substance abuse always increases violent behavior,regardless of

the presence of schizophrenia (see sidebar). If someone with

paranoid schizophrenia becomes violent, the violence is most

often directed at family members and takes place at home.

What about suicide?

People with schizophrenia attempt suicide much more often

than people in the general population. About 104,5 percent

(especially young adult males) succeed. It is hard to predict

which people with schizophrenia are prone to suicide, so if

someone talks about or tries to commit suicide, professional

help should be sought right away.

People WITH

SCHIZOPHRENIA

ARE NOT

ESPECIALLY

PRONE TO

VIOLENCE AND

OFTEN PREFER

TO BE LEFT

ALONE.
What about substance abuse?

Some people who abuse drugs show symptoms similar to

those of schizophrenia, and people with schizophrenia may be

mistaken for people who are high on drugs. While most

researchers do not believe that substance abuse causes schizophrenia, people who have schizophrenia abuse alcohol and/or

drugs more often than the general population.

Substance abuse can reduce the effectiveness of treatment for

schizophrenia. Stimulants (such as amphetamines or cocaine),

PCP,and marijuana may make the symptoms of schizophrenia

worse, and substance abuse also makes it more likely that

patients will not follow their treatment plan.

Schizophrenia and nicotine

The most common form of substance abuse in people with

schizophrenia is an addiction to nicotine. People with schizophrenia are addicted to nicotine at three times the rate of the

general population (75-90 percent vs. 25-30 percent).6

Research has revealed that the relationship between smoking

and schizophrenia is complex.People with schizophrenia seem

to be driven to smoke, and researchers are exploring whether

there is a biological basis for this need.In addition to its known

health hazards,several studies have found that smoking interferes

with the action of antipsychotic drugs.People with schizophrenia who smoke may need higher doses of their medication.

Quitting smoking may be especially difficult for people with

schizophrenia since nicotine withdrawal may cause their psychotic symptoms to temporarily get worse. Smoking cessation

strategies that include nicotine replacement methods may be

better tolerated. Doctors who treat people with schizophrenia

should carefully monitor their patient's response to antipsychotic

medication if the patient decides to either start or stop

smoking.

6 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF MENTAL HEALTH
What causes schizophrenia?

Like many other illnesses, schizophrenia is believed to result

from a combination of environmental and genetic factors.All

the tools of modern science are being used to search for the

causes of this disorder.

Can schizophrenia be inherited?

Scientists have long known that schizophrenia runs in families.

It occurs in 1 percent of the general population but is seen in 10

percent of people with a first-degree relative (a parent, brother,

or sister) with the disorder. People who have second-degree

relatives (aunts, uncles, grandparents, or cousins) with the disease also develop schizophrenia more often than the general

population.The identical twin of a person with schizophrenia

is most at risk, with a 40 to 65 percent chance of developing

the disorder.7

Our genes are located on 23 pairs of chromosomes that are

found in each cell.We inherit two copies of each gene, one

from each parent.Several of these genes are thought to be associated with an increased risk of schizophrenia, but scientists

believe that each gene has a very small effect and is not responsible for causing the disease by itself. It is still not possible to

predict who will develop the disease by looking at genetic

material.

Although there is a genetic risk for schizophrenia, it is not likely

that genes alone are sufficient to cause the disorder.

Interactions between genes and the environment are thought

to be necessary for schizophrenia to develop. Many environmental factors have been suggested as risk factors, such as

exposure to viruses or malnutrition in the womb, problems

during birth, and psychosocial factors, like stressful environmental conditions.

SCHIZOPHRENIA 7

People with

SCHIZOPHRENIA

MAY BE

MISTAKEN FOR

PEOPLE WHO

ARE HIGH ON

DRUGS.
8 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF MENTAL HEALTH

Do people with schizophrenia have 

faulty brain chemistry?

It is likely that an imbalance in the complex, interrelated

chemical reactions of the brain involving the neurotransmitters dopamine and glutamate (and possibly others) plays a role

in schizophrenia. Neurotransmitters are substances that allow

brain cells to communicate with one another. Basic knowledge about brain chemistry and its link to schizophrenia is

expanding rapidly and is a promising area of research.

Do the brains of people with 

schizophrenia look different?

The brains of people with schizophrenia look a little different

than the brains of healthy people,but the differences are small.

Sometimes the fluid-filled cavities at the center of the brain,

called ventricles,are larger in people with schizophrenia;overall gray matter volume is lower; and some areas of the brain

have less or more metabolic activity.3 Microscopic studies of

brain tissue after death have also revealed small changes in the

distribution or characteristics of brain cells in people with

schizophrenia.It appears that many of these changes were prenatal because they are not accompanied by glial cells, which

are always present when a brain injury occurs after birth.3 One

theory suggests that problems during brain development

lead to faulty connections that lie dormant until puberty.The

brain undergoes major changes during puberty, and these

changes could trigger psychotic symptoms.

The only way to answer these questions is to conduct more

research. Scientists in the United States and around the world

are studying schizophrenia and trying to develop new ways

to prevent and treat the disorder.
SCHIZOPHRENIA 9

How is schizophrenia treated?

Because the causes of schizophrenia are still unknown, current

treatments focus on eliminating the symptoms of the disease.

Antipsychotic medications

Antipsychotic medications have been available since the mid1950s. They effectively alleviate the positive symptoms of

schizophrenia. While these drugs have greatly improved the

lives of many patients, they do not cure schizophrenia.

Everyone responds differently to antipsychotic medication.

Sometimes several different drugs must be tried before the

right one is found. People with schizophrenia should work in

partnership with their doctors to find the medications that

control their symptoms best with the fewest side effects.

The older antipsychotic medications include chlorpromazine

(Thorazine®), haloperidol (Haldol®), perphenazine (Etrafon®,

Trilafon®), and fluphenzine (Prolixin®).The older medications

can cause extrapyramidal side effects, such as rigidity, persistent

muscle spasms, tremors, and restlessness.

In the 1990s, new drugs, called atypical antipsychotics, were

developed that rarely produced these side effects.The first of

these new drugs was clozapine (Clozaril®). It treats psychotic

symptoms effectively even in people who do not respond to

other medications, but it can produce a serious problem called

agranulocytosis, a loss of the white blood cells that fight infection.Therefore, patients who take clozapine must have their

white blood cell counts monitored every week or two.The

inconvenience and cost of both the blood tests and the medication itself has made treatment with clozapine difficult for

many people, but it is the drug of choice for those whose

symptoms do not respond to the other antipsychotic medications, old or new.

Everyone

RESPONDS

DIFFERENTLY

TO ANTIPSYCHOTIC

MEDICATON.
10 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF MENTAL HEALTH

Some of the drugs that were developed after clozapine was

introduced—such as risperidone (Risperdal®), olanzapine

(Zyprexa®),quetiapine (Seroquel®),sertindole (Serdolect®),and

ziprasidone (Geodon®)—are effective and rarely produce

extrapyramidal symptoms and do not cause agranulocytosis;

but they can cause weight gain and metabolic changes associated with an increased risk of diabetes and high cholesterol.8

People respond individually to antipsychotic medications,

although agitation and hallucinations usually improve within

days and delusions usually improve within a few weeks. Many

people see substantial improvement in both types of symptoms

by the sixth week of treatment. No one can tell beforehand

exactly how a medication will affect a particular individual,

and sometimes several medications must be tried before the

right one is found.

When people first start to take atypical antipsychotics, they

may become drowsy; experience dizziness when they change

positions; have blurred vision; or develop a rapid heartbeat,

menstrual problems, a sensitivity to the sun, or skin rashes.

Many of these symptoms will go away after the first days of

treatment, but people who are taking atypical antipsychotics

should not drive until they adjust to their new medication.

If people with schizophrenia become depressed, it may be

necessary to add an antidepressant to their drug regimen.

A large clinical trial funded by the National Institute of Mental

Health (NIMH), known as CATIE (Clinical Antipsychotic

Trials of Intervention Effectiveness), compared the effectiveness and side effects of five antipsychotic medications—both

new and older antipsychotics—that are used to treat people

with schizophrenia. For more information on CATIE, visit

http://www.nimh.nih.gov/healthinformation/catie.cfm.
SCHIZOPHRENIA 11

Length of Treatment. Like diabetes or high blood pressure,

schizophrenia is a chronic disorder that needs constant management. At the moment, it cannot be cured, but the rate of

recurrence of psychotic episodes can be decreased significantly

by staying on medication.Although responses vary from person to person, most people with schizophrenia need to take

some type of medication for the rest of their lives as well 

as use other approaches, such as supportive therapy or

rehabilitation.

Relapses occur most often when people with schizophrenia

stop taking their antipsychotic medication because they feel

better,or only take it occasionally because they forget or don’t

think taking it regularly is important. It is very important for

people with schizophrenia to take their medication on a regular basis and for as long as their doctors recommend. If they

do so, they will experience fewer psychotic symptoms.

No antipsychotic medication should be discontinued

without talking to the doctor who prescribed it, and it

should always be tapered off under a doctor’s supervision

rather than being stopped all at once.

There are a variety of reasons why people with schizophrenia

do not adhere to treatment.If they don’t believe they are ill,they

may not think they need medication at all. If their thinking is

too disorganized, they may not remember to take their

medication every day. If they don’t like the side effects of

one medication, they may stop taking it without trying a

different medication. Substance abuse can also interfere

with treatment effectiveness. Doctors should ask patients

how often they take their medication and be sensitive to a

patient’s request to change dosages or to try new medications to eliminate unwelcome side effects.

There are many strategies to help people with schizophrenia

take their drugs regularly. Some medications are available in

long-acting, injectable forms, which eliminate the need to

take a pill every day.Medication calendars or pillboxes labeled

with the days of the week can both help patients remember

to take their medications and let caregivers know whether

At the

moment,

IT CAN NOT BE

CURED, BUT

THE RATE OF

RECURRENCE...

CAN BE

DECREASED

SIGNIFICANTLY...
12 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF MENTAL HEALTH

medication has been taken. Electronic timers on clocks or

watches can be programmed to beep when people need to

take their pills, and pairing medication with routine daily

events,like meals,can help patients adhere to dosing schedules.

Medication Interactions. Antipsychotic medications can produce

unpleasant or dangerous side effects when taken with certain

other drugs. For this reason, the doctor who prescribes

the antipsychotics should be told about all medications

(over-the-counter and prescription) and all vitamins,

minerals, and herbal supplements the patient takes.

Alcohol or other drug use should also be discussed.

Psychosocial treatment

Numerous studies have found that psychosocial treatments can

help patients who are already stabilized on antipsychotic medication deal with certain aspects of schizophrenia, such as difficulty with communication, motivation, self-care, work, and

establishing and maintaining relationships with others.

Learning and using coping mechanisms to address these problems allows people with schizophrenia to attend school,work,

and socialize. Patients who receive regular psychosocial treatment also adhere better to their medication schedule and have

fewer relapses and hospitalizations.A positive relationship with

a therapist or a case manager gives the patient a reliable source

of information, sympathy, encouragement, and hope, all of

which are essential for for managing the disease. The therapist

can help patients better understand and adjust to living with

schizophrenia by educating them about the causes of the disorder, common symptoms or problems they may experience,

and the importance of staying on medications.

Illness Management Skills. People with schizophrenia can take

an active role in managing their own illness. Once they learn

basic facts about schizophrenia and the principles of schizophrenia treatment, they can make informed decisions about

their care. If they are taught how to monitor the early warning signs of relapse and make a plan to respond to these signs,

they can learn to prevent relapses. Patients can also be taught

more effective coping skills to deal with persistent symptoms.
SCHIZOPHRENIA 13

Because

THE CAUSES OF

SCHIZOPHRENIA

ARE STILL

UNKNOWN, 

CURRENT

TREATMENTS

FOCUS

ON ELIMINATING

THE SYMPTOMS

OF THE DISEASE.

Integrated Treatment for Co-occurring Substance Abuse. Substance

abuse is the most common co-occurring disorder in people

with schizophrenia, but ordinary substance abuse treatment

programs usually do not address this population’s special needs.

Integrating schizophrenia treatment programs and drug treatment programs produces better outcomes.

Rehabilitation. Rehabilitation emphasizes social and vocational

training to help people with schizophrenia function more effectively in their communities. Because people with schizophrenia

frequently become ill during the critical career-forming years of

life (ages 18 to 35) and because the disease often interferes with

normal cognitive functioning, most patients do not receive the

training required for skilled work. Rehabilitation programs can

include vocational counseling,job training,money management

counseling,assistance in learning to use public transportation,and

opportunities to practice social and workplace communication

skills.

Family Education. Patients with schizophrenia are often discharged from the hospital into the care of their families, so it

is important that family members know as much as possible

about the disease to prevent relapses. Family members

should be able to use different kinds of treatment adherence

programs and have an arsenal of coping strategies and problem-solving skills to manage their ill relative effectively.

Knowing where to find outpatient and family services that

support people with schizophrenia and their caregivers is also

valuable.

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy. Cognitive behavioral therapy is

useful for patients with symptoms that persist even when they

take medication.The cognitive therapist teaches people with

schizophrenia how to test the reality of their thoughts and perceptions, how to “not listen” to their voices, and how to shake

off the apathy that often immobilizes them. This treatment

appears to be effective in reducing the severity of symptoms

and decreasing the risk of relapse.
14 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF MENTAL HEALTH

Self-Help Groups. Self-help groups for people with schizophrenia and their families are becoming increasingly common.

Although professional therapists are not involved, the group

members are a continuing source of mutual support and comfort for each other, which is also therapeutic. People in selfhelp groups know that others are facing the same problems

they face and no longer feel isolated by their illness or the illness of their loved one.The networking that takes place in selfhelp groups can also generate social action. Families working

together can advocate for research and more hospital and

community treatment programs,and patients acting as a group

may be able to draw public attention to the discriminations

many people with mental illnesses still face in today’s world.

Support groups and advocacy groups are excellent

resources for people with many types of mental

disorders.
SCHIZOPHRENIA 15

What is the role of the patient’s 

support system?

Support for those with mental disorders can come from families, professional residential or day program caregivers, shelter

operators,friends or roommates,professional case managers,or

others in their communities or places of worship who are

concerned about their welfare.There are many situations in

which people with schizophrenia will need help from other

people.

Getting Treatment. People with schizophrenia often resist treatment, believing that their delusions or hallucinations are real

and psychiatric help is not required. If a crisis occurs, family

and friends may need to take action to keep their loved one

safe.

The issue of civil rights enters into any attempt to provide

treatment.Laws protecting patients from involuntary commitment have become very strict, and trying to get help for

someone who is mentally ill can be frustrating.These laws vary

from state to state, but, generally, when people are dangerous

to themselves or others because of mental illness and refuse to

seek treatment,family members or friends may have to call the

police to transport them to the hospital. In the emergency

room, a mental health professional will assess the patient and

determine whether a voluntary or involuntary admission is

needed.

A person with mental illness who does not want treatment

may hide strange behavior or ideas from a professional;therefore, family members and friends should ask to speak privately with the person conducting the patient’s examination

and explain what has been happening at home.The professional will then be able to question the patient and hear the

patient’s distorted thinking for themselves.Professionals must

personally witness bizarre behavior and hear delusional

thoughts before they can legally recommend commitment,

and family and friends can give them the information they

need to do so.

Family and

friends

CAN ALSO

HELP PATIENTS

SET REALISTIC

GOALS AND

REGAIN

THEIR ABILITY

TO FUNCTION

IN THE WORLD.
16 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF MENTAL HEALTH

Caregiving. Ensuring that people with schizophrenia continue

to get treatment and take their medication after they leave

the hospital is also important. If patients stop taking their

medication or stop going for follow-up appointments, their

psychotic symptoms will return. If these symptoms become

severe, they may become unable to care for their own basic

needs for food, clothing, and shelter; they may neglect personal hygiene; and they may end up on the street or in jail,

where they rarely receive the kind of help they need.

Family and friends can also help patients set realistic goals and

regain their ability to function in the world. Each step toward

these goals should be small enough to be attainable, and the

patient should pursue them in an atmosphere of support.

People with a mental illness who are pressured and criticized

usually regress and their symptoms worsen. Telling them

what they are doing right is the best way to help them move

forward.

How should you respond when someone with schizophrenia

makes statements that are strange or clearly false? Because

these bizarre beliefs or hallucinations are real to the patient, it

will not be useful to say they are wrong or imaginary. Going

along with the delusions will not be helpful, either. It is best

to calmly say that you see things differently than the patient

does but that you acknowledge that everyone has the right to

see things in his or her own way. Being respectful, supportive,

and kind without tolerating dangerous or inappropriate

behavior is the most helpful way to approach people with this

disorder.
SCHIZOPHRENIA 17

What is the outlook for the future?

The outlook for people with schizophrenia has improved

over the last 30 years or so. Although there still is no cure,

effective treatments have been developed, and many people

with schizophrenia improve enough to lead independent,

satisfying lives.

This is an exciting time for schizophrenia research.The explosion of knowledge in genetics, neuroscience, and behavioral

research will enable a better understanding of the causes of

the disorder, how to prevent it, and how to develop better

treatments to allow those with schizophrenia to achieve their

full potential.

This is an 

exciting

TIME FOR

SCHIZOPHRENIA

RESEARCH
How can a person participate in 

schizophrenia research?

Scientists worldwide are studying schizophrenia so they will

be able to develop new ways to prevent and treat the disorder.The only way it can be understood is for researchers to

study the illness as it presents itself in those who suffer from

it. There are many different kinds of studies. Some studies

require that medication be changed; others, like genetic

studies, require no change at all in medications.

To receive online information about federally and privately

supported schizophrenia research,visit http://clinicaltrials.gov.

This site describes an extensive list of studies being

conducted across the United States. The information

provided should be used in conjunction with advice from 

a health care professional.

NIMH conducts a Schizophrenia Research Program,

which is located at the National Institute of Mental Health

in Bethesda, Maryland. Travel assistance and study

compensation are available for some studies. A list of

outpatient and inpatient studies conducted at NIMH

can be found at http://patientinfo.nimh.nih.gov.

In addition, NIMH staff members can speak with you and

help you determine whether their current studies are

suitable for you or your family member. Simply call the

toll free line at 1-888-674-6464. You can also indicate 

your interest in research participation by sending 

an email to Schizophrenia@intra.nimh.nih.gov.

All calls remain confidential.

mation is appreciated.

18 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF MENTAL HEALTH
Addendum to Schizophrenia January 2007

Aripiprazole (Abilify) is another atypical antipsychotic medication used to treat the symptoms of 

schizophrenia and manic or mixed (manic and depressive) episodes of bipolar I disorder. 

Aripiprazole is in tablet and liquid form. An injectable form is used in the treatment of symptoms 

of agitation in schizophrenia and manic or mixed episodes of bipolar I disorder. 
SCHIZOPHRENIA 19

1. Regier DA, Narrow WE, Rae DS, Manderscheid

RW, Locke BZ, Goodwin FK.The de facto US

mental and addictive disorders service system.

Epidemiologic catchment area prospective 1-year

prevalence rates of disorders and services. Arch Gen

Psychiatry. 1993 Feb;50(2):85-94.

2. Catatonic Schizophrenia. (1992). The ICD-10

Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders:

Clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines. Geneva,

Switzerland:World Health Organization.

3. Mueser KT, McGurk SR. Schizophrenia. Lancet.

2004 Jun 19;363(9426):2063-72.

4. Meltzer HY,Alphs L, Green AI,Altamura AC,Anand

R, Bertoldi A, Bourgeois M, Chouinard G, Islam

MZ, Kane J, Krishnan R, Lindenmayer JP, Potkin S;

International Suicide Prevention Trial Study Group.

Clozapine treatment for suicidality in schizophrenia:

International Suicide Prevention Trial (InterSePT).

Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2003 Jan;60(1):82-91.

5. Meltzer HY, Baldessarini RJ. Reducing the risk for

suicide in schizophrenia and affective disorders.

J Clin Psychiatry. 2003 Sep;64(9):1122-9.

6. Jones RT & Benowitz NL. (2002).Therapeutics for

Nicotine Addiction. In Davis KL, Charney D, Coyle

JT & Nemeroff C (Eds.), Neuropsychopharmacology:

The Fifth Generation of Progress (pp1533-1544).

Nashville,TN:American College of

Neuropsychopharmacology.

7. Cardno AG, Gottesman II.Twin studies of schizophrenia: from bow-and-arrow concordances to star

wars Mx and functional genomics. Am J Med Genet.

2000 Spring; 97(1):12-7.

8. Lieberman JA, Stroup TS, McEvoy JP, Swartz MS,

Rosenheck RA, Perkins DO, Keefe RS, Davis SM,

Davis CE, Lebowitz BD, Severe J, Hsiao JK; Clinical

Antipsychotic Trials of Intervention Effectiveness

(CATIE). Effectiveness of antipsychotic drugs in

patients with chronic schizophrenia. N Engl J Med.

2005 Sep 22;353(12):1209-23.

References
20 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF MENTAL HEALTH

For More Information on Schizophrenia

The National Library of Medicine, a service of the U.S.

Library of Medicine and the National Institutes of Health,

provides updated information on many health topics,

including schizophrenia. It also lists mental health

organizations that provide useful information. If you

have Internet access, search for schizophrenia at

http://medlineplus.gov.

En Espanol http://medlineplus.gov/spanish/

Information from NIMH is available in multiple formats.You

can browse online, download documents in PDF, and order

paper brochures through the mail. If you would like to have

NIMH publications, you can order them online at

www.nimh.nih.gov. If you do not have Internet access and

wish to have information that supplements this publication,

please contact the NIMH Information Center at the numbers

listed below.

For Further Information

National Institute of Mental Health

Public Inquiries & Dissemination Branch

6001 Executive Boulevard

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