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Special Report 189 August 2007

United States Institute of Peace

Special Report

The views expressed in this report do not necessarily 

reflect the views of the United States Institute of Peace, 

which does not advocate specific policy positions .

Contents 

Introduction 2

Kuwait 4

Qatar 6

The United Arab Emirates 10

The Allure of Regional Security Frameworks 11

About the Report

Iraq’s neighbors are playing a major role—both positive and 

negative—in the country’s worsening crisis. As part of the 

Institute’s Iraq and Its Neighbors project, a group of leading 

specialists on the geopolitics of the region is assessing the 

interests and influence of the countries surrounding Iraq 

and the impact on U.S. bilateral relations. The Institute is 

also sponsoring high-level, nonofficial dialogue between 

Iraqi national security and foreign policy officials and their 

counterparts from the neighboring countries. The Marmara 

Declaration, released after the Institute’s most recent dialogue 

in Istanbul, sets forth a framework for a regional peace process. 

Jon Alterman’s report on the Gulf States is the fifth in a series 

of special reports sponsored by the Iraq and Its Neighbors 

project; Steve Simon’s study on Syria will be published in the 

coming months. Scott Lasensky, senior research associate at 

the Institute’s Center for Conflict Analysis and Prevention and 

adjunct professor of government at Georgetown University, 

directs the Iraq and Its Neighbors project and authored the 

report on Jordan. Peter Pavilionis is the series editor. For more 

information about the Iraq and Its Neighbors project, go to 

www.usip.org/iraq/neighbors/index.html.

Jon B. Alterman is a senior fellow and director of the Middle 

East Program at the Center for Strategic and International 

Studies (CSIS) in Washington, D.C. Before joining CSIS, he was 

a member of the U.S. State Department’s Policy Planning Staff 

and program officer at the U.S. Institute of Peace. He also 

served as an expert on regional affairs for the Iraq Study Group, 

which was facilitated by USIP. Additional research for the report 

was provided by Hesham Sallam and Gregory Brosman at USIP 

and CSIS, respectively.

Jon B. Alterman

Iraq and 

the Gulf 

States

The Balance of Fear

Summary

•	 Iraq’s Persian Gulf neighbors supported the U.S. invasion of Iraq in order to preserve 

the status quo—a weak and self-absorbed Iraq—rather than to impose a new one. 

However, the overthrow of Saddam Hussein and its aftermath have not brought stability to the Gulf States as much as they have shifted the most serious challenges 

from external threats (of a hostile Baghdad) to internal threats (the threat of conflict 

spillover from Iraq).

•	 Kuwait fears the growth of Iranian influence in Iraq and the possibility that Iraqi Shia 

unrest will spill across its own borders. Although many Kuwaitis question the wisdom 

and capacity of the United States in managing Iraq’s internal problems, Kuwait has 

provided significant support to U.S. military action in Iraq and the country’s reconstruction efforts.

•	 Qatar has supported U.S. military actions in Iraq by hosting the U.S. Central Command but still maintains the perception of nonalignment. For example, Doha hosts 

prominent former Iraqi Baathists, not to mention Saddam’s own family members.

•	 The interest of the United Arab Emirates (UAE) in Iraq is secondary to its concern 

over Iran, with which it has a long-standing dispute over ownership of three islands 

in the Gulf. The unresolved dispute with Tehran over the islands heightens the UAE’s 

concerns about the rising Iranian influence in Iraq.

•	 To bolster its relationship with the United States, the UAE offered training to hundreds of Iraqi troops and police recruits in 2004–2005, hosted the first Preparatory 

Group Meeting for the International Compact with Iraq in September 2006, and 

I r a q a n d I t s N e i g h b o rs
funded reconstruction efforts in Iraq through the United Nations and the World 

Bank.

•	 On post-Saddam regional security issues, member states of the Gulf Cooperation 

Council (GCC) seem to be more “market takers” than “market makers,” showing little 

inclination to shape the nature of a larger and potentially more powerful neighbor. 

Instead, they are focused on immediate choices for calibrating a proper relationship 

with Washington in a way that accommodates many other important relationships.

Introduction

It would seem intuitive that Iraq’s smaller Gulf Arab neighbors—Kuwait, Qatar, the United 

Arab Emirates, Bahrain, and Oman—would want the country’s transition to a stable and 

peaceful order to succeed. Long fearful of Saddam Hussein and the instability he caused, 

the region could breathe easier and concentrate on urgent domestic issues with his 

removal. Indeed, in the months preceding the U.S.-led assault on Iraq, Gulf leaders were 

widely reported to have urged the Bush administration to take forceful action against Iraq, 

with the proviso that it should also be swift so as to avoid too many ripples throughout 

the region.1

In the years following the fall of Saddam, however, regional instability has increased in 

many ways, rather than diminished. Instead of facing the threat of Saddam’s army and his 

missiles, Iraq’s Arab neighbors now face starker challenges. For many, their populations are 

enraged by their governments’ close cooperation with the United States, and the prospect 

of a new generation of well-trained and highly networked jihadi fighters returning home 

looms on the horizon. Sectarian rivalries flare anew, and Shia-Sunni tensions are higher 

than at any time since the Iranian Revolution more than a quarter-century ago. In addition, Iran’s ascending influence in Iraq and more broadly in the region has made many 

uneasy. The fall of Saddam Hussein has not brought an end to the fears of Iraq’s Arab 

neighbors. In many ways, the fall of Saddam has merely shifted those fears. In some cases, 

Saddam’s fall has even intensified them.

Indeed, for many of Iraq’s smaller neighbors, fear motivates governments more than 

hope. They are afraid of what the future might bring, yet uncertain how to help shape its 

course. Their fear often drives them into the arms of the United States, which alone among 

world powers can protect them from regional aggression. The collapse of Saddam’s armies 

has not lessened these governments’ reliance on the United States—Iran’s rise swiftly followed Iraq’s demise. What it has done, however, is make the governments acutely aware 

of the fact that they are at the mercy of U.S. policies—toward Iran, toward Iraq, and more 

broadly—over which they have little influence, let alone control. 

Although events in Iraq raise anger and despair among the country’s neighbors, they 

have also reinforced the centrality of the United States to the neighbors’ security considerations. Saddam Hussein’s removal did not mean more freedom for the crafters of foreign 

policy in the Gulf States. Instead, it made their basic predicament clearer, and it diminished their hopes for a more favorable order in the region. 

At the outset, the Bush administration’s ambitions in Iraq enjoyed only partial support 

among Iraq’s smaller neighbors. This coolness was not because the neighbors had any 

regard for Iraq’s government but, rather, because the Bush administration trumpeted how 

“inspirational” a new regime in Iraq would be to Arabs living under tyranny. “A liberated 

Iraq can show the power of freedom to transform that vital region, by bringing hope and 

progress into the lives of millions,”2 he told a friendly audience at the American Enterprise 

Institute in Washington a month before the U.S.-led assault. Bush left unspoken the fact 

that many of the millions who would be so inspired live under the thumb of governments 

About the Institute

The United States Institute of Peace is an independent, 

non-partisan institution established and funded by 

Congress. Its goals are to help prevent and resolve 

violent conflicts, promote post-conflict peacebuilding, 

and increase conflict-management tools, capacity, and 

intellectual capital worldwide. The Institute does this by 

empowering others with knowledge, skills, and resources, 

as well as by its direct involvement in conflict zones 

around the globe.

Board of Directors

J. Robinson West (Chair), Chairman, PFC Energy, 

Washington, D.C. • María Otero (Vice Chair), President, 

ACCION International, Boston, Mass. • Betty F. Bumpers, 

Founder and former President, Peace Links, Washington, 

D.C. • Holly J. Burkhalter, Vice President of Government 

Affairs, International Justice Mission, Washington, D.C. 

• Chester A. Crocker, James R. Schlesinger Professor of 

Strategic Studies, School of Foreign Service, Georgetown 

University, Washington, D.C. • Laurie S. Fulton, Partner, 

Williams and Connolly, Washington, D.C. • Charles 

Horner, Senior Fellow, Hudson Institute, Washington, D.C. 

• Mora L. McLean, President, Africa-America Institute, 

New York, N.Y. • Barbara W. Snelling, former State 

Senator and former Lieutenant Governor, Shelburne, Vt. 

Members ex officio

Robert M. Gates, Secretary of Defense • Barry Lowenkron, 

Assistant Secretary of State for Democracy, Human Rights, 

and Labor • Richard H. Solomon, President, United States 

Institute of Peace (nonvoting) • Frances C. Wilson,

 Lieutenant General, U.S. Marine Corps; President, National 

Defense University. 
allied to the United States. Those governments’ cooperation would be vital to both wage 

the war and manage the consequences afterward. 

The rhetoric of the administration’s supporters outside of government heightened 

those governments’ concerns still further by loudly proclaiming how deposing Saddam 

Hussein would spread positive political ripples throughout the Middle East. For some, the 

demonstration of U.S. resolve would intimidate America’s foes, “making them recalculate 

the odds of defying a power that has demonstrated its intention to remain a permanent 

and dynamic regional player.”3 Others were blunter still. Former CIA director R. James 

Woolsey told an audience at the University of California, Los Angeles, just after Saddam 

fell, “We will scare, for example, the Mubarak regime in Egypt, or the Saudi royal family, 

thinking about this idea that these Americans are spreading democracy in this part of the 

world. They will say, ‘You make us very nervous.’ And our response should be, ‘Good. We 

want you nervous. We want you to realize that now, for the fourth time in one hundred 

years, this country and its allies are on the march, and that we are on the side of those 

whom you, the Mubaraks, the Saudi royal family, most fear. We are on the side of your 

own people.‘“4

As far as the members of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) were concerned, they 

just wanted Saddam Hussein gone.5 He had been their client, balancing against Iran in 

the 1980s, but his move against Kuwait in 1990 revealed him as a menace. However, 

their interest in an American “success”—especially the way the U.S. government defined 

“success” and its consequences—was limited at best. As a group, Iraq’s neighbors did 

not want a strong and democratic Iraq to emerge as a beacon of freedom to the region; 

an “inspirational” Iraq could cause insurrection from within their countries. Even more 

ominously, Iraq had long harbored aspirations of being a regional hegemon. And even 

though those ambitions were thwarted by two ruinous wars and international isolation, 

a fully rehabilitated Iraq could take advantage of its large population and vast oil wealth 

to redress a long series of regional grievances, from borders to debts to oil production 

agreements. The interests of neighboring governments would be much better served by an 

Iraq that remained relatively weak, too consumed by infighting to threaten its neighbors 

and too mired in its own dysfunctional politics to inspire nearby populations.

In essence, these neighboring governments signed on for the military side of the U.S. 

effort, but not the political one. Granting the U.S. military basing and overflight rights, 

support for reconnaissance operations, refueling, and other operational functions helped 

maintain these countries’ alliances with the U.S. government. Yet these governments 

supported U.S. efforts in order to preserve the status quo—a weak and self-absorbed 

Iraq—rather than impose a new one. These governments have little interest in catastrophic failure in Iraq, but their interest in the broader goals that the U.S. government 

has articulated has been similarly limited. Long used to managing tensions in far from 

ideal conditions, the leaders of the countries neighboring Iraq have supported U.S. war 

efforts as a quest for stability, not radical positive change.6

It is perhaps surprising to Iraq’s Gulf neighbors, then, that U.S. actions in Iraq have 

not brought stability so much as shifted the most serious challenges most of them face 

from external to internal threats. Counterterrorism cooperation drives many of these 

countries closer to an alliance with the United States, which also offers their only real 

protection against invasion or threats from regional rivals. Still, much of the bilateral 

partnership remains hidden. On a public level, events in Iraq have driven most governments in the region to distance themselves from the United States and express concern 

that U.S. actions are harmful to their interests.7

In many ways, the states considered here are quite similar. Rich in oil, small in population, and eager for security, they seek many of the same things. They all follow different 

paths to achieve them, however, guided by their unique locations, concerns, and ideas 

for their relationship with the United States. 

Counterterrorism cooperation drives 

many of these countries closer to 

an alliance with the United States, 

which also offers their only real protection against invasion or threats 

from regional rivals. Still, much of the 

bilateral partnership remains hidden.

Although events in Iraq raise anger 

and despair among the country’s 

neighbors, they have also reinforced 

the centrality of the United States to 

the neighbors’ security considerations.
Kuwait

Among the Gulf States, Kuwait is the most unabashed supporter of the policies of the 

United States in Iraq. The United States liberated the country from Saddam Hussein in 

1991, and its support gives vital comfort to a small but wealthy country sandwiched 

between the two larger states of Iraq and Saudi Arabia. In 1938, 1961, and again in 

1990, Iraqi leaders publicly asserted that Kuwait is not, by rights, an independent state, 

but merely Iraq’s nineteenth province.8 Iraq’s long-asserted interests involve not only the 

Rumaila oil field, which straddles the Iraqi-Kuwaiti border, but also Iraq’s desire to expand 

its narrow Persian Gulf shoreline so as to improve shallow sea lanes and expand its shipping capacity. As recently as 2006, a Kuwaiti academic observed that Iraqis’ repeating 

such a claim “Is not a matter of ‘if,’ but ‘when.‘“9

After Saddam: Threat Perceptions and Interests in Iraq

For more than a decade after Saddam Hussein’s 1990 invasion, Kuwaitis lived in mortal 

fear of another attack from Iraq. The downfall of the Iraqi Baathist regime in 2003 

allowed many Kuwaitis to breathe easier, because the principal external threat to the 

country had evaporated. As violence mars the future picture for Iraq, and as the memory 

of Saddam Hussein recedes, Kuwaitis still face two fears from beyond their borders. 

The first is the threat from a potentially nuclear-armed Iran. While Iran’s relations 

with Kuwait are not hostile, as a small country Kuwait fears the growing influence of a 

regional neighbor, especially one with special ties to Kuwait’s Shia population (reported 

as somewhere between 15 and 30 percent of the total).

Kuwait’s other fear is that Iraqi Shia unrest will spill over into Kuwait, either through 

heightening sectarian strife or from the establishment of a hostile, Iranian-influenced 

Shia state—or quasi-state—in the south of Iraq. As one Kuwaiti journalist put it in an 

informal conversation, “We don’t want Iran just fifty miles away.”10 The memory of 1985, 

when a Shia militant attempted to assassinate the Kuwaiti emir, heightens Kuwaiti concerns about a Shia fifth column in the country.11

The fear of potential sectarian strife highlights the extent to which Kuwaitis now worry 

less about armies crossing their borders and more about conflict arising within those borders. Although a windfall from high oil prices, combined with a soaring stock market, has 

raised many Kuwaitis’ standards of living, there is a doggedly persistent violent Islamist 

movement in the country, especially in tribal areas. While the threat level remains far 

below that of Saudi Arabia, several attacks against Western military personnel occur 

every year in Kuwait.12

Groups associated with 

al Qaeda are sporadically 

active in Kuwait, stockpiling arms and explosive 

devices, and occasionally clashing with police;13

how much these clashes 

represent these groups’ 

death rattle or a growth 

spurt is unclear. Moreover, some elements of 

the Sunni insurgency in 

Iraq have tried or succeeded in entering Kuwait 

to commit acts of retribution against the government or to try to attack 

“Oil Security” on the 

Iraq-Kuwait Border

“Project Kuwait” is an $8.5 billion plan 

announced in 1997 by the Kuwaiti government 

to try to boost the country’s oil production 

level by about 900,000 barrels a day (bbl/d). 

Presently, Kuwait produces around 2.7 million 

bbl/d, mostly from its mature Burgan field—the 

world’s second-largest—and other fields in the 

country’s south, all of whose production levels 

have been tapering off in the past several years. 

The government’s plan attempts to raise the 

country’s oil production—which accounts for 

90–95 percent of Kuwait’s total export earnings 

and around 40 percent of gross domestic product—to 4 million bbl/d by 2020 by tapping less 

accessible yet promising fields in the north of 

the country—specifically, Sabriyah, Raudhatain, 

Abdeli, and Ratqa (see graphic below).

The government plan, which was formulated 

by the state-owned Kuwait Oil Company, has 

sparked considerable controversy in Kuwait for 

its involvement of international oil companies 

(IOCs) in “upstream” production arrangements 

at the northern fields. Kuwait nationalized its 

oil sector in 1975, and the emirate’s constitution prohibits foreign ownership or control of 

Kuwait’s oil assets. Indeed, at the center of 

the dispute between the government and the 

legislature is the question of control, and the 

plan for foreign participation has had to balance 

the government’s need to make participation 

attractive enough for the IOCs to invest, and the 

legislature’s concerns about IOCs’ encroaching on 

Kuwait’s sovereignty through standard production-sharing agreements, in which IOCs retain a 

portion of the oil they extract.

Kuwaitis acknowledge that the success of 

“Project Kuwait” relies on consortia of international oil firms that have the upstream technology and expertise to extract the geologically 

challenging reserves of heavy, “sour” (more 

sulphurous) crude from the northern fields, as 

opposed to Burgan’s and other southern fields’ 

light, sweet crude; yet they are also concerned 

that opening up Kuwait’s state-controlled petroleum sector to foreign firms could leave the 

country vulnerable to upstream control and the 

loss of sovereignty over its principal export commodity. 

For nearly a decade, the government has 

been pushing the plan in the Kuwaiti legislature, 

which has been circumspect in its consideration 

of any part of the plan that admits foreign ownership or control of the country’s oil and thus 

requires a legislative exception. Kuwait’s national 

oil company has sought to allay the National 

Assembly’s concerns by fashioning the plan with 

“incentivized buy-back contracts” that offer 

IOCs a per-barrel price instead of concessions 

or “booked” reserves under typical productionsharing agreements. The government introduced 

the revised legislation in the National Assembly 

in June 2005, and the Finance and Economic 

Committee approved an amended bill for debate 

by the full legislature. The dissolution of the 

National Assembly in May 2006, followed by new 

Source: Kuwait Oil Company

Oil Fields

(continued next page)
U.S. forces based in the country.14 To combat extremism in the country, the government is 

exerting more control over preaching in mosques and is trying Kuwaiti and Egyptian clerics for inciting youth to fight in jihad in Iraq;15 it is also boosting police and intelligence 

efforts to combat armed groups. Most Kuwaitis dismiss the idea that such militancy can 

threaten the government’s survival. Still, the persistence of these groups is part of a larger 

challenge of managing the expectations of a disaffected young population, whose desires 

for economic security, meaningful work, and a voice in controlling their own lives increase 

perhaps even more rapidly than the government’s growing ability to satisfy them.

As Kuwait confronts the dangers of sectarian strife in its troubled neighbor, the growth 

of Iranian influence next door, and the potential for a greater “spillover” effect from Iraq, 

Kuwait has provided significant support to U.S. military action in Iraq and the country’s 

reconstruction efforts.

Cooperation with the United States on Iraq

It is not an exaggeration to say that Kuwait exists today because of the efforts of the 

U.S. military. The Kuwaiti government has not forgotten this fact, as shown by its open 

support for U.S. military efforts in Iraq. Kuwait maintains ten U.S. bases on its soil and 

reportedly hosts approximately 20,000 U.S. soldiers at any given time. The rapidly expanding Camp Arifjan, located south of Kuwait City, is the main staging ground for all Coalition 

troops in Iraq.16 The facility replaces Camp Doha, the hastily erected, temporary base that 

the U.S. military built after the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990. Arifjan is designed as 

a permanent facility, and it is sprouting a variety of permanent structures—from lodging 

to covered storage for pre-positioned materiel. During Operation Iraqi Freedom, Kuwait 

emerged as a vital transshipment point for weapons and soldiers, and as a staging ground 

for international forces. Although Kuwait cedes the regional command-and-control role 

to Qatar, which hosts the U.S. Central Command headquarters in the Persian Gulf, there 

is no government that is as unambiguously supportive of U.S. military goals in the Gulf 

as Kuwait. To defray the cost to the United States of maintaining troops in the country, 

Kuwait heavily subsidizes the oil and gasoline that U.S. troops in the region use. The U.S. 

Department of Energy reports that Kuwait donated about $350 million in assistance in 

primary fuel to aid the U.S. war efforts in Iraq.17 Kuwait has doggedly sought to deepen 

its bilateral relationship with the United States, having been awarded “Major Non-NATO 

Ally” status in 2004.18 In ways formal and informal, the Kuwaiti government makes its 

support of U.S. needs and objectives clear, and the government is extraordinarily reluctant 

to criticize either the United States or the U.S. president. Thus, unsurprisingly, Kuwait 

has been less vocal about its concerns over the American strategy in Iraq compared to 

fellow GCC members.

The Kuwaiti position on U.S. policies in Iraq is partly a consequence of feeling betrayed 

by other Arab states when Saddam Hussein invaded in 1990. Kuwaitis’ lingering feelings that their Arab brethren abandoned them in the First Gulf War have caused them, 

more than the citizens of any other Arab country (save Libya), to question openly the 

meaning or utility of an Arab identity. Consequently, they are often more skeptical of 

pan-Arab proclamations and much more supportive of a close relationship with the United 

States. Thus Kuwait made clear its eagerness to cooperate with the United States in 

deposing Saddam Hussein even before the war, and Kuwaiti support has been consistent 

throughout.

Reconstruction and Debt Relief

Not only was Kuwait in the lead supporting the U.S.-led invasion, but Kuwaiti businessmen aggressively sought to promote investment in post-Saddam Iraq, and the government 

established a fund of almost $1 billion for investment there.19 However, Kuwait’s diminutive size and bitter legacy with Iraq have inhibited most Kuwaitis from taking a more 

elections and committee assignments the next 

month has prolonged the debate over the bill. 

 Project Kuwait also sparks controversy 

on the other side of the border, in Iraq. The 

northern Kuwaiti fields—particularly Ratqa and 

Abdeli—straddle or abut the Iraqi border, which 

remains a contentious issue: Despite Iraq’s formal recognition of the UN-demarcated border 

between Iraq and Kuwait following the First Gulf 

War, Kuwait’s attempts to build a permanent 

border-marking fence have sparked at least 

two clashes between Kuwaiti workers and Iraqi 

protesters, most recently in Iraq’s port city of 

Um Qasr. After Iraqi forces were ejected from 

Kuwait in the First Gulf War, the UN Boundary 

Commission granted Kuwait’s desire to move 

its border a little more than one-third of a mile 

northward, a move that places the southern tip 

of Iraq’s Rumaila oil field on the Kuwaiti side 

of the border—specifically, in the middle of 

Project Kuwait’s Ratqa field. UN Security Council 

Resolution 833 (1993) reaffirmed the granting 

to Kuwait of some territory that previously had 

been on the Iraqi side of the border, but only 

for technical purposes of accurately marking the 

border. Yet Iraqi protesters claim that Kuwait 

is moving beyond the UN border commission’s 

demarcation, encroaching on Iraqi territory, and 

some Iraqi commentators have suggested that 

such encroachments are preliminary moves to 

claim more surface territory to drill for oil that 

straddles the border. (One of Saddam Hussein’s 

casus belli against Kuwait in the First Gulf 

War pertained to Kuwait’s “horizontal drilling” 

through the Abdeli field.) In the UN’s 1992 

border demarcation, the status of crossborder oil 

fields was unresolved, but in September 2006, 

Iraq’s oil minister announced that his country 

would sign agreements with Kuwait, Syria, and 

Iran regarding the development of joint oil 

fields; three months later, Kuwaiti and Iraqi officials said that they planned to hold talks over 

the status of their crossborder fields.

Some observers speculate that the Kuwaiti 

government’s attempt to engage international 

oil companies in developing the country’s northern oil fields adds new meaning to the term 

“oil security.” Top Kuwaiti officials view “Project 

Kuwait” as the country’s attempt to seek international—and, in particular, U.S.—recognition 

of its rights to the disputed oil fields and as 

way of creating a de facto “security zone” with 

its northern neighbor. Whatever the motives 

behind Kuwait’s proposed plan to develop the 

crossborder fields, the issue will almost certainly 

shape the dynamics of Iraq-Kuwait relations, 

particularly with respect to Kuwait’s forgiving Iraq’s debt and its prospective natural gas 

imports from Iraq. —USIP Staff

Sources: Middle East Report, Summer 2002; Oil, 

Gas, and Energy Law Intelligence, March 2003; 

Alexander’s Gas and Oil Connections, November 27, 

2003; The Middle East, December 2005 and July 

2006; MENAFN, “Iraq to Develop Joint Oil Fields 

with Kuwait, Syria, and Iran,” September 18, 

2006; Energy Information Administration, Country 

Analysis Briefs, “Kuwait,” November 2006.

(continued from previous page)
active role in Iraqi reconstruction. Indeed, Kuwaitis are still consumed by their need to 

rebuild their own country after Iraq’s 1990 invasion. Kuwait’s capacity to help may also be 

somewhat limited outside the financial realm. There is a long history of suspicion between 

the two countries, and Iraqis still resent what they have historically perceived as Kuwaitis’ 

air of cultural superiority. In addition, Kuwait’s reliance on expatriates for both manual 

labor and professionals in crucial sectors of the economy, and its relatively limited native 

private sector outside of trading establishments, suggest that Kuwait is better placed to 

help coordinate and facilitate Iraqi reconstruction by third countries than to lead it. 

Nonetheless, Kuwait has managed to provide a notable contribution to Iraq’s reconstruction. Kuwait runs a humanitarian operations center that by May 2005 had provided 

$450 million in assistance to Iraqis since the fall of the Iraqi Baathist regime.20 In October 

2003, Kuwait announced at the Madrid donors’ conference that it had spent $1 billion 

on Iraq, pledging an additional $500 million in aid to the Iraqi government, although it 

remains unclear exactly how much of that pledge has been disbursed.21 Kuwait has also 

pledged an additional $65 million in aid to Iraq, bringing its total pledge of reconstruction aid to $565 million as of June 2006.22 A Kuwaiti official said in June 2006 that his 

country is providing Iraq with a significant volume of fuel to help it overcome its shortages; it has also been reported that Iraqi oil workers have been trained within Kuwaiti 

oil installations.23

Kuwaiti businessmen were among the first over the border looking for investments in 

Iraq. Although the country has not formally forgiven Iraq’s debt, few expect any forthcoming effort to collect it. In January 2004, the Kuwaiti government promised U.S. envoy 

James A. Baker III that it would write off a substantial amount of the $25 billion Iraqi 

debt to Kuwait, and Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice raised the same issue in a recent 

trip to the region.24 It is likely that Kuwait has not moved ahead with writing off Iraq’s 

debts in order to extract concessions from Baghdad on energy deals and finalizing the fate 

of Kuwaiti prisoners of war from the 1990 invasion. 

More than any other country in the Gulf, Kuwait acts as if it is a small boat tossed at 

sea: The country is trapped between two large and sometimes difficult neighbors, and it 

remains uneasy. The only way it has any strategic depth at all is to rely on U.S. forces to 

protect it, yet Kuwaitis often express frustration that they have little control over what 

the United States does in the region or how the Gulf fits into U.S. strategy. Kuwaitis are 

clearly less influential in U.S. policy than the wealthier and more numerous Saudis to the 

south; hence, Kuwaitis feel more vulnerable. 

The difficulties the United States has faced in Iraq have made many Kuwaitis question both the wisdom and capacity of their most important ally, and such doubts occur 

precisely at a time that Kuwaitis are becoming preoccupied with potential threats from 

Iran. Although Kuwaitis fully appreciate that there is no alternative to the United States 

in providing the country with strategic depth, there is far less enthusiasm for the bilateral 

relationship than there was five years ago. In addition, rising awareness of other global 

powers such as China—which one Foreign Ministry official informally observed has “positive positions on Arab issues”—suggests a desire to supplement reliance on the United 

States with strengthened ties to other countries.25

Qatar

Compared to Kuwait, Qatar takes a more ambivalent stance about its cooperation with U.S. 

military operations in Iraq, often seeking cooperation on the one hand while, on the other 

hand, maintaining the perception of nonalignment. 

Qatar’s Threat Perceptions and the Great Balancing Game

Prior to Sheikh Hamad’s ascendance as head of the emirate in 1995, Qatar did not play a 

central role in Persian Gulf politics. Achieving independence only in 1972, Qatar was neiMore than any other country in 

the Gulf, Kuwait acts as if it is 

a small boat tossed at sea: The 

country is trapped between two 

large and sometimes difficult 

neighbors, and it remains uneasy.
ther large enough nor wealthy enough to command attention. The previous emir, Sheikh 

Khalifa bin Hamad Al-Thani (Sheikh Hamad’s father), cautiously allowed allied forces to 

launch airstrikes against Iraq from Qatari soil in 1991, but it was the discovery of large 

amounts of natural gas in Qatar that same year that transformed the country’s strategic 

position in the Gulf.

Although Qatar does not fear invasion from its only bordering neighbor, Saudi Arabia, 

it has had somewhat strained relations with the Saudi kingdom—especially since 1995, 

when Sheikh Hamad seized power by deposing his father in a bloodless coup. Reportedly, 

Saudis continue to back Sheikh Hamad’s rivals, seeking to keep him in check and perhaps 

threaten his hold on power.26

In the past decade, the country has sought to strengthen its internal position and to 

hold Saudi Arabia at bay by building an even closer relationship with the United States. In 

the late 1990s, when U.S. military bases in Saudi Arabia became increasingly controversial 

in that country, the Qatari government began to lay the groundwork to station permanent 

U.S. bases in Qatar. Sheikh Hamad reportedly told U.S. officials that he hoped to host 

10,000 U.S. soldiers in the country permanently.27 The Saudis’ 2001 refusal to allow U.S. 

forces to fly combat missions in Afghanistan from Saudi bases confirmed this trend: That 

same year came the establishment of a U.S. base south of Doha to compensate for strictures over the U.S. use of Prince Sultan Air Base in Saudi Arabia and, further, the relocation to Qatar of the U.S. military’s Combined Air Operations Center (with responsibility for 

counterterror air operations over Afghanistan and the Horn of Africa, and leadership of the 

air campaign over Iraq in April 2003). The center has since grown into a multibillion dollar 

project; at the same time, the United States has removed its personnel from the Prince 

Sultan Air Base in Saudi Arabia and has turned it over to complete Saudi control.

On a different front, Qatar has also sought to carve out an identity as a progressive 

country in the region. Its rulers speak frequently about democracy and promote the small 

state—with a citizenry that probably numbers less than 150,000—as a model for development. Qatar has also invested huge amounts of money in becoming a regional education 

center, partnering with major American universities such as Cornell, Texas A&M, Georgetown, Virginia Commonwealth, and others to establish interactive educational facilities 

in Doha. 

For all its commitment to turn to the United States for military protection and educational advancement, however, Qatar is far from being a U.S. puppet. More important, 

al-Jazeera has become a significant foreign policy tool for the Qatari government. The 

aggressive news coverage of al-Jazeera has proved a useful irritant in Qatar’s relations 

with the United States and with its Arab neighbors. It is perhaps particularly ironic that 

the fiercest critics of al-Jazeera in the U.S. administration—generally among top officials 

in the Department of Defense—are also among those who are most dependent on Qatar’s 

support for the U.S. strategic posture in the region. U.S. officials have complained bitterly 

about al-Jazeera’s airing of tapes from Osama bin Ladin, as well as its news coverage of 

the Coalition’s war against Iraq and of the Arab-Israeli conflict.28

Al-Jazeera’s role here is remarkably artful. The Qatari government professes an inability 

to control what the station airs, yet the government’s clear support for the station (with 

tens of millions of dollars in annual subsidies29), combined with persistent reports of royal 

engagement on strategic issues at the station, suggests considerable government influence over the station’s programming. What al-Jazeera provides Qatar is a useful degree of 

distance from the United States while providing the government deniability at the same 

time. As one writer put it, “al-Jazeera, although functionally independent, could be said 

to indirectly serve the foreign policy goals of Qatar.”30 Al-Jazeera suggests Qatari independence while the Qatari government pursues an ever-deeper defense relationship with 

the United States. At the same time, al-Jazeera provides the Qatari government with a 

tool it can use against Saudi Arabia and other regional rivals, modulating its coverage of 

issues involving neighboring governments and giving more or less prominence to regime 

opponents on the air. The genius in Qatar’s use of al-Jazeera is not the extent to which 

For all its commitment to turn to 

the United States for military protection and educational advancement, however, Qatar is far from 

being a U.S. puppet. More important, al-Jazeera has become a significant foreign policy tool for the 

Qatari government.
the channel is a precise tool of policy—it is not—but rather its effectiveness. The station allows the Qatari government to become a significant regional player in its own right 

while simultaneously permitting a closer relationship to the U.S. military (which enhances 

Qatar’s power as well). Put simply, being host to both al-Jazeera and U.S. Central Command, Qatar was able to “keep summer and winter together in one place,” to borrow the 

words of the prominent Arab writer Saleh al-Qallab.31

Convenient Contradictions 

To be sure, Doha has played an important role in supporting the new order that Washington has been trying to build in Iraq since 2003. Qatar provided Operation Iraqi Freedom 

with a significant base of logistical support by hosting the U.S. Central Command and the 

Combined Air Operations Center. It also provided pre-positioning facilities for U.S. tanks 

and armored personnel carriers. Following the fall of Saddam Hussein, Qatar has pledged 

$100 million in aid to Iraq,32 and made $5 million in commitments each to the World 

Bank and UN funds for Iraqi reconstruction—in line with other small Gulf countries.33

Doha hosted the International Reconstruction Fund Facility donors’ conference in May 

2004 to review donors’ commitments toward total contributions of $1.024 billion in aid 

to Iraq’s reconstruction.34 Yet Qatar was not a party to the International Compact with 

Iraq, a broad multinational effort initiated in the fall of 2006 to create mutual commitments between the Iraqi government and the international donor community that aim “to 

consolidate peace and pursue political, economic, and social development over the next 

five years.” Both Kuwait and the United Arab Emirates have taken prominent positions in 

support of the compact.35

Notwithstanding Qatar’s contribution to Iraq’s reconstruction and the fact that it 

resumed diplomatic relations with Baghdad’s new leaders, there are obvious signs that 

Doha is not completely comfortable with the new Iraqi order it helped construct. Qatar had 

learned to live with Saddam Hussein’s Iraq. A few years before Operation Iraqi Freedom, 

Qatar took a leading role in trying to build a regional consensus to lift sanctions from Iraq; 

in 2000, Qatar advanced proposals for lifting the sanctions in a GCC meeting and again in 

a meeting for the Damascus Declaration signatory states.36 The personal dimension of the 

Iraqi-Qatari relationship was on public display in November 2000, when Saddam Hussein 

received a Boeing 747 passenger plane as a gift from Sheikh Hamad.37

Another strong “channel” that seemed to have linked Qatar with Iraq’s former regime 

is al-Jazeera. Popular al-Jazeera talk show host Faisal al-Qassim was the last journalist to 

visit Saddam Hussein in September 2002, accompanied by the station’s general manager, 

Muhammad Jasim al-Ali.38 Jasim was sacked in May 2003, reportedly for his ties to Saddam Hussein.39 The Iraqi National Congress asserted that documents it had discovered in 

Baghdad “indicated that al-Ali made clear to Iraqi agents that coverage would favor the 

Saddam Hussein regime.”40 In the months following Saddam’s fall, reports linked al-Qassim

to Saddam Hussein’s intelligence apparatus.41 Even after the fall of Saddam, Doha’s relations with elements of the former regime were never cut off completely. In fact, Najib 

al-Nuaimi, a member of Saddam Hussein’s legal defense team, was a former Qatari minister 

of justice. 

Qatar had learned to live uneasily with Saddam’s Iraq, and it has learned to live uneasily with his successors. Yet the government has not been shy about its unease over events 

there, nor sparing in its criticism of U.S. policy. The Qatari foreign minister often complains 

that Washington has neglected consulting with its GCC allies about its policies in Iraq. He 

told an audience at the Council on Foreign Relations in September 2005, “We are not the 

player in [Iraq], and we are not completely consulted, in my opinion. Any Arab countries 

[that] say they’ve [been] consulted completely in this situation are not right.”42 The foreign minister raised the same issue in January 2007, when the United States announced 

a new strategy in Iraq, complaining that Washington did not “coordinate its policies with 

the countries of the region.”43 Some Arab media outlets quoted him as saying that U.S. 



Notwithstanding Qatar’s 

contribution to Iraq’s reconstruction and the fact that it 

resumed diplomatic relations 

with Baghdad’s new leaders, 

there are obvious signs that 

Doha is not completely comfortable with the new Iraqi 

order it helped construct.
policies in Iraq have “caused harm in the region.”44 On one occasion in 2005, he stated 

that the U.S. policy of de-Baathification in Iraq was harmful.45

Qataris have been prominent defenders of Sunni interests in post-Saddam Iraq. An 

obvious example is the Egyptian-born Muslim cleric Sheikh Yusuf Al-Qaradawi, who has 

lived in Qatar for decades and hosts a prominent talk show on al-Jazeera. Qaradawi 

recently blamed Iran for sectarian strife in Iraq while underscoring the continued suffering of the Sunni community in the country: “Thousands have been killed in Iraq since the 

Americans entered the country, and Sunnis are the ones suffering most in Iraq. There is 

an ethnic cleansing going on.”46 Qatar is also home to Abdul Rahman Al-Omeir Al-Naimi, 

professor of history at the University of Qatar and a prominent political activist. In his 

capacity as secretary-general of the “World Campaign for Resistance to Aggression,”47 he 

convened in December 2006 an event in Istanbul titled “Conference for the Support of the 

Iraqi People,” which featured talks by Harith al-Dari, leader of one of the most influential 

Sunni organizations in Iraq, the Muslim Scholars Association;48 Adnan Al-Dulaymi, leader 

of the Iraqi Sunni bloc al-Tawafoq; and, via recorded audio, Ibrahim al-Shammari, alleged 

spokesperson for the Iraqi insurgent group the Islamic Army in Iraq. The conference, 

which called in its final communiqué for annulling the current political process in Iraq, the 

dismantling of militias, and providing support to “the resistance,” was criticized by Iraqi 

officials for inflaming the sectarian divide in their country.49 Another Qatari name that 

has raised concerns inside the leadership circles in the new Iraq is Mohammed Al-Musafar, 

a well-known writer and a professor of political science at the University of Qatar. AlMusafar is known for his pro-Saddam leanings and was accused by Mu‘tammar, the official 

newspaper of the Iraqi National Congress, of having ties with Iraqi intelligence.50

Qatar is also known for providing a safe haven for Iraq’s Baathists after the fall of 

Saddam Hussein. The Iraqi community there is thought to number some 900, the most 

prominent of whom are the former president’s widow, Sajida; his daughter, Halaa; and his 

grandson.51 The Web site of the Multinational Force in Iraq claims that Sajida “is a major 

source of guidance, logistical support, and funding for Iraq’s insurgent leadership. She has 

established significant connections to individuals directing the insurgency in Iraq and has 

access to substantial assets stolen by Saddam Hussein.”52 Former Iraqi foreign minister 

Naji Sabri Al-Hadithi is currently teaching journalism at a Qatari university. At the annual 

GCC summit in December 2005, Riad al-Qaysi, a former Baathist Foreign Ministry official, 

participated in Qatar’s official delegation at the summit. Media outlets reported that Qaysi 

is currently working as an adviser at the Qatari foreign ministry.53 The Qatari foreign 

minister asserts that his country’s hosting of Iraq’s top Baath party members is strictly a 

humanitarian endeavor and that none of the Baathists that his country hosts has been 

convicted of any crimes.54

With rapidly growing receipts from natural gas and a booming economy, Qatar’s population remains somewhat quiescent, and the regime faces no internal threats. No regional 

hegemon appears eager to challenge the country, in part because of its skill at co-opting 

its potential adversaries. Qatar and Iran share a massive gas field—a reserve estimated at 

900 trillion cubic feet that experts believe will produce for a century, putting an economic 

premium on political comity between the two countries. When the United Nations Security 

Council voted in August 2006 to demand that Iran halt uranium enrichment, Qatar cast 

the sole dissenting vote.55

The war in Iraq has enhanced Qatar’s position, because it has simultaneously allowed 

the country to deepen its relations with the United States and to assert its pan-Arab 

bona fides through al-Jazeera’s broadcasts. At the same time, Qatar’s relatively isolated 

geographic position and its small and largely homogeneous native population mean that 

instability in Iraq in no way threatens the status quo in the country. The U.S. base is 

sufficiently far from Doha that it is remote from most Qataris’ daily lives, but it allows the 

government to deepen its ties with the only country that can provide it with strategic 

depth against whatever Saudi designs against it exist.

Qatar is also known for providing a 

safe haven for Iraq’s Baathists after 

the fall of Saddam Hussein. 
10

The United Arab Emirates

The third type of Iraq–Gulf State relationship is that pursued by the United Arab Emirates, 

which simultaneously has sought to build its own defensive capacity while deepening ties 

with a whole range of countries. As such, the UAE’s relationship with the United States 

in terms of military cooperation on Iraq has been almost silent compared with Kuwait’s 

and Qatar’s; it is appropriate that the major UAE contribution to the war in Iraq is conjectured to be the basing of surveillance aircraft at Al-Dhafra Air Base outside of Abu Dhabi. 

Speaking at a press conference in Abu Dhabi in January 2005, U.S. assistant secretary of 

defense Peter Rodman referred to “good quiet cooperation” between the United States 

and the UAE, and added, “I don’t want to get into the specifics, but we are very pleased 

at the [military] cooperation that we have.”56

The UAE has no serious internal political threats. The government is consultative if not 

democratic, and politics remains highly circumscribed. Each of the seven emirates has a 

high degree of autonomy, although Abu Dhabi is the dominant force in foreign affairs and 

defense, and Dubai leads the way in many matters of commerce. Meanwhile, the booming 

regional economy has improved the lives of most citizens. The UAE has been especially 

aggressive in providing educational opportunities for its young people, and its native 

population is small enough that employment has not been a significant problem. 

Although the UAE has a keen interest in Gulf stability, its interest in Iraq is secondary to its concern over Iran, with which it has a long-standing dispute over ownership 

of three islands in the Gulf: the Greater and Lesser Tunbs, and Abu Musa. Its unresolved 

dispute with Iran over the islands heightens the UAE’s concerns about the rising influence of pro-Iranian Shiite Islamists in Iraq.57 Relations between the UAE and Iran are not 

unremittingly tense, however. Tens of thousands of Iranians live in Dubai, and billions of 

dollars of Iranian assets are invested in Emirati businesses and real estate projects. Trade 

between the two countries is robust and slated to grow—despite the fact that the UAE 

was a major bankroller of Saddam Hussein in his 1980–1988 war with Iran. Iran policy 

is an area of some tension among the different emirates. Dubai’s commercial interests 

sometimes dictate a softer policy, while Abu Dhabi’s preoccupation with defense—and 

preserving a close relationship with the United States—dictates a more hawkish policy. 

The salient fact in the UAE’s regional relations, however, is that it pursues a strategy of 

diverse but quiet partnerships cemented by large amounts of cash. It was a key supporter 

of the anti-Soviet mujahideen (and, later, the Taliban) in Afghanistan and a booster of 

senior anti-Saddamist Sunni politicians such as Adnan Pachachi. The UAE also serves as 

something of a regional refuge: Muhammad Said al-Sahhaf, the Iraqi information minister 

whose increasingly fantastic stories about Iraqi resistance to the Coalition invasion in 

2003 made him an object of worldwide ridicule, surfaced after the war in the UAE. The 

UAE pledged $215 million in economic and reconstruction assistance to the Iraqi government.58

The country is reaching the end of a ten-year, $15 billion defense modernization 

program, having contracted for 80 F-16 fighter/attack aircraft from the United States at 

a cost of $6.8 billion, an additional 33 Mirage 2000-9 fighter aircraft from France (along 

with an agreement to upgrade 30 Mirage 2000-5s already in stock), and a full complement of high-tech missiles. In addition, the UAE is seeking a missile defense capacity, has 

extensive Russian- and French-equipped land forces and is aggressively building a navy 

that can operate in both the Gulf and the Indian Ocean. 

The United States remains the UAE’s most important military partner, and the two 

countries formed a Joint Military Commission to facilitate cooperation and joint training. 

More than a thousand Emiratis train every year in the United States. Meanwhile, Dubai is 

the busiest foreign port of call for U.S. Navy ships, and intelligence cooperation is reportedly extremely tight. It seems that the United States can get whatever it needs from 

the UAE; at the same time, the United States has been more forthcoming in supplying 

sophisticated military equipment to the UAE than to almost any other country.

Although the UAE has a keen 

interest in Gulf stability, its 

interest in Iraq is secondary to 

its concern over Iran, with which 

it has a long-standing dispute 

over ownership of three islands 

in the Gulf: the Greater and 

Lesser Tunbs, and Abu Musa.
11

In pursuance of its U.S. relationship, the UAE offered training on its soil to hundreds 

of Iraqi troops and police recruits in 2004–2005. Emblematic of the way the UAE government seeks to keep many of these actions sub rosa, much of the training was conducted 

by German forces on UAE soil, thereby establishing an avenue of participation for an open 

foe of the war and simultaneously inoculating the UAE from charges that it was complicit 

in the U.S. military occupation of Iraq. The UAE has sought to be more helpful in Iraq in 

recent years, hosting the first Preparatory Group Meeting for the International Compact 

with Iraq in September 2006, and providing funding to both the United Nations’ and 

World Bank’s Iraq reconstruction funds. The UAE has avoided being cast as a defender of 

Sunni interests in Iraq in the way that the government of Saudi Arabia has increasingly 

been. Instead, the UAE has carved out a niche as a place in the Gulf where people can 

convene and resolve conflicts with government support.

The political uproar in the United States in early 2006 over Dubai Ports World’s efforts 

to take over a major company operating U.S. ports may have vindicated the UAE’s strategy 

of pursuing a range of relationships and not merely one with the United States. Despite 

remarkably close defense and intelligence cooperation between the United States and the 

UAE, the U.S. Congress rallied against the deal, under the charge that it would put Arabs 

in charge of U.S. port security. The UAE has vigorously expanded its commercial ties to 

Asia, further balancing against a seemingly mercurial U.S. policy. Dubai, in particular, has 

sought deep ties to China; bilateral trade is now more than $10 billion per year, growing 

at approximately 30 percent per year.59

More than any other country in the region, the UAE seeks a broad portfolio of relationships. The United States remains the bedrock of the UAE’s security strategy, but the 

relationship is overlaid with a wide web of complementary relationships built through 

quiet diplomacy, heightening the utility of the UAE in its current status to all and thereby 

sustaining its own security. 

The Allure of Regional Security Frameworks

In the immediate aftermath of the U.S.-led war on Iraq, a number of scholars of Gulf 

security saw a golden opportunity to create some sort of regional institution that could 

manage interstate relations. The idea had been floating around for several years, developed most thoroughly in a paper issued by the Stockholm International Peace Research 

Institute in 1998.60 In the paper’s expansive conception, such a regional institution 

would bring together the members of the Arab League, Iran, and Israel, and would seek 

to boost transparency in military operations, slowly build confidence, and work toward 

banishing weapons of mass destruction from the region. 

At the conclusion of Operation Iraqi Freedom, another consideration came to the fore. 

Saudis’ strong domestic opposition to maintaining U.S. bases in the kingdom was only 

one sign of how unwelcome the U.S. presence was in the Middle East. Many analysts saw 

the long-term basing of U.S. troops in the Gulf as a liability, because it had been used 

in recent years “as a rallying point for both domestic political opposition and terrorist 

groups, in particular al Qaeda and its associated organizations.”61

Saddam Hussein’s demise and the persistent efforts of Iran’s leaders to reduce tensions 

with its Gulf Arab neighbors led analysts to argue that the existing U.S. security posture 

was anachronistic, intended to defend against the threat of an invasion that simply was 

no longer extant. While Gulf oil would remain central to any U.S. strategic concept—the 

region still holds almost two-thirds of the world’s proven reserves—U.S. defense planners 

believed that the region’s security might be served even better by a new collective security structure involving fewer U.S. troops and more dialogue among regional actors. The 

United States could lighten up on its troop levels and pre-positioning equipment in the 

Gulf in a dispersed, networked set of bases that could be used for quick and lethal strikes 

against terrorist threats throughout East Africa, the Middle East, and Central Asia.62

The UAE has avoided being cast 

as a defender of Sunni interests in Iraq in the way that the 

government of Saudi Arabia has 

increasingly been. Instead, the 

UAE has carved out a niche as a 

place in the Gulf where people 

can convene and resolve conflicts with government support.

While Gulf oil would remain central 

to any U.S. strategic concept—the 

region still holds almost two-thirds 

of the world’s proven reserves

—U.S. defense planners believed 

that the region’s security might be 

served even better by a new collective security structure involving 

fewer U.S. troops and more dialogue among regional actors. 
12

Regarding regional dialogues, U.S. defense planners believed that if the Arab-Israeli 

issue were split off from the effort, the fall of Saddam meant that the only outlier was 

Iran. In addition, the large U.S. troop presence in Iraq would give the United States a 

clear seat at the table, helping sidestep the issue of precisely defining a role for the 

United States—the de facto policeman of the region. Analysts argued that the institutionalized cooperation could begin with just the Arab states and the United States, and 

Iran could be brought in afterward. One advocate of a “Gulf security condominium,” the 

Brookings Institution’s Kenneth Pollack, suggested in Foreign Affairs that, “Inviting Iran 

to discuss security issues in the Persian Gulf at the same table with the United States 

would give Tehran the sense that it was finally getting the respect from Washington that 

it believes it deserves. More to the point, such a process is the only possible way that Iran 

could affect the military forces of its toughest opponent, the United States.”63

With the passage of time, however, such a proposal seems increasingly difficult to 

realize. First, the idea of Iraq as a peaceful, stabilizing force in the Gulf seems remote. 

The country’s descent into factional warfare, political squabbling, and sectarian division 

makes its neighbors wonder whether Iraq will persist at all, rather than what kind of state 

it might become. Instead, Gulf Arabs complain that the war with Iraq has so weakened 

the country that it has strengthened Iran, which now has no Arab power to balance it. In 

addition, the U.S. troop presence in Iraq, which many U.S. planners saw as an uneventful 

and unexceptional consequence of the U.S.-led liberation of the country, appears increasingly in doubt. Iraq can no longer be a useful node for a lingering U.S. presence in the 

Gulf; instead, domestic hostility to the U.S. presence—in Iraq and in many of the Gulf 

States—has heightened concerns about the long-term presence of U.S. troops.

Second, Iran has become far more emboldened under President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, who has abandoned the cautious entreaties to the West of his predecessor, Mohamed 

Khatami. Whereas Khatami spoke of a “Dialogue of Civilizations” and mutual respect that 

resonated with elites in the West, Iran, and the Arab world, his successor is a populist 

who seeks to portray his defiance of the West and the United Nations as evidence of his 

courage in the face of superior military might. Not only has Ahmadinejad pressed toward 

crisis with the United States and Europe by insisting on Iran’s right to enrich uranium, but 

he has also made the issue a cause célèbre among the Iranian populace in the nation’s 

quest for international respect backed by the prospect of a nuclear arsenal. Even Western 

diplomats who favor engagement with Iran concede that “[t]here can no longer be any 

reasonable doubt that Iran’s ambition is to obtain nuclear weapons capability.”64 Yet the 

Iranian public continues to follow the government line that Western efforts amount not 

to prosecution but, rather, persecution over small technical reporting errors in a peaceful 

research program that Iranian engineers have corrected.

Adding to the inauspiciousness of a U.S. presence, America’s standing in the Middle 

East is perhaps at its lowest point since the 1967 Arab-Israeli War. Ongoing chaos in 

Iraq, the growing immiseration of Palestinians under what many Arabs see as a U.S.-led 

embargo of the Palestinian Authority, and a seemingly unsteady push for democratization in the Middle East have made even many of America’s friends wonder about U.S. 

intentions and capacity. One U.S.-educated Arab living in Lebanon recently appealed to 

President George Bush and then Prime Minister Tony Blair to consider the legacy of past 

U.S. and British actions in the Middle East “and find a better way to do this modernity 

stuff so that it does not routinely kill our people, collapse our governments, and shatter 

our societies.”65

Where consensus exists among Arab governments on a U.S. presence, it centers on 

proposals for a shared air missile defense; early warning; and command, control, communications, computers, and intelligence (C4I) capacity, which would presumably provide 

protection from Iranian strikes. Such an initiative would be reactive rather than preventive, however, and it would serve to highlight the failure of efforts to create joint forces 

that could protect GCC countries from outside attack, such as the Peninsula Shield force or 

the stillborn Damascus Declaration forces of the early 1990s, in which Gulf troops would 

be supplemented by those of Egypt and Syria. 

Where consensus exists among Arab 

governments on a U.S. presence, it 

centers on proposals for a shared air 

missile defense; early warning; and 

command, control, communications, 

computers, and intelligence (C4I) 

capacity, which would presumably provide protection from Iranian strikes.
13

Yet the current tensions plaguing the Middle East highlight mostly concerns about—not 

prospects for—the future of Gulf security. With little agreement on either the threats or 

mechanisms to address them, the United States seems drawn ineluctably into a long-term 

security presence that in many ways it is seeking to shed. At the same time, Gulf Arab 

publics are becoming increasingly hostile to that presence, while their governments find 

themselves on the horns of a dilemma—wanting U.S. security against regional threats, 

but fearing the effects of a close bilateral security relationship. It is an environment in 

which all feel uncertain about how to move. 

Writing almost twenty years ago, Stephen Walt observed that threats were a far better 

determinant of alliance-formation behavior than power, ideology, or some other motivating factor.66 In 1981, the Gulf States banded together in the Gulf Cooperation Council 

to help create a bulwark against Iran. Iraq’s aggressive behavior toward many of its 

neighbors led them into close alliances with the United States, and emerging threats from 

Iran in the postwar environment have helped solidify their orientation. Indeed, one of 

the key surprises of the post–Cold War Middle East is that the demise of the Soviet Union 

has driven virtually every government in the region into the arms of the United States to 

guard against the advances of budding regional hegemons or internal opposition, at the 

same time that events on the ground—and their coverage in regional media—have bred 

more hostility among broad publics than at any time since the 1967 Arab-Israeli War.

These alliances, however, are uneasy ones, borne of necessity and often kept out of the 

public eye. There are two ironies in all of this. The first is that a driving factor behind the 

U.S. decision to go to war against Iraq was to protect these countries from a persistent 

Iraqi threat, yet they have generally adopted a passive role toward shaping the post-Saddam environment in Iraq. The second—and even more ironic—is that Iraq’s demise has 

created opportunities for Iran, which these same governments see as a rising threat from 

which they seek U.S. protection. Saddam Hussein’s fall did not alter these countries’ relations with the United States; instead, it merely shifted anxieties and grimly underscored 

the few alternatives they have to pursuing strong bilateral relations.

The problem is, in some ways, a more pressing one for the United States, because it 

has more options available. Whereas Gulf Arab states have few alternatives other than 

to seek external guarantors of regional security—and no country or group of countries 

can provide nearly the degree of security that the United States can—how the United 

States projects its forces in the region, what kinds of guarantees it seeks, and what kinds 

of threats it offers protection against are all very much in the realm of its own decision 

making. 

Of course, one or more of the Arab Gulf states could seek an accommodation with 

Iran—a move that could stem from the fear that the United States was being too belligerent or out of the satisfaction that Iran was becoming less so. In so doing, that state 

(or states) would probably not go firmly into the Iranian camp (as Syria has done) but, 

rather, seek to build ties with both the neighbor who will never go away and the protector who might.

This is not to say that GCC governments seek a U.S.-Iranian rapprochement. One writer 

close to many GCC defense ministries observed recently that while resolution of U.S.-

Iranian tensions would be welcomed in Washington, Iran’s neighbors fear a return to a 

warm U.S.-Iranian security relationship that would involve “subjugation to the foreignpolicy whims of a hegemonic Iran rather than a balance of interests between equal 

sovereign states.”67

What seems clear from the foregoing is that these smaller Gulf states are “market 

takers” rather than “market makers” on regional security issues. Deeply affected as many 

of them were by Iraqi threats, in the aftermath of war they have shown little inclination 

to shape the nature of a larger and potentially more powerful neighbor. The choices they 

face are more immediate: how to calibrate a proper relationship with the United States 

and how many other relationships to maintain alongside it. As traditional monarchies, all 

three states examined in this report are well accustomed to building broad and sometimes 

incoherent coalitions to maintain power. 

Of course, one or more of the 

Arab Gulf states could seek an 

accommodation with Iran—a 

move that could stem from the 

fear that the United States was 

being too belligerent or out of 

the satisfaction that Iran was 

becoming less so.
14

These three states have taken different approaches to meet their own security needs, 

seeking different degrees of identity with U.S. interests and actions. Yet although these 

countries share many threat perceptions with the United States, it would be a mistake 

to overstate the commonality of interests. Although the United States made a vibrant 

and independent Iraq a high priority on its international agenda, none of these countries 

shared that ambition; their response since has borne out their uncertainty about the 

enterprise. One might argue that the United States was too ambitious in its goals for 

Iraq and that these governments have, at the same time, been too modest in theirs. In 

short, they have sought protection from their strategic environment, not the chance to 

shape it. 

Notes

1. A July 2002 news report stated that U.S. administration officials said that most Arab countries would 

support an invasion of Iraq, although they would probably publicly disavow any such support; see “U.S. Plans 

Massive Invasion of Iraq,” United Press International, July 11, 2002. (An online copy of the story is available 

on NewsMax.com, www.newsmax.com/archives/articles/2002/7/10/174300/shtml.

2. The White House, “President Bush’s Address to the American Enterprise Institute, February 26, 2003,” 

www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/02/20030226-11.html.

3. Michael Scott Doran, “Palestine, Iraq, and American Strategy,” Foreign Affairs, January/February 2003, 

33.

4. R. James Woolsey, address to the conference on “Americans for Victory over Terrorism,” University of 

California, Los Angeles, April 2, 2003, www.avot.org/article/20030402154900.html. 

5. Established in May 1981, the GCC includes Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United 

Arab Emirates.

6. See Jon B. Alterman, “Not in My Backyard: Iraq’s Neighbors’ Interests,” The Washington Quarterly,

Summer 2003, 149–60.

7. For example, in January 2007, Qatar’s foreign minister described U.S. policies in Iraq as “harmful for 

the region”; see “Qatar: Siyasat amrika alhaqat dararan bil-mantiqa (U.S. Policies Caused Harm in the Region),” 

Al-Qabas (Kuwait City), January 15, 2007, 52. A GCC foreign minister told Middle East scholar and author John 

Duke Anthony, “We have shared our views with American officials and policymakers as to why we think what 

they have been doing toward Iran, Iraq, and Palestine is misguided and won’t work. They listened to us but in 

the end they disagreed”; see John Duke Anthony, “Through a Looking Glass Darkly: Perspective of the U.S.-Gulf 

Relationship with the Benefit of Hindsight from the Year Before,” Saudi-U.S. Relations Information Service, 

Washington, D.C., December 16, 2006, www.saudi-us-relations.org/fact-book/documents/2006/061214-anthony-us-gcc-relationship.pdf.

8. Phebe Marr, The Modern History of Iraq, 2d ed. (Boulder, CO: Westview, 2004), 110. 

9. Author’s interview with a Kuwaiti academic, Kuwait City, April 23, 2006.

10. Author’s interview with a Kuwaiti journalist, Kuwait City, April 24, 2006.

11. “Kuwait, Iraq Agree to Resume Full Diplomatic Relations,” People’s Daily Online, August 3, 2004, 

http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200408/03/eng20040803_151640.html; “Iraqis Hold in High Esteem 

Kuwaiti Amir, State, People—Talabani,” Kuwait News Agency, January 20, 2007, www.kuna.net.kw/home/story.

aspx?Language=en&DSNO=944286.

12. Michael Knights, “Northern Gulf Vulnerable to Infiltration by Terrorist Groups,” Jane’s Intelligence 

Review, October 1, 2005. 

13. Nicholas Blanford, “Unrest Spills into Quiet Kuwait,” Christian Science Monitor, February 11, 2005.

14. Kenneth Katzman, The Persian Gulf States: Issues for U.S. Policy, 2006. Congressional Research Service 

Report for Congress, no. RL31533 (Washington, DC: CRS, January 20, 2006), 6. A BBC Arabic radio correspondent said on the air in May 2005 that Iraqi officials were concerned that “terrorists” could cross from Iraq to 

Kuwait to hurt “relations between the two countries”; see “Murasil radio BBC fi al-kuwait yalqi ad-da‘wa ‘ala 

ziyarat ra’is al-wuzara’ al-‘iraqi lil-bilad (BBC Radio Correspondent in Kuwait Addresses the Iraqi Prime Minister’s 

Visit to the Country),” Kuwait Ministry of Information, June 2005, www.news.gov.kw/view.aspx?id=4268.

15. “Kuwaiti Cleric Questioned over Calling for Jihad in Iraq,” Agence France-Presse, August 24, 2004.

16. Sandra Jontz, “Army Preparing to Close Camp Doha, Shift Operations to Other Kuwait Bases,” 

Stars and Stripes, April 11, 2005, www.stripesonline.com/article.asp?section=104&article=27559&archive=

true.

17. See U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, Country Analysis Briefs, “Kuwait,” 

June 2005, www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/kuwaiit.html.

18. That status facilitates the sale of surplus weapons, the stockpiling of materiel outside of the United 

States, and the flow of additional U.S. antiterrorism funds; see Joseph Rohe, “U.S. Grants Kuwait ‘Major NonNATO Ally’ Status,” Jane’s Defense Weekly, April 7, 2004.
15

19. Sanjay Suri, “Iraq: Few Enter the Door Kuwait Opens,” Global Information Network, February 12, 

2004.

20. Kenneth Katzman, Kuwait: Post-Saddam Issues and U.S. Policy. Congressional Research Service Report 

for Congress, no. RS21513 (Washington, DC: CRS, June 29, 2005), 3.

21. “Iraq Pledges at Least $13 billion,” CNN.com, October 24, 2003, www.cnn.com/2003/WORLD/

meast/10/24/sprj.irq.donors/index.html; Katzman, Kuwait, 3: “The State Department told CRS in April 2005 

that very little of that pledge has been disbursed.” It was reported in June 2005 that Kuwait granted Iraq $60 

million for infrastructure rehabilitation as part of the $500 million pledge it made in Madrid in 2003, “$60m 

Kuwaiti Aid for Iraq,” Mathaba.net, June 29, 2005, www.mathaba.net/0_index.shtml?x=251288. A 2006 report 

to Congress stated that of the $13.5 billion pledged by donors other than the United States, $3.2 billion 

had been disbursed as of December 2005; see Measuring Stability and Security in Iraq. Report to Congress in 

Accordance with the Department of Defense Appropriations Act 2006, February 2006, 14.

22. See the Brookings Institution’s “Iraq Index,” December 26, 2006, 36, www.brookings.edu/fp/saban/

iraq/index20061221.pdf. 

23. “Kuwait ta‘zam istirad al-ghaz at-tabi‘i min al-‘iraq (Kuwait Plans to Import Natural Gas from Iraq),”

Al-Wifaq (Manama), June 6, 2006, 9; “Iraq to Provide Kuwait with Natural Gas,” People’s Daily Online, August 

1, 2005, http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200508/01/eng20050801_199452.html.

24. “Baker Secures Promises of Iraq Debt Relief From Gulf Oil States,” Agence France-Presse, January 21, 

2004; “Rice Presses Gulf Arab States for Support on Iraq,” Assyrian International News Agency, January 17, 

2007, www.aina.org/news/20070116182804.htm.

25. Author’s interview with a Kuwaiti foreign ministry official, Kuwait City, April 24, 2006.

26. See, for example, Oxford Analytica, “Qatar: Al-Thani Reformists Bolster Hold on Power,” April 24, 

2006.

27. “Al Udeid Air Base, Qatar,” GlobalSecurity.org, August 8, 2005, www.globalsecurity.org/military/facility/udeid/htm.

28. See, for example, Christopher Marquis, “U.S. Protests Broadcasts by Arab Channels,” New York Times, 

April 29, 2004.

29. Al-Jazeera receives $30 million annually from the Qatari emir; see Owen Gibson, “BBC Goes 

Head-to-Head with al-Jazeera,” The Guardian (London), October 26, 2005, http://business.guardian.co.uk/

story/0,3604,1600830,00.html. One al-Jazeera producer acknowledged that the news station does not generate enough advertising revenue to cover its operating costs, which makes it highly dependent on the Qatari 

government for its financing; see Jeremy M. Sharp, Qatar: Background and U.S. Relations. Congressional 

Research Service Report for Congress, no. RL31718 (Washington, DC: CRS, March 17, 2004), 4.

30. Jeremy M. Sharp, The Al-Jazeera News Network: Opportunity or Challenge for U.S. Foreign Policy in the 

Middle East? Congressional Research Service Report for Congress, no. RL31889 (Washington, DC: CRS, July 23, 

2003), 4.

31. Comments came in a special segment on Al-Arabiya Television about the future of American military 

bases in the Middle East. For transcripts, see “Taht ad-daw’: mustaqbal al-qawa‘id al-amrikiyya fi as-sharq alawsat (Under the Spotlight: The Future of American Bases in the Middle East),” Alarabiya.net, October 6, 2005, 

www.alarabiya.net/ARTICLES/2005/10/06/17544.htm.

32. Brookings Institution, “Iraq Index,” 36.

33. www.irffi.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/IRFFI/ 0,,contentMDK:20527603~menuPK:64168616~pagePK:64168

627~piPK:64167475~the SitePK:491458,00.html.

34. www.whitehouse.gov/omb/legislative/appdx_2_donors_final.pdf.

35. See “Kuwait Declaration of the Preparatory Group: International Compact with Iraq,” IraqCompact.org, 

October 31, 2006, http://www.iraqcompact.org/documents/Kuwait_Meeting_Declaration_EN.pdf; and “Abu 

Dhabi Declaration: International Compact with Iraq,” IraqCompact.org, September 10, 2006, www.iraqcompact.org/documents/Abu%20Dhabi%20Meeting%20Declaration.pdf.

36. “Qatar’s Initiative toward Iraq Collapses before It Has Started,” Arabicnews.com, June 9, 2000, www.

arabicnews.com/ansub/Daily/Day/000609/2000060902.html. 

37. “Iraqi President Receives Plane as Gift from Qatar,” People’s Daily Online, November 17, 2006, http://

english.peopledaily.com.cn/english/200011/17/eng20001117_55424.html.

38. See Amy Goodman’s interview with Faisal Al-Qasim in “Why This Al Jazeera Talk Show Draws Fire 

from Arab and Western Governments,” DemocracyNow.org, February 2, 2006, www.democracynow.org/article.

pl?sid=06/02/02/147208&mode=thread&tid=25.

39. Stephen F. Hayes, “Al Jazeera: “Fair Balanced” and Bought,” The Weekly Standard, May 28, 2003. See 

also “Report Alleges that Iraqi Agents Infiltrated al-Jazeera,” RFE/RL Iraq Report 5, no. 22 (May 16, 2003).

40. Sharp, The Al-Jazeera News Network, 4.

41. “Faisal al-Qasim does not comment on documents published in Baghdad claiming ties between him 

and Saddam’s intelligence services,” Asharq Al-Awsat (London), February 17, 2004, www.asharqalawsat.com/

details.asp?section=4&issue=9212&article=218285.

42. “A Conversation with Seikh Hamad Bin Jassim Jabr al-Thani,” Council on Foreign Relations, New York, 

September 14, 2005, www.cfr.org/publication/8878/conversation_with_sheikh_hamad_bin_jassim_bin_iabr_

althani_rush_transcript_federal_news_service_inc.html?breadcrumb=%2Fregion%2F412%2Fqatar.

43. “Qatar tantaqad ‘adam tansiq al-wilayat al-mutahida istratijiatiha al-jadida ma‘a duwal almantiqa (Qatar Criticizes Lack of U.S. Coordination of Its New Strategy with the Countries of the 

Region),” Al-Hayat (online version), January 15, 2007, www.daralhayat.com/arab_news/gulf_news/01-2007/

Item-20070114-21f86423-c0a8-10ed-00be-610867e9d463/story.html.
44. See Al-Qabas, “Qatar: siyasat amrika alhaqat dararan bil-mantiqa (U.S. Policies Caused Harm in the 

Region).”

45. Council on Foreign Relations, “A Conversation with Seikh Hamad Bin Jassim Jabr al-Thani.”

46. “Al Qaradawi Blames Iran for Sectarian Strife,” Gulfnews.com, January 21, 2007, http://archive.

gulfnews.com/articles/07/01/21/10098391.html.

47. The organization does not hold any official ties to the Qatari government, although its founding 

conference was held in Qatar, and the executive director of the World Campaign for Resistance to Aggression 

thanked the Qatari emir in an interview with Al-Watan for allowing the conference to be held. See “Istiratijiyatna tatalakhas fi thalath khatawat wa sanawajih at-tahaddiyat al-ha’ila silmiyan wa-hadariyan (Our Strategy 

Is Summarized by Three Steps and We Will Face the Vast Challenges Peacefully and with Civility),” Al-Watan, 

July 2, 2006, www.alwatannews.com/data/20060702/index.asp?content=compre. Following the conference, 

anti-Saddam Iraqi websites accused Qatar of funding the conference through Al-Naimi. See “Al-bayan al-khitami li-mu‘tamar al-fitna (The Final Communiqué of the Conference of Incite),” KarabalaNews.net, December 

20, 2006, www.alwatannews.com/data/20060702/index.asp?content=compre. See also “Qatar najahat fi ‘aqd 

akhtar mu’tammar li-takfir al-shi‘a fi istanbul (Qatar Succeeded in Convening the Most Dangerous Conference for 

Heresy in Istanbul),” Nahrainnet.net, December 16, 2007, www.nahrainnet.net/news/52/ARTICLE/9387/2006-

12-16.html.

48. The Iraqi Ministry of Interior issued an arrest warrant against al-Dari on charges of inciting terrorism 

and violence; see “Iraq Issues Arrest Warrant for a Prominent Sunni Cleric,” New York Times, November 17, 2006, 

A14.

49. For a detailed report on the conference, see “Mu’tammar istanbul li-nasrat ash-sha‘b al-‘iraqi ytalib 

bi ’igha‘ al-‘amaliyya as-siyassiya wa hal al-milishiat wa tawfir alda‘m lil-muqawama (Istanbul Conference 

for the Support of the Iraqi People Demands Annulling the Political Process, Dismantling of Militias, and 

Providing Support for the Resistance),” Azzaman (London), December 16, 2006, 7. See also “Iraq: Istanbul 

Conference Enflames Sectarian Tensions,” Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, December 22, 2006, www.rferl.org/

featuresarticle/2006/12/e9c8b518-22cb-4c03-8393-3762675d78b9.html.

50. “Al-mu’tammar: muhammad al-musafar ‘amil lin-nidham al-‘iraqi al-mawbur (Al-Mu’tammar: Mohammed Al-Musafar Is an Agent for the Former Iraqi Regime),” Talee‘a.com, January 3, 2004, http://local.taleea.

com/archive/newsdetails.php?id=5753&ISSUENO=1609.

51. “Raghd saddam husayn murashahat tayar al-ba‘th wa tufakkir jadiyyan bil-‘awda li baghdad wa khawd 

ma‘rakat al-intikhabat bi-da‘m al-muthalath al-sunni (Raghd Saddam Hussein is the Ba‘th candidate and she is 

seriously considering returning to Baghdad to enter the electoral battle with support from the Sunni triangle),” 

Al-Quds Al-‘Arabi (London), June 25, 2004, 8.

52. “Iraqi Government Releases ‘41 Most Wanted’ List,” Official Website of the Multi-National Force, July 

3, 2006, www.mnfiraq.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=572&Itemid=46. 

53. “Diblomasi kuwaiti: lam natawaqa‘ min al-qatarin al-wasul ila darajat al-istifzaz (Kuwaiti Diplomat: We 

Did Not Expect from Qatar to Reach This Degree of Provocation),” Asharq Al-Awsat.com, December 20, 2005, 

www.asharqalawsat.com/details.asp?section=4&article=339205&issue=9884.

54. The Qatari foreign minister acknowledged in 2006 that Qatar hosts a number of former Iraqi Baathists 

on humanitarian grounds, claiming that none of the Baathists that his country hosts has been convicted of 

any crimes; see “Statement of Sheikh Hamad Bin Jasim Bin Jabr Al-Thani, First Deputy to the Prime Minister 

and Foreign Minister, upon his arrival to the State of Kuwait,” Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the State of Qatar, 

Doha, April 4, 2006, www.mofa.gov.qa/details.cfm?id=20. 

55. Warren Hoge, “U.N. Sets Aug. 31 Deadline for Iran to End Uranium Work.” New York Times, August 1, 

2006.

56. Lydia Georgi, “U.S. Seeks to Formalize Military Links with the UAE,” The Daily Star (Beirut), January 

13, 2005.

57. Kenneth Katzman, The United Arab Emirates (UAE): Issues for U.S. Policy. Congressional Research 

Service Report for Congress, no. RS21852 (Washington, DC: CRS, May 9, 2005), 5.

58. “Fact Sheet: The United States-UAE Bilateral Relationship,” WhiteHouse.gov, February 22, 2006, www.

whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2006/02/20060222-10.html.

59. “China GCC trade amounted to $32 billion,” Maktoob.com, September 5, 2006, http://business.

maktoob.com/bankingnew.asp?id=20060905074414.

60. Peter Jones, Towards a Regional Security Regime for the Middle East: Issues and Options (Stockholm: 

SIPRI, 1998). 

61. Joseph McMillan, Richard Sokolsky, and Andrew C. Winner, “Toward a New Regional Security Architecture,” The Washington Quarterly, Summer 2003, 163.

62. James A. Russell, “Strategy, Security, and War in Iraq: The United States and the Gulf in the 21st 

Century,” Cambridge Review of International Affairs 18, no. 2 (July 2005): 296.

63. Kenneth M. Pollack, “Securing the Gulf,” Foreign Affairs, July/August 2003.

64. Joschka Fischer, “The Case for Bargaining with Iran,” Washington Post, May 29, 2006, A23.

65. Rami G. Khouri, “Exporting Chaos,” Newsweek International, May 27, 2006.

66. Stephen M. Walt, The Origins of Alliances (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1987), 3.

67. Riad Kahwaji, “U.S.-Arab Cooperation in the Gulf: Are Both Sides Working from the Same Script?” 

Middle East Policy 11, no. 3, (Fall 2004): 60.

USIP and Iraq

The United States Institute of Peace has been 

active in Iraq since early 2004, made possible 

through a $10 million appropriation from Congress in late 2003, $3.98 million in transfers 

from the State Department in 2005, and $2 million from the FY 2006 Supplemental. The Institute draws upon its collective resources and the 

integrated efforts of its research, education, 

and professional training programs to focus on 

five major objectives:

•	 Overcome sectarian and religious divisions

•	 Build Iraqi capacity to manage their own 

security, rule of law, and governance

•	 Encourage Iraq’s neighbors to play a positive role

•	 Increase Iraqi conflict management skills in 

a new generation of leaders

•	 Raise public awareness and inform the public and policymakers

As part of this initiative, the Institute 

maintains a field office in Baghdad to provide 

critical input and guidance to program development, provide Arabic translations of Institute 

publications, and support the implementation 

of its programs. We are grateful to the Iraqis 

who have courageously joined in this effort 

through USIP grants, training programs, faculty 

seminars, and legal workshops, and hope that 

the Americans who have received USIP materials before embarking will find them useful to 

their work in this most challenging of environments.

United States 

Institute of Peace

1200 17th Street NW

Washington, DC 20036

www.usip.org

An online edition of this and related 

reports can be found on our Web site 

(www.usip.org), together with additional 

information on the subject.