U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Fact Sheet FS 2005–3056

(Supercedes FS–130–02, FS–133–99, and FS–94–009)

May 2005, Revised 2007

Satellite Image Atlas of Glaciers of the World

Printed on recycled paper

Most mountain glaciers worldwide have 

been retreating since the late1800s, and global 

sea level has risen about 15 centimeters since 

then. Glaciers vary in size in response to 

changes in global and regional climates (such as 

warmer summers). The U.S. Geological Survey 

(USGS) studies the complex links among glacier 

variation, climate change, and global sea level.

Sea-level changes, especially in densely 

populated, low-lying coastal areas and on 

islands, have significant effects on human 

activities and facilities. The present volume of 

the Earth’s glacier ice, if totally melted, represents about 80 meters in potential sea-level 

rise. About 200 meters is the range of sea-level 

changes that can be caused by water being 

frozen in glaciers during an ice age (glacial 

stage) or melted during an interglacial stage. 

For example, during the last glacial maximum 

(LGM), about 21,000 years ago, sea level is 

estimated to have been 125 meters lower than 

it is today. During a warmer climatic interval 

in the last interglacial stage, about 125,000 

years ago, sea level was about 6 meters higher 

than it is today; during an even warmer interval about 2.2 million years ago, sea level is 

estimated to have been 25 to 50 meters higher.

A thorough global baseline study of the 

areal extent of existing glaciers (fig. 1) is 

required before scientists can assess the 

magnitude of glacier change that is forecast 

to occur worldwide during the 21st century. 

Satellite images (figs. 2–5) can be used to 

inventory glaciers and to monitor changes in 

their areal extent over time.

In 1978, the USGS began the preparation 

of the 11-chapter USGS Professional Paper 

1386, “Satellite Image Atlas of Glaciers of the 

World.” Between 1979 and 1981, optimum 

satellite images were distributed to a team of 

70 scientists, representing 25 nations and 45 

institutions, who agreed to author sections of 

the Professional Paper concerning either a geographic area (chapters B–K) or a glaciological 

topic (included in Chapter A).

The scientists used Landsat 1, 2, and 3 multispectral scanner (MSS) images and Landsat 

2 and 3 return beam vidicon (RBV) images 

to inventory the areal occurrence of glacier 

ice on our planet within the boundaries of the 

spacecrafts’ coverage (between about 82o north 

and south latitudes). Some later contributors 

also used Landsat 4 and 5 MSS and Thematic 

Mapper, Landsat 7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper-Plus (ETM+), and other satellite images.

In addition to analyzing images of a specific geographic area, each author was asked 

to summarize up-to-date information about the 

glaciers within each area and compare their 

present-day areal distribution with reliable 

historical information (from published maps, 

reports, and photographs) about their past 

extent. Because of the limitations of Landsat 

images for delineating or monitoring small 

glaciers in some geographic areas (the result of 

inadequate spatial resolution, lack of suitable 

seasonal coverage, or absence of coverage), 

some information on the areal distribution 

of small glaciers was derived from ancillary 

sources, including other satellite images.

Completion of the atlas will provide an 

accurate regional inventory of the areal extent 

of glaciers on our planet during a relatively 

narrow time interval (1972–1981). This global 

“snapshot” of glacier extent is already being 

used for comparative analysis with previously 

published maps and aerial photographs, as well 

as with new maps, satellite images (for example, ASTER, Landsat 7 ETM+, RADARSAT), 

and aerial photographs, to determine the areal 

fluctuation of glaciers in response to natural or 

human-induced changes in the Earth’s climate. 

For example, sequential Landsat 4, 5, and 7 

and RADARSAT images have documented 

major changes in the coastal regions of Antarctica. See USGS Fact Sheets FS 2005–3055, 

“Coastal-Change and Glaciological Maps of 

Antarctica “ at [http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2005/

3055] and FS–017–02, “Coastal-Change and 

Glaciologic Maps of the Antarctic Peninsula” 

at [http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/fs17-02]. See also 

the USGS Glacier Studies Project website at 

[http://www.glaciers.er.usgs.gov].

Figure 1. White areas show ice sheets and other glaciers around the world. The white spots in the oceans are 

islands where glaciers are found. Reproduced from National Geographic World (February 1977, no. 18, p. 6) 

with permission.

Figure 2. Landsat 1 MSS image of the Byrd Glacier 

where it joins the Ross Ice Shelf. From USGS Professional Paper 1386–B, Antarctica, fig. 23, p. B27.
Chapter A of USGS Professional Paper 

1386 (The State of the Earth’s Cryosphere 

at the Beginning of the 21st Century: Glaciers, Global Snow Cover, Floating Ice, and 

Permafrost and Periglacial Environments) will 

contain a synthesis of chapters B–K, a map/

poster of “The Earth’s Dynamic Cryosphere,” 

and a comprehensive overview of all aspects 

of the cryosphere. The next 10 chapters, B–K, 

are arranged geographically (table 1) and present glaciological information on each of the 

Earth’s glacierized regions.

Table 1. Topics and publication dates of 

USGS Professional Paper 1386, chapters A–K. 

[Chapters A–D include supplemental maps 

folded in a pocket, as indicated in column 2 by 

“w/maps(s).” Chapters A, D, F, and K are not 

yet published]

Chapter Date

Published

A State of the Earth’s 

Cryosphere w/map in press

B Antarctica w/maps1 1988

C Greenland w/map2 1995

D Iceland w/map in press

E Continental Europe3 1993

F Asia in press

G Turkey, Iran, and Africa2 1991

H Irian Jaya (Indonesia)2

and New Zealand

1989

I South America2 1998

J North America2 2002

K Alaska in press

1 Web accessible: http://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/p1386b

2

 Web accessible: http://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/p1386 [add 

chapter letter]

3 Excluding the European part of the former Soviet 

Union, which is included in Chapter F (Asia)

For more information, please contact:

Dr. Richard S. Williams, Jr. 

U.S. Geological Survey

Woods Hole Science Center 

384 Woods Hole Road

Woods Hole, MA 02543-1598

Tel: (508) 457-2347

e-mail: rswilliams@usgs.gov

Jane G. Ferrigno

U.S. Geological Survey

926A National Center

12201 Sunrise Valley Drive

Reston, Va 20192-0002

Tel: (703) 648-6360

e-mail: jferrigno@usgs.gov

The Satellite Image Atlas of Glaciers of the World is being produced as Task 1 of the Glacier 

Studies Project [http://www.glaciers.er.usgs.gov] of the U.S. Geological Survey Geology Discipline’s Earth Surface Dynamics Program, a component of 13 interagency Federal U.S. Climate 

Change Science Program [http://www.climatescience.gov] of which the U.S. Department of the 

Interior is a member.

Figure 3. Landsat 2 MSS image of Malaspina Glacier, Alaska. From USGS Professional Paper 1386–K, 

Glaciers of Alaska, fig. 144, p. K160.

Figure 4. Salyut-6 photograph of the Southern 

Patagonian Ice Field, Chile and Argentina. From 

USGS Professional Paper 1386–I, Glaciers of South 

America, fig. 31, p. I165.

Figure 5. Digitally enhanced Landsat 1 MSS image 

of Iceland’s largest (8,100 square kilometers) ice 

cap, Vatnajökull. From USGS Professional Paper 

1386–D, Glaciers of Iceland.

Foreword to the Volume

On 23 July 1972, the first Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS 1, or Landsat 1) was successfully placed in orbit. The success of Landsat inaugurated a new era in satisfying mankind’s desire 

to better understand the dynamic world upon which we live. Space-based observations have become an 

essential means for monitoring global environmental changes.

The short- and long-term cumulative effects of processes that cause significant changes on the 

Earth’s surface can be documented and studied by repetitive Landsat and other satellite images. Such 

images provide a permanent historical record of the surface of the planet; they also make possible comparative two- and three-dimensional measurement of change over time. This Professional Paper demonstrates the importance of the application of Landsat images to global studies by using them to determine 

the 1970’s distribution of glaciers on the planet. As images become available from future satellites, the 

new data will be used to document global changes in glacier extent by reference to the baseline Landsat 

image record of the 1970’s.

Although many geological processes take centuries or even millennia to produce obvious changes 

on the Earth’s surface, other geological phenomena, such as glaciers and volcanoes, cause noticeable 

changes over shorter periods. Some of these phenomena can have worldwide impact and often are 

interrelated. Explosive volcanic eruptions, such as the 1991 Mount Pinatubo, Philippines, eruption, can 

produce dramatic effects on the global climate. Natural or culturally induced processes can cause global 

climatic cooling or warming. Glaciers respond to such warming or cooling periods by decreasing or 

increasing in size, which in turn causes sea level to rise or fall. 

As our understanding of the interrelationship of global processes improves and our ability to assess 

changes caused by these processes develops further, we will learn how to use indicators of global 

change, such as glacier variation, to more wisely manage the use of our finite land and water resources. 

This USGS Professional Paper series is an excellent example of the way in which we can use technology to provide needed earth-science information about our planet. The international collaboration represented by this report is also an excellent model for the kind of cooperation that scientists will increasingly find necessary in the future in order to solve important earth-science problems on a global basis.

Mark D. Myers, 

Director, U.S. Geological Survey